Birds and Burns of the 

Interior West

Descriptions, Habitats, and Management in Western Forests

Victoria Saab, William Block, Robin Russell, John Lehmkuhl, 

Lisa Bate, and Rachel White

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest 

Service

Pacific Northwest

Research Station

General Tecnical Report

PNW-GTR-712

July 2007
AUTHORS

Victoria Saab is a research wildlife biologist,

and Robin Russell is a research ecologist, U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station, 1648 S 7th Avenue,

Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717;

William Block is project leader, U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain

Research Station, 2500 South Pine Knoll Drive,

Flagstaff, AZ 86001; John Lehmkuhl is a research

wildlife biologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station,

Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 1133 N Western

Avenue, Wenatchee, WA 98801; Lisa Bate is a

biologist, 389 LaBrant Road, Kalispell, MT 59901;

and Rachel White is a science writer, U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences

Laboratory, 620 SW Main St., Portland, OR 97203.

Photo and art credits: Cover art by Shelley Watters 

2

Birds and Burns of the Interior West:

Descriptions, Habitats, and Management 

in Western Forests

INTRODUCTION

The Birds and Burns Network initiated a regional study

in 2002 to evaluate the effectiveness of prescribed fire

in reducing fuels and to assess the effects of fuel reduction on habitats and populations of birds in ponderosa

pine forests throughout the interior West (fig. 1)

Ponderosa pine forest.

Saab, Victoria; Block, William; Russell, Robin; 

Lehmkuhl, John; Bate, Lisa; and White, Rachel

2007. Birds and burns of the interior West: descriptions, habitats, and management in western

forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-712. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 23 p. 

ABSTRACT

This publication provides information about prescribed 

fire effects on habitats and populations of birds of the

interior West and a synthesis of existing information 

on bird responses to fire across North America. Our 

literature synthesis indicated that aerial, ground, and

bark insectivores favored recently burned habitats,

whereas foliage gleaners preferred unburned habitats.

Cavity-nesting birds responded more favorably than

open-cup nesting species. Trees weakened by fire

attract bark and wood-boring beetles—an important

food source for woodpeckers—and are also more easily

excavated for nesting than green trees. Retention of

large-diameter trees and snags allows for population

persistence of cavity-nesting birds. Overall, a greater

percentage of birds, both migrants and residents,

showed a response to prescribed burns during the year

of the treatment than in the year after. Fewer species

responded 1 year after treatments, which suggests that

the influence of prescribed fire on these birds may be

short term. Responses to prescribed fire were variable

for migratory birds, whereas residents generally had

positive or neutral responses. We found that prescribed

burn treatments not only destroy snags, but also recruit

snags of all sizes. Managers are faced with a variety of

options for fuels and fire management. Our results indicate that both prescribed burning and fire suppression

influence habitats and populations of wildlife.

Keywords: Prescribed fire, avian ecology, migratory birds, woodpeckers, snags, wildlife habitat, cavitynesting species, fire management.

Pacific Northwest

Research Station
3

ical consequences of fire management. The synthesis is based on results for 203 bird species from more than 100

studies that evaluated primarily short-term responses (<6 years after fire) to low- or moderate-severity fires. We first

present the synthesis information on bird responses to fire across North America and secondly report results of the

Birds and Burns Network study of the interior West.

SYNTHESIS OF FIRE AND AVIAN ECOLOGY IN NORTH AMERICA

Fire-created habitat for foraging and nesting

Generally, forest structure and avian communities change rapidly after fire, depending on the severity of the

fire (Kotliar et al. 2002, Saab and Powell 2005). Fire creates nesting and foraging habitat for birds by different mechanisms, but the

process depends on prefire conditions,

such as vegetation types, crown closure, and climate (fig. 2) (Kotliar et al.

2002, Saab et al. 2002). During a fire,

if soil temperatures stay below 175 °C,

nutrient releases enhance plant growth

and vigor (Agee 1993). This regrowth

often leads to increased abundance of

flowers, seeds, and insects, which

brings in aerial insectivores, nectarivores, and seed eaters (Kotliar et al.

2002, Saab et al. 2004). Fire also creates logs and standing dead and dying

trees that are susceptible to attack by

bark (Scolytidae) and wood-boring

(Cerambycidae and Buprestidae) 

beetles (Werner 2002), primary food

sources for many woodpeckers. Largediameter (generally >23 cm diameter 

(http://www.rmrs.nau.edu/lab/

4251/birdsnburns). The primary

purpose of this publication is to

present information useful to land

managers for understanding relationships between fire and avian

ecology, conducting environmental

analyses, and directing land management activities that maintain or

enhance avian habitats while concurrently reducing fuels. Another

purpose of this publication is to

present a synthesis of existing

information on bird responses to

fire (wildland fire and prescribed

fire) across North America (Saab

and Powell 2005), with the intention of helping the public gain a

better understanding of the ecologFigure 1—Study area locations for the Birds and Burns Network.

Figure 2—Habitat conditions created by crown fire, fire exclusion, and understory

prescribed fire.
4

at breast height

[d.b.h.]) snags,

trees with decay,

and downed logs 

are particularly

important because

they are relatively

easy for woodpeckers to excavate and they provide roosting,

nesting, and 

foraging habitat 

for a variety of

wildlife (Bull et 

al. 1997, Hall et 

al. 1997, Kreisel

and Stein 1999,

Scott 1979, Szaro

et al. 1988).

Recently burned

forests might 

also reduce 

populations of nest predators (Saab and Vierling 2001)

such as tree squirrels (Tamiasciurus spp.) and weasels

(Mustela spp.) because their habitats are altered or

eliminated (Fisher and Wilkinson 2005). Having fewer

predators soon after fires likely allows for higher reproductive success and productivity of cavity-nesting birds

(Saab and Vierling 2001). 

Maintenance and recruitment of snags >23 cm

d.b.h. is particularly important because these snags

have greater longevity and provide wildlife habitat for 

a longer period than smaller snags (Chambers and Mast

2005, Everett et al. 1999, Morrison and Raphael 1993,

Raphael et al. 1987, Russell et al. 2006). Additionally,

retention of large-diameter trees and snags is necessary

for population persistence of cavity-nesting birds

because these forest components are used disproportionately more for nesting and foraging than smaller

trees and snags (Bull et al. 1997, Lehmkuhl et al. 2003,

Li and Martin 1991, Raphael and White 1984, Saab et

al. 2002). Large, older live trees also eventually provide

dead wood substrates when they succumb to lightning

strikes, beetle infestations, pathogens, or some combination thereof (Boucher et al. 2000). These trees are

often referred to as “spike tops” or “living snags”

because the tops and other portions of the trees are 

dead and provide opportunities for cavity excavation. 

In postfire habitats, management practices that retain

Rationale for studying fire and avian ecology

We study fire and avian ecology because the

long-term persistence of many bird species,

including several designated as threatened, endangered, or sensitive by federal and state agencies (for

example red-cockaded woodpecker [endangered

species] and black-backed woodpecker [sensitive

and management indicator species] [see “Species

list” p. 18]), is dependent on landscape patterns created by fire (e.g., Saab and Powell 2005), whereas

other species prefer fire-excluded forests (Bond et

al. 2002, Jenness et al. 2005). Many 

cavity-nesting birds (species requiring cavities in trees), in particular, 

are dependent on postfire forests, 

and are responsive to fire, timber 

harvest, and fuel reduction activities. 

Alterations in fire regimes 

of lower elevation forests have 

increased the risk of stand-replacing wildfire and risks to human 

communities (Agee 1993, Saab et al. 2005,

Schoennagel et al. 2004). Because of these alterations, land management agencies are reducing fuel

loads by several methods, including prescribed fire

and tree harvest, with an emphasis on treating areas

around communities at risk of wildfire. Many of

these fuel reduction plans focus on reducing hazards

of wildfire, with less consideration given to effects

on wildlife populations and their habitats. Furthermore, a lack of scientific information prevents managers from adequately predicting the environmental

effects of various fire management activities on bird

communities and their habitats. This presents significant legal, scientific, and social ramifications for

land management agencies attempting to implement

national fire programs. Specifically, fire effects on bird species

such as Mexican spotted owl,

northern goshawk, and blackbacked woodpecker have been

included in appeals and litigation

claiming violations of requirements under the Endangered 

Species Act (ESA 1973) and National Forest 

Management Act (NFMA 1976). In addition, prescribed fire effects on migratory bird species have

been incorporated into litigation declaring violations

of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA 1918).

Female blackbacked woodpecker.

Northern goshawk.

Snag (standing dead tree) in a pine forest.
Another important habitat element for wildlife is

downed wood. Maintenance of large, downed wood is

important ecologically because these structures provide

foraging habitat, thermal cover, and concealment for

many sensitive wildlife taxa, including reptiles, amphibians, mammals, and birds (Bull et al. 1997, Converse

et al. 2006, Szaro et al. 1988). Downed wood can be

consumed by low-severity burns depending on wood

moistures and the timing of fires (Brown et al. 1985). If

maintenance of downed wood is a management objective, seasonality of prescribed burning should be considered for times when moisture contents are higher

and fire severity effects are lower (Thies et al. 2005).

Patterns of Guild Responses to Fire

Bird responses to fire can be evaluated by nest type and

nest layer guilds (see definitions in sidebar on guilds).

Although some patterns exist in guild responses to fire,

members of any guild can respond differently to fire

severity classes; therefore, we caution against “one

severity fits all” for any particular guild. Results from

our review of fire and avian ecology in North America

indicated that aerial, ground, and bark insectivores

clearly favored recently burned habitats (generally

within 6 years of low- to moderate-severity fire),

whereas foliage gleaners preferred unburned habitats

(Saab and Powell 2005). Most cavity-nesting birds

responded more favorably to newly burned habitats

than species with open-cup nests, and those nesting on

the ground and in the canopy layers typically favored 

burned habitats compared to shrub nesters. Snags are

often created in newly burned habitats, providing nesting and foraging for many cavity-nesting birds. Shrub

layers, however, are typically reduced immediately

after fire, resulting in habitat loss for shrub-nesting

species. In contrast, canopy layers may be unchanged

by low- to moderate-severity fires, retaining habitat 

for canopy-nesting species. 

Effect of Time Since Fire

Bird population densities vary with time since fire 

depending on the nesting and foraging requirements of

various species. Early postfire forests and associated

insect outbreaks attract cavity-nesting birds because of

increases in nest sites and food supplies (e.g., Kotliar 

et al. 2002). The duration of occupancy differs among

bird species, presumably owing to differences in preferred prey availability, as well as the size, distribution,

and decay of snags. Beetle-foraging woodpeckers

(black-backed, hairy, and three-toed woodpeckers [see

5

dense stands of snags will also promote the longer term

persistence of suitable nesting snags for cavity-nesting

birds (Russell et al. 2006). Retention of snags <23 cm

d.b.h. is also important because they provide valuable

foraging substrate as well (Covert-Bratland et al. 2006). 

In unburned forests, most cavity excavators select

nest and roost sites in snags or trees whose large heartwood centers are decayed and softened by heartrot

fungi (Bull et al. 1997). The thin layer of sound sapwood then provides both thermal and protective cover.

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson),

unlike most conifers, contains a thick layer of sapwood

with a hardened exterior shell and is also easily excavated by cavity nesters if the sapwood has undergone

decay (Bull et al. 1997). In burned habitats, the initial

nest selection process is similar. As decay fungi soften

the wood of fire-killed trees, more snags become available for nest sites. The snags and trees preferred for

excavating in the first few years after fire are best identified by their large size and broken tops (Hutto 1995,

Saab and Dudley 1998). 

Several studies suggest protecting nest trees by

removing combustible materials around their base prior

to burning to reduce losses of suitable nesting and

roosting snags (Horton and Mannan 1988, Machmer

2002, Tiedemann et al. 2000). These methods are labor

intensive and likely cost prohibitive for large-scale

prescribed fire programs, unless large snags are rare 

or snag protection is required for threatened and endangered species. Rather than removing combustibles to

protect existing snags, we found that prescribed fire

can be an effective tool to create snags of various sizes

(Saab et al. 2006a). 

Douglas-fir snag with a nest cavity above created by a

northern flicker and a hole below that was created by a

common raven. The hole below allowed the ravens to

remove and consume the nestling flickers.
6

What Are Guilds?

A guild is a group of functionally similar species in 

an ecological community that exploits the same set

of resources in a similar fashion, but is not necessarily closely related taxonomically (Root 1967). Birds

can be grouped according to nesting or foraging

characteristics. 

Examples of guilds:

Nest type guild

Cavity: Enclosed nests are located in natural or 

excavated cavities—often found in old, 

live trees or snags.

Open: Nests are built in open spaces without 

enclosures, e.g., on a tree branch.

Nest layer guild

Ground: Placement of the nest is on or very near 

the ground.

Shrub: Placement of the nest is in a shrub or 

mid-canopy tree layer (understory).

Canopy: Placement of the nest is in the highcanopy tree layer (overstory).

Foraging guild

Aerial 

insectivore: Predominantly captures flying insects.

Bark/wood 

insectivore: Predominantly gleans insects from 

the boles of trees and from furrows in

the bark, or by drilling into bark and 

sapwood to obtain bark and woodboring beetles.

Ground 

insectivore: Predominantly gleans insects from 

the ground or substrates near the 

ground. For example, the American

robin. 

Foliage insectivore: Predominantly gleans insects 

from foliage.

Carnivore: Captures and eats vertebrate prey. 

For example, the northern goshawk.

Nectarivore: Feeds on nectar produced by 

flowering plants. For example, the

rufous hummingbird.

Omnivore: Feeds on a variety of foods, including

invertebrates, fruits, seeds. For example,

the song sparrow. 

Examples of species by guild:

Cavity-nesting species

• Hairy woodpecker

Open-cup nesting species

• Yellow warbler

• Warbling vireo

• Chipping sparrow

Bark/wood foragers

• Black-backed woodpecker

• Three-toed woodpecker

• Hairy woodpecker

Foliage gleaners

• Mountain chickadee

• Ruby-crowned kinglet

• Swainson’s thrush

Aerial insectivores

• Lewis’s woodpecker

• Olive-sided flycatcher

• Mountain bluebird

• Western bluebird

• Northern flicker

American robin. Mountain chickadee. Lewis’s woodpecker.

Male rufous hummingbird. Song sparrow.

Mountain bluebird.
“Species list” p. 18]) rapidly

colonize stand-replacement

burns within 1 to 2 years after

fire. These woodpeckers typically remain at high densities

2 to 4 years after fire, then

decline as beetle abundance

declines (Covert-Bratland 

et al. 2006, Murphy and

Lehnhausen 1998, Saab et al.

2007) (fig. 3). Within 5 years

postfire, beetle-foraging

woodpeckers become rare,

presumably owing to declines

in bark and wood-boring beetles. In contrast, aerial insectivores such as Lewis’s woodpecker and mountain and western bluebirds are abundant in both recent burns (2 to 4 years) and older burns

(10 to 25 years) (Saab and Vierling 2001, Saab et al.

2007) (fig. 3). 

Depending on severity (Agee 1993), regrowth of

understory vegetation and plant colonization within a

few years after a fire often lead to increased abundance

of flowers, seeds, and insects, which brings in aerial

Male hairy woodpecker.

7

and ground insectivores, nectarivores, and seed eaters

(Hannon and Drapeau 2005). Aerial insectivores often

use burned forests up to 20 years after fires, presumably in response to improved conditions for aerial foraging owing to decreases in canopy cover and increases

in flying insects associated with shrub regrowth (Saab

and Vierling 2001, Saab et al. 2004). Many species

absent immediately postfire begin to increase in midsuccessional stages (30 to 80 years) as snags decay and

fall, and canopy cover increases. Foliage gleaners reach

peak abundance in mid-successional mature forests

(Hannon and Drapeau 2005, Huff and Smith 2000,

Raphael et al. 1987) (fig. 4). 

Habitat Selection by Fire-Associated

Cavity-Nesting Birds

Cavities can be created by decay-causing organisms

(fungi) or by excavators such as woodpeckers, which

are known as primary cavity excavators (Gibbons and

Lindenmayer 2002). Secondary cavity nesters are those

that depend on existing cavities created either by decay

or by primary cavity excavators (Raphael and White

1984). Many other species of vertebrates and invertebrates use cavities as diurnal or nocturnal shelter sites,

Figure 3—Observed and predicted

nest density trends (nests per 40 ha)

for seven species of cavity-nesting

birds in the Star Gulch Burn 1 to 

10 years after fire (1995 to 2004) 

in western Idaho (from Saab et al.

2007). Hairy and black-backed

woodpeckers are beetle foraging

species, whose nesting densities

peaked about 4 to 5 years after fire.
8

for rearing young, for feeding, and for thermoregulation (Bull et al. 1997, Martin and Eadie 1999, McComb

and Noble 1982). For many species, the use of cavities

is obligate: no other habitat resource represents a feasible substitute (Gibbons and Lindenmayer 2002).

Habitat requirements of cavity-nesting birds differ

by species. The range of tree diameters and densities

used by cavity nesters varies by availability in both

Fire and Mexican Spotted Owls

Sometimes, avian habitat can be destroyed after

fire. For example, fires can negatively affect the

Mexican spotted owl, a carnivorous species that

mostly feeds on small mammals. Stand-replacement fire can eliminate spotted owl nesting and

roosting habitat, which is composed of structurally

complex forests with a variety of age and size

classes, a large tree component, many snags and

logs, and high canopy closures (Bond et al. 2002,

Jenness et al. 2005). However, fire at less than

stand-replacing severity may enhance these habitats. Moderate-severity wildfire creates snags, and

low-severity prescribed fire reduces fuel loads and

decreases the likelihood of future fire events,

including stand-replacing fires (Jenness et al.

2005).

Fire and Sage Grouse

Prescribed fire has been promoted widely as a tool

to improve habitat quality for nesting and broodrearing of the omnivorous sage grouse, although

direct evidence is lacking (Knick et al. 2005). The

primary management objective for using fire is to

create a mosaic of shrub, forb, and grass patches

at various spatial scales. In mountain big sagebrush

(Artemisia tridentata vaseyana Rydb.), burns may

be conducted to limit the expansion of fire-prone

juniper (Juniperus spp.) and pinyon pine (Pinus

spp.), while restoring the integrity of shrubsteppe

habitats. Burning in shrubsteppe can also reduce

potential perches for raptors, and subsequently,

potential depredation of sage grouse. The outcomes

of fire on sage grouse habitat may be a function of

site potential, site condition, functional plant groups,

and pattern and size of burn (Knick et al. 2005). 

burned and unburned habitats. When they are available,

large (>23 cm d.b.h.), moderately decayed snags and

areas of higher snag densities are used disproportionately more than small, less decayed snags and areas of

lower snag densities (Lehmkuhl et al. 2003, Li and

Martin 1991, Mannan et al. 1980, Raphael and White

1984, Saab et al. 2002). For example, in forests of

Figure 4—Changes in vegetation

and bird communities in relation

to time since fire (from Hannon

and Drapeau 2005).
9

Bird Associations With Different

Burn Severities: Examples From

Interior Western Forests

Few studies have compared avian abundances across

various burn severities in reference to unburned forests

in the Western United States (Bock and Block 2005b;

Covert-Bratland et al. 2006; Kotliar et al. 2002; Russell

et al., in press; Saab et al. 2005, Smucker et al. 2005).

We can, however, extrapolate from existing information on habitat requirements of birds to make some predictions about their responses to burn severity. We use

forest landscapes of the interior West to illustrate these

Forest without fire for several decades.

Understory prescribed burn.

Crown fire event.

Regrowth of understory vegetation after a prescribed burn.

High severity, stand-replacement burn.

western North America, Lewis’s woodpecker and blackbacked woodpecker are strongly associated with habitat

components resulting from mixed-severity or standreplacement burns (Saab et al. 2002, 2004). Blackbacked woodpeckers selected nest sites (n = 46) with

high snag densities (mean = 319 ± 24 SE snags/ha) of

relatively smaller diameter (mean = 40 ± 2 SE cm

d.b.h.), whereas Lewis’s woodpecker selected nest sites

(n = 184) with moderate snag densities (mean = 230 ±

13 SE snags/ha) of large diameters (mean = 52 ± 2 SE

cm d.b.h.) (Saab et al., in press). Nest-site selection by

these two species in burned forests of Idaho represents

a range of conditions that likely incorporate the habitat

needs of other members in the cavity-nesting bird guild

(Saab et al. 2002).
10

relationships. Forests of the interior West provide good

examples for assessing avian responses to burn severity

because the landscapes are structured by a complex

interplay of climate, topography, soils, and disturbance,

consequently affecting fire characteristics. Many 

western fire regimes have been altered since EuroAmerican settlement owing to fire suppression, logging, livestock grazing, and in some cases, climate

change (Schoennagel et al. 2004). The range of fire

severities creates different habitats used by various

species, and a mosaic of these conditions is needed to

maintain a full diversity of species that use western

forests (Saab et al. 2005). Every fire-created condition

is temporary. Each condition creates ephemeral habitats

that are dynamic and change with plant succession. 

Bird responses to these changes differ by species,

forest type, and fire severity (fig. 5). Typically, canopy

nesters such as kinglets and chickadees are foliage

gleaners that nest in unburned forests; shrub-nesting

species such as lazuli buntings are found in both green

and mixed-severity burns; and ground nesters such as

spotted towhees often use mixed- to high-severity

burns where regrowth of ground vegetation is rapid. 

Species that prefer unburned forests are predicted

to decline as fire severity increases. For example, the

pileated woodpecker relies heavily on logs where it

forages for carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.) (Bull and

Jackson 1995). As fire severity increases, logs and ants

are more likely to be consumed. In contrast, species

associated with burned forests will generally increase

with increasing moderate severity because many of

them (especially black-backed woodpeckers) forage on

beetle larvae in the bark and wood of burned trees

(Dixon and Saab 2000). Most foliage gleaners are less

abundant in burned forests because as burn severity

Figure 5—Range of fire

regimes across forest 

community types in Rocky

Mountain forests of the

Western United States 

(from Saab et al. 2005).

Pileated woodpecker.
11

Management Implications Across North America

Any management action, including fire exclusion,affects bird populations. Management considerations for avifauna include burn season, size, severity,

and distribution, and time since last disturbance.

Implementing burns during the “natural” fire season

is expected to benefit the native avifauna of a given

place. However, one of our biggest challenges is

assessing the tradeoffs among different species 

and implementing different seasonal and landscape 

patterns of prescribed fire. The scale at which fire

affects wildlife habitat and their populations differs;

habitat is gained by some and lost by others, but the

impact on population persistence may be negligible.

The benefits of a fire mosaic to biodiversity might

outweigh the losses. For this reason, analysis conducted at multiple spatial scales is important—ranging from the project to the landscape—to more fully

understand effects of a treatment on populations of

all species of interest.

Species are adapted to natural fire that occurs

during a specific time of the year. Fires occurring

outside of this period may not have the same effects

on bird populations. Most of what we’ve learned

about seasonal fire effects comes from the Midwest

and Eastern United States (Artman et al. 2005,

Engstrom et al. 2005, Reinking 2005). Less is known

about seasonal fire effects in the Western United

States (Bock and Block 2005a, Huff et al. 2005, Saab

et al. 2005). In the Northwest, prescribed burning is

often implemented in spring, although burning historically took place in late summer and fall. In contrast, naturally occurring fires burned during spring

in the Southwest, whereas prescribed burning is frequently implemented in fall. Burning during the

breeding season likely has short-term effects (1 to 3

years) on birds (Tiedemann et al. 2000), but more

information is needed to fully understand the impacts

of spring vs. summer vs. fall burning in the Western

United States (Huff et al. 2005). 

In the Southeastern United States, use of 

growing-season prescribed fire has improved habitat

structure for the red-cockaded woodpecker, northern bobwhite, and other grassland birds, but can 

negatively affect bird species associated with hardwoods (Engstrom et al. 2005). Dormant-season fire

in the Southeast, particularly midwinter, removes

cover and foraging substrate for species that are

active close to the ground. Growing-season fire 

can cause direct mortality to nestlings and fledglings

(Lyon et al. 2000), although it may enhance the

reproductive effort of others through improved brood

habitat. Until we gain better understanding of these

relations, it seems practical to adopt a strategy of

application of fire that is diverse in time and space. 

Efforts to achieve the “natural” fire regime may

be unrealistic. Mimicking nature may be impossible

when the relative influences of anthropogenic and

natural fires are impossible to separate. A more practical approach would be to measure the response of

organisms, populations, and communities to experimentally imposed fire regimes and to set goals based

on those results (Agee 1993). 

Habitat patch size requirements are speciesdependent, and little information is available on the

size or distribution of burns necessary for habitat

use, particularly in Western North America (Hoyt

and Hannon 2002, Saab et al. 2005). Species with

large home ranges, like most woodpeckers, may

require larger burns around 300 to 400 ha per two 

to three individuals or pairs of birds (cf., CovertBratland et al. 2006, Dixon and Saab 2000), whereas

songbirds like bluebirds might use much smaller

burns (Germaine and Germaine 2002). Proximity of

burned patches is most likely critical for determining

habitat use, but this topic is difficult to study and has

rarely been investigated (Hannon and Drapeau 2005,

Hoyt and Hannon 2002). Evidence suggests that

black-backed woodpeckers, a species strongly tied 

to stand-replacement burns, are seldom found in

unburned habitats (Raphael et al. 1987), unless those

habitats are within 50 km of burned forest (Hoyt and

Hannon 2002). Limited information on burn severity

and patch sizes suggests that a range of severities

and burn patch sizes will provide for a diversity of

bird species (Kotliar et al. 2002, Saab and Powell

2005, Smucker et al. 2005). 
12

increases, so does foliage loss (Kotliar et al. 2002,

Smucker et al. 2005). 

Cavity-nesting species that usually eat the seeds of

pine cones, such as white-headed woodpecker, or glean

the bark of live trees, such as nuthatches and creepers,

may respond positively to low- and moderate-severity

burns that increase availability of snags and decayed

trees for nesting, but retain live trees for foraging.

Based on our long-term studies and the existing literature (Bock and Block 2005a, Kotliar et al. 2002, Saab

et al. 2005, Smucker et al. 2005), we conclude that a

mosaic of fire conditions, habitats, and patch sizes is

Tom Iraci

Left: White-breasted nuthatch.

Above: White-headed woodpecker.

Song sparrow nest.

needed to maintain bird diversity and source habitats

throughout dry forests of the interior West. 

Summary of Findings for Fire and

Avian Ecology in North America

• Bird responses to fire differ. Some benefit, some don’t.

• Low- to high-severity, mixed-severity, and standreplacement fires are natural in different landscapes

and provide critical wildlife habitat, especially for 

several cavity-nesting birds.

• A mosaic of habitat patch sizes and range of severities,

is needed to maintain source habitats of native 

avifauna.
13

Our study areas are located in seven states

encompassing much of the range of ponderosa

pine in the United States (Arizona, Colorado,

Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Oregon, and Washington)

(fig. 1). As of 2005, study areas in Arizona and New

Mexico (Southwest study area; SW), and Idaho and

Washington (Northwest study area; NW) have received

prescribed fire treatments. At these locations, we analyzed changes in downed wood, forest structure (trees

and snags), and bird populations measured within 1

year after fire treatments. 

QUESTIONS WE ARE ADDRESSING INCLUDE: 

• What are the population responses of birds to

changes in fuels and other vegetation after 

prescribed fire? 

• What is the effectiveness of prescribed fire in

reducing fuels and changing forest structure? 

• Which fire conditions (exclusion or prescribed) 

are favored habitats for local populations of 

sensitive species? 

Also, we plan to evaluate the ecological tradeoffs

for selected wildlife species of managing for 

different fire conditions (wildland fire vs. 

prescribed fire vs. fire exclusion) by using

additional data from our ongoing studies of

wildland fire effects on habitats and populations of cavity-nesting birds.

The results from the Birds and Burns

Network study are intended to assist managers in planning scientifically sound and 

legally defensible prescribed fire projects 

that will reduce fuels and also maintain and

enhance wildlife habitat. Our preliminary

observations of prescribed fire effects on 

birds and fuel patterns are generally consistent with results synthesized from studies

across North America (Fernandes and 

Botelho 2003, Saab and Powell 2005).

Bird Responses to Prescribed Fire

The effect of fire on birds can be beneficial, neutral, 

mixed, or adverse depending on the species, length of

time since fire, and burn severity (fig. 6). Generalizing

the effect of fire on birds in western forests is challenging: short-term responses may differ from long-term

Preliminary Results From 

the Birds and Burns Network

What Is the Birds and Burns Network?

Figure 6—Example of bird species associated with burn severity in dry

coniferous forests of the interior Western United States (photos by Evelyn

Bull, Catherine Raley, and Charlie Chrisafulli).

Implementing a prescribed fire.
14

responses, responses by resident bird

species may differ from migratory

species, and effects observed at the

stand scale may differ from those at

the regional or landscape scale. Also,

fire that benefits one species may

harm another. Ultimately, managing

for particular fire conditions—including wildland fire, prescribed fire, or

fire exclusion—entails ecological

tradeoffs among selected wildlife

species and habitats. 

The results of our prescribed 

burn study illustrated some of these

complexities, although we can discern

some patterns of response. In the combined study areas (NW and SW), all

but one of the eight resident species

had a positive or neutral response to

burning treatments (tables 1 and 2)

(figs. 7 and 8). The one exception, 

the pygmy nuthatch (in the SW study

area), showed a negative response the

year of burning, but showed a neutral

response the following year.

Migrants showed mixed responses

(tables 1 and 2) (figs. 7 and 8). Some,

like western bluebirds, experienced

positive changes in density, whereas

others, such as yellow-rumped warblers, showed declines in response to

fire treatments. Overall, at both study

sites, a greater percentage of birds,

both migrants and residents, showed

some decline during the same year 

as the fire, but were back to prefire

abundances (i.e., neutral to prescribed

burns) 1 year after the fire (fig. 7 and

8). These preliminary results suggest

that the effects of prescribed fire on

birds may be short term. However,

monitoring for additional years after

treatments is needed to fully address

this issue of short-term losses for longterm gains (Saab et al. 2006b). This is

particularly important because we also

observed several migratory species

that showed no response during the

year of prescribed fire, but showed a

decline in the year after treatment. Pygmy nuthatch.

Table 1—Preliminary results for species population density

responses to prescribed fire at the Birds and Burns Network 

northwest sites 

One year Guild

Year of after Nest Nest 

Species burning burning Foraging layer type

Migrant 

Northern flicker 

(short-distance 

migrant) + 0 OM CA C

Hammond’s 

flycatcher - - AI CA O

Gray flycatcher 0 + AI SH O

Dusky flycatcher + + AI SH O

Cassin’s vireo 0 0 FI CA O

Red-breasted 

nuthatch 0 - BI CA C

Western bluebird + 0 AI CA C

Townsend’s 

solitaire 0 - AI GR O

American robin + 0 GI CA O

Yellow-rumped 

warbler - - FI CA O

Western tanager 0 0 FI CA O

Chipping sparrow 0 0 OM SH O

Dark-eyed junco 0 0 OM GR O

Brown-headed 

cowbird (shortdistance migrant) + 0 OM Various P

Cassin’s finch 0 0 OM CA O

Pine siskin - 0 OM CA O

Resident 

Hairy woodpecker 0 + BI CA C

Mountain chickadee 0 0 FI CA C

White-breasted 

nuthatch + 0 BI CA C

Note: Statistically significant changes in population densities are indicated by the signs + 

(positive) or – (negative). All zeros indicate no statistical change in population densities

from pre- to posttreatment. Columns represent foraging guild (AI = aerial insectivore, 

GI = ground insectivore, FI = foliage insectivore, OM = omnivore, BI = bark insectivore),

nest layer (CA = canopy, SH = shrub, GR = ground ), and nest type (C = closed, O =

open, P = parasitic). Species are listed in taxonomic order, an order that reflects the evolutionary relationships among birds.
15

These were the gray flycatcher (in the

SW), and the red-breasted nuthatch 

and Townsend’s solitaire (in the NW). 

Response by Foraging 

and Nesting Guilds

At both study sites, foliage insectivores were the only species that did 

not respond positively to the burns;

rather they responded negatively or 

neutrally. Generally, bark insectivores responded positively or neutrally to fire. Only the pygmy nutchatch

in the SW responded negatively.

Aerial insectivores had mixed

responses to burning, but overall 

they responded more positively than

negatively. 

Open-cup,

canopy nesters 

were the only nesting guild to contain

species that responded negatively to fire

during the year of 

burning (Hammond’s fly-catcher, 

yellow-rumped warbler, pine siskin,

and Grace’s warbler). Most cavitynesting species responded positively

to burn treatments, except for the

pygmy and red-breasted nuthatches.

Species that showed consistent positive responses at both study sites

(western bluebird, northern flicker,

and hairy woodpecker) were all 

cavity nesters. Most species nesting

in the canopy layer (including cavity

nesters) generally had positive

responses to prescribed fire. We

detected no significant changes for

shrub- and ground-nesting species.

See tables 1 and 2 for more detail. 

Nesting Densities in

Response to Prescribed

Fire in Both Regions

We calculated nesting densities 

of cavity-nesting birds before and 

after fire treatments in both regions.

We detected only one statistically

Red-breasted nuthatch.

Top: Townsend’s solitaire.

Bottom: Hammond’s flycatcher.

Table 2—Preliminary results for species population density

responses to prescribed fire at the Birds and Burns Network 

southwest sites 

One year Guild

Year of after Nest Nest

Species burning burning Foraging layer type

Migrant 

Northern flicker 

(short distance) + 0 OM CA C

Western woodpewee 0 0 AI CA O

Gray flycatcher 

(3 sites only) 0 - AI SH O

Plumbeous vireo 0 0 FI CA O

Brown creeper 0 0 BI CA C

Western bluebird + + GI CA C

Grace's warbler - 0 FI CA O

Yellow-rumped 

warbler - 0 FI CA O

Western tanager 0 0 FI CA O

Chipping sparrow 0 0 OM SH O

Dark-eyed junco 0 0 OM GR O

Black-headed 

grosbeak 0 0 OM SH O

Brown-headed 

cowbird (short 

distance) - - OM Various P

Resident 

Hairy woodpecker + + BI CA C

Steller's jay + + OM CA O

Mountain chickadee 0 0 FI CA C

White-breasted 

nuthatch 0 0 BI CA C

Pygmy nuthatch - 0 BI CA C

Note: Statistically significant changes in population densities are indicated by the signs + 

(positive) or – (negative). All zeros indicate no statistical change in population densities from

pre- to posttreatment. Columns represent migratory status, foraging guild (AI = aerial insectivore, GI = ground insectivore, FI = foliage insectivore, OM = omnivore, BI = bark insectivore), nest layer (CA = canopy, SH = shrub, GR = ground), and nest type (C = closed, O =

open, P = parasitic). Species are listed in taxonomic order, an order that reflects the evolutionary relationships among birds.
16

significant change in nest numbers for

either region: increases in western

bluebird (migrant) densities in the NW

region. Also in the NW, we observed

nesting by black-backed woodpeckers

(five nests) and three-toed woodpeckers (three nests) after prescribed fires

in locations where they previously had

not been observed. Postfire nesting by

these two species is an ecologically

significant finding because both are

designated as sensitive species by 

state and federal agencies and both 

are strongly associated with firemaintained habitats. Although no 

statistically significant changes were

detected in the SW, we observed a pattern of increased nesting densities for

one resident (hairy woodpecker), and

two migrants (northern flicker and

brown creeper). 

Figure 7—Responses of migrant (n = 16) and resident (n = 3) species in the

Northwest to prescribed fire treatments in the Birds and Burns Network. 

Figure 8—Responses of migrant (n = 13) and resident (n = 5) species in the

Southwest to prescribed fire treatments in the Birds and Burns Network. 

Top: Male northern flicker.

Bottom: Yellow-rumped warbler in 

nonbreeding plumage.

Northwest migrants

Northwest residents

Southwest residents

Southwest migrants
17

Changes in Fuels and Forest

Structure (Nesting and Foraging

Habitat) After Prescribed Fire

In our study plots, we found that nearly half of downed

wood ≥23 cm diameter at the large end was consumed

by prescribed fire in both regions (fig. 9) (Saab et al.

2006a). Drought conditions, followed by low wood

moistures prior to fire treatments, may have contributed to the large loss of downed wood. When moisture contents are less than 15 percent, fire generally

consumes about half of large down woody materials

(Brown et al. 1985). Efforts to retain these large structures may require seasonal adjustments so as to burn

when moisture contents are higher and fire severity

effects are lower (Thies et al. 2005), although large

logs historically may have been a limited resource in

ponderosa pine forests, which had low-severity fire

regimes (Agee 2002). This short-term decline, however, might be offset in the longer term with new logs

developing as snags fall.

Overall, tree densities in the SW were significantly

reduced after fire treatments. Although we observed a

pattern of decreased tree densities in the NW, no statistical differences were detected in densities measured

before and after prescribed fire. However, observed

changes in tree densities were important ecologically.

For example, in both regions we observed the greatest

reduction of tree densities in the smallest size class (<8

cm d.b.h.), followed by reductions in the medium size

class (≥8 to <23 cm d.b.h.), with little change in large

(≥23 cm d.b.h.) tree densities (fig. 10). Small-diameter

trees function as ladder fuels in dense stands by carrying flames into the crowns of mature trees, where the

potential for larger tree mortality increases (Pollet and

Omi 2002). Indeed, prescribed fire programs that

remove small-diameter trees can reduce the likelihood

and cost of stand-replacing fires (Arno 1980, Fernandes

and Botelho 2003, Pollet and Omi 2002).

We observed increases in snag densities, including the large-diameter size class in both regions

(increases of 49 to 101 percent) (fig. 10). In other

words, whereas prescribed fire consumed some

wildlife snags, it also recruited snags. Snags ≥23 cm

d.b.h. increased after fire treatments by 29 percent and

72 percent in the NW and SW study areas, respectively

(Saab et al. 2006a). This pattern is important ecologically because the result has implications for the creation

of wildlife snags by using prescribed fire. Maintenance

and recruitment of larger diameter snags is particularly

Field biologist using an electronic cavity viewer to

observe the contents of a northern flicker nest.

Lone snag in a burned forest.
18

important because large snags have greater longevity

and provide wildlife habitat for a longer period than

smaller snags (Everett et al. 1999, Raphael et al. 1987,

Russell et al. 2006). 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research 

Station is the lead investigator for the Birds and Burns

Network, with research collaborators from USDA

Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station,

Montana State University, Colorado State University,

Northern Arizona University, University of Arizona,

and University of Idaho, wildlife professionals and

land managers from the National Forest System, 

and land stewards and ecologists from The Nature

Management implications 

In response to prescribed burning, some bird 

species increased, whereas others decreased. In

general, foliage-gleaning species showed negative

responses, whereas bark insectivores and cavity

nesters showed positive responses.

Neotropical migrants responded in different

ways to prescribed fire. Most responses—both

positive and negative—were detected during the

year of burning treatments. Fewer species responded 1 year after treatments, which suggests

that responses were short term. Longer term monitoring is needed to better understand response

time of migrants.

With our prescribed burn treatment, downed

wood was significantly reduced. Retaining these

structures for wildlife habitat, if desired to meet

management objectives, may require conducting

prescribed burns at times when moisture contents

are higher.

We found that rather than solely destroying

snags, prescribed burn treatments also recruited

snags of all sizes in the SW and NW study areas

from 49 to 101 percent, respectively.

We suggest that protecting nest trees from fire

is labor intensive and most likely cost prohibitive

for large-scale prescribed fire programs.

Fuel treatments affect wildlife habitat. Choices

by fuel managers in planning and implementing

treatments can result in positive or negative effects

on habitats and populations of birds. 

Species list

Sage grouse Centrocercus spp.

Northern bobwhite Colinus virginianus

Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis

American kestrel Falco sparverius

Mexican spotted owl Strix occidentalis lucida

Rufous hummingbird Selasphorus rufus

Lewis’s woodpecker Melanerpes lewis

Hairy woodpecker Picoides villosus

Red-cockaded woodpecker Picoides borealis

White-headed woodpecker Picoides albolarvatus

Three-toed woodpecker Picoides dorsalis

Black-backed woodpecker Picoides arcticus

Northern flicker Colaptes auratus

Pileated woodpecker Dryocopus pileatus

Olive-sided flycatcher Contopus cooperi

Western wood-pewee Contopus sordidulus

Hammond’s flycatcher Empidonax hammondii

Gray flycatcher Empidonax wrightii

Dusky flycatcher Empidonax oberholseri

Plumbeous vireo Vireo plumbeus

Cassin’s vireo Vireo cassinii

Warbling vireo Vireo gilvus

Steller’s jay Cyanocitta stelleri

Common raven Corvus corax

Mountain chickadee Poecile gambeli

Red-breasted nuthatch Sitta canadensis

White-breasted nuthatch Sitta carolinensis

Pygmy nuthatch Sitta pygmaea

Brown creeper Certhia americana

Ruby-crowned kinglet Regulus calendula

Western bluebird Sialia mexicana

Mountain bluebird Sialia currucoides

Townsend’s solitaire Myadestes townsendi

Swainson’s thrush Catharus ustulatus

American robin Turdus migratorius

Yellow warbler Dendroica petechia

Yellow-rumped warbler Dendroica coronata

Grace's warbler Dendroica graciae

Western tanager Piranga ludoviciana

Spotted towhee Pipilo maculatus

Chipping sparrow Spizella passerina

Song sparrow Melospiza melodia

Dark-eyed junco Junco hyemalis

Black-headed grosbeak Pheucticus melanocephalus

Lazuli bunting Passerina amoena

Brown-headed cowbird Molothrus ater

Cassin’s finch Carpodacus cassinii

Pine siskin Carduelis pinus
19

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When you know: Multiply by: To find:

Centimeters (cm) 0.394 Inches

Meters (m) 3.28 Feet

Kilometers (km) 0.621 Miles

Hectares (ha) 2.47 Acres

Degrees Celsius (°C) 1.8 and Degrees 

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Figure 9—Changes in down woody material after

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Saab, V.A.; Russell, R.E.; Dudley, J. [In press]. 

Nest site selection by cavity-nesting birds in relation to postfire salvage logging. Journal of Wildlife

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Alaska. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-546. Portland, OR: U.S.

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