NASA Conference Publication 3259

National

Standard Experiments

Technology

Educators' Workshop: Update 93

in Engineering Materials Science and

Compiled by

James E. Gardner and ]ames A. Jacobs

(NASA-CP-3259) NATIONAL EDUCATORS'

WORKSHOP: UPDATE 1993. STANDARD

EXPeRIMENTS IN ENGINEERING

MATERIALS _CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(NASA. Langley Research Center)

509 p

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N94-36398

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Proceedings of a workshop sponsored jointly by

the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, Washington, D.C., the Norfolk

State University, Norfolk, Virginia, the United

States Department of Energy, Oak Ridge,

Tennessee, and the National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Washington, D.C.,

and held in Hampton, Virginia

November 3-5, 1993

April 1994
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NASA Conference Publication 3259

National Educators' Workshop: Update 93

Standard Experiments in Engineering Materials Science and

Technology

Compiled by

James E. Gardner

Langley Research Center • Hampton, Virginia

James A. Jacobs

Norfolk State University • Norfolk, Virginia

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Langley Research Center • Hampton, Virginia 23681-0001

Proceedings of a workshop sponsored jointly by

the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, Washington, D.C., the Norfolk

State University, Norfolk, Virginia, the United

States Department of Energy, Oak Ridge,

Tennessee, and the National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Washington, D.C.,

and held in Hampton, Virginia

November 3-5, 1993

April 1994
The opinions expressed in this document are' not necessarily approved or endorsed by the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
TESTING RIGIDITY, YIELDPOINT, AND

HARDENABILITY BY TORQUE WRENCH

Edward L. Widener

MET Department

Purdue University

Knoy Hall - Room 119

West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

Telephone 317-494-7521

PRI_'_ P..I'_E BLMiK NOT FIL_ • - ; _ :.. • ,,_ _'_v_-

499

PREFACE

NEW:Update 93 was held November 3 - 5, 1993, at the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia. As with previous workshops, the

theme was strengthening materials education. Participants witnessed demonstrations of

experiments, discussed issues of materials science and engineering (MS&E) with people from

education, industry, government, and technical societies, heard about new MS&E developments,

and attended mini workshops in state-of-the-art NASA LaRC materials laboratories. Concurrent

.......... ,ations of experiments. Faculty in

!er colleges, and major universities.

_thers were from well established

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recognitionof theinvaluablecontributionto theNEW:Updateactivitiesby DianaLaClaire,

AssistantDirector. Ms.LaClairehasprovidedinvaluablesupporto theproject.TheMaterials

EducationCouncilof theUnitedStateswasrepresentedagainandwill publishselected

experimentsin the Journal of Materials Education.

NEW:Update 93, and the '86, '87, '88, '89, '90, '91 and '92 workshops are, to our

knowledge, the only national workshops or gatherings for materials educators that have a focus on

the full range of issues on strategies for better teaching about the full complement of materials.

Recognizing the problem of motivating young people to pursue careers in MSE, we have included

exemplary pre-university activities such as Adventures in Science, ASM International Education

Foundation's Career Outreach Program, Engineers for Education, and several programs run

through high schools.

Through the workshops we have learned about ORNL Out Reach Programs, an NSF funded

project to develop modules for pre-college materials education, and the Materials Science

Technology (MST) Project at Richland High School (Richland, Washington) that has received

support from Battelle PNL (Pacific Northwest Laboratory). An experiment was presented from

the Richland High School's MST program. NEW:Update 93, with its diversity of faculty,

industry, and government MSE participants, served as a forum for both formal and informal issues

facing MSE education that ranged from the challenges of keeping faculty and students abreast of

new technology to ideas to insure that materials scientists, engineers, and technicians maintain the

proper respect for the environment in the pursuit of their objectives.

NEW:Update 93 resulted from considerable cooperative efforts by individuals in government,

education, and industry. The workshop's goal is to maintain the network of participants and to

continue to collect these ideas and resources to bring them together in a comprehensive manual of

standard experiments in materials science, engineering and technology.

We hope that the experiments presented in this publication will assist you in teaching about

materials science, engineering and technology. We would like to have your comments on their

value and means of improving them. Please send comments to James A. Jacobs, School of

Technology, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia 23504.

We express our appreciation to all those who helped to keep this series of workshops viable.

The use of trademarks or manufacturers' names in this publication does not constitute

endorsement, either expressed or implied, by the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration.

iv
Workshop Co-Directors

James E. Gardner

NASA Langley Research Center

Liaisons

Claudia Ford, ASM Intemational

Robert Berrettini, Materials Education Council

Curtis R. Nettles, Battelle-Pacific Northwest Laboratories

James A. Jacobs

Professor of Engineering Technology

Norfolk State University

Director's Assistant

Diana P. LaClaire

Norfolk State University

Committee Members

Edward Aebischer, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

L. Roy Bunnell, Battelle-Pacific Northwest Laboratories

Douglas F. Craig, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Anna Fraker, National Institute of Standards & Tech.

Linda L. Horton, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Norman J. Johnston, NASA Langley

Thomas F. Kilduff, Thomas Nelson Community College

James V. Masi, Westem New England College

John W. Patterson, Iowa State University

Heidi Ries, Norfolk State University

James Thomas, American Society for Testing & Materials

Jennifer A.T. Taylor, NY State College of Ceramics

F. Xavier Spiegel, Loyola College ,

Willie E. Spencer, Femald Environmental Rest.Mgmt.Corp.

Margaret Weeks, Coming Community College

David Werstler, American Society for Engineering Education

William Winn, Department of Energy

Management Team

¥ BLACK

ORIGINAL PAGE'

AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH
\

• %
CONTENTS

PREFACE .................................. iii )

¢

/

PLANNING COMMITTEE MEMBERS v : • * . • • ° • • ° ° ° • • • • .... • • • °

STUDENT PRESENTERS .............................

REVIEWERS OF EXPERIMENTS .......................

NASA MINI WORKSHOPS ........................... xii

LISTING OF EXPERIMENTS FROM NEW:UPDATES .............. xvii

ORDERING INFORMATION FOR ADDITIONAL RESOURCES .......... xxi

X •

.i

x1

: ' lJ

,-j

Y

PARTICIPANTS ................................ xxv

SPONSORS ............................... xxxiv •/

ASTM TEST METHODS FOR COMPOSITE CHARACTERIZATION AND 1--! EVALUATION ................................

John Masters - Lockheed Engineering and Science

CONTINUOUS UNIDIRECTIONAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES:

FABRICATION AND TESTING ......................... 43

M. D. Weber - Pennsylvania State University

F. X. Spiegel - Loyola College

Harvey A. West - North Carolina State University

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A TENSILE TESTER FOR THE TESTING _,

OF SIMPLE COMPOSITES ........................... 51 -

Mark A. Borst and F. Xavier Spiegel - Loyola College

APPLICATION OF MATERIALS DATABASE (MAT. DB.) TO MATERIALS

101 ;

EDUCATION ...............................

Ping Liu and Tommy L. Waskom - Eastern Illinois University

LAMINATED THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITE MATERIAL FROM RECYCLED

HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE ..................... 111

Ping Liu and Tommy L. Waskom - Eastern Illinois University

INEXPENSIVE MATERIALS SCIENCE DEMONSTRATIONS ......... 119 _'

F. Xavier Spiegel - Loyola College

125" RECYCLING OF AUTOMOBILES: AN OVERVIEW ...............

S. S. Labana - Ford Motor Company

AN INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL

145 _-, AND BEYOND ................................

Nancy L. Denton and Vemon S. Hillsman - Purdue University

SIMULATION OF MATERIALS PROCESSING: FANTASY OR REALITY? ..... 153

Thomas J. Jenkins and Victor M. Bright - Air Force Institute of Technology

PImGIE)4NG PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED

vii
USING EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN MODULES FOR PROCESSCHARACTERIZATION

IN MANUFACTURING/MATERIALS PROCESSES LABORATORIES ........ 169

Bruce Ankenman - Center for Quality and Productivity Improvement

Donald Ermer - University of Wisconsin - Madison

James A. Clum - State University of New York at Binghamton

PROCESS CAPABILITY DETERMINATION OF NEW AND EXISTING EQUIPMENT

H. T. McClelland - University of Wisconsin - Stout

Penwen Su - Arizona State University

185 r

INTRODUCTION TO USABLE STATISTICAL METHODS ............. 195 cF

H. T. McClelland - University of Wisconsin - Stout

MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE HEAT FLUX AND TEMPERATURE ........ 203 /

R. M. Davis, G. J. Antoine, T. E. Diller and A. L. Wicks

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

MICROSCALE SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYSTRYENE:

NSF-POLYED SCHOLARS PROJECT ...................... 219(_

Karen S. Quaal - Siena College and Chang-Ning Wu

University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth

CRATER CRACKING IN ALUMINUM WELDS .................. 239 ;?_

R. Carlisle Smith - West Virginia University, Parkersburg Campus

BRIDGMAN SOLIDIFICATION EXPERIMENT TO ASSESS BOUNDARIES AND

INTERFACE SHAPE .............................. 245 ;'_

Jonathan H. Fisher and Glenn A. Shelby - Nichols Research Corporation

Lawrence R. Holland - Alabama A & M University

PREPARATION OF SIMPLE PLASTER MOLD FOR SLIP CASTING ........ 253

T. G. Davidson and L. A. Ketron - Hocking Technical College

SLIP CASTING ................................ 259

T. G. Davidson and L. A. Kelron - Hocking Technical College

FROM SAND CASTING TO FINISHED PRODUCT (A BASIC UNIVERSITYINDUSTRY PARTNERSHIP) .......................... 268

Donald H. Martin - Tri-State University

Keith Sinram - Dana/Spicer Clutch Division

Jeff Durbin - Auburn Foundry, Inc.

THE ANISOTROPY OF TOUGHNESS IN HOT-ROLLED MILD STEEL ....... 285

Philip J. Guichelaar - Western Michigan University

DEVELOPMENTS IN CARBON MATERIALS .................. 291i_

Timothy D. Burchell - Oak Ridge National Laboratory

LIQUIDS THAT TAKE ONLY MILLISECONDS TO TURN INTO SOLIDS

John A. Marshall - East Carolina University

..... 315,

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CROSSLINKED POLYMER COATINGS ..... 323 [_

Jeffrey Csernica - Bucknell University

o,.

Viii
EXPERIMENTS IN DIAMOND FILM FABRICATION IN TABLE-TOP PLASMA

APPARATUS ................

James V. Masi "-@estem'New l_ngland'College " "

PLASTIC PART DESIGN ANALYSIS USING POLARIZED FILTERS AND

BIREFRINGENCE .............................

J. L. Wickman - Ball State University

MICROWAVE SINTERING OF MACHINING INSERTS ..............

David E. Werstler - Western Washington University

339 /U

353

361

367 KNOTTY KNOTS ...............................

Alan K. Karplus - Western New England College

THREE-POINT BEND TESTING OF POLY (METHYL METHACRYLATE) AND

373 BALSA WOOD ................................

Wayne L. Elban - Loyola College

DIELECTRIC MEASUREMENTS OF SELECTED CERAMICS AT MICROWAVE

391 FREQUENCIES ...........................

J. N. Dahiya and C. "K. Templeton - Southeast ]Vlissouri State University "

UNIVERSITY OUTREACH FOCUSED DISCUSSION: WHAT DO EDUCATORS

WANT FROM ASM INTERNATIONAL ..................... 401

Thomas Passek - ASM International

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN ALUMINUM FOR AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILES 419

Jocelyn I. Petit - Alcoa Technical Center

451 SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS TESTING .....................

Patricia J. Olesak and Edward L. Widener - Purdue University

GRAPHING TECHNIQUES FOR MATERIALS LABORATORY USING EXCEL

Nikhil K. Kundu - Purdue University

469

481

489

AN AUTOMATED DIGITAL DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS SYSTEM FOR

THE CHARPY IMPACT TESTER ........................

Glenn S. Kohne and F. Xavier Spiegel - Loyola College

PEEL PROPERTIES OF A PRESSURE SENSITIVE ADHESIVE

Elizabeth C. Edblom - 3M Center

SYMMETRY AND STRUCTURE THROUGH OPTICAL DIFFRACTION

Jennifer Gray and Gretchen Kalonji - University of Washington

TESTING RIGIDITY, YIELDPOINT, AND HARDENABILITY BY TORQUE

WRENCH ...................................

Edward L. Widener - Purdue University

499

ADHESIVES AND ADHESION - THE STATE OF THE INDUSTRY ......... 503

Elizabeth C. Edblom - 3M Center

USE OF BELLS TO ILLUSTRATE CERAMIC FIRING EFFECTS ......... 515

Steven W. Piippo - Richland High School and L. Roy Bunnell - Battelle

ix
Student Presenters

iiii!i!iii

ORIGINAL PAGE

BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH

X
REVIEWERS FOR NEW:Update 93

Ashok Belagundu

Associate Professor of Mechanical

Engineering

Pennsylvania State University

Thomas Gorman

Assistant Professor

Forest Products

University of Idaho

Else Breval

Senior Research Associate

Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

Michael Grutzeck

Associate Professor

Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

Witold Brostow

Professor of Materials Science

Center for Materials Characterization

University of North Texas

Girish Harshe

Research Associate

Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

Paul W. Brown

Professor of Ceramic Science

Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

Susan Hoyle

Research Associate

Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

Wenwu Coo

Senior Research Associate

Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

M. N. Kallas

Assistant Professor of Mechanical

Engineering

Pennsylvania State University

James Clum

Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

T. J. Watson School of Engineering

State University of N.Y. at Binghamton

Bruce E. Knox

Associate Professor of Materials Science

Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

Theodore Davidson

Professor

Polymer Processing Institute

Stevens Institute of Technology

Anil K. Kulkarni

Associate Professor of Mechanical

Engineering

Pennsylvania State University

Richard Devon

Associate Professor

Engineering Graphics

Pennsylvania State University

Rustum Roy

Evan Pugh Professor of the Solid State

Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

Renatta S. Engel

Assistant Professor

Engineering Science and Mechanics

Pennsylvania State University

Robert C. Voigt

A_ssociate Professor of Industrial Engineering

Pennsylvania State University

Technical notebooks, videotaping, and announcements of the workshop were provided by

NASA LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER

xi
NASA Mini Workshops

Half-day workshops for small groups that provided participants in-depth view of materials science

and engineering research at NASA-LaRC. Provides excellent technology transfer of NASA's

research.

• High Performance Composites - Resin Synthesis, Fabrication, Evaluation - Building

1293A Norman J. Johnston, Manager, Composites Technology, Materials Division

Steven P. Wilkinson, Polymeric Materials Branch

Chemistry Lab, prepregging lab, composite fabrication, nondestructive evaluation, and composite

evaluation.

• Non Destructive Evaluation Applications to Integrity - Building 1230B

Joseph S. Heyman, Head, Non Destructive Evaluation, Science Branch IRD

Thermal NDE of bonds and corrosion in aircraft, ultrasonic scanning of defects in composites,

micro-NDE of advanced composites, radiography-realtime and X-ray cat scans for integrity and

design verification.

• Advanced Fabrication Technology. Building 1232A

John D. Buckley, Technical Assistant, Fabrication Division

Fabricating superconductors, resin transfer molding, no draft slip casting of high

temperature ceramic structures, fabricating active structures of intelligent materials, and quality

assurance techniques.

• Materials Characterization for Durability and Damage Tolerance - Building 1205

Charles E. Harris, Head - Mechanics of Materials Branch, Materials Division

Corrosion fatigue of aluminum and aluminum lithium, thermo mechanical fatigue of metal matrix

composite for NASA, impact damage in composites, durability of composites for an SST.

• Advanced Metals - Buildings 1148 and 1205

W. Barry Lisagor, Head - Metallic Materials Branch, Materials Division

Advanced light metals and metal matrix composites, light weight, high strength structural alloys

and composites to achieve thermal/mechanical performance, synthesis of new or improved ingot

and powder metallurgy alloys, joining and forming processes for light-alloy material systems,

near net shape processing, and advanced metallographic and test methods.

• Superconductors - Building 1222

Robert A. Hawsey and Richard Kerchner - Super Conducting

Technology Program, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Robert W. Dull, Largo High School

Use new demonstration tools to show the Meissner effect, critical current and temperature,

resistivity, and an operating electric motor. Review new instructional material and resources for

teachers.

xii
Moving to Workshops

ORIGINAL PAGE

BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH

Mini Workshops

XIH
Mini Workshops

(continued)

OP,,IGINAL PAGE

BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH

xiv
I_L..AC_ Al'iL; _,Vhi;_:_ F_iOTOGRAp._

Mini Workshops

(continued)

ii_; !!!

X¥
Mini Workshops

(concluded)

xvi
LISTING OF EXPERIMENTS FROM NEW:UPDATES

EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN TESTING AND EVALUATION

NEW:Update 88

Sastd, Sankar. "Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection"

Sastri, Sankar. "Magnetic Particle Inspection"

Sastri, Sankar. "Radiographic Inspection"

NASA Conference Publication 3060

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074

Chowdhury, Mostafiz R. and Chowdhury, Farida. "Experimental Determination of Material Damping

Using Vibration Analyzer"

Chung, Wenchiang R. "The Assessment of Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites"

Stibolt, Kenneth A. "Tensile and Shear Strength of Adhesives"

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822

Azzara, Drew C. "ASTM: The Development and Application of Standards"

Bates, Seth P. "Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing of Hot Rolled 1020 Steel to Explore Temperature Impact

Strength Relationships"

Chowdhury, Mostafiz R. "A Nondestructive Testing Method to Detect Defects in Structural Members"

Cornwell, L. R., Griffin, R. B., and Massarweh, W. A. "Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile Properties of

Plastics"

Gray, Stephanie L., Kern, Kristen T., Harries, Wynford L., and Long, Sheila Ann T.

"Improved Technique for Measuring Coefficients of Thermal Extension for Polymer Films"

Halperin, Kopl. "Design Project for the Materials Courser To Pick the Best Material for a Cooking Pot"

Kundu, Nikhil. "Environmental Stress Cracking of Recycled Thermoplastics"

Panchula, Larry and Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of a Simple Screening Strategy for Multifactor

Experiments in Engineering"

Taylor, Jenifer A. T. "How Does Change in Temperature Affect Resistance.'?"

Wickman, Jerry L. and Corbin, Scott M. "Determining the Impact of Adjusting Temperature Profiles on

Photodegradability of LDPE/Starch Blown Film"

Widener, Edward L. "It's Hard to Test Hardness"

Widener, Edward L. "Unconventional Impact-Toughness Experiments"

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Tempered Glass and Thermal Shock of Ceramic Materials"

Lundeen, Calvin D. "Impact Testing of Welded Samples"

Gorman, Thomas M. "Designing, Engineering, and Testing Wood Structures"

Strehlow, Richard R. "ASTM - Terminology for Experiments and Testing"

Karplus, Alan K. "Determining Significant Material Properties, A Discovery Approach"

Spiegel, F. Xavier and Weigman, Bernard J. "An Automated System for Creep Testing"

Denton, Nancy L. and Hillsman, Vernon S. "Isotropic Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel Experiment"

Allen, David J. "Stress-Strain Characteristics of Rubber-Like Materials: Experiment and

Analysis"

Dahl, Charles C. "computer Integrated Lab Testing"

Cornwell, L. R. "Mechanical Properties of Brittle Material"

xvii
EXPERIMENTS& DEMONSTRATIONSIN CEILA, MICS

NEW:Update 88

Nelson, James A.

Schull, Robert D.

NASA Conference Publication 3060

"Glasses and Ceramics: Making and Testing Superconductors"

"High Tc Superconductors: Are They Magnetic?"

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution or Revolution"

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Hands-On Thermal Conductivity and Work-Hardening and Annealing in Metals"

Link, Bruce. "Ceramic Fibers"

Nagy, James P. "Austempering"

Ries, Heidi R. "Dielectric Determination of the Glass Transition Temperature"

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822

Dahiya, J.N. "Dielectric Behavior of Superconductors at Microwave Frequencies"

Jordan, Gail W. "Adapting Archimedes' Method for Determining Densities and Porosities of Small

Ceramic Samples"

Snail, Keith A., Hanssen, Leonard M., Oakes, David B., and Butler, James E. "Diamond Synthesis with

a Commercial Oxygen-Acetylene Torch"

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Tempered Glass and Thermal Shock of Ceramic Materials"

Craig, Douglas F. "Structural Ceramics"

Dahiya, J.N. "Dielectric Behavior of Semiconductors at Microwave Frequencies"

Weiser, Martin W., Lauben, David N., and Madrid, Philip. "Ceramic Processing: Experimental

Design and Optimization"

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Temperature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass"

Henshaw, John M. "Fracture of Glass"

Stephan, Patrick M. "High Thermal Conductivity of Diamond"

Vanasupa, Linda S. "A $.69 Look at Thermoplastic Softening"

EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN COMPOSITES

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060

Nelson, James A. "composites: Fiberglass Hand Laminating Process"

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution or Revolution"

Chung, Wenchiang R. "The Assessment of Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites"

Coleman, J. Mario. "Using Template/Hotwire Cutting to Demonstrate Moldless Composite Fabrication"

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822

Bunnell, L. R. "Simple Stressed-Skin Composites Using Paper Reinforcement"

Schmenk, Myron J. "Fabrication and Evaluation of a Simple Composite Structural Beam"

West, Harvey A. and Sprecher, A. F. "Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials"

oo,

XVH!
NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Temperature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass and

Construction and Testing of Simple Airfoils to Demonstrate Structural Design, Materials

Choice, and Composite Concepts"

Marpet, Mark I. "Walkway Friction: Experiment and Analysis"

Martin, Donald H. "Application of Hardness Testing in Foundry Processing Operations: A University and

Industry Partnership"

Masi, James V. "Experiments in Corrosion for Younger Students By and For Older Students"

Needham, David. "Micropipet Manipulation of Lipid Membranes: Direct Measurement of the

Material Properties of a Cohesive Structure That is Only Two Molecules Thick"

Perkins, Steven W. "Direct Tension Experiments on Compacted Granular Materials"

Shih, Hui-Ru. "Development of an Experimental Method to Determine the Axial Rigidity of a

Strut-Node Joint"

Spiegel, F. Xavier. "An Automated Data Collection System For a Charpy Impact Tester"

Tipton, Steven M. "A Miniature Fatigue Test Machine"

Widener, Edward L. "Tool Grinding and Spark Testing"

EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN MEq'ALS

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060

Nagy, James P. "Sensitization of Stainless Steel"

Neville, J. P. "Crystal Growing"

Pond, Robert B. "A Demonstration of Chill Block Melt Spinning of Metal"

Shull, Robert D. "Low Carbon Steel: Metallurgical Structure vs. Mechanical Properties"

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074

Baisamei, Richard. "The Magnetization Process - Hysteresis"

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution or Revolution"

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Hands-On Thermal Conductivity and Work-Hardening and Annealing in Metals"

Kazem, Sayyed M. "Thermal Conductivity of Metals"

Nagy, James P. "Austempering"

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822

Bates, Seth P. "Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing of Hot Rolled 1020 Steel to Explore Temperature Impact

Strength Relationships"

Chung, Wenchiang R. and Morse, Margery L. "Effect of Heat Treatment on a Metal Alloy"

Rastani, Mansur. "Post Heat Treatment in Liquid Phase Sintered Tungsten-Nickel-Iron Alloys"

Spiegel, F. Xavier. "Crystal Models for the Beginning Student"

Yang, Y. Y. and Stang, R. G. "Measurement of Strain Rate Sensitivity in Metals"

NEW:Update 91.

Cowan, Richard L.

Kazem, Sayyed M.

K.repski, Richard P.

Lundeen, Calvin D.

McCoy, Robert A.

Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of Magnetic

Assembled Videocam-Microscope System"

Widener, Edward L. "Heat-Treating of Materials"

NASA Conference Publication 3151

"Be-Cu Precipitation Hardening Experiment"

"Elementary Metallography"

"Experiments with the Low Melting Indium-Bismuth Alloy System"

"Impact Testing of Welded Samples"

"Cu-Zn Binary Phase Diagram and Diffusion Couples"

Domain Boundary Movement Using an Easily

xix
NEW:Update 91

Greet, Richard J. "Composite Column of Common Materials"

NASA Conference Publication 3151

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201

Thornton, H. Richard. "Mechanical Properties of Composite Materials"

EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN ELECTRONIC MATERIALS

NEW:Update 88

Sastri, Sankar. "Magnetic Particle Inspection"

NASA Conference Publication 3060

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074

Kundu, Nikhil K. and Kundu, Malay. "Piezoelcclric and Pyroelectric Effects of a Crystalline Polymer"

Molton, Peter M. and Clarke, Clayton. "Anode Materials for Electrochemical Waste Destruction"

Ries, Heidi R. "Dielectric Determination of the Glass Transition Temperature"

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822

Dahiya, J.N. "Dielectric Behavior of Superconductors at Microwave Frequencies"

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151

Dahiya, J.N. "Dielectric Behavior of Semiconductors at Microwave Frequencies"

Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of Magnetic Domain Boundary Movement Using an Easily Assembled

Videocam-Microscope System"

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Temperature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass

Dahiya, Jai N. "Phase Transition Studies in Barium and Strontium Titanates at Microwave

Frequencies"

xx
ORDERING INFORMATION FOR ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Twenty copies of the NATIONAL EDUCATORS' WORKSHOP PUBLICATIONS

(NASA-CPs from 1988 - 1993) are available on a first come, first served basis from

Dr. James A. Jacobs

Department of Technology

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

NASA publications may be ordered from

National Technical Information Center (NTIS)

Attention: Document Sales

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, VA 22161

OI"

National Center for Aerospace Information (CASI)

P.O. Box 8757

Baltimore, MD 21240-0757

BOB POND'S "FUN IN METALS" TAPE - AVAILABLE FROM

Johns Hopkins University

Maryland Hall 210

3400 N. Charles Street

Baltimore, MD 21218

Cost = $30.00

xxi
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS EDUCATION SUBSCRIPTIONS:

JME has two categories of subscription: Institutional and Secondary. The institutional

subscription -- for university departments, libraries, government laboratories, industrial, or other

multiple-reader agencies is $245.00 (US$) per year. Institutional two-year subscriptions are

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where it is the desire to preserve one copy for reference and cut up the second copy for ease of

duplication.) Two-year subscriptions for secondary for individual or subdivision are $70.00

(US$). Back issues of JME are $35 (US$).

Other Materials Education Council Publications available :

Classic Crystals: A Book of Models - Hands-on Morphology. Twenty-Four Common Crystal

models to assemble and study. Aids in learning symmetry and Miller indices. $17.00.

A Set of Four Hardbound Volumes of Wood Modules - The Clark C. Heritage Memorial

Series. Published by MEC in cooperation with the U.S.Forest Products Laboratory, Madison,

Wisconsin. A compilation of nine modules entitled Wood: Its Structure and Properties (I),

edited by Frederick F. Wangaard. A compilation of eight modules especially developed for

architects and civil engineers entitled Wood As A Structural Material (II). Also, Adhesive

Bonding of Wood and Other Structural Materials III and Wood: Engineering Design Concepts

Each of the first three wood volumes costs $27.00; the fourth volume costs $37.00. The

entire four-volume set is only $ 115.00 plus $3.50 shipping ($4.50 overseas).

The Crystallography Course - MEC's popular nine-unit course on crystallography. $37.00.

Instructional Modules in Cement Science - Five units prepared for civil engineering and

ceramic materials science students and professionals. $19.00.

Laboratory Experiments in Polymer Synthesis and Characterization - A collection of fifteen

peer-reviewed, student-tested, competency-based modules. $21.00. Topics include: bulk

polycondensation and end-group analysis, interfacial polycondensation, gel permeation

chromatography, x-ray diffraction and others.

Metallographic Atlas - Royal Swedish of Technology. $28.00. A brief introduction to the

microstructures of metallic materials - how they appear and how they can be modified.

Please add $2.00 per book shipping charge.

Checks payable to The Pennsylvania State University

Managing Editor, JME

110 Materials Research Laboratory

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University Park, PA 16802

xxii
Workshop Location

oBo

XXlll
ORIGINAE PAGE

_LACK AND WH;TE PHOTOGRAPN

Participants

National Educator's Workshop 1993 NEW Update '93

Back Row (L Io R): J. Clum, T. Ommund_n, B. Jones. W. Hunter, F. Shirvani, B. Ross, I. Gardner, P. Guichelaar, W. Saner, M. Ferguson, D. Hollenbach,

B. Hawsey. R. Kerchner, D. Werstler; 41h Row: J. Ho, A. McKenney, C. Wie, J. Nagy, M. Galling, J. Moore, P. Wojcicchowski, R. Mantena, J. Roades,

E. Minlz, J. Cannaday, T. Jenkins, B. Dull, T. Kilduff; 3rd Row: R. Wilcox, K. Quaal, E. Edblom, C. Diez, E. lsaacson, P. Vaishnava, A. GriJfin, R. Douglas,

L. Fine, E. Jones, I. Harruna, P. Liu, L. Moeli, T. Winters, M. Pclrou; Sealing: S. Brown. A. Karplus, S. Labana. F. Spiegel. D. LaClaire, J. Gray, M. Weber.

L. Hollcman. C. Smilh, J. Jacobs, H. Ries. P. Shaw, L. Ketron, W. EIban, C. Miller: Kneeling: S. Piippo, R. Cowan, D. Martin, J. Mast. E. Widener,

T. McClelland. H. West. J. C_mica, G. Maxwell, J. Springer, T. Waskom, M. Middlelon, J. Mclver.

xxiv
PARTICIPANTS

G. J. Antome

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Mechanical Engineering Department

Blacksburg, VA 24061-0238

Robert M. Baucom

Polymeric Materials Branch

NASA-Langley Research Center

6A W. Taylor Street, MS 226

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-4252

Robert Berrettini

Materials Education Council

106 Materials Research Laboratory

Pennsylvania State University

University Park, PA 16802

814-865-1643

Mark A. Borst

Loyola College

4501 North Charles Street

Baltimore, MD 21210-2699

410-617-5123

Victor Bright

Air Force Institute of Technology

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Building 640, Area B

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,OH 45433-6583

513-255-3576 ext. 4598

Scott Brown

Princess Anne High School

4400 Virginia Beach Blvd.

Virginia Beach, VA 23462

John D. Buckley

Technical Assistant, Fabrication Division

NASA-Langley Research Center

6A Langley Blvd., MS 399

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-4557

Timothy Burchell

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

P. O. Box 2008

Bldg. 4508, MS 6088

Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6088

615-576-8595

John E. Cannaday, Jr.

Roanoke Valley Governor's School

2104 Grandin Road, S. W.

Roanoke, VA 24015

703-981-2116

James A. Clum

Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

T. J. Watson School of Engineering

State University of New York at Binghamton

P. O. BOx 6000

Binghamton, New York 13902-6000

607-777-4555

Clarence D. Coleman

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683 -8909

Edmond J. Conway

High Energy Science Branch

Space Systems Division

NASA-Langley Research Center

18 Langley Blvd., MS 493

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-1435

Richard L. Cowan

Ohio Northern University

Ada, OH 45810

419-772-2383

Jeffrey Csernica

Bucknell University

Department of Chemical Engineering

Lewisburg, PA 17837

717-524-1257

XXV
Jai N. Dahiya

Southeast Missouri State University

Mail Stop 6600, One University Plaza

Cape Girardeau, MO 63701

314-651-2390

R. Michelle Davis

Virginia Tech

Mechanical Engineering Department

Blacksburg, VA 24061-0238

Nancy L. Denton

Purdue University

1417 Knoy Hall, Room 137

W. Lafayette, IN 47907-1417

317-494-7517

C. Ray Diez

University of North Dakota

Box 7118

Department of Industrial Technology

Grand Forks, ND 58202-7118

701-777-2249 ext 2198

Thomas E. Diller

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering

Blacksburg, VA 24061-0238

703-231-7198

Ransom Douglas

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683 -8833

Robert W. Dull

Largo High School

1351 Woodcrest Avenue

Clearwater, FL 34616

815-585-5606

Elizabeth Edblom

Senior Research Chemist

3M Center

Bldg. 251-3B-13

St. Paul, MN 55144-1000

612-736-7372

Wayne L. Elban

Loyola College

Dept. of Electrical Engineering and

Engineering Science

4501 N. Charles Street

Baltimore, MD 21210

410-617-2853

Milton Ferguson

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8360

Leonard W. Fine

Columbia University

116 St. Broadway/Havemeyer Hall

New York, NY 10027

212-854-2017

Jonathan Fisher

Nichols Research Corporation

4040 S. Memorial Parkway

P. O. Box 400002

Huntsville, AL 35815-1502

205-883-1170 ext 1381

Anna Fraker

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

301-975-6009 FAX 301-926-7975

James E. Gardner

Technical Staff Assistant

NASA-Langley Research Center

11 Langley Blvd., MS 118

Hampton, VA 23681-0001

804-864-6003

Michael Gatling

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683 -2265

George Grant

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683 -9587

xxvi
JenniferGray

Dept.of MaterialsScienceandEngineering

Universityof Washington

302RobertsHall FB-10

Seattle,WA98195

206-685-3851

BruceGregory

Prentice-Hall,Inc.

4613KensingtonAvenue

Richmond,VA 23226

804-353-1368

E.Alair Griffin

ResearchPeakEngineering,Inc.

1270W.2320South,SuiteF

WestValleyCity, UT 84119

801-975-7979

PhilipJ.Guichelaar

AssociateProfessor

WesternMichiganUniversity

Collegeof EngineeringandApplied Sciences

Dept. of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engr.

Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5065

616-387-3366

Andrew Hargrove

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8771

Charles E. Harris

Head, Mechanics of Materials Branch

Materials Division

NASA-Langley Research Center

2 W. Reid Street, MS 188E

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-3449

Issifu I. Harruna

Clark Atlanta University

223 James P. Brawley Drive, SW

Atlanta, GA 30314

404-220-0175

Robert A. Hawsey

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

P. O. Box 2008, MS 6040

Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6040

615-574-8057

Joseph S. Heyman, Head

Non Destructive Evaluation Science Branch

NASA-Langley Research Center

3B E. Taylor Street, MS 231

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-4970

James C. Ho

Wichita State University

Department of Physics

Wichita, KS 67260

316-689-3992

Lois Holleman

Princess Anne High School

4400 Virginia Beach Blvd.

Virginia Beach, VA 23462

Edwin C. Hollenbach

Roanoke Valley Governor's School

2102 Grandin Road, S. W.

Roanoke, VA 24015

703-563-0281

Jeffrey J. Hoyt

Washington State University

Department of Mech. & Matls. Engineering

Pullman, WA 99164-2920

509-335-8523

Charles R. Hunt

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8037

Willie L. Hunter

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8089

xxvii
Emil H. Isaacson

University District of Columbia

39 Great Pines Court

Rockville, MD 20850

301-762-1277

Richard Kerchner

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

P. O. Box 2008

Oak Ridge, TN 37831

615-574-6270

James A. Jacobs

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8109

Ka'is Kern

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-2447

Thomas J. Jenkins

U. S. Air Force

Air Force Institute of Technology

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Building 640, Area B

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

OH 45433-6583

513-255-3576, ext. 4818

Norman J. Johnston

Manager, Composites Technology

Materials Division

NASA-Langley Research Center

6A W. Taylor Street, MS 226

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-4260

Edward Otagus Jones

Oakwood College

6019 Rickwood Drive, N. W.

Huntsville, AL 35810

205-726-7057

Robert E. Jones, Jr.

University of Texas at San Antonio

6900 N. Loop 1604 West

San Antonio, TX 78249

210-691-5522

Alan K. Karplus

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Western New England College

1215 Wilbraham Road

Springfield, MA 01119-2684

413-782-1220

Lisa Ketron

Ceramic Engineering Technology

Hocking Technical College

3301 Hocking Parkway

Nelsonville, OH 45764-9704

614-753-3591 ext. 2653

Thomas F. Kilduff

Thomas Nelson Community College

504 Brafferton Circle

Hampton, VA 23663-1921

804-851-0272

Glenn S. Kohne

Department of Electrical Engineering and

Engineering Science

Loyola College in Maryland

Baltimore, MD 21210

410-617-2249

David Krall

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-9434

Nikhil K. Kundu

Purdue University

Statewide Technology

2424 California Road

Elkhart, IN 46514

219-264-3111

S. S. Labana

Ford Motor Company

P. O. Box 2053

Dearborn, MI 48138

313-594-7740

boo xx'¢lll
DianaP.LaClaire

NorfolkStateUniversity

2401CorprewAvenue

Norfolk,VA 23504

804-683-9072

W.BarryLisagor

Head,MetallicMaterialsBranch

NASA-Langley Research Center

8 W. Taylor Street, MS 188A

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-3140

Ping Liu

Eastern Illinois University

School of Technology

Charleston, IL 61920

217-581-6267

Rich Lomenzo

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Mechanical Engineering Department

Blacksburg, VA 24061-0238

John Marshall

East Carolina University

School of Technology

Greenville, NC 27858

919-758-6433

Raju Mantena

University of Mississippi

Mechanical Engineering Department

201D Carrier Hall

University, MS 38677

601-232-5990

Donald H. Martin

Associate Professor

Tri-State University

300 S. Darling Street

Angola, IN 46703

219-665-4265

James V. Masi

Western New England College

Department of Electrical Engineering

Springfield, MA 01119

413-782-1344

Samuel Massenberg

Director of Office Education

NASA-Langley Research Center

17 Langley Blvd., MS 400

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-2145

John Masters

Lockheed Engineering and Science

144 Research Drive

Hampton, VA 23666

804-766-9474

Larry Mattix

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683 -2298

George M. Maxwell

University of Wisconsin-Madison

College of Engineering

General Engineering Bldg.

1527 University Avenue

Madison, WI 53705

608-262-4811

H. T. McClelland

Technology Department

University of Wisconsin-Stout

Menomonie, WI 54751

715-232-2152

Jon McIver

Oakwood College

6019 Rickwood Drive, N. W.

Huntsville, AL 35810

205-726-705"7

Alfred E. McKenney

516 Fairfax Way

Williamsburg, VA 23185

804-221-0476

Maury Middleton

Denbigh High School

259 Denbigh Boulevard

Newport News, VA 23602

804-886-7700

xxix
ClaytonMiller

OakwoodCollege

6019 Rickwood Drive, N. W.

Huntsville, AL 35810

205-726-7057

George Miller

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-2381

Eric A. Mintz

Clark Atlanta University

223 James P. Brawley Drive, S. W.

Atlanta, GA 30314

404-880-8589

Lebone T. Moeti

Clark Atlanta University

223 James P. Brawley Drive, S. W.

Atlanta, GA 30314

404-880-8907

Joseph E. Moore

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8081

James P. Nagy

Erie Community College

$4580 Lake Shore Road

Hamburg, NY 14075

716-627-3930

Patricia J. Olesak

MET Department

Purdue University

1417 Knoy Hall, Room 145

West Lafayette, IN 47907

317-494-7532

Toby Ommundsen

Poquoson High School

51 Odd Road

Poquoson, VA 23662

804-868-7123

Thomas Passek

Assistant Director of Chapter Relations

ASM International

Materials Park, OH 44073

216-338-5151

Jocelyn I. Petit

Manager Alloy Technology Division

Alcoa Technical Center

100 Technical Drive

Alcoa Center, PA 15069-0001

412-337-5922

Michael F. Petrou

University of South Carolina

Dept. of Civil Engineering

Columbia, SC 29208

803-777-7521

Steven Piippo

Material Science Technology

Richland High School

930 Long Avenue

Richland, WA 99352

509-946-5121

Karen S. Quaai

Siena College

515 Loudon Road

Loudonville, NY 12211

518- 783 -2977

Heidi Ries

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8020

Joseph E. Roades

Roanoke Valley Governor's School

2102 Grandin Road, S. W.

Roanoke, VA 24015

703-297-4131

Harry Rook

Deputy Director

National Institute of Standards & Technology

Room B310, Bldg. 223

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

301-975-5660

m
WilliamRoss

MuskegonCommunityCollege

221S.Quarterline

Muskegon,MI 49442

616--777-0367

BobbyRushing,Jr.

NorfolkStateUniversity

2401CorprewAvenue

Norfolk,VA 23504

804-623-8109

WolfgangSauer

Universityof SouthernColorado

2200BonforteBlvd.

Pueblo,CO81001-4901

719-549-2884

FaramarzShirvani

NorfolkStateUniversity

2401CorprewAvenue

Norfolk,VA 23504

804-683-8833

K. GeorgeSkena

Norstar

NTVC/Norstar

1330No.Military Highway

Norfolk,VA 23502

804-441-5633

R. CarlisleSmith

KanawhaManufacturingCompany

BOx1786

1520DixieStreet

Charleston,WV 25311

304-342-6127

F.XavierSpiegel

EngineeringDepartment

LoyolaCollege

4501N. CharlesStreet

Baltimore,MD 21210-2699

410-617-2515

JohnM. Springer

Departmentof Physics

FiskUniversity

Box 15

Nashville,TN 37208

615-329-8780

MunirSulaiman

NorfolkStateUniversity

2401CorprewAvenue

Norfolk,VA 23504

804-683-8089

Prem Vaishnava

GMI Engineering & Management Institute

1700 W. Third Avenue

Flint, MI 48504-4898

313-762-7933

Tommy L. Waskom

Eastern Illinois University

School of Technology

Charleston, IL 61920

217-581-6267

Marie D. Wampler-Weber

Pennsylvania State University

9 Simmons Hall

University Park, PA 16802

814-862-4314

David E. Werstler

Western Washington University

Engineering Technology Department

Bellingham, WA 98225-9086

206-650-3447

Harvey West

North Carolina State University

Box 7907

Riddick Hall Room 229

Raleigh, NC 27695-7907

919-515-3568

xxxi
Jerry L. Wickman

Director Plastics Research and Education Center

Ball State University

College of Applied Sciences and Technology

Department of Industry and Technology

Muncie, IN 47306-0255

317-285-5648

A. L. Wicks

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering

Blacksburg, VA 24061-0238

703-231-4323

Edward L. Widener

MET Department

Purdue University

Knoy Hall - Room 119

West Lafayette, IN 47907

317-494-7521

Chu Ryang Wie

State University of New York at Buffalo

201 Bonner Hall, Dept. of ECE

Buffalo, NY 14260

716-645-3119

Roy C. Wilcox

Auburn University

201 Ross Hall

Auburn, AL 36849

205-844-3323

Steven Wilkinson

Polymeric Materials Branch

NASA-Langley Research Center

MS 226, Bldg. 1293A

Hampton, VA 23681

804-864-4268

Todd A. Winters

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8109

Jack P. Witty

Norfolk State University

2401 Corprew Avenue

Norfolk, VA 23504

804-683-8076

Paul H. Wojciechowski

Rochester Institute of Technology

College of Engineering

One Lomb Memorial Drive

P. O. Box 9887

Rochester, NY 14623-0887

716-475-7142

Robert L. Yang

University Affairs Officer

NASA-Langley Research Center

Mail Stop 105A

Hampton, VA 23665

Corey Zimmerman

District Manager

Instron Corporation

11876 Sunrise Valley Drive

Reston, VA 22091

703-860-2272

xxxU
Participants

8LAO_,K AND WHITE PI'IOTOGRAPh

ooe

XXXlII
NATIONAL EDUCATORS' WORKSHOP

Update 93: Standard Experiments

in Engineering Materials Science

and Technology

November 3 - 5, 1993 - NASA LaRC, Hampton, Virginia

Sponsored by

National Am_nmutics & Space Adminimmtion

Langley Rm_u-ch Center

Norfolk Slate Univ_sity

School of Technology

United Stat_

Department c_"_nerl_

FMF_ and ORNL

National Institum of Standards

& Technology, Materials Science

& Engineering Laboratories

with the support of American Society for Engineering Education

ASM International

Battelle, PaciSc Northwest Laboratory

Fernald Environmental Restoration Management Corp.

Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc.

Materials Education Council

xx]dv
DLACK Ai;D ,':;,_', L f',_L;TOGRAP3-1

Welcome

XXXV
Recognizing Contributions

xxxvi
Recognizing Contributions

(concluded)

[

Registration

xxxvii

N94- 36399 --"'- _'_"

i

ASTM TEST METHODS FOR COMPOSITE

CHARACTERIZATION AND EVALUATION

John E. Masters

Lockheed Engineering and Science

144 Research Drive

Hampton, Virginia 23666

Telephone 804-766-9474

Outline of Presentation:

• Introduction

Objectives

Discussion of ASTM

General Discussion

Subcommittee D-30

Composite Materials Characterization and

Evaluation

General Industry Practice

Test Methods for Textile Composites

PAGE BLANK f'_OT FH..MLmD

3
Objectives ."

• Introduce ASTM Organization and Activities

• Offer ASTM as a Resource

• Recruit New, Active Members

4
American Society for Testing and Materials

Definition:

A not-for-profit, voluntary, full-consensus

Standards Development Organization.

ASTM publishes standards for Materials, Products,

Systems and Services

Activities encompass Metals, Composites,

Adhesives, Plastics, Textiles, paints, petroleum,

construction, energy, the environment, consumer

products, medical services and devices, computer

systems, electronics, and many others.
American Society for Testing and Materials

Purpose:

"the Development of Standards... and the Promotion

of Related Knowledge."

Promotion of Related Knowledge Accomplished through:

• Symposia and Workshops

• Technical Publications

6
American Society for Testing and Materials

ASTM produces six principal types of Standards. They are:

Standard Test Methods - a definitive procedure for the

identification, measurement, and evaluation of one or more

qualities, characteristics, or properties of a material,

product, system, or service that produces a test result.

Standard Specification - a precise statement of a set of

requirements to be satisfied by a material, product, system,

or service that also indicates the procedures for

determining whether each of the requirements is satisfied.

Standard Practice - a definitive procedure for performing

one or more specific operations or functions that does not

produce a test result.

Standard Terminology - a document comprised of terms,

definitions, descriptions of terms, explanations of symbols,

abbreviations, or acronyms.

Standard Guide - a series of options or instructions that

do not recommend a specific course of action.

Standard Classification - a systematic arrangement or

division of materials, products, systems, or services into

groups based on similar characteristics such as origin,

composition, properties, or use.

7
American Society for Testing and Materials

Technical Publications :

ASTM publishes a variety of technical documents other

than standards, They include:

Special Technical Publications (STPs) - collections of

peer-reviewed technical papers. Most STPs are based on

symposia sponsored by ASTM Technical Committees.

Manuals, Monographs, and Data SeriesTechnical Journal_.

• Journal of Composites Technology and Research

• Journal of Testing and Evaluation

• Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates

• Geotechnical Testing Journal

• Journal of Forensic Sciences

Note: Papers presented in all publications are

reviewed.

12¢_eg

8
American Society for Testing and Materials

Facts and Figures :

• Organized In 1898.

• Membership Totals 34,000 Worldwide.

• 132 Standards-Writing Committees.

Publishes 9000 ASTM Standards In The

69 Volume Annual Book Of ASTM Standards.

• Conducts Approximately 40 Symposia Annually.

Publishes 40 To 50 Standard Technical Publications

(STPs) Annually.
Amertcan Society for Testing and Materials

Information •

American Society for Testing and Materials

1916 Race Street

Philadelphia, Pa

19103-1187

Telephone: (215) 299-5400

FAX: (215) 977-9679

I0
ASTM Committee D-30,

on High Modulus Fibers and Their Composites

Roster of Officers and Subcommittee Chairmen :

Chairman:

Dale W. Wilson

ASHRAE

1791 Tullie Circle

Atlanta, Ga 30329

Tel. (404) 636-8400

Vice Chairman:

John E. Masters

Lockheed Eng. and Science

144 Research Drive

Hampton, Va 23666

Tel. (804) 766-9474

Subcommittees and their Chairmen"

Subcommittee D30.01 - Editorial

Elizabeth C. Goeke

U. S. Army Materials Technology Lab.

Attn. SLCMT-MRM

Watertown, Massachusetts 02172-0001

Tel. (617) 923-5466

Subcommittee D30.02- Research and Mechanics

Roderick H. Martin

Analytical Services and Materials, Inc.

107 Research Drive

Hampton, Va 23666

Tel. (804) 865-7093

Subcommittee D30.03 - Constituent Properties

Christopher J. Spragg

Amoco Performance Products

4500 McGinnis Ferry Road

Alpharetta, Georgia 30202-3944

Tel. (404) 772-8349

Subcommittee D30.04 - Lamina/Laminate Properties

Richard E. Fields

Martin Marietta

P. O. Box 628007

Mail Point 1404

Orlando, Florida 32862-8007

Tel. (407) 356-5842

1!
ASTM Committee D-30,

on High Modulus Fibers and Their Composites

Roster of Officers and Subcommittee Chairmen (Cont.) :

Subcommittee D30.05 - Structural Properties

Ronald F. Zabora

Boeing Commercial Airplanes

P. O. Box 3707

Mail Stop 48-02

Seattle, Washington 98124-2207

Tel. (206) 662-2655

Subcommittee D30.06 - Interlaminar Properties

T. Kevin O'Brien

U. S. Army Aeronautical Directorate

NASA Langley Research Center

Mail Stop 188E

Hampton, Virginia 23665-5225

Tel. (804) 864-3465

Subcommittee D30.07 - Metal Matrix Composites

W. Steven Johnson

NASA Langley Research Center

Mail Stop 188E

Hampton, Virginia 23665-5225

Tel. (804) 864-3463

Subcommittee D30.08- Thermomechanical Properties

Thomas S. Gates

NASA Langley Research Center

Mail Stop 188E

Hampton, Virginia 23665-5225

Tel. (804) 864-3400

ASTM Staff Manager

Kathie Schaaf

ASTM

1916 Race Street

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

19103

Tel. (215) 299-5529

12
ASTM Committee D-30,

on High Modulus Fibers and Their Composites

Test Methods, Practices, Guides, and Terminology Documents:

High Modulus Fibers and Their Composite Materials

Test Methods:

D2344 - 84 (1989)

D2290 - 87

D3410- 87

D3171 - 76 (1990)

D3553 - 76 (1989)

D3532 - 76 (1989)

D2586 - 68 (1990)

D2585 - 68 (1990)

C613 - 67 (1990)

D3531 - 76 (1989)

D3529/3529M - 90

D3552 - 77 (1989)

D3039 - 76 (1989)

D3479 - 76 (1990)

D4108 - 87

D3530/D3530M-90

Apparent Interlaminar Shear Strength of Parallel Fiber Composites

by Short-Beam Method

Apparent Tensile Strength of Ring or Tubular Plastics and

Reinforced Plastics by Split Disk Method

Compressive Properties of Unidirectional or Crossply Fiber-Resin

Composites

Fiber Content of Resin-Matrix Composites by Matrix Digestion

Fiber Content by Digestion of Reinforced Metal Matrix

Composites

Gel Time of Carbon Fiber-Epoxy Prepreg

Hydrostatic Compressive Strength of Glass-Reinforced Plastic

Cylinders

Preparation and Tension Testing of Filament-Wound Pressure

Vessels

Resin Content of Carbon and Graphite Prepregs by Solvent

Extraction

Resin Flow of Carbon Fiber-Epoxy Prepreg

Resin Solids Content of Carbon Fiber-Epoxy Prepreg

Tensile Properties of Fiber Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites

Tensile Properties of Fiber-Resin Composites

Tension-Tension Fatigue of Oriented Fiber Resin Matrix

Composites

Thermal Protective-Performance of Materials for Clothing by

Open-Flame Method

Volatiles Content of Epoxy-Matrix Prepreg by Matrix Dissolution

13
ASTM Committee D-30,

on High Modulus Fibers and Their Composites

Test Methods, Practices, Guides, and Terminology Documents (Cont.) :

Practices:

D2291 - 83 (1989)

D3518 - 91

Fabrication of Ring Test Specimens for Glass-Resin Composites

Inplane Shear Stress-Strain Response of Unidirectional Reinforced

Plastics

Terminology Relating:

D3878 - 87

Guides:

D4762 - 88

D4255 - 83

High-Modulus Reinforcing Fibers and Their Composites

Automotive/Industrial Composite Materials, Testing of

Inplane Shear Properties of Composite Laminates, Testing

Test Methods:

D3800 - 79 (1990)

D4018 - 81

D3379 - 75 (1989)

D4102 - 82 (1987)

High Modulus Fibers

Density of High-Modulus Fibers

Tensile Properties of Continuous Filament Carbon and Graphite

Yarns, Strands, Rovings, and Tows

Tensile Strength and Young's Modulus for High-Modulus SingleFilament Materials

Thermal Oxidative Resistance of Carbon Fibers

Terminology Relating:

D3878 - 87

Guides:

D3544 - 76 (1989)

High-Modulus Reinforcing Fibers and Their Composites

Reporting Test Methods and Results on High Modulus Fibers

14
ASTM Committee D-30,

on High Modulus Fibers and Their Composites

Recent Special Technical Publications:

STP 1059 : Composite Materials: Test and Design (Ninth Volume)

S. P. Garbo, Ed. - 1990

STP 1080 : Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Metal Matrix and Ceramic

Matrix Composite Materials

J. M. Kennedy, H. H. Mocller, and W. S. Johnson, Eds. - 1990

STP 1110 : Composite Materials: Fatigue and Fracture (Third Volume)

T. K. O'Brien, Ed. - 1991

STP 1120 : Composite Materials: Testing and Design (Tenth Volume)

G. C. Grimes, Ed. - 1992

STP 1128 : Damage Detection in Composite Materials

J. E. Masters, Ed. - 1992

STP 1156 : Composite Materials: Fatigue and Fracture (Fourth Volume)

W. W. Stinchcomb and N. E. Ashbaugh, Eds. - 1993

STP 1174 : High Temperature and Environmental Effects on Polymeric Composites

C. E. Harris and T. S. Gates, Eds. - 1993

STP 1203 : Fractography of Modern Engineering Materials: Metals and

Composites, Second Volume

J. E. Masters and L. N. Gilbertson, Eds. - 1993

STP 1206 : Composite Materials: Testing and Design (Eleventh Volume)

E. T. Camponeschi, Ed. - 1993

15
Composite Material :

Characterization and Evaluation

A Survey Of Major Aircraft Manufacturers Indicates that:

Procedures Are Designed to Minimize the Risk of

Spending A Large Amount Of Funds On'Materials

Which Do Not Meet Structural or Processing

Requirements.

Materials Evaluation Conducted in Three Stages:

Material Screening, Material Characterization,

and Development of Design Allowables.

Although The Tests Employed Were Not Identical, The

Properties Measured At Each Level Of Investigation

Were Similar From Company To Company.

Majority Of Tests Focus On Obtaining The Mechanical

Properties Which Are Most Useful To The Designer

And The Structural Analyst But Which May Not Be

Of Great Interest To The Material Scientist.

Three Major Design Factors that Control the Weight of

an Aircraft: Stiffness, Damage Tolerance, and

Stress Concentrations at Cut-Outs and Loaded

Bolt Holes.

16
Composite Material :

Characterization and Evaluation

Screening Evaluation :

First Step In the Material Characterization and

Evaluation Process.

Objective: Determine Material Acceptability for

Aircraft Structural Applications.

Compared Candidate Material To A Baseline Material To

Determine if a More Extensive Evaluation Program is

Warranted.

• 50 to 60 Tests Typically Performed.

17
Composite Material :

Characterization and Evaluation

Screening Evaluation Tests :

A list of test methods commonly employed in screening evaluations is contained

in the following table.

Test Type

0 ° Tension

0 ° Compression

+/- 45 ° Tension

Interlaminar Shear

Laminate

Compression

Open Hole Tension

Open Hole

Compression

Compression after

Impact

Bolt Bearing

Tension

Properties

Measured

Environmental

Condition

Strength, Modulus RTA

Strength, Modulus RTA, ETW

Strength, Modulus CTA, RTA, ETW

Strength RTA

Strength RTA

Strength

Strength

CTA, RTA, ETW

CTA, RTA, ETW

Strength RTA

Strength RTA

Note: CTA indicates -65 ° F/Ambient Moisture Conditions

RTA indicates Room Temperature/Ambient Moisture Conditions

ETW indicates Elevated Temperature/Saturated Moisture Conditions

18
Composite Material :

Characterization and Evaluation

Material Characterization :

Objective: Establish Preliminary Design Properties

for Design and Analysis of Test Components for Design

Trade Studies.

Measure Lamina Properties Required to Support

Laminated Plate Theory and Failure Criteria.

Measure Laminate Properties to Support Analysis and

Design.

• 200 to 250 Tests Typically Performed.

19
Composite Material :

Characterization and Evaluation

20

Materials Characterization Tests :

A list of test methods commonly employed in materials characterization tests is

contained in the following table.

Test Type

0° Tension

90" Tension

0° Compression

90 ° Compression

+/- 45 ° Tension

In-Plane Shear

Interlaminar Shear

Interlaminar Tension

Laminate Compression

Open Hole Tension

Open Hole Tension (Fatigue)

Filled Hole Tension

Open Hole Compression

Filled Hole Compression

Compression after Impact

Bolt Bearing Tension

Mode I Delamination Resistance

Mode II Delamination Resistance

Note:

Properties Measured

Environmental

Condition

Strength, Modulus, Poisson's

Ratio

CTA, RTA, ETW

Strength, Modulus, Poisson's CTA, RTA, ETW

Ratio

Strength, Modulus CTA, RTA, ETW

Strength, Modulus CTA, RTA, ETW

Modulus CTA, RTA, ETW

Strength RTA

Strength RTA

Strength RTA

Strength, Modulus CTA, RTA, ETW

Strength CTA, RTA, ETW

S - N Data RTA

Strength RTA

Strength CTA, RTA, ETW

Strength RTA

Strength RTA

Strength RTA

GIC RTA

GIIC RTA

Bold Type indicates tests performed in Screening Evaluation

CTA indicates -65 o F/Ambient Moisture Conditions

RTA indicates Room Temperature/Ambient Moisture Conditions

ETW indicates Elevated Temperature/Saturated Moisture Conditions
Composite Material :

Characterization and Evaluation

Development Of Design Allowables :

Objective: Develop Complete Database for Final

Design and Certification.

Same Types of Tests Used in Materials Screening and

Characterization Evaluations.

Test Matrix Expanded to Include Additional Laminate

Configurations, Alternate Specimen Geometries (e.g.

Width/Diam. Ratios), Additional Environmental

Conditions, More Replicate Tests on Samples taken from

Several Batches of Material.

Could Total Thousands of Tests Depending on

Certification Requirements.

21
Composite Material :

Characterization and Evaluation

Tests Applied to Laminated Tape Composites :

TEST TYPE

• TENSION:

Unnotched

Notched

• COMPRESSION:

Unnotched

Notched

• COMPRESSION

AFTER IMPACT

• BOLT BEARING

• INTERLAMINAR TENSION

• INTERLAMINAR SHEAR

• MODE I DELAMINATION

• MODE II DELAMINATION

TE_;T METHOD

ASTM D3039, D3518

MISC. COMPANY METHODS

SACMA SRM 5

NASA 1142- B9

ASTM 3410

SACMA SRM1

NASA SHORT BLOCK

MISC. COMPANY METHODS

SACMA SRM 3

NASA 1092 ST-4

MISC. COMPANY METHODS

SACMA SRM 2

NASA 1142 Bll

MISC. COMPANY METHODS

FLATWlSE TENSION

CURVED BEAM

ASTM D2344

DOUBLE CANTILEVER BEAM

END NOTCHED FLEXURE

Note: SACMA Indicates Test Methods Developed by the Suppliers of Advanced Composite

Materials Association

22
Composite Material :

Characterization and Evaluation

Physical Properties Measured :

Prepreg Tape:

Resin Content

Fiber Content

Volatile Content

Cured Laminates:

Resin Content

Fiber Content

Void Content

Density/Specific Gravity

Glass Transition Temperature (Dry and Wet)

Equilibrium Moisture Content

Thermal Conductivity

Heat Capacity

Coefs. of Thermal Expansion

Thermal Oxidative Stability

23
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Program Objective:

As indicated below, the objective of this on-going effort, simply stated, is to

develop a set of test methods and guidelines to be used to measure the mechanical and

physical properties of composite materials reinforced with fibrous textile preforms.

Investigations conducted to date have indicated that existing methods, which were

developed largely to evaluate laminated tape type composites, may not adequately

address the subtleties of these new material forms.

Develop And Verify Recommended Mechanical

Test Procedures And Instrumentation

Techniques For Textile Composites

24
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Statement of Problem :

The problem to be addressed is summarized in the two bullet statements given

below. Simply stated, the test methods listed in the previous figures were developed to

evaluate composite materials formed by laminating layers of pre-impregnated fiberreinforced tape. The microstructure of these laminated composite materials differs

significantly from the braided, woven, and stitched materials to be evaluated in this

program. The fiber architecture will play a prime roll in determining the mechanical

response of these textile composite materials. Will existing methods and practices

accurately reflect the material response of these materials?

TEST METHODS DEVELOPED FOR

LAMINATED TAPE COMPOSITES

),. TEXTILE ARCHITECTURE CONTROLS

MATERIAL R ESPONSE

25
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Textile Composites Testing Issues :

It is not difficult to identify a number of specific testing issues relative to textile

composites. Several of these concerns, which are applicable to virtually all of the test

methods listed on the previous page, are listed below.

The f'trst two reflect the unique size effects these materials may present. A unit

cell is defined as the smallest unit of repeated fiber architecture. It may be considered the

building block of the material. The size of the unit cell is dependent on a number of

factors including the size of the yarns, the angle at which they are intertwined or

interwoven, and the intricacy of the braid or weave pattern. A representative volume of

material must be tested and monitored to accurately reflect true material response.

Specimen geometry and strain gage sizes must be reexamined in terms of unit cell size.

The effect of the sizes of the yarn bundles must also be considered since they may also

affect the performance and the measurements. This is expressed in the third statement.

The final three items on the list reflect concerns over specimen geometry. Test

specimen dimensions established for tape type composites may not be applicable to

textile composites. The degree of heterogeneity present in the latter materials is quite

different than that encountered in the former. The potential effects of these differences

must be also quantified.

A limited amount of relevant data has been developed for 2-D triaxially braided

textile composites. These results will be reviewed in the following section. They include

Moire interferometry and strength and modulus measurements.

EFFECT OF UNIT CELL SIZE ON

MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE

EFFECT OF UNIT CELL SIZE ON STRAIN

GAGE AND DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENTS

EFFECT OF TOW SIZE AND FIBER ARCHITECTURE

ON MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE

EFFECT OF FINITE WIDTH ON UNNOTCHED AND

OPEN-HOLE SPECIMENS

EFFECT OF EDGE CONDITIONS ON MECHANICAL

PERFORMANCE

EFFECT OF TEXTILE THICKNESS ON MECHANICAL

PERFORMANCE

26
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Program Approach :

A straightforward approach has been adopted to meet the objective outlined in the

previous figure. An extensive test program will be conducted to gather data addressing

the concerns listed earlier. The program, which will include a wide variety of woven,

braided, and stitched preform architectures, will consider several loading conditions.

The general approach is outlined below. Details of material tested and test

methods are supplied in the following pages.

• IDENTIFY AND/OR DESIGN AND DEVELOP SPECIMEN

CONFIGURATIONS AND TEXT FIXTURES

CONDUCT MECHANICAL TEST PROGRAM

• Variety of Test Methods

• Variety of Instrumentation Techniques

• Full Field Strain Measurements

• Analytical Support

• IDENTIFY SMALLEST LEVEL OF HOMOGENEITY

• IDENTIFY APPROPRIATE TEST METHODS AND

INSTRUMENTATION GUIDELINES

27
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Description of Material Tested :

Preforms and Textile Parameters Studied

Fifteen woven, braided, and stitched preforms will be evaluated in the program.

The preform types are listed below in the table; the number of each type to be tested is

indicated in parentheses. The table also lists the braid parameter that will be varied for

each preform type. The list of materials reflects the material forms that are being

evaluated by the aircraft manufacturers in the ACT program.

TEXTILE PREFORM TYPES "

2-D TRIAXIAL BRAIDS - (4)

• Tow Size

• % Longitudinal Tows

• Braid Angle

3-D INTERLOCK WEAVE - (6)

• Weave Type - (3)

• Warp, Weft, and Weaver Tow Size

STITCHED UNIWEAVE - (5)

• Stitch Material

• Stitch Spacing

• Stitch Yarn Size

MATERIALS :

FIBER: HERCULES AS4

RESIN: SHELL 1895

28
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Description of Material Tested :

Triaxial Braid Pattern

The specimens studied in this investigation featured 2-D triaxially braided AS4

graphite fiber preforms impregnated with Shell 1895 epoxy resin. In a triaxially braided

preform three yarns are intertwined to form a single layer of 0"/+ O" material. In this

case, the braided yams are intertwined in a 2 x 2 pattem. Each + O yam crosses

alternatively over and under two - O yams and vice versa. The 0" yams were inserted

between the braided yams. This yields a two dimensional material. The figure below

schematically illustrates the fiber architecture and establishes the nomenclature used in

the paper.

The yarns were braided over a cylindrical mandrel to a nominal thickness of 0.125

in. The desired preform thickness was achieved by overbraiding layers; there are no

through-the-thickness fibers. After braiding, the preforms were removed from the

mandrel, slit along the 0 ° fiber direction, flattened, and border stitched to minimize fiber

shifting. The resin was introduced via a resin transfer molding process.

Axial

loading

direction

A Braid

Transverse angle

Axial -_--loading

yarns direction

29
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Triaxial Braid Configurations Tested :

Three preform parameters, braid angle, yarn size, and 0 ° yarn content, were varied

in this study. The last parameter listed is typically expressed as a percentage of 0 ° yarns.

It is the volumetric proportion of longitudinal yarns to total yarn content and is a function

of braid angle and yarn size. Yarn size is expressed in terms of the number of filaments

per yam. The AS4 fibers used in these materials have a nominal diameter of 7 microns.

The longitudinal yarns were larger than the braided yarns in all cases. The B1 and B2

architectures had the same yarn sizes; they differed in braid angle and 0 ° yarn content.

The preform parameters are listed in the table.

The fabrics were formed with a 144 carrier New England Butt triaxial braider,

incorporating 72 longitudinal yarns. The mandrel diameters varied for each architecture.

Since the number of carriers was constant, this had the effect of changing the yarn

spacing. These parameters are also listed in the table.

MATERIAL

A1

B1

B2

Note:

BRAID BRAIDER 0 ° YARN 0 ° YARN 0 ° YARN

PATTERN YARN SIZE CONTENT SPACING

SIZE (%) (Yarn/In.)

0/+ 63 ° 12K 24K 31.5 4.17

0__66.5 ° 6K 18K 37.6 4.77

0/+70 ° 6K 18K 34.0 4.37

K indicates thousands. For the AS-4 yarns, each filament is 7

microns in diameter

BRAID

YARN

SPACING

(Yarn/In.)

9.16

11.98

12.74

3O
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Unit Cell Definition :

A convenient way to describe textile preforms is to identify a unit cell of material

- a repeatable unit of fabric geometry. The unit cell represents the complete yarn

intertwinement pattern. The unit cell approach has become the foundation of textile

analysis and serves as a convenient framework in which to interpret experimental data.

The rhombic frame show in the figure defines a unit cell for the 2-D triaxially

braided material studied in this program. For computational purposes, it is desirable to

define the smallest unit cell possible. In some analyses, rectangular unit ceils are also

required. The rectangular section shown in the figure represents the smallest unit cell

identified.

The table shown below contains the dimensions of the unit cells for the three

architectures tested. The unit cell width is dependent on the mandrel diameter and the

number of yarns braided. The height of the unit cell is dependent on the cell width and

the braid angle. Even though a conservative definition of the unit cell was applied in this

case, the data in the table indicate that the unit cells can be quite large compared to

typical specimen and strain gage dimensions.

lllm

UNIT CELL DIMENSIONS

MATERIAL

A1

B1

B2

WIDTH (in.)

0.48

0.42

0.46

HEIGHT (in.)

0.12

0.09

0.08

31
MOIRI_ INTERFEROMETRY

Axial Load - Vertical DisplacementField

As indicatedearlier,Moir_ interferometrywasusedto definethefull field strain

distributionin thesebraidedspecimens.Thetechniquedefinesdeformationpatterns in

both the vertical and horizontal directions. The technique was applied to specimens

subjected to longitudinal and transverse loading. These results are shown in this and the'

following figures.

The figure below illustrates the specimen geometry and highlights the section

studied. The vertical displacement field that resulted when a specimen was loaded to

1200 micro-su'ain along the 0" fiber direction is also shown in the figure.

The vertical displacement fields (V fields) consist of basically horizontal fringes;

this indicates specimen extension where points along one fringe have been displaced

vertically with respect to points along a neighboring fringe. For a uniform extension the

fringes should be evenly spaced and straight. The fringes for the specimens tested,

however, are wavy and the spacing between them varies. The variation is cyclic and

coincides with the repeated unit of the textile architecture.

,,,,9__ 1.50 in.

©

 iiiiiiiii

lii:_:!:!:i:?i:i:':!:!:_:i:i::.:i:i:!'i:i:_:i:i:i:ii!:_:-: ii i iiii i i ii!i!l i:i:i:i:!:i:_:_:i:!:_:i:i:i:i:i$_:i:_:_:'_.::i:_:i:_$_

N

O Fiber Direction

-_1.50 in.

Vertical Displacement Field

©

32
MOIRI_ INTERFEROMETRY

Axial Load - Horizontal Displacement Field

The horizontal displacement patterns (U fields) consist of zigzag vertical

fringes that display the Poisson's effect. For uniform contraction the fringes should be

straight and the spacing constant. The fringes however display a variation which is

cyclic, and matches that Of the braid geometry. The sharp kinks in the U field fringes

reveal the presence of shear strains between the fiber bundles.

-.-,_-_ 1.50 in.

0

Horizontal Displacement Field

t O° Fiber

Direction

0

33
ENLARGED VIEW OF TWO UNIT CELLS OF SPECIMEN

(Axial Loading)

The figure shows the V and U fields of a highly magnified region of specimen

that consists of two unit cells. The boundaries between adjacent fiber bundles and the

outline of the cells are marked. It was revealed that the shear deformation at interfaces

between the fiber bundles occurred over a finite width. This width is illustrated in the

patterns as the distance between the closely spaced lines. This is consistent with the

presence of the resin rich areas between the fiber bundles, which was on the order of one

Fifth of the width of the fiber bundle itself. The U field shows that the shear strain 7xy in

the resin rich zones was on the order of 0.5 times that of the average applied normal strain

ey. Additionally, the U field shows that the Poisson effect was nearly" constant across the

unit cell. The V displacement pattern clearly shows that the strain Ey varies significantly

within each unit cell as can be seen by the nonuniform fringe spacing. The ratio of

maximum strain ey to minimum strain was about 2 to 1. The normal strain varies on top

of the fiber bundles and is nearIy constant throughout all of the resin rich zones.

Vertical Displacement Field

Horizontal Displacement Field
SPECIMEN SECTION COINCIDING WITH

MOIRE FRINGE PATI'ERNS

(TransverseLoading)

Interferomet:-ywasalsoperformedonspecimensloadedin theu-ansvers¢

direction(i.e. at 90"to the axial direction). This fi_ure shows the re#on investigated in

these specimens. The pattern of the surface braided yarns is shown schematically in the

figure. The deformation fields that developed in these coupons are shown in the next two

figures.

0 ° Fiber

Direction

©

©

35
.MOIRI_ INTERFEROMETRY

Transverse Load - Vertical Displacement Field

In general, the inte,_erometry results indicate that greater variations in normal and

shear strains existed in specimens loaded in the transverse direction than in the axial

direction.

This figure displays the vertical displacement field for a coupon loaded in the

transverse direction. The location of the yarns is evident in the vertical displacement

fringe patterns, where sudden jogs in the fringes represent strong shear strains in the resin

rich regions between the yarns. From the V displacement pattern, the spacing of the

fringes in the vertical direction displays a cyclic variation. The strains are highest over

the region where there are 90 ° fibers under the braider yarns. They are lowest over the

regions where the braider yarns cross. The difference between the average strains in

these areas is on the order of 3 times.

Unlike the axial loading case, the cyclic variation is not confined to the

dimensions of the unit ceil. The variation breaches the unk cell to form a global material

response that covers the entire specimen. This is illustrated by the horizontal bands seen

in the figure. They span several unit cells and extend across the specimen width.

0° Fiber

Direction

Vertical Displacement Field

36
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Effect of Strain Gage Size on Modulus :

The inhomogeneity in the strain fields demonstrated in the Moire interferometric

results discussed in the previous slides has significant implications with regard to

specimen instrumentation. The large strain gradients seen within the unit cell graphically

illustrate the need to measure strain over a truly representative volume of material to get

an accurate determination of the global material response. Local strain readings can be

misleading and confusing.

The data shown in the figure below demonstrate these points. The figure plots the

measured transverse modulus of several B 1 laminates vs. the size of the gages used to

measure the strain. The gages ranged in length from 0.062 in. to 1.0 in.; the preform's

unit cell measures 0.42 in. in this direction. The average modulus and the standard

deviation of the data are shown in the figure. As the figure indicates, significant scatter

was evident in the results obtained using the small gages. These effects are reduced as

the length of the gage increased. The results also indicate that average value also

decreased as strain gage size increased.

The results illustrate the need to consider the textile architecture when choosing

instrumentation for a specimen.

10.00

8.00

03

6.00

03

-- 4.00

O

2.00

0.00

Transverse Modulus vs Strain Gage Size

a ! I l I . . . . | s • . . | . . . • I . . . .

• ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I " ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I '

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25

STRAIN GAGE SIZE (in.)

37
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Effect of Strain Gage Size on Modulus :

The figure shown below presents results of a second evaluation of the effect of

strain gage size on modulus measurements. The figure plots the coefficient of variation

in the computed modulus measurements versus strain gage size (normalized to the

dimension of the unit cell in the direction of loading). Six strain gage types were

examined in these measurements. Their dimensions are indicated in the legend in the

figure. A line indicating the point where the strain gage length equals the unit cell

dimension has been added to the figure to aid in interpreting the data. Similarly, a line

marking the point where the coefficient of variation equals 5% has also been added to the

figure.

The figure again illustrates the need to consider the textile architecture when

choosing instrumentation for a specimen.

Effect of Strain Gage Length on Modulus Measurements

(2-D Triaxial Braided Laminates)

25.00

A

20.oo v

=_

ca 15.00

>

O

e- 10.00 _Q

_o

we_

o

o

0 5.00

i • • = . d t • • • I • •

Gage Length -

Unit Cell Height

[3

0.00

• • I • • , • Gage: 12S BZ (.125 x.062)

[] Gage: 125 AD (.125 x .125)

• Gage: 250 UN (.250 x .1?-0)

• Gage: 250 AE (.250 x .2S0)

• Gage: S00 UW (.500 x .180)

O Gage: 500 AE (.S00 x .S00)

Coefficient of Variation = 5 %

0

100 200 300 400 500 600

Ratio of Gage Length to Unit Cell Length (%)

70o

38
MATERIAL ARCHITECTURE AND

TEST COUPON GEOMETRY

The preform architecture must also be considered when designing test specimens.

The figure below contains a photograph of a tensile test coupon. The specimen, which is

typical of those commonly used in screening and evaluation test programs, is 1.5 in. wide

and 10 in. long. Superposed on the photograph are the B2 architecmrc's unit cell

dimensions. As the figure illustrates, when oriented in this direction, the specimen is

only three unit cells wide. This again raises the question of whether a representative

volume of material is being sampled in the test.

Specimen width and thickness must be considered when designing, test specimens

to attain true measures of modulus and strength. Unfortunately, design criteria have not

yet been established for these materials.

UNIT CEI.

1.50 in.

-- 0.46 in.

0.08 in.

39
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Effect of Specimen Width on Strength :

A series of longitudinal tensile tests were conducted to judge cursorily the effect

of specimen width on strength of the B2 type 2-D triaxially braided laminates defined in

an earlier figure. In these tests specimen width was varied from 1.0 in. (2 unit cells wide)

to 4.0 in. (8 unit cells wide).

The results of these tests are shown in the figure below. The data, which have

been normalized to 55% fiber volume to simplify the comparison, indicate that specimen

width had no apparent effect on the test results for this architecture. The average

strengths and the standard deviations of the results (indicated by the bars in the figure)

were comparable for each group of tests (note: the 4.0 in. data represents the average of

two tests; the standard deviation was not computed).

A larger, more complete, examination of the interaction of textile architecture and

test laminate geometry is underway as a part of an effort to develop test methods for

textile composites. This effort will be outlined in the following pages.

Z

I--

Z

iii

I-

¢/1

80.0 -

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

SPECIMEN WIDTH (in.)

4O
Development of Test Methods for

Textile Composites

Summary Investigation of 2-D Braids:

A brief summary of the technical results reviewed in the presentation is given

below. The experimental investigation conducted on 2-D braided materials indicated that

significant strain gradients existed within the materials unit cell as a result of the braid

architecture. This inhomogeneity in the strain field is an important factor that must be

considered when choosing instrumentation for a test specimen. Although the 2-D braided

laminates tested did not demonstrate a width effect, the size of the unit cell must also be

considered when designing a test specimen.

Finally, the concerns discussed above and others listed in an earlier figure will be

addressed in an on-going test method development effort.

MOIRI_ INTERFEROMETRY IDENTIFIED LARGE STRAIN

GRADIENTS WITHIN THE UNIT CELL

INHOMOGENEITY IN STRAIN FIELD EFFECTS

INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT CELL SIZE MAY AFFECT TEST RESULTS

ON-GOING INVESTIGATION TO DEFINE TEXTILE TEST METHODS

UNDERWAY

41

N94- 36400

/"

"_ r'/ /- f

CONTINUOUS UNIDIRECTIONAL FIBER REINFORCED

COMPOSITES: FABRICATION AND TESTING

M. D. Weber

Pennsylvania State University

9 Simmons Hall

University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

Telephone 814-862-4314

and

F. X. Spiegel

Loyola College

Baltimore, Maryland

and

Harvey A. West

North Carolina State Unive/'sity

Box 7907

Riddick Hall Room 229

Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7907

Telephone 919-515-3568

43

CONTINUOUS UNIDIRECTIONAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES:

FABRICATION AND TESTING *

M.D. Weber, F.X. Spiegel, H.A. West **

Loyola College, Baltimore, Maryland

**North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC

*Hauber Fellowship Funded

ABSTRACT: The study of the anisotropic mechanical

properties of an inexpensively fabricated composite with

continuous unidirectional fibers and a clear matrix was

investigated. A method has been developed to fabricate these

composites with aluminum fibers and a polymer matrix. These

composites clearly demonstrate the properties of unidirectional

composites and cost less than five dollars each to fabricate.

KEY WORDS: anisotropy, composite, fibers, matrix,

reinforcement, strain, stress.

INTRODUCTION: A process was developed to make fiber

composites with continuous fibers spanning the composite and

aligned in one direction (Fig. i). H.A. West and A.F. Sprecher

have been studying the mechanical properties of this type of

composite with samples of rubber reinforced with nylon cord. I

These samples, however, are not readily available and require a

hot press for consolidation and curing. It would be desirable to

develop a system which sufficiently demonstrates the effect of

fiber orientation, yet is easily fabricated from available

materials. In addition to studying the parameters of this type

of composite, a clear matrix was desired in order to view the

fibers.

While developing this process to demonstrate anisotropic

mechanical properties, it was very important to limit costs and

to develop educational opportunities for composites in the

laboratory and classroom. Composites are widely used in our

society today; fiberglass, plywood, and concrete are just a few

examples. 2

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The previous .or concurrent study of

composites, specifically continuous unidirectional composites,

and their mechanical properties would be beneficial. The effect

of fiber orientation on elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio, and

state of strain can be investigated.

OBJECTIVE: An inexpensive fabrication process was developed

for continuous unidirectional fiber reinforced composites with

clear matrices in order to study material properties such as

elastic anisotropy.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: (I) Six 3" x 5 1/8" pieces of

aluminum screening; (2) Utility knife; (3) Cutting board;

(4) transparent or masking tape; (5) Manicure scissors or small

wire cutters; (6) Three 200 mL plastic containers; (7) Plastic

container i" x 3" x 5" ; (8) Ferris see thru; (9) Por-a-mold;

P-AGE BLAJ',IK NOT FILIMED

45
(i0) Release agent (Synair 1711); (ii) Vacuum pump; (12) Oven

(350 F); (13) Ferris jig (see Fig.3); (14) Two 4" x 6" x 1/8"

glass plates; (15) Two clamps; (16) Isopropyl rubbing alcohol to

clean containers.

PROCEDURE: Composite fabrication began with the preparation

of either plain or anodized aluminum screening, the fibers, which

were then set up for the matrix addition of either Por-a-mold or

Ferris see thru. After the composite cured completely, its

mechanical properties were tested.

Fibers

After cutting the screening with the fibers at the desired

angle and affixing a 1/2" border of tape to all sides (to hold

the screen together), a utility knife and a pair of manicuring

scissors were used to cut out the unwanted fibers. By cutting

the columns between every two desired fibers, the unwanted fibers

slip away and leave the desired fibers intact (Fig. 2).

While preparing several layers, usually three or five, it

was beneficial to leave three of the unwanted fibers intact near

the center (support wires) and place the layer under a book while

working on the others. Finally, the tape and support wires were

removed; the preparation time ranged from 20-60 minutes per

layer.

Matrix: Por-A-Mold

In the plastic container sprayed with the release agent,

three layers of identical fibers were stacked flat. Then, the

por-a-mold matrix was prepared by:

(I) stirring the curative thoroughly and measuring 75 mL in

a plastic container

(2) stirring the prepolymer thoroughly and measuring 75 mL

in a plastic container

(3) noting the time when adding the curative to the

prepolymer (9-12 minutes working time)

(4) mixing it to a clear consistency (< 2 minutes)

(5) vacuuming it for 4 minutes

(6) pouring it evenly over the fibers

(7) spraying the release agent on the surface to remove

additional air bubbles.

Finally, after allowing the matrix to cure at room

temperature for 16 to 24 hours, 3 the composite was removed from

the container and trimmed for testing.

Ferris See Thru

When a matrix of Ferris see thru was desired, three or five

identical layers of fibers were fit into the grooves of the

ferris jig before clamping a glass plate to each side (Fig. 3).

Then, a small amount of the white ferris see thru liquid was

46
dripped along the edges between the glass and jig to be heat

cured at 350 degrees Fahrenheit until it turned clear (5-10

minutes). After a good seal was made, 175 mL of the ferris see

thru was poured into the jig and vacuumed for five minutes. The

Ferris see thru was then heat cured at 350 degrees Fahrenheit.

After 50-60 minutes, the matrix became a clear solid with a

slight medium yellow tint. The new composite was removed from

the jig after it cooled.

Testing

Several composites were made using the two matrices, two

types of fiber, and angles of 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90

degrees. Also, a few support wires were left in many of the

first composites. Before testing, the supporting border of

fibers was trimmed off to yield the continuous unidirectional

fiber reinforced composite.

One purpose of combining two (or more) distinct materials to

create a composite was clearly demonstrated by the first two

samples tested under tension. A sample of solid por-a-mold

elongated 7.5 inches with only 0.19 inches of plastic deformation

and broke under merely 9.5 pounds. However, the por-a-mold and

anodized A1 fiber composite maintained its length up to 50 pounds

and did not break under ii0 pounds.

The most interesting tests depict elastic anisotropy. After

a 90 degree angle is marked in the center of the sample, it is

placed under tension while recording any angle change and the

tension (Fig.4). The original 90 degree angle may or may not

change, depending on the fiber orientation.

SAMPLE DATA: For a composite of pot-a-mold and three layers

of anodized AI:

30 degree fibers @ 40 ibs. 90 degrees became 97

45 degree fibers 40 ibs. 90 degrees stayed 90

INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES: These composites can be used to

demonstrate and study the Rule of Mixtures and Poisson's ratio 4

in addition to calculating percent fiber content by volume and

observing deviations due to slight alterations. For example, if

a 90 degree fiber composite is trimmed to leave only a few

unwanted (0 degree) fibers along the length of one edge, it will

torque under tension. However, once the 0 degree fibers are

removed, it does not torque. At high forces, slippage and fiber

pullout may occur. Also, the kinks in the fibers from being

woven might want to be considered.

REFERENCES:

(I) West, H.A.; and Sprecher, A.F.: "Fiber Reinforced

Composite Materials," National Educators Workshop:

Update '90, NIST Special Publication 822, 1991.

(2) Askeland, Donald R.: The Science and Enqineerinq of

Materials, PWS-Kent,Boston, 1970.

47
(3) Product Bulletin Number CC-91-02, "Basic Techniques For

Using Por-A-Mold, Clear-Cut," Synair Corporation.

(4) Agarwal, Bhagwan D.; and Broutman, Lawrence J.: Analysis

and Performance of Fiber Composites, Second ed.,

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1990.

SOURCES of SUPPLY: While the aluminum screening can be

easily purchased at a hardware store (less than $0.15 sq. ft.),

the Ferris see thru can be obtained through a jewelry dealer

(approximately $55 per gallon). Unfortunately, por-a-mold is no

longer on the market.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: We would like to thank Mr. Howard Moore,

Technical Assistant, Physics department, Loyola C611ege, for

machining the ferris jig and allowing us the use of his tools.

Also, we appreciate the interest and input of Jon Thompson,

Technical Assistant, Engineering department, Loyola College, and

many others at Loyola College and North Carolina State Univesity.

48
fiber

matrix

-0------ 30 °

Figure I. Continuous unidirectional fiber-reinforced composite

{ tape : :

i  ̧i i !_._,._

---7/

m _

u F)_brt _ _r_s

m

Figure 2. Fiber preparation of AI screening

49
.8

groo_o

n p_

II fl

H t_

IJ 11

II LI

@

//

Figure 3. The Ferris Jig

-J.1" /1

[//.i.1/../" A

• /_I

A

A

J'l

_-/l

J-I

Draw a 90" angle.

t

/1

..."1

..,-1

A

...-'1

A

..-'1

Jq

/I

/I

A

A

A

4

The angle may change.

Figure 4. Composite under uniaxial tension

5O
N94- 36401

"7 (

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A

TENSILE TESTER FOR THE TESTING OF

SIMPLE COMPOSITES

Mark A. Borst

and

F. Xavier Spiegel

Loyola College

4501 N. Charles Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21210-2699

Telephone 410-617-5123 or 410-617-2515

51

Foreword

Materials testing has been an important part of engineering in America for over one

hundred years. In 1832, the Franklin Institute began a systematic investigation into the cause of

steam boiler explosions. This study was broken down into two parts. The first part was

concerned with the operation of the boilers. The second part of the study, however, was

concerned with the material used to construct the boilers. At the time, manufacturers of iron

knew that their product was strong, but had no idea of how strong it was. The manufacture of

iron was guided by rule of thumb and virtually nothing was measured. This ignorance

concerning the production of iron did not have tremendous consequences until the arrival of the

steam engine. Boilers proved the inadequacy of some irons by exploding violently. As a result,

a method for testing materials was developed and initially executed by Walter R. Johnson,

Professor of Mechanics and Natural Philosophy at The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. This

marked the first time that quantitative data on "proving tenacity" was gathered in America. ]

Materials testing has grown considerably since Johnson's work and is now a major part of

engineering. The material strength requirements for a steam engine pale in comparison to the

requirements tbr the machines of today. From high speed electronic switches to space flight, the

"boiler explosions" of today are much more costly, both in money and potential loss of life, than

they were in Johnson's day. The explosion of the space shuttle Challenger is an example of the

potential hazards waiting to happen. A single O-ring, cooled below an acceptable temperature,

caused the loss of seven lives and billions of dollars. As a result, the strength and characteristics

of a material must be fully understood before that material may be used in the manufacture of a

product.

PAGE BLANK NOT FIL_:I_D

53
The following is a design for a tensile tester which will be used to test the tensile strength

and anisotropic properties of simple composites. These simple composites are suspected to be

anisotropic primarily in a single plane. When the composites undergo a tensile force, they wil'l

undergo deformation, causing movement either to the left or right. The composites are suspect

due to their method of construction.

fibers embedded in a rubbery resin.

Each sample has a single layer of unidirectional continuous

It has been well established that a serious limitation of

unidirectional fiber composites is the very large in-plane anisotropy. 2

The design presented here incorporates a single degree of freedom such that distortion (to

the left or right) due to anisotropic tendencies may be measured. The device will spend the vast

majority of its time in an undergraduate materials lab. As a result, ease of use and durability are

valued more highly than research grade accuracy. Additional concerns focus on the fact that this

machine will be built as a student project.

Issues which are dealt with during this design include:

.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Specimen configuration or shape.

Method of applying consistent, linear tension force.

Method of gripping specimen without affecting its overall properties.

Method of collecting data.

Repeatability of data.

Ease of use.

Ease of construction.

Cost.

After the device has been constructed, it will be used to test the simple composites which

were fabricated in house. A comparison will be made between composites manufactured using

aluminum screening as the strengthening fibers and those manufactured using fiberglass

screening.

54
Design

Application of Force

The first matter which will be taken up is the application of force. A device is needed

which can provide a consistent, linearly applied force, but still allow for lateral movement of the

sample so that anisotropic properties as well as the modulus of elasticity and yield strength may

be observed and measured. In addition, the machine must provide for an easy method by which

several characteristics can be measured. These characteristics include:

1. Elongation

2. Lateral displacement as a result of anisotropic behavior.

3. Force applied.

A hand operated screw mechanism was chosen for the application of force. This

provides a simple means of applying tbrce in a single direction. In addition, the amount of force

applied may be increased in a linear fashion with infinitesimal changes. The screw chosen was

an Acme® threaded screw, one inch in diameter with a pitch often threads per inch. The

Acme® thread is a square cut thread and is designed to support large amounts of force. This

thread is commonly used in such high pressure applications as vices and large clamps. For each

rotation of the screw, the sample will be elongated by one tenth of an inch. This provides a

convenient point at which to take a reading of the force. As a result, measurements of force are

taken every one tenth of an inch and the number of readings taken prove an accurate guide for

the total elongation.

The screw is operated by means of a large hand wheel. The large wheel will provide

leverage so that an adequate amount of torque may be easily applied to the screw which in turn

will impart a large tensile force to the specimen which may be easily controlled by the operator.

55
In addition to being able to impart a tensile force to the sample, the screw must be able to

support itself. This was accomplished by using a twenty inch long section of screw and turning

down a one inch section on each end to 0.627" so that it would fit into two, flanged bushings.

Figure 1 shows the hand wheel. Tensile force will be applied when the knob is turned

clockwise. Most people associate a clockwise rotation of threaded objects with an application of

force and hence operation of the wheel will be of second nature. The Acme® threaded rod

appears in figure 2. Figure 3 shows the assembled screw mechanism. The screw and hand

wheel are attached by means of a roll pin. A hole was drilled through the hand wheel and rod

and the pin was then inserted.

Support and Load l'rans[er

Next to be considered is the frame of the machine. This is an important part since the

frame not only supports the machine but facilitates the transfer of the load from the screw

mechanism to the sample. In addition, it allows for lateral movement of the sample during

testing. The frame is also the heart of the information gathering process. A load cell is mounted

on the frame to allow for the measurement of the force being applied to the sample. The output

from the load cell is read from a Fluke digital multimeter in milli-volts. Through information

provided by the manufacturer as well as use of a standard, the relationship between the load

cell's output in milli-volts to the actual pounds of force delivered was determined.

The support part of the frame was constructed from 1"x3" sections of maple (Note:

These are mill dimensions ). Maple was chosen because of its high strength and its beauty. The

drive beam was constructed from oak. Maple would have been preferred, but a large enough

piece was not available. The properties of these two woods appear in table 1 (all figures

56
referto forcesappliedparallelto thegrain). Poplaris includedin thetablesinceit is of

sufficientstrengthto use in the construction of the frame and drive beam. In addition, relatively

large poplar beams (4"x4") are readily available and poplar is less expensive than maple or oak.

Unfortunately, poplar has a yellowish green tint that renders it much less pleasing to the eye than

either oak or maple. One should never neglect the aesthetics of a design.

Wood Specific Modulus of Modulus of Compressive

Gravity Elasticity Rupture Strength

[Ib/in 2 x 10 3] [Ib/in 2] [lb/in2l

Maple, sugar 0.676 1,830 15,500 7,800

Oak, white 0.710 1,770 15,100 7,440

Poplar, yellow 0.427 1,500 9,200 5,540

Table 1: Properties of selected hard woods. 3

The frame was constructed by using carpenter's glue to laminate five pieces of maple

together to form four beams. The sections were offset such that finger joints were formed at the

comers. These beams were clamped tightly and the glue was allowed to dry. After the glue had

dried, holes were drilled as required using a drill press and the appropriate bits. Figure 4 shows

the construction of the support beams. The drive beam appears in figure 5. All parts must be

assembled within the frame before any final gluing can take place. This includes two steel rods,

as well as the drive beam itself and the Acme® rod with hand wheel in place. Once assembled,

the frame was measured to check for squareness. It was racked into shape by use of large wood

working clamps which mount on standard one inch diameter black pipe. Once the frame was

squared, four 1/2" holes were drilled at each corner and four 1/2" hardwood dowels which had

57
beencoatedwith glueweredrivenin placeusingahammer.Theresultantappearsin figure 6

alongwith thetwo driverods,rail assemblyandmountedloadcell.

Theforcefrom thedrivebeamisdeliveredto thesampleby meansof two, 36" longsteel

rods,1"diameter. These drive rods support a rail and shuttle system which actually allows for the

single degree of freedom. The rods have holes drilled in them such that the rail and shuttle

system may be placed at different heights, thereby allowing for different length samples or grips

(Figure 7).

A section of rail that was used appears in figure 8. The guide rail was commercially

available in 6'-6" lengths. The rails were cut into four, 1'-3" sections and doubled as

reinforcement to prevent any deformation during loading. The rails must remain straight if any

anisotropic behavior is to be observed. If the rails bow, the shuttle system will remain in the

trough of the bow. Figures 9 and 10 show how the rail assembly is constructed.

(]rips and Shuttle system.

The grips were machined from aluminum and are straightforward in design. Each grip

basically consists of a center, mounting plate and two gripping plates. The two gripping plates

are fastened to either side of this center plate by means of four, knurled nuts. These nuts have

four small holes on the knurled surface that allow for the insertion of a taper pin. This provides

additional leverage in tightening the grips. The gripping plates were designed to be the exact

same dimension as the sample to be tested. As a result, the plates alone are unable to grip the

sample. This was done in order to minimize sample deformation from metal to composite

clamping as this might affect the test. A thin sheet of rubber (obtained from the plumbing

58
sectionof a hardware store) was attached to the face of the gripping plates using Duro® contact

cement. This allowed the clamping surface to conform somewhat to the sample as opposed to

pinching it. To provide additional gripping ability, pieces of 3M's Press'n Sand® "Sticky back"

sanding sheets were cut to size and affixed to the rubber faces. The gripping plates are the same

for the top and bottom (Figure 11). The bottom grip (Figure 12) screws into the load cell

(Figure 13).

The top grip consists of two gripping plates identical to those on the lower grip. These

plates mount on a shuttle system. The shuttle system consists of a center plate and four guide

wheels. The guide wheels were obtained from the same company which supplied the guide rail.

The unassembled shuttle system appears in figure 14.

Some comments concerning the machine's operation might prove helpful in improving on

the design. The grips were insufficient in holding the samples without the sandpaper faces, and

even then loads peaked at a maximum of just over 100 pounds before the samples began to pull

free from the grips. Also, the sandpaper faces slipped during tests and had to be replaced

periodically. A better idea might be to alter the design to accept commercial grips. This may

not alleviate all the problems. It was noticed that when a series of samples 1" wide were tested

(to match the 1" wide samples being run on the Chatillon LDX tensile tester since its grips could

accommodate nothing larger) anisotropic tendencies did not appear consistently. The 2.5" wide

samples, however, displayed excellent anisotropic tendencies. Still, the commercial grips might

be capable of delivering enough of a load to a 1" sample such that its anisotropic characteristics

are revealed.

59
('alibration and Verification of Devices Functioning

The load cell was connected to a Fluke digital multimeter as per manufacturer's

instructions. Using the load celrs specifications sheet, a relationship was determined between

the load cell's output in milli-volts and the corresponding force in pounds. The relationship

between the load cell's output in milli-volts and the tensile force applied was calculated to be:

Lbf= 998.84_ × v Equation 1

Lbf = pounds force

v = volts

The first problem was that of collecting the data. After each full turn of the hand wheel

(equivalent to an elongation of one tenth of an inch) the reading was taken from the multimeter

and written down. In the time taken to write down the data, however, the sample had relaxed

substantially. To prevent this, a small tape recorder was used to record data while the hand

wheel was turned in a slow, constant fashion. This eliminated the problem of relaxation during

data collection. Two people working together, as in an undergraduate lab, could also overcome

the problem with one student turning the hand wheel and calling out the readings while the other

student jots down the data.

The next problem encountered was the inaccuracy of the machine's output. Like samples

of Ferris See-thru® (Neat, 0.3"xl "x5-3/4") were tested on the hand operated device and on a

Chatillon LDX 500 pound capacity tensile tester. The data was offby an amount considered

unacceptable (Figure 15). Two things are readily apparent in viewing figure 15. The first is that

the hand operated device is reading ten pounds high (assuming the just purchased Chatillon was

6O
correct). Thesecondis that the slopes, or moduli of elasticity, are similar. It was suspected that

since the samples were being subjected to less than I00 pounds force, that the 5000 pound

capacity load cell simply was not in its most effective range. A small, 50 pound capacity hand

held spring scale (similar to a "fish scale") was used to check this. First, the scale was checked

for accuracy using the Chatillon. While the scale's readings fluctuated high and low with respect

to the Chatillon's output, a series often trials running from zero to forty-four pounds yielded an

average that was reasonably accurate (Figure 16). The scale was then attached to the hand

operated device. Ten sets of readings were taken ranging from zero to forty-four pounds. The

data was averaged, zeroed and plotted (Figure 17). The relationship between the load cell's

output in milli-volts and pounds force was determined to be:

Lbf = ml-ml'o Equation 2

0.963

Figure 1 8 shows the comparison of the data from figure 15 using Equation 2. The fit is

still not perfect, but it is closer. In addition, the two plots in figure 18 are closer to being parallel

at values above' 3/4 pounds. The modulus of elasticity was determined by determining the slope

of a hand fitted line. The results are as follows:

Chatillon: (2462-0)Lbf_ 12.3 1 /.by

(2-0)inche,_ inch

Hand Operated:

Difference:

(29.69-1f).46)Lbf 8 Lbf (2-os),,,,he._ - 12. 2 5

(1282-1231)

12.31

x 100=4.14%

61
It is suspectedthatthis smallamount of error could be eradicated ifa 500 pound load cell were

used in the construction of the hand operated tensile tester. Unfortunately, none were available

during the course of this project.

Samples

Many samples were tried during the course of working with this device. One inch wide

samples were attractive at first because six were obtained from a single mold. Also, the

Chatillon LDX's grips accepted nothing larger than a 1" sample. Unfortunately, 1" samples were

very difficult to hold, slipping from the grips with as little as 40 pounds force. Also, the narrow

span of fibers made the viewing ofanisotropic properties difficult. Lateral displacement in

samples which were obviously anisotropic was hit and miss. Data obtained from 1" samples

will be ignored for the most part since like samples failed to respond in a consistent fashion.

Finally, 2.5" wide samples were used. The grips had originally been designed to hold

samples of this size. The additional gripping surface proved invaluable, though slippage

remained a problem throughout the tests.

pronounced with the larger span of fibers.

In addition, anisotropic properties were much more

The bulk of data obtained from the 2.5" samples

appears in the following brief discussion of tests.

Tes_

The following is a series of eleven tests which were run on the completed and calibrated

device. The composites which were tested were developed by M. D. Wampler and F. X. Spiegel

of Loyola College, Maryland. 4 The original concept was modified by constructing a divider

62
whichallowedfortwo, 0.Y'x2.5"x5.75"samplesto beconstructedat a time. Aluminumand

fiberglassscreeningwereusedforthe strengtheningfibers. Strandsof screenwereselectively

removedto producecompositeswith continuousunidirectionalfibersat differentanglesto the

horizontal(0°_30°, 45°, 60° and90°). Thebitsof screenwereremovedusingeithera fine pair

of scissorsor a modelingknife. A singlelayerof fiberswasusedfor eachsample.

Sampletestnumbersconsistof thedateandtheorderin whichthetestswereperformed

onthatdate. Thesamplesusedwere0.Y'x2.5"x5.75".Two plotsaccompanyeachtest. The first

plot isof poundsforceversuselongation.Themodulusof elasticitywascalculatedfrom these.

Thesecondplot isof lateraldisplacementversuselongation.Ifa sampleisanisotropic,ashear

strainwill beproducedwhenatensilestressisapplied5 Theshuttlesystemusedin supporting

thetopgrip allowsthis shearstressto beexpressedin movementeitherto theleft or right.

Test#0716931

Test#0716932

Test#0716933

Test#0716934

Test#0716935

Test#0716936

Test#0716937

Test

Test

Test

Test

#0716938

21&22)

- Ferns See-thru® with

- Ferris See-thru® with

- Ferris See-thru® with

- Fen'is See-thru® with

30).

- Ferris See-thru® with

32).

- Fen'is See-thru® with

Ferris See-thru(R) Neat (Figures 19 & 20).

Ferris See-thru® with aluminum fibers at

aluminum fibers at

aluminum fibers at

aluminum fibers at

aluminum fibers at

fiberglass fibers at

fiberglass fibers at

0 ° (horizontal) (Figures

30 ° (Figures 23 & 24).

45 ° (Figures 25 & 26).

60 ° (Figures 27 & 28).

90 ° (vertical) (Figures 29 &

0 ° (horizontal) (Figures 31 &

30 ° (Figures 33 & 34).

#0716939 - Ferris See-thru® with fiberglass fibers at 45 ° (Figures 35 & 36).

#07169310 - Ferris See-thru® with fiberglass fibers at 60 ° (Figures 37 & 38).

#07169311 - Ferris See-thru® with fiberglass fibers at 90 ° (vertical) (Figures 39 &

40)

None of the samples tested were brought to failure. In the force versus elongation plots,

the drop off is due to the sample slipping from the grips. While the force existing as the sample

63
slips from the grips is not important, what is important is the lateral displacement. Figures 26,

28, 30, 34, 36 and 38 clearly show the samples being laterally displaced as tension is applied. As

the samples slipped from the grip, the lateral displacement reversed itself, with the samples

moving back towards their original position. This data was retained since it further

demonstrated the anisotropic properties of these composites.

Results

0716931 - Neat.

Modulus of Elasticity - _4822-2ov_hf (l.6-0.6)inch -- 28.22_

The neat sample showed no surprises. It did not experience any permanent deformation,

returning to its original dimensions after having slipped from the grips. The results appear in

figures 19 and 20.

Alummum

0716932 - AI fibers at 0 ° (Horizontal):

Modulus of Elasticity= _s857-0)Lbf t,_f _16-0)mc_ - 36.60_

The sample experienced some permanent deformation. Its final dimensions were

0.30"x2.42"x5.8". The aluminum wires were protruding from the sides of the sample as a result

of the samples necking while under tension. It is believed that an uneven slippage rate of the

aluminum wires caused the minimal amount of lateral displacement that was witnessed. The

results appear in figures 21 and 22.

64
0716933- AI fibersat 30°:

Modulusof Elasticity= (.6257-(_)Lbf _ 31 29_

(2-())tt_,_'h

The sample experienced some permanent deformation. Its final dimensions were

0.30"x2.48"x5.73". The aluminum wires were protruding from the sides of the sample as a result

of the necking that occurred. In addition, the sample retained the shape of a parallelogram with

an offset angle of 1o. The sample was originally 90 ° at the comer but has deviated to 89 °. The

results appear in figures 23 and 24.

0716934 - AI fibers at 45:

Modulus of Elasticity -

(5943-OILhf _l_-,_,,ch - 37.14_

The sample experienced permanent deformation. Its final dimensions were

0.30"x2.42"x5.80". The aluminum wires were protruding from the sides of the sample due to the

necking which occurred while the sample was under tension. In addition, the sample

overcompensated, returning slightly past its zero lateral displacement and retaining the shape of

a parallelogram with an offset angle of 2.5 ° (87.5 ° at the comer). The results appear in figures

25 and 26.

0716935 - AI fibers at 60°:

Modulus of Elasticity - (4286-0)Lhf _ 57.15 t.bf

((!. 7 5-())mch mch

The sample experienced severe permanent deformation. Its final dimensions were

0.30"x2.40"x60". The aluminum wires were not protruding from the sides of the sample but

there was a substantial amount of pull-out visible through the clear resin. In addition, the sample

severely over compensated. As it slipped from the grips, it moved towards zero lateral

65
displacement. It overshot, however, and came to rest -0.200" away from zero deviation.

offset angle was 11 ° (79 ° at corner). The results appear in figures 27 and 28.

Its

0716936 - AI fibers at 90 ° (Vertical):

Modulus of Elasticity - (94.55--O)Lbf Lbf (02-O)mch -- 472.73

The sample experienced severe permanent deformation. Its final dimensions were

0.30"x2.40"x6.00". The aluminum wires had suffered pull-out and were protruding from the

broad flats of the sample. The lateral movement was caused by slack in the wires. This slack

arose during fiber orientation during flow. 2 When the liquid Ferris See-thru® was poured over

the fibers, they shifted position and took on a bowed shape. As the curve was pulled out of the

bow, the sample shifted laterally. The results appear in figures 29 and 30.

Analysis

In measuring the modulus of elasticity, a line was hand fitted to each plot. An attempt

was made to include only points which were measured before any slippage occurred. The

modulus of elasticity is directly related to the stiffness of a material. 6 A high modulus of

elasticity indicates that a large amount of force is required to elongate a specimen. The results

obtained here showed that the sample with vertical fibers (90 ° ) had the highest modulus of

elasticity. This was expected since the aluminum fibers receive the entire load. It would have

been expected that the composite with horizontal fibers (0 °) would have had the lowest modulus

of elasticity. This was not the case, according to the results. The sample with fibers at 30 ° had

the lowest at 31.29 Lbflinch as compared to 36.60 Lbfmch The validity of this result is in

66
question,butthepercenterrorwhichwascalculatedduringcalibrationdoesnotaccountfor it.

Thetendencyof thesamplesto slip,however,wouldaccountfor it.

The neat sample had the lowest modulus of elasticity of all. This was expected, since the

chore of fibers within a composite is to provide strength while the resin's job is to support and

protect the fibers.

It is suspected that the overcompensation displayed by the 45 ° and 60 ° aluminum was

due to pull-out. Pull-out occurs when the fibers pull loose from the matrix. 2 Since the

aluminum fibers are held in place by mechanical adhesion (mechanical interlocking of two

surfaces) the bond between fiber and matrix is a weak one. 2 The hole left due to the pull-out of a

fiber would neck down under tension, thus increasing the mechanical adhesion of the fiber. As

the tension is released, the fiber does not slide entirely back into the hole from which it came. If

this were the case, the array of aluminum fibers would now push the matrix in the opposite

direction. This would explain the over compensation and the deformation which was so

prominent in the 60 ° sample. Figure 41 shows a schematic of the distortion which took place in

the aluminum fiber samples.

I`'iherglass

0716937 - Fiberglass fibers at 0 ° (Horizontal):

Modulus of Elasticity - (53,43-s86)L_f _ 3 1.84 Z ( 1 6-0.2)inch

The sample experienced no permanent deformation. The fiberglass appears to have

formed a more secure bond with the Ferris See-thru®. This was demonstrated by a lack of

protrusion of fibers which was prevalent in the 0 ° with aluminum. The results appear in figures

31 and 32.

67
0716938-Fiberglassfibersat 30°:

Modulusof Elasticity- (5543-10.86)Lbf(1.2-2)inch -- 44.5 7 _t'bf

The sample experienced some permanent deformation. Its dimensions remained the

same, but it was offset by I ° (89 ° at the comer). Again, the fiberglass appears to have a more'

secure bond with the Ferris See-thru®. There was virtually no protrusion of fibers from the

resin. The results appear in figures 33 and 34.

0716939 - Fiberglass fibers at 45 °

Modulus of Elasticity - (49.86-28.12)Lhf_ 54.35_

(O g_L 4)inch

The sample experienced some permanent deformation. Its dimensions remained the

same, but it was offset by 3 ° (87 ° at comer) due to over compensation. Again, the fiberglass

appears to have a more secure bond with the Ferris See-thru®. This is demonstrated by a lack of

protrusion of fibers which was more pronounced in the 45 ° with aluminum. The results appear

in figures 35 and 36.

07169310 - Fiberglass fibers at 60 °

Modulus of Elasticity - (60-t3._4)Lb.[_ 78.10 t,bf

(0.8_). 2)inch - - inch

The sample experienced some permanent deformation. Its dimensions changed to

0.30"x2.42"x5.78". There was not as much offset due to over compensation as might be

expected, only 2 ° (88 ° at comer). This is probably due to the comparably tenacious bond that

the fiberglass fibers seem to have with the resin. The results appear in figures 37 and 38.

68
07169311- Fiberglassfibersat90°

Modulusof Elasticity - (84 35-O)Lbf 421.74_ (0.2-O)inch

The sample experienced no permanent deformation, despite having experienced stresses

in excess of one hundred pounds (by far the heaviest). The sample's dimensions remained the

same and the fiberglass fibers showed no signs of pull-out. As with the aluminum at 90 °, the

lateral movement here is a result of fiber orientation during flow. The results appear in figures

39 and 40.

Analysis

The modulus of elasticity for the fiberglass composites behaved as expected with the 0 °

having the lowest modulus and the 90 ° having the highest. The composites whose fibers had

higher angles of orientation had correspondingly higher moduli. This is as expected.

The fiberglass fibers form a bond with the resin that is far superior to the bond formed

between the resin and aluminum fibers. The bond is still due to mechanical adhesion, but the

fiberglass fibers have more surface rigosity. In addition, t-here are small "tabs" that remain on

either side of the unidirectional fibers after the superfluous middle fibers are snipped free. This

superior bond results in less sample deformation. Pull-out was virtually eliminated.

Overall, the fiberglass fibers proved superior to the aluminum fibers. Both pull-out and

sample deformation were minimized with the use of fiberglass fibers. The aluminum was the

stronger fiber, as evidenced by the modulus of elasticity for aluminum fibers arranged vertically.

At 472.73 Lb./ inch, it was 12% higher than the modulus of elasticity for the corresponding

fiberglass sample. The aluminum sample, however, emerged from the test severely deformed

while the fiberglass sample appeared unscathed.

69
(;losing Comments

While the device designed and constructed during this course is useful, many

improvements could be made to increase its usefulness as an educational instrument. Below are

several suggestions.

1 ) The addition of two LVDT's, one to measure lateral displacement and one to

measure necking.

2) The addition of a device which could collect data from the load cell, convert it

to pounds force and store it.

3) A redesigned grip, based on the commercial grips used by Chatillon, but

capable of holding 2.5" wide samples.

4) Replace the 5000 pound capacity load cell with a 500 pound capacity load

cell.

These are only suggested modifications. In its current state, the device is simple to learn and

provides reasonable results. The best results are obtained when people work in teams of two or

three. This is especially the case when lateral displacement readings are being made. One

person operates the hand wheel, reading offthe voltages to a note taker. As each reading is

taken, a third student can make measurements of the lateral displacement by means of a small

ruler clipped on the rail assembly.

Acknowledgments

Finally, in closing, we would like to thank all those who contributed time and advice

during the design, construction, and testing of this device: special thanks to Walter Krug and Mike

Francoviac, who were so helpful with advice concerning the machining of the grips; Bob Borst,

whose woodworking tools and skill were invaluable; John Ward, who aided in the actual

operation of the completed device. We could not have accomplished so much in so little time

without their help.

70
.

2.

.

.

List of materials used in the construction of this device.

Machinist's Labor (approximately 40 hours) $1000

Guide Rail A7C15-3065, one 6.5' section at $55.60

from Stock Drive Products

Guide Wheel A7QI6-2, four at $25.51

from Stock Drive Products

Flanged Bushing - 0.627" inner diameter, O.D. 0.878", Length 1 ",

two at $2.04 from Stock Drive Products, A 7B 4-SF202808

.

.

.

.

10.

11.

12.

Alloy Steel Fully threaded rods, 1/2" -13, one at $4.78

McMaster-Carr, 98957A636

Alloy Steel Fully threaded rods, 1/2"-20, one at $8.75

McMaster-Carr, 92580A 111

Round Drill Rod, 1/4", 3' long, one at $2.29

McMaster-Carr, 8893K36.

Steel Rod, 3/8" dia., 12" length, one at $5.95

McMaster-Carr, 6061 K32

Guide Rod - 1" diameter, 20" length, two at $8.00

from McMaster-Carr

Load Rod - I" diameter, 36" length, two at $12.00

from McMaster-Carr

Acme® threaded rod - 1" - 10 threads, 6' length, one at $55.00

from McMaster-Carr, 98935A219

71
13. Acme® Carbon Steel Flange - 1" -flange dia. 2.760", mounting hole dia.

0.266", from McMaster-Carr, 95082A644, $28.00

14. Acme® Bronze round nut, 1" - 10 threads, outer dia. 1.5", length 1.5"

McMaster-Carr, 95072A116, $28.00

15. Knurled nut, !/2"-13, four at $3.58

McMaster-Carr, 94775A033

16. Cast Iron Hand Wheel - 10" outer dia., 2-1/4" tall, 2-1/4" dia. cntr.

1" dia. grip, McMaster-Carr, 6025K14, $29.38

17. Lumber and other materials obtained from hardware stores, $100.00

Total cost of construction = $1478.19

Suppliers:

McMaster-Carr Supply Company

Dayton, New Jersey

TEL. (908) 329-6666

FAX. (908) 329-3772

Stock Drive Products

Box 5416

New Hyde Park NY

(516) 328-3300

11042-5416

72
//

f

,\\\

\ \

\,\

\

\\

\

\

\

\

J

A

T

1 0"

I I

J

_J

J

j/ _/

_2 1/4":'-

1//4"

A

2

x-V

v".-t

CU

Y

Figure 1. Hand wheel with through holes for Acme rod and roll pin.

73
Drive Pod (1"-10) wlth ends turned

clown to 5/8",

Attach to hand

wheel wi±h Pot[ pin

£our inches _pom bottom,

_x

_/

0 5/8"

t

I

0 5/8"

Figure 2. Acme threaded rod with ends turned down.

74
_1"- I

P_ 0 S/{7"

S/,,

_A

_ i',l

I I A

Y _

t

i

T

_--._ I i,,t

1/4"

I

0 S/8"

Figure 3. Acme threaded rod with hand wheel.

I

75
Laminated maple beam,

Construct two horizontal

beams with dimensions

at right. Construct two

vertical beams with the

dimensions below.

2 I/_,

7;

-- _'-a,/_ I O

,iH .f, itI,

I 1'-$ 1/2"

L -,,,

I I/4"B. - 1 I/4"

Top side of lower horizontal beam All three

holes are only I" deep The outer holes

accept the I" dia guide rods while the

center hole accepts the bushing which the

Aeme screw will ride in

Under _!de o.f upper horizonta! besm The two

outer holes, in addition to the center hole, are

the same as on the lower, horizontal beam The

two I 1/4" dia holes that are 6" off center

go all the way through the beam, allowing for

passage of the two drive rods

Figure 4. Construction of laminated maple beams.

76
I I '.I _ . ___ _

i'-9 1/4"

6 _ 6"

9" 9"

T

l

%

t_

1/4"

!

l "

P'l

1

Top of drive beam. The lwo, I" dia.

holes B" off center are 1 1/2" deep

The center and two outer holes are

through holes.

0" 9"

| Bottom of drive beam. _.

| All holes are through co

|"

Figure 5. Construction of laminated oak drive beam.

77
78

m

Figure 6.

2__0- I l

2'-Z l/_--

Maple frame with oak drive beam and Acme threaded rod.

Two r' diameter drive rods go up to the rail. The upper

grip hangs from the rail while the lower grip screws into

the load cell which is attached to the top of the frame by

means of lag bolts.
_3

O

t

[ •

!

•-t •

•"_I A

_! .... _1_

;d-- --e

_ui v

#• ! -*

Zt ,

s

Upper food rods (2).

Figure 7. Drive rod (2) with drilled holes to accommodate 1/4" support pin.

79
%

L.....

Sm_. r. _-r o m4orc_._l Psl.

Figure 8. Single rail. Four are required.

• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

1'-3"

,_upl,orl Iostened

Io rnils by two rows

Of _evcrl. evel21y

F.d_e view of rail assembly

I

_t_ta

qqWe_

|n Iq4. I

--;-_---

i/4"

_'"_'_t/4" bole drilled throulh

lower rail (I I/2" from either

et_d) to allow for locklnlJ

pin which paeaea Lhroulb

rod

Figure 9. Rail assembly.

80
f.t"c_il, _qepor'o-t:or" det:olt,

- ] _'YP_A ..... r_Y_ "_,_A

- ,.:--:-%L.4 Y_.,dY,I

Foce, _hown is l" hole to occept rod (muq't be olrilled

after block ig secured be±ween to; Is_

I _

I,-'//, / " _ .4

t_

....

L__t_/_'J

--1 L 0,_,,6.

,..p

,\

.+

(--,

l_-_

t-_

Edge of" sepo,_o±or plo±e

CO

Flott:om oF seporotor plate,

0

Top of" _epot otor plate

Figure 10. Detail of rail separator.

81
-- 0 5/8"

2 1/2"

i

_J

09

0")

f_J

gO

b_

Od

/////

X////

L// // //

5164"

ru

t

I

--I1/2" -- 112"

Figure 11. Gripping plate. Four are required.

o

° l

I

T

!

o

I t/2"--_

!/2" /

,, _ _"

N

i/g',_ uNr

-- o i/2"

- o 3/4"

////_

t/_'. _o UNr

Figure 12. Bottom grip center plate. Two 1/2" dia. holes drilled through

to allow passage of threaded rods. Gripping plates attach by nuts.

82
 J':t

..... 7,t__ _-

:. [..... KI

0.82

6 cleor_nce holes equoHy sp_ced on

E'.625" d;ometer B.C,, 0,34" d;or_eteF

II_t'U,

Manufacturer's Specifications_

Sensotec Model 41 Load Cell

Serial No. 296393

__t, Part No. 572-05

Capacity: 0-5000 6bs

- Excitation Voltage 10.0

T'4 T.C. Range' 60-160 degrees F.

Shunt Resistor Value 59 kohms

Matching cable and connector (AAll3)

With Amplifier: %Capacity Output

0 0 volls

50 2.5004 volts

100 4.9996 volts

50 2.5027

0 0 volts

Figure 13. Sensotec load cell with manufacturer's specifications.

Axles For guide wheets

_ ,. -!E-i 77_-J

/1

Groovem at end or mlll_ mllew

._ for _trclipm to be uses in

m. rs_tenln&_ wheelt to either aide

of the* mxlrs

d w_g _I_ $o o+toch ¢j* mo,c'_J plo't,o¢

Figure 14. Shuttle assembly for upper grip.

83
50 I I I I

4O Force

30

Po-nds i

Lbs i

-- 20

10

Figure 15.

j-J

jj /

I I

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Inches i

Elongation

Neat samples of Ferris See-thru tested on Chatillon (Pounds}

and hand operated device {Ibs} using load cell manufacturer's

specifications.

5O

Average

Force as

40--

measured

by Hand

scale

AVglb s

2O

10

0

I I I I I I I I

J

J

_1 i__11 j I I I

5 10 15 20 25 30

Force applied by Chatillon Tensile Tester

Figure 16.

I I

35 40 45

Average reading of hand scale (Chatillon Model IN-50)

for ten trials, 0 - 44 pounds on Chatillon Tensile Tester.

84
5O I I I I I I I I

Force (pounds)

obtainedfrom 4o

Load cell

usingcalibration

equation.

30

mVib s 9.373

0.963

20

I0

///J

,/lj I

5

/-

/

jz /

.jl

//

///"

I I l I I I I ,

I0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

lbs

Force measured by Hand scale (pounds)

Figure 17. Calibration of load cell using Chatillon Model IN-50 Hand Scale.

The load cell's average output in millivolts for ten trials is plotted

against the hand scale's reading in pounds. The relationship

between the load cell's output in millivolts to the force applied was

determined to be...

mV- mVo

Lbf

0.963

mV = reading in milli-volts

mVo = initial reading [millivolts]

Lbf = Pounds force

85
40 I I I I

Force

3o

Poundsi

.......20

Lbfi

I0

0

I I

0.5 I

hw.h_ i

Elongation

I I

1.5 2 2.5

Figure 18. Neat samples of Ferris See-thru tested on Chatillon {pounds} and

hand operated device (Lbf) using calibration data.

86
6,") I I i I I i I I i

Force

50

4o

Lbfi 30

2O

IO _ J

/

/J

i i i J

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

l i I I I

I 1,2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Inchesi

Elongation

Figure 19. Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Neat (0716931).

Lateral

Displacement

(inches)

_li o

o

Figure 20.

I I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I I

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Inchesi

Elongation

Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru

Neat (0716931).

87
gO I I I I I I I I i

Force

6O

Lb_40

2O

/

I I I I

0.4 0.6 0.$ l

Ind_ i

Elongation

I I I I I

1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Figure 21. Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Ai 0 ° (0716932).

006

Lateral

Displacement

(inches) o.o4-

Lateral i

0.02 -

0

0

Figure 22.

I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 ) 1.2 ) .4 1.6 l .g

Inches i

Elongation

Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru

A! 0° (0716932).

88
80 I I I I I I I I I

Force

6O

Lb_40

20

0

Figure 23.

j/

0 0.2 0,4 0,6 0.8

I I I I I

1 1,2 1,4 1.6 1.8 2

Inches i

Elongation

Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru A! 30 ° (0716933).

0.15

Lateral

Displacement o.1 -

(inches)

Lateral i

0.05 --

0

0

Figure 24.

I I I I I I I I I

/

I I I I 1 I I I

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Inches i

Elongation

/

/

Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru

A! 30 ° (0716933).

89
go

60-

Force

Lbfi40 -

20-

0_"

0

Figure 25.

! ! I ! I I I I 1

I I I I I I I I I

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 1.2 1A 1.6 1.8

Inchesi

Elongation

Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru A! 45 ° (0716934).

04

Lateral

Displace- 0.3

ment

(inches)

Lateral i 0.2

0.I

I I I I I I I I I

J

_ S

/

/

/ I

0.2

I I I I I I 1 I

0.4 0.6 0.8 1 !.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Inchesi

Elongation

Figure 26. Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru

A! 45 ° (0716934).

90
80 I I I I

Force

6o

Lbfi 40

2O - /

//

/

,/

//

/

o'

o

Figure 27.

I I I I

0.5 l 1.5 2 2,5

Inchesi

Elongation

Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru AI 60 ° (0716935).

0.6

Lateral 0.4

Displacement

(inches)

Lal_mli0.2

I I I I

f

ii

f-

_).2' I I I I

0 0,5 ) 1.5 2

Inchesi

Elongation

\

\

Figure 28. Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru

A! 60 ° (0716935).

2.5

91
1GO I I 1 I I I I I I

8O

Force

60

40

2O

0

0

Figure 29.

m

I I I I I I I I I

0.2 0.4 0.6 0,8 ! 1.2 1.4 1.6 I,$

Inches i

Elongation

Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru A! 90 ° (0716936).

0.1

Lateral

Displace- ).os

ment

(inches)

0

Lateral i

-0.0_

-0,]

_),1. _

Figure 30.

I I I I I I I

m

\

I I I I I I I I I I

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1,2 1.4 1.6 I .g

Inches i

Elongation

Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru A! 90 °

(0716936).

92
80 I I I I 1 I I I I

Force

Lbfi40

2O

Figure 31.

1/

/

/

/" I I I I I I I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Inchesi

Elongation

Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 0 ° (0716937).

Lateral

Displacement

(inches)

Figure 32.

I I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Inchesi

Elongation

Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 0 °

(0716937).

93
80 I I I I I I I I I

Force

6o

20

0

,- I I I I I I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0,6 0.8 l 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Inches i

Elongation

Figure 33. Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 30 ° (0716938).

[

\

f

Lateral Displace- _ // 0.3 /

ment __

(inches) _,

Laterali 0.2 --

I I

0.2 0.4

0.1

I I I I I I I

0.6 0.8 i 1.2 1.4 1,6 1,8 2

Inches i

Elongation

Figure 34. Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass

30 ° (0716938).

94
80 I I I I 1 I I I I

Force 6o

Lbfi 40

2O

Figure 35.

/

/

//

/

_///I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

\

\

\,

I

1

Inchesi

Elongation

I I I I

\

\

1.2 1.4 1.6 18 2

Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 45 ° (0716939).

Lateral

Displacement

(inches)

Laterali

0

Figure 36.

0,6

0.4

0.2

_).2

-0,4

I I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Inches i

Elongation

Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 45 °

(0716939).

95
80 I I I I I I I I I

6O

Force

Lbfi40

2O

Figure 37.

I I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6. 1.8 2

Inches i

Elongation

Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 60 ° (07169310).

Lateral

Displacement

(inches)

-0.2

-0.4 I I I I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Inches i

Elongation

1.6 1,8

Figure 38. Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 60 °

(07169310).

96
120 1 1 I I | I I I 1

I00

Force

80

Lbfi 60

4O

2O

Figure 39.

\

I I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 08 I

Inches i

Elongation

I I I_T _

1.2 1.4 1.6 18

Force vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 90 ° (07169311).

0.15

Lateral

Displacement

(inches) o.1

Lateral.

I

0.05

I I I I

I I/ I I I I I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

hw.l_ i

Elongation

I I I I I

Figure 40. Lateral displacement vs. elongation for Ferris See-thru Fiberglass 90 °

(07169311).

97
It

Tension is

applied

!

1

Specimen Sample

undergoes ret urns

shear stress to initial

due to shape

tension

Final, over compensated

sample

Figure 41. Schematic of sample deformation.

98
°

.

3.

.

.

.

.

.

.

10.

11.

References

Penniman, Charles F.: The First Materials Testing in America. ASTM Standardization

News. January, 1991

Hull, Derek An Introduction to Composite Materials Cambridge University Press (1981)

Fellers, William O. Materials Science, Testing, and Properties for Technicians Prentice

Hall, copyright 1990

Wampler, M. D, Spiegel, F. X. and West, H A. Continuous Unidirectional Fiber

Reinforced Composites: Fabrication and Testing Journal of Materials Education, Vol.

14, pp. 293-301, 1992.

West, Harvey A., Sprecher, A. F. Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials National

Educators' Workshop: Update '90, NIST Special Publication 882 (1991).

Askeland, Donald R., The Science of Engineering Materials, Second Edition PWS-Kent

Publishing Company ( ! 984).

Agarwal, Bhagwan D., Broutman, Lawrence J. Analysis and Performance of Fiber

Composites, Second Edition John Wiley & Sons, 1990

Larsen, Carl G.: Design Considerations for Materials Testing Tension/Compression

MTS Systems Corporation Minneapolis, Minnesota

Georgeson, Gary & Milstein, Frederick: Load and Fixture for Uniform Plastic

Deformation Single Crystals. Rev. Sci. Instrum 54 (8), August, 1983

Perlov, Anatoly & Martin, James: Calibration and Verification of Materials Testing

Machines and Systems. ASTM Standardization News. January, 1991

Sterling Instrument Handbook of Design Components. Sterling Instrument, 2101

Jericho Turnpike, New Hyde Park, N.Y. 11042-5416

99

N94- 36402

APPLICATION OF MATERIALS DATABASE (MAT. DB.)

TO MATERIALS EDUCATION

Ping Liu

and

Tommy L. Waskom

School of Technology

Eastem Illinois University

Charleston, Illinois 61920

Telephone 217-581-6267

_G PAGE BLANK

NOT FILMffD P;_-_ __

101

Application of Materials Database (MAT. DB.) to Materials Education

Ping Liu and Tommy L. Waskom

School of Technology

Eastern Illinois University

Charleston, IL 61920

KEY WORDS: material properties, strength, ductility, material data base,

environment and working conditions.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should understand the

fundamentals of materials behavior such as tensile strength, percent elongation, area

reduction, manufacturability and formability. Some understanding of change in material

behavior with different environments and loading conditions is expected. Knowledge

of the basic application of a microcomputer and DOS commands are essential.

OBJECTIVES: To use the materials database MAT. DB. to search for useful

data on materials behavior related to specific applications. With the materials database,

design analysis, materials selection and manufacturing of products can be more efficient.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

1. IBM compatible 286 or higher microcomputer.

a. 640 K RAM

b. At least 15 M free hard disk

c. Graphics card of CGA, Hercules, EGA, and VGA

d. 4.25" or 3.5" floppy disk drive

d. DOS 3.0 or higher.

2. MAT. DB and database files from ASM International.

3. Printer is optional for output.

INTRODUCTION:

Findirrg the right material for the job is an important aspect of engineering.

Sometimes the choice is as fundamental as selecting between steel and aluminum.

Other times, the choice may be between different compositions in an alloy. Discovering

and compiling materials data is a demanding task, but it leads to accurate models for

analysis and successful materials application.

Mat. DB is a database management system designed for maintaining information

on the properties and processing of engineered materials, including metals, plastics,

composites and ceramics. It was developed by the Center for Materials Data of

American Society for Metals (ASM) International. The ASM Center for Materials Data

collects and reviews material property data for publication in books, reports, and

electronic database. Mat. DB was developed to aid the data management and material

applications.

Mat. DB can provide the following functions to manage database for materials:

1. View information on specific material:

The material data are organized in material records, which include material

103
designations, specifications, composition, product forms, classes, ranking, properties,

graphs and notes. Once entering the database, the user can navigate among the nine

categories of information for a specific material.

2. Searching:

One of the most powerful features of Mat. DB is its ability to search through

megabytes of information to locate needed material data. The user begins a search

session by creating a "folder", which contains all related results. The searched folder can

be viewed in the same manner as above.

3. Editing:

Users can build their own database with the tools provided by Mat. DB.

Sophisticated databases can be established to suit various applications for users.

4. Reports:

Mat. DB is capable of viewing and printing the results of a search in formats that

help analyze search results.

PROCEDURE:

1. Start the Mat. DB and load the desired database file for the material of

interest. A main manual will be prompted for each database file.

2. View data for a specific material:

After choosing "VIEW FOLDER" from the main manual, a material record

manual will be shown on the screen. Mat. DB's basic building block is the Material

Record, the file in which information on materials is organized. A separate record is

devoted to each materials designation, e.g. AISI 1020, Ti-6A1-4V, etc. These records are

then stored in Mat. DB databases. Each record can contain the following information

for a given material:

Designation: The designations screen contains necessary information to identify

the material and source of the data. It includes Accession Number (an identifying

number unique to a material record), UNS Number (a cross-referencing number

standardized by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and Society of

Automotive Engineers (SAE)), Material Group, Designation, Common Name,

Manufacturer, Country and User.

Specifications: Each material can be cross-referenced to a maximum of 50

alternate specifications. Each specification can be annotated with a short note.

Composition: Minimum and maximum percentages can be maintained for up to

20 elements. Additional comments on compositions can also be stored for display along

with the element percentages.

Product Forms: The user may index the material by up to 50 different product

forms.

104
Classes: The user may index each material condition by up to 50 application

classes such as heat resistant, high strength, etc.

Ranking. Each material condition can be ranked for processing characteristics

such as formability, weldability, machinability, hardenability, processing cost, and

availability. The user can define up to 6 ranking categories.

Properties: Properties can be reported for up to 20 different conditions per

material. For each condition up to 100 properties can be reported at as many as 20

temperatures. The properties are displayed on a screen that looks like a spreadsheet.

Graphs: Up to 20 graphs can be maintained and displayed for each material.

Graphs can also be saved to a DOS file or printed directly to a laser or dot matrix

printer.

Notes: Mat. DB can maintain up to 200 lines of comments for each material.

The Notes section offers many standard word-processing features, making it extremely

easy to add new comments to a record or edit existing comments.

3. Search information with "SIFT FOLDER" feature of Mat. DB.

Material information can be searched according to various combinations of

material data on designation, specifications, composition, forms, classes, rankings,

properties and so on. For example, in the folder of STARTER.DB (database supplied

with Mat. DB), "sift folder" with the following conditions

CLASSES = CORROSION RESISTANT and

FORMS = BARS

results in the following three materials

316 STAINLESS STEEL

410 STAINLESS STEEL and

A3003 WROUGHT ALUMINUM.

All the material data on these three corrosion resistant bars can be found using the

"VIEW FOLDER".

4. Build your own database with "editing" feature of Mat. DB.

If the database was opened in the read-write mode, a new material record can be

created by moving the highlight to "new" at the bottom of the List Screen and pressing

enter. This will open an empty material record.

The new material record will begin with "DESIGNATION" and data will be

entered in the edit boxes. When finished, press the F10 function key and the editing will

be saved.

5. Output the results:

The results can be printed with a dot matrix printer.

105
SAMPLE DATA SHEETS:

The following are two examples for the property data of AISI 4140 steel and high

density polyethylene, respectively.

A. AISI 4140 Steel

Database: STARTER.DB

Folders: Metal Alloys (11)

View Folder: 4140 G41400 Alloy Steel

1. Designation

Accession Number

UNS Number

Material Group

Designation

Common Name

Manufacturer

Country USA

User ASM

281189015

G41400

Alloy Steel

AISI 4140

4140

2. Specifications

Organization

AMS

AMS

AMS

AMS

ASTM

ASTM

ASTM

ASTM

ASTM

ASTM

MIL

SAE

SAE

SAE

DIN

Specification

6381 (*Aerospace

Specification)

6382

6390

6395

A322

A331

A505

A519

A547

A646

S-16974

J404

J412

J770

1.7225

Material

3. Composition

Element

C

Cr

Mn

Mo

P

S

Si

Min.%

.38

.8

.75

.15

.15

Max. %

.43

1.1

1.

.25

.035

.04

.3

106
4. Notes

High-hardenability, medium-carbon steels;popular grades

DESCRIPTION: Grades4140,4140H, 4142and 4142H arecombined for

discussion purpose because they are so similar in compositions and

characteristics. Actually, they are so close that the composition could be

either 4140 or 4142.

5. Properties

4140 Typical Properties

E1Resis n{o}*m

ThCoefExp {u}m/m'K

ThConduct W/m*K

ThSpcHeat J/kg=K

100 °C 200 °C 400 °C

262. 326. 475.

12.2 12.6 13.7

42.6 42.2 37.7

473. 519.

6. Graphs: One example is shown below.

14

14

14

100

10

o.ool

RISI 4140: C]lST]I, Creep s't.x'_noth

0.01 O. 1 1 lO

...... I ....... I ....... 1 ...... I

_,, 5z,

........ I I I I I I l Ill ........ I I , , , , , ,,I .......

e.6Ol e.el e. 1 1 le lOO

Time, h

Sheet, e._r_ in., annealed at 1550 ¥, and tested at tee0 F.

Struct. Rllogs Handbook, D.J.l_g]mth, Ed., Vol I _ 2,

n 11_. ll_ffi, l lP, lClA1

tO

107
B. High Density_ Polyethylene (HDPE)

Database: THERPLAS.DB

Folders: Polyethylene (A-M) (63)

View Folder: Marlex HXM 50100

1. Designation

Accession Number

Code Number

Material Group

Designation

Common Name

Manufacturer

Country

User

81789333

190100

Polyolefin

Polyethylene

Marlex HXM 50100

Philips Chemical Co.

USA

Engineering Thermoplastic

2. Notes

High-density polyethylene, use with food and drugs.

Uses: Large formed parts, cattle feeders, pallets, boats

FOOTNOTES

A Condition 190/2.16

B Type IV specimen, 2 per min.

3. Process: Thermoforming

4. Properties

Typical Properties

Density, kg/m 3

FlexModul, GPA

StrElgYld, %

TenYldSt, MPa

23 °C

950

2.08

600

26

5. Features:

Impact resistance

Food/drug use

6. Rankings

Chemical Resist.

Creep Resist.

Fatigue Resist.

Heat Resist.

Processability

Cost

108
INSTRUCTOR NOTES:

1. It is always a good idea for students to start with "Read-Only" mode for

materials database folder. In the "Read-Only" mode, no change in any material record

will be saved. This will prevent any useful information from being lost.

2. When searching materials with "SIFT FOLDER", students need to make sure

to use "NEW" in the folder list. Otherwise, the existing folders will be replaced by the

new folder. Some information could be lost.

3. Basic knowledge of DOS for microcomputer will be essential to the operation.

REFERENCES:

1. Puttre, Michael: Materials Data Bases are Key to Design Analysis, Mechanical

Engineering, vol. 115 (5), 1993, pp 69-71.

2. ASM International, Materials Properties Database System: Mat. DB,

ASM/Center for Materials Data, Materials Park, OH 44073, 1992.

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES: This is basically a computer software project.

Microcomputers are readily available. However, the software is relatively expensive.

The Mat. DB costs approximately $556-695, and material database files cost from

$295.20 to 526 for each major category of materials. But, the software and database files

can be purchased separately, which makes the cost planning a little easier.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT: Financial support for this project from the Council for

Faculty Research (CFR) at Eastern Illinois University is greatly appreciated.

109

N94- 36403

LAMINATED THERMOPLASTIC COMPOSITE

MATERIAL FROM RECYCLED HIGH DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE

Ping Liu

and

Tommy L. Waskom

School of Technology

Eastern Illinois University

Charleston, Illinois 61920

Telephone 217-581-6267

F_ PAGE _LAt_K NOT FILMED

111

Laminated Thermoplastic Composite Material from

Recycled High Density Polyethylene

Ping Liu and Tommy L. Waskom

School of Technology

Eastern Illinois University

Charleston, IL 61920

KEYWORDS: thermoplastic composite, high density polyethylene, laminate, glass

fiber fabric, ASTM standards, tensile test, ultimate tensile strength.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should understand the

fundamentals of polymer processing and mechanical property testing of materials. The

ability to use ASTM standards is also necessary for designing material test specimens

and testing procedures.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the concept of laminated composite materials,

processing, testing and quality assurance of thermoplastic composites; to observe an

application example of recycled plastics.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

1. Recycled one-gallon milk containers

2. One glass fiber fabric of 127 x 127 mm

3. Steel rules and compass (or a specimen template)

4. Scissors

5. Thermoforming or compression machine for plastics

5. Tensile test machine.

PROCEDURE:

1. Collect and clean recycled milk containers.

2. Cut four (4) fiat sheets of high density polyethylene from the milk containers.

The sheet size is approximately 130 x 130 mm.

3. Cut a piece of glass fiber fabric of 127 x 127 mm.

4. Place two sheets of high density polyethylene on both sides of the glass fiber

fabric, as shown in Figure 1.

5. Compress the above combination of sheets under a normal load of 2/9 tons

and a temperature of 135 °C for 5 minutes.

6. Turn off the heater of the mold, turn on the circulation pump and maintairl the

same normal load until room temperature.

7. Remove the laminated composite from the mold.

8. Cut the tensile test specimen from the laminate according to dimensions

specified by ASTM standards [1], as shown in Figure 2.

9. Test the tensile strength of the laminated composite.

113
High Density

Pol yethyl ene (4)

Glass Fiber

Fabric

Load = 2/9 ton

Figure 1. Configuration of laminated composites: two layers of HDPE on both

sides of glass fiber.

114
L

fl ¢33mm

I_" f| ] I

< 80 >

115 mJ'n

Figure 2. Dimensions of the tensile test specimen per ASTM standard D 638M89.

SAMPLE DATA SHEETS

Students can record the experimental results using the following table. The data

in the table are examples.

Sample

#

Forming

Load (t)

Temperature

(*c)

1 2/9 135

2 2/9 135

2/9 135

Specimen

Thickness

(mm)

Specimen

Width

(ram)

Max.

Load (N)

Tensile

Strength

(r_'a)

1.44 6.46 237.9 25.6

1.28 6.43 191.9 23.3

1.30 6.62 284.7 33.1

115
INSTRUCTOR NOTES:

Students can perform investigative studies on the effects of forming temperature

on the strength of the laminated composite [2,3]. Figure 3 shows a typical relationship

between the compression temperature and ultimate tensile strength. As the temperature

increases, the strength of laminated composite increases. This increase may be due to

several reasons. One of the reasons is that as the temperature increases, better bonding

may take place between the glass fibers and the plastic sheets. Another possible r_ason

is that as the temperature increases, the thickness of the laminate decreases, which

actually increases the percentage of glass fiber relative to the polymer. Glass fiber is

stronger than high density polyethylene matrix. Therefore, material strength increases

with increasing temperature.

The reinforcing effect of glass fiber is seen in Figure 3. The strength of recycled

high density polyethylene is improved by laminating it with glass fiber. With the

improved mechanical properties, the application of recycled plastics could be expanded,

and therefore the mount of solid waste going to landfills can be reduced.

..-..3O

1tl2.5

nora m m

l l I l I

Temperatm'e (C)

One Lair of F_enalau

No Lair8 of Frbergla88

Figure 3. The relationship between the compression temperature and the tensile

strength of recycled high density polyethylene laminated with glass fiber and

recycled high density polyethylene without reinforcement.

116
It is also noted that the strength of the laminate increased with increasing

temperature. To further investigate the reason, Figure 4 was created to show the

relationship between the thermocompression temperature, specimen thickness and

strength. It is believed that with increasing temperature the bonding between the fiber

and the plastic was improved. As the thickness decreased with the increased

temperature, the actual percentage of load-bearing glass fiber in the composite was

increased. Therefore, the tensile strength increases with the thermocompression

temperature.

32

31

2O

I

121.11

1_2.B

27

"hill

I

13;5.0

Tornporatu_o (C)

Figure 4. Variation of laminate strength and specimen thickness with

thermocompression temperature.

In summary, this experiment provides an understanding of the reinforcing role of

continuous fibers in thermoplastic composites. It also illustrates a possible application

of recycled plastic, and increases the student awareness of the importance of materials

recycling for solving solid waste crisis in the nation.

117
REFERENCES:

1. ASTM: 1989 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 8.01

American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1989.

Plastics (I),

2. Carlsson, Leif A.: Thermoplastic Composite Materials, Elsevier Science

Publishers, 1991.

3. Agarwal, B.D.; and Broutman, L.J.: Analysis and Performance of Fiber

Composites (2nd edition), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1990.

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES:

The high density polyethylene is obtained from milk containers which can be

recycled by faculty and students without any cost. The cost of _lass fiber fabric is the

lowest among all engineering fibers, which is $2.65 - $6.25/m 2 (Fibre Glast, 1-800-821-

3283).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

Part of the financial support for this project is from the Illinois Department of

Energy and Natural Resources through the Office of Solid Waste Research at the

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Another part of the material is based upon

work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DUE-9350629.

118
INEXPENSIVE MATERIALS SCIENCE

DEMONSTRATIONS

F. Xavier Spiegel

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science

Loyola College

4501 North Charles Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21210-2699

Telephone 410-617-2515

119
Xavier Spiegel

Loyola College

ORIGINA[ PAGE"

Bt.AC_ AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH

120
INEXPENSIVE MATERIALS SCIENCE DEMONSTRATIONS

F. Xavier Spiegel

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science

Loyola College, Baltimore, Maryland

ABSTRACT: Readily available materials can be used to

demonstrate such properties as anisotropy, stress concentration

effects and composite behavior.

REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Curiosity.

KEY WORDS:

Anisotropy.

Composite, Bi-metallic, Filament Tape,

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of these demonstrations is to

illustrate some interesting properties of composites. The

following demonstrations have been performed by the author many

times and have been received enthusiastically by audiences of all

ages.l,2,3, 4

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

i) Filament Tape

2) Sheet of Paper

3) Index Card

4) Bi-metallic Disk *

FILAMENT TAPE: Filament tape is an excellent example of the

anisotropy of a composite material. Filament tape consists of

aligned parallel threads embedded in a polymer film. One side of

this composite is coated with an adhesive. If you try to tear the

composite in the direction of the threads the tape will separate

very easily; however, if you try to tear the tape in any other

direction you will find that it is almost impossible. This is an

example of anisotropy or the directional dependence of a property

of a material. In other words in this instance the mechanical

property of tearing is different according to which direction you

try to tear the tape. If you cut several pieces of the tape about

5cm long and stack them together so that different layers have

their threads running in different directions, you will find that

the anisotropic properties change. This technique is often used

in industry to provide a more isotropic material. One major

weakness of this type of composite is de-layering or delamination of the stacked layers. 1,2

* Available from: Edmund Scientific Company

i01 E. Gloucester Pike

Barrington, N.J. 08007-1380

121
SHEET OF PAPER: A sheet of paper can be used to demonstrate

the action of an airfoil and also the effect of folding paper.

If the sheet of paper is held in front of the mouth and you blow

across the top of the paper the paper will rise demonstrating the

way that faster moving air on the top of a wing surface than on

the bottom of the wing surface causes the wing to experience

lift.

Another interesting demonstration with a piece of paper (any

size!) is that if you try to continually fold a piece of paper in

half, eventually you will not be able to fold it again. You just

are not strong enough. Ten folds cannot be done! This

demonstrates how mechanical strength can be affected by composite

folds.

INDEX CARD: A 3"x5" index card can be used to demonstrate

crack deflection in a material. Crack deflection can be

engineered into most materials and is not peculiar to composites.

If two one inch slits are cut parallel to the 3 inch sides about

one inch from either end and then a hole is punched at the bottom

of one of the slits, the index card can then be pulled at the 3

inch sides and the index card will invariably fail not where the

hole was punched but where the slit alone was made. This is an

example of crack deflection. The energy supplied to fracture the

card was deflected around the hole and was diminished whereas the

same enerqy supplied to the slit alone was unimpeded and caused a

fracture. 1,2

BI-METALLIC DISK: Some composites are formed by joining two

materials either mechanically or by some other means. The bimetallic disk is a composite formed by joining stainless steel

and Invar. THe composite behavior of this combination arises from

the fact that stainless steel and Invar have different

coefficients of expansion. When the disk is received it is

concave on one side and convex on the other. If the convex side

is rubbed with the thumb and then pressed, the convex side will

become concave and vice-versa. If the disk is then placed concave

side down on a surface after a short time it will jump off of the

surface as it returns to its original state. Some thermostats

take advantage of this property to accurately determine small

temperature changes. Of course, nothing in a thermostat jumps

since the metals joined are strips, are not discs, and one end is

fixed.

CONCLUSIONS: The author has had enthusiastic response from

audiences of all ages, with each of these demonstrations.

Quantitative results can be measured and each demonstration can

be expanded and/or altered. You are only limited by your

imagination and curiosity.

122
REFERENCES:

i. Jacobs, James A. and Kilduff, Thomas F.: Engineering

Materials Technology, Prentice-Hall 1985.

2. Fellers, William O.: Materials Science, Testing and

Properties for Technicians, Prentice-Hall 1990.

3. Spiegel, F. Xavier: Five experiments in Materials Science

for less than $i0.00, NASA Conference Publication 3151

November 1991 263-265.

4. Spiegel, F. Xavier: Experiments in Materials Science

From Household Items, NASA Conference Publication 3201

November 1992 373-375.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The author wishes to thank Mary L.

Spiegel for typing this manuscript.

123

RECYCLING OF AUTOMOBILES

AN OVERVIEW

S. S. Labana

Ford Motor Company

MD 3198 SRL

P. O. Box 2053

Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053

Telephone 313-594-7740

125

RECYCLING OF AUTOMOBILES

AN OVERVIEW

S. S. LABANA

FORD MOTOR COMPANY

DEARBORN, MICHIGAN

SCOPE

TOTAL SOLID WASTE: 326 Billion Pounds In 1988

PLASTICS: 7% By Weight

30% By Volume

Plastics Projected To Increase 10-11% By Weight By The

Year 2000.

80-85% Of Solid Waste Is Landfill.

Household Plastic Waste Is Six Times The Automotive

Plastics Waste.

PLASTICS WASTE

USA 1990

TOTAL PLASTICS WASTE

WEIGHT % OF TOTAL

VOLUME % OF TOTAL

POLYMER PRODUCTION

YEAR 2000 PROJECTION

PLASTICS WEIGHT

PRICJIO'if_ P,AGE BLAt_K NOT FILMED

12.0 MILLION TONS

7.5

19.0

30.0 MILLION TONS

11%

127
LAND FILLS IN USA

YEAR NUMBER

1979 18000

1989 6300

1995 3800

LANDFILL TIPPING

S/TON BY REGION

REGION

NORTHEAST

MID-ATLANTIC

SOUTH

MIDWEST

WEST CENTRAL

SOUTH CENTRAL

WEST

NATIONAL

AVERAGE

64.76

40.75

16.92

23.15

11.06

12.50

25.63

26.56

SOURCE: NSWMA

FEES

MAXIMUM

120.00

89.00

40.00

50.00

13.50

26.25

55.0O

120.00

128
DISPOSAL COSTS

_CYCUI_

RECYC ING RATES

USA 1992

MATERIAL

ALUMINUM

IRON & STEEL

PAPER

GLASS

PLASTICS

RECYCLED %

33

39

22

8

1

129
MAGNITUD

AUTOMOTIVE RECYCLING

NO. of Cars Shredded

Ferrous Metals

Non Ferrous Metals

Shredder Residue

Landfill Cost

Heating Value

10 Million

11.2 Million Tons

0.8 Million Tons

3.8 Million Tons

6.7 Million Cu, Yds.

$20 - 100 Per Ton

5000 - 7000 btu/Ib

COMPOSITION OF US

Ibs/car

1990

BUILT CAR

1980

Steel

Conventional 1246 1697

High Strength 233 169

Stainless 32 28

Other 53 54

Iron 398 480

Aluminum 158 123

Copper 46 37

Zinc Die Cast 19 21

Powder Metal 23 17

Rubber 128 130

Plastics/Composites 222 196

Fluids 167 181

Other Materials 88 90

Source: Wards Reports

130
AUTOMOTIVE POLYMER USE

USA (KG PER VEHICLE)

1989 1995

THERMOSETS

POLYURETHANE

SMC AND OTHERS

RUBBER

OTHERS

34.5 44.0

13.0 14.8

50.0 47.0

9.1 9.7

THERMOPLASTICS

POLYPROPYLENE 20.2

STYRENICS, ABS 13.3

POLYVlNYL CHLORIDE 12.7

NYLON 9.6

POLYETHYLENE 8.8

21.4

15.5

13.0

10.8

9.6

U • S. VEHICLE DISPOSAL

SCHEMATIC

VEHICLE m=_.

1610 Kg

WRECKER

(3000 IN U.S.)

USEABLE PARTS

HULL ===_ SHREDDER _ METAL

1200 Kg (190 IN U.8.) (900 Kg)

WASTE LANDFILL =m_. (300 Kg)

300 Kg (? IN U.S.)

$250

$125

($13)

1988 TOTAL VEHICLES DISPOSED: 12 MILLION

131
DISMANTLING TIMES

COMPONENT WT. kg TIME, SEC.

SIDE MOLDING 0.5 18

DOOR INNER 0.6 32

BUMPER 12.2 9O

SEAT 19.5 100

INSTRUMENT PANEL 48OO

VEHICLE DISPOSAL

PARTS TAKEN OFF BY DISMANTLERS

Radiator

Battery

Gas Tank

Tires

Catalytic Converter

Usable Parts

132
FLUID DRAINAGE

ENGINE OIL

BRAKE FLUID

RADIATOR COOLANT

WASHER

FUEL

VEHICLE DISPOSAL

SHREDDER FRACTIONS

Ferrous Metals

Non-Ferrous Metals

Fluff

Dirt

133
VALUE OF CAR HULK

Material Wt. Ibs Value

Steel

Nonferrous Metals

Fluff

Freight

Processing

225O

150

75O

135.00

18.00

(47.00)

(lo.oo)

(47.00)

Net Value 3 150 49.00

$

Source Waxman Metals Group

SHREDDER RESIDUE

P_=CS

RUmS

RUm__

GLAS_

OTHEm

t 7P/_,

t6j%
TIRE RECYCLING

R ETR EAD

LANDFILL

MISC.

RECLAIM

JAPAN

EXPORT

USA

Tire Recycling

NO. of Scrap Tires per yr.

Scrap Tires in Environment

Fraction Recycled

Retread

Reclaim

Crumb Rubber

Misc. Products

Asphalt Paving

Tire Recycle Incentive Act

234 Million

3 Billion

20 Percent

S.2462 / HR 4147

135
COST BALANCE

RAW MAT'L

VIRGIN MAT'L

FABRICATION

US

_'_ DISPOSAL

,I,

COLLECTION

SEPARATION

PROCESSING

FABRICATION

US

136
Support new recycling efforts .._..__

Dumpers bury city m-out rubber - g_a_gche

__ ;3 MAILBAG

Incineration no solution

Plastics recyclio_ _,_ o/_/_

"__ 8h_3/Tt Lag in Plastics Rkcycling 4

__ Sparks Heated Debate

Oh _ _,t,_/, Co]_ _-_.G.)v_,/. .nLAS'rlCS recycling is going

"* -g_/D/. Z'_ _ _i-Pstrong, according to the Part-

:/"/"OL,_ - _°e _ _'_ _ nership [or Plastics Progress,

- ¢"0'/_/), _-"tgS_._'/" _ a trade group.

o ¢"[q_e/,: _vz'ltCS,_ " _ Hogwash, counter environmental

-_,.,t/CI_ -o t2 p,. _ _oups. "The plastics industry ;.¢

e_cl_'h6_Process

137
DAN1ELMEARS/TheDetroit News

Charles Grimmer, 70, his house visible in the background, walks by the ever-growing

mountain of tires dumped in his east side neighborhood near Van Dyke and Mr. Olivet.

138
I

/

/

/

139
is pyrolysisbreaking down coalition?

Trash Tllat Recycling Plan

Here's the inside story on

recycling our automobiles

At Ford, paper and o_her materials

ALB TIMES-UNION 8/6/92. plants andoffices across

l_veryone s heai'd o| recvchnn .... ,,, many

140
Automakers

want to

recycle all

of the car

Environmental pressures

dictate recycling more

auto materials, but costs

make total disassembly

unlikely anytime soon.

By BRYAN BERRY

Automotive Editor

AUTOMOTIVE PLASTICS

Auto-part recycling is a

top industry priority

_/-

__? '_°_°'tes

t3n'lo_ C.arbide Niari_s llecyCling Nlilestotae

AUTOMOTIVE PLASTICS:

TAKING APART THEPUZZLE

Theautomotivea)gplasticsin&stries,jointlya)zdflzdivi&ally,seekgreater

recyclabilityofplasticautomotivecompoT_ents. Thechallenge:gettflzgthe

materialo_toftheca)'andintotherecyclingloop.

Recyclers Add Capacity _ .- ,_00 "_0 t_l_'_'_'B,o_, ......... ,,..........

Throughout the Cog.try : i _J_g I_. __._,,........

"I_TEW corporate facilitio_ =_r,llG_U ._. .............. "_"" ......

.A. _] cyclil G_ I UO'"'_.o_,_ ..... """°"

Chemical o.,. .... _ _.,,_,ames account for sev_l'_ major efforts. New

recycling plants owned by Union

Carbide, Quantum Chemical and

Phillips Petroleum add significant

141
VEHICLE RECYCLING PARTNERSHIP

PARTNERS

CHRYSLER MOTOR COMPANY

FORD MOTOR COMPANY

GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION

VRP Objectives

• Understand Issues Involved with Vehicle Recycling

• Interact with Other Entities Involved in Recycling

Research

• Conduct Research and Development to Recycle

Materials and Components from Scrap Vehicles

• Develop Guidelines for Design and Material

Selection to Facilitate Recycling

142
NEEDED

• RECYCLABLE

FOR RECYCLING

MATERIALS

• RECYCLING TECHNOLOGY

• DISMANTLING OR SEPARATION

• DESIGN FOR DISASSEMBLY

• MATERIALS IDENTIFICATION CODES

• DEVELOPMENT OF RECYCLING BUSINESS

RECYCLING

THERMOPLASTICS

• Reuse

• Compatiblize

• Reactive Processing

• Incinerate

• Pyrolyse

• Depolymerize

143
RECYCLING THERMOSETS

• INCINERATION

• PYROLYSIS

• GRIND, USE AS FILLER

• CHEMICAL CONVERSION

144
AN INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

FOR MIDDLE SCHOOL AND BEYOND

Nancy L. Denton

and

Vernon S. Hillsman

Mechanical Engineering Technology Department

Purdue University

1417 Knoy Hall, Room 137

West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1417

Telephone 317-494-7517 or 8486

145

An Introduction to Strength of Materials For Middle School and Beyond

Nancy L. Denton and Vernon S. Hillsman

Mechanical Engineering Technology Department

Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1417

KEY WORDS: stress, strain, stability, bend, crush, shear, buckle, axial force, shearing

force, bending moment, torque.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The students should be able to follow directions

regarding safety of themselves and of those around them. No technical knowledge is required.

OBJECTIVES: To _.ain familiarity with the basic concepts of strength of materials;

strength, stiffness and stabdity. To observe how materials respond to various types of loading.

To promote a better understanding of technical professions.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

For specimens and demonstrations:

/i / Craft Cpopsicle")sticks- 50 or more per student Circular cross-section plastic straws - up to 50

Fishing line - approximately 0.5 m per student of two or more strengths. All should be

of a single material.

/i / Wood model glue-at least one tube per student team

Small hex head bolts - preferably of several materials

Foam bar with "stress element" - rectangular cross-section length of foam at least 50mm

x 60mm x 250mm

(7) Tongue depressors - at least 4; with pairs glued lengthwise to form double-thickness

"beams"

/i ! FlatUtilityplasticknife-f°rscale the instructor's use only! ) Safety glasses - one pair per person

For testing:

/21/ SmallDigital visetorque wrench with maximum value storage

Ii the materials/mechanical testing laboratory)

3 Universal test machine fixtured with flat plates (about 250 mm x 500 mm)

Metal rods - 3 of same diameter and material, about 175 mm long

Instrumentation to measure test machine loading (such as load cell and strain indicator)

i i any other location)

Lightweight bucket with round metal handle

Metal rods - 2 of diameter similar to the bucket handle

Loading material such as sand or water

/76/ WeightSmall amount scale of clay, putty, beeswax, or similar material

INTRODUCTION: Strength of materials is a subject that affects all walks of life, and

even children have some inherent qualitative understanding of strength, stiffness, and stability.

In a faculty-led workshop, precollegiate students consider how common items withstand loads

due to axial forces, shear forces, bending moments, and torques. The effects of geometry and

material properties are investigated while students crush, shear, buckle, bend, stretch and twist

__ PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED

147
various items. For students who have studied basic algebra, the simplest equations governing

the resulting stresses and deflections (or strai.ns), can be presented. For all students, the

general concepts of strength, stiffness, and stability are demonstrated and engineering concerns

related to design, testing, and manufacturing are discussed throughout. Experiential learning

is emphasized inall actlMties of the workshop. 1

PROCEDURE: Note that the foam bar is used to illustrate each of the following

concepts as it is presented, and thus, should be near the instructor at all times.

Axial Force and Deflection: Pull on the foam bar to show how tensile axial loads cause

it to deflect. For older students, show the following equations:

Axial Stress = P/A

Axial Deflection = PL/AE

where P is axial force, L is specimen length, A is cross-sectional area, and E is Young's

modulus.

Next, show the students the lengths of fishing line and point out that the only difference

is in cross-sectional area. Have the students slowly pull each line until it snaps. Discuss how

the line lengthens before breaking. Have them compare the force needed to break each line.

This test demonstrates both strength and stiffness (deflection) for axial loading. (Ideally, there

will be a sufficient number of lengths of fishing] line for each student to break a pair of lines).

Ask the students for examples of matenals that stretch only a little or a lot. Discuss

how some of them are used, and explain that designers usually consider both elasticity and

strength when selecting a material for a product.

Stability/Buckling: Apply a longitudinal compressive axial load to the foam bar and

show that it bows out (buckles) in the center of its length. Apply a similar load to the center of

a transverse side to show that the bar crushes when the length and cross section proportions

are reversed. Note that the bucklingoccurs at a much lower load than would be required to

crush the material in compression. Provide and discuss Euler's equation for buckling of

pinned-end columns:

Critical Buckling Load = _r2 EI/(Le)2

where E is Young's modulus (material stiffness), I is the area moment of inertia of the crosssection (shape stiffness); and Le is the effective length of the column.

To illustrate the concept of area moment ofinertia (I), apply a similar compressive load

to a scale (ruler) of rectangular cross-section, and note that it buckles in the directmn with

material occurnng closer to its center, its weak direction. Show the equation:

Rectangle's area moment of inertia: I = bh3/12

where b is the base of the rectangular cross-section and h is the height. Based on the Euler

equation, the scale will buckle in the direction of the lowest area moment of inertia, which is

calculated using] the smallest side dimension of the rectangular cross-section as the height, h.

Take a single full-length straw; install it between the flat plates on the pre-instrumented

universal test machine; and have a pair (or team) of students measure the straw's buckling

load. Next, cut a straw in two. Have the students guess if the buckling load should be higher

or lower. Have another pair of students measure the load to determine who is correct.

Finally, bundle two or more straws together; ask the students how much load should be needed

for buckling; and have a third pair measure the buckling load.

The straws typically vary noticeably in geometry and stability. This provides an

opportunity to discuss manufacturing issues such as quality control and reasonable tolerances

148
for an item based on its expected use. For example, for some straws, the side may collapse

before the length buckles due to variations in material thickness.

Torsion: Start by slowly and carefully twisting the foam bar about its longitudinal axis.

Show that the center of the bar does not move, while the comers rotate through a significant

angle. While holding one end in place, again twist the bar to demonstrate that the comers at

the f'uted end of the bar do not move, but the comers at the bar's free end can experience a

great deal of deflection. Explain that in addition to motion, the bar is experienong torsional

shear stress, or stress due to slipping between "slices" of bar. At the center of the bar, because

no motion occurs, there is no slipping, and therefore, no shear stress. At the comers, the

opposite is true, so there can be a large amount of torsional shear stress. The related

equations (for a circular cross section rod) are:

Torsional Shear Stress = TR/J

Torsional Deflection = TL/JG

where T is torque, R is the radial distance from center, J is the area polar moment of inertia

(shape stiffness), L is the length being twisted, and G is the shear modulus of the material

(material stiffness which resists twisting).

Next, move to the vise and tighten about the threads of one bolt. Have a pair of

students use the torque wrench to SLOWLY twist the bolthead off while measuring the torc.lue

applied. (Note that the torque required will generally be low, so that torque measurement Is

d_fficult without the peak hold option on the torque wrench). Use other students to remove

the bolt and install one made of another material. Have another pair of students twist the

second bolthead. Repeat additional times with bolts of different materials. Compare the

torques required for failure, and discuss the benefits and limitations for use of each (i.e., nylon

versus steel).

Bending: Begl'n by showing how. the shape of the stress element on the. foam bar

changes when subjected to three point bending. Bend the foam beam so that its shape appears

concave up, and have the students note the changes to the lengths of the lines at the top,

bottom and center of the stress element. The top line will appear shorter, so the top otthe

beam is in compression. The bottom line will appear longer, which is evidence of tension on

the bottom of the beam. The line in the center of the stress element will remain unchanged,

which relates to zero stress.

The equations used to quantify three point bending are as follows:

Flexural Stress at center = PLy/4I

Deflection at center = PL3/48EI

where P is the load applied at the center of the beam, L is the beam length, y is the distance

from the neutral axis to the top or bottom surface of the beam, E is the modulus of elasticity

and I is the area moment of inertia of the beam cross-section.

For workshops conducted in the mechanical/materials testing laboratory, explain that

the students will be building a structure of their choosing during the next fifteen minutes, tlaen

bending it until it breaks. The size of the structure is limited by the size of the flat plates used

for loading. The load required to break each structure will be recorded, with recognition given

to the student(s) who build the strongest structure. Then distribute about 50 craft sticks (and

$1ue) to each student, or team, and let them build their structures. Assist them as needed with

ideas, cutting the sticks, etc. While the structures dry (about 5 minutes), proceed with other

bending tests.

149
Two rectangular cross-section beams, each made of a pair of glued tongue depressors,

are tested in three point bending to show the effect ot the orientation ot the cross-section on

beam deflection and load carrying capability. Bend each to failure using three point bending

on the universal test machine, fixtured to obtain a concave up shape as shown with the foam

beam. Measure the load required to bend about the weak axis and about the strong, axis.

Discuss the concept of area moment of inertia (shape stiffness) again and point out how

structures are designed to take advantage of this property. , .

When the glue on the students' craftstick structures is dry and cured, have each fnstall

their structure in the universal testing machine for three point bending (or crushing, if more

appropriate for the structure). Assist them in slowly loading the structt_res until failure occurs.

Record the peak load each structure withstands, and recognize the stu0ent(s) who designed

and built the strongest structure. Discuss how construction techniques affected the structures'

ability to withstandload, just as they can affect the many structures used in daily life.

For workshops held outside of the mechanical/materials testing laboratory, it may not

be possible to test student-built structures. As an alternate method of illustrating three-point

bending, tongue depressor "beams" can _ mounted across two metal rods, with an empty

bucket across the center of each "beam. Load can be applied by slowly adding water or sand

to the bucket until the "beam" fails. The bucket can then be weighed to determine the load

required to break beams of various cross-sections. Preparation for this variation includes

setting up a test frame and gluing tongue depressor "beams" of several thicknesses. The test

frame can be set up many ways. A simple method is to move tables close to_ether, lay one

metal rod on each, and apply a small amount of clay or putty to prevent rolling. Sufficient

beams should be prepared to facilitate a discussion of shape stiffness, demonstrate how shape

stiffness affects the amount of load required for failure, and to permit small teams of students

to each test at least one "beam."

Conclusion: Summarize the basic concepts of strength of materials: strength, stiffness,

and stability. Review the types of loading applied, and how items responded to each.

Encourage the students to provide examples of each, and to think about how the work of

engineers and technologists affects them every day. Experiences like these illustrate the

practical applications of mathematics and the physical sciences while helping students

understandwhy "to engineer is human. "2

INSTRUCTOR NOTES: Students are more interested, and retain more of what they

are taught when they are actively participating in the learnin_ process. 3 If possible, students.

should do the setup and testing themselves. In order to facihtate that type ot participation, the

group size needs to be limited to about 8 students per instructor. If two instructors lead the

workshop, a maximum of 15 students is recommended.

Safety must always be a top priority, and students should be warned about:

(1) Continued inhalation of fumes from the glue can cause a variety of physical problems

including dizziness and difficulty breathing.

(2) The typical universal testing machine is capable of applying great force onto fingers or

(3)

(4)

whatever gets in its path.

When twisting the bolts, it is possible that the bolthead and/or torque wrench could fly

loose.

Safety glasses should be worn during all tests.

REFERENCES:

1. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and

Evaluation Standards For School Mathematics. The National Council of

Teachers of Mathematics, Incorporated, Reston, VA.

2. Petroski, H. To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design.

St. Martin's Press.

150
1 Resnick, L. B. (1987). Education and Learning to Think.

National Academy Press, 1987.

Washington, D.C.,

SOURCES OF SUPPLY: The local hardware store or craft store will stock most

items required for the workshop. It may be necessary to obtain tongue depressors from a

pharmacy, and straws from a supermarket.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The thoughtful and timely assistance of James D. Osborne,

department mechanician, in the development of this workshop is gratefully acknowledged.

151

N94- 36404

i .

!

/Y

SIMULATION OF MATERIALS PROCESSING:

FANTASY OR REALITY?

Thomas J. Jenkins

and

Victor M. Bright

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Air Force Institute of Technology

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

Ohio 45433-6583

Telephone 513-255-1200, ext. 4818, or 513-255-3576 ext. 4598

153

Simulation of Materials Processing:

Fantasy or Reality?

Thomas J. Jenkins, Capt, USAF

Victor M. Bright, PhD

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Air Force Institute of Technology

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH 45433-7765

KEY WORDS: computer-aided design (CAD), microelectrc,_.cs, oxidation,

computer simulation.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The students should understand the concepts

associated with the oxidation of silicon as applied to integrated circuit fabrication. In addition,

the students should be familiar with the operating system of the computer, which will be

executing the software.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this experiment are the following:

1. Introduce the general topic of simulation of materials processing as it

relates to the fabrication of microelectronic circuits,

, Familiarize the students with the use of the specific process simulation

tool, which they will be required to use during subsequent

semiconductor experiments, and

3. Introduce three independent measurement teclaniques which are used to

characterize oxide thickness and to verify computer simulations.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: The equipment required to implement this

experiment is listed in Table I. The oxidation furnace is used to oxidize the silicon wafers.

The reflectance spectrophotometer, ellipsometer and profilometer are required to measure the

thickness of the resulting oxides.

The TSUPREM-4 (Technology Modeling Associates, Inc., Palo Alto, CA) simulation

software 1 is required. The students will use this software to simulate the various oxidation

furnace conditions utilized during the oxidation process.

155
Therequiredprocessingsuppliesarethosecommonlyfoundin asilicon-based

semiconductorresearchlaboratory.ThesesuppliesarelistedinTableII. All of thechemical

suppliesshouldbestandardelectronicsgrade.Thespecificsiliconwafersutilizedin this

experimentareprimegrade,(100)-oriented,p-type(borondoped)with anominalresistivityof

6- 18f_.cm.

PROCEDURE: Thegeneralprocedureof thisexperimentconsistsof four steps:

1)simulationof theoxidationprocess,2) thermaloxidationof siliconwafers,3)measurement

of theresultingoxidethickness,and4) comparisonof thesimulationto theactualresultsof the

oxidation.

1. Simulation of Oxidation Process.

To accomplish the computer simulations, the students are provided a user's guide 2 and

an introduction to the use of the TSUPREM-4 software. The user's guide briefly describes the

fundamental processes which can be simulated with the software. Practical information

concerning the trade-offs between accuracy and simulation time, as well as the basic structure

of the simulation input files, is presented. The introduction is accomplished by executing a

simple example with the students observing the flow of the simulation process. A commentary

is provided during the simulation process.

After familiarizing themselves with the software, the students simulate the thermal

oxidation of silicon for various process conditions. The various oxidation conditions are listed

in Table III. The wet oxygen ambient consists of atmospheric-pressure oxygen bubbled

through water containing 2% (by volume) HC1. In addition, the furnace pressure is maintained

at one atmosphere during all oxidation conditions. A sample simulation file is presented in

Figure 1, and portions of the generated output are depicted in Figures 2 and 3.

2. Thermal Oxidation of Silicon Wafers.

The students implement the thermal oxidation which they previously simulated. To

accomplish this process, the students must clean the wafers and expose them to the appropriate

oxidation conditions.

(A) Cleaning:

Since undetectable traces of contaminants can be catastrophic to both the wafer and the

oxidation furnace, proper cleaning is essential before exposing the wafers to the elevated

temperatures in the oxidation furnace.

156
(1) Thewafersshouldbeimmersedin amodifiedpiranhasolution

(H2SO4 : H202,3:2). Thewafersshouldbecleanedfor 20minutesandrinsedthoroughly

with deionized(DI) waterto atleasta 10Mf_-cmstandard.

(2) Then,afterblowingthewafersdry with N2, theyshouldbetransportedto

theoxidationfurnacein acoveredcontainer.

(B) Oxidation:

Two typesof oxygenambients(dryandwet)will beusedby thestudents.Thewet

ambientshouldberealizedby flowingthedryoxygenthrougha2%(by volume)solutionof

HCI andDI water,whichis heatedto 95°C.

(1) Thewafersshouldbeloadedintoaquartzoxidationboat.

(2) A furnacesettingof 900°Candanoxygenflow of oneliter perminute

(lpm) shouldbeverified.

(3) Thewaferboatshouldthenbeslowlypushed(1inch perminute)into the

furnace'scenterhot-zone.If awet oxidationis to bedone,thewafersshouldbeexposedto

thedry oxygenfor 5 minutesprior to flowing thewetoxygenthroughthefurnace.This brief

dry oxidationwill produceaninitial thinoxide. Thisinitial oxidewill preventtheintroduction

of defectsin thesiliconwaferwhichmaybecausedby theexposureto HCI.

(4) Uponcompletionof theoxidation,thewaferboatshouldbewithdrawn

from thefurnaceat therateof 1inchperminute.Thewafersshouldberemovedfrom theboat

andplacedin acoveredcontainer.

(5) Theoxidationprocessisrepeatedfor eachof theprocessconditions.

3. Measurement of Oxide Thickness.

After completing the oxidation, the students measure the oxide thickness which was

produced during the various processing conditions. The thickness of the oxides is determined

by using a reflectance spectrophotometer, an ellipsometer and a profilometer. The reflectance

spectrophotometer and ellipsometer introduce the students to two types of non-contact,

nondestructive measurement techniques, whereas the profilometer introduces the students to

a destructive measurement technique.

While reflectance spectrophotometric and ellipsometric measurements do not require

specific post-processing of the oxidized wafers, profilometry requires the fabrication of mesas

within the oxide layer to be measured. This requirement makes profilometry destructive: To

fabricate the mesas, a simple multistep process is used. Portions of the oxide are selectively

etched. The remaining oxide forms mesas of silicon dioxide upon the silicon wafer's surface.

157
Thesemesasaresubsequentlymeasuredwiththeprofilometerto determinetheoxidethickness.

Themesafabricationconsistsof thefollowingsteps:

(A) Masking:

(1) WaycoatHR200negativephotoresistis dabbedontotheoxidizedwafer's

surface.A sterilecottonQ-tipis usedto applythephotoresist.Thediameterof thedotsor

specklesof photoresistshouldbelessthan5 mm.

(2) Thepatternedwafersareplacedin anovenat 135°Cfor 20minutesto

evaporatethesolventsfrom thephotoresistandhardenit. If anovenis notavailable,ahot

platecanbesubstituted.

(B) Etching:

(1) After allowingthewafersto cool,thewafersareetchedusingabuffered

HF (NH4F:HF, 4:1) solution. Freshetchantshouldbemixedsufficientlyearlyto let it

stabilize(2 hours)beforeit is used.Nevertheless,it mustbeusedwithin 6 hoursaftermixing.

Thewafersareetcheduntil theexposedportionsof thewaferbecomehydrophobicandall

unmaskedportionsof theoxidearecompletelyetchedaway.Studentscananticipateanetch

rateof 110-150nm/min.

(2) Theetchedwafersarerinsedin DI waterfor 2 minutesafteretching.

(C) Stripping:

After etching,theremainingphotoresistmustbestrippedfrom thewafers'surface.

(1) Thewafersareimmersedin amodifiedpiranhasolution(H2SO4 :H202,

3:2). Thewafersshouldbecleanedfor 20minutesandrinsedthoroughlywith DI water.

(2) Then,afterblowingthewafersdrywith N2,theresultingmesasof silicon

dioxidecanbecharacterizedby profilometry.

Theresultsofreflectancespectrophotometer, ellipsometer,andprofilometer

measurementsof atypicalexperimentaltrial aredepictedinTableIV. Thereflectance

spectrophotometerresultsaretheaverageof tenmeasurementsof twosimilarly oxidized

wafers. Likewise,theellipsometeresultsaretheaveragevaluesof two similarlyoxidized

wafers. Theprofilometerresultsaretheaverageof multiplemesasononeof thetwo wafers,

whichwerepreviouslycharacterizeduringellipsometry.

158
4. Analysis of the Results.

The students compare the measured oxide thickness to the simuiations of the actual

fabrication process. In their analysis, the students use estimated oxide thicknesses from the

TSUPREM-4 results and oxidation charts from textbooks. As part of their analysis, the

students need to consider ease of use, accuracy, and precision of the computer simulations.

The students should "discover" the utility of CAD tools designed to model

technological processes. For example, the wet oxidation is not readily determined from simple

oxidation charts. Table V depicts the information which can be found in most oxidation charts.

While the use of HCI in the steam yields oxides with superior electrical properties, the HC1

modifies the oxidation rate of silicon. Also, the initial dry oxidation for 5 minutes (before

introducing the steam) produces an initial thin oxide which is not accounted for in most charts.

Hence, multi-step processes are more easily handled with CAD tools. Without CAD,

the students must compute the expected oxide thickness by consulting numerous tables of

parameters, such as linear and parabolic rate constants. This process can be tedious, repetitive,

and prone to errors; thus, the students realize the value of CAD.

In addition, the use of charts and other graphics requires interpolation of parameters to

account for the actual process conditions. Small deviations can affect the accuracy of the

process. For example, a deviation of 5 minutes and 10°C may yield an error of more than

10 nm. This error can be significant when working with typical microelectronic devices which

have critical oxide thicknesses of about 20 nm. These small deviations are easily entered into

CAD tools, whereas the interpolation errors in simple charts can be as large as the process

deviations. These errors can affect accuracy and precision.

The accuracy and precision of a calibrated simulation are readily obvious to the students

after they compile figures or tables comparing simulations to measurements. Examples of

typical results are depicted in Figures 4-7 and Table VI. The dry oxidation results are depicted

in Figures 4 and 5. Additionally, the wet oxidation results are illustrated in Figures 6 and 7.

Within each figure, the simulation results are compared to the measured reflectance

spectrophotometric results. The mean measured value is depicted with a bar, while the

maximum and minimum measured values are depicted with unconnected cross symbols. The

corresponding simulated values are depicted with a connected line.

The typical magnitudes of the deviation among the simulations and measured results are

depicted in Table VI. As depicted in Table VI, the deviations among the simulations and the

nondestructive techniques of measurement are consistently less than four percent. From simple

analyses, such as these, it should be readily apparent to the students that a great deal of

variability exists. However, it should also be evident to the students that CAD produces a

result comparable to the measured values with relative ease of use.

159
SAMPLE DATA SHEETS: Self-Evident.

INSTRUCTOR NOTES: This experiment introduces students to the application of

computer-aided design (CAD) and analysis of materials processing in the context of integrated

circuit (IC) fabrication. The fabrication of modern ICs is a complex process which consists, of

several sequential steps. These steps involve the precise control of processing variables such

as temperature, humidity, and ambient gas composition. In essence, the particular process

employed during the fabrication becomes a "recipe." Due to economic and other

considerations, CAD is becoming an indispensable part of the development of new recipes for

IC fabrication.

In particular, this experiment permits the students to explore the CAD of the thermal

oxidation of silicon. After the students simulate dry and wet oxidation processes, they

implement the simulated processes and measure the thickness of the oxide actually realized with

their recipes. The students conclude the experiment by reconciling the differences between the

simulated and real oxide.

The students should be divided into at least four groups. The groups are represented in

Table III. By assigning each group a particular oxidation condition, the individual groups of

students can complete the time consuming oxidations relatively quickly (during a single

laboratory period of three to four hours). Another laboratory period is required to complete the

measurements of the oxidation thickness. Upon completing the oxidations in the laboratory,

the four groups can share their measured results. Another laboratory period is required to

complete the simulations. The entire experiment can be easily incorporated within a lecture

course on integrated circuit technology. The integration of the experiment within a technology

course can provide a hands-on realistic appraisal of the utility of CAD tools in materials

processing.

The students should be cautioned about the hazards. When working with the acids, the

students should wear eye protection and gloves. Particular care should be exercised while

working with HF. When working with the ellipsometer, the students should be wamed not to

stare into the laser.

Upon completion of the experiment, the students gain an insight into the role of CAD in

material processing. Hence, they can begin to discem when CAD may be intelligently applied

to processing so as not to obfuscate, but to enlighten. That is, the student will be able to

distinguish between the fantasies and the realities associated with semiconductor-material

process simulation. In addition, the student will be prepared to apply the specific process

simulator in other academic studies.

160
REFERENCES:

° User's Manual: TMA TSUPREM-4 Two-Dimensional Process Analysis Program,

Version 9035. Technology Modeling Associates, Inc., 300 Hamilton Avenue, Third

Floor, Palo Alto, California 94301, September 1990.

, Thomas Jenkins: AFIT User's Guide to TSUPREM4, Student Handout, Department

of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Air Force Institute of Technology, WrightPatterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433, December 1991.

3. Roy Colclaser: Microelectronics Processing and Device Design, John Wiley & Sons,

New York, 1980, pp. 92-93.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY: Other than the photoresist, all laboratory

chemicals required for this experiment are available from Mallinckrodt, Inc., Science Products

Division, Paris, Kentucky. The photoresist is available from Olin Hu:_! Specialty Products,

Inc., 5 Garret Mountain Plaza, West Paterson, New Jersey. The silicon wafers can be

obtained from Ziti, Inc., 14755 Preston Road, Suite 421, Dallas, Texas.

161
Table I. Laboratory Equipment

Diffusion/Oxidation Furnace

Model 4100, Thermco Products Corp., Orange, CA

Ellipsometer

Model L117, Gaertner Scientific Corp., Chicago, IL

Oven

Model Imperial IV 3450M, Lab-Line Instruments, Melrose park, IL

Prof'dometer

Model Dektak IIA, Sloan Technology Corp., Santa Barbara, CA

Reflectance Spectrophotometer

Model LTS-M/SP, Leica Inc., Deerfield, IL

Table II. Laboratory Supplies

Ammonium Fluoride NH4F 40%

Hydrochloric Acid HCI 37%

Hydrofluoric Acid HF 49.2%

Hydrogen Peroxide H20 2 30%

Sulfuric Acid H2SO 4 96%

Wa_ccoat HR200 NeGative Photoresist

(mixed with H20 )

(mixed with H20)

(mixed with H20)

(mixed with H20)

(mixed with H20)

Table III. Conditions of Thermal Oxidation

Time (min) Temperature (°C) Oxygen Ambient

Group A

45 900 dry

60 900 dry

120 900 dry

Group B

45 1100 dry

60 1100 dry

120 1100 dry

Group C

45 900 wet

60 900 wet

120 900 wet

Group D

45 1100 wet

60 1100 wet

120 1100 wet

162
Dry Oxidation:

900°C

1100°C

WetOxidation:

900°C

ll00°C

TableIV. TypicalMeasuremen_

Time (min) Thickness (nm)

Reflectance Ellipsometer Profilometer

45 23 23 30

60 29 29 26

120 43 42 64

45 103 103 147

60 137 141 186

123 212 214 253

45 104 102 139

60 135 134 177

120 235 235 298

46 485 490 578

63 591 594 733

124 839 846 990

Time

Table V. Oxide Thickness Estimated From Oxidation Charts 3

900°C Dry 900°C Wet 1100°C Dry 1100°C Wet

45 min 29 nm 150 nm 110 nm 550nm

60 31 200 130 650

120 50 300 190 900

Table VI. Deviations Among Simulated and Measured Results

Dry Oxidation:

900°C

ll00°C

Wet Oxidation:

900°C

ll00°C

Time (min) Deviation (%)

Reflectance Ellipsometer Profilometer Chart

45 2.1 2.1 28 23

60 1.0 1.0 9.4 8.0

120 1.2 3.4 47 15

45 0.0 0.0 43 6.8

60 0.29 2.6 35 5.4

123 1.9 2.9 22 8.6

45 0.19 1.7 34 45

60 1.7 0.98 33 51

120 0.56 0.56 28 28

46 0.16 0.86 19 13

63 2.2 2.7 27 12

124 0.12 0.71 18 7.1

163
$ TMA TSUPREM-4 -- Oxidation Simulations for NEW'93

option device=x

$ Define the simulation grid and initialize

line x loc=0.0 spac=0.5

line x loc=l.0 spac=l

line y loc=0 spac=0.01

line y loc=0.5 spac=0.1

line y loc=l.0 spac=0.1

line y loc=2.0 spac=l.0

line y loc=10.0 spac=5.0

initialize <100> boron=3E15

$ Plot the initial grid

select title="Initial Grid"

plot.2D grid y.max=10

pause

$ Select oxidation model

method vertical grid.oxi=4.0

$ thermal oxidation

diffusion temp=630 time=15 t.final=930 dryo2

diffusion continue temp=930 time= 120 pressure= 1.0 dryo2

diffusion continue temp=930 time=15 t.final=630 dryo2

$plot oxide-mask thickness

select z=l

print layers x.v=0

pause

select title="Oxidation Results"

plot.2d y.max=l

color oxide color=4

color silicon color=2

stop

Figure 1. TSUPREM-4 sample input file to simulate thermal oxidation.

Num Material Top Bottom Thickness Integral

1 oxide -0.0251 0.0184 0.0435 4.35e-06

2 silicon 0.0184 200.0000 199.9816 1.9998e-02

Figure 2. Portion of simulation output: printing oxidation thickness.

164
OxidationResults

I • " " • | | | • a . . | | • | . | • l • • • | • • . • | I i i a t . • . • i I • • . • • . • . •

0._ 0._ 0._ 0._ 0.80 1._

Distance (micrometers)

Figure 3. Portion of simulation output: two-dimensional view of oxidized wafer.

5O

40

30

o_,,_

_ 20

o_,_

©

10

0

Mean

-0--- Simulation

+ Minimum

+ Maximum +

45 60 120

Oxidation Time imin)

Figure 4. Dry thermal oxidation of silicon at 900°C.

165
,xZ

_D

©

250

200

+

+

150

1O0

5O

0

Mean

"O---Simulation

Minimum

Maximum

45 60

Oxidation Time (min)

Figure 5. Dry thermal oxidation of silicon at 1100°C.

+

123

r.,/3

r./3

_D

,..c:Z

° I.,=_

©

300

250

200

Mean

-O--- Simulation

+ Minimum

+ Maximum

150

100

5O

0

45

Figure 6.

60 120

Oxidation Time (min)

Wet thermal oxidation of silicon at 900°C.

166
°_,,_

_D

°_,,_

©

9OO

800

700

60O

5OO

400

Mean

-0--- Simulation

+ Minimum

+ Maximum

46 63

Oxidation Time _'min)

Figure 7. Wet thermal oxidation of silicon at 1100°C.

124

167

N94- 36405

USING EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN MODULES FOR

PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION IN

MANUFACTURING/MATERIALS PROCESSES

LABORATORIES

Bruce Ankenman

Center for Quality and Productivity Improvement

and

Donald Ermer

Department of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering

University of Wisconsin - Madison

and

James A. Clum

Associate Dean

State University of New York at Binghamton

Watson School of Engineering

P. O. Box 6000

Binghamton, New York 13902-6000

Telephone 607-777-4555

ptlttl;lit'_ I'I-A_E tl_.llXi_ NOT Fii..lil_D

PAGE_ INT-!'T',tT;,;ALLYBLANK 169

Using Experimental Design Modules for

Process Characterization in Manufacturing/Materials Processes Laboratories

Bruce Ankenman*, Donald Ermer** and James Clum***

*Center for Quality and Productivity Improvement

**Department of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering

University of Wisconsin - Madison

***Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Department

State University of New York at Binghamton

..........................................................................................................

Abstract: Modules dealing with statistical experimental design(SED), process

modelling and improvement, and response surface methods have been developed and tested

in two laboratory courses. One course was a manufacturing processes course in

Mechanical Engineering and the other course was a materials processing course in Materials

Science and Engineering. Each module is used as an 'experiment' in the course with the

intent that subsequent course experiments will use SED methods for analysis and

interpretation of data. Evaluation of the modules' effectiveness has been done by both

survey questionnaires and inclusion of the module methodology in course examination

questions. Results of the evaluation have been very positive. Those evaluation results and

details of the modules' content and implementation are presented. The modules represent

an important component for updating laboratory instruction and to provide training in

quality for improved engineering practice.

Introduction (history): What follows is a brief discussion of the history of the

development of the SED and related topics modules in ME310 and MS&E370. The actual

ME310 module on SED is then presented in its format as one lab experiment followed by

an example of the SED applications from one of five subsequent experiments which rely on

the module for data analysis. A discussion of the comparison of the ME310 and

MS&E370 modules is given next. Finally, the results of the evaluation of the effectiveness

of the ME310 and MS&E370 modules are presented which are based on measurements of

student skills (ME310) and student opinion surveys (ME310 and MS&E370).

ME310 Lab; The ME310 course (Manufacturing Processes I) has been a

requirement in the ME curriculum for decades. Industrial Engineering students also may

take the course as an option and many usually do so. It is a three credit per semester course

with the course grading scheme effectively making for a division of student effort into twothirds lecture and one-third lab. The labs in the current version of the course are very

practice oriented with emphasis placed on principles and practices of machining operations

and deformation processing, e.g., extrusion and sheetmetal forming. The SED module

occupies one lab period near the beginning of the course.

ME310 Lc_r¢; Although the focus of the module development and

applications has been the ME310 laboratory the lecture portion has also been a source of

information on SED methods and related quality improvement tools. During 1991-92, for

example, Visiting Professor John Corbett used the lecture to introduce quality function

deployment (QFD) as a component of the broader topic, "design for competitive

manufacturing". In 1992-93, one of the authors (JAC) added presentations on fractional

factorial designs, Taguchi methods, and exploratory data analysis tools (check sheets,

cause-and-effect diagrams, flow charts, etc.) to the lectures.

MS&E370 Lectur¢; The module for this course was developed in 1992-93 with

the intent of being more comprehensive than the ME310 SED module. The reason for the

change of focus and format was two-fold: (1) MS&E370 was undergoing revision and the

applications of SED in the course's laboratories would be undertaken as a second stage of

the course revision; (2) unlike students in ME310 those in MS&E370 would not likely

have completed an introductory statistics or quality engineering course prior to the 370

course.

_D,_ F;_GF. _tL_iK NOT FILMED

171
Historically,thecourseMS&E370(MaterialsProcessing-UnitOperations)hasbeen

afour creditpersemestercoursewith divisionof effortmakingthelab counteffectivelyas

onecredit. In the 1992-93academicyearthecoursewasbeingrevisedto makeit fit, asan

approvedoption,intotheMechanicalEngineeringcurriculum. Thus,therewasan

increasedinterestto incorporatetopicssuchasSEDandprocesscharacterizationand

improvementoolsin therevisionof MS&E370aroseto makeit similarto ME310.

Lab Module(s): TheactualME310LabmoduleonStatisticalExperimentalDesignis

givenin AppendixI. Alsoin thatAppendixis anSEDProjectexercisewhichis thebasis

of thestudentreportsfor theSEDlabsession.Subsequentto theSEDlab sessionthereare

five (5) SED-basedlab sessions:_, andForces and Power in Metal Cutting I and

II (drilling; grinding; milling; turning). The five applications of SED along with the SED

module itself comprise approximately 40%, or 110 points out of 250, of the value allocated

to ME310 Lab reports. A copy of the ME310 Lab data sheet used in the SED application

for the Extrusion experiment is included in Appendix I. That data sheet is typical of the

forms used in the five SED applications labs.

The module on Process Characterization Tools prepared for MS&E370 is excerpted

in Appendix II. Shown there are: (i) the cover page for the module which outlines the

module's intent, and (ii) a summary figure from the module, "PROCESS

IMPROVEMENT TOOL BOX". As the cover page "Abstract" indicates the MS&E370

module covers a wider range of topics than the ME310 SED module. Its future application

in the revised MS&E370 was the basis for such a range of topics being introduced. An

exercise was included in the MS&E370 module which is similar to the 23 design analysis

of the ME310 SED module. However, in the first semester of its use none of the other lab

experiments in MS&E370, e.g., casting, heat treating and joining, were modified to take

advantage of the new process characterization/improvement module.

Evaluation of Effectiveness: Two methods of evaluation were used to determine

the effectiveness of the ME310 module on SED. These methods were: (1) evaluation of

each student's skill level in designing, analyzing and interpreting a standard 23 factorial

experiment during an exam; (2) surveying each student to gain information about their

attitudes towards the perceived general usefulness and possible future career applications of

SED methods. Only the survey method was used with the students in MS&E370 since

they did not have the opportunities for practice of the skills afforded in ME310.

Skill Level - ME310: As a part of one of the ME310 lecture examinations a

problem was given which asked the students to compare their actual lab experiment on

sheetmetal forming (done in sequence prior to their SED lab, and also done without regard

to balancing the pattern of investigation of the three test factors of: alloy type, sheet

thickness and lubrication) to data from a standard 23 factorial design of the same

experiment. Of the sixty-five (65) students taking the exam 62 got the problem completely

correct, except for some math errors in calculating the predictive model residuals. The

three remaining students' error was in writing the standard design in reverse order, after

which the rest of their calculations were correct except for the wrong signs in the

calculations of the predictive models. The exam was closed book and closed notes. They,

as a group, had clearly developed the skill of being able to design and analyze simple

factorial designs. Of equal importance, they were able to recognize the "bad" design of the

original sheetmetal forming experiment.

Attitudes Survey - ME310 and MS&E370: At the end of Spring Semester 1993

the 65 students in ME310 and 6 in MS&E370 were surveyed to determine how effective

they felt SED was as an experimental tool. The summary results from three questions

relating to usefulness of SED are presented below. The percentages are based on the total

number of responses who either agree, or strongly agree with the statement.

172
Statement

I would recommend that SED methods be

incorporated in all lab courses.

ME310 MS&E370

82.5% 66.7%

I think SED is a tool that I will find useful in

future applications. 95.2% 100%

I would like to gain more experience in SED

methods 88.9% 83.3%

The survey results provide a strong signal for those of us developing laboratory

courses and experiments. It is worth adding at this point that several students in both

courses were co-op students. Their comments on the surveys were that they had already

been introduced to these experimental planning and analysis tools during their co-op.

Unfortunately, except for these instances (ME310 and MS&E370) they were not being

given regular access to such modem laboratory analysis methods in their engineering

education. (We should note here that the University of Wisconsin - Madison's Plasma

Processing Laboratory offers SED instruction as part of the plasma lab course at the

graduate level. An SED module was written by Prof. Soren Bisgaard for that course.)

Summary: We have outlined an example of an instructional plan for incorporating

statistical experimental design methods into existing laboratory courses. The incorporation

of these techniques has been shown to be effectively accomplished in terms of both student

skill development and attitudes regarding experimentation. Furthermore, this procedure of

making the SED topic an integral part of the overall lab operation strengthens the entire

course with minimal effect on the curricular focus of the lab course.

Instructor Notes: The major impediment to using SED methods in existing laboratory

courses is lack of instructor familiarity with the concepts. We offer two recommendations

for overcoming that barrier. The first suggestion is to enlist the aid of a colleague at your

institution who has a background in statistical methods to help you write your own

module(s) using this module as a guide. In this approach you will find a willing support

person with statistics as a background and you will 'learn by doing' as you develop the

module to fit your specific circumstances. A second way to modify your course(s) to

include the SEE) techniques is to attend formal workshops or short courses offered by a

variety of organizations. We will not list any of those offerings here, but can provide you

with suggestions if you contact us.

Acknowledgements: There have been many individuals responsible for the

successful development of the ME310 SED modules. Particular mention should be made

of the Teaching Assistants who have taught the lab course and specifically contributed to

the lab's success. They are, in alphabetical order: John Bashel, Dan Bee, Dave De Haan,

Bill Durkin; Pat Galecki, Bob Gustafson, Jim Rink, Russ Tilsner, Dave Van Zuest, and Jim

Witte. The encouragement of several faculty also was essential to implementing these

changes. The faculty to be acknowledged include, in alphabetical order: Prof. Soren

Bisgaard (IE and Associate Director of the Center for Quality and Productivity

Improvement), Prof. Marvin DeVries (Chairman of ME and a long time proponent of use

of SED in manufacturing processes), and Prof. Slawomir Spiewak (ME and faculty in charge

of ME310 during these changes). Two of the authors (BA and JC) also wish to recognize

the support to CQPI by a grant from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation during 1992-93 when

this report was prepared.

173
(Appendix I)

ME310 Lab

STATISTICAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Key Words: Statistical Experimental Design; Factorial designs;

Randomization; Interaction Effects; Predictive models; Process characterization;

Continuous Improvement; Response surfaces; Exploratory data analysis.

Prerequisite Knowledge: You are expected to have taken an

introductory materials science/engineering course and math through differential equations.

No prior course work in statistics is required.

Purpose and Learning Objectives: The ['i4_ose of this instructional

module is to introduce you to an effective method of planning, conducting, analyzing and

interpreting experiments. This module will be followed by a series of laboratory modules

where practice of the methods will help to develop skills The methodology of statistical

experimental design (SED) is especially useful for the initial characterization and

continuous improvement of processes, particularly industrial processes.

Learning Objectives After completion of this module you should have

accomplished the following knowledge, skill and attitude objectives:

Knowledge Ob_iectives Know about the use of: Factorial SED techniques and their

capability to determine the effects of major process control parameters and interactions

between parameters; randomization,replication, blocking, and confounding in conducting

and analyzing experiments; Exploratory data analysis tools;

$kill Objectives Be able to: Plan, and properly conduct a full 2n factorial design;

Calculate contrasts and effects from standard results; Determine significant effects;

Construct empirical predictive model of behavior based on significant effects; Construct

contour diagram (preliminary response surface)from predictive behavior model; To aid in

problem solving: Construct check sheets, Pareto diagrams, histograms, flow charts,

cause-and-effect diagrams, scatter diagrams for a given data set;

Attitude Obiectives Actively promote the application of." Designed experiments in the

determination of major process effects for quality improvement and optimization; Simple

graphical methods of data analysis;

Equipment and Supplies: The SED modules require only data from real

experiments or industrial operations. Access to a computer software package with

capability to do graphics manipulations such as cube plots, normal probability plots, flow

chart construction, etc. is desirable. Such software is best presented as a demonstration

(needing appropriate hardware for overhead projection from computer screen) initially with

subsequent student access to the software for report calculations.

174
Introduction to Statistical Experimental Design

Statistical Experimental Design is a method of experimentation which provides the

experimenter with tools to accurately and efficiently collect and analyze data. A factorial

experiment usually involves several factors which are varied by the experimenter and one

or more responses which are to be optimized. In the past, engineers and scientists have

relied on one-factor-at-a-time experiments. These are experiments in which each factor in

the experiment is varied independently while the other factors are kept constant. However,

this type of experimentation has been found to be inadequate to produce the speed and

accuracy needed to develop new products and processes. The most notable short coming

of the one-factor-at-a-time approach is that the interaction that factors often have with each

other cannot be estimated. For example, in a sheetmetal forming operation, it may be found

that at one thickness of material, lubrication has a large effect on the formability of the

material, but at another thickness level the lubrication has almost no effect. A one-factor-ata-time experiment will not provide any information about this interaction. However, a

factorial experiment based on modern, statistical principles of experimental design will be

able to detect such interaction effects.

Two-Level Factorials

Although there are many types of statistically designed experiments, some of the

most useful are called two level factorials. For a two level factorial design each factor is set

at a high and low level (usually a small amount above and below what is currently

considered the best setting of that factor). Each possible combination of settings of the

factors is then run. Due to the properties of the experiment, the experimenter can determine

which factors have the most effect on the response, which factors interact, and build an

approximate model relating the factors to the response. This information can then be used

to optimize the response. Unreplicated two-level, three factor experiments, called 2 3

factorials, are especially useful for efficiently investigating a process about which very little

is known. These experiments only require 2 3 or 8 experimental trial runs and the results

can be used to get ideas about the underlying relationships of the factors with the response

during the exploratory phase of an investigation. To confirm these results for publication

or other such purposes, replications would be needed.

Asan example, a 23 factorial mill experiment will be designed and analyzed. The

three factors will be the Speed of the cutter (RPM), the Feed rate (in./min.), and the Depth

Of Cut or D.O.C. (in.).

Coding of the Factor Levels

For ease of analysis, it is convenient to code the factors into high and low levels as

follows:

Factor

Speed (S)

Feed (F)

D.O.C. (D)

Low Level

(-1)

50

2.5

.i

High Level

(+1)

75

3.5

.2

Units

RPM

in./min

in.

175
Usingthecodes"-1" and"+1" all thepossiblecombinationsof levelsmustnow be

listed. For simplicity wewill use"-" to showthe"-1" level and"+" to showthe"+1"

level. Theorderlistedbelowiscalledthestandardorderandyoucanquickly seethatthe

patternof thestandardordermakesit easyto detectwhetherall 23possiblecombinationsof

low andhighfactorlevelsarepresent.

Standard Order

i

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

S

B

+

m

4-

+

+

F

+

+

+

4-

D

m

+

4- •

+

4-

Randomization

It is unwise to run the actual experiment in the standard order. For example, if the

experiment were run in standard order and the calibration or any other uncontrolled factor

changed halfway through the experiment, it would be impossible to tell the difference

between the effect of the uncontrolled change and the effect of depth of cut (D) since this

factor changes only once at the midpoint of the experiment. This leads to the idea of

Randomization. Randomization is a principle which states that if the experimental trials are

run in random order, it is very unlikely that any uncontrolled factor change will exactly

correspond to any of the controlled factor changes and therefore the effect of the

uncontrolled factors should not significantly bias the experimental results. For this reason,

the trials in this experiment will be run in a random order. To determine the random order,

the numbers 1 through 8 should be written on small pieces of paper and drawn from a hat

or a bowl.

Cube Plots

A cube plot is a method of plotting the data from a 23 factorial. The plot consists

of a cube with a response value located at each comer. Each dimension of the cube

represents the coded scale of one of the factors from the low level (-) to the high level (+).

An example is given below using metal removal rate (Q) of the mill as the response plotted

versus the factors; Speed (S), Feed (F), and D.O.C.(D).

This plot is useful because one can easily compare the four responses with low F

on the left side of the cube (.031, .031, .063, .063) with those with high F in the

corresponding location on the right side of the cube (.044, .044, .088, .088) to see the

effect of F on metal removal rate,(Q).

In the figure below you will notice that there are four separate comparisons which

can be made and in each comparison the only factor changed is F. These separate

comparisons are called hidden replications and are the reason that, even when unreplicated,

23 factorials can be relied upon to convey a great deal of information. Similarly one can

compare the front and back of the cube to see the effect of D on Q or the top and bottom of

the cube to see the effect of S on Q. In the cube shown, one can see that the responses on

the top of the cube are identical to those in the corresponding position on the bottom of the

cube, which shows that Speed has no effect on Q. This confirms the already known

relationship, Q = (D.O.C.)*(Feed)*(Width of Cut), in which Speed is not a factor.

176
Metal Removal Rate of the Mill

$

Calculation and Meaning of the Effects

To this point, the effect of each factor has been spoken of in a qualitative way.

However, the specific quantitative definition of the main effect of a given factor on a given

response can now be defined as the average difference between the responses at the high

level of the factor and the responses at the low level of that factor. Thus, the effect of Feed

on Q is the average of the differences (.044 -.031), (.044 -.031), (.088 -.063), and

(.088 - .063). Therefore, for the ranges used in this experiment the effect of Feed (F) on

Q is .019, the effect of D.O.C. (D) on Q is .038, and the effect of Speed (S) on Q is zero.

The interaction effect between two factors is the average amount that the effect of a

factor changes when another factor is varied. For example, the effect of F on Q at the low

level of D is the average of (.044 - .031) and (.044 -.031) or .013, but at the high level of

D the effect of F on Q is .025. The interaction effect then is (.025 - .013)/2 or .006.

These interaction effects are most easily calculated using the table shown below, where the

interaction effect between Feed (F) and D.O.C.(D) is called FD and the other interaction

effects are similarly called SF and SD. SFD is the three way interaction effect. The

contrast for each column is the sum of the data when the data is given the signs of that

column as shown in the example column for FD. All effects, including the main effects,

are calculated as shown by dividing the contrast for each column by 4*. In this case the

only interaction effect is the interaction between the Feed and the D.O.C. (FD); all other

interactions show values of zero.

177
Trial #

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Contrast

Effects

Main Effects

S F D

-- m --

+ n --

-- +

+ + --

-- -- +

+ -- +

-- + +

+ + +

0 .076 .152

0 .019 .038

Interaction Effects

SF SD FD (example FD)

+ + + (+.031)

- - + (+.031)

- + - (-.044)

+ - - (-.044)

+ - - (-.063)

- + - (-.063)

- - + (+.088)

+ + + (+.088)

0 0 .024 (.024)

0 0 .006 (.024/4=.006)

SFD 9

- .031

+ .031

+ .044

- .0q4

+ .063

- .063

- .088

+ .088

0

0

*4 equals the number of differences being averaged, and can be easily determined

by the number of + and - pairs in the column.

Model Building

Once the important effects have been identified, a model can be created which will

estimate the response, in this case Metal Removal Rate, at locations in or on the cube which

were not specifically run in the experiment. The model uses the coded scale -1 to +1 for

each of the factors and includes only the strong effects. The coefficients for the polynomial

model are exactly one half of the effects previously calculated, so the model we will use is:

Q = (.0095)F + (.019)D + .0565 (Model 1)

where .0565 is the average value of the Metal Removal Rate data. If we consider the FD

interaction to be important, the model would then be:

Q = (.0095)F + (.019)D + (.003)FD + .0565 (Model 2)

Based on Model 1, we would predict a Q of .07075 for F=.5 and D=.5.

Model 2 would predict a Q of .070825, which shows that the interaction term is indeed

quite a small effect. Using the cube plot and the model we can see that if Q is to be

increased, Feed and D.O.C. must be increased and Speed has no influence on Q.

References

Box, G.E.P., W.G.Hunter, and J.S. Hunter (1978). Statistics for Experimenters.

New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Box, G.E.P., and Soren Bisgaard (1987), "The Scientific Context of Quality

Improvement." Quality Progress, June 1987 and Report #25, Center for Quality and

Productivity Improvement, Rm. 575 WARF Building, University of WisconsinMadison.

Box, G.E.P. (1989), "Do Interactions Matter?" Report #46, Center for Quality and

Productivity Improvement, Rm. 575 WARF Building, University of Wisconsin- Madison.

Box, G.E.P. (1989), "Must We Randomize Our Experiment?" Report #47, Center

for Quality and Productivity Improvement, Rm. 575 WARF Building, University of

Wisconsin- Madison.

Box, G.E.P. and Soren Bisgaard (1988), "Statistical Tools for Improving

Designs", Mechanical Engineering, Jan. 1988, pp.32-40.

CQPI Reports available from: Center for Quality and Productivity Improvement

University of Wisconsin - Madison

610 Walnut Street, WARF Bldg., Rm. 575

Madison, WI 53705

178
ME 310 Project II

Given the data in the standard order table below, perform the following

analysis: (Note: This experiment was performed in random order.)

1. Calculate the contrasts and main effects of speed (S), feed (F), and depth of

cut (D). Note: Show all calculations, no spread sheet analysis is allowed.

2. Calculate the contrasts and interaction effects of all control factors. Note:

Show all calculations, no spread sheet analysis is allowed.

Main Effects Interaction Effects

Trial # S F D S F SD FD SFD Hpu

_ + + + - 29.5 1

2 + _ _ _ + + 40.7

3 + _ _ + _ + 28.6

- 40.2 4 + + - + - -

5 _ + + _ _ + 21.3

- 34.1

6 + - + - + -

7 + + _ _ + - 21.6

8 + + + + + + + 34.0

Contrast

Effects

.

4.

5.

Draw the cube plot with the appropriate response at the comers of the cube.

On your cube plot, circle the four (4) hidden replications of feed (F).

Rank effects in ascending order, or lowest to highest, and calculate the

cumulative probabilities for each effect given by the equation:

P(i) = 100 ( i- .5 ) / n

.

7.

.

9.

where:

i = ascending order number associated with each piece of data.

n = size of the sample or number of effects.

Plot the cumulative probabilities on the normal probability plot provided.

Determine which main effects and/or interaction effects are significant from

the above analysis.

Develop the coded model for Hpu using the significant effects.

From the coded equation, determine the actual value for speed if it is desired

to maximize depth of cut and have a Hpu value of 30.2. You will need to use

the table for coded factors on page 2 of the SED Lab Notes.

NOTE: For further examples of the graphical methods of using cube plots to

analyse factorial designed experiments please refer to the following

References. To see how an additional problem is analyzed see the Box

and Bisgaard 1988 article in Mechanical Engineering. For a more

complete, but very readable description of cube plots refer to the textbook

by Box, Hunter and Hunter (1978).

Copies of the ME310 Lab Manual may be requested from Prof. Donald Ermer at the

Mechanical Engineering Department, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison, 1513 University Ave,

Madison, WI 53706. New copies will, however, not be printed after Fall Semester 1993

179
Extrusion Summary Sheet

Random

Order

Direction

Die

Geometr 7

Lubricatior.

IS.O. i*

Forward

Square

No

S.O. 2

Reverse

Square

No

S.O. 3

Forward

Round

N0

S.O. 4

Reverse

Round

NO

S.O. 5

Forward

Square

Yes

S.O. 6

Reverse

Square

Yes

S.O. 7

Forward

Round

Yes

S.O. 8

Reverse

Round

Yes

Break

Through

Force (ibs)

SQR= - FWD- - N/L= -

RND-- + REV-- + LUB= +

* S.O. represents "standard order"

. Main Effects

S.O. # D G L DG DL GL

1 - - - + + +

'2 4- .... 4-

3 -- + -- -- + _

4 + + - + _ _

5 - - + + _ _

6 + - + - + _

7 - + + - _ +

8 . + + + + + +

Contrast

Effects

Interaction Effects

DGL B.T. Force

+

+

+

4-

180
(Name)

Sheet Metal Forming Exinerimental Design

Std. order

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Contrast

Effects

Main Effects Interaction Effects

Axt AxL txL AxtxL Bulge

+ + + - 34.0

- - + + 21.3

- + - + 34.3

+ - - - 28.6

+ - - + 40.2

- + - - 21.6

- - + - 40.7

+ + + + 29.5

p. 6/6

Coding of the Factor Levels

For ease of analysis, it is convenient to code the factors into high and low levels as

follows:

Factor

Alloy (A)

thickness(t)

Lube (L)

Low Level

(-1)

2024-0

0.05

No lube

High 'Level

(+1)

2024-T3

0.125

Lube

Units

treatment

in.

lubricant

NOTE: This page is from ME310 Exam #2. It is the data sheet for a question

about how to reevaluate the Sheet Metal Formability Lab if a statistically designed

experiment had been conducted. In addition to completing the data table a cube plot

and process model equation was required as part of the exam question.

181
(Appendix H)

MS & E 370

Process Design and Control Toolbox: I

Exploratory Data Analysis Tools and Statistically Designed Experiments

Key Words: Statistical Experimental Design; Factorial designs;

Randomization; Interaction Effects; Predictive models; Process characterization;

Continuous Improvement; Response surfaces; Exploratory data analysis.

Prerequisite Knowledge: You are expected to have taken an

introductory materials science/engineering course and math through differential equations.

No prior course work in statistics is required.

Purpose and Learning Objectives: The Purpose of this instructional

module is to introduce you to an effective method of planning, conductihg, analyzing and

interpreting experiments. This module will be followed by a series of laboratory modules

where practice of the methods will help to develop skills. The methodology of statistical

experimental design (SED) is especially useful for the initial characterization and

continuous improvement of processes, particularly industrial processes.

Learning Objectives: After completion of this module you should have

accomplished the following knowledge, skill and attitude objectives.

Knowledge Obiectives Know about the use of:

Factorially Designed experiments; Blocking, confounding and randomization in conducting

and analyzing experiments; Exploratory data analysis tools;

Skill Objectives Be able to: Plan, and properly

conduct a full 2 n factorial design; Calculate contrasts and effects from standard results;

Determine significant effects; Construct empirical predictive model of behavior based on

significant effects; Construct contour diagram (preliminary response surface) from

predictive behavior model; Construct check sheets, Pareto diagrams, histograms, flow

charts, cause-and-effect diagrams, scatter diagrams for a given data set;

Attitude Ob_iectives Promote the application of: Simple

graphical methods of data analysis; Using designed experiments in the determination of

major process effects for improvement and optimization.

Equipment and Supplies: The SED modules require only data from real

experiments or industrial operations. Access to a computer software package with

capability to do graphics manipulations such as cube plots, normal probability plots, flow

chart construction, etc. is desirable.

............................................................................................................

Abstract: Traditional methods of designing and improving processes have been based

on one-factor-at-a-time (1-faat) procedures for obtaining information about the processes.

Such methods are known to be inefficient and often misleading with regard to the way

process variables are determined to affect the output. In this module we will describe and

illustrate the use of a variety of tools, or techniques, which are especially easy to use for

exploring existing data, and for obtaining and interpreting new data. The tools which will

be introduced are: flow diagrams; check sheets; Pareto charts; histograms, control charts,

cause-and-effect diagrams; designed experiments; response surfaces. These tools place

strong emphasis on visualization of data rather than on numerical descriptions of a system.

They can, consequently, be effectively used by a wide range of personnel involved with

design and monitoring of processes. Special emphasis will be given to factorial methods of

experimental design since those methods provide one of the best techniques for acquiring

data and converting it into useful information.

182
FLOW DIAGRAM

]:°l so[

PARETO ANALYSIS

A1 A2

BI B2 B3 B4

I 3 406

CI

n_ 5 -1

C2 3 -4 4!-1 5 0 3 2

DESIGNED EXPERIMENT

L = (y- T)_

TAGUCHI

SCATTER DIAGRAM

0-5 III

6-10 I_HIII II

11-15 ,IN ft4'd II II

16-20 Jgl4] J_41'

21-25 JUl.tf I I

26-30 Ill!

TALLY SHEET

TOOL BO

";-:,'-:;-_:-- --:- -ZI

.__'______b_____1

"="- -;" - _'-,T _:.- :- -1

VARIABLE CONTROL CHART

1

i _A A

ATTRIBUTE CONTROL CHART

CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM HISTOGRAM

183

N94- 36406 - ;=_-_._

PROCESS CAPABILITY DETERMINATION OF NEW

AND EXISTING EQUIPMENT

H. T. McClelland

Technology Department

University of Wisconsin-Stout

Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751

Telephone 715-232-2152

and

Penwen Su

Manufacturing and Industrial Technology

Arizona State University

Tempe, AZ 85287-6806

PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED

_:"ca.,.................

a_

185

PROCESS CAPABILITY DETERMINATION OF NEW AND EXISTING EQUIPMENT

H.T. McClelland

Technology Department

University of Wisconsin-Stout

Menomonie, WI 54751

Penwen Su

Manufacturing and Industrial Technology

Arizona State University

Tempe, AZ 85287-6806

KEY WORDS: Process capability, statistical process control,

statistics, equipment characterization.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Introductory statistics, some knowledge

of manufacturing processes and equipment. This will generally be

an experiment for an advanced class.

OBJECTIVES: To illustrate a technique for determining the

process capability of new equipment, existing equipment, or

testing laboratories. To illustrate a method of objectively

determining wear and other changes in equipment used for small

quantity production over a period of time. To present an example

of the application of the technique.

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this paper is to illustrate a method of

determining the process capability of new or existing equipment.

The method may also be modified to apply to testing laboratories.

Long term changes in the system may be determined by periodically

making new test parts or submitting samples from the original set

to the testing laboratory.

The technique described has been developed through a series

of projects in special topics manufacturing courses and graduate

student projects. It will be implemented as a standard

experiment in an advanced manufacturing course in a new

Manufacturing Engineering program at the University of WisconsinStout campus.

Before starting a project of this nature, it is important to

decide on the exact question to be answered. In this case, it is

desired to know what variation can be reasonably expected in the

next part, feature, or test result produced. Generally, this

question is answered by providing the process capability or the

average value of a measured characteristic of the part or process

± three standard deviations. There are two general cases to be

considered: (I) the part or test is made in large quantities

with little change or (2) the process is flexible and makes a

large variety of parts. Both cases can be accommodated; however,

the emphasis in this report is on short run situations.

187
GENERAL PROCEDURE

The first step in any investigation is to clearly define

what is desired. Specifically, what measurements will give the

most information about the process, can be measured with relative

ease, will continue to be made for the foreseeable future, and

relate directly to the quality of the part. Quite often, this

step is done too quickly and the results do not give the desired

information. It is suggested that extra time be taken to clearly

define the specific problem.

Selecting the proper sample is the next step. For large

runs of production parts or routine tests, the normally measured

features of the part or the standard test samples can be used. A

special part may have to be developed for short run, flexible

machinery. This part should include a variety of features which

incorporate as many of the functions of the machine as possible.

One such part is illustrated later. For short run situations, a

method can be used which focuses on the process, not the

product. I One technique is to use the deviation from the nominal

dimension as the measured characteristic rather than the actual

dimension. _ This allows measurements of various depth holes or

different diameter rounds, etc. to be used to generate sufficient

numbers for reasonable process capability estimates. These

comparison procedures (comparing deviations from nominal

dimensions for similar features) can be used to give a running

process capability. Periodically, an original test sample can be

produced to evaluate any undetected changes with time in the

machine performance.

When testing laboratories are to be evaluated, a large

number of identical samples are obtained from well characterized

material. If more than one type of material is tested routinely,

then representative samples of each should be included. About

one-fourth of these are used initially and the rest are submitted

over a period of time.

Each part produced may be measured but often a sample of the

production lot is measured. In the latter case, it is important

to randomize the part selection so the Laws of Chance will apply

and the results will be valid. All of the testing laboratory

specimens should be numbered sequentially (include all different

materials) and a random sample selected comprising the initial

one-fourth or so of the specimens. These should be submitted to

the laboratory with instructions to run the specimens in the

order listed. If the materials are sufficiently different, such

as those requiring different load cells on a tensile machine, a

stratified random sample may be required. The data from the

initial measurements or test results can be used to determine the

current, initial process capability. The process capability can

be updated as new measurements are obtained.

For testing laboratories, a small number of original

"standard" specimens can be blended into the normal production

tests and the variation of test lab results with time evaluated.

These results can be combined with the results for the normal

production specimens to give a continuously updated process

capability. It is suggested that test laboratory evaluations be

188
discussed with the lab manager after the initial results are

obtained before being generally distributed. Quite often there

are explanations for unexpected results of which the investigator

may be unaware. This also helps keep political peace within the

company.

APPLICATION TO A MACHINE TOOL

Objective:

The Manufacturing and Industrial Technology Department of

Arizona State University recently obtained a Fadal VMC-20

vertical machining center. Mr. Su was assigned to determine

baseline measurements of the dimensional reproducibility of this

machine as part of his Master of Technology project. Sample

materials were two alloys commonly used in the department: 1018

cold rolled steel and 6061-T6 aluminum. The objective was to

determine the initial dimensional reproducibility of the new

machine, to determine if a difference exists between the two

materials, and to quantify such a difference if one exists.

Procedure:

The machining center was obtained as a flexible component of

a manufacturing cell and is not part of a line producing many of

the same component. For this reason, a special part was designed

to give a measure of the various machine capabilities and this

part is shown in Figure i. The overall nominal dimensions are

102 mm x 102 mm x 44.5 mm (4 inches x 4 inches x 1.75 inches).

Each feature is dimensioned with respect to the center line or

top surface but the numbers are not shown because of the clutter.

The parts were machined to the same programmed nominal dimensions

and these dimensions were then measured on a coordinate measuring

machine. The deviations from the nominal dimensions were the

characteristics of interest. In this way, the various linear

dimensions could be combined with each other and likewise with

the various circular dimensions. Each part is therefore capable

of giving numerous samples for the calculation of the process

capabilities.

Six machining processes were evaluated using the designed

part:

i. End milling of the steps to preset depths.

2. End milling of steps to preset peripheral

dimensions.

3. End milling circular interpolation clockwise in to

preset outside diameters of cylinders and round corners.

4. End milling circular interpolation clockwise out

for circular pockets and round corners.

5. Reaming the holes to preset diameters after center

hole and pilot hole drilling.

6. The relative positions of the holes from the center

lines of the part after reaming.

Two materials were used: 1018 cold rolled steel and 6061-T6

aluminum. The same basic program was used for each with

variations based on published optimum machining conditions for

189
each material. 3 These conditions were modified somewhat for the

steel as a result of chatter problems with the initial part. The

Fadal machining center was capable of holding the complete tool

sets needed for both parts and, thus, loading tooling into the

machine was not a factor in the results.

The initial experiment was designed to determine if there

was a difference in dimensional reproducibility between the

aluminum and steel at the 95% confidence level. A difference of

0.0076mm (0.0003 inches) was considered to be of practical

significance and an initial standard deviation of 0.0051 mm

(0.0002 inches) was used for the initial calculations. These

values were estimated from experience and guessing. The standard

deviations were checked after the first parts were machined and

found to be higher for these parts, to vary with the process in

question, and with the material. The number of test parts

required was then recalculated. The calculations considered the

number of features to be combined on each part and showed that

six parts of each material were required to determine if a

difference exists between the steel and aluminum. The machining

order for two materials was determined by randomization. Each

part blank was placed into the machine by hand.

Results:

The results of the machining tests are summarized in Table

I.

TABLE I

Summary of Machining Results

Values are Variations from Nominal Dimensions mm (inches)

Aluminum--6061-T6:

Process Average Std Dev Initial PC #meas

(o) (± 3o)

1 -0.0061 0.0053 ± 0.015 36

(-0.00024) (0.00021) (± 0.0006)

2 0.0322 0.0990 _ 0.0305 36

(0.00125) (0.00039) (_ 0.0012)

3 0.0236 0.0104 ± 0.0305 36

(0.00093) (0.00041) (! 0.0012)

4 0.0142 0.0127 ± 0.0381 36

(0.00056) (0.00050) (± 0.0015)

5 -0.0338 0.0142 ± 0.0457 24

(-0.00133) (0.00056) (t 0.0018)

5* 0.0310 0.0051 ± 0.0152 23

(0.00122) (0.00020) (± 0.0006)

6 -0.0079 0.0135 ± 0.0419 48

(-0.00031) (0.00053) (_ 0.0017)

*One hole in one part had a very high variation in process 5 and

no assignable cause was found for this variation. The data for 5

were calculated using all results and 5* dropped the questionable

reading. All of the readings were used in the comparisons.

190
Steel--1018 cold rolled

Process Average Std Dev Initial PC

(0) (_ 30)

#meas

1 0.0117 0.0117 ± 0.0356 36

(0.00046) (0.00046) (! 0.0014)

2 -0.1540 0.0991 + 0.2970 36

(-0.00607) (0.00390) (± 0.0117)

3 -0.0478 0.0937 + 0.282 36

(-0.00188) (0.00369) (! 0.0111)

4 0.1460 0.1430 ± 0.4270 36

(0.00573) (0.00562) (± 0.0168)

5 -0.0277 0.0610 _ 0.0152 24

(-0.00109) (0.00024) (! 0.0006)

6 -0.0157 0.0236 ! 0.0419 48

(-0.00062) (0.00093) (± 0.0017)

Each average is calculated from 24, 36, or 48 individual

readings depending on the type of measurement. For example,

there are six steps (one inside and five outside on each of the

six parts) which were measured for Process 1 so 36 measurements

were averaged. There are four holes in each part so Process 5 is

the average of 24 readings. Two measurements were made for the

position of each hole (x and y) with respect to the center of the

part so 48 measurements were averaged for process 6.

The data were compared using the "z Test for Measurements"

and the "Student's t Test" 4 and it was found that a significant

difference existed between the aluminum and steel at the 95%

confidence level for all processes measured except for processes

5 and 6. It should be noted that process 5 was the process with

the one unexplained high reading and the comparison statistic was

very close to the decision point. This would normally indicate

that another one or two parts should be run but, at the time of

writing this experiment, no free machine time was available to

run these parts.

Thus, except for processes 5 and 6, the two populations

cannot be combined and the process capability must be determined

for each material. These data are listed in Table I.

Discussion:

It should be emphasized that the process capability of the

machine in making a specific part will be greatly influenced by

the cutting conditions used. This machine will be used for a

variety of parts under a variety of cutting conditions as a class

room teaching tool and it is difficult to derive process

capability values for each situation. The cutting conditions

used in this study were arbitrarily chosen using handbook data

and may not represent the best conditions for precision cutting

of a particular part for a specific application. These data do

give a baseline to use for determining changes in the machine due

to wear or other factors as the machine is used. The programs

generated in this study can be used with the same, readily

available materials at various future times and the process

191
capabilities compared to the initial data presented above. Any

wear should manifest itself as increases in the ± 3a values.

Because no assignable cause could be found for the high

reading in process 5 for the aluminum, the data point was

included in the comparison between the steel and aluminum for

this process.

Many authors consider a minimum of 50 readings to be

necessary for an accurate process capability determin ation-5 _or

the situation in this study, 24 to 48 readings were considered

sufficient for initial process capability values. Additional

readings will be obtained from the parts made in the classes

which can be measured using the same techniques described here

and the data combined with the appropriate process category.

This will give a running process capability with the test parts

being machined at regular intervals of machining'time to spot

check for wear or other changes in the equipment.

CONCLUSIONS

A method has been presented by which the process capability

of machine tools, manufacturing processes, or testing

laboratories can be evaluated. The method allows the continuous

monitoring of the process capability over an extended time period

by running similar standard parts periodically mixed in with

normal production.

An example was presented for a Fadal VMC-20 vertical

machining center. Initial process capabilities for six

individual machining processes were determined using 6061-T6

aluminum and 1018 cold rolled steel and a specially designed

part. It was also determined that 1018 cold rolled steel test

parts had a statistically higher variation in machined dimensions

than 6061-T6 aluminum at the 95% confidence level when each were

machined using handbook values to establish the cutting

conditions. The data generated can be used as a baseline to

check for later wear or other machine changes by periodically

machining similar parts from similar materials using the same NC

program. Short run statistical techniques were used because this

machine was purchased as a flexible tool for making a variety of

parts in a classroom situation.

The process capabilities determined apply only to the test

parts manufactured but additional data can be obtained from class

projects and combined to give running process capability

measurements for each individual function of the machine.

192
SAMPLE DATA SHEETS: Data should be gathered in a manner

compatible to analysis using a computer spread sheet or database

program. One suggestion is as follows:

Material Process Nominal Actual Difference

meas meas

,!

'1 If

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: There are no special safety

considerations for this experiment but all safety practices

common to the equipment or processes studied should be followed.

REFERENCES:

I. Keats, J.B. & Montgomery, D.C.; Statistical Process Control

in Manufacturing; Marcel Dekker, New York, 1991.

2. Pyzdek, T; "Process Control for Short and Small Runs";

Quality Progress; April, 1993, P 51.

3. Machinability Data Center; Machinery Data Handbook; 3rd Ed.,

Vol i; Ohio, 1980, P 2-161.

4. Miller, I. and Freund, J.E.; Probability and Statistics for

Enqineering, 3rd Ed.;Prentice-Hall, 1985.

5. Besterfield, D.; Quality Control 2nd Ed.; Prentice-Hall

1986. ' '

ri i

r

Figure I: Top and side views of the specially designed part for

the machining study.

193

2 /

INTRODUCTION TO USABLE STATISTICAL METHODS

H.T. McCielland

Technology Department

University of Wisconsin-Stout

Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751

Telephone 715-232-2152

_'N'GVAGE BLANK NOT FtLM_'D

/

I"ri.:: ...... _ .. _ C_i 5_J'a"

195

INTRODUCTION TO USABLE STATISTICAL METHODS

H. T. McClelland

Technology Department

University of Wisconsin--Stout Campus

Menomonie, WI

KEY WORDS: Statistics, Process analysis, Statistics courses.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: College algebra, Introductory

manufacturing course helpful but not mandatory.

OBJECTIVES: Provide an introduction to statistics, experimental

design, and data analysis for engineering and engineering

technology students who do not have a full statistics course in

their curriculum or who are not exposed to experimental design.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to present a description of a

short course on usable statistical methods for students who are

not exposed to a full statistical course. The course is designed

to take approximately one fourth to one third of a semester (i0 -

16 class hours) as part of a more general technical course such

as a selected topics course in manufacturing. The need for a

course of this nature is apparent when it is realized that many

engineering programs do not require a statistics course and those

courses which are required often do not include experimental

design. Often, both students and faculty are not aware of basic

statistical principles.

There are many introductory statistics courses offered by

various departments with some campuses having four to seven

seemingly similar courses, t._ A nonscientific, personal poll of

students at two universities taking a variety of the introductory

statistics courses of which I was aware all described the same

course syllabi. A considerable amount of time is spent on basic

number theory (mostly manipulating numbers which is not the same as

understanding what the numbers mean) and more time on

permutations and combinations. These are all good subjects but

no time remained for discussing the basics of experimental

design, random sampling, or the statistical evaluation of

experimental data.

Personal experience in industry has shown that most

manufacturing applications of statistics involve determining

baseline process information (process capabilities) or comparing

baseline information with the process performance after a

controlled change. Generally, the results of the desired changes

must be fairly large to be justified economically, particularly

where new equipment must be purchased. Thus, techniques aimed at

finding subtle differences among the data are usually not

required.

197
The course described in this paper covers only the basics of

probability and emphasizes experimental design and analysis.

GENERAL COURSE DESCRIPTION

Practical Statistics, Simply Explained by Langley 3 is the

recommended text. This is a basic text which covers the

fundamentals very well while the examples are easily updated,

where necessary, by incorporating items from current news

sources. Following the text, the course covers how to understand

and interpret numerical data, basic probability theory, sampling,

averages and scatter, experimental design, and significance

tests.

This is a course in which items from current events add a

generality to the topics which helps the students understand that

the basic concepts of interpreting numbers are widely applicable.

Occasionally some major events such as the oil crises of the

seventies and eighties lead to many years of examples of media

misuse of numbers on an almost daily basis. Currently, the

debates over mandatory AIDS testing, gun control, and the

President's budget offer regularly occurring topics. Sometimes

it requires a bit more searching for appropriate examples. If

you are teaching this course on a regular basis, you may pull

examples from the news media as they appear over the year and

save them for the class.

The concepts discussed in the early portion of the course

are those which, in my experience, students have not understood

during their earlier education. Students often become quite

adept at manipulating numbers and equations without gaining any

insight into what the numbers mean. The basic approach of the

Langley text is how to avoid being misled by numbers.

Students often find the other side of this topic to also be of

interest, i.e. how to mislead others by the misuse of numbers.

Either approach can be used to get the concepts across.

SPECIFIC TOPICS

Each of these topics can be covered in one or two 1 hour

lectures.

Numbers:

The first chapter deals with being misled by arithmetical

errors, false percentages, fictitious precision, misleading

presentations, incomplete data, and faulty comparisons. Each of

these topics can be related to other courses which the students

are taking, particularly those with laboratory components such as

physics or chemistry. For example, excessive significant digits

resulting from students copying the answer directly from their

calculators can be used as a prime example of fictitious

precision. Generalizing mundane laboratory data to earth

shaking, socially significant conclusions can be used to explain

incomplete data or misleading presentations. Misleading

presentations can also be illustrated by reference to the "low

fat" competition going on in the grocery stores.

198
Langley states that these are all important causes of being

misled by numbers but that the usual causes are biased samples

and not considering the effect of chance on the numbers.

Probability:

Probability is introduced by a discussion of the Laws of

Chance. This leads into the Binomial and Poisson's probability

formula for describing the proportions of occurrence of two

classes of events, i.e. on/off, go/no-go, yes/no, happens/doesn't

happen. The normal probability formula is introduced to deal

with continuous data. A brief discussion at this point covers

the mean of the probability distributions and the scatter or

variation about the mean. The main objectives for this topic are

to introduce the probability distributions and the reasoning

behind them rather than memorizing a formula.

Experimental Planning and Sampling:

I spend a considerable amount of time discussing the

statement of the problem, planning the experiment, and devising

an appropriate sampling plan. The problem statement is extremely

important and is often made with little thought. A proper

problem statement prevents wasted time and effort finding an

possibly elegant solution to a non-problem or solving only a part

of the problem. It also allows the proper generalization of the

results. The importance of phrasing the problem in terms such as

"...to determine the effect of.." rather than "...to prove the

effect of..." is emphasized. This allows negative results (i.e.

no difference with the treatments) to still be valid. Another

important point is to state the problem so a path to the solution

is apparent. If no path to the solution is apparent, restating

the problem in different forms until a solution path is obvious

is discussed. This also allows a better definition of what is

sought.

The next step is to select the method of data analysis

before the data are taken. In this manner, the data can be

obtained in a form which fits the analysis method. An example of

a lack of agreement would be to assume that the analysis will

involve the binomial distribution but the experiment measures a

continuously changing series of events which requires a normal

distribution based analysis. The result of this would be an

extra amount of data manipulation and less than satisfactory

conclusions.

Sampling is a big area of misunderstanding. I have often

seen situations where the student is simply told to go and take

an appropriate sample with no further instructions. The major

objective in this section is to emphasize the importance of a

properly designed sampling procedure.

If the whole population is measured, there is little need

for a formal sampling procedure. In many cases, however, the

population is very large and conclusions regarding this

population are desired using a minimum of measurements (and time

and cost). Considerable time is spent discussing the need for a

random sample if the Laws of Chance are to be satisfied and the

reliance of the various statistical analysis procedures on the

199
Laws of Chance is emphasized. The definition of a random sample

is that each possible outcome of an event has an equal chance of

being measured. This can only be achieved by using a random

number generator of some sort which covers the entire population.

One further point discussed on the Experimental Planning

topic is the personal recommendation of keeping the studies

simple. Many small studies concerning two or three factors are

easier for the student to comprehend than trying to measure

everything in one big study. Computer programs exist which can

analyze large amounts of experimental data but the human mind is

much more limited in trying to fully understand and document the

results of these studies.

The importance of documenting and communicating the results

is discussed in terms of what the student will be expected to do

upon graduation. Someone can be hired at minimum wage who cannot

tell the manager what the results mean in a clear manner; why pay

someone engineering wages for the same lack of information. This

leads naturally into a plug for the writing and speaking courses

which most students dislike.

I generally spend about half the course on the topics of

this section.

Analysis of the Results:

Once the data are obtained, the previously determined

procedure is used for analysis. I generally spend time

discussing the general features of the various common procedures

with a brief worked example of one or two. Computer usage is

encouraged in the planning and analysis stages if the programs

are available, with an understanding of the procedure determined

through a separate in-class test.

The Langley text is very good in this regard. The last half

of the text contains a brief description of many common analysis

procedures with the required tables and worked examples. This

text was pre-computer so the mathematical manipulation is

simplified. These descriptions ca_ be used to guide the student

in a project.

Project:

The experimental project is key to illustrating the

important points of the course. The general ground rules are

that the student states a problem which involves a one-on-one

comparison, designs an appropriate experiment, and analyzes the

results using a standard, preselected technique. A simple oneon-one comparison allows the student to complete the project in a

reasonably short time of two to three weeks.

Topics for the comparison are selected by the student with

the problem statement reviewed by the instructor prior to any

data collection. The review is to insure that the problem

statement is to the point and does not involve too much work.

Most students greatly underestimate the amount of time involved

in properly gathering data and trying to solve a problem of this

nature. A discussion of the amount of generalization which can

derive from the completed project based on the problem statement

is included in the review. Allowing the students to choose their

2_
topics leads to many similar topics such as how many red versus

green M&M's are there in a package but also leads to useful

information such as which brand of popcorn gives the most old

maids or which bartender at the local hangout fills the glasses

the fullest. One or two times through the course will give you

great insights on which local store has the best price on beer or

which hunting ammunition gives the most accurate and precise

patterns.

The project is documented in a formal engineering technical

report and I normally grade on content, spelling, and English

usage.

SUMMARY

An outline for an introductory statistics course has been

presented which is designed for students who do not take a full

semester statistics course. The course is designed to be taught

in i0 - 16 class hours and covers topics of most use to working

engineers and engineering technologists. The understanding of

numerical information is presented followed by an introduction to

probability and probability distributions. Considerable time is

spent on the statement of the problem and designing a proper data

collection method. Statistical analysis techniques are discussed

and a final project using student selected topics reinforces the

main points of the course.

REFERENCES:

i. 1987-88 Catalog, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT

2. 1990-91 Catalog, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ

3. Langley, R, Practical Statistics, Simply Explained, Dover,

1971.

The above represents views based on my experience. I

am very interested to hear from others as to their experiences

and welcome suggestions on course improvements. Please contact

me at:

Tom McClelland

Associate Professor

Technology Department

University of Wisconsin--Stout

Menomonie, WI 54751

201

N94- 36407

MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE HEAT FLUX AND

TEMPERATURE

R. M. Davis

G. J. Antoine

T. E. Diller

and

A. L. Wicks

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0238

Telephone 703-231-7198

203

Measurement of Surface Heat Flux and Temperature

R. M. Davis, G. J. Antoine, T. E. Diller, and A. L. Wicks

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Virginia Tech

Blacksburg, VA 24060-0238

KEY WORDS: heat flux, temperature, computer data acquisition, experimental statistics,

microsensor, combustion flame

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE

Students should have an undergraduate course in heat transfer to understand the

fundamentals of conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer. An understanding of transient

conduction is important and a background including semi-infinite conduction solutions is helpful.

An introduction to elementary experimental statistics is necessary.

OBJECTIVES

The experiment demonstrates a new sensor technology. The students use the sensor to

observe details of a combustion flame and allows them to experience the application of modem

research. The data processing clearly demonstrates the different effects of integrating versus

differentiating data.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

1. Heat Flux Microsensor and associated amplifier

2. Self-igniting propane torch

3. TEGAM thermocouple read out

4. DC power supply

5. Elenco Precision Bread board

6. Texas Instruments 741 OP-AMP

7. Voltmeter

8. Macintosh Quadra 700 computer

9. LabVIEW software

10. Leather gloves

INTRODUCTION

The Heat Flux Microsensor is a new sensor which was recently patented [1] by Virginia

Tech and is just starting to be marketed by Vatell Corp. The sensor is made using thin-film

microfabrication techniques directly on the material that is to be measured. It consists of several

205
thin-film layers forming a differential thermopile across a thermal resistance layer. As illustrated

in Fig. 1, the measured heat flux q is proportional to the temperature difference across the

resistance layer [2]

kg (1)

q = _g(T1-T2)

where kg is the thermal conductivity and 6_ is the thickness of the thermal resistance layer.

Because the gages are sputter coated direci_y onto the surface, their total thickness is less than 2

_m, which is two orders of magnitude thinner than previous gages. The resulting temperature

difference across the thermal resistance layer (5 < 1 #m) is very small even at high heat fluxes.

To generate a measurable signal many thermocouple pairs are put in series to form a differential

thermopile [2], as illustrated in Fig. 2.

The combination of series thermocouple junctions and thin-film design creates a gage with

very attractive characteristics. It is not only physically non-intrusive to the flow, but also causes

minimal disruption of the surface temperature. Because it is so thin, the response time is less than

20 t_sec [3]. Consequently, the frequency response is flat from 0 to over 50 kHz. Moreover, the

signal of the Heat Flux Microsensor is directly proportional to the heat flux. Therefore, it can

easily be used in both steady and transient flows, and it measures both the steady and unsteady

components of the surface heat flux.

A version of the Heat Flux Microsensor has been developed to meet the harsh demands of

combustion environments. These gages use platinum and platinum-10% rhodium as the

thermoelectric materials. The thermal resistance layer is silicon monoxide and a protective

coating of AI203 is deposited on top of the sensor. The thin-film pattern of all six layers is

superimposed in Fig. 3. The large pads are for connection with pins used to bring the signal out

the back of the ceramic. In addition to the heat flux measurement, the surface temperature is

measured with a platinum resistance layer (RTS). The resistance of this layer increases with

increasing temperature. Therefore, these gages simultaneously measure the surface temperature

and heat flux. The demonstrated applications include rocket nozzles, SCRAM jet engines, gas

turbine engines, boiling heat transfer, flame experiments, basic fluid heat transfer, hypersonic

flight, and shock tube testing. The laboratory involves using one of these sensors in a small

combustion flame. The sensor is made on a 2.5 cm diameter piece of aluminum nitride ceramic.

Heat Transfer

The fast time response of the temperature and heat flux sensors allows the comparison of

time-resolved measurements. The temperature rise of the ceramic substrate is caused by the heat

transfer from the flame to the surface. Modeling of the heat transfer allows prediction of the

temperature rise for the measured heat flux. Alternatively, the temperature measurement can

provide an independent measure of the surface heat flux. If the ceramic piece is considered to be a

one-dimensional semi-infinite solid as sketched in Fig. 4, the temperature history is

Ts-T i -

2q_- (2)

2O6
for a constant surface heat flux starting at time t=0. The values of the thermal conductivity (k),

the density (p), and the specific heat (C) of the ceramic substrate are listed below.

k = 165 W/m.K

p = 3290 kg/m 3

C = 713 J/kg-K

o_ = 7.03 x 10 -5 m2/s

The surface temperature predicted by the semi-infinite solution is correct to within 1.0% for times

less than [4]

L 2

t = 0.3 k (3)

ot

where ot is the thermal diffusivity and L the thickness of the substrate, which is 6.35 mm for the

given substrate. For times longer than given by eq. (3) the analytical solution loses accuracy.

Experimentally the temperature will rise faster than the semi-infinite solution predicts. For the

present case the effect should be small for times less than 1 second. A good additional assumption

is that the presence of the gage itself does not affect the substrate response of eq. (2).

The sensitivity of the Heat Flux Microsensor, S, is used to convert the voltage signal, E, to

heat flux.

E

q = -- (4)

S

Calibrations give a gage sensitivity of S =23.2 mV/(W/cm 2) for the signal from the amplifier box

(at 1000X amplification). The equation to convert the RTS signal (at the 500X setting of the

amplifier box) to temperature is

°C

T s = (132.33-.-Q-) E - 286.06°C

(5)

Data Processin_

Equation (2) relates the temperature change of the surface of a material to a single step

change of the surface heat flux. Manipulation of this type of equation gives the temperature

response to a varying heat flux signal as a series solution [5]. This can be in the form of a series

of impulse functions as shown in Fig. 5. The solution for the temperature response to a varying

heat flux input is

Ts(tn)-Ti = 2 _lqj[_n-tj- V/tn-tj÷l l

j--o

(o3

Note that this is similar to integrating the heat flux measurements.

207
In similar fashion the solution for determining the heat flux from a given set of surface

temperatures is [4]

q(tn)- _-_ "j=a ÷Jtn-q_,

(7)

Note that this is similar to differentiating the surface temperature measurements.

Both of these expressions are in the form needed for digital signal processing. They have

been programmed on a computer disc for subsequent processing of the data. A listing of the

FORTRAN code is attached. By calculating the corresponding surface temperature response to the

measured heat flux and comparing with the experimental temperatures, additional confidence in the

measurements can be established. The data processing task is to do this and to quantify the

results.

As an additional check of the program for data processing, a manual comparison can be

performed using eq. (2). Simply input an average heat flux over the time of the heated portion of

the test and compare the surface temperature rise with that calculated with the program. It should

be reasonably close.

Data Aeauisition

The LabVIEW software (a product of National Instruments) allows the student to formulate

an instrument in software. This instrument, referred to as a virtual instrument, incorporates the

data acquisition with drivers to support high speed AID boards, preprocessing algorithms, such as

digital filters, and post processing capability. The post processing for this experiment may include

the differentiation, or integration of the digital data. This software also provides data formats for

storage. Although the LabVIEW software is not required to perform this experiment, the iconified

format and the flexibility permit numerous variations in the experiment without extensive software

revision. This software is used extensively throughout the laboratory experience to promote the

concept of integrated data acquisition, signal conditioning, post-processing and graphical displays.

PROCEDURE

The flame is provided by a propane torch which is aimed directly at the heat flux gage, as

illustrated in Fig. 6. The torch has a self igniter which is activated by a button on the front. To

ignite the torch the gas is turned fully on by the knob on the back and then the button is pressed. "

After the flame is adjusted to the desired level the test is started by opening the shutter to allow the

flame to impinge on the heat flux gage. A chromel/alumel thermocouple is provided to measure

the flame temperature. An amplifier box is provided with the gage to boost the heat flux signal

and convert the resistance of the surface RTS to a voltage.

Safety Considerations

Because the students are dealing with a high temperature flame test (1200°C), they need to

be reminded of a few safety factors.

208
.

.

.

Do not touch the upper part of the apparatus. When opening and closing the gate, leather

gloves may be worn as added protection.

Do not leave the flame on for longer than necessary. Always turn it off between tests.

Because it does not have active cooling, the entire apparatus will become excessively hot

with only a few minutes continuous operation.

Do not run the flame on the gage for over a few seconds at a time. Leave the shutter

closed at all times except when actually taking data. This should keep the temperatures

well below 100°C.

Zeroing the Amplifier

After the amplifier is turned on and allowed to stabilize, both channels need to be zeroed.

Set the switch on the amplifier to the zero position. Connect the output from heat flux channel to

a voltmeter. Adjust the appropriate pot so that the output reads 0.0 V. Connect the output from

the RTS channel (surface temperature) to the voltmeter. Adjust the appropriate pot so that the

output reads 0.0 V. When the switch is flipped from zero to test, the output of the heat flux

channel should be 0.0 V, but there will be a DC offset of 2 or more volts on the temperature

channel. This reflects the resistance of the RTS at room temperature. Because the change in

resistance is only millivolts, this offset must be removed from the RTS output before being

processed by the computer to maximize the resolution of the A/D conversion. Therefore, a

differential amplifier should be used to remove 2 volts from the signal.

Building a Differential Amplifier

Construct the amplifier on the breadboard as illustrated in Fig. 7. An accurate reading of

Vin 1 (-2 V) should be taken by the voltmeter and recorded to be re-inserted into the computer.

Experimental Tests

Connect the heat flux and differential amplifier outputs directly into the interface box (A/D

board). Start the VI on the computer. Adjust the gain and offset for each channel (Hint:

Remember the 2 V that was measured and subtracted previously). Adjust Time Base, Interval and

Samples/channel accordingly. Record the values for Interval and Samples/channel for each test for

use in the FORTRAN code for data processing.

When ready to acquire data, light the propane torch. Immediately after pressing the

Acquire Data button open the gate. Each test should last no more than 2 seconds. Save the data

and repeat the test until you have acquired at least five sets of data. Try to use varying flame

heights and conditions for each test. Observe the flame and make notes to explain the observed

heat flux response.

209
Statistical Treatment of Data

For each test use the FORTRAN code to calculate the surface temperature and heat flux

values to compare with the corresponding measured values. Compute the residuals of the

measured and calculated data for both the heat flux and temperature responses. Plot the residuals

and perform a visual analysis. Discuss whether the data looks random or if there appears to be

some bias error present.

Compute the mean and the standard deviation of the residuals. Perform a 95 % confidence

interval for the mean. Discuss results. Are the values different when computed for the first 1

second of the flame test than for the entire sampling period?

Given that the estimated uncertainty for heat flux is 0.05 W/era 2 and for temperature is

0.2°C, are the methods presented in this lab acceptable? Use the uncertainty to discuss your error,

and discuss which assumptions made in the calculations most likely lead to this error. Provide a

plot of the residuals and a tabulated summary of the statistical data.

From the calculated values of the heat flux and surface temperature determine which is a

better approximation of the measured data. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each

method.

Sample Results

Each student should plot comparisons of their measured and calculated data versus time for

both temperature and heat flux and the resulting residuals from these comparisons. Sample results

are illustrated in Figures 8-11. Students are expected to complete a statistical analysis of their data

and present it in tabulated form as shown in Table 1 for the results in the figures.

Table 1 Statistical Results of Temperature and Heat Flux Residuals

Total Test Total Test

T s (°C) q (W/cm 2)

Mean 1.41 -2.69

Standard Deviation 1.80

95 % Confidence Interval -t-0.25

4.15

-t-0.59

First Second

of Flame

First Second

of Flame

T s (°C) q (W/cm 2)

0.25 -1.86

0.57 3.62

-t-0.16 +1.0

INSTRUCTOR NOTES

1. Care should be exercised once the test has been run several times because the Heat Flux

Microsensor housing becomes hot. Leather gloves can be worn as a precaution when opening and

closing the gate.

2. Due to 60 Hz noise from surrounding equipment, a high sampling frequency should be

used on the LabVIEW software or an anti-aliasing filter should be used.

210
3. Results of the sample test are typical. The means of the residuals are close to zero

(based on the 95 % confidence intervals) only for the first second of the flame. The semi-infinite

assumption of the model breaks down for the four seconds of the test time. This is also evident in

the large increase of standard deviation of the temperature residuals going from the one second to

the four second time interval. Because of the small change in standard deviation of the heat flux

residuals, it can be concluded that the data set is ergodic and the residuals are obtained from the

sample population throughout the test period. This is not true for the temperature residuals.

4. The students should be able to identify that the calculation from the measured heat flux

to the surface temperature (an integration type process) is preferable to the temperature to heat flux

calculation (a differentiation type process).

REFERENCES

1. Diller, T. E., and Onishi, S.,"Heat Flux Gage," U.S. Patent No. 4,779,994, Issued 25 October

1988.

2. Hager, J. M., Onishi, S., Langley, L. W., and Diller, T. E., "High Temperature Heat Flux

Measurements," AIAA Journal of Thermophysies and Heat Transfer, Vol. 7, 1993, pp. 531-

534.

3. Hager, J. M., Simmons, S., Smith, D., Onishi, S., Langley, L. W., and Diller, T. E.,

"Experimental Performance of a Heat Flux Microsensor," ASME Journal of Turbomachinery,

Vol. 113, 1991, pp. 246-250.

4. Diller, T. E., "Advances in Heat Flux Measurement," Advances in Heat Transfer, Vol. 23,

1993, pp. 279-368.

5. Baker, K. I. and Diller, T. E., "Unsteady Surface Heat Flux and Temperature Measurements,"

ASME Paper No. 93-HT-33, 1993.

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES

1. Heat Flux Microsensor - $1500, Vatell Corp., Blacksburg, VA 24060, (703) 961-3576

2. Heat Flux Amplifier Box - $1500, Vatell Corp., Blacksburg, VA 24060

3. Thermocouple read out - $100, TEGAM, Madison, OH 44057, (216) 428-7505

4. BernzOmatic 2-piece Propane Torch Kit, Model TS 2000K - $18, WalMart

5. LabVIEW - $500 (Educational discount), National Instruments

6. Elenco bread board - $35, Radio Shack

7. Macintosh Quadra 700 computer - $4,000, Apple Computer

8. Texas Instruments 741 OP-AMP - $1, Radio Shack

211
qm Temperature

Sensors

TI - t' _ ____Thermal

fB / _ Resistance

"1"2///////////////---SLtbst ra t e

Fig. 1 Measurement Concept of Heat Flux Microsensor

Lower Upper

Thermocouple Thermocouple

Thermal

esistance

Series

:tion

Lead

Connection

Fig. 2 Differential Thermopile

212
l i

,em0e,.,u,o __. h.at,,ux

sensor _ _]_1 _ sensor

N/W _

1 mm

Fig. 3 Overlay Pattern of Heat Flux Microsensor

Thin Film [q Temperature

Sensor_

f

_/ (semi Surfoce -infinite)

Fig. 4 Semi-Infinite Conduction Geometry

213
Alumi_m block

I

t

Heat Flux

q

t

Fig. 5 Impulse Representation of Heat Flux

$tlinlm

.El

Fig. 6 Experimental Flame Apparatus

R1 R3

100K 100K V = +/- 5V TO +/- 15V

v,o,o-/",/'__

100K

Vin 20__,,_ j I_ _p,46 ;,, _ Vout

100K

Vout=Vin2-Vinl

Fig. 7 Differential Amplifier

214
T_ (°C)

68

66

64

62

60

58

56

54

52

50

48

0

Measured

I I I I I I I

0.5 "1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Time (s)

Fig. 8 Measured and Calculated Temperature

T s (°C)

2

1

0

-1 i

0 0.5 1 1.5

I I I I

2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Time (s)

Fig. 9 Temperature Residuals (Meas.-Calc.)

215
q (W/cm2)

3O

25

2O

15

10

5

0

-5

-!(]

0

,.... _ii!__ ,t i J ,, ,i d ,,j ii

_ ......_

,,

, I

, q o

,, ,, -- Measured

'llt_t ,

_l I i, ,

'I": ' ' Calculated

i

,:_ it

,,,:J,i i _' ' .,',:',,:.1

I'0- L * ' t_, t

.... 215 ' '

0.5 1 1.5 2 3 3.5

Time (s)

Fig. 10 Measured and Calculated Heat Flux

10

q (W/cmb

-5

I I I I I I I

"150 0.5 ! 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Time (s)

Fig. 11 Heat Flux Residuals (Meas.-Calc.)

216
*****_*_***************************************************************

* This program converts the voltages obtained from the heat flux *

* sensor to their corresponding heat flux and temperature *

* responses. It also utilizes the Cook and Felderman method to *

* differentiate temperature with respect to time to obtain the *

* corresponding heat flux and Green's function to integrate the *

* heat flux with respect to time to yield temperature. Variables *

* used ,are: •

* K...thermal conductivity of resistance layer (W/cmK) *

* RHO...density of resistance layer (kg/cm^3) *

* CP...specific heat of resistance layer (J/kgK) *

* S...sensitivity of sensor (mV/W/cm^2) •

* ALPHA...thermalproperty of resistance layer *

* TIME0...time interval *

* QVOLT0...voltage corresponding to measured heat flux *

* TVOLT0...voitage corresponding to measured temperature *

* QEXP0...heat flux calculated from experimental voltage *

* TEXP0...temperature calculated from experimental voltage *

* QCALC0...heat flux calculated from temperature *

* TCALC()...temperature calculated from heal flux *

* TIMEF...number of data points taken *

*** • • _***** :,1¢_*****::# _***:,1.¢************ _  _., ** **** _*** _¢ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,.:1¢**** ,

REAL K, RHO, CP, S, ALPHA, TIME (201), QVOLT(201), TVOLT(201),

+QEXP(201 ), TEXP(201), QCALC(201 ), TCALC(201)

INTEGER TIMEF

PARAMETER (PI=3.141592654)

OPEN (9, FILE = 'RUN3.DAT')

OPEN (6, FILE = 'RUN3.OUT')

K=1.65

RHO=3.29E-3

CP=713

S=23.1765

ALPHA=K/RHO/CP

TIMEF = 200

DO 1 I = I,TIMEF

READ (9, *) TIME(I), QVOLT(1), TVOLT(I)

QEXP(I) = QVOLT(I)* 1000/S

217
TEXP(I)= 132.33*TVOLT(I)-286.06

1 CONTINUE

***********************************************************************

* Do loop to perform numerical expression dcvcloped by Cook and *

* Felderman _ calculate heat flux _om sur_cctemperature *

DO 2 M = 1, TIMEF

QCALC(M) = 0

DO3L=2, M

QCALC(M) = QCALC(M) + (TEXP(L) - TEXP(L-1))/(SQRT((M -L)*.02)

+ +SQRT((M-L+I)*.02))

CONTINUE

QCALC(M) = 2.*SQRT(K*RHO*CP)/SQRT(PI)*QCALC(M)

CONTINUE

* Do loop to perform method of Green's function to calculate *

* temperature from heat flux and write all previously calculated *

* values to the output file created above *

5

20

DO 4 N = 1, TIMEF

TCALC(N) = TEXP(I)

DO5 J=N, l,-I

IF (J.EQ.I)THEN

TCALC(N) = TCALC(N) -2.*SQRT(ALPHA)/K/SQRT(PI)*QEXP(J)

+ *(SQRT(((N-.5)-(J-.5))*.02)-SQRT((N-.5)*.02))

ELSE

TCALC(N) = TCALC(N) -2.*SQRT(ALPHA)/K/SQRT(PI)*QEXP(J)

+ *(SQRT(((N-.5)-(J-.5))*.02)-SQRT(((N-.5)-(J- 1.5))*.02))

ENDIF

CONTINUE

FORMAT (IX, F16.5, 2X, F16.5, 2X, F16.5, 2X, F12.8)

WRITE (6, 20) QEXP(N), TEXP(N), QCALC(N), TCALC(N)

CONTINUE

STOP

END

218
N94- 36408

MICROSCALE SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION

OF POLYSTYRENE: NSF-POLYED

SCHOLARS PROJECT

Karen S. Quaal

Department of Chemistry

Siena College

Loudonville, New York 12211

Telephone 518-783-2977

and

Chang-Ning Wu

Department of Chemistry

University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth

North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747

219

Microscale Synthesis and Characterization of Polystyrene:

NSF-POLYED SCHOLARS PROJECT

Karen S. Quaal

Department of Chemistry

Siena College

Loudonville, NY 12211

Chang-Ning Wu

Department of Chemistry

University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth

North Dartmouth, MA 02747

KEY WORDS: Polystyrene, polymers, film-casting, molecular weight

determination, film thickness determination.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should be familiar with the care

and handling of small amounts of hazardous materials and with simple laboratory techniques

normally obtained in a first year chemistry course.

OBJECTIVES: To synthesize a polymer (polystyrene) using laboratory techniques

typically introduced in the first year chemistry course. In addition, the concepts of number

average molecular weight and weight average molecular weight in polymeric materials,

polydispersity, methods of film casting, and film thickness determination are introduced.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

Polystyrene Synthesis:

100 mL corn oil#

1 mL styrene

1-4 mg azobis(isobutyronitrile) commonly called AIBN

2 g Alumina Adsorption 80-200 mesh (Fisher Cat no. A540-500)

50 mL methanol

thermometer#

250 mL beaker#

50 mL beaker

2 small Teflon coated magnetic stir-bars

hot plate equipped with stirring rotor#

small vacuum flask

small vacuum filter funnel

10 X 75 mm test tube

slotted cork

3 Pasteur pipettes

Determination of Molecular Weight by Selective Precipitation (TLC):

Reverse phase thin layer chromatographic plate treated with indicator (Whatman 4803-425)

Polystyrene standards (2K-100K)#

polystyrene sample(s)

5 capillary tubes

1000 mL beaker

plastic ruler

UV lamp#

50 mL graduated cylinder

PR6-_G P.AGE _LAJ',I_r_OT F'ILME_

PA_E C7"-C7"Ur_-E,- ,_,

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100 mL stopper glass bottle

Bunsen burner

Film Casting:

0.5g Styrofoam

2 mL chloroform or toluene

1 mL of working solution composed of 40% dichloromethane and 60% diethyl ether

glass rod

watch glass

NaC1 or KBr infrared plate

Microspatula or scalpel

glass plate approximately 8 X 8 cm.

Film Thickness Determination:

polymer films of uniform thickness

Infrared Spectrophotometer or Spectrometer#

Quantities are estimated on a per student basis unless otherwise indicated

# More than one student may share this equipment

INTRODUCTION: Polystyrene is a familiar polymer with many commercial uses.

Its applications range from the clear, high index of refraction, brittle plastic used to form audio

cassette and CD cases to the foamed material used in insulated drink cups and packaging

material. Polystyrene constitutes 11% of the plastics used in packaging with only High

Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) contributing a larger

share (1). So much polystyrene is used today, it is one of six common plastics that

manufacturers have assigned an identification code. The code helps recycling efforts.

Polystyrene's code is (PS code 6).

During the summer and fall of 1992 several new polymeric experiments were developed by the

NSF POLYED Scholars for introduction into the chemistry core curriculum. In this

presentation one such project will be discussed.

This laboratory project is recommended for a first or second year laboratory course allowing

the introduction of polymeric science to undergraduates at the earliest opportunity. The

reliability of the experiments which make up this project and the recognition factor of

polystyrene, a material we come in contact with everyday, makes the synthesis and

characterization of polystyrene a good choice for the introduction of polymerization to

undergraduates. This laboratory project appeals to the varied interests of students enrolled in

the typical first year chemistry course and becomes an ideal way to introduce polymers to a

wide variety of science and engineering students.

In this sequence of experiments, students will:

a. Purify commercially available styrene by removing its inhibitor by small column

chromatography.

b. Prepare polystyrene by using different amounts of inhibitors at constant temperature and

time.

c. Determine the molecular weights of the synthesized polystyrene by Selective Precipitation

(TLC) using a calibration curve obtained from polystyrenes of known molecular weights.

d. Prepare and evaluate polystyrene films formed by casting methods described below.

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Procedures for the synthesis have appeared in the literature and several undergraduate

laboratory textbooks and manuals (2-5). However, the authors have found several problems

with these procedures. This modified procedure is introduced to improve the experiment and

make it more applicable to the lower level undergraduate laboratory curriculum.

First, the scale of many referenced procedures is such that students work with larger amounts

of the hazardous material styrene than either of the authors felt was necessary. This is

consistent with current trends to adapt experiments to microscale in the interest of safety and

cost reduction (4,6,7).

Second, the use of the reagent benzoyl peroxide as an initiator is considered too hazardous for

lower level undergraduate laboratories. A suitable substitute is needed to lessen the risk.

Third, in order to accommodate the larger scale of the experiment reported in the literature, the

inhibitors present in commercially available styrene are usually removed by distillation or

extracted with sodium hydroxide prior to the formal laboratory time. Students lose the

pedagogical opportunity to remove the inhibitors from their own sample and thus lose the

opportunity to understand its presence in the commercially available sample. The inhibitor,

typically 10 to 15 parts per million of 4-tert-butylcatechol, is present to prevent the styrene

from polymerizing in the bottle. The hazards of working with styrene are also minimized by

the microscale of this experiment. In addition, some procedures recommended using an excess

of benzoyl peroxide to overwhelm the inhibitors present in the polystyrene. Given our

reluctance to use benzoyl peroxide, we were even more reluctant to use an excess. The authors

feel that the column method suggested by Williamson (4) has the advantages of being small

scale, rapid, and introduces chromatography as a method of purification.

Lastly, the time and temperature required for some of the procedures yield product in the form

of a solidified glass plug of polystyrene. The formation of the plug shows the consequence of

extensive polymerization, but the solidified product is more difficult to characterize by the

equipment available in the lower level undergraduate laboratory. The plug often needs to be

removed from the reaction test tube by wrapping the test tube in a cloth and shattering both the

test tube and the polystyrene plug with a hammer. In addition, the time needed for the

polystyrene plug to form uses too much valuable student and instructor time. Conditions are

needed that stop the synthesis short of solidification to allow characterization and make more

effective use of laboratory time. By purposely stopping the experiment before a solid plug of

polystyrene is formed, the reaction yields a solution that is more easily manipulated than the

solid plug often seen in bulk polymerization of styrene. The viscous liquid that forms can

easily be transferred and precipitated. Precipitation of the polymer in methanol (a non-solvent)

illustrates a common method of isolation and purification of a polymer. If a solid plug forms,

the student should grind it with a mortar and pestle to obtain a dry powder.

Experience has shown us that the most successful laboratory synthesis experiments are those

coupled with an additional goal besides the formation of the product itself. In this synthesis,

an additional aspect of polymerization can be illustrated and the pedagogical function of the

experiment and the utility of the students' time are enhanced. For example, by using different

amounts of initiator in the synthesis, the effect of initiator on the yield can be investigated.

Characterization of the polystyrene is accomplished by film casting and identification by

infrared spectroscopy.

In this experiment styrene is polymerized in the absence of solvent. Such a reaction is called a

bulk polymerization. The polymerization proceeds as a free radical polymerization of styrene

initiated by 2,2'-azobis-(2-methylpropionitrile), more commonly known as

azobis(isobutyronitrile), AIBN.

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n HC_CH2

AIBN

The value n is a function of the experimental conditions and will determine the molecular

weight of the resulting polymer. The molecular weight and polydispersity of a polymer greatly

affect its physical properties and commercial applications. The molecular weight of small

molecules is easily defined. The definition of molecular weight for pol_,mers is not as easily

defined because each polymeric chain constitutes a molecule and each chain can be of different

length. Definitions and methods of molecular weight determination used for small molecules

are not directly applicable to polymers.

Molecular Weights for polymers typically range from 5,000 to greater than 1,000,000.

Students need to know how molecular weight differs for small and large molecules (polymers)

to understand the effect that molecular weight has on the properties of all molecules. The

ability of polymer chains to exist in varying lengths gives rise to a distribution of molecular

weights within a polymeric sample. Several types of molecular weights have been defined.

Two of the more frequently encountered are the number-average molecular weight (Mn)

and the weight-average molecular weight (Mw). The number-average molecular

weight is defined as the total mass of polymer molecules divided by the total number of moles

of molecules present.

Mn= _niMi / ,_,ni (1)

i i

Molecular weights of this type are typically obtained by methods involving effects on

colligative properties, GPC (gel permeation chromatography), and end group analysis.

Another definition of molecular weight is weight-average molecular weight which is

defined as:

Mw= _niMi 2 / ,_,niMi (2)

i i

This value can be obtained by light scattering techniques. Due to the square of the Mi term,

this value is biased towards the contribution of the higher molecular weight chains.

The ratio of the number-average molecular weight and the weight-average molecular weight is

representative of the molecular weight distribution and is referred to as a sample's molecular

weight polydispersity.

Polydispersity = Mw/Mn (3)

This value is related to how broadly the chain lengths are distributed in the polymeric sample.

When Mw approaches Mn, their ratio approaches 1, and the sample approaches

monodispersity. Synthetic polymers exhibit varying degrees of polydispersity, with

22,4
vinyl polymerstypicallyhavingratiosfrom2-10. Manybiologicalmacromolecules(polymers)

exhibitmonodispersity.Determinationof thepolydispersityof apolymericsampleis important

becauseevensmallchangesinpolydispersitycanaffectthepropertiesof apolymericsample.

Molecularweightis oneof themostimportantcharacteristicsof apolymerandaspreviously

mentioned,is typicallydeterminedbyGPCor light scatteringtechniques.Eachof these

methodsgivesmeaningfulmolecularweightsbutthesemethodsarenotaccessibleto most

lowerlevelundergraduatestudents.An alternativemethodfor determiningmolecularweightof

polystyrenehasbeenreportedusingSelectivePrecipitationbythinlayerchromatography(TLC)

(2,5,8,9). In theTLC procedures,polystyrenesamplesandstandards,overawide rangeof

molecularweights,arespottedonareversephaseTLC plateandelutedusinga

dichloromethane/methanol solution.TheRf isrelatedto themolecularweightof thesample.

Usingacalibrationcurveobtainedfromthepolystyrenestandards,themolecularweightof the

unknownsampleis determined.

Thecouplingof apolystyrenesynthesiswithaTLC determinationwasreportedby Armstrong

(2). Experiencehasuncoveredseveralproblemswith theseprocedures.First,various

proceduresreportthatthereproducibilityof thesemethodsis verysensitiveto theconditions.

Yet eachprocedurerequiresslightlydifferentconditions.Second,thereversephaseTLC

platesareexpensiveandthecostperstudentoohighfor somedepartments.Third,molecular

weightsabove100,000give significantlypoorerresultsthanpolystyrenesamplesbetween

2,000and 100,000.Manycommercialsamplesof polystyrenehavemolecularweightsabove

100,000.Lastly,manypolystyrenesamplesarepolydispersedresulting,unfortunately,in a

diffusespotontheTLC plate.Theindistinctnatureof thespotmakesit difficult to assignthe

"center"anddeterminethemolecularweight.

Ourgoalsfor improvingthisprocedureincludedoptimizingconditions,developingamethodto

recycleanyreusableplates,anddetermininghowcloselytheresultsobtainedby TLC

correspondwith themolecularweightdeterminedby GPCforthesamepolystyrenesamples.

In addition,amethodfor castingfilm fromthemicroscalesynthesisandassessingitsquality

wasdesired.

Theexperimentdiscussedin thispaperusesthinlayerchromatographyto determinethe

molecularweightof polystyrenesamplesobtainedfrom themicroscalebulk polymerization

synthesis.Theseparationof polystyreneby molecularweightisdueto selectiveprecipitation

of thepolymerfrom themobilephase.Themobilephasefor thiselutionconsistsof

dichloromethaneandmethanol.Polystyreneis solublein dichloromethaneandinsolublein

methanol.As thechromatogramdevelops,asolventgradientis establishedalongthelengthof

theplate. Thebottomof theplateisrichin thepolymersolublesolventdichloromethane.As

thechromatogramdevelops,theconcentrationof dichloromethanedecreasesandtherelative

concentrationof thenon-solventmethanolincreases.Thelesssoluble,highpolymerweight

fractionsprecipitatefirst, andasthesolventconcentrationchanges,thelowermolecular

weightsprecipitateoutat variousRf's.

The developing chamber should be open to the air, away from drafts and without a wick to

insure non-equilibrium conditions while the TLC plate is developing. Considerable care must

be used in preparing the eluting solvent because even small deviations from the suggested

concentrations alter the results. A fresh portion of eluting solvent must be used for each plate

because the relative concentration of the two solvents in the reservoir at the bottom of the

developing chamber changes during the developing process. A starting concentration of 71%

dichloromethane/29% methanol (V/V) as reported by Armstrong (2) gives the best results.

This concentration must be maintained to insure reproducibility. A more extensive application

of this technique was applied to 47 different samples of polystyrene having molecular weights

225
between 2,000-100,000. Gel Permeation Chromatographic analysis of the same samples

showed a correlation (96%) between the bottom of the TLC spot and the weight average

molecular weight determined by GPC. Additional correlation (85%) was observed for the

midpoint of the TLC spot and the number average molecular weight. The poorer Mn

correlation is attributed to the difficulty determining the midpoint of a spot whose top may be

somewhat vague. A similar difficulty is not encountered when determining the bottom of the

TLC spot.

A polydispersity index for the polystyrene sample can be calculated based on the ratio of

Mw/Mn determined by this method.

There has been much concern in the past over the reproducibility and the cost of this

experiment. The key to reproducibility is to keep the conditions as nearly identical as possible

from plate to plate. If care is taken, this experiment gives reliable results. One method to

minimize variation is to divide a 10 cm X 10 cm reverse phase TLC plate into ten lanes of 1 cm

each. Assign the first five lanes to standards and the remaining five lanes to students (See

Fig. 1). This allows five students to have identical conditions and results in considerable cost

savings.

The ability to form films in high molecular weight compounds is one of the characteristic

differences between high and low molecular weight compounds. Under similar conditions,

high molecular weight compounds form films where low molecular weight compounds form

crystalline deposits or oils. The quality of the films formed from polymeric material is

proportional to the molecular weight. The formation of a high molecular weight polymer in a

reaction is often confirmed by the formation of a cohesive film. Films may be made by either

melt techniques or solution casting techniques (10,11). This procedure discusses two methods

of solution casting that are applicable to a wide variety of polymers, and is easily adaptable to

the undergraduate laboratory. Finding a suitable solvent is the most difficult part of the

technique. A suitable solvent is volatile enough to evaporate in a reasonable amount of time but

not too volatile so that the film forms holes, bubbles or precipitates before the film formation is

complete.

Polystyrene is a glass at room temperature. A piece of clear brittle polystyrene produces sharp

edges when broken. If the film is thick enough, it will appear brittle. When warmed in boiling

water, the glass transition temperature of 100°C is approached. At the glass transition

temperature, polystyrene undergoes a characteristic change from a glass to a flexible

thermoplastic. Above the glass transition temperature, T g, polymer chains have enough energy

to undergo conformational changes, resulting in a more tlexible polymer. Flexibility on the

macroscopic scale is related to torsional mobility on the molecular level (10).

There are several options available in this experiment. The effect of initiator concentration on

yield and molecular weight distribution can be determined by running identical reactions using

three different initiator concentrations. Each student can be assigned all three concentrations or

only one of the three variations. The class results are then pooled to determine the effects of

initiator concentration on yield and molecular weight distribution.

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PROCEDURE: Microscale Bulk Polymerization of Styrene

Safety Statements:

Styrene is a hazardous chemical with an unpleasant odor. Work in the hood at all times and

avoid skin contact with this chemical. The flammability of this chemical should also be

respected. There should be no open flames in the vicinity.

Waste Disposal:

All the alumina used to remove the inhibitors from the styrene should be placed in ajar labeled

styrene contaminated alumina. All organic solvents should be disposed of in properly labeled

waste containers.

Equilibration of Constant Temperature Bath:

1. Fill a 250 mL beaker 1/3 full with oil and place a magnetic stirring bar in the beaker.

2. Heat the oil bath to 80°C on a hot plate equipped with a stirring rotor. In the interest of

time, the oil bath may be turned on and equilibrated prior to the beginning of the laboratory

period.

Preparation of Styrene: Removal of Inhibitors in Styrene

1. Prepare the mini-column by placing a small glass wool plug in the bottom of a Pasteur

pipette and fill it one half full with alumina.

2. Place the mini-column in a hood and add styrene drop wise to the top of pipette. It takes

about 4 minutes to elute 2 mL of styrene. If it takes much longer than 4 minutes, the styrene

may be contaminated with some polymeric material and very little monomeric styrene will be

collected in a reasonable amount of time. A new bottle of styrene should be substituted.

Preparation of Polystyrene:

3. Weigh 0.250 g of freshly eluted styrene and 1, 2 or 4 mg of the initiator, AIBN, in a 10 X

75 mm test tube.

4. Cover the test tube(s) with a slotted cork.

5. Place the test tube(s) in the oil bath at the same time and record time and temperature.

6. Remove the test tubes from the oil bath after 45 minutes.

7. Pour the reaction mixture, immediately after removal from the oil bath, into a beaker

containing 20 mL stirred methanol. A white precipitate should settle out.

7a. If the product is difficult to pour, add a small amount of toluene (-0.5 mL) to dissolve it

and then pour as described in 7 into 40 mL of methanol.

8. Continue to stir in methanol for another 10-20 minutes.

9. Vacuum filter the solid polymer and wash with methanol several times.

10. Air dry the polymer or dry the polymer in a vacuum oven at room temperature until

constant weight.

11. Weigh and save the polymer in a vial. Yields may be calculated on dried samples.

Plot % yield of polymer vs. mg of AIBN and note the effect of initiator concentration on the

yield of polystyrene.

The polystyrene may be characterized by infrared spectroscopic identification of a film cast on

glass, water, or a NaC1 or KBr plate and the molecular weight distribution may be determined

by selective precipitation (TLC) or GPC techniques.

227
PROCEDURE: Determination of Molecular Weight by Selective

Precipitation

Safety Statements:

Dichloromethaneand methanol are hazardous solvents. Avoid skin contact and breathing of

the vapor. Do not look directly at the UV lamp.

Waste Disposal:

Dispose of all organic solvents in a properly labeled container. Dispose of all glass waste in a

properly labeled container.

1. Prepare 100 mL of 71:29 stock solution of dichloromethane/methanol by pipetting 71 mL

of dichloromethane in a clean, dried stoppered bottle and adding 29 mL of methanol. Mix the

solution thoroughly and keep stoppered when not in use. This stock sQlution is enough for 2

separate slide developments, as 50 mL is needed for each.

2. Using a pencil, very gently, without disturbing the adsorbent, draw a baseline across the

width of the TLC plate, 1 cm from the bottom of the plate.

3. Prepare a capillary spotter for each standard or sample that will be examined. Using

capillary tubing, draw out the tubing into a fine narrow spotter using a Bunsen burner.

4. Place the plate on a piece of wide ruled paper. This allows for easy visualization of lanes

on the TLC plate. If care is taken during the spotting procedure, 10 lanes can easily be run on

a 10 cm plate without risk of overlap. This allows for several permutations of standards and

samples on the same plate. Typically, 5-7 standards are needed for the calibration curve,

leaving 3-5 lanes for samples to be analyzed. The standards and samples should have

molecular weights between 2,000 and 100,000 and be prepared by dissolving 5 mg of

polystyrene in approximately 1 mL of dichloromethane.

5. Place a standard or sample spot 1 cm from the bottom of the plate in the center of a lane.

Care should be taken to avoid overloading the plate at any one site. Check the standards and

sample spots with the UV lamp. Care should be taken not to overload the spot but make sure

the spots can be clearly visualized under the UV lamp. As the spot develops, the material

spreads out and leaves a very diffuse spot after development.

6. Place 50 mL of the stock solution in a clean and dry 1,000 mL beaker. This amount of

solvent should be sufficient to cover the bottom of the 10 cm X 10 cm reverse phase TLC plate

without being above the spots. Place this beaker or an equivalent developing chamber in a

location free of drafts. Do not allow the solvent to sit too long in the developing chamber.

7. Place the TLC plate in the developing chamber gently. Lean the plate against the side of

the beaker so that the plate only touches the beaker at the top and the bottom. Do not cover.

8. Do not disturb the plate while it is developing. Remove the plate when the solvent comes

within 5 mm of the top of the plate and gently mark the solvent front.

9. Place the TLC plate under a UV lamp. Circle each spot with pencil and record the distance

from the baseline to the bottom, the midpoint, and the top of each spot. (See Fig. 1).

10. Determine the Rf of each of the recorded points for each spot by dividing the distance from

the baseline by the distance from the baseline that the solvent traveled.

11. Plot log MW of each standard versus Rf for the bottom and the midpoint of each

corresponding spot. Obtain 2 calibration curves (See tables 1 and 2). The results of each

should correlate best with a second power polynomial fit. If access to a curve fitting program

is limited, a reasonable linear fit may be obtained using graphs of Log MW versus Rf bottom

and Rf midpoint.

12. Using the calibration curves produced in step 11, determine the molecular weights of the

bottom and midpoint for each of the unknown polystyrene samples.

13. Under the conditions discussed above, the molecular weight derived from the bottom of a

spot correlates with the weight average molecular weight (Mw) for the sample. The molecular

228
weight derived from the midpoint of the spot correlates with the number average molecular

weight (Mn) for the sample.

14. Calculate the polydispersity index for each sample by dividing Mw by Mn.

229
PROCEDURES: Film Casting

Safety Statements:

The solvent used to cast the film is hazardous and the procedure should be carried out in the

hood.

Waste Disposal:

Dispose of all organic waste in a properly labeled container.

Method 1. Traditional Film Casting on Glass

This method requires significantly more samples than methods 2 and 3 and may not be suitable

for small samples. The following procedure is adapted for a polystyrene sample.

1. Place approximately 0.5 g of pieces of polystyrene in a test tube and add 2 mL of

chloroform or toluene. Stir until completely dissolved.

2. Pour the viscous solution near the edge of a glass plate. Spread the solution out by rolling

a glass rod or Pasteur pipette, whose edges have been wrapped in a layer of tape to allow for a

space between the rod and the glass plate, once across the surface of the solution in an effort to

form a film of uniform thickness. Allow the solvent to slowly evaporate in the hood.

Complete drying may take overnight.

3. Remove the film by lifting the edge of the film from the glass using a sharp instrument (a

knife, microspatula, or scalpel). If the film does not lift off the glass surface, the glass plate

may be partially submerged in a pan of water and the film should float off the glass plate.

Allow the film to air dry after excess water has been removed by gently patting with a paper

tissue.

4. Examine the film and assess its quality. Does it appear uniform? Are there any

weaknesses or holes in the film? Is it flexible?

5. The film may be mounted on a cardboard holder and its infrared spectrum obtained. If the

film is uniform in thickness, then interference fringes will be evident and the film thickness

may be calibrated.

Method 2. Film Casting on Water

This method is applicable to small samples and limited to polymers which dissolve in solvents

or mixtures of solvents that are immiscible and less dense than water. The following procedure

is adapted for a polystyrene sample.

1. Prepare a working solution by dissolving approximately 10 mg of the polystyrene sample

in 1 mL of a 40% dichloromethane/60% diethyl ether (V/V) solution. Allow the polystyrene

sample to completely dissolve.

2. Add a small amount of water to a clean watch glass to make a puddle approximately 5 cm

in diameter. As an alternative, half fill a small recrystallizing dish with water.

3. Add the entire polystyrene solution dropwise to form a layer on top of the water.

4. Observe the surface of the water closely. Almost immediately a film will begin to form.

After several minutes the film should have set enough to allow for a qualitative evaluation of

the film. If it proves cohesive enough, gently remove the film from the surface of the water

and place on a paper towel to dry for 10 minutes. Using the alternative procedure, a glass

microscope slide may be dipped under the fragile film in the recrystallizing dish, and raised at

an angle to aid in removal of the film from the surface of the water.

5. Examine the film and assess its quality. Does it appear uniform? Are there any

weaknesses or holes in the film? Is it flexible?

6. The film may be mounted on a cardboard holder and an infrared spectrum obtained.

230
Method 3. Film Cast Directly on Warm NaC1 or KBr Platen

This method is applicable to solutions of polymeric materials with low molecular weight which

do not form quality films and for microscale samples.

This method usually yields the poorest quality films because the polymeric material often

precipitates on the plate prior to film formation. If this occurs, substitute a room temperature

salt plate to see if this improves the film quality. Fortunately, even if the film quality is poor,

an infrared spectrum may be recorded and the material characterized by this method.

1. Dissolve the sample in an appropriate solvent.

2. Add the solution to the center of a NaC1 or KBr plate that has been warmed in a 60°C

oven. The solvent will flash evaporate leaving behind a film residue of the polymeric material.

3. After the plate is dried, record the infrared spectrum.

PROCEDURE: Determination of the Thickness of a Polymer Film by the

Interference Fringe Technique (12)

1. Place the polymer film in the sam]31e beam of an infrared instrument and record its

spectrum from 4000 cm-1 to 400 cm -1 .

2. Determine if any wavy interference pattern emerges in the spectrum. Such a pattern

emerges ONLY if the film is of uniform thickness.

3. Using the interference pattern, the thickness of the film can be calculated using the

following equation:

where:

d = Am/2n(v 1-v2) (4)

Am

Vl

v2

n

d = thickness of film in cm

- a whole number of complete fringe maxima

(or minima) in the interval from u 1 to u2.

= frequency at which first maximum (or

minimum) occurs, in cm-1.

= frequency at which last maximum (or

minimum) occurs, in cm-1.

= the index of refraction for the film.

INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES:

This sequence of experiments can be done in teams of two students.

Microscale Bulk Polymerization of Styrene

The mechanism of the free radical polymerization of styrene can be found in the section on

polymers and/or vinyl polymerization in any undergraduate organic chemistry text.

The AIBN and Styrene should be keep in the refrigerator when not in use.

The styrene contaminated alumina and pipettes should be placed in a beaker labeled styrene

contaminated alumina and pipettes and left in the hood until it can be disposed of

properly as hazardous waste.

The synthetic experiment should be performed in the hood. Each student is only manipulating

one test tube and/or pipette column so that all students should be accommodated in the various

231
hoods.Styreneisextremelyflammableandtoxicsoencouragetheuseof gloveswhen

handlingthemonomer.Thepolymerdoesnotexhibitthesehealthhazards.Thedifferencein

toxicity betweenthemonomerandpolymerillustratejust oneof themanydifferencesbetween

thesetwo compounds.

Benzoylperoxideis traditionallyusedto initiatefreeradicalpolymerizationof styrene,but the

explosivehazardof thischemicalisconsideredtooriskyfor afirst yearexperiment.The

substitutionofAIBN provedacceptableandsignificantlylesshazardousfor undergraduates.

All reactionswererunwith andwithoutanitrogenpurge.Theyieldswithoutthenitrogen

purgewerehigherandwerebelievedto bedueto thelossof monomerduringthepurging

process.Thepresenceof oxygendoesnotseemto adverselyaffecttheoutcomeof thefree

radicalreactiononamicroscale,althougha smallinductionperiodis neededbeforeany

polymericmaterialcanbeisolated.

It is essentialtheoil bath(cornoil, cookingoil) beequilibratedbeforethebeginningof thelab.

I providesettingsonvarioushotplatesthatshouldequilibratecloseto 80°C. If thetemperature

goesmuchhigherthan80°C,thepolymerizationwill yieldasolidplugof polymer. This

material,althoughpolystyrene,isnoteasilymanipulatedby equipmentavailableto first and

secondyearstudents.Theprecipitationof thepolymerin methanolisaclassicmethodfor

handlingpolymericmaterial.Polystyreneis solublein tolueneanddichloromethanebutnotin

methanolor diethylether.If astudentdoesform apolystyreneplug(temperaturetoohigh or

heatedtoolong)andit doesnoteasilyslideoutof thetesttube,try addingasmallamountof

tolueneto dissolvethepolymer. If thatdoesnotwork,thentheonly methodopenedto themis

to wrapthetesttubein atowelandcrackit openwith ahammer.Unfortunatelyit isoften

difficult to differentiatebetweenthesilicaglassof thetesttubeandtheorganicglassof

polystyrenewhenit is all commingledinpiecesonthepapertowel.

Onceprecipitated,thepolystyreneis filteredusingavacuumfiltrationsetup.Thewhite

powder (it doesnotprecipitateasatransparent,amorphousglass)ispolystyrene.Theyields

areobtainedby weighingtheproduct.By combiningstudents'data,theclasscandetermineif

thereis anycorrelationbetweentheamountof initiatorusedandtheyieldsobtained.If vacuum

filtration is notpossible,thengravityfiltration canbesubstituted.Thisreactionis achaingrowthpolymerizationandassuchwill alwayshavemonomerpresentuntil polymerizationis

complete.Thereforetheprecipitation,and,if possible,thefiltration (vacuumor gravity) should

bedonein thehoodto minimizetheamountof styreneintroducedintothelaboratory.

Further Extensions: Variation of yields and molecular weight distribution with temperature

may be investigated. The authors investigated 60 °, 70 ° and 80°C and found that 80°C gave the

highest yields.

Molecular Weight Determination by Selective Precipitation

The characterization by TLC is straightforward. The TLC is best run in the hood in a 1 L

beaker that is clean. Soap residue interferes with the separation and gives uninterpretable

results. Once the students have obtained the Rfs of both the midpoints and the bottoms of all

spots they should plot the results using a plot program, if they have access to one, or using

graph paper. A correlation coefficient of 1.0 was obtained for a second order polynomial fit,

whereas correlation coefficients of .96-.99 were obtained for a linear fit of the same data (See

Tables 1 and 2). This method of determination of molecular weight of polystyrene is

applicable to all polystyrene samples whose molecular weight falls between 2,000-100,000.

Samples whose molecular weight falls outside this window give significantly poorer

correlations with their corresponding GPC data.

232
From their results, students should be able to determine the Mn, Mw and the polydispersity of

their polystyrene sample. By combining students' data, the class can determine if there is any

correlation between the amount of initiator used and the molecular weight obtained. As the

concentration of initiator increases, the yield of polystyrene should increase. More initiator

means more chains started. There should be a corresponding decrease in the molecular weight

obtained. There is an inverse square root relationship between the molecular weight and the

initiator concentration. It is the authors' observations that students do not get precise enough

results to support this mathematical relationship, but correlating trends are observed. The

physical justification for this relationship lies in the frequency of termination steps. With more

initiator present, more chains start, resulting in more chains termination steps, which causes the

average molecular weight to stop increasing.

Recycling of the reverse phase TLC plates results in a significant cost reduction. Recycling can

be easily accomplished with only minor modifications in the procedure. These modifications

are time costly, as the student is required to spend more time using the UV lamp. The

laboratory directors will determine which procedure best serves their needs. Reverse phase

TLC plates can be recycled by a method discussed in a separate procedure (13).

Film Casting

Another aspect of this experiment is to examine the relationship between molecular weight and

film quality. Film formation is dependent on molecular weight. To form a film, polymer

chains must be of sufficient length to have a large amount of chain entanglements. The longer

the chains (the higher the molecular weight) and more extensive the entanglements, the stronger

the film. For these samples, the students will see film formation on the surface of the water.

When they try to remove their samples they will find that the film is extremely fragile and may

not maintain its integrity. For comparison, samples of polystyrene made from packing

peanuts can be made in a similar manner. These films are normally stronger than the student

samples because they are made from polystyrene of higher molecular weight. If a film can be

lifted from the surface of the water and placed on a paper towel to dry it can be suspended in

the infrared beam and a spectrum obtained. This spectrum should be identical to the

polystyrene film in the calibration strip including the distinctive 1601 cm -1 peak.

REFERENCES:

1. Modern Plastics, 1989, 66, 116.

2. Armstrong, D.W., Mark, J.N., Kyle, D., Alak, A., J. Chem. Educ. 1985, 62, p.705.

3. Eaton, David C., Laboratory Investigations in Organic Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New

York, 1989.

4. Williamson, Kenneth L., Macroscale and Microscale Organic Experiments, D.C. Heath,

Lexington, 1989, p. 635.

5. Laboratory Manual for Chemistry/Materials, Department of Chemistry, Rensselaer

Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180 Spring 1992.

6. Szafran, Z.; Pike, R.M.; Singh, M.M.; Microinorganic Chemistry, John Wiley And Sons

Inc., New York, 1991.

7. Mills,J.L.; Hampton, M.D.; Microscale and Macroscale Experiments for General

Chemistry, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1991.

8. Armstrong, D.W.; Bui, K.H.; Analytical Chemistry, 1982, 54, p.706.

9. Droske, John P., "Determination of the Molecular Weight of Polystyrene by Fractionation

on a Reversed-Phase TLC Plate", Procedure for Polymer Class 475, University of WisconsinStevens Point, Department of Chemistry, Stevens Point, WI 54481.

10. Allcock, Harry R.; Lampe, Frederick W.;Contemporary Polymer Chemistry, Englewood

Cliffs, Prentice-Hall 1981.

233
11. Droske, John P., Polymer Chemistry Demonstration and Experiments Workshop,

POLYED National Information Center for Polymer Education. Department of Chemistry,

University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, 54481.

12. Hannah, R.W., and Swinehart, J.S., Experiments in Techniques of Infrared

Spectroscopy, Norwalk, Perkin-Elmer Corporation, 1974.

13. Determination of Molecular Weight by Thin Layer Chromatography (Selective

Precipitation). Modified for recycling of TLC Plates. Integrating Polymers into Core

Chemistry Courses: A Sourcebook, POLYED National Information Center for Polymer

Education. Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, 54481.

234
I

Ruler ------._-

_0

, 2131415167 8 9110

Figure I. Reverse Phase TLC plate on top of wide ruled paper. The paper

serves as a guide for sample lanes. Rf is calculated by dividing the distance

travelled by the spot by the distance travelled by the solvent front.

distance from baseline

to solvent front.

top

midpoint

bottom

t

I

ent front

I

B

f

P

baseline

I

distance from baseline

to midpoint.

I

235
7.00e-1

6.00e-1

5.00e-1

o 4.00e-1

rn

& 3.00a-1

2.00e-1

1.00e-1

y = - 1.0432 + 1.081x - 0.1747x^2 R = 1.00

-1.36e-20 t

4 5

3 log MW

Table 1. Plot of log MW vs. Rf bottom which serves as a calibration curve used to calculate

the number average molecular weight using Rf values obtained by TLC. Correlation

coefficient for first order fit is .98, and for a second order polynomial fit is 1.

A

.m

E

IK

8.00e-1

6.00e-1

4.00e-1 _

2.00e-1

2.71e-20

y = - 2.0538 + 1.5999x - 0.2376x^2 R = 1.00

I

4 5

3 log MW

Table 2. Plot of log MW vs. Rf midpoint which serves as a calibration curve used to calculate

the weight average molecular weight using Rf values obtained by TLC. Correlation coefficient

for first order fit is .96, and for a second order polynomial fit is 1.

236
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

These experiments were prepared as part of the NSF-POLYED Scholars Program. This

collaborative effort involves the following individuals working at three regional sites:

University of Wisconsin-Stevens Poin!

John P. Droske, UWSP, Project Director

Jerry P. Jasinski a, Keene State College, NH

Joe Young b, Chicago State University

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Gary Wnek, RPI Site Director

Karen S. Quaa| a,b, Siena College

Chang-Ning Wu a,b, UMass-Dartmouth

University of Southern Mississippi

Lon Mathias, USM Site Director

T. Carter Gilmer a, Univ. of Michigan-Dearborn

Guy Mattson b, Univ. of Central Florida

E. Ann Nalley a,b, Cameron University, OK

a: NSF-POLYED Scholar 1993, b: NSF-POLYED Scholar 1992

The helpfulness of the following individuals is gratefully acknowledged:

Jean Strong at UWSP, Beth McGraw at RPI and Janet Lewis at USM for secretarial support.

S. Czysz, Jason Waldkrich, S. Baird, T. Maeder, J. Opsteen, Russ Cartwright, Stephanie

Frederick, Chris Peterson, C. Roberts, G. Tullos-student assistants at the three sites;

and S. Krause (RPI) and Paul Hladky (UWSP) and the members of the advisory panel for

their helpfulness.

The project was supported by the National Science Foundation Division of Undergraduate

Education Grant DUE#91-50497 and 92-54351 and by POLYED, the joint polymer education

committee of the ACS Polymer Divisions.

237

CRATER CRACKING IN ALUMINUM WELDS

R. Carlisle Smith

Department of Welding Technology

West Virginia University, Parkersburg Campus

Parkersburg, West Virginia 26101

Telephone 304-342-6127

PAGE _[,.Atil< NOT FILMED 239
Carlisle Smith

West Virginia University

Parkersburg Campus

ORIGINAL PAGE

BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH

240
CRATER CRACKING IN ALUMINUM WELDS

R. Carlisle (Carl) Smith

Department of Welding Technology

West Virginia University, Parkersburg Campus

Parkersburg, West Virginia 26101

SPONSOR

Kanawha Manufacturing Company

Charleston, West Virginia 25311

KEY WORDS: Crater, crater crack, spider cracks, hot crack

propagation, capillary action, strain hardening, hot short, %6 Temper, dye

penetrant, non-aqueous, heattreatable, dwell time.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The students should have a

definitive knowledge of capillary action. The understanding of the nonferrous characteristics of aluminum will be helpful.

OBJECTIVES: To observe the importance of non-destructive testing

even after visual examination. To determine the extent of damage which can

be caused by crater cracking.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

(1) Safety glasses, gloves and a vapor mask should be worn.

(2) Fractured aluminum material.

(3) Solvent cleaner. (Aerosol or liquid).

(4) Fluorescent Penetrant. (Aerosol or liquid).

(5) Developer (non-aqueous or powder).

(6) Lint free cloths or paper towels.

(7) Black light.

(8) Three acid swabs. (Brush type is preferred).

NOTE: A tee joint with fillet welds on both sides is the most desirable

configuration.

241
INTRODUCTION: The non-heattreatable alloys, which are cold

work tempered, are much less difficult to weld than the heattreatable alloys.

Alcoa classifies weldability beginning with "A" as the easiest to "D" the r_ost

difficult. The 6061-T6 alloys rate a "D".

PREPARATION FOR WELDING: All aluminum alloys require

removal of oxidation. A mix of hydrofluoric or hydrochloric acid with nitric

acid and water works very satisfactorily. This should be applied at 70 ° to

80 ° F and followed by a thorough rinse. A 5% sodium hydroxide solution

may also be used and followed by a thorough coldwater rinse. A simple

volt OHM meter may be used to determine whether the part is cleaned

sufficiently. A high resistance reading will indicate a need for more

cleaning.

PERFORMING THE FIRST SIDE WELD: A wire such as

ER 5356 may be used to weld the first side which should be a good weld for

proving our point. The proper amps and volts should be used. The travel

speed should be sufficient to fill the joint on the first side to obtain a. 1875"

throat depth. A pause at the terminal point of the weld will fill the crater and

assure a gas shield. Preheat to 350 ° F and slow cool.

PERFORMING THE SECOND SIDE WELD: Since we want the

second side weld to fail, the procedure will be changed to cause the failure.

The precleaning is still a must since an arc cannot be established through a

heavy aluminum oxide film. The elimination of preheat will cause the

material to receive a thermal shock. The second error to be made is to

increase the amperage and voltage to about 30% above the recommended

parameters. The travel speed will be varied to cause uneven heat

distribution in the base material. The sure fire killer will be provided by a

sudden stop and immediate withdrawal of the welding gun from the weld.

This assures that a crater will form and no gas shield will be in place to

protect the molten, cratered weld pool. The crack may or may not be visible

to the eye, but a quick penetrant examination will reveal the spider like

fracture.

242
EXPERIMENT:

PERFORMANCE OF THE DYE PENETRANT

EXAMINATION:

STEP 1:

STEP 2:

STEP 3:

Preclean the complete specimen using solvent type, rapid

evaporating solvent. Aerosol is faster than plain liquid.

Using the acid swab brush, apply a heavy coat of fluorescent

penetrant covering the welds on both sides.

Allow a 7 to 10 minute dwell time.

STEP 4:

STEP 5:

Spray the solvent cleaner on a lint free cloth or paper towel and

remove all the excess penetrant. Do not spray directly on the

part to be examined. This will wash out the penetrant.

Apply the developer.

STEP 6: Allow a 7 to 10 minute dwell time.

STEP 7: Turn on the black light and observe the results.

SUMMARY: The black light should show that even though the first

side was welded correctly, the propagation has carried the crack from the

correctly welded side through to the side that contained the crater.

The student should be made aware that although a failure was depicted in

the base material and the weld, aluminum is still a very good weldable

material. Any material that is fabricated improperly may fail. Proper

procedures are necessary even for the most simplistic forms of metal

processing.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: Nearly all good penetrant products are

flammable. They should not be used on materials hotter than 120 ° F. No

fires or flames should be allowed in the area of use. The vapors are not

extremely toxic but prolonged exposure to the products can be harmful.

Contact with eyes and skin should be minimized, if not avoidable. Flushing

243
with water and soap will remove the product from skin. A thorough water

flush should be used for eye washing. If swallowed, do not induce vomiting.

See a physician as soon as possible. Keep all penetrant products in cool

storage (around 70 ° F) and away from possible fires. Secure the cabinet to

prohibit "sniffing" by those persons who indulge in such practices.

244
BRIDGMAN SOLIDIFICATION EXPERIMENT

TO ASSESS BOUNDARIES AND INTERFACE SHAPE

Jonathan H. Fisher

and

Glenn A. Shelby

Science and Engineering Group

Nichols Research Corporation

4040 South Memorial Parkway

P. O. Box 400002

Huntsville, Alabama 35815-1502

Telephone 205-883-1170 extension 1381

and

Lawrence R. Holland

Department of Physics

Alabama A&M University

Normal, Alabama 35762

Telephone 205-851-5313

245
Jonathan Fisher

Nichols Research Corporation

I

ORVQINAL PAGE

BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAP[",

2,46
Bridgman Solidification Experiment to Assess Boundaries and Interface Shape

Jonathan H. Fisher

Glenn A. Shelby

Science and Engineering Group

Nichols Research Corporation

Huntsville, Alabama 35815-1502

Lawrence R. Holland

Department of Physics

Alabama A&M University

Normal, Alabama 35762

KEYWORDS: Bridgman solidification, solid-liquid interface shape, directional

solidification, thermal conductivity, crucible, II-VI semiconductors, III-V semiconductors, IV

semiconductors, and melt growth.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should understand the

fundamentals of thermal transport phenomena and the fundamentals of solidification processes,

specifically directional and Bridgman solidification. This material would typically be covered

during a materials science course, an introduction to solidification processes course,

introduction to metallurgy, or crystal growth techniques course. The growth interface shape

and its relationship to thermophysical properties is the key part of the experiment. [Ref. 1]

OBJECTIVES: To understand the basics of Bridgman-Stockberger solidification

using an experimental model that is directly related to II-VI, III-V, and IV semiconductors melt

growth like Mercury Cadmium Telluride, Silicon or other similar materials. To observe and

understand the interface shape and its relationship to thermal transport and thermophysical

properties of the solid, liquid, and crucible materials. NOTE: This lab can be taught at various

levels of understanding. The following will simply discuss interface shape models,

specifically the Holland effect. The Holland effect relates the solid-liquid (or melt) interface to

the thermal conductivity of the solid and liquid (see equation 2). Other topics such as solid

interface growth rate and temperature profile within solid - liquid during solidification will be

addressed.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: [Ref. 2]

(1) P'lexiglas crucible (25 mm inner diamter (ID) approximately 600 mm in length)

(2) Aluminum or alloy cold finger (25 mm ID that fits into the Plexiglas crucible)

(3) Liquid Nitrogen dewar (20 liter) or other cryogenic source

247
(4) Styrofoamdewar-coldfingeradapter27/16"outerdiameter(O).Anythingthat

wouldsecurethecoldfingerin thedewarwouldbeacceptable

(5) De-ionizedwater

(6) Aluminumweldingrod-optional(3.175mmor 1/8")

(7) A meterstickor othermeasuringdevice

(8) Stopwatch

INTRODUCTION: Thethermalconditionsin Bridgman-Stockberger(denoted

Bridgmanfor theremainderof thepaper)growthsolidificationconfigurationscanbeusedto

understandtheinterfaceshapebetweenthesolid,liquid, andcruciblewall. Thetheory

proposedbyHollandcanbeusedto definethesolid-liquidinterfaceshape.[Ref.1] The

Bridgmangrowthcanbemodeledusingthesolidificationof water. For goodcrystallinity,a

convexcrystalfaceis requiredasshowbythesolidificationof lead. Holland'stheorymaybe

usedto understandtheproblemsof II-VI, Ill-V, andIV semiconductorcrystalgrowthwhose

interfacepropagateswith aconcaveshape.

Bridgman Solidification System Boundary Conditions: A typical Bridgman

solidification system is illustrated in Figure 1. Bridgman solidification is directional crystal

growth where the loaded crucible moves in the direction from the hot zone into the cold zone

where the melt or liquid solidifies. The hot and cold zones are quasi-static for slow

solidification. The crucible moves through the stationary furnace at a predefined velocity that

defines the growth or solidification rate. A thermal resistance is encountered as the heat flux

propagates into the cold zone due to the change in thermal conductivity as illustrated in Figure 1.

Tile corresponding heat flow diverges outward through tile walls of the crucible. When the

heat flux diverges, the surfaces of constant temperature isotherms must curve up at the edges.

The growth face occurs at the freezing temperature isotherm. It should be noted that crystal

growth propagates perpendicular to the isotherm representing the solidification

temperature[Ref. 3]. The crucible walls form a thermal "short circuit" in the system.

The thermal flux and thermal gradient can be used to explain this phenomenon in a

more quantitative way. The thermal flux and thermal gradient boundary conditions at

boundaries 1, 2, and 3 (from Figure 1) can be used to define the ruling relationship. Within

the crucible wall, sufficiently close to the melt solid interface, the thermal gradients obey (the

subscripts m and s refer to the melt and solid phase of the load):

(_-_-Tz)m = (_-_Tz) s (1)

248
Thez-componentof thethermalflux, thethermalconductivity(k) timesthethermalgradient,at

thesolid-meltinterfaceobeys:

/

km = k(C3T]

7) m s \O-z-/s (2)

Both equations ] and 2 are valid only if either km=ks or _T/Oz = 0 in both media. We know

that km is not equal to ks. So, if kin is greater than ks, then at the fine of contact of the meltsolid interface with the crucible the heat flux is strictly horizontal, into the crucible wall (0=0%

Similarly, if km is less than ks, as the case with a metal, then the interface turns down at the

edge, and 0=I 80 °.

Bridgman Model

Z

Hot Zone

Solid

Crucible Wall

Melt

Solid

I

i:_iiii!iiiiiiii_. _:_:_:,iii!iii_ Crucible

Cold Zone

Figure l. Steady State Bridgman Model Schematic

249
PROCEDURE:

Safety considerations:

1. Explain the precautions of the use of nitrogen to the student.

have proper ventilation.

The laboratory should

Sample Preparation: This can be a class demonstration or done by each laboratory

team (i.e., you are probably equipment limited).

1. Insert the cold finger into the dewar adapter. [Note: Fabrication drawings for the

aluminum cold finger, dewar adapter, and crucible assembly can be obtained from author.]

2. Slip the transparent crucible over the cold finger until it fits over the o-ring. Note:

the meter stick does not need to be affixed to the crucible.

3. Fill the crucible with de-ionized water.

4. Insert the cold finger, crucible, and adapter assembly into the LN2 dewar or other

available cryogenic source. Note the starting time in the sample data sheets.

5. Upon solidification of the water note the morphology of the ice. Take

measurements of the ice growth length each minute after the ice has fully solidified past the

cold finger. Notice the interface shape at the wall of the crucible. Does the ice grow with a

concave or convex interface? Predict whether liquid water has a larger thermal conductivity

than solid water. Does the solid or liquid have a greater density? Does a relationship exist

between the density and the thermal conductivity of the solid and melt material? Consider the

packing fractions for the different states of matter.

6. [Optional] Insert an aluminum or other metallic rod into the crucible after the ice has

solidified past the cold finger. Let the rod rest on the ice. What happens at the point of contact

between the metallic rod and ice? Again, notice the interface shape as the water solidifies up

the metallic rod. Again, predict whether liquid water has a larger thermal conductivity than

solid water. Does this result agree with the conclusion from step 5.

7. The experiment or demonstration should last at least 30 minutes. Stop the

experiment. Remove the cold finger, crucible, and adapter assembly from the LN2 dewar.

Cap the LN2 dewar.

8. Complete the data sheet. Was the growth rate constant, increasing or decreasing?

SAMPLE DATA SHEETS: Each student should answer all questions given in the

sample preparation steps and complete the following data sheet. The growth rate as a function

of time should be plotted.

250
Start time:

Elapsed Time for first solidification:

Elapsed Time Solid Zone Length Growth Rate

(seconds) (cm) (cm/sec)

60

120

180

240

Observations

300

360

420

480

540

600

660

720

780

840

900

960

1020

1080

1140

1200

1260

1320

1380

1440

1500

1560

1620

1680

1740

1800

Does the ice grow with a concave or convex interface?

The thermal conductivity of the liquid water is less than or greater than the thermal

conductivity of the solid water. Explain your answer.

Predict the growth interface shape assuming the thermal conductivity of the liquid opposite to

the observed shape.

251
How does the thermal conductivity of the crucible wall matter to this solidification process?

Was the growth rate constant, increasing or decreasing?

INSTRUCTOR NOTES:

1. The laboratory instructor should review reference 1. The derivations for equations 1

and 2 are described in this article.

2. The most important lesson from this laboratory is the relationship between interface

shape and the thermophysical properties of the solidifying material. Advanced undergraduates

or graduate students should relate the growth kinetics to theoretical predictions. Much of the

background material for this can be found in references 1 and 3.

3. Other experiments such as that first performed by Azouni [Ref. 2] can be done to

understand the phenomena of convection in solidification systems. The Azouni experiment

requires a multi-channel (16) temperature measurement capability.

REFERENCES:

1. Holland, L.R., Crucible Surface, Thermal Refraction, Boundaries, and Interface

Shape in Melt Growth, Journal of Crystal Growth 96 (1989) 577-583.

2. Azouni, M.A., Helical Impurity Distribution Produced By a Hydrodynamic

Instability, Journal of Crystal Growth 42 (1977) 405-410.

3. Kurz, W. and Fisher, D. J., Fundamentals of Solidification, 3rd. ed., Trans Tech

Publications, 1989.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY: The plexiglass crucible will have to be purchased from

your local plastics retailer. The plexiglass tube should cost less than $10.00 or you may obtain

for free as remnant stock. The 1 inch cylindrical Aluminum stock can be obtained and

fabricated by your department machine shop. A nitrogen dewar can be found in most Physics

departments. The styrofoam adapter can be cut into form using a lathe and knife (or simply cut

it into shape) from commonly available packing block material. The de-ionized water may be

obtained from the Chemistry department.

252
PREPARATION OF SIMPLE PLASTER MOLD

FOR SLIP CASTING

T.G. Davidson

and

L.A. Ketron

Ceramic Engineering Technology

Hocking Technical College

3301 Hocking Parkway

Nelsonville, Ohio 45764-9704

Telephone 614-753-3591 ext. 2653

253

Hocking

College

PREPARATION OF

SIMPLE PLASTER MOLD

FOR SLIP CASTING

T.G. Davidson and L. A. Ketron

Ceramic Engineering Technology

Hocking Technical College

Nelsonville, OH 45764

KEY WORDS: model

plaster mold

parting agent

simple mold

cottle

slake

working mold

gypsum

ABSTRACT:

The manufacture of permeable gypsum molds is an important

phase of the slip casting process, a process which can

economically produce complex shapes. Controlling the water

content during the preparation of the mold can affect its

porosity, which in turn affects the strength and wear

resistance of the mold, casting rate, and ability to transfer

detail. This demonstration of making a simple plaster mold

involves setting the cottle and model, mixing the plaster, and

pouring the plaster.

PREREQUISITES: Ability to weigh out raw material.

Ability to operate a power mixer.

Ability to slake.

OBJECTIVES:

1. Define keywords

2. Build a cottle.

3. Produce a simple plaster mold.

MATERIALS: U.S. #i pottery plaster

20oz. styrofoam cup

parting agent (mold soap)

water clay

EQUIPMENT:

safety glasses carpenter's square

power mixer . two 5-gal. buckets

dowel rod modeling clay

cottle boards with angle irons

wedges

paint brush

rasp

255
INTRODUCTION:

Many sophisticated methods of manufacturing have been

introduced into the ceramics industry, yet complex shapes of

products can still be done economically only by slip casting.

Slip casting requires a mold which is highly permeable to draw

excess water from a liquid clay slurry and leave behind a

rigid clay piece which is subsequently fired. This water

permeability is a function of the number, size and shape of

the pores in the mold material. A second requisite is that the

mold material be easily worked, or tooled, into the desired

shape.

Gypsum plaster best fulfills these requirements. Naturally

occurring raw material gypsum (CaSO 2" H20) can _e heated to a

high temperature to yield a materia_ containing less water of

hydration. This dehydrated material is called plaster of

Paris (CaSO 4 72 H20) and is the starting ingredient for

making molds_ It is mixed with water forming a creamy slurry

which can be easily shaped by casting. The plaster of Paris

dissolves in the water and gypsum nucleates and grows from

solution. Only 18.6 pounds of water are required for chemical

hydration of 100 pounds of plaster, but excess water is

required to allow one to work the mixture. Upon drying, the

excess water above that required for crystallization is

evaporated away leaving behind interconnected pores. These

interconnected pores, some of which are open at the surfaces

of the mold, create the necessary sponge-like microstructure

needed for slip casting.

The manufacture of gypsum molds is an important phase of

production, and preparing complicated molds is a highly

skilled process. Preparation of a complicated mold involves

preparing four types of molds: 1) model; 2) block; 3) case

mold; and 4) working mold. The model usually has larger

dimensions than the final product to allow for shrinkage which

occurs during drying and firing. The block mold is a negative

of the model. The case mold is composed of several

interlocking pieces formed by casting plaster around the block

mold. The working mold is actually used for slip casting the

product. The block and case molds are made from harder and

stronger gypsum materials to minimize wear and cracking.

Gypsum plaster molds are not strong and have a limited life;

therefore, a plaster shop maintains a steady production of

molds.

This lab will involve producing a simple working mold

directly from the model. A simple mold consists of only one

part. A complex mold has two or more parts.

256
PROCEDURE:

A. Calculation of Material Amounts

i. Volume of cottle (V=):

V= = length x width x height

2. Volume of styrofoam cup (Vm):

V = (h_7/3) (R12 + RIR 2 + R22)

3. Volume of plaster mold (Vp) required:

•

Vp = V c - Vm

Amount of plaster (P) required is calculated by

multiplying the plaster mold volume (Vp) by the

density of the plaster (D). The density of the U.S.

#i pottery plaster is 20 g/in 3.

P = V x D

P

5. Amount of water (w):

The water to plaster ratio is commonly between

i: 1 3/e and I: 1 i/2 .

w 1 w 1

--- = or --- =

P 1 3/s P I I/2

B• Making simple mold

i. Set up cottle by positioning boards using wedges to

secure the proper dimensions.

2. Use clay to seal (caulk) the cottle sides and bottom•

3. Fill model with clay to maintain shape and keep from

floating.

4. Coat cottle and model with parting agent•

5. Position model in cottle with widest end on table top.

6. Weigh out plaster amount (P).

7. Weigh out water amount (w) separately.

8. Slake the plaster into the water by forming a cone

which allows the air to escape. This process ought to

take about two minutes.

NOTE: Plaster set-up time is about six minutes total.

•

I0.

ii.

Mix with a power mixer for 1.5 to 2 minutes. WASH the

mixer blade immediately.

Insert hand into mixture to check for lumps and

release air bubbles.

Watch for waves to form as you hand mix. This wave

formation indicates plaster is setting up.

257
NOTE: If you pour too soon, plaster will settle out of

the water and the mold will be more dense at the top.

12. Pour plaster into the cottle along its side. Pour

enough to cover model. Use dowel rod to keep model in

place.

13. Gently shake cottle to release air (rock table). Air

bubbles are the enemy of the mold maker.

14. Set for forty (40) minutes.

15. Remove model and wash mold.

16. Use rasp to plane bottom of plaster mold if it is

uneven.

INSTRUCTOR COMMENTS:

* Boards nailed together could be used as a cottle.

* New plaster sets up faster, therefore one may need to

decrease the time of mixing with the power mixer and

by hand.

* To allow for set-up time (in a limited laboratory

period) may start students making for which the

amounts are previously calculated and given to the

students. While the mold sets then show the students

how to calculate the amount of gypsum and water

needed.

* May divide class into two groups:

a) prepare cottle

b) weigh materials

* Density varies with ratio of water and the type of

plaster.

* Use a three (3) inch blade on the power mixer.

REFERENCES:

i. "The Gypsum Mold", Ceramics and Glasses, Engineered

Materials Handbook, Vol.4, S.J. Schneider, Jr., ed.;

ASM: 1991; pp. 157-158.

2. F.H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics, 2nd ed.,

Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1970, pp.99-100.

3. W. Ryan, Properties of Ceramic Raw Materials, Peramon

Press, 1978, pp.99-100.

258
SLIP CASTING

T.G. Davidson

and

L.A. Ketron

Ceramic Engineering Technology

Hocking Technical College

3301 Hocking Parkway

Nelsonville, Ohio 45764-9704

Telephone 614-753-3591 ext. 2653

259
Lisa Ketron

Hocking Technical College

260
Hocking

College

SLIP CASTING

T.G. Davidson and L. A. Ketron

Ceramic Engineering Technology

Hocking Technical College

Nelsonville, OH 45764

KEY WORDS: drain casting

solid casting

reservoir

slip casting

deflocculants

working mold

simple mold

complex mold

electrolytes

ABSTRACT:

The production of highly complex shapes can be

accomplished by slip casting. A slip is a suspension of

colloidal powders in an immiscible liquid (usually water).

Slip casting entails pumping or pouring the slip into a

permeable mold (usually gypsum). The capillary suction of the

mold causes the liquid to be filtered from the suspended

medium and a densely packed layer of particles to be deposited

against the mold wall. This demonstration includes the

preparation of a sllp, evaluating its specific gravity and

viscosity, casting slmple hollow ware shapes, and solid

casting.

PREREQUISITES: Ability to weigh raw material.

Ability to operate a power mixer.

Ability to slake clays.

OBJECTIVES:

1. Define keywords

2. Drain cast.

3. Solid cast.

4. Evaluate viscosity with Zahn cup.

5. Determine specific gravity with pycnometer bottle.

MATERIALS: ball clay kaolin

sodium silicate flint

feldspar

water

261
EQUIPMENT:

safety glasses

power mixer

two l-gal, jars

stop watch

simple plaster mold

_1Zahn cup

five 2-3gal. buckets

five 100ml beakers

pycnometer bottle

complex bar molds

dinner plates

weighing scales

scoop

scrapers

popsicle stick

calipers

INTRODUCTION:

The term "slip" in the ceramics field refers to a fluid

suspension or slurry (a pourable suspension of a high content

of insoluble particulate solids in a liquid medium, most often

water). All slips require three basic ingredients: a

suspension medium or vehicle, fine powdered solid material,

and electrolytes or deflocculants.

The suspension medium is usually water and suspended

solids are the ceramic raw materials. For ease of casting,

the slip must be fluid enough to pour easily but yet be of

sufficient viscosity to prevent rapid settling of the

suspended solids. This balance is usually attained by the

addition of small quantities of selected electrolytes such as

sodium silicate, sodium polyphosphate, or many others to the

slip.

The electrolytes are charged particles which assist in

suspending the solid material in the vehicle. The

electrolytes are also called deflocculants. For high clay

slips, sodium silicate works quite well.

The ceramics industry uses the terms density and specific

gravity interchangeably when discussing slip. The specific

gravity (S.G.) of a liquid is the ratio of the liquid density

to the density of pure water at 20°C (lg/cc).

One standard test used to evaluate slip is the apparent

viscosity which can be performed with a Zahn cup. The Zahn

cup method evaluates the number of seconds it takes a liquid

to empty from the cup through an orifice of definite diameter.

Slip casting may be used to form hollow ware by draining

the excess slip out of the mold when the desired wall

thickness is obtained. Solid casting is similar to metal

casting in a sand mold. As the water is drawn out of the slip

by the plaster mold, the volume of the slip inside the mold

will shrink, requiring an ample supply of slip during the time

of casting or the piece will be hollow.

262
PROCEDURE:

A. Slip Batch Preparation

i. Calculate the amount of each of the following raw

materials required to yield a dry batch weighing 3000

grams.

Material %

ball clay 30

kaolin 18

feldspar 32

flint 20

Chemical composition

A1203"0. IK20"4SiO2-2H20

AI203" 2 SiO 2"2 H20

A1203"0.5K20- 0.5Na20"SiO 2

SiO 2

Amount

•

Calculate the amount of the liquids required based on

the dry batch weight•

Material %

water 45-50

sodium silicate 0.4-0.7

Chemical composition

H20

Na20"xSiO 2 (x = 3 to 5)

Amount

B•

3. Weigh the water into a suitable container.

4. Weigh the sodium silicate which is a liquid• Dip the

entire beaker containing the sodium silicate into the

water making sure all of it dissolves•

5. Mix the solution with a power mixer•

6. Weigh the ball clay.

7. Slake the ball clay into the liquid mixture and then

mix it with a power mixer.

8. Weigh the kaolin.

9. Slake the kaolin into the mixture and then mix it with

a power mixer•

i0. Weigh the feldspar.

ii. Add the feldspar to the mixture and mix it with a

power mixer.

12. Weigh the flint.

13. Add the flint to the mixture and mix it with a power

mixer.

NOTE: MIX UNTIL SMOOTH OR UNTIL NO'LUMPS PERSIST.

Slip casting

i. Simple plaster crucible mold

a) Pour the slip into simple plaster mold.

b) Allow the mold to soak while maintaining a "cap"

(an excess of material at the top of the mold).

c) Pour off the slip and invert the mold on a

dinner plate for two (2) minutes•

d) Position mold upright for one minute•

e) Re-invert for two (2) minutes.

f) Remove crucible from plaster mold after

approximately 45 minutes.

g) Measure wall thickness with calipers.

h) Weigh crucible.

263
2. Solid casting with a complex bar mold

a) pour slip into a complex bar mold.

b) Continue adding slip to the reservoir (fill

chamber) until the mold becomes solid.

c) Allow molds to set (approximately two hours).

d) After about an hour poke with stick to determine

if bars are setting up.

e) Separate molds to release bars after slip has

hardened (cured).

C. Density and Specific qravity

I. Weigh pycnometer bottle empty.

2. Weigh pycnometer bottle full of water, being sure that

the water comes out of the hole in the top of the cap

as the cap is positioned. Dry off the bottle.

3. Weigh the pycnometer bottle with slip again being sure

that the slip has come out the hole in the top of the

cap as the cap is positioned. Clean and dry the

outside of the container.

4. Calculate the specific gravity using the following

formula:

Specific gravity = (bottle plus slip weiqht) - !bottle weiqht)

(bottle plus water weight) - (bottle weight)

m. Viscosity Measurement with Zahn Cup

i. Submerge the Zahn cup into the slip.

2. Fill the cup.

3. Raise the cup out of the slip hanging vertically from

finger and start timing with a stop watch. Hold the

draining cup about six inches above the liquid level

in the container.

4. Allow the slip to flow out of the cup until you can

see break in the flux stream.

5. Record the Zahn cup number and time it takes to empty

the cup.

INSTRUCTOR COMMENTS:

* Suggested batches to assign to each student:

% water % sodium silicate

1 45 0.7

2 50 0.7

3 45 0.6

4 50 0.6

5 45 0.5

6 50 0.5

7 45 0.4

8 50 0.4

Slip casts better after it has aged about a week.

Suggested slip casting soak times: five or ten minutes

264
Use simple plaster molds of different densities and

compare the hollow ware wall thickness and the

weights of the castings made in each mold.

REFERENCES:

i. "Slip Control", Ceramics and Glasses, Engineered

Materials Handbook, Vol.4, S.J. Schneider, Jr., ed.;

ASM: 1991; pp. 156-157.

2. F.H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics, 2nd ed.,

Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1970, pp. 95-96.

3. W. Ryan, Properties of Ceramic Raw Materials, Peramon

Press, 1978, pp. 7-8, 12.

4. W.W. Perkins, Ceramic Glossary 1984, Am. Cer. Soc.,

1984, p. 81.

5. D.W. Richerson, Modern Ceramic Engineering:

Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, M. ekker,

Inc., 1982, pp. 187-197.

265

FROM SAND CASTING TO FINISHED PRODUCT

(A BASIC UNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY PARTNERSHIP)

Donald H. Martin

School of Manufacturing Technology

Tri-State University

Angola, Indiana 46703

Telephone 219-665-4265

and

Keith Sinram

Team Coordinator/Heavy Duty Systems

Dana/Spicer Clutch Division

Auburn, Indiana 46706

and

Jeff Durbin

Project Engineer

Auburn Foundry, Inc.

Auburn, Indiana 46706

267

FROM SAND CASTING TO FINISHED PRODUCT

(A BASIC UNIVERSITY - INDUSTRY PARTNERSHIP)

Donald H. Martin

Associate Professor

School of Manufacturing Technology

Tri-State University, Angola, IN 46703

and

Keith Sinram

Team Coordinator/Heavy Duty Systems

Dana/Spicer Clutch Division, Auburn, IN 46706

and

Jeff Durbin

Project Engineer

Auburn Foundry, Inc., Auburn, IN 46706

KEY WORDS: High density green sand molding, green sand,

castings, match plates, cores, patterns, foundry sands, fillets,

radii, parting line, shrink rules, draft, runners, gates, core

prints, core boxes, loose pieces, shell molds, the mold cavity,

cope, drag, sprue, riser, permeability, green strength, durometer, the muller, binders, chaplets, the follow board, the bottom

board, chills, the pouring basin, vents, qualifying surfaces, and

machine locators.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should have a basic

understanding of metals and basic machining concepts. No in

depth knowledge is required.

OBJECTIVES:

i. To understand green sand mold casting with sand cores.

•

To understand permanent mold castings with collapsible metal

cores.

•

To demonstrate current technology of high density green sand

molding and the foundry's application of just-in-time manufacturing concepts in foundry operations by a plant tour of

local foundry.

•

To demonstrate machining operations of castings utilizing

current workcell and just-in-time manufacturing concepts by

a plant tour of local manufacturing facility.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: Castings, match plates, cores,

shell cores, patterns, core box, die casting, foundry sands,

flask, and tools used in hand casting process. This is a classroom demonstration only showing finished casting and machine part

operations (use video to show pouring molten metal).

269
PROCEDURE:

PHASE I - The professor will demonstrate the making of a

mold by hand-ramming of sand and pour an aluminum casting to show

the procedures necessary to go from an ingot to a finished casting for shipment (including removal of gate and runner systems).

Safety precautions must be taken when operating the furnace to

melt the aluminum. When taking the crucible from the furnace,

care must be taken not to spill the molten aluminum. A sand pit

should be used for the pouring area. Protective clothing must be

worn when handling the molten metal. The metal will remain 'hot"

upon solidification - DO NOT PICK-UP WITH BARE HANDS, USE TONGS.

Wait until the casting has cooled to remove the gate and runner

systems.

DISCUSSION: Sand castings are produced in large numbers_

the molds are made on molding machines. However, in order to

design castings, patterns, and all the component jigs, fixtures,

and core boxes, one must understand the fundamentals of molding.

Making a sand mold involves the proper ramming of molding sand

around a pattern. After the pattern is removed from the sand and

the gating arrangement is completed, the mold cavity is filled

with molten metal to form a casting. The sand used is a mixture

of sand grains, clay, water, and other materials added for specific purposes or properties.

Green-sand molding begins with inverting a loose pattern on a

mold board and placing a suitable-sized flask on the board.

Loose patterns are used when relatively few castings are needed.

A large production rate would call for match-plate or cope-anddrag-plate patterns.

270
Steps in the construction of a mold made by hand-ramming of sand.

(FIGURE i)

, :,. ,

]_' ........ _ ,,, :::::::::::::::::::::::::

U'' U

Dr_g comp]eled Ready forroll-over

F_ti i:i:_:i:i:i:i:i:i:'::i:i¢i:i:::i:i:i:_::':i:i::''i:i:i:: ::::::::::::::it

::::::::::::::::::::: :-:-:-""X." ".,..v.v'.-..:.:-:.'. -:.:..:.:-

.v.-.._.-.,,:v.v....._..:.. ..... _..:.>..:.:.:.:._:.:.-_....:.:

':':':':':" •':':" '" "'.:'N.:.:!_:::._:::_'::'¢_.:"

Fiask i:_::_:_:"''" ============================== .... ":.'.::_::::::.':::::::

:::::-_.:::::.:.:.:.: .:::::::.'.':_:::::

.:".:.:-.>_.4.:¢.:..". ...:....::.-:-::..:'::::.::: :::" .:._...y.,.::..- .-.v.:.:,:.:.:.:.:.:.:-." _..'.

...:..:.. :..:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:. .:.•.......... .. ..:....:...........v.._- v _.-.

...-....•••v.-.,...-.v.. _.-...-.-:.:+:..:..._.'._._.....

.:..:..:.:.._:.:.:.:.:.:.:..:.:.:.:.:.:.:....:.:.:.:.:..,..:..-+:....:.:.:.:.:.. .:.._,... ...:....%.._: .._:

....,..v.-.-..-._....-.-.v.-.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.;.;.;.,.?:.:.;.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:. _ P:.:_:_._X._:_:_:_:.:.:.:_:.:.:+:_..:.:.:.:.::.:.:.:...:....:.:.:.:.:._._._:.:.:_ j

I I

_-J L__ L_J

Afterroll-over Mold weight Cope rammed

Spru¢ and basin

Core __:::::

Mold cavity ."[ _ ' ' L..J _ Bottom board

Mold read), for pourini_

FIGURE 1

The making of the mold requires the ramming of sand around the

pattern within the confines of the flask (coDe and drag

assembly). As the sand is rammed, hardness and strength are

developed making the sand firm and rigid. This makes it possible

for the walls of the mold to retain their shape and not collapse

or erode when molten metal is poured into the mold cavity.

271
Steps in mold making using a Match Plate Pattern briefly are:

A° Place flask (drag or cope) on match plate, place sprue and

riser, (if cope), riddle sand over pattern, rap lightly over

pattern and firmly at flask. Strike off, place follow board

and roll-over.

B, Remove match plate, inspect or repair and assemble with

other mold half.

NOTE: Runners and gates are part of match plate.

Multiple cavities are possible. (FIGURE 2)

Match plate pattern.

CP. .,

 ii. ........ ,

FIGURE 2

C.R

C.P. = Core Print

C.P.

C ° No parting compound is required with the match plate which

is an advantage as it tends to POISON the sand by reducing

its bond strength due to its contamination.

272
Steps in Sand Core Making briefly are:

i. Apply small amount of parting compound to inside of core

box.

B. Fill with sand and ram with fingers or hand bench ram to

ensure sharp and accurate detail.

Core box

Dowel

Core ptlnls_ Cement together II • \ I [ f.':.'...';.?,l II U II/ / Y

/ _ o,,h;sioi_, If A \1.-_-_.;"..._:.':] II "Jr //

-+ _, 'lyplca± core poxes

Core (Two h01_S)

FIGURE 3

C . Invert onto follow b_Qg_r_d and rap carefully but firmly on

back of core box.

D. Lift core box to expose sand-core.

m . Two sand cores generally are made per casting, are baked and

glued together prior to their use in a green sand mold or a

permanent mold, just before the mold is assembled for pouring. The core may be "washed" or "dipped" to provide improved casting finish. (FIGURE 3)

(a) (b)

_) (d) _)

FIGURE 4

Making a core. (a) Ramming core sand, (b) drawing the core

box, (c) baking the core half (in a dielectric oven), (d)

pasting the core halves, (e) "washing" the core with refractory slurry to improve finish of casting surface. (FIGURE 4)

273
Importance of Gating Systems:

To increase production and improve the quality of castings produced with the use of molding machines, gating systems are prefabricated and used directly with the patterns. Or a gating

system may be an integral part of a match plate, thus eliminating

variations in the system. This method is far more reliable than

that of hand-cutting the gating system. Once the desired runner

system is determined, the designer can create a uniform system

for all castings to be produced. Such a system must be carefully

engineered to develop the desired characteristics. Various

systems of gating are constantly being applied in the production

of quality castings of all sizes.

Pouring

basin

Sprue

Casting

Well

Runner

Gates

FIGURE 5

A simple parting-line gating system with three gates. (FIGURE 5)

274
Improved flow conditions obtained by changing sprue-torunner-to-gate cross sectional area ratio

i° |

/

I

Cross sectionarea of each gate, 1⁄2sq. in.

Cross section area of each runner, 11⁄2sq. in.

Cross section ar_ at base of $prue. _r$q. in.

FIGURE 6

Gating system designed to give equal flow from all the gates.

Gating ratio is 1:4:4 or 1:6:6 to reduce runner velocities. Cope

gates make it possible for the runner to be completely filled

before the metal begins to flow through the gates. (FIGURE 6)

275
This take home exercise is used to reinforce the students' use of

library resources and prepare for tour of foundry by learning

common terms.

F._ the _H__ and the _ of each of the following terms in

ZD__ work. Do NOT use the same word to define the term!

In Design, what is the use or importance of:

Fillets

radii

The Parting line

In Pattern Making, what is the use or importance of:

Shrink rules

draft

runners

gates

core prints

core boxes

match plates

loose pieces

shell molds

the mold cavity

patterns

In The Casting Process, what is the use or importance of:

The Cope

The Drag

The Sprue

risers

276
permeability

green strength

durometer

The Muller

binders

green sand cores

baked sand cores

chaplets

The follow board

The bottom board

chills

The pouring basin

parting compound

vents

277
PHASE II - Class tour of local foundry (Auburn Foundry Inc.,

Auburn, IN) to observe current technology application of high

density green sand molding and the foundry's application of justin-time manufacturing concepts in foundry operation.

Gray iron foundry technology had its beginning in antiquity.

Records indicate the Chinese were making crude iron castings as

early as the sixth century before Christ. The combination of

properties which make gray iron unique and one of the most useful

basic construction materials are its strength, high modulus of

elasticity (stiffness), resistance to corrosion and heat, easy

castibility into intricate shapes, good machinahility, and relative cost economy. Gray iron is the material used for countless

familiar items such as automotive cylinder blocks, cylinder

heads, piston rings, manifolds, brake drums, kitchen and bathroom

sinks, bath tubs, machine tools, refrigeration and air compressors, soil pipe, water mains, pipe fittings, electric motor end

bells, gear housings for trucks, tractors and farm machinery,

etc.

The nature of the foundry process is such that environmental

control both inside and outside the plant is a major management

concern. In order to attract and retain good employees the

foundry must constantly seek to reduce noise, heat, dust, and

improve ventilation inside the plant. In order to be considered

good community neighbors in this modern day it must find ways to

eliminate any air or water pollution. Auburn Foundry has in the

past and intends in the future to place as much emphasis on

solutions to these problems as to those of customer service.

The tour sequence follows the making and shipping of part

number 197C296C flywheel ring for Dana-Spicer Clutch Division.

i. Core Room - Overview of core making operations.

o Cupola Melt - Includes the charge yard and material

composition for specification control. Explanation of

cupola furnace controls and use of SPC charts.

. Molding Area - High density green sand molding (flaskless molding) will see the total line operation including pattern, sandmold, core setting, and pouring of

mold.

, Quality Lab - Will tour Q.C. Lab and observe sand

testing procedures and iron testing procedures. Will

review inspector's instruction sheet, process file,

microstructure analysis of cast part, and sand data

report.

278
SINCE 1911

aub_,nl fi_ ,_'ry, inc.

635-639 WEST ELEVENTH STREET • AUBURN, INDIANA 46706 • TELEPHONE (219) 925-0900

FAX DAYS--925-5737 EXT 259

FAX NIGHTS--925-5137

TELEX 11--910 2405 797

[] ............. __

c

D 1

i

279
o

o

7.

.

,

i0.

Shake-Out - In this area all molding sand and gating

systems are removed.

Cleaning - All castings are shot blasted.

Grind - Hand grind operation to remove all the excess

flashing and gates and runners.

Prepare to Ship - In this area the casting is weighed

and the quality control tags are completed and attached

to the loads. (A load is a skid or woodflat of casting

ready for shipment.)

Warehouse - All loads must pass through the warehouse

for accounting and control.

Ship - Final processing of shipping documents and load

onto carrier for shipment.

PHASE III- Class tour of a local manufacturing facility to

observe machining operations of castings utilizing current technology workcells and just-in-time manufacturing concepts.

Dana - Spicer Clutch Division has set up their plant to

operate utilizing workcells. This is the tour sequence to follow

the part machining and assembly of part number 197C295 flywheel

ring (made from 197C296 flywheel ring casting from Auburn Foundry). The 45 lb. casting is received into Dana operations and 3

lbs of material is removed in metal chips and recycled back to

the foundry to become part of their charge yard scrap material.

Seauence of Tour Events

Introduction - i0 minute video presentation on Dana-Spicer

Clutch Division

Tour of Manufacturing Area

Most equipment is of the "dedicated" type as opposed to "flexible"

Heavy Duty Assembly is fed (components) like a fishbone (refers

to plant flow layout).

i. Receiving

2. "Cell 930"

i. Lathe OP.5 Face, Turn, Bore, Chamfer

(Run W/OP.7)

Threader Op.7 Thread ii 1/2 - 12 R.H.

(Run W/OP.5)

280
<__ SPICER CLUTCH DIVISION

SPICER CLUTCH DIVISION, DANA CORPORATION

201 BRANDON ST., AUBURN, IN 46706, TEL: (219) 925-3800. FAX (219) 925-2474

281
°

4.

5.

6.

So

C ,

n ,

Mill OP.10 Mill (4) Slots

(Run W/OP.15)

Drill OP.15 Hollow Mill (6) Embosses

(Run W/OP.10)

Mill OP.20

Drill OP.25

Mill (4) Slots

(Run W/OP.25)

Drill (4) 0/32" Holds

(Run W/OP.20)

Drill OP.30

Drill 0P.35

Drill (14) Holes

(Run W/OP.35)

Spotface (8) & (2) Holes

(Run W/OP.30)

m o Drill OP.40 Tap (2) Holes

(Run W/OP.45)

Balancer OP.45 Balance Flywheel Ring

(Run W/OP.40)

F. Inspection OP.50 Inspection Sell Out Stations

Flywheel Cover Assembly

Flywheel Cover Testing

Final Inspection

Packaging and Shipping

282
i ,

°

o

o

REFERENCES:

Doyle, Lawrence E., Manufacturing Processes and Materials

for Engineers, 3rd Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985.

Hamilton, Ed, Patternmaking Guide, 2nd Ed., American Foundrymen's Society, Inc., 1990.

Sand Technology Manual, Collection of papers from: International Minerals & Chemical Corporation Industrial Group,

Industrial Minerals Division, Mundelein, IL 60060.

(312)566-2600.

Dansk Industri Syndikat, DISA Foundry Technology, Printed in

Denmark, 1989.

283

THE ANISOTROPY OF TOUGHNESS

IN HOT-ROLLED MILD STEEL

Philip J. Guichelaar

Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering

College of Engineering and Applied Sciences

Western Michigan University

Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008-5065

Telephone 616-387-3366

_ ._,_

1 285

THE ANISOTROPY OF TOUGHNESS

IN HOT-ROLLED MILD STEEL

Philip J. Guichelaar

Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering

Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008

KEY WORDS: hot-rolled mild steel, toughness, brittle fracture,

anisotropy

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Students should be familiar with the basic theory of

metallic chip formation and its application in the milling process. They should also have

been exposed to steelmaking and they should know that rolling direction strength

properties differ from transverse direction strength properties and that inclusion shape

has a major effect on experimental toughness measurements. Finally, they should

understand why mechanical reliability is improved when processes such as forging are

used to manage anisotropy through manipulation of grain flow.

OBJECTIVES: Observe the difference in the toughness of mild steel between the rolling

direction and the transverse direction after making test bars on a simple milling machine.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

1. 4" x 1/2" x 18" hot rolled AISI 1018 bar stock

2. Horizontal bandsaw, or equivalent.

3. Metal identification stamps or permanent marking pens.

4. Bridgeport milling machine, or equivalent.

5. Charpy impact test machine, or equivalent.

6. Dial Calipers, 0 to 50 nun span.

INTRODI_CTION: A milling machine exercise is described which reinforces important

mechanical engineering concepts such as anisotropy, the effect of steelmaking processes

on mechanical properties and design against brittle failure.

As preparation for this exercise, classroom lectures should have covered the basic

theory of metallic chip formation, the effect of varying feeds and speeds on tool wear,

metal removal rates and surface finish and the difference between up-milling and climbmilling. Several textbooks provide an adequate base in this regard. Students should also

have been exposed to steelmaking, either in a manufacturing process course or in a

materials course. They should know that rolling direction strength properties differ from

transverse direction strength properties and that inclusion shape has a major effect on

PRKCliOiNG PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED

287
experimental toughness measurements. Finally, they should understand why mechanical

reliability is improved when processes such as forging are used to manage anisotropy

through manipulation of grain flow.

PROCEDURE: The laboratory tasks are uncomplicated. Finished Charpy

V-notch impact test specimens have outer dimensions of 10ram x 10ram x 50ram. Since

we wish to machine specimens that are either parallel or transverse to the rolling

direction and are from the same piece of steel, it is convenient to purchase 4" x 1/2" hot

rolled AISI 1018 bar stock in a convenient length. The instructor must first teach the

safe operation of the machine tools to be used in the exercise. Then the next task

requires cutting the bar stock into 1/2" x 4" strips, some perpendicular and some parallel

to the rolling direction of the steel. This is easily done in a horizontal bandsaw but any

metal cutting saw can be used since dimensional control is not critical. Stamp the

samples on their ends according to their orientation in the original bar stock. This can

alternatively be done with permanent ink, using a different color for each orientation.

In the third task, one of the two saw-cut sides of the strip is milled flat. Any available

milling machine will be satisfactory. We have used horizontal spindle Kearney &

Treckers and vertical spindle Bridgeports with excellent results. After the first surface

is flat, remove the specimen, turn it over and clamp it in the vise again after clearing

away loose chips. Then mill the sample to a thickness of 5 ram. Repeat these steps for

the other two sides, finish one surface to flatness and then finish the opposite side to

flatness and the specified 5 mm width. The 1.5 mm deep V-notch is made in the final

operation, using a milling cutter which has a 60' included angle on its periphery. A

horizontal spindle milling machine is best suited for this operation. If your laboratory

is only equipped with the ubiquitous Bridgeport, you can make a non-standard impact

bar by tipping the head at a 45' angle and then milling a 90" included angle notch with

a conventional cutter. Use a new cutter to insure a sharp radius at the bottom of the

notch. In either situation, cut the notch 25 mm from the end of the impact bar that has

the identification stamp and cut the notch to the same depth for all bars. After the

notch has been cut, it may be necessary to saw away any excess length from the other

end. Machine at least three bars for each orientation, ideally six.

Test the bars in a swinging pendulum or drop-weight impact test machine. For best

dramatic effect, pick the bars in random order and read the identifying mark after the

sample has been broken. Students will quickly learn to correlate lower values of impact

strength with samples cut parallel to the transverse direction of the bar stock and higher

values with samples cut parallel to the longitudinal direction.

288
SAMPLE DATA SHEET:

Specimen Specimen Impact Energy,

Number Orientation Joules

INSTRUCTOR NOTES: Student report formats are usually dictated by

instructors. For this exercise, require that three considerations be discussed. Students

should write a clear explanation for the gross difference between the two groups of

impact strength data. We typically measure impact strengths of about 130 J for samples

cut parallel to the rolling direction of the original bar stock and 60 J for samples cut

transverse to the rolling direction. A complete answer will discuss the presence of

nonmetallic inclusions, their shape and orientation and the resultant effect on crack

propagation. A simple statement that the steel has anisotropic properties is not an

adequate answer. For the second discussion requirement, students should write a clear

explanation for the variance among the impact strength data within each group. We find

that the data vary over a total range of 30% to 40% of the mean value. The cause is

multi-faceted. Inclusion contents differ; the location of inclusions in the piece may not

be the same and the machined dimensions of each sample almost always are different.

This is particularly true for the notch depth and bottom radius. A few students may

claim that the sample temperatures were not constant and therefore the variation reflects

testing within the ductile-brittle transition range. This observation is astute only if your

laboratory tends to be quite cold. The observation that the data vary due to

experimental technique is not acceptable. Finally, ask students to write a paragraph that

discusses the application of these results to the design of structural parts. They should

by now have sufficient insight to consider that the roiling direction of parts made from

rolled steel bar stock must be considered when specifying section sizes. They should also

recall the classroom discussion of how mechanical reliability is improved when processes

such as forging are used to manage anisotropy through manipulation of grain flow.

289
REFERENCES:

1. Guichelaar, P. and M. Kenig, "Nurturing The Mechanical Skills Of PreEngineering Students," Pro. 1989 ASEE Annual Conference, pp. 163-166.

2. Kalpakjian, S., Manufacturing Engineering and technology, Addison-Wesley, 1989.

3. Schey, J., Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, McGraw-Hill, 2nd Edition,

1987.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY: Hot-rolled steel is available from mgst industrial supply

houses or steel supply centers.

290
N94- 36409

DEVELOPMENTS IN CARBON MATERIALS

Timothy D. Burchell

Leader, Carbon Materials Technology Group

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Building 4508, MS 6088

P. O. Box 2008

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-6088

Telephone 615-576-8595

291

DEVELOPMENTS IN CARBON MATERIALS

Timothy D. Burchell

Leader, Carbon Materials Technology Group

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

DEVELOPMENTS IN CARBON MATERIALS

Overview of Presentation

The following carbon-based materials will be reviewed and

their applications discussed:

• The Fullerenes

• Graphite (synthetic or manufactured)

• Activated carbon fibers

• Carbon-carbon composites

Carbon R&D activities at ORNL will be emphasized.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

SYNTHEllC; GRAPHITF

A MATERIAL CONSISTING OF GRAPHITIC CARBON WHICH HAS BEEN

OBTAINED BY GRAPHITIZ1NG NON-GRAPHITIC CARBON.

CARBON-CARBON COMPOSITES

A CARBON FIBER REINFORCED CARBON MATRIX MATERIAL IN WHICH THE

FIBER AND/OR MATRIX MAY BE GRAPHITIC (GRAPHITE-GRAPHITE

COMPOSITE)

293

_llt_N/_ PAGE Bt.._.r_KNOT FILMED PA_ _-_ I;'_iE,'_F:,L31',.,_,LLY E)LANK_
FULLERENES

II CN' v

| I,,.

I c." .

._ I , co,, .

_'-;"-,, "-'E "-_"=-,,_--_'" -_---

•pyricSne B

G{,i'

C:,I"

sOO IO0 _0 M ino _no tm _ 1_

i

.i

|

, , , , ,

t,2,3,5.tetramethylbenzene G

FiS 4 Laser clcsorption TOF mm spcclra ol'soot cxt_cu

rcsuhinlt from s_qucntial extractions with {A) benzene. {BI

pyridinc, and (C) 1.2.3.3.tctramethylbenzene. The spectra

are plotted on the same mass scale for companson_

THE FULLERENES

Cg

l

294
THE FULLERENES

Lov, esx eneru Kekul_ smx'tu_ o( saecet b,_ C_

R_)rmlecl by permlssaon for Hat_ vol. 329, pp. 529-331;

,co_! @ 1987 MacMiUam Mal_l=m L.imiled.

$truclute of the AI¢_,o SUl_"ondu_ol3. The open

and hatchc_l s_ms _:_'scnt the alkali atom at tettaheclral

and octahe_i s.es. r_spectlvely. Nole Ihe two possible oncntallons of the _ molecules and the three inequivalent

carbon sites _marked by arrow'son Ifle motecuie m the Iowel'

left comerl as desc'nhed in the text. After P, Stcphens

a/.[ZZ]

Potential Applications of the Fullerenes

• Pharmaceutical

• Tribological (lubricant)

• Super conductor

• Thermal insulator

295
SYNTHETIC GF APHITE

What is Graphite?

• An allotropic form of carbon

• Hexagonal 2D crystal structure

• Layered crystal planes

• Highly anisotropic

• Conductor in plane, insulator across planes

• A fun material to work with!

A

B

A

,____ 6._o_

2.46_

296
THE MAJOR PROCESSING STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE

OF CONVENTIONAL ARTIFICIAL GRAPHITES

RAW PETROLEUM

OR PITCH COKE

I

CALCINED AT 1300°C I

CALCINED COKE

I

_ CRUSHED, GROUNED

AND BLENDED

I BLENDED PARTICLES I IBINDER PITCH I

L I

_"MIXED

_ COOLED

I

i EXTRUDED, MOLDED OR

ISOSTATICALLY PRESSED

GREEN ARTIFACT I

BAKED AT 1000 °C

BAKED ARTIFACT

IMPREGNATED TO DENSIFY

GRAPHITIZED 2500 - 2800 °C

GRAPHITE

297
Graphite Possesses Unique Properties

• High temperature stability

• High electrical and thermal conductivity

• Chemically inert

• Strength increases with temperature

• Processible and machinable to all forms and sizes

ADDlications of Graphite

• Arc furnace electrodes

• Resistance heating elements

• Crucibles and boats (semiconductor industry)

• Rocket motor throats, missile nose tips

• EDM electrodes

• Seals and bearings

• Electric motor brushes

• Metal refining and casting

• Nuclear moderator

298
The CMT Group Is Developing A Design

Data Base For the Graphite Core

Of The MHTGR

Modular High-Temperature

Gas-Cooled Reactor With

Steam Cycle Power Conversion

Graphite Data Base Development

• Effects of reactor environment

on graphite properties

- Neutron irradiation

- He coolant chemistry and oxidation

- Temperature and pressure

• Strength, strain to failure

- Elastic constants

- Fatigue behavior

- Fracture mechanics data

- Thermal physical properties

- Oxidation behavior and mechanisms

• C/C composite control rod development

299
ACTIVATED CARBON

FIBERS

Activated Carbons are a Broad Family

of Carbon Materials

• Coal-derived carbons

° Almond shells

° Olive pits, peach pits

• Charcoal

° AC from waste paper

• Activated carbon fibers

Aoolications of Activated Carbons

300

• Gas separation

• Air filtration

• Water filtration

• Solvent recovery

• Military suiting

• Molecular sieves
A iv r n Fi r A

ACF can be derived from pitch (coal tar or petroleum),

polyacrylonitrile (PAN), or rayon precursors

Fibers are loosely consolidated into a felt, mat or woven

cloth, or rigid porous monolith

Product is thermally activated at temperatures in the range

700-1000°C in steam

TYPICAL CARBON FIBER STRUCTURES

r _GRAPHITE rGRAPHIT E

/ P'ANES

TYPICAL FIBER DIAMETER ~ 40/./.m /_°""_"_ "_ _"--GRAPHITE

PLANES

RADIAL HOURGLASS

G.M. Pennock etol.

CARBON, Vol.31,

p.596,597 _993

301
Carbon Fiber Composite Molecular Sieve

At ORNL we have developed a rigid, monolithic-activated

carbon material named a carbon fiber composite molecular

sieve. The material retains the advantages of ACF and,

additionally, overcomes problems associated with granular

activated carbons.

Hydrogen Separation Is Widely Achieved Using

Pressure Swing Adsorption Systems

UOP Polybed PSA Unit

treats gas streams from

reformer hydrogen plant

to produce 66 million

SCFD of hydrogen.

302
"Although there is some room for improvements in

the pressure swing adsorption process, the potential

gains in process economics in the future are fikely

to come from the development of new and improved

adsorbents."

- R. V. Jasra, N. V. Choudary, and S. G. T. Bhat

Research Center, Indian Petrochemicals Corp.

In their review "Separation of Gases by Pressure

Swing Adsorption", Separation Science and

Technology,Vol. 26, pp. 885-930, 1991.

CMT Group Has Developed A Novel Adsorbent/Molecular

Sieve Based On Carbon Fibers

Carbon Fiber Composite

Molecular Sieve

• High adsorption/desorption

rates

• High active surface area

• Microporous [5-10 A] fibers

Applications: Gas separation,

gas storage, air filtration,

pressure swing adsorption

systems

303
• CCI4 adsorption rate is twice that of granular carbon

• >10 times higher adsorption/desorption rates reported

for tolulene and methane

Carbon Tetrachloride Adsorption Rates

N2 BET Surface Areas Of Materials That

Have Well-known Molecular Sieve Properties

• Active surface areas

up to 1670 m 2/g have

been achieved with

ORNL CFCs

Molecular

Sieve N2(m2/g)

Linde 5 A zeolite 316

Linde 4 A zeolite 35

Linde 3 A zeolite 11.6

Carbosieve 1040

Saranchar 900

Pitch fiber CFCMS >1,650

(non-optimal condition)

Carbon fiber active

surface areas > 2000

m2/g and 10 A pore

width have been

reported (OSAKA Gas)

3o4
ORNL. UK2 CFCMS Material

Narrow pore size

distribution

Pore size centered

at -- 6 A pore width

High active surface

area (904 m 2/g)

Active surface areas

>2000 m 2/g possible

o

>.,

m

=1

I=1

10 -_

10-"

10 -8

i0 -°

I 0 -I°

-I1 10

SEPARATION OF CO 2 & CH 4 By CFCMS (STP)

(Initial composition 50v01% CO 2 and CH4)

: H4 INTFNStTY I

"_ J -- --CO,_ INTENSITV

I I I I I I 1

2 ,4 6 8 10 12 1,4

Time (min_

Carbon: CFCMS-48' BFT:8??m2Q - i I =0 ?4 nm

305
Summary And Conclusions

• ORNL/UKCAER have developed a monolithic

adsorbent carbon based on carbon fibers

• Gross macroporosity and microporosity can

be controlled through processing variables

Activated carbon fibers have adsorption

rates greater than twice that of conventional

activated carbons

Very high active surface areas can be developed in

carbon fibers (OSAKA gas report >2000 m2/g (N2)

ASA, 10 A pore width)

Narrow micropore size distributions can be

achieved in the range 5-10 A

A monolithic activated carbon material has significant

advantages over granular activated materials for use

in pressure swing adsorption equipment, such as the

elimination of channelling, by-pass flows and pressure

drops

306
CARBON-CARBON

COMPOSITES

FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A TYPICAL CARBON/CARBON

COMPOSITE PRODUCTION PROCESS

PITCH (petroleum or coal

derived ), RESIN CARBON FIBER BUNDLES I

(Pitch, PAN or Rayon)

,_ CLOTH LAY-UP, WEAVING

PIERCING, NEEDLING, etc.

DRY PREFORM

_ATION

15o 4so°c

r,/- I VACUUM TO 10MPa

I } CARBONIZATION

PTTON T 600- 800 °C

U 05

AUDP , 5AL 60_U_._O TO 10 MPa

CYCLES _ GRAPHITIZATION

_ >2400 °C

I DENSITY INAL COMPOSITE I

,_- 1.9 g/cm 3

307
THE STRUCTURE OF AN ORTHOGONAL CARBON- CARBON

COMPOSITE SHOWING THE THREE MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR

FIBER REINFORCEMENT DIRECTIONS (x, y, and z)

Z

Applications of Carbon-Carbon Composites

• Reentry vehicle nose tips

• Rocket motor throats and nozzles

• Exit cones

• Aircraft brakes

• Thermal protection

• Thermal management systems

• Fusion reactor first wall armor

308
Carbon-Carbon Composites for Fusion

Energy Devices

ORNL has an active program to develop highthermal conductivity, carbon-carbon composites

for plasma facing components in tokamak fusion

reactors. Moreover, we are investigating the

effects of neutron damage on the structure and

properties of carbon-carbon composites.

CMT Group Is Leading The DevelopmentOf Neutron

Irradiation TolerantC/C Composite Materials

For Fusion Energy First Wall Applications

Joint European Torus

First Wall C/C Composites

= Neutron damage

-- Dimensional stability

-- Effects on thermal

conductivity

• Development of high

thermal conductivity

uni-directional C/C

composite

309
THE MAJOR PLASMA FACING COMPONENTS

OF A TOKOMAK FUSION DEVICE

VESSEL

LIMITER

VERTOR

PUMPING PORT

Carbon Materials Are Widely Used

For Tokomak First Wall Armor

JT-60U

(Japan) JET

(England)

TFTR

(USA)

310
PLASMA FACING COMPONENTS

MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS

, LOW ATOMIC NUMBER

• HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

• GOOD THERMAL SHOCK RESISTANCE

• EROSION RESISTANT (PLASMA SPUTTERING)

• ADEQUATE STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS TO WITHSTAND

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES DURING DISRUPTIONS

• RESISTANT TO IRRADIATION DAMAGE

RADIATION DAMAGE IN GRAPHITE

COLLAPSING

(c) VACANCY

INTERSTITIA___VACANCY

EXPANSION

311
TYPICAL CARBON FIBER STRUCTURES

\o_,. _GRAPHITE GRAPHITE F PLANES

-_ _'/_\/;j[ PLANES

,,-_I V.//ttlttl\\\\\ _iF

TYPICAL FIBER DIAMETER - 40/J.m /_c'J_"_ -_ _ GRAPHITE

PLANES

RADIAL HOURGLASS

G.M. Pennock et ol.

CARBON, Vol.3t,

p.596,597 4993

MICROSTRUCTURAL INTERPRETATIONS OF IRRADIATION

INDUCED DIMENSIONAL CHANGES IN 1D C/C COMPOSITES

CARBON FIBER

(o) CONTRACTION 4D C/C COMPOSITE

(c) EXPANSION INITIALLY

ACCOMMODATED BY POROSITY

(18

Ld "%_

-(18

<_

-r

-t.6

..J

Z

o -2.4

_ -5.2

-4.0

2 3 4 5

FLUENCE (dpo)

\

\

\

\

\

312
MICROSTRUCTURAL INTERPRETATIONS OF IRRADIATION

INDUCED DIMENSIONAL CHANGES IN 2D C/C COMPOSITES

(a) CONTRACTION _ i'-_..w"l" (C) EXPANSION INITIALLY B _

ACCOMMODATED BY f '--ACCOMMODATING

POROSITY _ __ POROSITY

'

: j

0.4

0.0

W

_ -0.4

1-

_ -0.8

<[

z

o

-t.2

z

b,.I

=E

Q

- t.6

-2.0

I I =FLU ENCE (,dl_): : ._..._

ozo#_

Developments in Carbon Material-_

Recommended Texts for Carbon Materials

Introduction to Carbon Science

Harry Marsh

Published Butterworth & Co., Ltd., 1989

ISBN 0-408-03837-3

Carbon Fibers

J. B. Donnett and R. P. Bansal

2nd Edition, Published Marcel Dekker

New York, 1992

The Industrial Graphite Engineering Handbook

UCAR Carbon Company, 1991

(39 Old Ridgebury Road, Danbury, CT 06817-0001)

313
More Advanced Text:

Physics of Graphite

B. T. Kelly

Published Applied Science, 1981

ISBN 0-85334-960-6

Adsorption, Surface Area, and Porosity

S. J. Gregg and K. S. W. Sing

2nd Edition, Published Academic Press, 1982

314
LIQUIDS THAT TAKE ONLY MILLISECONDS

TO TURN INTO SOLIDS

John A. Marshall

School of Industry and Technology

East Carolina University

Greenville, North Carolina 27858

Telephone 919-757-6705

315

Liquids That Take Only Milliseconds to Turn into Solids

John A. Marshall, PhD

School of Industry and Technology

East Carolina University

Greenville, North Carolina 27858

KEY WORDS:

Electrorheology, electrorheological fluid, fluid power transmission,

hydraulics.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE:

The student should understand the elementary concepts of

magnetism. A basic understanding of fluid flow would be helpful.

OBJECTIVE:

To observe the unusual characteristics of electrorheological

fluids. To understand how these fluids change from a liquid to a solid. To

understand the potential power transmission advantages of these fluids.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

1) Plastic bottle containing electrorheological fluid.

2) Energizing probe

3) Personal safety equipment

4) Paper towels

5) Pen

INTRODUCTION:

Electrorheological fluids change their flow characteristics when

subject to an electrical field. Response, which takes only milliseconds, is

in the form of a progressive gelling that is proportional to field strength.

With no field present, the fluid flows as freely as hydraulic oil (Korane,

1991).

_lit."_N_ F_AGE 8LANK NOT FILMED 317
Electrorheological fluids represent a maturing technology that has

the potential to widen the performance range of automated

electromechanical and electrohydraulic equipment. Research and

ongoing developments are refining this technology and experts predict an

important future for these fluids.

Importance of Electrorheological Fluids:

Current automation capabilities are not advanced enough to build

a robot that could play tennis. Even though cameras and computers

could direct the robot towards a ball, robots move in an awkward,

lumbering fashion because conventional hydraulic valves cannot keep

pace with the commands of the computerized controllers.

With electrorheological fluid technology, this type of response time

is possible. This technology will allow devices that can operate instantly

and without mechanical valves. Increased productivity and better product

quality through more dependable and responsive automated equipment is

just a small part of what this maturing technology can deliver.

How Electrorheological Fluid Functions:

Electrorheological fluids are composed of two primary components.

They are the carrier fluid and the suspended particles. The carrier fluid

needs to be a good insulator, compatible with the materials they contact.

Typical particle materials include polymersl minerals, and ceramics

(Scott, 1984).

When an electrical field is applied across the fluid, positive and

negative charges on the particles respond by separating, so each particle

then has a positive end and a negative end. Particles of the

electrorheological fluid then link together in the same manner that the

north pole of one magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet

(Duclos, 1988).

When the electrical field is removed, the particle attraction is no

longer present. The fluid then begins flowing freely. Please see Figures

1 and 2.

318
Figure 1 - No electrical field present, charges are random,

no particle attraction.

Figure 2 - Probe energizing the fluid, particles linked together.

319
Potential Applications:

Electrorheological fluids can change from solids to liquids so fast

they will work well with fast-acting computers. These characteristics

suggest a number of unusual engineering applications such as fluid

clutches and vibration isolators (Duclos, 1988).

According to Hans Conrad, professor of materials,science and

engineering at North Carolina State University, electrorheological fluids

will lead to a whole new generation of brakes, automatic transmissions,

actuator devices, hydraulic valves, pump parts, and motors (Conrad,

1992).

PROCEDURE:

Safety Considerations:

1. Be very careful to avoid being shocked by the energizing probe.

2. Protective eye wear is mandatory for all those in the lab area.

3. Do not allow the electrorheological fluid to touch anyone's skin

or clothing.

4. Obtain a "Material Data Safety Sheet" on the fluid from the

supplier. Read the sheet completely and ask questions relating

to any information you do not understand.

Electrorheological Fluid Preparation:

1. Check the cap on the plastic bottle containing the fluid and

make sure it is securely tightened.

2. Shake the bottle to distribute the stratified particles evenly

within the fluid.

3. Set the bottle down on the lab bench and carefully remove the

top.

320
Observing Electrorheological Fluid as a Liquid:

1. Slowly insert the probe into the container of fluid until the metal

rods are submerged approximately two inches below the

surface of the fluid.

2. Slowly withdraw the probe from the fluid and hold it slightly

above the bottle. Observe what happens to the

electrorheological fluid on the metal rods of the probe.

3. Set the probe on a paper towel and record you observations.

Observing Electrorheological Fluid as a Gelled Solid:

° Slowly insert the probe into the container of fluid until the metal

rods are submerged approximately two inches below the

surface of the fluid.

2. Press and hold down the button on the top of the probe.

, Slowly withdraw the probe from the fluid and hold it slightly

above the bottle. Observe the status of the electrorheological

fluid on the metal rods of the probe.

4. With the probe slightly above the fluid level in the bottle,

release the button (de-energizing the probe) and observe what

happens to the electrorheological fluid on the metal rods of the

probe.

5. Set the probe down on a paper towel and record your

observations.

321
SAMPLE DATE SHEET:

Record below the characteristics of the fluid when the probe was not

energized:

Record below the characteristics of the fluid when the probe was

energized:

INSTRUCTOR NOTES:

o When the probe was removed from the fluid without being energized,

students should have observed the fluid flowing off the metal rods and

back into bottle. The fluid will flow as easily as oil.

2. When the probe was removed from the fluid while being energized,

students should have observed a gelling of the fluid around the rods

of the probe.

3. De-energizing the probe will cause the gelled electrorheological fluid

to liquify and drip into the bottle.

REFERENCES:

Korane, K.: Putting ER Fluids To Work. Machine Design, May 9,1991,

pp. 52-57.

Scott, D.: Amazing Hardening Fluids Open a New World of Hydraulic

Drives. Popular Science, April 1984, pp. 42-46.

Duclos, T.G.: Electrorheological Fluids and Devices. Automotive

Engineering, December 1988, pp.45-48.

Conrad, H.: The Impact of ER Fluids. Compressed Air Magazine, March

1992, pp. 14-17.

322
N94- 36410

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CROSSLINKED

POLYMER COATINGS

Jeffrey Csernica

Department of Chemical Engineering

Bucknell University

Lewisburg, Pennsylvania 17837

Telephone 717-524-1257

323

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CROSSLINKED POLYMER COATINGS

Jeffrey Csemica

Department of Chemical Engineering

Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837

Keywords: polymer, crosslinking, hardness, impact resistance

Prerequisite knowledge: Some familiarity with polymers and polymer structures would

be beneficial, although not required. Also, students familiar with basic mechanical properties

and their measurement for metals, especially hardness and fracture toughness, will be able to

apply that knowledge to the material presented here.

Objectives

• Fabricate and test thin films to explore relations between a polymer's structure and its

mechanical properties.

• Expose students to testing methods for hardness and impact energy that are simple to

perform and which have results that are easy to comprehend.

• Show importance of polymer properties in materials that students frequently encounter.

• Illustrate a system which displays a tradeoff between strength and impact resistance, the

combination of which would need to be optimized for a particular application.

° Expose students to coatings technology and testing.

Equipment and Supplies

• 2-mm diameter pencil leads and lead holders, to cover a range of hardnesses. The available

pencil hardness range is 6B (softest) to 9H. To test the materials described here, pencils

from 2B to 5H (2B, B, HB, F, H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H) should be sufficient.

• Steel test panels--7.5 x 15 cm, 0.8 mm thick, with dull matte finish (from Q-Panel Co.,

Cleveland Ohio).

• Drawdown bar (film applicator)--see Appendix.

° Micrometer.

• Drop weight impact tester--see Appendix.

• Oven(s), capable of temperature control in the range 70-190 oc.

• Large glass plate, or other hard flat surface.

• Raw materials: see Procedure for specific examples and suppliers.

• Tukon ® or other microhardness tester (optional).

325
INTRODUCTION

Organic coatings, the paints and finishes we use for protection and decoration, are

polymeric materials--they consist of high molecular weight chain-like molecules, which

contain many atoms linked together by covalent bonds. Although the characteristics of a

particular paint or finish can be modified somewhat by additives, the basic chemical and

molecular structure of the polymer (or polymers) from which a coating is made is primarily

responsible for many of its important properties, such as hardness, durability, and chemical

resistance.

Many common coatings are composed of polymers with a crosslinked molecular

structure. After application as a liquid, these finishes do not merely 'dry' in the conventional

sense. They form hard solid films by undergoing a chemical reaction, called crosslinking (or

"curing"), after they have been applied to a surface.

Crosslinking is a process by which linear polymer chains ("primary chains") are joined

together at common junction points. These junction points can be provided by low molecular

weight compounds, which can chemically attach themselves to the ends of at least three

different primary chains (see Figure 1). Such compounds are referred to as "crosslinking

agents" because they provide the means of converting a collection of linear molecules into a

crosslinked polymer. The structure of a crosslinked polymer can be depicted a net (Figure 1),

and these materials are often referred to as network polymers.

/

.. ),---

linear polymer crosslinking crosslinked

chains agent polymer

Figure I. Formation of a Crosslinked Polymer

326
The properties of a network polymer depend strongly on its degree of crosslinking. To

use the net analogy, a network with extensive crosslinking (many junction points, or many

chains emanating from each one) would be classified as a "tight" network, while one with more

limited crosslinking would be called a "loose" network. A higher degree of crosslinking in a

polymer coating (tighter network) usually leads to increased hardness and solvent resistance,

but may also result in increased brittleness. Other mechanical and chemical properties can be

affected as well, and usually an optimum degree of crosslinking is sought which gives an

attractive combination of properties for a particular application.

In this laboratory, you will prepare a series of crosslinked coatings, and will determine

how the degree of crosslinking in these materials affects their hardness and impact resistance.

Like the schematic of Figure 1, you will fabricate crosslinked polymer networks by

combining a primary resin with a crosslinking agent. (The word "resin" is used to describe a

polymeric, or high molecular weight, compound). The primary resin consists of linear

polymer chains which contain hydroxyl groups (-OH) at the chain ends (see Figure 2). Acrylic

and polyester resins of this type are commonly used for automobile finishes and industrial

coatings. The hydroxyl groups are the reactive sites at which these primary chains will attach

to the crosslinking agent.

-- OH

OH

CH3OCH2

CH3OCH 2

/CH2OCH 3

IN% C / N%c/N N CH2OCH3

II I

N\c N

I

N

/ N

CH3OCH 2 CH2OCH 3

primary resin chain crosslinking agent

(hexamethoxymethyl melamine)

Figure 2. Components for Polymer Network

327
Several different types of compounds can serve as crosslinking agents for the primary

chains. The one you will use is a substance called hexamethoxymethyl melamine (HMMM).

Its chemical structure is shown in Figure 2.

The HMMM chemical structure may appear complex, but the important thing to note is

that it contains six (CH3OCH2-) groups. These are the chemical groups that can react with the

(-OH) groups of the primary resin chains. Such a reaction will result in a connection between

the HMMM and the primary chain. Because it contains six (CH3OCH2-) groups, the HMMM

can attach itself to as many as six different primary chains, and can therefore serve as junction

points for the network (see Figure 1). It should be noted that, despite the relative sizes of the

molecular drawings in Figure 2, the primary resin chains will typically be much larger than the

crosslinking agent molecules.

Chemically, the crosslinking occurs by a condensation reaction which produces

methanol (CH3OH) as a by-product:

b.. /-- OCH 2_ _OH + CH3OCH2_ w,-

+ CH3OH

This curing reaction requires the presence of a small amount of acid catalyst. You will

use para-toluene sulfonic acid (p-TSA).

Also, elevated temperatures are needed for the reaction to take place. After the

components (primary resin, crosslinking agent, catalyst, and some solvent) are applied to a

surface as a liquid film, the coated part will be heated in an oven for a specified time. The

crosslinking can therefore be controlled and delayed until an appropriate time after application.

You may have heard of automobile finishes being "baked" in this fashion.

The degree of crosslinking, and therefore the final properties, of the cured films can be

controlled by a number of factors. Two that you will explore are the curing temperature, and

the ratio of crosslinking agent to primary.resin in the liquid mixture. The degree of

crosslinking will generally increase as the cure temperature is increased, because this speeds up

the reaction. Also, adding more crosslinking agent to the mixture will, to a point, result in

more extensive crosslinking.

Two important coating properties you will measure for these cured films are hardness

and impact resistance.

Although there are a number of methods available to measure the hardness of polymeric

materials, one of the most fundamental involves attempting to scratch the material with objects

of differing hardnesses. This is in fact what you will do in this laboratory, using a series of

328
pencilleadsto evaluatethehardnessof your coating. This type of hardness measurement is

particularly appropriate for these materials, because coatings in service may have to resist

scratching or gouging by hard objects.

You will expose the cured materials to impact by dropping a weight onto coated steel

panels. Although other impact tests (Charpy, etc.) are available which can provide controlled

rapid deformation of bulk specimens, subjecting the polymers to impact as thin films on

substrates better simulates service conditions for these materials, and does not require

machining of special sample geometries.

329
PROCEDURE

Note to Instructor: Many commercially available products can serve as components for the

coating mixtures. The procedure as described here, as well as the results shown in the next

section, are for a specific experiment which uses the following raw materials (different

materials may require slight modifications, as specified by the supplier):

• primary resin--hydroxyl-functional polyester, #57-5803, Cargill, Inc., Minneapolis, MN.

• crosslinking agent (HMMM)--Resimene ® 747, Monsanto Co., St. Louis, MO.

• acid catalyst ( p-TSA)--K-Cure ® 1040, King Industries, Norwalk, CT.

1. **CAUTION** This step should be conducted in the fume hood!!

Prepare three different coatings formulations in small jars. The ratio (by weight) of

primary resin to crosslinking agent should be varied as follows:

Formulation A- 85:15

Formulation B- 70:30

Formulation C- 55:45

These ratios should be based on the "solids" portion of the components. That is, if the

components as supplied contain an added solvent, the solvent fraction is not included in

the ratios.

Add solvent (xylene, methyl isoamyl ketone, or other as recommended by resin supplier)

to the formulations such that each contains 30% solvent overall. Remember to include in

this 30% any solvent that may have been originally contained with the components. At

1% by weight, add to each mixture the K-Cure ® acid catalyst product. Mix each

formulation thoroughly with a mixing stick or spatula.

Note to Instructor: In the interest of time, formulations can be completely or partially

mixed for the students in advance, although determining appropriate amounts for each

component can provide a good exercise, especially if the compounds originally contain a

solvent fraction. When mixed in advance, the formulations may have a limited shelf-life

33O
(severalweeks).Alsoto savetime,a shorterexperimentcanbeconductedwhich

examinesonly oneformulationinsteadof three.

2. **CAUTION** Thisstepshouldbeconductedin thefumehood!!

Preparesamplesby applyingthinfilms of thecoatingmixturesto steelpanels.Because

themeasuredmechanicalpropertiesof afilm canbeaffectedby its thickness,it is

importantthatuniform,constantthicknessfilms bepreparedfor all samples.For each

samplepreparation:

Placeapanelon the glass plate (it can be secured with a small piece of masking tape).

Deposit an amount (approximately 1 teaspoon) of the coating mixture near the far end of

the panel, in the center of its width. Place the drawdown bar with the 0.15 mm clearance

(see Appendix) at the far end of the plate and, in a continuous motion, pull it toward you

across the liquid so that it leaves behind a film. It may take a trial or two for practice, but

you should soon be able to quickly prepare film samples that appear smooth and uniform.

The bar should be cleaned with a quickly evaporating solvent such as acetone between

each sample preparation. Make three replicate samples for each combination of

formulation type (A, B, or C) and curing temperature you intend to test (remember to label

the panels with a marker!). Let each panel sit horizontally for at least ten minutes before

curing (step 3) to allow for solvent evaporation.

.

For each test temperature, cure the samples by placing them (3 for each formulation) into

the appropriate preheated oven. Panels can be placed horizontally or hung vertically in the

oven. Curing temperatures in the range 70 - 190 oc should be investigated--see

instructor for specific temperatures and ovens to be used. For each cure temperature, use

a baking time of 30 minutes.

Note to Instructor: If time and the number of available ovens make it difficult to examine

several different cure temperatures, try instead using a single temperature and varying the

amount of time samples remain in the oven. This will also produce films with varying

degrees of crosslinking.

.

After the panels are removed from the oven and have cooled, lightly touch the films with

your finger. Have they become hard and rigid, or are they still sticky and tacky? Using

the micrometer, measure the thickness of the cured films. You can do this by obtaining

331
.

the difference in thickness between coated and uncoated portions of the panel. Check for

uniformity between samples and within the same sample. Is the final film thickness the

same as the clearance of the drawdown bar?

Note to Instructor: The thickness of the cured films will be considerably less than the

drawdown bar clearance. The bar will leave behind a wet film that is typically about half

as thick as the bar's clearance. This film will then contract upon solvent evaporation and

curing. Using a bar with a 0.15 mm clearance depth, we obtained cured films that had

thicknesses in the range 0.04 - 0.05 mm.

Measure the hardness of the cured films by comparing their hardnesses to those of the

pencils. Pencil leads are ranked in order of increasing hardness as follows:

6B, 5B, 4B, 3B, 2B, B, HB, F, H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H, 8H, 9H

In a controlled fashion (see below), you will try to cut into each coating with these pencils.

Leads harder than the coating will be able to gouge the film, while those softer than the

coating will crumble and will leave the film uncut. For each trial:

Adjust the lead so that approximately 3 mm extends from the lead holder. With the lead

holder perpendicular to a piece of abrasive paper, prepare the lead by grinding it against

the paper so that a flat surface, normal to the lead's length axis, is obtained. Place the test

panel horizontally on a flat surface. With the pencil pointing away from you, place the

lead against the film at a 45 ° angle, and push the lead down and away from you in an

attempt to cut the film. An alternative method is to grip the pencil in your fist, and hold the

lead against the surface such that it is pointing toward you (45 ° to the surface), and then

pull rather than push the lead. In either case, you must exert enough downward pressure

so that either the paint film is gouged (preferably down to the steel panel surface), or the

lead crumbles. Make at least three trials with each lead tested, and note whether that lead

cuts the film or not. The hardness of the film is reported as that of the hardest lead which

does no_ t gouge the film.

Note to Instructor: This procedure can be supplemented by having students read ASTM

D3363-74: Film Hardness by Pencil Test.

332
6. **CAUTION** Becertainto wearsafetyglasseswhileusingthisapparatus!!

Usingthedropweighttester,investigatethefilms' resistanceto impact. This will provide

ameasureof theirbrittleness--alowerimpactresistanceindicatesa morebrittle(less

tough)material.Foreachtest:

Placethecoatedpanelhorizontallyonthesupportring with thefilm facingupward.Raise

theweightedindenterto a specifiedheightinsidethedroptube,andallowit to fall ontothe

panel. Theenergyof theblowisgivenby theload(indenterweight)multipliedby the

heightfrom whichit wasdropped.Joulesor inch-poundsareappropriateunits for impact

energy.Removethepanel,andexaminethefilm in theimpactarea.A failureis indicated

by crackscausedby theblow. A magnifyingglassmaybeuseful,althoughfailuresare

usuallydetectedeasilybyeye. Notetheenergyof eachimpact,andwhethera failure

occurred.

Youaretryingto determinethehighestimpactenergyeachfilm cansustainwithout

failure. Performtestsfrom differentheightsandtry to determinetheimpactenergyat

which thefilm exhibitsatransitionfrom passingto failing (i.e.,if it passesthefirst test,

youwouldincreasethedropheight).Youcanperformseveraltestsonthesamepanelas

longasafiat, coatedareacanbeplacedovertheentiresupportring. Beginningwith large

variations,youshouldbeableto locatethetransitionpointto within adropheightof 25

cm. If possible,try to narrowit downto within a 10cm height,andperformmultiple

testsfrom severalheightsin thisregion. Reportthe"impactenergy"of thesampleasthe

highestenergyatwhichthesampleconsistentlydoes not fail.

NOTE: For all samples, use the 0.9 kg indenter initially. If no failure is achieved even

from the greatest possible height, switch to the 1.8 kg indenter.

.

(optional) Measure the hardness of the test films using a Knoop indenter on the Tukon ®

Microhardness Tester. Use an applied load of 50 g. Report hardnesses as Knoop

Hardness Numbers (KHN).

333
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

All samples baked at 90 °C and above became hard to the touch after removal from the

oven. Samples exposed to a lower curing temperature (70 °C) remained sticky and fluidlike.

It can be concluded that little crosslinking occurred at this low temperature, and these films

were not subject to the hardness and impact tests.

Figure 3 shows the pencil hardness for all films cured at 90 °C and above. The 55:45

and 70:30 mixtures produced films whose hardness increased from HB to 3H as the curing

temperature was raised from 90 to 130 °C. The increase in crosslink density caused by curing

at higher temperatures resulted in greater film hardnesses. For these two formulations, the

pencil test did not detect any further changes in hardness at cure temperatures above 130 °C.

t..,

oN

4H3H2HHFHBB

2B

• • • •

! ! m ! m !

90 110 130 150 170 190

Cure temperature (degrees C)

• 70:30 and 55:45

• 85:15

Figure 3. Pencil Hardness Values for Cured Films

334
Althoughthepencilhardnessresultsfor the55:45and70:30formulationswere

indistinguishable,films madefromthe85:15mixture(theonecontainingtheleastamountof

crosslinkingagent)exhibitedsignificantlylowerhardnessesatall curingtemperatures.While

alsoshowingsomeincreasein hardnesswithtemperature,thisformulationachieveda

maximumhardnessof only F. Thebehaviorof the85:15samplesdemonstratesthatreducing

theamountof crosslinkingagentin themixturecanresultin significantlysofterfilms.

It is interestingto comparepencilhardnessresultswith KnoopHardnessNumbers

(KHN) for thesefilms. KHN valuesfortheseriesof films fromthe70:30mixtureappearin

Figure4. Indentationsweremeasuredat leastthirty secondsaftertheKnoopindenterwas

removed;nochangesin themeasuredindentationwerenotedat increasedtimes(upto 10

minutes).Thegeneraltrendof hardnessincreasingwith curetemperature,seenin thepencil

hardnessresultsof Figure3, is confirmed.BecausetheKHN analysisprovidesaless

discretizedmeasureof hardness,thecurvein Figure4 showsa somewhatsmootherincrease

andlevelingof hardnesscomparedto thepenciltest. AlsonotethattheKnooptestidentifies

significantchangesin hardnessabovethe130oc curetemperaturethatwerenotdetectedin the

penciltest. (Noteto Instructor." Have students comment on the relative merits and drawbacks

of the two types of hardness tests.)

Z

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

7O

Figure 4.

from

I I I I I I I

90 110 130 150 170 190 210

Cure temperature (degrees C)

Knoop Hardness Numbers for Cured Films

the 70:30 Formulation

335
Figure 5 contains impact energy results from the drop weight test. Note that 20 Joules

was the highest impact energy that could be achieved experimentally. Samples with a listed

impact energy of 20 J did not exhibit any failure through the entire measurement range.

Films from all formulations showed considerable toughness and flexibility at the lowest

cure temperatures, showing no failure even under an impact of 20 J. For films made from the

55:45 mixture (the highest crosslinking agent percentage) detectable failures appeared at a cure

temperature of 130 °C (impact energy of 16 J). Further increases in the cure temperature for

this formulation resulted in increased brittleness--impact energies fell to a final value of 3 J for

the 190 °C cure. Similar behavior is seen for films from the 70:30 mixture. The changes these

materials exhibit as a function of cure temperature indicate a strong invex'se relationship

between impact energy and degree of crosslinking.

_40

t_,

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

t upper limit of measurement

I I I I I I I

110 130 150 170 190 210

Cure temperature (degrees C)

70 90

e 85:15 "- 70:30 Jk 55:45 I

Figure 5. Impact Energies for Cured Films (a value of

20 J indicates no observable failure throughout the entire

measurement range)

336
For cure temperatures where some samples exhibited detectable impact failures, the

effect of crosslinking agent ratio on film toughness is apparent. The formulation with the

largest percentage of crosslinking agent, 55:45, produced the most brittle films. The 70:30

samples had somewhat higher impact energies, and the 85:15 mixture produced the least brittle

films, which did not show impact failures even when cured at 190 oc. This supports the

earlier conclusion that more extensive crosslinking in these materials leads to a reduction in

impact resistance. Even though samples from the 85:15 mixture are relatively tough, recall that

they also exhibited considerably lower hardnesses than those from the other two formulations.

In summary, the hardness and impact energy of these organic coatings are directly

related to their internal network polymer structure, in particular, the degree of crosslinking,

which can be adjusted by changing the crosslinking agent percentage in the formulation, as

well as the film's cure temperature. These materials display a tradeoff between hardness and

toughness, with harder films generally exhibiting a lower resistance to impact. For a given

application, changes in the formulation and cure temperature can be used to prepare coatings

with an optimum combination of these mechanical properties.

REFERENCES

1. Turner, G.P.A., Introduction to Paint Chemistry and Principles of Paint Technology, ch.

7 & 9, Chapman and Hall, London, 1980.

2. Hill, L.W., Mechanical Properties of Coatings, Federation of Societies for Coatings

Technologies, Philadelphia, 1987.

3. Brown, R.P., ed., Handbook of Plastics Test Methods, George Godwin Ltd. and The

Plastics and Rubber Institute, London, 1981.

Appendix--Equipment Notes to Instructors

The drawdown bar is a steel bar, 3 to 4 inches in length, with a flat side that rests

squarely on the test panel. Along this side, a 2-inch long section has been machined away such

that it provides a clearance, which will leave behind a film when the bar is drawn along the

surface of a panel and over the deposited liquid mixture, as described in the Procedure. We

337
used a bar with a clearance depth of 0.15 mm (6 mil). Draw down bars are available

commercially from Paul N. Gardner Co., Inc., Pompano Beach, FL.

In the drop weight impact test, the test panel sits horizontally on a circular steel support

ring. A 4-foot long vertical tube, with a slot cut along its length, is positioned directly above

the center of the support ring. A cylindrical steel weight, tapered at the impact end to a

hemispherical tip, fits inside the tube. A bolt protruding from the side of the indenter weight

fits through the slot in the tube, and is used to lift the weight to the desired drop height. A unit

conforming to ASTM guidelines can be made by referring to ASTM D-2794-90: Resistance of

Organic Coatings to the Effects of Rapid Deformation, although alternate designs would be

suitable for the purposes of this experiment. A commercial device of this type is available from

Paul N. Gardner Co., Inc. (see above).

338
N94- 36411

._ ?. i

EXPERIMENTS IN DIAMOND FILM FABRICATION IN

TABLE-TOP PLASMA APPARATUS

James V. Masi

Department of Electrical Engineering

Western New England College

Springfield, Massachusetts 01119

Telephone 413-782-1344

339

EXPERIMENTS IN DIAMOND FILM FABRICATION IN

TABLE-TOP PLASMA APPARATUS

James V. Masi, PhD

Western New England College

Dept. of Electrical Engineering

Springfield, MA 01119

(413) 782-1344, FAX (413) 782-1746

KEY WORDS: Diamonds, plasma, heterojunctions, photoconductors.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should be familiar with the basics of materials

science and chemistry. Levels at which these experiments are performed are second semester junior and

either semester senior year. The students are first given lectures on band structure in solids, film formation

via chemical vapor deposition, semiconductor junction formation, and photoconductivity. Though a

scanning electron microscope would be helpful, film morphology can be seen with reasonable optical

microscopy. A video filmed by the instructor showing the plasma deposition onto silicon and sapphire

gives the student an idea of what is expected.

OBJECTIVES: To illustrate the process of plasma assisted chemical vapor deposition and to

show devices which can be made simply in the laboratory. These devices illustrate clearly the concepts of

bandgap, junctions, and photoelectronic processes. Films and devices are measured electrically, optically,

and thermally.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

Silicon wafers, sapphire wafers, and microscope slides ( one per student)

U.S.P. ethyl alcohol

Stoppered flask with tubing fittings

Controlled air leak

High voltage (>2000 volts) d.c. supply

Microwave oven (500 watts), small (optional)

Polycarbonate belljar (25 cm. diameter)

Silver paint (DuPont 4817)

Diode curve tracer

Microscope (optical, 400x) or electron microscope

INTRODUCTION: Using simple chemicals and materials, such as ethyl alcohol, sapphire, and

silicon wafers, students can heteroepitaxially deposit diamond films onto silicon and sapphire wafers in a

direct current plasma and/or microwave assisted plasma. By placing 1 part in 106 of either boron

trichloride or phosphorus trichloride into the ethyl alcohol, the diamond films can be doped p- or n-type

respectively. Undoped films serve as good photoconductor films. Small polycarbonate belljars purchased

from Cole-Parmer along with mini vacuum pumps serve as the reaction chamber, minimizing danger of

accident. The systems may be placed into a small microwave oven (500 watts, 2.45 GHz). The reaction

with partial pressures of oxygen combined with the ethyl alcohol yields diamond films whose properties are

dependent on deposition variables heretofore unknown to the student (and sometimes to the professor).

The three laboratory sessions spent provide the student with experience in:

i:'__G _AC_: BLAr_K NOT FILMED

341
1. Chemical vapor deposition;

2. Plasma assisted reactions;

3. Heterojunctions and band structures;

4. Photoconductivity and spectrophotometric identification of films; and

5. Microscopy offilms.

These experiments were developed by the professor and seniors in the process of the senior design

project capstone course at Western New England College. -

The Reaction: Although the literature is replete with carbon sources made up of a carbon gas

source (such as methane in argon), little is said regarding safer methods of laboratory use for students. For

the sake of safety, availability, and cost, alcohols were chosen as sources. A typical reaction for the ethyl

alcohol used is shown below.

CH3CH2OH + 0 2 ..... > 2C + 3H20

System Design/Procedure: The apparatus shown in Figure 1 was the functional system used,

with a modification of high voltage plasma assist. This system is a modification of that described by R. C.

DeVries. The microwave source was a conventional 2.45GHz, 500 watt Toshiba microwave oven. The

chamber was a polycarbonate belljar, supplied by Cole-Parmer. The substrates were not heated from an

external source, since, in the presence of the microwave oven ground, arcing occurred.

WAVE GUIDE

TUNER

ilNiiiiil

Gas

I in

PLASMA

TOH. V.

WAVE

GUIDE

\

SUBSTRATE

VACUUM SYSTEM

MICROWAVE

GENERATION

(OVEN)

342
The vacuum pump is run until the system reaches 80 microns or lower pressure. The pump is

allowed to run while a mixture of 1 part air and 1 part argon is bubbled through the ethyl alcohol and

"leaked" into the vacuum system until the pressure rises to 3-30 Tort-. The microwave power and/or the

high voltage was turned on and the plasma (blue-red column) decomposition/oxidation of the ethyl alcohol

proceeded. It should be noted that the morphology of the films obtained was quite different, dependent

• on the plasma source used. Though the process works better with the semiconductive substrates, with

microwave assist the sapphire and glass substrates also provide suitable substrates. All films are

polycrystalline with reasonable densities; best results and densities were obtained on single crystal silicon

substrates. Typical yellowing or browning of the film indicates the presence of carbon (or graphite)

included in the film. Each system appears to have somewhat different characteristics and the experimenter

should note these. Typical growth rates of these films are of the order of 0.01 to 0.1 micrometer per

minute. An x-ray diffraction scan of a film on (100) Silicon is shown in Figure 2. This film was grown at

approximately 0.06 micrometers per minute.

Typical dopants for the diamond film are introduced via dissolution of boron trichloride (acceptor)

and ammonium chloride (donor) into the ethyl alcohol in the 1-1 O0 ppm ratio to carbon in the alcohol.

Care should be taken to clean the system well between each type change. The number of ionized acceptors

and donors is only expected to be from 1-10% in the diamond film at room temperature. Though time

usually doesn't permit, all four varieties of n/p, p/n, n/n, and p/p heterojunctions prove to be interesting in

demonstrating isotype and heterotype heterojunctions and their characteristics.

Safety Note: Although the alcohol is safer than methane in the laboratory, a safety mesh or

Plexiglas sheet should be placed between the student and the apparatus. Good practice indicates the

wearing of safety masks during the deposition.

Device Preparation: Devices of the heterojunction type are post-deposition prepared by roughing

the back side of the silicon wafer with 00 grit silicon carbide paper. Silver paint (DuPont #4817) is applied

to the back of the silicon wafer and is allowed 15 minutes to dry. Dots of silver paint may be applied to

the front of the wafer over the diamond. Fine aluminum wires may be attached for testing of the devices.

Sufficient light enters the device to cause both photovoltaic and photoconductive (reversed biased)

responses in the junctions. Devices of the non-junction photoconductive types on either sapphire or glass

work well with silver paint electrodes applied juxtaposed in parallel bar formation.Both devices are shown

in Figure 3. Carbon or gol d semi-transparent electrodes function better for photo devices and can be easily

deposited as replacements for the silver on diamond top electrodes. Attachment to these electrodes by

means of fine aluminum wires serves to ease testing of the devices iia the absence of probes.

343
r-

>.,

L..

°--

.13

t_

V

>.,

°_

r-"

r"

D[AHOND OH JIO0] S[ WAFER

nltlll

s[ 11ooi

O-SPACEHG IIKL COUNTS

O.A2 331 20

0.89 400 tO

1.06 311 43

t.26 220 t53

2.0G tit G7t

122o1

J ol]tll L _

'i',_-,'l-';_;,"'"_i_;"G-' _"']_n"-i'"'l .... ' .... !

40 50 GO 70 BO 90

DI4o01 I] I]]t

tOO ttO t20 t30 t40

2,0 (Degrees)

Figure 2

X-ray Diffraction of Diamond Film oil Silicon (100)

344
S

Figure 3

Heterojunction Devices

Ag Paint

Diamon

photoconductive (Resistive)

Ag bars Devices

Diamond _/////

>

Substrate

Typical Measurements: Measurements made on devices will vary according to doping levels, type mixes,

resistivities of the silicon, and conditions of deposition. Typical diode characteristics in the dark and light

are shown in Figures 4 and 5. Typical photoconductor characteristics are shown for light and dark

conditions in Figures 6 and 7. All characteristics are taken on a Tektronix curve tracer. The light sources

used were tungsten-halogen "white" and 253.7 nm ultraviolet.

A typical spectrophotometric transmission curve vs wavelength for diamond is shown in Figure 8.

The cutoff (bandgap) wavelength as well as impurity and other absorption energy levels are easily

calculated (as shown in the appendix) from

E = hc/_,.

Spectral response characteristics can optionally be made with an added expenditure of time and effort.

REFERENCES:

1. Boenig, H. V., Plasma Science and Technology, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. 1982.

2. Solymar, E. and Walsh, D., Lectures on the Electrical Properties of Materials, Oxford

University Press, Oxford, England. 1988.

3. Milnes, A. G. and Feucht, D. L., Heterojunctions and Metal-Semiconductor Junctions,

Academic Press, New York. 1972.

4. Deutchman, A. and Partyka, R., Diamond Film Deposition - A Gem of a Process, Advanced

Materials & Processes, ASM International, June, 1989.

5. DeVries, R. C., Synthesis of Diamond Under Metastable Conditions, MRS 1991 Fall

Symposium, MRS, Pittsburgh, PA. 1991.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY: The microwave oven was an $88 one obtained from a local appliance

store. The laboratory supplies and chemicals were obtained from Cole-Parmer and Fisher Scientific. The

high voltage supply is a $35 surplus TV. 4000 volt d.c. supply. The silicon wafers and sapphire disks were

obtained through Ms. Shannon John, Wafernet, San Jose, CA. The silver paint was obtained from Bert

Bricker, Wilmington, DE. All other supplies are easily obtained from local university supply houses.

345
....i....i....i....i....i....i__ .....

: " ...: ......... : .... : .... ; .... : ....

B

ZV/div O

_ Figure 4

Forward Biased p/n Diamoml/Si lletrroil"lcli'" Diode

...._....i....!....i!i !i i i!

uN/dlv : : : : : :

.... i.... i-.... ::.... i.... i....!._:._.r i.... i....:

8 2 Vldiv _ :

Figure 6

l,ow Sensitivity Diamond Photoconductor on Glass

2

_g, cliv

2iiik IIii ̧

i "i .... i....I....i_,v!........ I .i.. i .

B Z V/div

Figure 5

rcvcm'se Iliased pl,i Diamoml/Si llelerojunclion l)iode

_,dlv

.2

_dlv

....:....:.._U...:.... _'_.:....!....:....",.-'_-. :"_'_ :.

: : ,7,?,7 : : i .!_/i: i :

"! ....i,/::i ....i....i_.:,'_ " i....

B _ _V/div

Figure 7

lligh Sensitivity Diamond Photoconductor on Sapphire

346
I i ' t i! I : _:_' Figure8 I -[' :: i :

i -i I ..... :-:o/-: .... :-

, :--i -. Spectrophotomelric Curve of Diamond Film i , '

" [ ! [ _ -

i : I ..... I ....

__.' ...... ': J_¢_¢_¢': "_'v'_iT---i ,_ i J [. IW4_

! : )W__--I - !-=i-

..... _ - ] I ' .....

_'.... _ _1.:..:-i ....i---_'-- !---_i_ _ I_--

- --..t -. I= !::1----!:" -

I -'-- i _: '. ...... .L__ .:, f L:.;._- =: ---

/-__' _ '_ ..... ,_ ._'...... ._.._ _- _..... ' t I-

:' __; " ' ' t I _+ -- --- '. 772 L-.. _

It _-:4 '. _ ; i- .t::

j'

/__- : _ ;---i-_---.....

J : ! ' + -t : ! , i I---

] , ' ' I ' :, I :l : " : I

I_ " I _-2- ---, : -;- --

t _ t

........ x_

0 0 : -

: . , , i- '-i- -:-

-" .... i: I I ! . ' : ', ,-! i I

; I ' 7; -=/i 1 _ - i; " I !7_"

]2-- .... _ " ___r _Z _--]_-,, i _ . i I _" i i "

" . ' ' -' ' i .- fr_

: " t := _: L : i , , I: -

7--% } " - ,_._=l_7_i...i_l._.. 111_1 _.. I- -!--I_ _-

2-_L :712 ;:

" i _ _.; -' ;.7 I " ,_ :

, . i !

..... i ................. Z _ L._

: -i ;- :__..... L _.

_ _ _--

Some original figures were unavailable at time of publication.

347
APPENDIX

Diamond Film #3

Diamond Film at t60x and 320x Magnification and 30 ° Angle

348
APPENDIX:

Heteroj unction Theory: Heterojunctions are semiconductor junctions which are composed of

two or more materials of differing band gaps in metallurgical contact with one another. The Anderson

Model (in the reference by Milnes and Feucht) was the model chosen for diamond on silicon, n/n, p/p, p/n,

and n/p structures. The energy band diagram for isolated and in-contact n/p (Si/diamond) is shown in

Figures A1 and A2.

_m

E%ECTRCN

ENERGY

E:I

EF; .....

Evl

VACUUM L__',_E_I

....

AE,,I L----F----E_2

Evz

Figure AI

Energy Band Diagram for Two Isolated Semiconductors

VACUUM L./E_ _ 1

V V I/ ,° 04[,, x:,

I

I I .

' Eel----L tT .... _! J, _._I _..i --JL-E_

E t I ' , EvZ

E,-- f vo,T %_ A,,

J _ v'-"__L_I_

I I I

I I I

I I I

Xl XO xZ

E¢2

Figure A2

Energy Band Diagram for n-p Heterojunction (V = 0)

349
The energy barrier ofajuncdon for non degenerate materials, materials

whose electron a/_dty and bandgap are not affected by doping, can be calculated

using the equation:

= E,,+_Y._'-&-&-qK'-V. Eq. I-I

lcVhere:

EGI

_=

8p ----

q =

V a =

= Bandgap ofMaterialOne

D[ffe1.enceIn the Energy of theValance Bands

DifferenceBetween theFenui Level and the Conduction

Band

DifferenceBetween theFermi Level and the Valence Band

Charge on an Electron (1.5x 10-LgC)

Applied Voltage

The expression for I<L is for low forward bias conditions and neglects the effects of

injection carriers:

/,C:=/_I + _Vo,_:l,Vo,a)

Eq. I=2

W'_el'e"

N m = Number of Donor Atoms in Material Two

N m -- Number of Donor Atoms in Material One

¢I = PermeafiviVy of Material One

Ch = Permeafivity ofMater_ Two

The built-in voltage of the junction, v D, is the sum of the partial built-in

voltages, V m + V m, where V m and V m are the electrost_c potentials of'the

semiconductors I and 2 at equilA'bdum. The equation for the length of the

transition or depletion region of an n-p junction can be found using the derivation:

r2. NA,,,,,(Vo_--Vo)7" Eq. 1-3

(Xo- x,) =LqNo,(e,.ff,,, _e,,v,,---;)]

(x_- xo)=[_ ,v,,,(e,.,v,,,'-----W n'o,e,_,(7,,"o-v,)"r e,.,v.,---;)j

The total width of'the depletion region is therefore equal to:

Eq. 1-4

350
W=(X:-Xo)+(Xo. XO=F2_'_:(Vo-V_)(N._+ N.,):f _=

Where:

Eq. I-5

N,u = Number of Acceptor Atoms in Material Two

Vr_ = Bu/k-h Voltage

m

Energ_ Diagram of a p-n Junction for (a)Forward Bias (b)Reverse Bias

The above diagrams demonstrate the principle ofrectificadort, which states that the

tota/current flowing for a voltage V a is not the same for a voltage of-V a. The

total current flowing Iet_ to right through thejtmction using the equation:

I = z0[exp(qV,/ kr)-

Where:

Eq. I-6

Io = Reverse Saturation Current

TI= QuaMty Factor

k = Boltzman's Constant (1.38 x 10 "z3I/I_

T = Temperature (K)

Dividing by the area of the jtmetion the current density can be calculated.

J = Jo[exp(qVa / rikT)- l] Eq. 1-7

351
APPENDIX

Si Ga.%s B-SiC Dia==.-.d

Ba_-.dNa? i. 12 i. 4Z Z. 35 S. A8

(eV) (ir./irec--) (_i_-ec=) (ir._i_-mc=) (L "-g'Lr=-c--)

Mmb £!i=I_"

(==2 v-z s-l)

Ue

Bn

E!ac==cn Sa_

D=ifu Ve!'

Vsa = (_- s-!

1.0 x iO 7

85OO

400

Z x 107

900

S0

Z.5 x 10 7 2.7 x: !0 7

Breakdm_= _ield

EB (v ==-z)

Die!ec=ric

Ehe:-...,_

co=auc--i__r7 (Y..J

(w ==-Z i-.l.)

job_--.s_:r. _ig. o_

Meri= 1

(v",-13z

P_a=ion Ra!a=ive

=m S i!ic_a

_eys F_g. of

_k=K(_) i/Z

(W=-zlz s-!Iz

z-l)

Ra=£o Ra!a=ive

=o Si!£c=n

3 x 105

1!.9

1.5

Z.3 x 10 Z2

Z3.8 x 10 z

L x 105

12.9

0.5

1_.2 x !0 Z'_

4 x i0 5

9.7

Z.533 x 1023

1 x !G 7

5.5

ZQ

18_5_ x 1O 23

7.0

_.Z x 102

1101

80.3 x i0Z

0.45 J 5.8

80Z8

43_.Z :=10 Z

_118

352
PLASTIC PART DESIGN ANALYSIS USING POLARIZED

FILTERS AND BIREFRINGENCE

J. L. Wickman

Plastics Research and Education Center

Department of Industry and Technology

Ball State University

Muncie, Indiana 47306

Telephone 317-285-5648

353

Plastic Part Design Analysis Using Polarized

Filters and Birefringence

J.L. Wickman

Plastics Research and Education Center

Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306

KEY WORDS: birefringence, stress/strain, transparent/translucent plastic materials,

index of refraction, optically heterogeneous, photoelastic fringe patterns, polarizing filters,

ASTM D-4093.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should understand the fundamentals of

plastics processing, materials characterization, and plastic part design.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the application of ASTM D-4093, "Standard Method for

Photoelastic Measurements of Birefringence and Residual Strains in Transparent or Translucent

Plastic Materials" to plastics part design and processing. To be able to observe and understand

the impact of using a polariscope in plastics manufacturing in an effort to improve product

quality. To understand how critical part design is to possible future failure analysis.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

(1)Glare-stop polarizing filters (12" X 12")

(2)Plate glass (4 pieces - 0.125" X 12" X 12") to protect filters

(3)Light source (overhead projector)

(4)Part Loading Fixture (optional)

(5)Transparent or translucent plastic parts

(6)Polarizing unit

INTRODUCTION: As the demand for engineered plastic products increases, greater

emphasis must be placed on material, processing and part analysis. ASTM D-4093, "Standard

"Method for Photoelastic Measurements of Birefringence and Residual Strains in Transparent

or Translucent Plastic Materials" has some very real, cost effective applications for plastics

product design, materials selection and testing, processing and failure analysis.

Internal stress in a molded plastic product can cause the part to warp, twist or bend,

craze/fracture and/or eventually fail. The cause of this stress is residual physical pulling that is

present when the plastic is pliable, but becomes captured upon solidification of the plastic. These

stresses cannot be seen by the naked eye, but with the use of a polarized filter and a light source

through a transparent or translucent part, these residual internal stresses are identifiable.

This laboratory will investigate the possible causes of internal residual stresses in a plastic

part as a result of poor part design. Processing parameters and material selection can also have

an impact on internal stresses but that is beyond the scope of this experiment.

355
Light waves travel through a vacuum in a straight line from its source, vibrating in a

direction perpendicular to its axis of transmission (the direction in which it is traveling). When

the light wave strikes a heterogenous material, the vibration that was perpendicular to its axis

of transmission becomes distorted. In fact, the vibration splits into two separate waves vibrating

in separate planes. The two waves have different indexes of refraction, and the difference

between these is called the birefringence. When these two light waves emerge from,the

heterogeneous medium, they are out of phase, and appear to the human eye as different color

bands when passed through an optical filter. These color bands in conjunction with injection

molding design will be the focus of this experiment. Large concentrations of different color

bands indicate a high level of internal, residual stress. See ASTM D-4093.

When a two dimensional model is subjected to loads, the resulting stresses exist generally

over the entire surface of the model. The stresses in the model produce proportional optical

effects which appear as isochromatic fringes. Starting with the unloaded model, and applying

the load in increments, fringes will appear first at the most highly stressed points. As the load

is increased and new fringes appear, the earlier fringes are pushed towards the areas of lower

stress. Under white light, the photoelastic fringe pattern appears as a series of successive and

contiguous different colored bands in which each band represents a different degree of

birefringence corresponding to the underlying stress in the part. The color of each band identifies

the birefringence, or fringe order (and stress level), everywhere along the band. White light is

composed of all wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Table 1 will give the complete color

sequence, the fringe order and the corresponding stress level possibly found in a part.

Color Relative Fringe Stress

Retardation Order psi MN/m 2

Black

Gray

White

Pale-Yellow

Orange

Dull Red

Purple (Tint of Passage)

Deep Blue

Blue-Green

Green-Yellow

Orange

Rose-Red

Purple (Tint of Passage)

Green

0 0 0 0

160 0.28 90 0.62

260 0.45 144 0.99

345 0.60 192 1.32

460 0.80 256 1.76

520 0.90 288 1.99

575 1.00 320 2.21

620 1.08 346 2.38

700 1.22 390 2.69

800 1.39 445 3.07

935 1.63 522 3.60

1050 1.82 582 4.02

1150 2.00 640 4.41

1350 2.35 752 5.19

356
Green-Yellow 1440 2.50 800 5.52

Red 1520 2.65 848 5.85

Red Green Transition 1730 3.00 960 6.62

Green 1800 3.10 992 6.84

Pink 2100 3.65 1168 8.05

Pink Green Transition 2300 4.00 1280 8.86

Green 2400 4.15 1328 9.16

Table 1. Isochromatic Fringe Characteristics using photoelastic plastic. Experimental Stress

Analysis by Dally and Riley.

The basic polariscope utilizing the two polarizing filters will show full field interpretation of

fringe patterns in an effort to obtain an overall assessment of nominal stress magnitudes and

gradients. A more sophisticated polarizer and analyzer with two insertable quarter-wave

retardation plates that are mechanically coupled for synchronous rotation will provide additional

analysis. The more sophisticated unit provides quantitative measurements for:

* determination of principal stresses

* magnitude and sign of the tangential stress along free boundaries and in regions where

the state of stress is uniaxial

* magnitude of the difference in principal stresses in a bi-axial stress state.

The importance of proper plastics part design can be shown using ASTM D-4093. Part

failure can be minimized through attention to inside sharp corners, varying wall thickness, sink

marks, molded in metal parts, bosses, ribs, weld lines, gate size and location, blind holes, and

functional surface characteristics. The specific specifications for each part is a function of the

particular material selected. Even though there are approximately 15,000 different plastics

available, specific design guidelines have been developed for generic plastic classifications. The

generic guidelines are available from the material manufacturer.

Molded in stresses will be concentrated around gates, openings, inside sharp corners,

sharp transitions in cross section, and weld lines. The stressed areas can detract from various

strength properties by as much as 20 percent. Loads, heat, pressure, light, and chemicals should

be used with caution in the affected stressed areas.

PROCEDURE:

1. Obtain a transparent/translucent injection molded plastic part with engineering

applications. The part should fit between the two polarizing filters and should be easily rotated

about the X, Y, and Z axis. Use the polarizing filters to identify any and all residual stresses.

If there are no noticeable fringe patterns, find another plastic part. Be sure to rotate your part

thoroughly in an effort to seek out all fringe patterns.

Each of the filters is unidirectional. Set up the polarizing unit on the overhead so that

the axesare crossed and the polariscope is in the dark-field. If the transmission axes coincide the

polariscope is in the light-field. Dark-field means that with no stress in the model, all light is

extinguished and the model appears uniformly black. As the load is applied, the most highly

357
stressed regions begin to take on color, first grey, then white, violet and so on. The purple

fringe is referred to as the tint of passage and is very sensitive to a small change in stress level.

The purple tint of passage is selected to mark the increment in relative retardation equal to a

fringe order of unity (N = 1). The tint of passage is a sharp dividing zone occurring between

red and blue in the first order fringe, red and green in the second order fringe, and pink and

green in the third, fourth, and fifth order fringes. Beyond five fringes, white light analysis is not

adequate. See Table 1.

The part can be loaded either in tension or compression using the part loading fixture.

This analysis will begin to show how the part reacts under various forces and can also be used

in failure analysis. Fringe patterns will change in proportion to the force applied.

2. Locate where all gate(s), ejection pins, core pins, parting lines, etc. may have been

in the molding tool. Generate an isometric drawing of the part, include all bosses, ribs, bolt

holes, inserts, tapers, sink marks, blind holes, and functional surface characteristics. Assume

your part represents the typical/average part produced.

3. Determine the specific design criteria for the material that may have been used in your

particular part. Using available calipers, micrometers, and other measurement tools as necessary

determine if your part falls within the design criteria as specified by the manufacturer. Cite all

deviations from the manufacturers specifications. Several assumptions need to be made 1) you

know what specific material is used to process the part and 2) the part specifications available

to you are identical to those used by the original designer.

4. Identify at least 10 critical engineering properties (as best as possible) that you would

design into the part. Consider the following and all assumed subheadings as a minimum:

Mechanical

Chemical

Physical

Dimensional

5. Map (using CAD) the fringe patterns of each critical area of the part that you have

selected. Record as accurately as possible the fringe patterns, include shape, width, height, and

the colors associated with each pattern. Associate color, fringe order, and stress present in

various areas of your part.

6. Associate the fringe patterns with your part as designed: i.e., identify what design

characteristics may have caused the fringe patterns. Recall material selection and processing may

impact the development of the fringe patterns. For the sake of this experiment, assume that the

impact of processing and material selection is negligible.

7. Identify where failure may occur in the part in normal use. Identify the conditions and

environment under the heading normal use.

8. Identify what design changes need to be implemented to avoid future part failure.

358
INSTRUCTOR NOTES:

1. Due to the variety of transparent/translucent plastic parts available it is important that

the students be encouraged to critique each part and material as a team. The use of the overhead

will bring the image to the screen for enhanced group participation.

2.Photographing with the more spectacular fringe patterns can be beneficial. 400 color

print film works well with an 80A (blue) filter to compensate for the projector halogen bulb.

A close up lens with the room lights out produces the best quality prints.

3.Processing parameters, material changes and chemical resistance tests can be used in

conjunction with the polarizing filters to further expand on the study of materials.

4.It is wise to keep a variety of parts and test samples at the polarizer to demonstrate the

effectiveness of the apparatus.

5.Pressure transducers can be used in conjunction with the part loading fixture to develop

a numerical index of forces.

loaded

6.Depending on equipment availability slow speed video photography of the part being

can contribute to design/failure analysis.

REFERENCES:

1. Dally, J.W., and Riley W.F., Experimental Stress Analysis, McGraw Hill Book

Company, New York, 1978.

2. Durelli, A.J., Applied Stress Analysis, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,

1967.

3. Durelli, A.J., Introduction to Photomechanics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New

Jersey, 1965.

4. Frocht; M.M., Photoelasticity, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1941.

5. Heywood, R.B., Photoelasticity for Designers, Pergamon Press, New York, 1969.

6. Jessop, HIT. and Harris, F.C., Photoelasticity, Dover Publications, New York, 1960.

7. Kuske, A. and Robertson, G., Photoelastic Stress Analysis, John Wiley and Sons,

New York, 1974.

8. Redner, S., Photoelasticity, Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology, Vol

9, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1968.

9. Redner, S., Prediction of Failures in Service by Photoelastic Methods in Advanced

Testing Techniques, ASTM STP-476, American Society for Testing and Materials,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1970.

359
10. Rosato, D.V. and Rosato, D.V., eds.: Injection Molding Handbook, Van Nostrand

Reinhold, New York, 1986.

11. Zandman, F.S., Redner, S. and Dally, J.W., Photoelastic Coatings, Iowa State

University Press, Ames, Iowa, 1977.

12. 1992 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 08.03. American Society for

Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1992, Pennsylvania.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY: The polarizing filters can be obtained at a local camera store.

The overhead projector should be readily available. All other parts for the polarizing unit and

part loading fixture can be obtained from a well stocked hardware store. Commercial polarizing

units available from Measurements Group - Photoelastic Division, P.O. Box 2777 Raleigh,

North Carolina. A basic polariscope can be produced for less than $60.00.

360
/ d r

/

MICROWAVE SINTERING OF MACHINING INSERTS

David E. Werstler

Manufacturing Engineering Technology

Western Washington University

Bellingham, Washington 98225-9086

Telephone 206-650-3447

361

MICROWAVE SINTERING OF MACHINING INSERTS

David E. Werstler

Manufacturing Engineering Technology

Western Washington University

KEYWORDS: microwave, dielectric loss factor, sintering, structural ceramics,

machining insert, design of experiments, bulk density.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should be aware of the normal

procedure for producing high quality ceramic parts from both dry powders and wet

plastic forming, and an introduction to the dielectric properties of materials is also

necessary. Both of these can be found in most texts for introductory materials courses.

Some knowledge of metalcutting tools for a lathe is beneficial, and this may require a

demonstration or observation in the university shop. A thorough concern for safety with

microwave equipment is necessary.

OBJECTIVES: To use a designed experiment to determine the process control

parameters for microwave sintering in the production of ceramic cutting tool inserts.

Parameters may include compaction load, heating rate, sintering temperature and time,

and use of a preliminary degassing step.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

1. Prepared ceramic powder blend

2. Die set for triangular machining inserts with either 0 or 11 deg rake

3. Universal testing machine set up for compression

4. Scale which reads to hundreths of a gram

5. Microwave oven equipped with optical pyrometer or thermocouple

6. Mechanical vacuum pump

7. Dewaxing cover with thermocouple

8. Vacuum chamber with insulated sample holder

9. Jolly balance

INTRODUCTION: Microwave heating is also known as UHF dielectric heating. A

dielectric material (an insulator) becomes polarized when placed in an electric field, and

an alternating current thereby causes cyclic distortion (dipolar rotation) of molecules and

heating (1,2). Higher frequencies of the field cause a more intense internal friction

effect, but penetration of the field into the interior of a workpiece is less. Radio

frequencies (10 to 300 MHz) can be used, but a household microwave oven operates at

2,450 MHz (2.45 GHz) and an industrial oven at 28 GHz has been developed (1).

The dielectric loss tangent and the relative dielectric constant are material properties

that determine heating efficiency and penetration. When these are low, the material

tends to be opaque to microwaves, so higher values are necessary for adequate energy

L. , .

363
absorption. Some plastics such as PVC have high values in the radio range and can be

"ultrasonically welded." Some ceramics such as alumina are opaque at room temperature but become absorbers exponentially as temperature increases, so preheating

them can trigger a response. Metals are not dielectric materials and reflect microwaves,

which allows them to be used to contain the radiation in the oven.

Ceramic and cemented carbide cutting tools are made from a wide variety of combinations of tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, alumina, silicon nitride, boron nitride, and

other ceramics using powder pressing and sintering technology (3). Many of these

materials have properties that allow them to be sintered with microwaves to greatly

decrease production times and costs. With the advent of surface coatings of TiCN, low

cost and high strength of the substrate are more important than wear resistance.

PROCEDURE:

1. The instructor will give the sintering cycle in a standard oven for your ceramic mix.

(For a cemented tungsten carbide insert, this would include dewaxing at 433 C for one

hour, degassing at 1175 C for 45 minutes, and final sintering at 1475 C for two hours.)

Determine which variables you want to study and design a two factor, three level experiment with bulk density as the response (4). Discuss your plan with the instructor first.

2. Determine the weight of powder necessary to fill the die cavity, allowing for 30%

porosity after pressing. Weigh out that amount and assemble the die set for pressing.

Load the first sample, called a "compact," to 3200 kg. Unload the die, and measure the

thickness of the compact and observe the condition of the edges. If the thickness is not

between 3.75 to 3.83 mm, adjust the weight of the powder for the next compacts.

3. To start the sintering process, load up to three compacts in the sample holder in the

oven. If your powder was coated with a wax plasticizer, that must be vaporized off first,

so cover the samples with the dewaxing hood and connect it to the vacuum pump. Be

sure that the thermocouple in the hood is touching one of the compacts. Turn on the

oven with medium power and bring the temperature up to about 400 C. Switch to low

power and try to keep the sample at that temperature for ten minutes or until no more

wax vapors are present.

Turn off the oven, open the door and replace the dewaxing hood with the vacuum

hood. SAFETY PRECAUTION: the samples are hot enough to cause severe burns, and

other parts of the system may be hot. Wear safety glasses while working in the oven.

Pump out the chamber, backfill with nitrogen, and evacuate again. Start the oven at

high power and monitor the temperature with the optical pyrometer. When it

approaches your planned cycle limit, reduce power and try to keep temperature within

ten degrees of optimum. At the end of your cycle, turn off the oven and wait for the

inserts to cool before turning off the vacuum.

4. Use the Jolly balance to measure bulk density. Plot results and make recommendations for optimum processing. Densities approaching 99% need to be achieved for

maximum tool life.

364
INSTRUCTOR NOTES: This project demonstrates an emerging energy conserving

technology, results in producing a usable product, relates a familiar device to the study

of materials, requires knowledge of electrical properties, and allows many avenues for a

designed experiment with minimal time consumption. It also demonstrates that real life

is not as simple as it first appears, because there is a high probability of nonuniform

fields, arcing, hotspots, and broken or porous parts. In fact, working on troubleshooting

skills may be one of the main hidden objectives of this experiment.

An interesting addendum is to use the inserts on a lathe and measure wear rate

while cutting a material such as cast iron or 390 aluminum. This requires knowledge of

optimum feeds and speeds for the material to avoid biasing and may take far too much

time for a materials class. But it can provide continuity to a later course on processes.

In our manufacturing processes course, the students also make the tool holder for the

insert, so they have firsthand knowledge of the complete system.

Finding a source of small amounts of raw materials is one problem with this experiment. We were lucky to find a manufacturer that would sell us a small container of sized

and blended powder at cost. Another problem is avoiding reactions between the insert

and the atmosphere or the container, which is well documented and easily avoided.

Unfortunately this is compounded by the need to use an insulating container with a low

dielectric loss. Some graphite boats used in traditional sintering proved to be better

absorbers than our samples and therefore useless. A boat made from board insulation

also heated faster than the sample, so we started using a wool insulation. Casting

plaster also seems to work well for the outer structure.

The cost of an optical pyrometer for high temperatures, with a small focal point

and appropriate focal length, is about $2,000. A platinum thermocouple with molybdenum sheath is about $350, but it will read about 100 C too cold because of heat

transfer down the sheath. A ceramic sheath will tend to heat from microwave absorption and is even more unreliable. A controller specifically for microwave ovens can be

purchased for about $10,000, but trial and error for finding appropriate power settings

for each stage is acceptable. I am working on utilizing a standard furnace controller with

a platinum thermocouple and may find that to be the best way to provide acceptable

control of temperature.

REFERENCES:

1. Sutton, Willard H.: Microwave Processing of Ceramic Materials. Ceramic Bul.,

vol. 68, no. 2, 1989, pp. 376-386.

2. Orfeuil, Maurice: Electric Process Heating, Battelle Press, 1987, pp 519-584.

3. Richardson, David W., ed.: Ceramics Applications in Manufacturing, Society of

Manufacturing Engineers, 1988.

4. Snyder, W.B. Jr., Sutton, W.H., Iskander, M.F., and Johnson, D.L.: Microwave

Processing of Materials II, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings,

1991.

5. Beatty, R.L., Sutton, W.H., and Iskander, M.F., eds.: Microwave Processing of

Materials III, Materials Research Society Symposium Proc. Vol. 269, 1992.

365

KNOTTY KNOTS

Alan K. Karplus

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Western New England College

Springfield, Massachusetts 01119-2684

Telephone 413-782-1220

KNOTTY KNOTS

Alan K. Karplus

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Western New England College

Springfield, MA 01119-2684

KEYWORDS: String, Knots, Load reduction factor, Stress concentration

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should be familiar with different types of ropes,

strings, and threads and may be aware that these materials can be weakened by tying a knot in the line.

At the high school and college levels this concept may be found in physics programs, but is familiar to

the student studying mechanics of materials in terms of the stress concentration factor. A background

in the tying of different styles of knots may be helpful.

OBJECTIVES: Tension tests are performed to determine the effect of different discontinuities on the

behavior of a material. String is first tension tested and then different t}pes of knots are tied in the string

to determine the impact of the type of knot on the load capacity of the string.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

1. String samples of different types: Fish line, thread, suture thread, string to tie cake boxes. An effort

should be made to secure string that will carry a maximum of 9 Kg (20 pounds) so the loads will not

exceed this amount.

2. Model IN-50 Chatillon tubular scale to 25 Kg (50 lbs.) with two's' hooks and a 'homemade T' handle

attached to one of the 'S' hooks and the scale, and a slider on the barrel of the scale for maximum load

value indication.

3. Two load block holders for string ends (see Appendix Figures AI and A2 for details). Needed are

two standard size wooden spools 20 mm dia. by 30 mm long (3/4 in. dia. by 1 1/8 in. long), two

carriage bolts m5xl by 50 mm (1/4 20-UNC-2 by 2 in.) long each with one washer and one nut, two

150 mm (six inch) long pieces of 35 mm x 60 mm (1/2 in. by 2 1/4 in.) flex angle or equivalent with an

'S' hook attached to the moveable holder.

4. Meter (Yard)stick

5. Scissors for cutting string

6. Vise attached to workbench to hold one holder

7. Data Sheet (see below for the format)

8. Heavy gloves (the kind a welder uses)

9. Safety glasses (always use eye protection)

PROCEDURE: Tension tests are to be performed to determine the effect of different discontinuities

on the behavior of a material. The initial step is to select a type of string to be tested. First is the tension

test for a single strand of string. This is the baseline for all comparisons. In each condition four trials

are run: samples are to be made, loaded to failure and the failure loads for each trial recorded and the

average failure load tallied.

The subsequent conditions are to select a knot style to tie in the center of the string sample to be load

tested. Again, four samples with failure loads and an average failure are evaluated. The ratio of the

369
averageloadcarriedwith aknottedstringto theaverageloadcarriedby anunknottedstringis

calculated. Reductionin knottedstringloadcapacitychangesasa functionof knot type. Thetest

procedureshouldbeappliedto four differenttype knots to showtherangeof impactthetype of

knot presentsandthevariationsbetweenthe knot types.Thetestprocedureis presentedin detail

below.

Theitfitial stepis theselectionof avarietyof stringto test. Twenty samples,eachthreefeet,long,are

required.The first conditionis atensileevaluationfor a singlestrandof string. Thisis thebaselinefor

all comparisons.Four samplesareto bemade,loaded to failureandthe failureloadfor eachsample

recorded in thetableshownbelowin thesecondcolurrm,andthenthe averagefailureloadcomputed

andtallied for future use.

To testthe singlestrandsecurea 0.8 meter(30inch)lengthof string,tie aloop oneachend, fastenone

loop to eachthreadedextensionof thebindingpostof theload applicationapparatus(seeFigureA1),

andwind the stringoneandone-halftimesaroundthespool. The spoolwinds areneededto reducethe

stressconcentrationin thestringmountingarea.The stringundertestis loadedbypulling onthe spring

scalethat you readasthe loadis applied. If a maximumloadindicator slideris available,it will help

recordingthe maximumload. The experimentershouldweara pair of heavygloves,and in onehand

supportthe loadapplicationdeviceandwith the otherhand,applyload. Oneloadapplicatoris to be

firmly heldin thevise.Thehand-heldloadapplicationdeviceis to beheldlevelwith thevisemounted

load application device to assure valid results. BE SURE YOU or your partner CAN READ THE

SCALE just before the line breaks. (The load may be close to 9 Kilograms (20 pounds) - Please

be very careful, wear safety glasses and avoid injury to yourself or the scale.)

Table of String Failure Loads in Kilograms (Pounds)

Unknotted String

Trial

1

2

3

4

Total

Averase [

Load ratio:

Unknotted

Knot 1 2 3 4

Load Load Load Load Load

Knot style to

Just below this table is a good place to describe the knot type used for each number (a sketch can be

made to show how to make the knot, too). For example, single loop, figure of eight, figure of eight

plus an half-loop, stevedore's.

The second condition is to select a knot style such as suggested in the notes below the table shown

above, and tie the knot in the center of the string to be load tested. Again, four samples with failure

loads and an average failure load are to be evaluated. Please add the data to the table, and compute the

average load carried by the knotted samples and the ratio of the average load carried by a knotted

370
string to the average load carried by unknotted string. One hundred times this ratio represents the

percentage of load carded by the knotted string.

The third, fourth, and fifth conditions are the second condition repeated for three more knot types.

Ashley (1), Boy Scouts of America (2), and The Encyclopedia of Sailing (3) provide good sources

for different knots which serve the same purpose.

COMMENTS :

There are some interesting things to consider after performing the first experiment.

1. Some knots tend to cut into and destroy string, and this varies between string types.

2. A test with Number 6, Black non-capillary braided suture silk found an average load of 4.367

Kilograms (9.625 lbs.) in an unknotted string with reduction factors of 54.0%, 51.3%, 65.1%, and

65.1% for a single loop knot, figure-of-eight knot, figure-of-eight plus an extra half loop knot, and

stevedore's knot, respectively.

3. A different string will react differently, and a yellow covered plastic line 025-6-7013-66 available in

the Mechanical Laboratory took an average load of 7.656 Kilograms (]6.875 lbs.) in an unknotted

string with reduction factors of 54.1%, 62.2%, 49.0%, and 40.4% for a single loop knot, figure-of-eight

knot, figure-of-eight plus an extra halfloop knot, and stevedore's knot, respectively.

4. Instead of tying a knot in the center of a string, cut the string and tie selected knot to hold the ends

together.

5. Some lines when cut and the cut ends are tied as suggested in 4 above have new conditions to

consider. The surface finish on the string may be such that the tied knot slips and pulls out in contrast

to holding. A second single loop knot on each free cut end may provide enough resistance to minimize

knot(s) slipping/pulling out.

6. In the case of college students the connection between the load reduction factor and a stress

concentration factor (4) can be made. As an example consider that a given string carries 5 Kilograms

via a test and a knot is placed in the string which limits the load to 3 Kilograms. The load reduction

factor is 0.60 or 60% while the reciprocal of 0.60 is 1.67 and, this is often referred to as a stress

concentration factor. The meaning of the stress concentration factor is that when an engineer makes a

design calculation which involves a stress concentration factor, the actual material selected for a

member in a design must have the computed load increased by the factor. In this example, when a

calculated load of 10 Kilograms is made for the material, the selected material for the member must be

modified by 1.67 so 1.67 times 10 Kilograms or 16.7 Kilograms is the load the tensile member must

withstand (without the stress concentrator present).

7. Strings can be conditioned by changing humidity, temperature, soaking in water, alcohol, oil, etc.,

and cooking in a microwave to simulate artificial aging.

REFERENCES:

I. Ashley, C. W., The Ashley Book of Knots, Doubleday & Company, Garden City, NY, 1944

2. Boy Scouts of America, Knots and How To Tie Them, Boy Scouts Of America, Irving, TX, 1989

3. Encyclopedia of Sailing, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, NY, 1971

4. Hibbler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, MacMillan Publishing Co., New York, NY, 1991 pp. 151- 155

371
APPENDIX 1 - LOAD APPLICATION APPARATUS

_ T-handle attached

to scale via s-hook

Scale wit

maximum load \

slider indicator ---'

Carriage

bolt,

to hold

spool

String

String looped over end

of bolt + 1 1/2 turns on spool

Flex angle j

Figure A1 - Load block (2 needed).

 a s Iedi 

Chatillon

scale

Hand held

load holder

1 1/2 tums on spool

for string + loop

on bolt end

Vise held

load holder

Figure A2 - Load application set-up.

372
THREE-POINT BEND TESTING OF POLY

(METHYL METHACRYLATE) AND BALSA WOOD

Wayne L. Elban

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science

Loyola College

4501 North Charles Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21210

Telephone 410-617-2853

373

THREE-POINT BEND TESTING OF POLY(METHYL METHACRYLATE)

AND BALSA WOOD

Wayne L. Elban

Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science

Loyola College, Baltimore, Maryland 21210

ABSTRACT: A procedure for determining the Young's modulus for poly(methyl

methacrylate) and balsa wood in three-point bending is described. A linear variable

differential transformer (LVDT) is used to measure displacement as a function of a series

of discretely applied loads. Emphasis is given to experimental methodology that includes

a verification of the operation/calibration of the LVDT using gage blocks. In addition,

the displacement of the test apparatus itself is measured and removed from the total

displacement data, allowing just the response of the materials to be obtained. The

problem statement for balsa wood is posed to require that an experimental procedure be

devised both to determine the Young's modulus and to address a specific design

requirement for maximum center deflection of road bed planking in a laboratory bridge

truss.

KEY WORDS: three-point bend testing, LVDT, Young's modulus, poly(methyl

methacrylate), balsa wood.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: first-semester sophomore laboratory experiment

requiring training in the use of a digital multimeter and the assessment of measurement

uncertainty; flexural testing concepts, including the obtainment of Young's modulus, as

described in an introductory materials science or mechanics of materials course.

OBJECTIVES:

(a) Experimental Goals:

.

*

to measure the deflection of a flat plate of poly(methyl methacrylate), or

PMMA, in three-point bending in order to determine its Young's modulus

and

to design and implement an experimental procedure to determine the

Young's modulus for a balsa wood beam in three-point bending and to

assess the maximum center deflection allowance specified for the

construction of a laboratory bridge.

C-S.

375
(b) Learning Goals:

.

.

*

.

to become familiar with the use of a linear variable differential transformer

(LVDT), a widely used transducer for making linear displacement

measurements;

to become familiar with performing a laboratory calibration procedure

using National Institute of Standards and Technology (or equivalent)

traceable standards in characterizing the operation and accuracy of a

transducer provided with a factory calibration;

to become familiar with an experimental procedure for determining the

Young's modulus of a material tested in three-point bending by accounting

for any displacement in the test apparatus itself; and

to become familiar with designing and then implementing a measurement

procedure to obtain desired experimentally-determined material parameters.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: (1) LVDT (direct current (DC)-operated and springloaded) -- Lucas Schaevitz GCD-121-125 with mounting fixture; (2) Lab jack with

stabilizing weights; (3) Gage blocks: Jansson 0.020" and Mitutoya 0.050", 0.1001", and

0.200"; (4) Protoboard (Global Specialties Model 203A), supplying +15 V DC or

alternative power supply with the same DC voltage capability; (5) Digital multimeter

(Fluke model 45); (6) Three-point bend test apparatus (American Instrument Co. cat. no.

4-3900); (7) Set of 8 brass masses (Central Scientific Co. cat no. 09600); (8) Steel beam

(16 mm wide X 10 mm thick X 115 mm long); (9) PMMA plate (36.9 mm wide X 2.17

mm thick X 94.9 mm long); (10) Balsa wood beam (19.0 mm wide X 6.27 mm thick X

254 mm long); (11) Metric micrometer; and (12) Metric vernier caliper.

PROCEDURE:

Introduction

The modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus, is a fundamental material

parameter defined using Hooke's law. For pure elastic deformation, stress, a, is related

to strain, e, by a = Ee, where E is Young's modulus. This modulus provides a measure

of material stiffness and is widely used in machine and structure design analyses. For

example, often structures have a requirement of undergoing no more than a specified

deflection for a given applied load. Computations yielding the necessary size of

structural members to achieve the specification can be performed knowing Young's

modulus for the material employed.

376
An LVDT [1,2] is a widely used electromechanical transducer that converts linear

displacement, sensed by the movement of the device's core (Figure 4-54, Holman [3]),

into a DC signal that can be detected, for example, by a digital multimeter (DMM) set to

measure DC voltages.

This work consists of performing two displacement experiments involving the use

of an LVDT. The first experiment investigates the response of a flat plate of PMMA to

loading in a three-point bend test apparatus allowing determination of Young's modulus.

The second experiment involves designing a measurement procedure in order to

characterize the load-deformation behavior of a balsa wood beam proposed to be used in

a laboratory bridge design.

Prior to performing the first displacement experiment, the LVDT that is employed

must he calibrated using a series of gage blocks [4] to determine if the device is operating

as expected. HOWEVER, THE PERFORMANCE DATA PROVIDED BY THE

MANUFACTURER WAS OBTAINED UNDER MORE CONTROLLED

LABORATORY CONDITIONS AND SHOULD BE USED IN THE ANALYSIS OF

DATA MEASURED FOR THE TWO DISPLACEMENT EXPERIMENTS.

A schematic of the three-point bend test apparatus is given in Figure 1.

Originally, the test apparatus incorporated a dial indicator to measure sample deflection.

This is now accomplished using an LVDT. However, the dial indicator still is an

integral part of the apparatus, providing vertical positioning and alignment of the loading

nose (Figure 1, Reference [5]). Once a sample has been positioned in the apparatus,

various applied masses are placed on a circular load platform so as to leave enough room

for the LVDT to contact the platform near its circumference.

A. DEFLECTION OF A FLAT PLATE OF PMMA (Instructor Note 1)

,

Using the 0.020, 0.050, 0.1001, and 0.200" gage blocks, perform a calibration of

the LVDT to be used with the three-point bend test apparatus (Instructor Note 2).

To gain an additional gage block length, combine the 0.020 and 0.050" gage

blocks by rubbing them together until they stick. Likewise, combine the 0.020

and 0.1001" gage blocks; then the 0.050 and 0.1001" gage blocks; and finally the

0.020, 0.050, and 0.1001" gage blocks. Before beginning the calibration

procedure, adjust the height of the LVDT against a smooth rigid surface (e.g.,

steel beam placed on laboratory bench top) until the DMM reads 0.0 __+ 0.2 V

DC.

377
To Digital

Multimeter

(DC Volts)

{ __ _ _} T°+-15V Power SupplyDC

LVDT

Load J

Platform Screw

Dial

Indicator

Sample

Base Platform /

Figure 1. Schematic of Three - Point Bend Test Apparatus Instrumented with LVDT

378
.

Determine the displacement of the apparatus by testing the steel beam, having a

3 in. span support [5] length (Instructor Note 3). With the LVDT contacting the

load platform of the three-point bend test apparatus, adjust the initial height of the

LVDT until the DMM reads between +8 and +9 V DC. Load the beam with

masses of 50, 100, 150, 250, 350, and 550 g. Record the output voltage for each

loading.

.

Determine the deflection of the PMMA plate for a span support length of 3 in.

Adjust the LVDT to yield a DMM reading between +8 and +9 V DC. Load

with the same masses used previously, except for 550 g (Instructor Note 4).

Record the output voltage for each loading. Repeat the process.

o Measure [4] the thickness of the PMMA plate with a micrometer and its width

with a vernier caliper. The span support length can be read directly off of the

three-point bend test apparatus.

Data Analysis

°

Adjust the gage block data so that zero displacement equals zero volts. Plot

LVDT output voltage, V, versus gage block thickness, in, for all of the gage

blocks used. Perform a computer least-squares fit analysis on the data that is

appropriate (Instructor Note 5) to determine the slope.

o

Adjust the steel loading data so that zero displacement equals zero volts. The

value generated for each mass should be tabulated for possible use in correcting

(Instructor Note 6) the deflection data of the materials (PMMA and balsa wood

(Part B)) being tested.

.

Ignore the first set of PMMA loading data because of complications caused by a

sample seating problem. Adjust the second set of PMMA loading data so that

zero displacement equals zero volts. This data possibly has two components. The

major portion is the actual PMMA deflection. There may be a minor contribution

to the measured deflection data coming from the displacement of the apparatus

itself. This can be evaluated quantitatively from the steel loading data since the

steel bar that was used is a rigid body (i.e., undergoes no deflection) to a very

good approximation for the masses used to load it. The apparatus displacement

needs to be removed from the total deflection data for each mass to yield only the

material response. This is accomplished using the relation

379
Vs ___Vm _ Va , (1)

.

where V s is sample deflection voltage;

V m is measured deflection voltage; and

V a is apparatus displacement voltage.

Plot applied force, N, versus deflection, mm, of the PMMA during

loading. Although this graph will probably exhibit some scatter, perform a

computer least-squares fit analysis on the plotted values to determine the

slope.

Compute E, GPa, for PMMA using the relation [6]:

E = L3m, (2)

4bd 3

where L is span support length;

m is slope of the force-deflection plot;

b is beam width; and

d is beam thickness.

Uncertainty Analysis

Compare the current experimental calibration data generated for the LVDT using

gage blocks with that supplied by the manufacturer.

B. DEFLECTION OF A BALSA WOOD BEAM

As part of an engineering assignment, it is of interest to design a bridge truss with

road bed planking of balsa wood beams. First, it is necessary to determine

experimentally the Young's modulus for balsa wood so that subsequent design analysis

can be undertaken. Second, one of the design specifications requires that a center

deflection of no more than 0.38 mm occurs when the bed planking experiences a load of

5.4 N applied at the center. The plank span support length is specified to be 8 in.

After examining a sample of the balsa wood planking, follow the guidelines that

are detailed in Table 2-7 of Holman [7] and implement a test procedure that will obtain

the requested material parameters. INCLUDE IN THE LAB WRITE-UP AN

380
EVALUATION AS TO WHETHER THE BALSA BEAM PLANKING THAT WAS

TESTED WILL MEET THE DEFLECTION SPECIFICATION.

As part of the uncertainty analysis, determine the uncertainty in an LVDT

displacement measurement on the balsa wood beam resulting when loaded with 5.4 N

(Instructor Note 7). BE SURE TO FACTOR THIS CALCULATION INTO THE

EVALUATION OF THE BEAM'S ABILITY TO SATISFY THE DESIGN

SPECIFICATION.

SAMPLE DATA SHEETS AND PLOTS: All of the experimental steps were performed

several times to verify that the results were reasonably reproducible. The data sets

appearing in this section are considered to be representative.

LVDT Operation/Calibration Verification" The measured voltages obtained from the

DMM as the LVDT was exercised using gage blocks with thicknesses ranging from 0.020

to 0.200 in.appear in Table I. The zero-adjusted output voltages are also listed and

appear in a plot (Figure 2) versus gage block thickness. The least-squares fit analysis

yielded a slope of 83.8 + 0.2 V/in, comparing favorably with the scale factor = 83.513

V/in provided by the manufacturer.

Test Apparatus Displacement: Appearing in Table II are the measured and zero-adjusted

output voltages obtained as the LVDT monitored the displacement of the three-point bend

test apparatus as it was used to load a rigid steel beam for applied masses ranging from 0

to 550 g (Instructor Note 8).

PMMA Plate Deflection: The measured and zero-adjusted LVDT output voltages

corresponding to the combined PMMA plate and test apparatus displacements are given in

Table III. The zero-adjusted voltages are corrected (Table IV) to account for the

apparatus displacement yielding voltages corresponding to" the deflection of the PMMA

sample alone. The applied masses are then converted to applied forces, N, using g =

9.81 m/s 2, while the corrected sample deflection voltages are converted (dropping the

minus signs) to deflections, mm, using the manufacturer's scale factor = 83.513 V/in.

The variation of applied force versus deflection is given in Figure 3. A least-squares fit

analysis yielded a slope of 13.0 __+0.6 N/mm (E = 3.81 + 0.18 GPa), which compares

favorably with a value of 12 N/mm corresponding to E = 3.4 GPa listed by Ashby and

Jones [8].

381
Table I. Measured and Zero-Adjusted LVDT Output Voltages for Various Gage Block

Thicknesses

Gage Block

Thickness, in

Measured

Voltage, V

Zero-Adjusted

Voltage, V

0.000 (No Block) -0.02 0.00

0.020 + 1.67 1.69

0.050 +4.24 4.26

0.070 +5.90 5.92

0.1001 +8.42 8.44

0.1201 + 10.08 10.10

0.1501 + 12.55/6 12.57/8

0.1701 + 13.73 13.75

0.200 + 13.73 13.75

Table II. Measured and Zero-Adjusted LVDT Output Voltages Assessing

Three-Point Bend Test Apparatus Displacement

Applied Measured Zero-Adjusted

Mass, g Voltage, V Voltage, V

0 +8.58 0.00

50 +8.59 +0.01

100 +8.60 +0.02

150 +8.62 +0.04

250 +8.62/3 +0.04/5

350 +8.68 +0.10

550 +8.72 +0.14

0 (Unloading) + 8.58/9 +0.00/1

382
15

O

>

o_

o

>

,¢,,,a

©

z

<

6

t'q

10

Slope = 83.8 V/in

0

o.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

Gage Block Thickness, in

Figure 2. Zero-adjusted output voltage versus gage block thickness

providing verification on LVDT operation/calibration.

383
Table III. Measured and Zero-Adjusted LVDT Output Voltages Assessing Total

Displacement for PMMA Plate Loaded in Three-Point Bend Test Apparatus

Applied Measured Zero-Adj usted

Mass, g Voltage, V Voltage, V

0 +8.54 0.00

50 +8.45 -0.09

100 + 8.36/7 -0.18/7

150 +8.19 -0,35

250 +8.03/1 -0.51/3

350 +7.78 -0.76

0 (Unloading) + 8.53/4 -0.01/0.00

Table IV. Zero-Adjusted LVDT Output Voltages Assessing Total Displacement in

Three-Point Bend Testing of PMMA Corrected to Account for Apparatus Displacement

Applied Zero-Adjusted

Mass, g Voltage, V

Apparatus

Displacement Voltage, V

Corrected Sample

Deflection Voltage*, V

0 0.00 0.00 0.00

50 -0.09 +0.01 -0.10

100 -0.18/7 +0.02 -0.20/19

150 -0.35 +0.04 -0.39

250 -0.53/1 +0.04/5 -0.58/5

350 -0.76 +0.10 -0.86

*Corrected Sample Deflection Voltage = Zero-Adjusted Voltage - Apparatus

Displacement Voltage

384
Z

o

o

°_,,_

<

4

3

Slope = 13.0 N/mm

0

o.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Deflection, mm

0.4 0.5

Figure 3. Elastic response of PMMA plate in three-point bend tester.

385
Balsa Wood Beam Deflection: Tables V and VI contain the various voltages for balsa

wood beam testing that are analogous to those appearing in Tables III and IV,

respectively, for PMMA plate testing. Figure 4 shows the variation of applied force

versus deflection of the balsa wood beam. A slope of 12.9 +__0.4 N/mm (E = 5.78 +__

0.18 GPa) was obtained by least-squares fit analysis to be compared with a value of 8.9J

+__ 1.8 N/mm corresponding to E = 4.0 GPa +__20% (parallel to wood grain) given by

Ashby and Jones [9]. While the agreement is not as good as that obtained for PMMA,

the current balsa wood determination is still reasonable given the large variability [9] in

the properties of wood. The measured center deflection is 0.405 mm, slightly exceeding

the stated design specification requirement even when measurement uncertainty is

considered (Instructor Note 7).

INSTRUCTOR NOTES:

1. This particular PMMA sample was chosen because it was readily available without

incurring additional machining cost. True beam dimensions are preferable rather than the

plate-like geometry used. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) [5]

specifies a 10 mm (versus 19.0 mm in this work) wide sample when the thickness is less

than 3 ram. Additionally, the sample overhang must be greater than or equal to 10% of

the span length for each end.

2. The LVDT calibration provided by the manufacturer involves displacements reported

in inches. To connect with this calibration, the first part of the experiment uses gage

blocks with thicknesses given in inches. Posing the experiment with mixed units is

beneficial, however, because it allows students to gain facility with units conversion.

3. A 3 in. span support length for the steel beam was chosen to relate to the subsequent

PMMA plate testing. However, this length is also valid for the balsa wood beam testing

because the steel beam is rigid.

4. On unloading the PMMA sample that had been loaded to 550 g, the LVDT output

voltage did not return essentially to the initial value. This suggests that the elastic limit

of the PMMA plate may have been exceeded, necessitating that deflection data be

obtained with the smaller applied masses. It is also possible that loading the sample to

550 g caused the sample to shift on unloading, making the LVDT reading unreliable.

5. The last two gage block thicknesses cause the linear range of the LVDT to be

exceeded. This is readily seen in Figure 2 which the student must obtain before properly

386
Table V. Measured and Zero-Adjusted LVDT Output Voltages Assessing Total

Displacement of Balsa Wood Beam Loaded in Three-Point Bend Test Apparatus

Applied Measured Zero-Adj usted

Mass, g Voltage, V Voltage, V

0 +8.70 0.00

50 +8.60 -0.10

100 + 8.55/6 -0.15/4

150 +8.41/2 -0.29/8

250 +8.13/4 -0.57/6

350 +7.94 -0.76

550 +7.51 -1.19

0 (Unloading) + 8.73/4 +0.03/4

Table VI. Zero-Adjusted LVDT Output Voltages Assessing Total Displacement in

Three-Point Bend Testing of Balsa Wood Corrected to Account for Apparatus

Displacement

Applied Zero-Adjusted

Mass, g Voltage, V

Apparatus

Displacement Voltage, V

Corrected Sample

Deflection Voltage*, V

0 0.00 0.00 0.00

50 -0.10 +0.01 -0.11

100 -0.15/4 +0.02 -0.17/6

150 -0.29/8 +0.04 -0.33/2

250 -0.57/6 + 0.04/5 -0.62/0

350 -0.76 +0.10 -0.86

550 -1.19 +0.14 -1.33

*Corrected Sample Deflection Voltage = Zero-Adjusted Voltage - Apparatus

Displacement Voltage

387
Z

o"

O

op,,_

<

6

4

3

Slope = 12.9 N/mm

Deflection, mm

Figure 4. Elastic response of balsa wood beam in three-point bend tester.

388
performing the least-squares fit analysis, having discarded those data which are outside

the linear range.

6. Tegart [10] provides an excellent treatment of the characteristics of materials testing

machines. A sample pulled in tension is considered assuming linear elastic behavior for

both sample and machine. The basic principles developed have application for materials

tested in other stress states, such as compressive or flexural.

7. The calculation of the uncertainty in an LVDT displacement measurement depends on

the uncertainty specified by the DMM manufacturer for the DC voltage scale used. The

Fluke model 45 has a stated uncertainty of __+(0. 025 % (reading) + 2 least count digits).

From the least-squares fit analysis, a force of 5.4 N causes a deflection of 0.409 mm,

corresponding to a reading of 1.35 V with an uncertainty of +0.02 V. This translates

into a displacement uncertainty of +0.006 ram.

8. Referring to Table II, the zero-adjusted voltages are positive indicating that the LVDT

core is experiencing an upward displacement. This initially surprising result occurs

because the load platform (Figure 1) is mounted to the vertical post by a butt joint with a

top fastening screw. When the screw is slightly loose, the load platform pivots on the

vertical post causing the LVDT to sense a small upward displacement as the masses are

applied. At the same time, the side of the platform supporting the masses is undergoing

a downward displacement. As an aside, an assignment could be given to redesign the

load platform, seeking to correct the off-axis positioning of the applied masses and

improve on the butt-joint mount.

REFERENCES:

[1]

"Linear and Angular Displacement Transducers," Catalog #101, Lucas Schaevitz,

7905 N. Route 130, Pennsauken, NJ 08110.

[2]

Herceg, E.E.: Handbook of Measurement and Control, Revised Edition,

Handbook HB-84. Schaevitz Engineering (now Lucas Schaevitz), 7905 N. Route

130, Pennsauken, NJ 08110, 1976.

[31

Holman, J.p.. Experimental Methods for Engineers, Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill

Book Company, 1989, p. 159.

389
[4]

[51

[61

[7]

[8]

"The Tools and Rules for Precision Measuring," Bulletin No. 1211, Issue 5, The

L.S. Starrett Co., 121 Crescent Street, Athol, MA 01331, 1989.

"Standard Test Methods for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced

Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials (Metric)," Designation D 790M-86,,

1989 Annual Book of ASTM Standards., Volume 08.01 Plastics (I). ASTM, pp.

290-298.

Turner, S..MechanicalTesting of Plastics, Second Edition. Longmanlnc., 1983,

pp. 32-34.

Holman, J.P.: _, P. 31.

Ashby, M.F.;and Jones, D.R.H.: Engineering Materials 1. Pergamon Press,

1980, p. 31.

[9] Ashby, M.F.; and Jones, D.R.H.: Engineering Materials 2. Pergamon Press,

1986, p. 255.

[10] Tegart, W.J.M." Elements of Mechanical Metallurgy. The Macmillan Co., 1966,

pp. 25-29.

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES: The LVDT is available from Lucas Schaevitz, 7905 N.

Route 130, Pennsauken, NJ 08110 for $545.00 (1993 price). The three-point bend test

apparatus was originally manufactured by the American Instrument Co. which is no

longer in business. It is not known whether this particular apparatus is still being made

by another company. However, an apparatus could be machined and use a dial indicator

(model 262J) purchased for $99.50 (1993 price) from B.C. Ames Co., 131 Lexington

Street, P.O. Box 70, Waltham, MA 02254. The type of back on the indicator must be

specified depending on the apparatus design. Alternatively, the dial indicator could be

replaced with a newly-designed and machined fixture for the load platform/loading nose

assembly.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The help of D.S. Richards, Dept. of Electrical Engineering

and Engineering Science, Loyola College, in using computer graphics to obtain Figures 1

to 4 is gratefully recognized.

390
N94-36412

DIELECTRIC MEASUREMENTS OF SELECTED

CERAMICS AT MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES

J. N. Dahiya

and

C. K. Templeton

Physics Department

Southeast Missouri State University

One University Plaza

Mail Stop 6600

Cape Girardeau, Missouri 63701

Telephone 314-651-2390

391

Dielectric Measurements of Selected Ceramics

at Microwave Frequencies

J. N. Dahiya and C. K. Templeton

Physics Department

Southeast Missouri State University

KEY WORDS

Dielectric relaxation, ceramics, phase change, perturbation, frequency shift, Qchange.

OBJECTIVES

1. To understand the basic concepts of dielectric relaxation.

2. To study the process of dielectric measurement of strontium titanate and lead

titanate zirconate ceramics at microwave frequencies.

SUMMARY

Dielectric measurements of strontium titanate and lead titanate zirconate

ceramics are conducted at microwave frequencies using a cylindrical resonant cavity

in the TE0u mode. The perturbations of the electric field are recorded in terms of

the frequency shift and Q-changes of the cavity signal. Slater's perturbation

equations are used to calculate e' and e" of the dielectric constant as a function of

temperature and frequency.

INTRODUCTION

A microwave resonant cavity has become a standard technique to study

dielectric relaxation in a compound of interest. It is a definite improvement over the

waveguide techniques in which the sample under investigation was placed in a hole

in the waveguide itself to study dielectric behavior. In a resonant cavity the

perturbations of the electric and magnetic fields are well defined depending on the

structure of the cavity.

For this experiment a cylindrical resonant cavity in the TE0u mode was

designed to study the dielectric behavior of strontium titanate ceramic at microwave

frequency of 9.7 GHz at different temperatures. The dielectric behavior of lead

PR_.,_4_ P-A:3E _Ar_K t'_.)T FtLME'D 393
titanate zirconate was studied asa function of frequency from 8.8to 9.7 GHz. The

strongperturbations of the electric field were recorded in terms of the frequency

shifts and Q-changesat different temperatures. Using Slater'sperturbation equations

(Ref. 4), the real and imaginary parts of the complexpermittivity were calculated at

different temperatures. The relaxation times for thesecompoundswere calculated

usingDebye's theory for polar molecules. Dielectric behavior of a mixture of barium

and strontium titanates and lead titanate zirconate hasbeen studied at different

frequencies (Ref. 1-3). The resonantcavity technique hasbeen very successfully

used to study dielectric relaxation in a number of compoundsof interest (Ref. 4-7).

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE, THEORY AND RESULTS

The details of the microwave spectrometerused in this investigation operating

in the x-band of frequencieswere given in a number of papers(Ref. 4 and 7). The

block diagram of sucha spectrometeris shownin Figure 1. The signalwasproduced

by a tunable klystron and transmitted through the waveguidesto the resonantcavity

where the material under investigationwasplaced into the cavity. The modulated

signalas displayed on the oscilloscopewasof the form of a butterfly. A part of the

signal from the directional coupler was mixed with a standard frequencytaken from

an oscillator. A radio receiver was used to detect the change in the frequency of

these signals in the form of two markers also displayed on the oscilloscope. These

markers were used to find the positions of frequency shifts and Q-changes as the

sample under investigation goes through a dielectric change. A true copy of the

signal as taken from the oscilloscope is shown in Figure 2.

When a dipole is placed in an electric field E, it experiences a torque given by

=pxE (z)

where p is the dipole moment vector. The dipole rotates in the electric field and

stores potential energy given by

o = -p. E (2)

394
At lower frequencies, the dipole can follow the orientations of the applied field

without any phase difference. At higher frequencies, there is a phase lag between

the orientation of the field and the dipole and the dielectric constant becomes a

function of frequency. As a matter of fact, the dielectric constant becomes a

complex quantity

e* = e: _ je. (3)

With e' and e" being the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant and e"

being necessarily the loss term for the dielectric constant. The value of the dielectric

constant basically depends upon the number of dipoles that can follow the

orientations of the applied field. At higher frequencies the number of dipoles

following the orientations of the field goes down and hence a lower value for the

dielectric constant. The ratio of e' and e" is expressed as a loss tangent as given by

tan 8 - e//

_: (4)

e' and e" are further related to the frequency shifts and Q-changes as expressed in

the Slater's perturbation equations (Ref. 4).

at_ f E, . t dv

2 f E.E, dv

(5)

and

f E-E',,dV (')

where E is the field of the unperturbed cavity, E, is the microwave field as applied to

the cavity and Es is the field of the sample itself, v and V are the volumes of the

sample and cavity respectively.

The perturbations of the sample under investigation were studied by

experimentally recording the frequency shifts and the width changes of the

395
microwave resonant signal by placing a fixed length of the sample into the resonant

cavity. The width change of the signal is directly related to the Q-change of the

cavity. These changes in width and frequency of the signal were recorded at

different temperatures as the substance under investigation goes through a phase

change. The frequency of the signal was kept constant for one set of data taken

from one temperature to the other for strontium titanate. Dielectric relaxation in

lead titanate zirconate was studied as a function of frequency. Dry nitrogen gas at

the liquid nitrogen temperature from a heat exchanger was allowed to circulate

around the cavity containing the sample under investigation. A thermal equilibrium

was maintained by controlling the amount of cold air circulating around the resonant

cavity and this method is very useful in maintaining a certain temperature while the

material under investigation goes through a phase change.

Figures 3 and 4 show the dielectric behavior of strontium titanate as a

function of temperature at a microwave frequency of 9.7 GHz. Figure 3 shows the

behavior of Q-change as a function of temperature. From Slater's equations, Qchange corresponds to the dissipation term (e") in the dielectric constant. This curve

shows a peak around 20°C and after that there is a sharp drop in the dissipation

factor. The frequency shift vs temperature behavior as displayed in Figure 4 shows a

dramatic change in the real part of the dielectric constant around -57°C. The

strontium titanate ceramic undergoes a phase change at this temperature and

polarization of the material follows the orientation of the field. The relaxation times

using Debye's theory are of the order of 10 12- 10 14 sec.

The dielectric behavior of lead titanate zirconate as a function of frequency is

displayed in Figures 5 and 6 with Figure 5 showing the Q-change vs applied

frequency and Figure 6 shows the behavior of Af/fo at different frequencies. The

dissipation factor (e") as displayed in Figure 5 shows an increase as the frequency

increases up to around 9.6 GHz and after that has a decreasing trend. The real

part of the dielectric constant decreases as the frequency increases and then levels

off around 9.6 GHz. This behavior is shown in Figure 6. The dielectric behavior of

strontium titanate and lead titanate zirconate ceramics has been studied very

396
successfully by using the microwave resonant cavity as a probe. This method will

also be applied to study the mass dependence of these materials at different

microwave frequencies and the free energy of activation calculated at these

frequencies.

REFERENCES

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Iwayanagi, Hideo: Measurement of Permittivity of Mixed Barium and Strontium

Titanate in 3,000 Mc/s Region. J. Phys. Soc. of Japan, 8__(_, 1953, p. 525.

Davis, Luther JR., and Rubin Lawrence G.: Some Dielectric Properties of

Barium-Strontium Titanate Ceramics at 3000 Megacycle. J. Appl. Phys., 24___4(_,

1953, p. 1194.2.

Gerson, Robert: Dielectric Properties of Lead Titanate Zirconate Ceramics at

Very Low Frequencies. J. Appl. Phys., 31_L(.9.),1960, p. 1615.

Dahiya, J. N., Jani, S. K. and Roberts, J.A.: Phase Transition Studies in Polar

and Non-Polar Liquids at Microwave Frequencies. J. Chem. Phys. 74__4(.fi),1981

p. 3609.

Dahiya, J. N., and Freeman, R. W.: Computer Interfacing of a Microwave

Resonant Cavity for Temperature Measurements During Dielectric Relaxation.

Computers in Physics, Jul/Aug. 1989, p. 49.

Dahiya, J. N.: Dielectric Behavior of Superconductors at Microwave

Frequencies. NIST Special Publication 82__.._22, 1990, p. 145.

Dahiya, J. N.: Dielectric Properties of Germanium and Silicon as Determined

in the Microwave Field. J. Mater Educ., 13, 1991, p. 367.

397
I POWER 1

SUPPLY

'H' DIRECTIONAL NAVEMETER HRESONANT"-"

F1 COMPUTER

KLYSTRON AI"rENTUATO COUPLER CAVITY

I INTERFACE I i

IOSCILLATOR _---

I EXTERNAL

MODULATION

L l

CRYSTAL MIXER H FREQUENCY COUNTER I]

I

FM I

MODULATED

SIGNAL

:GENERATOR l

J J OSCILLOSCOPE

1

DETECTOR

I

PRE- }

AMPURER

1. Block diagram of the microwave spectrometer used in this investigation.

PRINTER

FREQUENCY

MARKERS

Dual trace oscilloscope display for frequency markers and cavity derivative

profile for a typical scan. (The marker interval is always twice the radio receiver

reading and in this scan the spacing is 8 MHz, with center frequency at 9.7

GHz.)

398
- 16I

12

°_

0

_ 4

< 2-

0

-160

• •

i i i

I I I I

-110 -60 -10 40

Temperature(°C)

3. Microwave loss A(1/Q) as a function of temperature for a sample of strontium

titanate.

I

90

:5 12

= 8

_ 6

° 4

< 2

0

-160

• mmm

mm m

mmm n

nmnmm•

I l

-110 -60

I I !

-10 40 90

Temperature(oC)

4. Frequency. shift &fifo as a function of temperature for a sample of strontium

titanate.

399
0

8.6 8.8 9 9.2 9,4

Frequency(GHz)

m mrmm

5. Microwave loss A(I/Q) as a function of frequency, for a sample of lead titanate

zirconate.

12-

10-

t-"

_-. 8"

*- 6

_ 4

m

0

8.6

• •

• •

I I I I I

8.8 9 9.2 9.4 9.6

Frequency(GHz)

• • mmm

I

9.8

6. Frequency shift tLf/fo as a function of frequency for a sample of lead titanate

zirconate.

4OO
UNIVERSITY OUTREACH FOCUSED DISCUSSION:

WHAT DO EDUCATORS WANT FROM

ASM INTERNATIONAL

Thomas Passek

Assistant Director Chapter Relations

ASM International

Materials Park, Ohio 44073

Telephone 216-338-5151
Brainstorming

|

ORIGINAL p,e,_l_

f.I'_CK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAFh/

402
17 November 1993

Dear National Educators Workshop '93 Attendees:

Subject: Summary of information gathered during our Focused Discussion on

"How ASM could better serve educators?"

At the end of the day on Thursday I conducted a focused discussion on "How ASM International

could better serve the Educational Community." I was asked at the end of this session if I would

share with the participants the results of this discussion, and so I am.

With only 30 minutes to discuss several issues the group provided me with 10 flip-chart pages of

ideas and comments which can be seen on the attachment. No editing was done to the comments

so the power of the scribe prevails. If there is anything on here that your group provided that you

feel needs further clarification, please call me at 1-800-336-5152. This information is being

entered into our "Voice of Member Database" which will be used by ASM to be more responsive

to our member's needs. If you have any additional suggestions, comments or complaints please

use the enclosed form to let us know how we could improve our service to you.

ASM has a wealth of information to share with you and your students. Please let us know how

we could make it more useful, convenient and customized for your needs.

Sincerely,

ASM International ®

Thomas S. Passek

Assistant Director,

Chapter Relations & Development

xe: Edward L. Langer, Managing Director

Melinda Carter, Student Chapter Relations

Enclosure

4O3
NATIONAL EDUCATORS WORKSHOP FOCUS GROUP

Background information:

* 4 November 1993, Norfolk ,VA.

* Group size (40-50)

* Make-up ( primarily educators from universities/colleges and

technical schools)

* Meeting format (30 minutes in duration)

( broke them up into 4 groups)

( each group had their own scribe)

- NO editing of comments

* Conducted by Thorn Passok

Question" What does ASM provide that is of value to educators and how could it be improved?

* Mat. DB - make it less expensive

Mac version

* Education Yearbook - good

* Metals Handbook- is a classic

* Coupons/discounts are good

- overall pricing for education could be improved and better publicized

* Joint TMS/ASM membership - good

* Home study courses - good

Question" What should ASM be providing for educators that it is not?

* Demonstration materials - at no charge

* Videotapes - reasonable cost to college/Univ./CC/TI

lower price on tapes

* More information on "Careers in field of materials"

*ANSI-ISO-ASTM : Cross reference; cost too high

*Materials Dictionary

*Student access to DB - via videotapes at the chapter level.

* resource sharing among technical societies

* Recognition of students accomplishments in publications. - TEAM AWARDS

* Local combined meetings between societies (joint, local, regional)

* Regional student conferences

* Charge less money for student stuff

* An inexpensive journal for ONLY student papers

* Description of Mat'ls experiments

* Database of Materials prices

* Provide some FREE workshops

* Get programs sponsored by companies (or agencies)

* Answer to "How to GET information on the kits for K- 12 & up -

called and NO follow-up

4O4
Question : I have heard a lot of interest in ASM providing video for use by educators. What type of

videos would you like to see - what processes, how long, what type of pricing, support materials?

In what form should they be offered ?

* Tutorial videos

* Video plant tours (40-50 minutes)

* Processing with close-ups ( 20-25 minutes)

* Basic principles

*Testing ( with -in industrial setting, and/or not )

* Maximum price - $ 35

* Instructor guides to accompany

* Length 5-10 minute segments with stopping points for discussion. ACTION ORIENTED (from

industry)

* 3 dimensional models

frenel lenses type pictures

??? Notebook of crystals 2D to 3D ??? ( I'm not sure this was video related vs. a visual

tool)

* Demonstrations - experiments

* Library - nominal fees

* Provide text

Question : What 3 changes would you like to see made at ASM ?

* More responsive to requests

* More affordable

* Articulate mission - (Re-examine)

- relation to other societies

* More hands-on demo kits at ALL levels

* Reduce mailings, i.e., redundancy, junk mailing

* Outreach to elementary

- Interactive video programs

- Public Relations

* Clean, low cost videotapes for recruitment to materials sciences

- non-imposing

- show relationships to industry

4O5
Ab'N 

The Mal_rtais

Inforl_tJon $ocieW

ASM STUDENT OUTREACH PROGRAM (SOP)

SOP FACTS:

$inco 1952, ASM Foundation for Education and Research and ASM Chapters have initiated and maintained

outreach activities. ASM's Student Outreach Program mission is to encourage the development of capable

weU-educamd materials specialists. Today, the program plans to addrms the d_rmL_g interts_ and literacy

among pre-college stmients in science and mathematics. The aim is also to improve stmiemacademic

prepL, mion. Programming has been developed to meet tho e._h_e_ges in th.r_ levels : k-12th grade,

undergraduam and graduate. Curnmfly, tim Smde_ Outreach Program provides care_ awareness

products/services, resources, scho_p, awards competitions, school partnership assistance and classroom

vimtation support.

ASM SOP serves as a resourt¢ to groups and individuals interestedin

I. Supporting and improving science and math _iucation

2. Increasing career awanmess opportumties (engineering and materials science)

3. Improving academic preparations for smd_ts to enter the work world (from K-12th grade through college

levels)

CURRENT FOCUS

To addmds decreasing imeres_ and literacy

;cience and mat& among pre_oUege xtudentx

WHAT ASM OFFERS MEMBERS AND EDUCATION ADVOCATES...

Pilrmershio Suaaort

*Strucnu'e

°Training

.Tools

oFacilimfion

Prommm Devdoom_mt Suovort

*Scholarships

• Student and young member nights

• plant tours

• Carter talks

• Technical programs (clinics/science workshops)

oInmrnafionalStudent Exchange

NOTE: Local chapters have initiated and

maintained these and other programs and will

share their information

• LEADS list (List of Educat/onaI Aids and Direct

Sources)

• Career brochun_, kits,videos and _xpedmeats

• Partnership Guide

• Partnership training materials

Communication Networks

•ASM News (article space)

• Chapter Network News (announcemenm)

•Mailiag Lists (p_p coordinating

organizations,peer societies, schools)

oContacts for national education movemeam,

curriculum development, forming patmerships

•ReferralMcontacts for targeted programs (merit

badge clinics, scienc.z faixjudging, technical

fairs)

Nat/onal Committee Involvement

• Scholarship award administration

•Student Chapter award admires" tration

•New program research and development to

better servestudents

STUDENT OI71"REACH PROGRAM WILL

BENEFIT YOU BY...

1. Increasing your access to resources

2. Broadening your outlook and expose you to

opportunities

3. Providing contacts for new program ideas and

implementation

406
"Fortht first trazt, wt arc being treated as

prof_ionais. It's great/°

Brentwood Elementary School Teacherl

Los Angeles, California

ThiJ is nat to htlp mr, it is to http socitty, today and

tomorrow. If wt don't do it now, w¢ may nt_tr hart _ht

opportune..

Mat W',_broc.k. Chapter Vohmtt_r

Student Outreach Program will serve as an Information Exchange Network

AgIt4 I-,'I

hala FdU_

W _?zvlnE£

T

xl'b'oDrr o_

NtOatA_

C.F_m

ED F&A_

To learn more about chapter activities nearest you, contact

ASM INTERNATIONAl,

$TUDENT OUTREACH PROGRAM

MATERIALS PARK, OHIO 44073-0002

(216) 338..5151

Mr. Farrell.

Thank you for coming and

showing us your hydrmdic

dtmonstrattan. Whttt l g_t

oM_ ! want to be an enginetr

or an archia_ l think I'll

probably be an ¢nginttr afltr I

saw how much fun it ir.

Yourfritnd, /

-- Rabbit

2rid Period

ITumk you for all tl_ hard work

yot_'vt don# to help ms (and my

colltaguss) ri_e to ths challtnges

of publ_ _ucat_ Knowing

that otl_ prof_ionj art willlng.

and eagw tohelp us r_a th_

needz of our _ rcntws my,

enthusiasm for ttaching/

$inctrdy,

Martha Rogt_r and

John

.r

Mr. FarreII,

Ihan_ for coming and.

sptaking to our class. It was

vtry _g and a great

txpw'_nct to lift _"ee

pounds/ I rtally tnjoy#d your

hydruul_ dsmonmu_n.

17tanks again for showing us

s_ _ that can a_ea our

ewr,je_ Z¢*e...

Slnctrd,A

A_Oy tltnry

d_t Period

407
ASM Books for Class Instruction

ASM provides a 50% discount to University/Conege Professors/Instructors and to

University/College Bookstores for books adopted as reference or course texts. The following

purchase options are available:

* Professors/Instructors may order directly from ASM at the 50% discount rate and pass

on this savings directly to their students.

* Students may purchase directly from ASM; their order must provide verification of the

university course, instructor's name, date of course.

* University/College Bookstores will be allowed a discount of 50% off list price on ASM

publications. These books are for resale to University/College students. (In order to

ensure that the student discount is applied to the bookstore orders, it would be helpful if

the Professor/Instructor includes the student discount at the time of order)

If you have any questions please contact Joan Bellian at ASM International - 216-338-5151 (460).

A partial listing of universities and colleges that have adopted ASM books for class instruction :

Institution Boo._k

Univ. of California -Davis

Wright State Univ. (OH)

U.S. Naval Academy

Lafayette College

Duke Univ.

Oakland Univ.

Montclam Community College

W. Carolina Univ.

Univ. of Wisconsin

San Jose State

Wayne State Univ.

Univ. of New Haven

Colorado School of Mines

Columbia Univ.

Washington State Univ.

California State Univ. - Long Beach

Lehigh Univ.

Univ. of Michigan

Univ. of Michigan - Dearborn

Vol. 11, F/A Vol. 12, Fractography

Vol. 11, F/A

tg _!

Ill It

|1 11

Vol. 18, Friction, Lubrication ...

Plastic Part Technology

II II

Vol. 4, Heat Tr .eating

Voi. I, Packaging and Vol. 17, NDE

Steels

Steels

N l'e

N H

Engrg.Plastics,Vol.2

Practical Heat Treating

Metals Handbook; Desk Edition

Metals Engineering: A Teeh. Guide

I! It

Univ. of Alabama - Huntsville

Univ. of Nebraska - Lincoln

DeAnza College

Truckee Metal Community College

Vol. 17, NDE

Materials Science & Engineering

Ceramics & Glasses, Vol. 4

N N

Inspection of Metals

408
The Orqanization

MATERIALS INFORMATION (MI) is a service operated jointly by the Institute of Materials (incorporating

the Institute of Materials, The Institute of Ceramics and The Plastics and Rubber Institute) and by ASM

International ® (formerly the American Society for Metals). The core of Ml's work is the monitoring,

collecting and indexing of the world's materials literature to produce abstracts journals and bibliographic

databases. MI also offers a document deliver service, a translations service and a range of other

publications surveying and analyzing the international literature in engineering materials.

Much of Mrs activity centers around the world's technical journals: more than 2,500 journal titles are

acquired by purchase, donation or exchange. Coverage of conferences, patents, books, reports and

other types of documents is also part of the service. MI casts its net worldwide, sourcing materials in

more than thirty languages.

Abstracts Journals

Metals Abstracts (together with Metals Abstracts Index and Alloys Index) is still Ml's largest

publication, covering all aspects of metals science and technology through from ore preparation,

extraction and smelting to the finished products, their properties and applications. Steelmaking and

nonferrous alloy production are major areas of coverage and the abstracts journal also includes all

aspects of foundry technology and heat treatment, working, machining, joining and finishing. Powder

technology and metal matrix composites are also covered and the scope extends to related areas of

physics and chemistry. Each monthly issue contains some 4,500 items, giving full bibliographic details

(titles, dates, authors, journal references, conference information, publishers, etc.) in addition to the

abstract itself which summarizes the contents of the paper.

Engineered Materials Abstracts, Metals Abstracts' sister publication, covers the technical literature on

polymers, ceramics and composites in engineering applications. Most areas of light and heavy

engineering are covered, including such applications as sports equipment and domestic appliances.

Coverage focuses on structural materials (in the very broadest sense of the word), but important nonstructural engineered materials are also included - for example optical fibers, nuclear fuel rods,

piezoelectric materials and superconducting ceramics.

Biblioqraphic Databases

Fast access to all of the above information can be obtained through Ml's bibliographic databases. These

are, in effect, vast .electronic libraries and they now contain information on well over a million documents.

METADEX is the database equivalent of Metals Abstracts and while EMA is the equivalent of

Engineered Materials Abstracts. A bibliographically-based numeric properties databank Metals Datafile

- is also available. The databases can be accessed in several different ways:

° Ml's Search Service carries out custom searches on demand and also provides a regular updating

service. For ASM student members, we charge only _;20 for this service - as opposed to $130 for

regular members.

. The databases can be interrogated online from almost any home or office computer; all that is

required is a modem and software to make the connection via the phone lines to a remote host

computer. Powerful retrieval capabilities mean that it only takes a few seconds to search through

nearly thirty years of intemational literature for appropriate subject keywords or other data such as

authors' names and journal or conference references.

409
, All of the published material collected and indexed by MI since 1985 (with the exception of the

numeric infonmation in Metals Datafile) is now also searchable on compact disc. This is the

DIALOG OnDisc METADF..X/Materiais Collection, produced in collaboration with DIALOG

Information Se_ices, Inc. The discs are updated quarterly and the easy-to-use search software

offers even more power and flexibility than online searching. The CD-ROM has been very popular

with the academic commmunity, particularly in Europe. Universities subscribing in the United

States include: Lehigh University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Carnegie Mellon

University, the University of Cincinnati, and others. Materials Information encourages students at

these institutions to make use of this resource through on-site training seminars.

The education of tomorrow's materials scientists and metallurgists in the area of information resources is

a key component of Materials Information's vision for the future. We welcome any comments or

suggestions you may have in this area.

410
Instructional

Videos for

Educational Institutions

and Students

Prices subsized

exclusively for the

educational community!

Videos can:

• show students materials processes

occurring within industry.

• can be a flexible way to teach;

customize your own course based

on individual tapes.

• maximize effectiveness of educational

programming with video support.

All Video Tapes $39.95 each.

Corresponding Lesson Material (where available) $3.00 each.

411
Practical Heat Treating

• Oestgned for furnace operators as well as heat 1ranters and supervisors.

• Extensive on-location Iootage oi actual heat treating operations.

• The most comprehensive video training series available today aimed at all

heat treating operations personnel.

• Troubleshooting information describes typical problems, their causes and

ways to avoid costly errors and rework.

• Addresses major quality control and testing issues as they affect daily heal

treating operations.

• Provides extensive coverage of all maior metals categories, and heat

treating equipment conszderationc.

Topics covered inctude:

Tape 1 -- Heat Treatment ol CarbonSteels: Iron-cementztediagrams _- introcluctzon

to structure el metals, £ amount of carbon present in steel L_ austenzte formabon

Tape 2 -- Heat Treatment el Alloy SteMs: Amount and effects of alloying elements

present .- effect ot alloymg on time at hardening temperatures _- effect of alloymg

on quenching time

Tape 3 -- Heat Treatment el Tool Steels: Definition C. carPon contents and mater

ailoymg eiements- AISI classification C water-, air-. od-hareemnq types, as well as

snock-res_stmg and high-speed steels austemt_zing temperatures

Tape 4 -- Heat Treatment of CastIrons: Definition ,C malor classes ,E.graphite and

carbon comparisons -- cast =robtreatments

Tape 5 -- Heat Treatment ol Stainless Steels: Deflation C. annealing and hardening

protection during heatmg LC.quenching, lempering and stress relief

Tape 6 -- Heat Treatment el Aluminum: Alloy designations mclude:wrought and cast

alloys and tempers C strengthening mecnamsms C_heat treating processes include

- annealing, stress relief, solution 1renting, quenching, straightenmg, agmg and testmg

Tape 7 -- Heat Treatment of Other Nontarrous Alloys: Titanium alloys mcludes- commerical alloys; haraenmg mechamsms; neat treating times and temperatures related

tostress reliM, annealing, solutlon treahng and aging; cleanmg and atmosoneres:potenbal

problems

Tape 8 -- Typesof Furnaces and AssociatedEquipment-- Classification of furnaces

includes - energy source, temperature ranges, operation methods and application of

neat _ types of ovens and furnaces includes- box, pit, car bottom, elevator, integral

quench, bell. gantry, rotary, roller hearth, shaker, salt bath, gels conveyor, vacuum,

fiuidized bed, pusher, plasma and continuous

Tape 9 -- Furnace Atmospheres: Definition L_ use of furnace atmospheresincludes

- protection from detrimental elements, heat transfer and supply of alloy elements

Tape 10 -- Instrumentation and Controls: Temperature sensmg variablesinclude -

mechanical, visual, tt_ermocouples,opticalcomparatorsand radiation_ atmosphere

sensing variables include - visual, chemical, physical and electrical

Tape 11 -- EquipmentOperationand Maintenance:Equipment design _ manual operat_oncategoriesinclude - specifications, start-up instruc_ns, use. shul-down and emergency procedures

Tape 12 -- Sudace Troatmeols: Reasons for surface treatments C work hardening

includes - ShOtpeenmg, coining and burnishing C. metal/alloy Pudd-up on the surface

includes- graze or weld budd-up and plating

Tape 13 -- Testing and Quality Controlof Metals and Alloys:Properties affected by

heattreatingincludes- physical and mechanicalproperties, mlcrostructure andchemistry

cnanges, and hardness testing, tensile testing and other mecnancal tests

Tape 14 -- Problems Associated with Heat Treated Parts: Major causesof properties

not being achievedincludes - design, matenal selection, improper manufacturing steps

and imbroper heat treating process

Tape 15 -- Vacuum Heat Treating Processes: Vacuum heat treating processes

vacuum fundamentalsE partiat pressure_ pumping systems

Narrator Presentation. 2D & 3D Animated Graphics. Photos,Parts Demonstrations,

Video Clips, Graphs & Word Charts, VISUALS: 85-90%

Induction Heating

• Specific applications where induction melting offers unique advantages

• How induction simplifies or improves dozens of processes -- from high

tech semiconductor processmg to sealing toothpaste tubes

• How the over-ait cost el using induction equipment can be lower than with

competitive methods

Basic principlesof induction heating are presented, along w_thmethods of selecting

lrequency,equipmentand _ower. Typical applicationsare also descnbed,including heat

treating, preheating, melting and metal iolning. Topics covered include:

Tape 1 -- Introduction: Induction healingbasics- eddy currents,relerence depth, power

needs, circuets and load matching

Tape 2 -- PowerSuppliesJEguipmentSelection: Different types ot fixed andvanar.

frequency 0ower sources that =ncluOeline IreQuency, frequency multipliers, motorgenerator sets. solid-state, and radiO frequency

Tape 3 -- CoilOuign and Selection -- Part I: Equationslor calculatingvoltage,_ower.

and other =moortam parameters

Tape 4 -- Coil Design and Selection -- Part Ih High.frequency cod design covers

co, materials and geometries _. load matching L_ important parameters

Tape 5 -- Preheating Prior to Hot Working: Static. multistage, and in.line heatmg

Stodgy-state and transientheat transfer E_calculations for 0tiles heat, powerdensity, heat and cycle times, power loss from radiation, and coil line

Tape 6 -- Induction Heat Treatment: Usinginduction 1o harden, temper, normalize,

anneal, and stress relieve _ seiectwe heat treating applications

Tape 7 -- Induction Brazing and Soldering: How cod parameters_nfluence I_eating

par'tern " tubular and sod copper mductors-- coils for conveyonzeooperabons

Tape 8 -- Induction and High Frequency Welding: S_eed is a malor advantage

skin. proximity, andcontact effectsinhigh frequencywelding_Ehigh frequencytnduchen versus high frequency resistance welding

Tape 9 -- Induction Melting: Historyand advantages_ differencesbetween and advantages of coreless and channel furnaces ;- relractory wear (erosion) and buildup

Tape 10 -- Part Handling Equipment: Factorsaffechngthe deslqnof induction beating

systems _ handling systems for slab. Oar. t)tllet, and bar end heating

Tape 11 -- System Control and Factory Automation: Programmable logic controller

_ sol_d-state power supplies _ energy monitors for critical applications

Tape 12 -- Special Applications: Magnetic particle weldingC food and drug packaging _ semiconductor processmg ano assembly

Tape 13 -- Safetyand Economics:Advantagesover competitive equipmentSand tecnniques _ energy costs _. efficiency -- trequency C. power - cooling water

Lecture, RP Kodalilh Full Screen Words, RP Graphs and Line Orawings, Several

Photos, VISUALS: 90e/e

Heat Treatment:

Metallurgy & Applications

• How tO efficiently heat treat steels -- carbon, alloy, stainless and tool

• Properties of carbon and alloy stems produced by solid state changes

• How to accurately predict the effects o! femperoturo, time and compot.tion

on structure and properties when heat treating

AcomprenensNe,authoritativecoursethat em_as_s the fundamentalsof heattreating

castirons, andcarbon, alloy, stainless and tool steels, tt examinesdifficult procedures

such as carbunzing, carbonitndingand nltnding. Top_cs covered include:

Tape 1 -- Physical Metallurgy: Structure and Properties: Physical makeup and

disslmdarities Petweenmetals and nonmetals_ Versatilityof metals instrength,hardness, ductility, toughness and malleaPility, plus magnetic and electrical properties

Tape 2 -- Mlcrostructurosof Steels: Fertile, Pearlita and 6oinite: Structure-property

relationship in steel E Carbon and alloymgelementsin heattreatment_ Development

of iron-iron carbide diagram

Tape 3 -- Isothermal and ContinuoosCoolingTronMormationDiagrams:Useof isothermal and continuouscoolingtransformahondiagrams to set up heat treatingprocedures

Formatmnof martenslte - plate and lath

Tape 4 -- Annealing and NormMizing of Steel: Uses of heat treatment mconlroiling

size, shapeanddistribution of carbidephase in fernteto producepeanite or spnero_dite

Tape 5 -- Hardening and Hardeeability: Development of the Jommy End Quench

HarpenabdityTestand its use m predicting neat treating harOenmgresponseof vanous

section sizes _ Study of variousquenching media

Tape 5 -- Tempering of SiaM: Methodsof obtainingacomPinationof strength. _ardness, ductility and toughnessinsleet to ensureproduct reliabili_ _. Effectsof controlling time and temperature on various alloys

Tape 7 -- Sudace Hardening: Surtace heatingwithout changesin surface chemistry

Induction healing C Flame harpening transformationto austemteand quencning

to martenslte

Tape 8 -- Heat Treatment of CastIron: Similarities and differencesbetweensteel and

cast iron _ Castiron classifications - gray, white, maUeaPleand ductde

Tape 9 -- Heat Traame_ ofTeal SlaMs: AISIcLsssdica_nsof too(steel- water harag, coldwork, silock resisting, a_rhardening, notwork, nigh speeda_ specialpu,

Tape 10 -- Constitutionand HeM Treatment of Stainless Steels: Effect of chron_,.-z_.,

on stainless behavior _ Differences between martensztic, fernbc and austenztic

Tape 11 -- Limitations of Heat Treatment: Designs to mmim_zecracking and distortion _- Types of cracking durmg heat treatment, including causes and prevention

Lecture, Una Drawings and Olagromsfrom Text, Several Photos, Mlcrostrocturos

from Text, VISUALS: 80e/e

412
Metallurgy for the

pion-Metailurgist 115TAPE SERIES

• What metals are and how they are put into usable form

• Which factors influence the materials selection process

• How tensile, hardness, impact, and other tests are performed and what

their results can tell us

To answer the Question, "What is a metal?" there are sections devoted to the crystal

structure it metals and why most metals are "hardenable" to material ProPertiesand

their relationship to m=crostructure: and to the reasons for alloying of metals to achreve

specific dropertJes. Topics covered include:

Tape I -- Metals: A History. Defines metals and alloys - discusses metallic properE_es,metal crystals. _sotrooy, ores - early use and discover it metals

Tape 2 -- Matermls Charactenzatfonand the Selection Process. Factors that _ntluence

materials selectton,including - structure, mecnamcal properties, e_asbcity, gram s_ze,

and the effectsof temperature LCeconomic, functmnal and production requirements

Tape 3 -- Mechanical Properties and Their Measurement. The stress-strata curve

- tensile _ests, hardness tests, impact tests -_ understanding test results

Tape 4 -- Solidllication of Metals. Cooling curves and onase edudibrium d_agrams

C dendritic segregation, solidification and purification methods, eutect_ccomposttions,

the Lever Rule, advances =nsolidification

Tape 5 -- Steels and CastIrons: Applications and Metallurgy, History of steelmaking

C the role of cation and oxygen C furnaces, melting, a_loymg,and casting tecnmques

Tape 6 -- Heat Trontmentof Steel. Transforma_ns m responseto changingtemperature

C guenchmg and tembenng LEthe TTT diagram rc Jimmy hardenaDitity

Tape 7 -- Case Hardening of Steel. Mechanical, thermal.,and chemcal treatments

used to increasehardness C, the effects of time, temperature,structures, gram s_ze,

and quenching LE depth of penetratmn

Tape 8 -- Nonferrous Metals: Industrial Applications and Properties. How nonferrous metals such as aluminum, beryllium, magnesium, titanium, Copper.lead, tin, zinc

are extractedand made into a usable formC. material prooerties C. refiningtechnzques

Tape 9 -- Extractive Metallurgy. Techmques used to win metals from ores _ flotation, drying, roasting, matte smelting, converting, fireand electrolyticrefining _ high-

_"lting-temperature metals, like tungsten and molybdenum

Tape, 10 -- Getting Metals into Usable Form: Hot Working, Amorphouscasting LC_

,=tinuous casting - casting _nto ingot molds [_ sand casting _. lost wax method

Tape 11 -- Getting Metals into Usable Form: Cold Workiog. How cold working increases a materat's strength _, role and behavior of grams (crystals)in cold working

cotd rolling, cold forming, extrusion, drawing, swaging, and machining

Tape 12 -- StrongffieningMsshanisms: Nonferrous Metals. Techniquesused to harden

nonferrous metals, mcluOngagehardening and strain harOenmgiC diffusion mechanism

theories

Tape 13 -- Join rig. Soldering, brazing and fusion wetding techniques, and equipment

what makes a good weld _ effects of heating and cooling

Tape 14 -- Corrosion and Corrosion Provenlion. Non-corroding materials LZ corrosion mecnamsms and requirements __ types of corrosion - wet. dry. and galvamc

Tape 15 -- Qualify Control and Failure Analysis. Statistical samplingand evaluation

dye penetration [C radiography LZ magnate-particle inspection_ accoustlc emission

Lecture, Full Screen Words with Pointer, Une Drawings on Poster, VISUALS: Less than 5%

Superailoys J 4 TAPE SERIES

• Unperstaod why nicker, iron-nickel, and cobalt-basu superalloys have high streogth at high temperatures

• Understand specifio goals of heat treating applicable to superalloys and

how the goals are achieved

• Be familiar with modern processing techniques that impart desirable pro- potties to superalloys

Theadventof the a_rcraflturbineenginegave great impetusto high-temperature matenais.

Theconceptof the let engine dictated the need for new engineered matenals that Would

combine high-temperature andstrength with resistance to elevated temperature corro-

:,",n The use of superalloys has spread beyond aircraft engines as other industries

recogmzed their high-temperature advantages. The turOine engine remains the

:ratine of superalloy use.

Tape 1A -- Physical Metallurgy, Heat Treatment and Processing. (Part 1) Focusing

on Physical metallurgyof n;ckel,iron-rocket,and cobalt-basesuperalloys. Gamma pnme

and gamma double pnme precipitates, coherence, ancl latticemismatch are examined

as they relate to superalloy mechamcal properties.

Tape 1B -- Physical Metallurgy, Heal Treatment and Processing. (PaN 2) Covers

goalsof heat treating and how they areachievedwrthsu_eralloys, direc_nal SOl_iificatmn,

s;ngle-crystalsolidification, powder metallurgy, and redundant working of ingots.

Tape 2 -- Deformation and Creel=. Discusses re(at_onsnrosoetweensuoeratlov strucTures. strength and creeD: m_smatcn. :auntenergy, 3recto=tale size ,'olume traction

Ttowstress annohaseOouno_nqenergy, :oop=ng,sneanng. Iemoerature _ffus=on ruOture.

orientation and moronology

Tape 3 -- Fatigue. O_scusses low cycle fatigue and fatigue crack propagation the

economic ImOllCahons ol fatigue and fracture: re_atlonsn_o[:etween cyclic tile and plastic

strain range: roles Of Silo 13ands:_;rams_ze.and temoerature the _nterat=vefatigue _aw:

and parameters affecnng rate it fatigue crack prooaganon

Lecture. Full Screen Wo_s CG. Photosfrom Texts.Kodalilh _ne Drawings{ovemeadl,

Microstructures (overhead), Chalkboard. VISUALS: 50-60q/o. This series does not

have corresponding lesson material available.

Principles of 114TAPE SERIES J

Metallography

• How to evaluate microstructures through demonstrations using graphics and

over 200 actual micrographs

• Basic principles of metallography; history, delinitions, preparaltoo steps and

equipment

• Helpful techniques for preparing specific metals and alloys for

metallographic inspection supported by excellent step-by-slap

demonstrations

Learn "how to" prepare speomens for viewing w,th a metallograDh, and making

pnotom_crographs for permanent records. Incorporated in the fades are step-by-step

demonstralmns m the processing of a specimen. Starting wtth selection and cutting

it the specimen and continuingw_th mounting, gnndmg, polishing andetching. Topics covered include;

Tape 1 -- Metallography: Its Hixtory and Aims. Oeftnes basic terminology used m

metallography: reviews Henry Cliflon Sorhys' pioneering work _n metallography: examines meaningful features of meteorite and Samurai sword m=crostructures

Tape 2 -- The Slates of Matfor. Attractive forces Oetween atoms, types of bonding,

properties it meta c bonding, umt cetls, lattices, valence numPers, grams, and grain doundar_es

Tape 3 -- Introduction Io Phase Diagrams. Oefines terminology:_scusses important

details it phased_agrams,the leverrule and inverse leverrule; retatesnumerous s_ec_fic

phase diagrams with specific mJcrostructures

Tape 4 -- Mlcrmltrocture and Cla_fications of Steels, Details s_nglephase constituents and their microstructures: two-phase constituentsand their mlcrostructures;

isothermal transformationdiagrams: and continuouscooling transformation

Tape 5a -- MMallo_hlc SpecimenPreperolionI. Coverscutoffand sectioning tecnnF

dues and equipment: mounting tecnn_(lues and eclu_pment: and the effect of particle

s_ze(grit) and pressure on metal removal rate

Tape 5b -- Metallographic Specimen Preparation II. Grinding steps, cooling fluids,

and patterns: rough and fine polishing; polishingcloths,abrasives,and fluids: chamond

and other polishing compounds: electropolishing and electroetcning:chemicaletching

Tape 6 -- Fundamentals of Motallographs and PhntomicroQraphy.Components of

light microscopes:image contrast, resolution, and depthof fietd: numerical aperture:

wavelength of light source: exammanon modes; image recording; and requirements

of successful Photomicrography

Tape 7a -- Quantiletive Melallograplty I. Metrology and stereology: wnat to consider

before starting tests: guidelines for measuring structural gradients: the _mportance it

randomness: how other tests can complement vlsuat tests; statistical analysis: and

definibon of standard symbols and calculations

Tape 7b -- Quanlitatlve Metallography I1. (]uantitatwe techmoues ot analyzingmicrostructures: gram size measurement parameters; methods of measunng grain size:and

measuring particle spacing and sha_e

Tape 8a -- Auxiliar/and Special Metallographic Techniques I. Brined. Vickers and

RocknNellhardess testing; Knoop and Vickers m_cronardness testing: relahonsh_p between error and indentation SiZe; aDp,cations: hot stage m_croscoDy

Tape 8b -- Auxiliaryand Special Mstallo_raphic TechniquesII. Generalcharac(ensncs

it electronm_croscopy equipment:specificcharacteristics, features, and capabdlties

of scanning, transmission, and scanning transmission electronm_croscopes and electron microprobe analysis; energy d_spersive spectroscopy; wavelength dispersive

soectroscopy

Tape 9a -- Plastic Deformation and Annealing of Metals I. Effects of plastic deformation on m_crostructure: alignment of grains and inclusions:annealing; recrystalJizalion; defimtion of cold working and hot working

Tape 9b -- Plastic Deformation and Annealing of Metals II. How dislocations el/oct

mechancal prope_es: wew_nqdislocations through the transmls,_onelectronm_croscoDe:

strengthening through cold work; recystallizatlon and alloying

Tape 10 -- Metallogrophic Interdrolntion. Individual preparation tecnmduesfor cast

irons, steels, alum=hum,cobad,cooper. =ead,nlcket,trtanlum, refractory metals, precious

metals, and others. Effects of heattng, cooling,alloy=no,etching, different lighbng tecnmdues. and phase transformation on mcrostructure

I..estare,RP M_crographs,VideoClips Equipment,RP Phelps, Micrograp_ h'om Text, Oemo Samples, VISUALS: 45-55%

413
Corrosion [_15TAPESERIES

• How to solve corrosion problems and prevent them

• The important characteristics of metals and solutions that influence

corrosion

• How a corrosion reaction takes place and some of the variables that affect

corrosion

Topees covered include:

Tape 1 -- introduction to CorrOsion.Definitions: tour ways of classifyingcorrosion:

costs assoceatedweth corrosion:ways to solve corrosion proOlems: ways to prevent

corros,on

Tape 2 -- Bss¢ Conceptsin Corrosmn.Ac,ve. immune,and gassrve corrosionbehawor:

how corrosmn is affected by a metal's metallurgy, inherent reactivety, and tendency

to form insoluble corrosionproducts: how a solut=on's cnaractenstcs affect corrosion

Tape 3 -- Thermodynamics: Potential pH Diagram=. Changes ina metal's equdibnum

w,th etaenvironment;the Nernst eduation: the electromotive force senes: potential-oH

(Pourba_x)diagrams,how they're usedandwhat theycantell us;three statesofpassNity:

several real.world applications of mixed potentialtheory

Tape 4 -- Kineticsof Corrosion:Polarization. Kineticsof the corrosionreact=on:electrochemical reactmns:important anodicand cathodicreactions:mixed potential theory:

some applicationsof mixed potential theory

Tape 5 -- Eight Forms of Corrosaon:Uniform, Pitting Concentration Cell. Introduclion to the eightforms of corrosmn- uniform, p_ng. concentrat)onceil. galvan¢, stress

corrosioncracl_ng,er_o_-corro_n, intergranular, dealtoymg;detail._1diSCUSS_ on covers

causes ot. ways of identifyingand methods to prevent the nrst mree _/pes

Tape 6 -- Eight Forms of Corrosion: Galvanic and Straes Corro=on Creaking. Two

of the e_ghtforms of corrosJon- galvanic antistresscorrosmncrac_ng; hydroqendamage,

a form oi stress corrosioncracking; formationmechanisms, real-world examplesand

methods for control

Tape 7 -- Eight Forms of CorrOsion:ErosionCorrosion, Intororanular and O.oalloying. Erosion. mtergranularand dealloying corrosion are stuoieO;now to ioentm/eacn

type: causes; successful methods to control or prevent: examples

Tape 6 -- Corrosion Testing and Monitoring. Classdicatlon,purposes, and steps m

conducting corros on tests; surlace preparation:standards;practices;plannedinterval

tests; accelerated testing; monnonng; direct and ndirect measurements: numerous

real-world examples

Tape 9 -- Electrechamioal Toot Methods. General classes of electrochemical

measurements: potential current, reststr_ity,polarization curves, linearpolanzatlon, frequency response; methods and equipmentfor these measurements: galvan¢ senna;

pitting potential: protectionpotential; corrosion inhibitors

Tape 10 -- GeneralMaterial Considersttoosand Appilcatioosto FerrousAlloys.Multipte

requirements of materials for englneermgapplications;relative costs and properties

of metals and nonmetals: generalcorroseonbehavior, typical applications, and common corrosmn modes of ferrous alloys

Tape 11 -- Nonferrousand Nonmetallic Motenals. Properties, corrosionberiawor and

preventionandappdcations of nonferrousmetals and alloysand nonmetallicmatenals;

nickel, copper, aluminum, titamum, zinC.lead. cobalt and their alloys, refractory, nobte metals, ceramics, polymers

Tape 12 -- CormmvoEnvironments.important characteristicsof corrosrveenwronments:

0H, oxldizing/reducmgpotentmL temperature,degreeof ionization,detnmetnal/benetictai

species; how theserelate to the different forms of corroseveenvironments:how to protect metal from a corrosive environment

Tape 13 -- Economics and Failure Analysis. Corrosioncosts; corrosionprotection

an() its economicimportance: opportunities and motivatmns to reduce corrosioncosts;

corrosmneconomics:definition,purposes, and steps of failure analysis:causesof corrosion tadures: failure analysestechmdues, egu_pment,and applications

Tape 14 -- Methods of Control-Design, Material Selestion, Environment Modification. Design methods and materials seleotton to control corrosion;changing enwronlent to control corrosion: definition, bonding, types and applicationof inhibitors

Tape 15 -- Methods of Control-Coatings and Potential Modification. Anodic and

cathodic protection systems; impressed-current protecton; measuringand verifying

protection:barner, inhibitive, and sacrificialcoatings: organic, inorganic,and metallic

coatings: desereai01ecoanngfeatures:elementsof Me coatingprocess, cunngmechanisms

Lecture, Full Screen Words CG, Line Drawings on CG, RP Photos,Parts Demonstrations, VISUALS: 55-65a/_

Understanding ISO 9000 TAPE SERIES I

• Gain an understanding of whet ISO 9000 is and what it does

• Learn about the internal anb exlerflal implicalions of ISO 9000 for your

organization

• Unberstand the process for achloving ISO 9000 registration and/or

compliance

As tSO 9000 contmuesto grow in popularity, more and more people are looking for

answers to questionsthey have about the benefits and implicationsof the process

The purpose of this vtdeocourse ts to prowcle clarificationto this bmportant puality ancl

certification_ssue.

Tape 1 -- What is ISO9000? Understand wny QUALITYhas become the code word

to success =ntodays industrial and techmcatworld, UnderstanOthe philosophy Oehind

the ISO9000 senes of standards, and what this means in the context of your t;usmess

The20 basLce_emenrsot the tSO9000 ouality system are explained in detail: mana_ lent responsibility - guality systems L_ contract rev=ewC design control - do

lent control i _)urchasmg _ purchase supplied product, etc.

Tape 2 -- How Ooes My CompanyAchieve ISO 9000 Certification? The process for

acn_evmgtSO9000 registration_sexplained...wnatyou are committingto and how to

prepare lor the assessment. Oetermme if and when you needthe help ot a consultant.

How to plan a certdicapon strategy. How detailed does this plan have to _e? What

_tthere are deficiencies? How do you fix the deficiencies?What if there is nothing wrong?

Knowwhat guidelines to followexplicitly,whatyou 'absolutely have to do". Nnat you

'may have to do". and what you "don't haveto do" The enternal auOd.,wnat is it?

Who performs the external audit?.What does an auditor look for?

Tape 3 -- What Can I Expect During ISO 9000 Assessment?What Will I Gain From

Certification?Thistape answersthese questions and morewnhoutcomplicatedjargon

What zsthe approximate costof being audited?What are the internaland external implications of the audit? Who withinthe companywill be lnterv_ewed?What documents-

_ionw_tlbe needed?How registrationexpenditurescan be mmimzzedthrough proper

planning.

Questionand AnswerOlscuwon, KeyPoint WordCG overVideo.VISUALS:Key Words

75_. This series does not have corresponding lesson material available.

CompositesI1: Material I TAPESERIES i

Selection and Applications

• The key role el fibers, their placement and matrices in influencing physw

properties of compmdtes

• How properties el the composite are affected by fiber and matrix variables

• Become familiar with the strm-strain behavior el composites. Understand

some of the failure modes of composites

Topics covered include:

Tape 1 -- Introduction: Discusses wtiat composites are: their advantages, physical

properties, and history; effects of fiber matenal, orientation, density, and d_stnbution

on physical properties: s_zeeffect

Tape 2 -- Strength and Stiffness of Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Factorsaffecting

0roberties of umdireetionatcomposdes:fibers and matrixmaterials, stdfness, fiberlength

and onentateon,temperature,and humidity.Several widetyused fiber/matrix combmalions are studied to dlustratepnnczples discussed in the lesson

Tape 3 -- Fatigue, Them_l, and EmnranmentolProl_es ofFiber Composdes:Covers

fatigue and how _t is influenced, thermal stresses, impact damage and how _t =s,nfluenced, damage fromenvironmentaleffects, and electricalproperties of composites

Tape 4 -- Failure Modes and Lamnato Analysis: Discusses axial tensdeand compressive strengttis, fiber and matrix failures,transverseand through-thcknessproperties, amsotropic nature of composites, elastic constants, and lammate analysescomputer orograms

Tape 5 -- DesignApproaches: ThecomOosdestructure developmentprocess. Manufacturing, guali_ assurance, nondestructive evaluation, malntainabili_ andrepairconsiderations. How compositesdesign differs frommetals design. Cost considerations,material

selection process, laminatedesign, pans consolidation, failure cntena and sanOwcn

construction Discussestr_eimportance el through-thickness stresses

Tape 6 -- Joints and Finishing Techniguec: The importance of good ioint des_c_n.

Mechan,ca,y lasteneo )dintsand adhes,vely Ponded idiOtS.Joints combining mechanical

fasteners and adhesive bonding. Machining considerations and techniques

Tape 7 -- Destructive Testing of Composites: Introducesdestructive test methods

most commonly_rformed oncomposites,inctuOingtensde,compressionmplanesnear.

three-pelt toadmg11exure.and interlammarshear. Advantages.procedures, proolems

and tim_rationsof each. and how to mterpret results

Tape B-- MotoristsTesting for Qua ty Control:Incomingmaterials ouaiity assurance:

fibers,reams and preoregs. Processcontrol. Types of defects. Nondestructive evauattonmethods. Visual. sonic, ultrasomc,acoustic emission,radiography, thermograr'"r

holography, and computer-assistedtelegraphy

Tape 9 -- CommercialApplications of Composites:Landtransportation.Manne _,,

lamers. Electncaland electromc. Recreational. Miscellaneous

Tape 10 -- Composites in Aerospace and the Future: Fighteraircraft, commercial

aircraft vertical takeoffrotorcrall, general aviation, gas turbineI}etl engines,spacecraft.

space shuttle DrOller,missiles, speceala_rcra11.Metal matrix composde applications.

Lecture, RP KodalithsWord Charts, Line Drawings and Graphs, Full Screen Words

CG, VISUALS: 30e/e

414
Welding Inspection

and Quality Control [ 19TAPESERIES _]

• Learn about welding metallurgy so you'll understand which areas of different metals are critical and why -- and know what potential problems to

look for when using different metals

• Learn correct joint preparation procedures; the importance el temperature

control -- and the mechanics of it

• Learn the more common -- and the more specialized -- welding and cutling processes

Preparespersonnel to become Certified Welding Inspectors. _sof practical use as a

fundamentalcoursefor new personnel and asa state-of-the-art refresherfor expenenced

personnel. Helps management understandthe responslbditiesof peopletMey supervise. Topicscovered include:

Tape I -- Welding Inspector: Who is the welding respecterLCgualifldatmns LCcode

of ettfics E commumcat]ons C resoonsibilities

Tapes2 and3 -- Meb'tcSystems,Weidlng Terms and Symbols:SI Intema_nat system

of unds _ basic metric units _ welding terms and dentations ,C welding positions

C elements of and construction of welding symbols

Tapes4 and 5 -- Welding Metallurgy: Ironcarbon system C iron.iron carbide diagram

Z diffusion _C effect of cooling rates and alloy addition on transformation

Tape 6 -- Weld Joint Preparation and Temperature Control: Checks prior to weld

joint preoaratmn LC joint preparation check E preheating and interpass heating

Tape 7 -- Welding and Cutting Processes I: Choosing the welding process ,C imperfections and discontinuities _ oxyacetylene welding_. bring

Tapes 8 and 9 -- Welding and Cutting Pmcecses I1: Electrogaswelding _ plasma

arc welding C resistance welding

Tape 10 -- Welding Procedure and Welding Operator Qualifications: Weldingprocedure specifications _ ioint designs Z. welding positions _ heat input

Tape 11 -- CodesGoverning Welding Inspection: Structural welding code r_ ASME

_,,_derand pressure vesset code C soot examination of weldediomts

Tape 12 -- Weldment Imperfectionsand Discontinuities:Ct_n of discont}nu_fies

,_asemetat discontinuities _ methods of testing

Tapes 13 and 14 -- Chemical, Metallurgical and MechanicalTesting of Welds: Compansonof destructive andnondestructive tests C, chemicaltestsC forms el corrosion

testing for corrosion resistance C metallograpt_ic tests

Tape 15 -- Visual and Uquid Penetrant Inspection: Selection of NDT method C relationship of weldingprocesses,discont]nu_tldsand inspectionmethods __-visua}inspection

prior to, during, and aMer welding

Tapes 16 and 17 -- Magnelic Particle and RadlogrephicInspection: Magnetic particle _nsoect_on ___type of magnetizing current E demagnetization

Tape 18 -- Ultrasonic Inspeclion: Advantages LClimitations LEcntenea for successful

pnsoection -- test equipment .E techmgues

Tape 19 -- Eddy CurrentInspection. AcousticEmissions,ProofTestsand leak Tests:

EddyCurrent inspection LC,fundamentals IC insoectmg weldedpipe and tui_ing LCapplications _ acoustic emissions

Lecture, Line Drawings and Pages from Text, VISUALS: lOq_

Fundamentals of [ 10 TAPE SERIES ]

Nondestructive Testing

• The technology of NOT anP the basic groups of tests based on their

responses to various mechanical, electrical or metallurgical changes

• The sleps necessary to establish proper inspection approaches depending

upon the nature, shape and size of test objects, plus techniques to optimize

the discontinuity image

• Guidelines of inspection approaches for basic products, including the

parameters necessary for conducting routine ultrasonic examinations

s covered include:

Tape 1 -- Introduction to Nondestructive Testing: Introductionto the basic concepts

of NOT• _History and development C. Conditions necessaryto perform meaningful NOT

Tape 2 -- interpretation and Classification ol Discontinuities: Definihon of terms -

rndicatlon, discontinuity, defect _COverview of steelma_(mg_ Metals orocesslng - qngot processing, primary process (roiling, extruding, drawing, forging, castingL seconclap/processes (mactlmmg, heat treating, gnn(_lng,plating), in-serwce effectsandwelding

_rocesses

Tape 3 -- Liquid Penetrant Testing: History and developmentof penetrants_ Basic

prlncioJes L_-Characzenst_csand nature of oenetrant matenal __ Methodsof processing

Tape 4 -- Magnetic Particle Testing: History anOdevetooment of magnetic _ar(_cle

testing _ Pnnclole of magnetism and basic defin_llon L_-Magnehc !_art_cleequipment

and matenals

Tape 5 -- Ultrasonic Testing Fundamentals: HIstory and development C Pnnc=oles

ofwave propagation _ETransmission and retlectlon of ultrasound _ Charactenstlcs

of ultrasound as they aoply to _nspect_onot materials

Tape 6 -- UllraJmnicTesting Applications: Calibration standards _ Factors to consider when select=rig tMecorrect method C Basic test approaches - compressmnal for

cliscontinu=ties and thickness measurement, angle beam and immersion

Tape 7 -- Fundamentals of Radio_roplw I: History and development C Generation

of x-rays _ Technique variables using x-rays C Gamma-radiography

Tape 8 -- Fundamentals el Radiography II -- with Applications: Radiographic film

charactenstics LC.Steps involved in the processing of radiographic film L_ Oual_tylevels

Tape 9 -- Eddy CurrentTesting: History and development C Basiceddy current pnnciples C Equipment and the various probes and cuds C Test vanables

Tape 10 -- Specialized Nondestructive Testing Methods: Overview mctudingpnndoles, equipment, procedures, vanables, interpretation ot test results, advantages and

lim=tat}ons for the following methods - visual, _hermal, acoustical imaging, acoustic

em=ssmnand others

Lecture, Title Cards (Cartoon), Pages from Text, Photosfrom Text, RP Photos, Full

Screen Word Poster, VISUALS: 35-404_

Solving Quality Problems

with Statistical Process

Control [ 3 TAPESERIES]

• How to recognize when a process is being overcontrelled

• How to tell whether a process needs to be adjusted or should be left alone

• How to interpret data points that fail outside of the control limits

Statistical 9rocess controlis a valuable, analytical tool in process and product quali_/

improvement programs. Overviews of basic statisticalconcepts, detaded instruction

_nconstructing and interoretmgcontrol charls, analyzing data for vanance, statishcaJ

sigmficance, cause and effectrelationships, and designing programs to locate and currect non-conforming product and process charactenstlcs are presented. Topics covered

_nclude:

Tape I -- Introduction to SPC. 8enehtsof SPC; m-processsampling and controlsystems:

p_tfattsof overcontrol: chance vanabilities: the process average, 7: standard dewatlon,

o.; 3_ controllimits; comparing discrete, batch, and continuous processes; _ and R

charts: calculating upper and lower control limits for discrete processes: proper sampling

mtervals

Tape 2 -- Control Charts for Measurement. Control cMad decision rules; how to lell

wt_enprocessc_anges are needed: 3o.lim_tsCurindividualdata points,process ca_ahd_

_ndex. Co: calculating control limits for batch and continuous grocesses via the stanclard dewatldn ot averages and average moving range techmgues

Tape 3 -- ControlCharts lot Altributes. Process vanaPles and process artnbules: ',Me

p-chart, c-chart, and other orocess attribute ct_arts:wnen Io use a process a_tnbute

chart: _rooer sample size lor a_tribute charting; guidelines for setting up an in-olant

SPC system: role of management in SPC: employee training regulrements

Lecture. RP Kodalitfl Words. Graphs and Charts, VISUALS: 2l)e_. This series does

not have corresponding lesson material available.

415
Principles of 115TAPESERIES

Failure Analysis

• Extensive coverage of all major types of failures encountered throughout

the metalworking industry

• The causes of failures from material and manufacturing considerations to

in.service conditions and environmints

• Major categories of part and part configuration failures

• A thorough treatment of proper procedures used in failure analysis

• Extensive use of on-locution footage, photos, graphs, films, demonstrations

and animation to "tiring the technical material to fife"

Providesextensive coverageof general failure analysis, procedures, typesof failures

and stress,ductdeand bnttlefractures, fatiguefailures,wear failures,corrosionfailures

and elevated temperature failures. Also covered are failures of cast and wrought ferrous metals, joining failures, failures of toolsand dies. failures ot shaftsand bearings.

gear failures, failures of mechanical fasteners, boder and heat exchanger failures, and

failuresof pressure vessels.

Tape 1 -- General Procedures for Failure Analysis. Collection of data and samples

- preliminary examinationL_ non-destructive inspectionC. mechan*caltesting_ select_onand preservation of fracture surfaces LZmacroscopic and microscopic examination

Tape 2 -- Types of Failure and Stress. Major failure types _. comioinatJonsand interactionsof failure types _ failure dehnitions C distortion C appliedstresses _ types

of loading_. stress systems L_ visualmngresidualstress _. directzonsof residualstresses

Tape 3 -- OuctUeand Brittle Fracture=. DefinitmnsandcompansonsC ductde-fracture

modes and causesC. ductde-to-bnttle transition_ causesof brittle fracture _ cleavage

_ mtergranularfracture L_ thermally induced brittle-behavior problems

Tape 4 -- Fatigue Failures. Factors affecting fatigue life Z laboratory tests _ S-N

curves and prediction of fatigue life E stagesof crack initiation, propagation andfatigue

fracture_ fatsguecracking LCeffectsof variables L_overstress ._ freduency of loading

Tape 5 -- Wear Failures. Abraswe wear C. adhesivewear _- contact-stressfatigue

Z corrosivewear I_ lubncatenmodes L_ lu_caUon surfaceeffects_- typesof lubncants

_- lubricant failures L_ non-lubricated wear _ procedures for wear failure analysis

Tape 5 -- Corrosion Failures. Electro-chemical reactions C uniformcorrosion_- p_tring _ selective leaching _ intergranufarcorrosionL_ selectiveattack on inclusions

- concentra_n ceil corrosionLZgaJvanlccorrosmnC. velocrty-affectedcorTosmnin water

Tape 7 -- Elesated-Temperature Failures. Types of elevated-temperaturefailures

metallurgIal instabilities_ environmental affects LZ fadures in industrialapplications

|o mctudesteam-tu_ine components,gas-turoinecomponents,contact w_thliquidmetals.

furnace parts and fixtures, cement mills and incinerators, engine exhaust valves.

petroleum refinery components, and components of steam reformers

Tape 8 -- Failures of Cast and WrougM FerrousMetals. Castingdefectsandclassifications, failures of Class 8, Cand G cast metal E effect of composition onmicrostructure

Tape 9 -- Failures of Welded, Brazed and Soldered Joints. Welded joint surfaceand

suPsurface failuresC, failuresdue to design, tit-up and workmanshipLZ preweld and

Oostweld heating problems LC,discontinuitiesin arc welds

Tape 10 -- Failures of Tools and Dies. Characteristics and analys_sof fool and die

failures _ influenceof design on failure C failures of coldworking toolsanddies/fracture vs. wear _ failures caused by heat treatment

Tape 11 -- Failures of Shafts and Bearings. Fracture origins_nshafts _ fatigueand

wear failures of shafts _ ductile and brittle failuresin shafts Z. shalt stress-raisers

C failure mechanisms of slide bearings

Tape 12 -- Failures of Gears. Gear-tooth contact as it relates to wear pattern and

tooth ratio _ operatingloads (Z.causesof gear failure _ classification of gear failures

Tape 13 -- Failure=of Mechoniai Fanteoors.Threadedfasteners:failureorigins,causes

of failures, fretting failures, corrosion, hydrogen damage, damage due to elevated

temperatures ;- rivets _ blind fasteners: types and causes of failures

Tape 14 -- Failures of Boilers and Heat Exchangers. Failureof boders and related

equipment: rupture from overheating,rupture from emhnttlemem, cortes)onand scaling, fatigue and erosmn, stress corrosioncracking, multiple mode failuresC failure

of heat exchangers:operatingconditioners, sources of failures, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking,corrosion fatigue, weld joints, effect of elevatedtemperatures, failure

analysis procedures

Tape 15 -- Failures of PrecsureVmmls. Causesof failures andprocedures for analysis

metallurgical discontinuities[] fabncat_onpractices _. pressure vesselsconstructed

of composite materials C service-relatedfailures L_ brittle and ductile fractures

Narrator Presentation, 2D and30 AnimatedGraphics. Photos.Parts Demonstrations.

Video Clips. Graphs and Word Charts. VISUALS: 85-90o/o

] Mechanical Testing i

of Metals L 12 TAPE SERIES

• How strain gages, load ceils, and extensometars are used to acquire

mechanical test data

• How to interpret engineering stress-strain curves

• Which tensile properties are structure sensitive and which are structure

insensitive

Acomprehensiveoverwew of mechanical testing methods currently used in industry,

w_th strong emphasIs on applications and lechmoues. Includes testing of the malor

analytical procedureslie.. hardness, tension, compressmn, faugue, creep, ductdity),

and s_aec=allzedareas:streetmetal gnd analySLSand computeraol_,apons. Top¢,scovered

include:

Tape 1 -- Introduction to Mectlanical Testing. Definitions of basicterms: benefits

and applicationsof testing; calculatingstandard dewatton, probable error, precision,

and maximum error: writing test reports and setting up table and graphs: featuresof

the certified testing lal)oratory

Tape 2 -- instrumentation& Calibrationof MechanicalTestingEquipment.Calibrating

universal testingmachines, hardness testers,and impactandtorsiontestingmachines:

applicable ASTM standards;principles of straingages and stratagage load cells: using

extensometersto measure strata: test specimen preparahon

Tape 3,1-- Hantem_ Testing.PaN I. RockwellandRockwellsuoerfioaltesting;Rockwell

testing machines: Brinell hardnesstesting;Brinell testers: scale selectionin Rockwell

testing; loadselec_on _nRockwell testing;load selection inBnnelltes_ng; surface preparation: specmltesting machines; applications.Includes ecluroment demonstra_ns

Tape 3b -- HardnessTesting, Part II. Microharanessteshngw_thKnoopand Vickers

indenters; surface preparation: applications of indentation m_crohardness testers;

ultrasomcmcrohardness testing; Scleroscopes.durometers,Mobs' hardness, and file

hardness. IncludeSerlurpmenrdemonstrations

Tape 4 -- Fundamentals of Tension and CompressionTesting. The tensdetest and

the stress-strata curve; structure-insensitive properties such as Youflg's moau:;

structure-sensitive propertiessuch as yield strength and tensdestrength:appllcat.t

of compress=reproperties: testing machines, specimen gnps. extensometers, ahu

instrumentation

Tops 5 -- Special Applications of Tension and CompressionTesting -- An in-depth

look at the stress-strain curve; precision elastic and mlcroelastic limits: effects of

_emperature.strain rate, and grain size:the truestress-true stratacurve: stratahamening

exponenet, n: r-value and plastic anisotropyin sheetDroducts;notchsensitivity:comparing tensdetesters

Tape 5 -- Shear, Torsion, Creep and Creep-Rupture Testing.Single and douPle-shear

tests:torsion testing;the shear modulus, G: shear andtorsiontestingmachines; creep

curves and the three stages of creep; creep testers; the Lateen-Miller and other

parameters: creep equations: isocnronousstress-strata curves

Tape 7a -- Ductilityand FormaPllltyTesting. Usingtensiletestdata to evaluatespendback tendency, stretch formabillty,and other forming charactenstIs: determlmngrvalue, strain rate sensitivity, and the work hardening exponent:hydraulic bulge, hole

expansion,and stretch bend tests:the Enchsen.Olsen. and limitingdome height tests:

the Swift. Englehardt, and Fukuitests

Tape 7b -- Circle Grid Analysis. The forming limit diagram: snape analysis via the

stretch-drawchart:distinguishingbetween tootinganddes_Jnproblems:malgng amatenal

edge condilionanalysis; selectingthe optimum lubricant by usingcoefficientof fnchon

test data: the formability data sheet: applications of circle grid analys_s

Tape 8 -- Fracture Testing. Charpy impact test: three ways to indicate resistanceto

impact:effects of spec=menorientation:instrumenting the Chamy test: derrvinqdynam¢

fracture toughness from Charpy data: fracture toughnesstesting; using test data to

find KIc. Includes eQurpmentdemonstrations

Tape 10 -- AppUoatlonol Computers Io Mecltantcal Testing. Benefits of computerized data acquisition and control:levels ot computerization:analog-to-digital (A/D) conveners and their selection: I/0 (input-output) dewces and ther selection: designing a

computerized mechamcal testing system: software develooment

Lecture, RP KoPallth Line Drawings and Word Charts, Word Posters (Paste-up},

Chalkboard, VISUALS: 40-50_

416
Thermal Spray

Technology I 8 TAPE SERIES

• Understand thermal spray processing science as well as applications and

practice

• Learn how thermal spray processing interacts with the materials it is

designed to protest

• Consider testing, characterization and standards used to evaluate coatings

This course provides an understanding of thermal spray processingscience as well

as applicationsand Practice. Youwill learnhow thermal sprayprocessing _nteractswith

_he matenals _t is designedto protect.

Tape 1 -- Surface Science. Wear, corrosion,hardening, car'ounzmg, natnding, electroolating, electr01essplating, pnosphating, vapor deposrtion, _ardfacang.

Tape 2 -- Equipment & The=ry: Combustion and Electric Wira-Ars. Thermal spray

history, basic theory of coatingprocesses, porosity,bonding,application, combustion

spray processing and equipment, wire-arc spray processingand edu_pment, matenal

feed, deposit characteristics, HVOF.

Tape 3 -- Equipment and Theory: Plasma Spray. Theory of 4th state of matter, APS

AirDlasmaspray, powder feed. particle distnhutuon tra/ectory, LPPSplasma spray venations, matenat feed systems, controls, consoles and power supplies,ancillary equupmenl, safety and hygiene.

Tape 4 -- Pmc_mj and Delign. Bonding,cleaning, processang,masking,temperature

control, spray pattern, process variation, automation, fusing, denslficat_on, finishnng,

stnop_ng.

Tape 5 -- Materials. Matenaloroduchon mett_ods,particle classificauonmethods, quality

control, material st×'._:fficahon, standards.

Tape 6 -- Application,=.Aerospace, automobve,biomedical ceramic and glass, manne,

_'_-skid, electronics,printing, processing industries, textdes.

Tape 7 -- Testing and Characterization: Methods and Mounting. Vanations in test

_,4uipment. metallurgy and materials, grain size, bonding, coating I_uddup. response

generators and variations, metallographic procedures, sect_onnng,vacuum impregnation. mounting matenals and technldues.

Tape 8 -- Testing and Characterization: Preparation and Procedures. Specimen

preparation, grinding, equipment, abrasive types, material reaction, deformation and

smeanng, polishing concepts and procedures, etching, lubricants,hardness and tensfle testing.

Narrator Presentation, 2D Animated Graphics, Photos,Vide= Clips, VISUALS: 90%

Principles of Machining112TA ESERIES 1

• Rigidity and heat -- why these characteristics influence most machine tool

and cutting tool decisions

• How 500 temperature reduction can give 5 limes more tool life

• How the carbon contents affect the heat treatment and machinaPility of stool

Thiswdeocourse presents the pnnclolesand practicesof machining, tool matenat seiecthen.cutting speeds, luPncants, and retated too_cs.Primarily concerned wnthmechanical

chip making machining processes, rtexamnnes everything from basnc machining processes Io macrostructural aspects of metals and hardness of mfcroconstntuems and

trle effects on machinaiodity Topics covered include:

Tape 1. The Machine Tool-- Pttnciploo and Operations._s_c comoonents_na machining process C machine tool structure C. cutting tools _2workp_eceC heat and rigidity

turmng and bonng C drilling _ plamng 2 shapmcj - chip formatnon * BUE

Tape 2. Cuttlm]Tool=-- OesKjnand Effect=.Chioremoval C work harclennncj LCcoolants

free macnmnng additives .C cratering - flank wear L2 rake angles and inclination

Tape 3. Tool Lile -- Measurement and Conlrol. Power measurements _. fool tile __

wear patterns C tool life curve C thermal overloading LCmachinaPility LEcutting speed

=- gnndaPdity

Tape 4. MachinatHlity.Machinabilityvs. mJcrostructure,_ I)aasediagrams C mcrostnJCturesof ironand steel __ economics _ tool changingcost_. optimum machining condit_onsC. reducing machining costs L_cutting fluids _ gases, oilsand water-basenulls

C cutting fluid applicationC surface quality C causesof poorfinisr_ _. residual stress

Tapes 5 and 6. Turning I and I1. Charactenstics of turning C_engmge, turret, bench

lathes __ speed _ feed _ depth of cut _ tracer attachments _ taper attachments

single point tools [C classes of tools _ counter balanced fixtures

Tape= 7 and B. Milling I and II. Milling characteristicsC. knee and column milling

machines [__special mdling machines __ millingcutters

Tapes 9 and 10. Drilling I and I1. Malor drill _mts LC.Web thinning of twist dnlls C

characteristics of dolling C use of bushings LCpnnciples of holemaking C angles and

point tolerances

Tapes 11 and 12. Grinding I and II. Characteristics of gnnding C 0olishingC huffing

honing ,.C-lapping C precision gnndlng machinesC grinding wheels _CAbrasives

Lecture, Line Drawings and Graphs from Test, RP Kodalith Charts, VISUALS: 5_

Although the format of these videos is setup to instruct workers in the industry, they can easily

be cued to the process portion of the video to be used to augment your lessons. NOTE:

Estimated percentage of lecture vs visuals. RP refers to Rear Projection whereby 35mm slides,

overheads, etc. are projected on a screen from behind so that a pointer can be used to identify specific words or areas. Kodalith is an acetate or overhead in clear words or drawings

on black background.

417
Mail this form to:

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Education Department

Materials Park, Ohio 44073

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Metallurgy / Materials Education Yearbook, 32nd Edition, July 1993-94

A 215-page reference book listing colleges and universities which offer four year and advanced degree programs in metallurgy/materials,

ceramics and polymers (U.S, and International Schools). Includes Department Chairmen, addresses, phone numbers, faculty and their

specialties. The yearbook is produced and distributed through the support of Dr. Kali Mukherjee, Sr. Editor and The ASM Foundation

for Education and Research. Members $15.00 per copy

Non-Members $35.00 per copy

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418
N94- 36413 - _

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN ALUMINUM FOR

AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILES

Jocelyn I. Petit

Alcoa Technical Center

Alloy Technology Division

100 Technical Drive

Alcoa Center, Pennsylvania 15069

Telephone 412-337-5922

419

Common bond for aircraft and

automobiles is need for cost-efficient,

lightweight structure.

Aluminum base materials

New Developments in Aluminum

for Aircraft and Automobiles

• Automotive

- Needs

- Developments

- Directions

• Aircraft

- Needs

- Developments

- Directions

I,'_TE_d!Oi,:Ai.LY BLANK

421
Forces Shaping Future

Automotive Materials Needs

• Need for fuel efficiency

• Changing consumer preferences

• Growing environmental awareness

• Giobalization of market

422
BACKGROUND, AUTOMOTIVE

1975 TO 1991 - SOURCES OF REDUCTION IN

FUEL CONSUMPTION

TIRES 22.4

WEIGHT 32.2

AERODRAG 34.7

POWER TRAIN 10.7

100%

423
LBS

4500

4300

4100

3gO0

3700

3500

3300

3100

2900

2700

2500

75 eo

U. S. Car WelghtJFuel Economy Relatlonshlp

• Weight ,t 22%

• CAFE =. 75% but down In list two years

02 e4 06 oo e9

o

oo

MPO

33

31

29

27

25

23

21

19

17

16

13

Source: U. S. Envkonmentll ProlecllOct A_onoy 1046JsblO624

424
Automotive

Why use aluminum?

• Weight reduction

- Increased fuel economy

- Decreased emissions

- Increased performance

- Increased cargo capacity

• Longer vehicle life

° Recycling capacity

425
Energy Cycle

LOWER WEIGHT = HIGHER MPG

32

30

o 28

L- 26

N 24

22

2O

3000 2750 2500 2250 2000

Weight in Ibs., with engine downsized proportionately

CAR WEIGHT/EMISSIONS

LESS WEIGHT = LOWER EMISSIONS

70

O

_D

>

o

v

o

o ,.--'.-

o

X o

to

u_

u_

E

UJ

O

_D

65

60

55

5O

45

40

35

30OO 2750 2500 2250

Weight in Ibs., with engine downsized proportionately

2000

426
Aluminum Strength/Weakness versus

Competitive Materials

AI Strength vs Steel AI Strength vs Plastic

• Lightweight effectiveness • Lightweight effectiveness

• Corrosion Resistance • Stiffness

• Recyclable

• Ease of repair

AI Weakness vs Steel AI Weakness vs Plastic

• Stiffness • Design options

• Ease of manufacturing • Corrosion resistance

• Cost • Dent resistance

427
Automotive

O

Hang-on components

• Outer panels

Class A surface

Corrosion resistant

Y.S.

U.S. and Europe: > 207 MPa

Japan: 138 MPa < Y.S. < 172 MPa

Formable

Stretchable

Drawable

Hemmable

Alloys

2XXX

6XXX

428
429
@

5182-0

@

2036-T4

430
iii_!_!i!il

431
5030-T4

[]

2008-T4

@

432
@

6016-T4

A

_iiiiiiii

6111 -T4

Automotive

Emerging materials for hang-on components

Near term

2XXX and 6XXX low bake temperature

5XXX Luder-free

433
Automotive

Emerging materials for hang-on components

Long term

Low cost

Formability, strength, weldability, and finish

of best DQ steel

Corrosion resistance of best AI sheet

434
This rendering of w generic spacaframe Illustralea the use of leas than 100 aluminum extrusions and Interconnecting aluminum die cast nodes

which am robotlcwlly welded to form the car body. A limited number of aluminum sheet components (i.e. Inner fendere, floor pan) are then attached

to complete the body.

Automotive

o Space Frame components

Strong

Tough

Corrosion resistant

SCC resistant

435
Automotive

,_ Space Frame components

Extrusions

Close tolerance 6XXX

Press quenched

-Fo_med in T4

Aged to ~ 230 MPa YS

Crushable

436
437
Evolution of Aluminum Aerospace Alloys

New aluminum base alloys continue to be introduced

• 1920's - 2017, 2014

• 1930's- 2024

• 1940's- 7075

• 1950's - 7178, 7079, X2020

• 1960's - 7175, 7475, 2124

• 1970's - 7050, 7150, 2324

• 1980's- 2034, 2090, 8090, 2091

• 1990's - 7055, C188, ???

• 2000's- ???

438
Forces Shaping Future Aircraft Materials Needs

Many factors are driving change in 1990's:

• Aging commercial fleet

fatigue, corrosion

Attention to cost effectiveness

_> procurement, inventory, manufacturing,

operating

Fuel prices ???

incremental weight savings

radical desigrl/material changes

• Future supersonic commercial aircraft

radical design change, high temperature

• New competition

439
Property Requirements for Jetliner and Military Transport Applications

Material properties:

Corrosion FCG= FatigueCrack Growlh

CYS= CompressiveYield Slrength FT = FractureToughness

E= Modulus SS = ShearStrength

FAT= Faligue TS= TensileStrength

( ) = Important,but notcritical, designrequirement

Fuselageskin: Corrosion,CYS,

FAT,FCG, FT, SS, TS, (E)

440
441
Toughness vs. Yield Strength:

Strengthtoughness relationship for C188-T3 and 2024-T3 a/clad sheet,

O. 100 in. thick, T-L orientation. Toughness measured using 16 in.

wide M(T) specimens.

r.

t)

d

OJ

or"

"I

0

170

160

150

140

130

120

! i

• C188-T3, Lot 440-681

• C188-T3, Lot 440-691

• 2024-T3 Hlslorlcal Data

i

o

• • • @

• @

o

110 i t J i ,

40 42 44 46 48 50

Long Transverse Yield Strength (ksi)

Constant AK Test:

Fatigue crack growth rate vs. crack length for C188-T3 and

2024-T3 alclad sheet tested at constant AK=25 ksi_/in., R=O. 1,

T-L, high humidity (R.H.>90%) air.

0

¢-

.u

z

"0

"10

10-3

10-4

10-5

0.5

' AK = 25" ksi_/In. '

• C188-T3

• 2024-T3

•A A

AAA A • • AAA k • A A• A A •

I !

0.6 0.7 0.8

Crack Length (in.)

442
Fiber/Metal Structural Laminates

(Typical 312 Lay-Up Shown)

Fiber/epoxy

0.009 in.

(0.23 mm)

\

Aluminum sheet

0.012 in. (0.30 ram)

0.054 in.

(1.4 mm)

Aluminum sheet alloy

Fiber

Prepreg _t 2024 and 7475 Yl

Aramid and glass

Unidirectional and cross-pl

443
Structural Lamlnltes Company

Fiber-Metal Laminates

I i/

I !/

I I

........... I I

Benefit: Weight Reduction

Application: Fuselage Skin

Target: 20 o 25%

Weight Reduction Because of:

• Density Reduction (10 - 15%)

• Downgaging Sheet Thickness (10%)

• Part Elimination (Doublers, Tear Straps)

Downgaging Possible Because oE

• Superior Fatigue Properties

• Excellent Damage Tolerance

(Residual Strength, Fracture Toughness)

444
Property Requirements for Jetliner and Military Transport Applications

Material properlies:

Corrosion FCG= Fatigue Crack Growth

CYS = Compressive Yield Slrength FT = Fraclure Toughness

E = Modulus SS= Shear Strength

FAT= Faligue TS = Tensile Strength

( ) = Importanl, but not crillcal, designrequirement

Upperwing (Compression):

Skins: CYS, E, FAT, FT,

(Corrosion, FCG)

445
446
m

J¢

v

r1D

(9

om

>-

100

90 -

80 -

70 -

60 -

50 -

40 -

30 -

20 -

10 -

0

1910

! I

DC-30

2024-T3

o

Junkers F-13

2017-T4

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B290

7075-T651

1

707

7178-T651

o

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7075-T651

o

L1011

7075-T7651

I I I

7770

7055-T7751

757-7670 O OC-17

7150-T651 A310 7150-T7751

MD-11

7150-T6151

Commercial and military alrcrafl

I I 1 I t I I I

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Yearfirstusedin airplane

2000

Upper Wing Skin Plate Alloy/Temper Chronology

p.

°m

u_

a3

.=

¢J

¢..

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¢/)

>-

New 7055

7150

Alcoa proprietary

processed

Corrosion resistance increasing

Schematic Illustration of Strength/Corrosion

Resistance Improvements of the New Alcoa

Aluminum Alloy 7055 Compared

to Aluminum Alloys 7150 and 7050

447
448
449
Property Requirements for Jetliner and Military Transport Applications

Material properties:

Corrosion FCG= Fatigue Crack Growth

CYS = Compressive Yield Strength FT = Fracture Toughness

E = Modulus SS= Shear Slrenglh

FAT= Fatigue TS = Tensile Strength

( ) = Imporlant, but not critical, designrequirement

t

Lower wing (Tension):

Slringers: FAT, FT, TS, (Corrosion, FCG)

450
/

SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS TESTING

Patricia J. Olesak

MET Department

Purdue University

1417 Knoy Hall - Room 145

West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1417

Telephone 317-494-7532

and

Edward L. Widener

MET Department

Purdue University

Knoy Hall - Room 119

West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

Telephone 317-494-7521

451

Scleroscope Hardness Testing

Patficia J. Olesak, Edward L. Widener

Mechanical Engineering Technology

Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1417

KEY WORDS: brinell, durometer, elastic/plastic, equotip, hardness, rockwell,

scleroscope

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Elastic and plastic responses of materials; basic

definitions of mechanical properties, such as ultimate strength, yield point, stiffness, resilience,

toughness and restitution.

OBJECTIVES: To observe and understand the principles of elastic and plastic

hardness, via scleroscope tests.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Tube (15 mm OD x 30 cm tall; transparent and rind )

Ball bearing (10 mm diameter; steel)

Solid bench or block (anvil)

Metric ruler

Metal samples (minimum 5 mm thick)

Brinell scope (20x magnification)

Equotip portable hardness tester (scteroscope)

INTRODUCTION: Hardness is commonly defined as "resistance of metals to plastic

penetration". Labs routinely report plastic penetration by Mobs (scratch), Brinell (dent), and

Rockwell (depth) tests of metals. However, non-metal products (paper rolls, plastic foams) are

tested quickly and cheaply for elastic penetration by durometers.Depth is indicated on a spring

loaded dial-gage.12

Shore Scleroscopes (rebound) should not be confused with Shore Durometers, nor

neglected in the Materials Lab. A scleroscope measures the rebound height for a diamond

tipped tup, or drop weight.3, 4 Remember how "bouncing a quarter" off a taut army cot or

"kicking the tires" on a used car views rebound as a measure of hardness.

BASIC PROCEDURE: A simple scleroscope can readily demonstrate both "elastic"

and "plastic" hardness. Place a clear tube of glass or plastic (15 mm dia. x 30 cm tall) vertically

on a sample. The sample should be thick enough (minimum 5 mm) to avoid anvil effects, from a

solid backup-block or workbench. A steel ball bearing or BrineU ball (10 mm diameter) is

dropped down the 30 cm tube. A metric ruler is held alongside the clear tube for measuring the

rebound height. 5

Students enjoy participating in this crude test. Accuracy is a challenge. We learn to

discard initial readings (unfocused eye); to question low rebounds (tube friction) and high

rebounds (work hardening); to avoid parallax (scale to ball); to read the scale quickly and

consistently (bottom of ball bearing). Such tedious data gathering prepares students to

appreciate a commercial scleroscope.

One measure cf 7!astic hardness is the average diameter of dents produced by the falling

ball-beaci=g. A standard Brinell scope (20x) works well for tiny dents, typically (0.1-0.3 ram).

Students soon see that data matches intuition; harder material gives higher rebounds and smaller

dents. Several common materials with various hardness values are tested, such as stee_, copper.

brass and aluminum. Students are challenged to compare test data with published stress/strain

curves for typical metals. Bored veterans are challenged to develoo a "hardness index",

453
combining both elastic and plastic components, e.g., the coefficient of restitution and the impact

energy/area. 6

COMMERCIAL TEST: Purdue's ,MET department recently acclu_..ed an "Equotip"

hardness tester, with electronic readout. The operation of the Equotip is s_rnilar to our lab

simulation of a scleroscope. A spherical tungsten-carbide tip impacts the sample being tested.

Impact and rebound velocities are magnetically sensed for an Equotip hardness indication.

Again, harder materials have faster rebound velocities and higher Equotip hardness values. 'Ballbearing measurements for aluminum are compared with Equotip hardness values, in Table 1 and

Figure 1. Before testing, all samples were sanded with an 80 grit, to remove surface oxides and

raised areas. As expected, Equotip hardness values correlate somewhat with rebound heights.

A significant advantage of the Equotip tester is its portability. When field testing is

required, this Equotip unit can test a wide range of thickness (.,minimu m 3ram), unlike most

oortable testers. This discussion leads to a demonstrauon ot Diner portalgle.testers, such as.

_/ebster pliers and Ames units. Thus, students understand the need for various testers, then"

advantages and limitations. The scteroscope provides an opportunity to observe eIastic resilience

and plastic toughness of many materials.

Aluminum

Sample

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Table 1

Rebound ht., cm Dent dia., mm Equotip Hardness

Average" Range Average" Range Average" Range

4.8 2.0 1.18 0.5 231.8 50

3.8 0.7 1.08 0.2 342.6 48

4.3 1.1 1.1(] 0.2 316.0 13

4.4 0.5 1.18 0.3 321.8 67

3.4 0.4 1.08 0.3 326.6 37

3.7 0.6 1.12 0.2 297.2 41

3.5 0.5 1.(36 0.1 303.4 43

4.1 0.6 1.08 0.4 322.2 25

3.7 0.7 1.16 0.1 314.4 67

3.7 0.9 1.16 0.1 316.2 66

"5 observations per sample

454
ALUMINUM

Equotipbareness

360

2_G

32O

300

i

I

r

J

+ •

I

260 L

I

240 i

27.0 .

3.4. 3,6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4

Rei2ounctheight, cm

4,6 4.8

Egum 1

L

2.

3.

o

_Q

.

REFERENCES:

Boyer, H., Hardness Tesri_?_ Mate.-Saks Park, OH: ASM Publication, 1987

Landau, D, Hardness, New York: The Nitratloy Co_omdon, 1943

GEbert, B. Snore Sciemscone Hardness Tests Made on Mobs' Scale Mine..xIs from Talc

AS'IR_ E a_g..q2, "Standard Pmcdc= for Sc!emsc'oge Hardness Testing of Me'.zllic

Matenais", p 560-563

Widener, E., "It's Hard to Test Hardness", !9o! ASE'E Av_nual Conference Proceeding, p

577-580

Bam_e_zer, T., et al. Mark's Standard HandDogk fQr Mechanic--j En_nee_, McGraw-H_

Book Com_. a._!, 1978

455

N94- 36414 ,.. ..... ,

}

/-- /0

GRAPHING TECHNIQUES FOR MATERIALS

LABORATORY USING EXCEL

Nikhil K. Kundu

Purdue University

Statewide Technology

2424 California Road

Elkhart, Indiana 46514

Telephone 219-264-3111

PR_-C_ PAGE BLP.,f'tKNOT FV_M!r:u ..,, ..

457

Graphing Techniques for Materials Laboratory

Using Excel

Nikhil K. Kundu

Purdue University

Elkhart, Indiana

KEY WORDS: Spring rate, stress concentration, endurance limit, column buckling, linear regression,

slope-intercept, logarithmic graphing.

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Students should have a course in computer literacy and some

knowledge in strength of materials including stress-strain, cyclic loading, and column buckling.

OBJECTIVES: To introduce the use of Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for data reduction and evaluation of

experimental results. This paper is intended to serve as a tutorial with a number of sample experiments on

a strength of materials course.

INTRODUCTION

Engineering technology curricula stress hands on training and laboratory practices in most of the technical

courses. Laboratory reports should include analytical as well as graphical evaluation of experimental data.

Experience shows that many students neither have the mathematical background nor the expertise for

graphing.

This paper briefly describes the procedure and data obtained from a number of experiments such as spring

rate, stress concentration, endurance limit, and column buckling for a variety of materials. Then with a

brief introduction to Microsoft Excel the author explains the techniques used for linear regression and

logarithmic graphing.

GENERAL GRAPHING PROCEDURE

The concepts one needs to know on Microsoft Excel worksheet are shown in figure 1. Arrange the data

such that all the X values are in the first column of the data area to be selected for graphing. The first row

of data is usually column headings and is displayed in the legend. The second column is the Y values for

the first curve and the third column is the Y values for the second curve and so on.

Highlight the data to be graphed and select the type of graph by clicking on FILE NEW CHART

OK. A bar graph is displayed as default. Now GALLERY shows up in the menubar. Select GALLERY

_ X (select an appropriate number for the desired type of graph for X)

To add legend highlight the data table including the legend and click on the CHART menu when a dialog

box is displayed. Click on ADD LEGEND.

To add text for title and axes click on

CHART _ ATTACH TEXT _ CHART TITLE _ OK. A set of squares appear on the graph. Type the title,

r, .... _5_ 459

PRt_t[¢_ laA,.qE BLAtlK blOT FILMED '-_" ..... -" - .... _'_"_"_!'..':'i'J.t; " " ;_,j,,._:,
ENTER, and then click the mouse with the arrow on the graph. Go back to chart menu and click on

ATTACH TEXT and repeat the same procedure for CATEGORY AXIS and VALUE AXIS

Entering data, graphing techniques and printing of your work are explained step by step with the help of

experimental data in the following. Experiments are selected to give readers a general overview of mostly

used graphing assignments.

EXPERIMENTS

Spring Rate:

Spring rate is the amount of load that is required to compress the spring per unit of deflection. The data

table shows the force(lb) used to compress a spring causing a reduction in length(in) recorded as

deflection.

This is an example of a set of curves including legend, title, and axes. This graph also demonstrates the

linear regression technique using the LINEST function.

Worksheet 1. Spring Rate:

Click the mouse on FILE NEW - WORKSHEET _ OK

Enter title at the top, pick cell C3 and highlight C3:D3 with the mouse, change the font style, font type,

and size as follows:

FORMAT FONT BOLD SIZE 10 OK

Create column headings

Select cell and type text using appropriate font settings.

Enter data:

For the graph start column with zeros.Type the load data in A6 to A 11 and spring A deflection data in B6

to Bll.

To change the precision of the displayed value highlight the column, click FORMAT _ NUMBER,

position the cursor at the CODE bar and type in 0.000 _ OK.

Slope-Intercept Formula / Linear Regression:

Assign names to columns

Select the cell and highlight the selected column (do not include zeros), click

Click on FORMULA DEFINE NAME _ type in name (example: A for column A) _ OK

Create title for slope-intercept in the cells as shown:

To enter the slope-intercept function LINEST for spring A highlight the two adjacent cells below the slope

intercept titles, type the formula for spring A exactly as

=LINEST(B,A) where B is the name of the second column and A is the name of the first column as

460
defined earlier. Press and hold CONTROL + SHIFT and press ENTER. The slope and intercept values

are now displayed in the selected cells.

Linear Regression:

The linear regression (L.R.) column for spring A is created by entering the slope - intercept formula in

cell C6 as =$A$14*A6+$B$14 _ ENTER, once entered click EDIT COPY

highlight cells C7:Cll _ ENTER. (C7:C11 means cell C7 through ce"il C11)

Repeat for spring B using column E for load, column F for deflection, and column G for slope-intercept

formula.

Graphing Spring Rate (figure 2):

Highlight A5: C 11, press and hold CONTROL and highlight F5:G 11

Select FILE _ NEW _ CHART _ OK, bar graph is displayed, click on GALLERY, pick #5 OK.

at CHART menu click on ADD LEGEND

at CHART menu click on ATTACH TEXT CHART TITLE OK

m

type title SPRING RATE _ ENTER, click mouse

click on CHART ATTACH TEXT CATEGORY AXIS OK

type LOAD(Ib), c]'ick mouse -

click on CHART _ ATTACH TEXT VALUE AXIS OK

m

type DEFLECTION(in) _ ENTER, click mouse

click on CHART _ ADD ARROWS, position mouse at the arrow ends, press and hold and move to the

desired location

type SPRING A for the first spring

repeat for spring B

Stress Concentration

The presence of shoulders, grooves, keyways, threads, or any type of discontinuities in machine elements

results in modification of simple stress distribution.

In this experiment force is applied at the end of a cantilever beam with a hole creating stress proportional

to the deflection. Purpose of this experiment is to measure stress level at various distances from the hole.

Strain gages are installed at the desired locations on the beam for stress readings. The experimental data is

displayed in the given table.

Worksheet 2. Stress Concentration:

Type STRESS CONCENTRATION in B2 ENTER

type Gage #1, Gage #2, Gage #3, and Gage #4 in B4, C4, D4, and E4

type data table as given in A5:E9

461
Graphing Stress Concentration (figure 3):

highlight A4:E9

click on FILE NEW CHART OK

click on GALLERY _ LINE 5 OK

click on CHART ADD LEGEND _ OK

click on CHART A'VI'ACH TEXT CHART TITLE _ OK, click

type STRESS CONCENTRATION _ ENTER, click

click on CHART _ ATTACH TEXT _ CATEGORY AXIS _ OK

type DEFLECTION(in) _ ENTER, click

click on CHART _ ATTACH TEXT _ VALUE AXIS _ OK

type STRESS(psi) _ ENTER, click

Printing •

click on FILE PRINTER SET UP

click on SET UP LANDSCAPE _ NLQ _ OK

click on FILE PRINT PREVIEW OK

click on ZOOM for close observation

click on PRINT

OK

Endurance Limit:

Endurance limit is a material property expressed in terms of stress(psi) that can be endured during cyclic

loading regardless of the number of applied cycles. This stress value is also called the fatigue limit.

In this experiment a 1/4" diameter grooved shaft is rotated under load till failure. The data table shows the

groove distances from the loading point X, Groove diameter d, Load plus the weight of the fixture P,

Accumulated number of cycles N, and the stress S.

Worksheet 3. Endurance Limit:

Type in the worksheet as shown, calculate the stress values using P, d, X, and Kt (= 1).

Select cell E24

type formula for stress S = 32*P'X/(3.14*d*d*d) in the worksheet as

=32"C24"A24/(3.14*B24*B24*B24) and click on E24,

stress value is displayed in E24

select E24 _ COPY, highlight E25:E29 _ ENTER, stress values are displayed in column E.

Graphing Endurance Limit (figure 4):

highlight D23 :E28

FILE NEW CHART OK

GALLERY SCA'ITER 5 OK

Enter necessary texts for the graph and print.

462
Column Buckling

Long columns and the more slender short columns usually fail by hucklin_ when critical load is reached.

In this experiment tahe critical load for I/4" diameter and 12", 16", 20", and 24" long rods is

determined.

Worksheet 4. Column Buckling:

Type the title COLUMN BUCKLING DATA SHEET in B1

click on FORMAT _ FONT _ ttELV BOLD OK

type EXPERIMENTAL in B2

type the data table exactly as shown.

If you highlight B3:E6 column B is considered as the category axis and if you highlight A3:E6 column A

serves as legend with row 3 as category axis.

highlight A3 :E3

click on FORMAT _ BORDER _ SHADE _ OUTLINE _ OK, click

Graphing Column Buckling (figure 5):

highlight A3:E6

click on FILE _ NEW _ CHART _ OK

click on GALLERY LINE 6 OK m

click on CHART ADD LEGEND OK

click on CHART ATTACH TEXT- CHART TITLE OK

type COLUMN BUCKLING _ EN'rER, click

click on CHART _ ATTACH TEXT _ CATEGORY AXIS OK

type LENGTH(in) _ ENTER, click

click on CHART _ ATTACH TEXT VALUE AXIS OK

type LOAD(lb) _ ENTER, click

FoLlow the previous instruction for printing.

REFERENCES:

1. Eliason, A. L., M_crosofl Excel Student Edition, _ Hall, 1993.

2. Denton, I-_11.,.'n.n Roach, and Thalen, Strength of Materials-Laboratory Manual, Pmdue Univet,aiiy,

Mechanical _ Technology, 1993.

463
Reference area

Concepts You Need to Know

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464
I I A f 8

J i I_/°rkaneeE 1i SprIng Rate:

s I' o

5 j 0eflectlon finl

0.000

7 I TOO 0.085

v

I 8 i 200 0.165

191 300 0,225

10 400 _ 0.320

5OO I 0.380

1 c [ o I e _ I G

,SPRING RATE

I

L.R. A OeflectTon linl L.R. 9

i o.ooo o oooo oooo

' 3,088 _00 0.135 0.138

0.181 _ 200 0,235 0,236

0.235 i 300 0.335 0.333

0.310 4OO

0.384 i

121 I ' i

14 0,0OO745_ O.0115 I

0.440 0.431

500 0.520 0.528

I S_ ! Icn'm_em

0.0OO975 I 0,04.05

0,600

0.500

0.400

Deflection (inl 0,300

0.200

0.100

0,000

O

Figure 2.. Sl_ing Rate

1O0 200 300 400 500

Load (Ibl

• DeflectJon (in)

[]L.R. A

• Oeflect_on (in|

_L.R. B

Sue_ (psi)

t E

' wo.,._,.,2.I B ] c

1 S_ee$ Cancentl"atlon

2 ! I !

i

3 ' ! Suee= Concentration I

4 Gage #I JGage #2 iGage #3 Gage #4

s i oi ol o! o

6 0.1! 37301 2900 t 26601 2870

7 0.2J 75201 59301 53801 5900

S 0.31 11320 i 90301 80701 8920

9 0,41 151201 120101 108401 11900

F_gure 3. Stre_ Concerm'aldon

16OOO

,,ooo ; /"

12000 f _-_

/ • i i

0.1 0.2 0.3

Deflect'ion (inl

0.4

• Gagl #1

F-JGage #2

• Gage #3

_>Gage #4

465
A ! 8 l c I

1 Worksl'teet 3. Endurance Limit: !

2 1 I I

3 J ALUMpINUMI

4 X I d

5 I i

6 20.68751 0.2941 6.80916i

o I E

]

" i s

34 6 56491,08

7 18.1975t 0,3! 6.60916!

s 15.6675t 0.274! 6.60918!

9 13.18751 0,2741 6.809161

1110 10.6875

13! X

15 20.6875 t

16 18.1875

17 15.6875

18 13.18751

2O19 10.68751

22 X

24 19.25

25 16.75

28 14.18

27 11.75

28 9.28

74061 4674.3.7

18175l 52919.52

0.2741 6.80916!

294041 44486.13

BRASS

d P

0.298 5.3021

0.3 5.30211

0.298 5.30211

0.301 5.3021

0.299 5.3021

N S

3748 42240.35

13947 36398

36871 32031.2

179778 26129.51

STEEL

d P N 6

0.279 13.2614 1725 11979_

0.2791 13.2614 3878 104234.E

0.2791 13.26141 7481 88241.5_

0.279 13.2614 16259 73119.7_

0.279 13.2614 53230 ! 57749.0E

100000

R_t.u'e 4.. Endurance Unit: for Aluminum

$ _-esz (==i)

10000

100

100000

I I I I _lql+ I _ I tl)tl

I I !1 i!tll I II Ittll

1000 10000

Cycles

Endurance L.imi'¢ for Brass

t ' ' ' _ P 'l!*

I I -_ t i _lTi + + Itll

I I I I lilll I I t l tilll

,0000 t I 1111 t It tli

1000 10000 100_300

Cy_de,,

1000000

100000

L I /

, , d , : ,,,i

t I ] I II,!l

1000000

Endurar,=m _ f_r $tmqd

S¢=_== (lUi) 100000

10000

1000

466
A I B I C O E

Worksheet 4. Column Buckling

t I

........_....................... /? _.:__:_ :_i:i::_:_i_ i................ ;_i__:_"_i :__......?_:_!::_. ......

Steel 425 220 138 115

Aluminum 1301 62 50 35

Brass 95 70 45 30

load (Ib)

1000

_oo!

10

12

Figure 5. Column Buckling

L

16 20 24

Length (in)

• Steel

[] Aluminum

_k Brass

467

N94- 36415

/

/, I/

AN AUTOMATED DIGITAL DATA COLLECTION AND

ANALYSIS SYSTEM FOR THE

CHARPY IMPACT TESTER

Glenn S. Kohne

and

F. Xavier Spiegel

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science

Loyola College in Maryland

4501 North Charles Street

Baltimore, Maryland 21210

Telephone 410-617-2249

469

An Automated Digital Data Collection and Analysis System

for the Charpy Impact Tester

Glenn S. Kohne, Associate Professor

F. Xavier Spiegel, Associate Professor

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science

Loyola College in Maryland

Baltimore, Maryland 21210

Abstract: The standard Charpy Impact Tester has been modified by the addition of a

system of hardware and software to improve the accuracy and consistency of

measurements made during specimen fracturing experiments. An optical disc, light

source and detector generate signals that indicate the pendulum position as a function

of time. These signals are used by a computer to calculate the velocity and kinetic

energy of the pendulum as a function of its position.

Key Words: Charpy, fracture energy, impact testing, automated data collection,

experimental errors.

Prerequisite knowledge required:

To meet the first objective, the student should be familiar with fracture testing and

very basic use of computers. To meet the second and third objectives, the student

should be familiar with basic analog and digital electronics, computer interfacing,

experimental error analysis and simple BASIC programming.

Objectives:

This work was undertaken to explore three areas of materials experimentation. The

most obvious first objective was to add instrumentation to significantly improve the

accuracy of fracture measurements made with a Charpy impact tester. Measurements

471
madewith theuninstrumentedCharpyareperformedbyvisuallyobservingthe

maximumheightachievedin theupswingof thependulumafterthefractureis

completed.Dependingontheenergyrequiredfor fracture,thefinal positionof the

pendulummaybeanywhereonthe26inchlongscaleinscribedonthemachine's

circumference.Sincetheapproximatefinal pointwherethevisualobservationis to be

madeisunknown,it is difficultto makeanaccuratedeterminationof its finalposition.

Theuncertaintyof carefullymadevisualmeasurementsiapproximately1to 2 in-lb1

(.113-.226J).

Thesecondobjectivewasto provide a platform for students to discover and study

problems inherent in all instrumentation and automated data collection systems. This

system has three modular sections: the sensor and its analog conditioning electronics;

the digital circuitry and digital input-output interface to the computer; and the

computer program (algorithmic technique) which accumulates, evaluates and displays

the experimental data. Each of these modular areas (and problems which must be

addressed within them) can be studied in isolation.

The third objective was to provide a mechanism to allow students to redesign part of

the instrumentation to study different aspects of the fracturing experiment and to

minimize certain errors in making and evaluating measurements. The initial

configuration provides a measurement of the pendulum's kinetic energy prior to and

subsequent to the fracture of the sample. The three modules were designed to

optimize these two measurements. If one wanted to study the process of the fracture

as it occurred, changes to each of the three modules would be necessary. This system

was designed to make it easy for students to experiment with various alternatives to

each of the three modules.

Equipment and supplies:

Needed supplies include: a Charpy impact tester, an Intel based personal computer, a

digital input-output interface card; and various discreet physical and electronic

components (described in detail below).

IThe units ofin-lb are used because the Charpy is labeled in in-lb. SI units are included parenthetically.

472
Procedure:

Modification of the Charpy - An optical position detection system was constructed

and attached to the Charpy. This system consists of three sections: the optical

position disk, the light sensor, and the signal conditioning circuitry. The optical

position disk is an aluminum disk mounted on the pendulum axis and rigidly attached

to the pendulum arm. Physical details of this disk are given in Appendix 1. The light

sensor section consists of a light emitting diode and photosensitive transistor situated

such that the optical position disk can allow or interfere with the light link between

them. The signal conditioning circuitry serves to drive the light sensor section and to

generate a digital TTL signal suitable for input to the computer input-output interface

card. Physical and electrical details of the light sensor and signal conditioning

circuitry are given in Appendix 2.

The signal generated by the experimental apparatus is coupled to an Intel based

personal computer through a generic interface card. The computer program which

controls the experiment directs the operator in the setup of the Charpy, acquires the

experimental data, measures the times between signal pulses, computes and displays

physical parameters including velocity and kinetic energy of the pendulum just before

the fracturing impact and just after the fracture.

With an unmodified Charpy, an experiment is conducted by raising the pendulum to a

standard position to the right of center and then releasing it. The pendulum swings

down,.breaks the sample and continues up to the left of center. The observer watches

and notes the value on the inscribed scale at the position where the maximum height is

reached by the pendulum to the left of center.

With the modified Charpy, the energy used to break the sample is determined by

measuring the velocity of the pendulum's mass immediately prior to and subsequent to

the fracturing of the sample and then computing the loss in total energy.

Theory - The work done in fracturing the sample can be found by measuring the total

energy lost by the mass affecting the fracture. The total energy in the pendulum's

mass is:

12my 2 + mgy (1)

473
where m is the pendulum's mass, v is its velocity, and y is its height above its minimum

altitude. The measurement of initial velocity and final velocity were made very near

the pendulum's minimum altitude and equally displaced from that position, yfand Yi are

very small and are equal. Therefore, the total energy used to break the sample is:

2m(v -

The signal generated by the optical circuit is of the form below:

III I I

t t t t

1 2 3 4 5

Figure 1

The computer looks for falling edges in the incoming signal. The first edge at t 1 starts

the computer's timing function. The computer measures the time between t 2 and t3

which are generated by two slits just prior to the pendulum contacting the sample.

The breakage occurs during the interval between t 3 and t4. The computer measures

the time between t 4 and t 5 which is generated by two slits just subsequent to the

break. Since the position of the pendulum's mass is accurately known when each of

the slits generates its signal, the velocities of the mass can be accurately computed.

Analysis of data collection errors - The principal source of measurement error in

this experiment is the quantitizing error in measuring time. The computer must count

time in discreet steps. If an event occurs between count 5 and 6, it is not possible to

know whether the event occurred just after the counter became 5 or just before the

counter became 6. The impact of this quantitizing error depends on the size of the

time steps being counted. If the counter increments every 0. lms, the error would be

an order of magnitude greater than if the counter increments every 0.01 ms.

474
In our case, the counter is incremented every 0.021 ms. Physical dimensions of the

modified Charpy are such that 676 counts occur in the time between t2 and t 3. Since

the actual time oft 2 could be almost 1 count from the time it is detected and the

actual time oft 3 could be almost 1 count from the time it is detected, the interval t2-t 3

as measured by the computer could differ from reality by as much as 2 counts or

0.3%.

Several interesting student projects could be designed around the determination of the

effect of other errors introduced by physical aspects of the machine such as: accuracy

of the position of the mass at t2, t3, t4 and t5; accuracy of measurement of the

pendulum's mass.

Modifications for equipment improvement - The next logical step for this

experiment is to add more optical slits and to make them thinner and closer together.

A velocity measurement could be made as each slit passes thereby giving a graph of

velocity (energy) as a function of position as the pendulum mass breaks the sample.

Conduct of fracture experiments - Experiments which have been successfully

completed include measurement of the fracture energy of wood samples both with

and against the grain; the fracture energy of wood samples as a function of water

content; and the fracture energy of wooden samples which have been fractured and

then glued together with various types of glue. Wood samples were used because they are

readily available, easily worked and inexpensive. Polymers, ceramics and composites

could also be tested by this method.

475
Sample data sheet:

Calibration Check: (Run with no sample in place)

Initial speed:

Initial kinetic energy:

Final speed:

Change in KE

3.534 m/s

5.666 J

3.534 m/s

-1.02 (10 -3) J

Sample Type:

Orientation:

Dimensions:

Pine (white)

with the grain

1.35 x 1.25 x 5.5 cm

Sample # Fracture Energy fJ)

1 2.00

2 2.57

3 2.28

4 1.54

5 2.00

6 3.43

7 2.28

8 1.99

9 2.25

10 1.99

476
Instructor notes:

Conducting experiments on the unmodified Charpy was frustrating to most students.

Two students were required, one to accurately position the sample and to release the

pendulum. The second student would observe the highest position of the pendulum

alter it fractured the sample. Typically, several trial fractures were necessary to

determine the approximate location of the maximum position of the pendulum alter

the fracture.

With the addition of the automated data collection system to the Charpy, experiments

can be conducted by a single student in less than half of the time previously required.

The accuracy of the measurements achievable has been improved ten-fold

References:

Weigman, Bernard J. and Spiegel, F. Xavier: "An Automated Data Collection System

for a Charpy Impact Tester ", NASA CP-3201, 1992.

Eggebrecht, L.C.: Interfacing to the IBM Personal Computer, Howard W. Sams &

Co.

Thompson and Kuckes: IBM-PC in the Laboratory, Cambridge University Press.

Krutz, Ronald L." Interfacing Techniques in Digital Design, Wiley.

Stone, Harold S.: Microcomputer Interfacing, Addison Wesley.

Cripps, Martin: Computer Interfacing - Connection to the Real World, Edward

Arnold Publisher (Hodder & Stoughton).

Spiegel, F. Xavier and Weigman, Bernard J. "An Automated System for Creep

Testing", NASA CP-3151, 1991.

Fellers, William O." Materials Science, Testing and Properties for Technicians,

Prentice Hall, 1990.

477
Sources of Supplies: The resistors and integrated circuits used here should be common

stock to any electrical engineering/computer science department. The IR

emitter/receiver pair is available through Radio Shack. The mounting saddle for the

light link is tooled from scrap wood. The optical disk is made from ordinary 0.125"

sheet aluminum.

478
Appendix 1

The optical system consists of the white metal disk centered on the pendulum's axle and

rigidly attached to the pendulum, the light source/sensor which straddles the disk (B), and

the interchangeable slit plate (A).When the pendulum is near the bottom of'its swing, the slit

plate will be passing through the light source/sensor. The pulse train issued by the light

sensor is routed to conditioning circuitry (Appendix 2) and then to the digital input board in

the PC.

479
Appendix 2 - Light Sensor and Signal Conditioning Circuitry

+5 R_,_ R4

R1

D1 to computer

÷5

R1 = 270

R2 = 2000

R3 = 3000 £_

R4 = 30000

R5 = 3000

R6 = 3000

U1 = LM324 Quad OpAmp

U2 = SN7404 Hex Inverter

D1/Q 1 = Generic IR source/receiver pair (Radio Shack)

480
J

PEEL PROPERTIES

OF A PRESSURE SENSITIVE ADHESIVE

Elizabeth C. Edblom

Senior Research Chemist

3M Center

Building 251-3B-13

St. Paul, Minnesota 55144-1000

Telephone 612-736-7372

481
Elizabeth Edblom

3M Center

482
Peel Properties of a Pressure Sensitive Adhesive

Elizabeth C. Edblom

Research Specialist

3M

Abrasive Systems Division

St. Paul, Minnesota

Key Words: Pressure Sensitive Adhesive (PSA), peel

Prerequisite Knowledge: Knowledge of basic adhesive terminology is helpful but not

necessary.

Objective: To observe some of the factors affecting peel force on adhesive samples

prepared by the student such as adhesive composition, adhesive coating weight, peel rate, and

dwell time. To measure the peel rate/peel force response for a standard adhesive tape.

Equipment:

1. solution of synthetic rubber

2. solution of tackifier resin

3. coating rods

4. drying oven approved for organic solvents

5. 1 or 2 mil polyester film - #PE-1 or PE-2

6. one inch tape specimen cutter - #SC-100

7. 4.5 lb rubber roller - #HR-101

8. 2 x 6" stainless steel test panels - #TP-26

9. analytical balance

10. paper binder clip

11. plastic beaker

12. string

13. steel BB balls

14. stop watch

15. ruler

16. Magic tape

17. organic solvents; toluene, heptane, isopropyl alcohol, acetone, and ethyl acetate

18. computer and computer graphing program or graphing paper

Introduction:

Peel resistance is a function of many factors, including adhesive composition, strength of the

interfacial bond, adhesive thickness, backing stiffness, peel angle, peel rate, wet out or dwell

time, temperature, and application pressure.

483
Resistance to peel is defined as the force required to peel a strip of adhesive tape from a rigid

surface. Peel force, however is not equivalent to the forces of adhesion at the interface, rather

it is a combination of adhesion forces and the work done on the adhesive. It is not possible to

separate these two forces. None-the-less, of the frequently used pressure sensitive adhesive

tests, resistance to peel produces more information about expected performance than do tests

such as tack and creep.

Observe a piece of masking tape on a steel panel as it is slowly peeled from the panel. The

adhesive releases by forming individual strands. These strands are stretched and drawn until

sufficient elastic energy is stored and the adhesive separates from the interface. Adhesion

forces typically are weak Van der Waals attractions. Essentially all the work done in peeling

the tape goes into stretching the adhesive.

Behavior of an adhesive can be separated into elastic and viscous behavior, represented in

Figure 1 by a spring and a dash pot filled with a viscous material, respectively.

Figure 1. Spring and Dash Pot Model.

Viscoelastic properties are dependent upon the speed at which the adhesive is deformed. Since

this experiment focuses on the effect of peel rate on peel force let's consider what happens to

the model as it is pulled (peeled) at different rates. When pulled slowly the adhesive exhibits

liquid-like behavior; the dash pot moves but the spring does not deform. Since no energy is

stored in the spring, the adhesive splits when exposed to these slow peel forces. If the system

is pulled rapidly, the spring stretches. When the movement is very fast, the viscous material

does not have time to deform. This solid-like behavior results in a tape pop off. At

intermediate peel rates both components play a role. It is at these rates that the highest peel

forces are attained. In this experiment the students will control peel force and measure the

resulting peel speed.

484
o

U.,

Peel Rate

Figure 2. Generalized Peel Force vs. Peel Rate for a PSA.

There are numerous American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) for peel adhesion.

This experiment will focus on the 180 ° peel as it is easy to maintain a 180 ° peel angle without

a special fixture.

Procedure:

Compounding and Coating:

Simple rubber/resin pressure sensitive adhesives can be compounded by blending a rubber

solution with a tackifier resin solution. Use the solutions of Kraton ®- 1107 elastomer and

Wingtack Plus resin prepared by your instructor to compound your adhesives. Note the

percentage solids of each solution (weight in grams of material/100 grams solvent).

Compound 100 gm of the following three adhesives: 40/60, 50/50, and 60/40 parts

rubber/resin based on percentage solids.

To coat the adhesive pour a small amount of solution onto the film and at a slow and even rate

spread the adhesive by rolling the coating rod the length of the film pushing the adhesive into a

thin fiat layer. The coating step is critical as ridges and variations in adhesive thickness will

affect peel results. After coating the handspread the rod should be cleaned with heptane. At

this stage the adhesive contains solvent. To dry the adhesive, place the coated polyester sheets

in an oven approved for organic solvents at 150°F for 20 minutes. Taping the handspreads to

a stiff board will prevent them from wrinkling during the drying step. After removing samples

from the oven let the tape cool to room temperature.

485
Now you are ready to measure your adhesive coating weight. Cut a piece of backing film and

tape of equal size, approximately 0.10 m2. The difference in weight of these two samples is

your coating weight in gm/m 2. A coating weight of about 25 gm/m 2 is a good place to begin.

Peeling the Tape Sample:

Peel properties of PSA tapes are influenced by how the tape sample is cut and applied to the

substrate. To minimize cut variability on a cardboard surface, use a one inch tape specimen

cutter to cut strips of tape about 6" in length. Use extreme caution when cutting tape samples

with the one inch cutter. Lay the tape adhesive side down on a clean steel panel. Try to place

the tape strip straight on the panel as angling of the sample will affect your results. Acetone

or isopropyl alcohol can be used to remove residue from the metal surface. Use the 4.5 lb

roller with a minimum of pressure to evenly smooth the tape to the panel. Allow the tape to

wet out on the panel for 30 seconds.

Fasten a paper binder clip to one end of the tape sample and hook the string suspending the

plastic beaker loaded with BB's to the clip. A 200 gm load of BB's is a good place to start.

At the start of the test the beaker should hang below the panel, see Figure 3. Peel the tape at a

180 ° angle off of the steel panel and note the time it takes for the tape to peel a convenient

distance. Marking a distance on the steel panel before beginning the peeling experiment will

help improve the accuracy of the peel speed determination. Record force in grams ( weight of

BB's + beaker) and peel speed (peel distance/time).

Figure 3. Arrangement for Peel Test.

Choose a different coating rod and prepare a second handspread of your adhesive with a higher

coating weight and repeat the peel resistance test. What happens to the peel force? Try a

lower coating weight. Next try coating the other adhesive formulations. What happens to the

peel force as the percentage of tackifier in the formulation increases? Finally, increase and

decrease the dwell time between tape application and peeling. Is the effect the same for all

486
coating weights of adhesive and all formulations? Enter your data into a table similar to the

one shown below. Include a section to describe any observations you made during the peeling

of each tape sample.

Adhesive

Composition

40/60 K1107/W +

Coating

Weight

g/m 2

Roll Down

Pressure

lb

4.5

Dwell Time

see

30

50/50 K- 4.5 30

1107/W +

60/40 K- 4.5 30

1107/W+

Peel Force

g

Peel Rate

cm/sec

Effect of Peel Rate on Peel Force:

Preparing reproducible handspreads is difficult. For this reason commercial rolls of Magic

Tape will be used in the determination of the effect of peel rate on peel force. Coating weight

must be determined for the tape. Cut a sample of tape and record its weight. To remove the

adhesive layer, place the tape in a jar of ethyl acetate for 20-30 minutes. Remove the film

from the solvent and scrape any remaining adhesive off the backing using a razor blade. Dry

the film in the drying oven for 10 minutes. Weigh the film and calculate the coating weight.

Make at least ten different peel rate measurements by varying the load of BB's in the

plastic beaker. Measure each force point three times. Use the data table to record your

results. Calculate both average and standard deviation peel rate and use those values in a plot

peel force vs. speed. Does it look like the plot shown in Figure 2?

Comment on any differences in the manner in which the tape samples peeled as peel rate

increased. Were the peels smooth at all speeds? Were any adhesive residues left on the

panels? What would you expect to happen if the tape were allowed to peel at an infinitely

slow rate?

Notes to the Instructor:

o Kraton ® polymers from Shell Chemical Company are especially suitable for solvent based

compositions. With gentle agitation it may take several hours for a Kraton ® rubber to

completely go into solution. Solutions should be made up ahead of time at 40-50% solids

using toluene or a 40/60 blend of toluene/heptane. Kraton®-1107 has been chosen as the

487
.

.

°

elastomeric material for this experiment. Information for more elaborate-adhesive

formulation can be found in Shell's adhesive bulletins SC68: Selector Guide and SC198:

Adhesive Formulating Guide. To request samples of literature from Shell call 800-323-

3405. Tackify the Kraton®-1107 with the Wingtack Plus resin from Goodyear

Chemicals. The resin solution should also be prepared ahead of time at a concentration of

40-50% solids in either solvent listed above. Contact Mike Martin at Goodyear at 216-

796-7482 for a resin sample.

RDS coating rods, equipment item 3, are available from R.D. Specialties ( 560 Salt Road

P.O. Box 206, Webster, NY 14580, 716-265-0220) in a variety of rod and wire sizes. A

starter set of six 1/4" diameter rods is available for $65.00. This set would give students

the capability of coating a broad range of thicknesses.

Equipment items 5-8 can be ordered from Chemsultants International Network, 9349

Hamilton Drive, P.O. Box 1118, Mentor, Ohio 44061-1108, 216-352-0218.

Use extreme caution with the one inch cutters. Sharp razor blades produce a cleaner

sample edge, but may also be responsible for deep cuts in the students fingers.

5. Organic solvents must be used in a hood or well vented area.

References:

Satas, Donatas., ed.: Handbook of Pressure Sensitive Adhesive Technology, Second ed., Van

Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1989, pp. 61-95.

488
SYMMETRY AND STRUCTURE THROUGH

OPTICAL DIFFRACTION

Jennifer Gray

and

Gretchen Kalonji

Department of Materials Science and Engineering

University of Washington

302 Roberts Hall FB-10

Seattle, Washington 98195

Telephone 206-685-3851

489
Jennifer Gray

University of Washington

490
Symmetry and Structure Through Optical Diffraction

JenniferGrayandGretchenKalonji

Department of Materials Science and Engineering

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington 98195

KEY WORDS: diffraction, symmetry, laser, optics

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Basic diffraction from introductory physics and

exposure to symmetry concepts.

OBJECTIVES: To understand diffraction and how it relates to symmetry and structure

through direct observation. To provide an exploratory environment in which students

can readily pose and answer "what-if?" type questions concerning diffraction. To

provide an introduction to some useful computational tools. Other offshoots for further

investigation would include optics and principles of laser operation.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

(1) computer and laser printer with

(2) drawing software such as CrystalPaint or Claris Cad for creating patterns

(3) optical bench including:

He-Ne laser

beam expander

slide holder

two lenses

image screen

(4) instant slide film (such as Polaroid PolaBlue 35mm)

(5) instant slide processor (Polaroid 35mm AutoProcessor)

(6) 35mm camera and tripod

INTRODUCTION:

In this paper, we describe an activity which was created as part of a new introductory materials

science course at the University of Washington. This course differs significantly from

traditional versions in both content and pedagogy. Our new course was developed within the

framework of the ECSEL program at the University of Washington. ECSEL, the Engineering

Coalition of Schools for Excellence and Leadership, is a coalition of seven universities that has

been funded by the National Science Foundation to undertake a twofold mission:

(1) to dramatically improve the quality of the engineering undergraduate experience

(2) to significantly enhance the participation of women and under-represented minorities.

The other schools in the ECSEL coalition are Howard University, Morgan State University,

City College of New York, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Pennsylvania State

University, and the University of Maryland.

In our introductory materials science subject, the changes have been major 1. The format of the

course moved from the traditional engineering emphasis on lectures, problem sets and exams, to

a very heavy emphasis on student-initiated projects and research, undertaken both individually

491
andin largeandsmallgroups.Thecoursealsoplacesaheavyemphasison developing

experiencein oralandwrittenpresentationskills. In orderto allowsuchaninnovative

exploratoryclassroomenvironmento flourish,wefoundit necessaryto dramaticallychange

ourgradingstrategiesaswell. Wedevelopedajournal-basedassessmenttechnique,which

simultaneouslyoffersmanyeducationalandsocialadvantages2. The traditional curriculum has

been replaced by a series of nine modules. These modules, though largely independent, share a

number of oowerful unifying conceptual themes, in particular the closely related ones of

symmetry and thermodynamic driving forces. The modules are entitled "Symmetry and

Strength", "Ferroelectrics", "Solidification", "Diffraction and the Determination of Structure",

"Mechanical Properties of Materials", "Glass", Biological Materials", "Semiconductivity and

Superconductivity" and "What's in it and Why?".

Essential to the philosophy of our course is that the ratio of structured activity to free-form

student-initiated project-based activity is tailorable to an individual student's needs and

aesthetics. There is a common structure to each of the modules listed above, however. The

common components of each module include an "idea sheet", which can act as a launching pad

for students who have a hard time getting started on projects on their own, a reference sheet,

some curricular offshoots which we call "illuminating sidetracks" and an optional problem set,

for those who find that medium useful. For each module, we have also prepared a structured

laboratory activity. This flexible structure allows those students who feel more comfortable

with the traditional format of homework, quizzes and exams to rely heavily on those activities,

while those who prefer to explore their own ideas in depth can do so. The activity described in

this paper is the structured lab activity portion of the module on "Diffraction and the

Determination of Structure".

This activity focuses on the understanding of diffraction and its relationship to symmetry and

atomic structure. During the lab, students design and create two-dimensional patterns

exhibiting various symmetries using a variety of computational tools. These patterns are then

made into slides and analyzed using optical diffraction. Patterns representing some two

dimensional slices of common crystallographic structures are also analyzed in the lab. This lab

activity allows students to use their creativity in the design of the patterns, as well as to

experiment with different computer drawing/painting software. A major benefit to this lab is the

student-directed activity it encourages, in contrast to a traditional lab, in which students follow

an directive set by the instructor. Once the optical bench is set up, it is relatively easy for the

students to use it on their own, exploring a wide variety of relatively sophisticated questions.

Another advantage to the optical diffraction activity is that, unlike in the case of X-ray

diffraction, students can actually see the pattern from which they are diffracting, and observe

directly how changes in their patterns affect diffracted intensity. We believe that a more concrete

understanding of diffraction, a topic difficult to visualize and to explain in lecture, is achieved

with this approach.

Diffraction in its various manifestations is clearly one of the most important tools in materials

science. In our optical diffraction activity, the patterns generated by the students can be

arbitrarily complex, due to the variety of computational tools available, and are often very

pleasing aesthetically. While most students choose relatively simple patterns, ambitious ones

can experiment with multi-component structures, with variations in density, and with crystalline

defects, opening up a far wider realm of materials science phenomena to their exploration. It is

the relatively quick and painless turn-around time between making changes in structure and

observing changes in diffracted intensity that makes this a valuable activity educationally.

The basic process occurring in optical diffraction by a laser source can be described in terms of

Fraunhofer diffraction and interference.3, 4 The light emitted from a laser is assumed to be a

beam of parallel, monochromatic light that is coherent. When this light interacts with an object,

492
the diffraction pattern produced is the Fourier transform of the object. The diagram below

illustrates different diffraction patterns produced with variation in distance between scattering

centers, as well as with variation of the scattering efficiency of the objects. Students find the

mathematical concepts associated with diffraction difficult to visualize. Furthermore, as patterns

become more and more complex, the mathematics becomes more and more unwieldy. Yet with

our optical set-up, a qualitative appreciation for aspects of diffraction can be attained, an

appreciation that can serve as a motivation as well as a sound basis for more advanced study.

I

Laser beam

Figure 1. (a) and (b) Comparison of diffraction pattern formation with different distances

between scattering centers. As the distance becomes larger, the diffraction pattern

becomes smaller. (c) and (d) Different scattering efficiencies of objects. The

relative intensities within each pattern do not change, but absolute intensity does.

493
PROCEDURE:

Safety considerations: It's rather hard to injure oneself in this lab, but students should

not look directly into the laser.

(1) Setting up optical bench ;

Refer to Figure 2 below or any introductory physics textbook for positioning the lenses.

Once lens (fl) is fixed, move lens (f2) back and forth to focus on either the back focal

plane, for the diffraction pattern, or the image plane, for the image. Use a slide with a

sample pattern, such as a grid, to focus the images onto a screen or the wall. Mark the

positions of lens (f2) corresponding to each plane.

back focal plane image plane

slide _'_ II II /'_

I obj_ctiflllns I I dif actio lens

_ fl I fl_t A

] a [ b I

Figure 2. Diagram for optical bench set up, where fl and f2 are the focal lengths of the lenses.

The position of the image plane can be determined by the equation, 5

1 1 1

(1)

a b fl

(2) Generating the patterns:

There are a wide variety of software packages that can be used to generate twodimensional periodic patterns. Perhaps the most fun is CrystalPaint, which is also the

most educational in terms of playing around with symmetry groups. The software

allows the Macintosh user to choose one of the 17 planar crystallographic groups and to

decorate it with a motif generated through a MacPaint-like palette. As an alternative,

students can experiment with various draw, paint, or CAD programs to create their

patterns. Periodic greyscale changes can mimic the creation of ordered, multicomponent

solids. When designing these patterns, keep in mind that the features should be as small

in size as possible, so that when reduced into a slide they will be effective in diffracting

radiation on the order of the wavelength of light. Sample patterns from various software

are shown below in Figure 3.

494
Figure 3. (a) BCC (111) plane made in Claris CAD. (b) MacPaint pattern. (c) CrystalPaint

pattern with P31M symmetry. (d) CrystalPaint pattern with P6 symmetry.

(3) Making the slides:

Using the camera and tripod, take pictures of the patterns with the PolaBlue film,

keeping in mind the correct feature size needed to interact with the laser light. This

might take some experimenting. Take pictures at a few different camera distances

making the pattern effectively larger/smaller. This will show the effect of changing

distance between scattering objects on the diffraction pattern as shown in Figure 1.

Rewind the film and follow the instructions on the AutoProcessor. (The processing of

the slides only takes about five minutes, so students can quickly see the diffraction

results from their patterns.)

(4) Getting diffraction patterns and images:

Once the slides are made, insert one in the slide holder in front of the laser. Knowing

the correct positions for the intermediate lens, look at both the diffraction pattern and

image. Try to find relationships between the two and record observations. Look at the

diffraction pattern from another slide. Have other students try to guess what the image

of the pattern might look like, then show the image. Pictures of the diffraction patterns

may be taken and included in a report along with the original pattern. Figure 4 shows

pictures of diffraction patterns and images obtained by using optical diffraction in the

lab.

495
(5) Optional Group Activity:

Students can break into groups to create "mystery patterns". The challenge from one

group to another is then to determine as much information as possible concerning the

real space pattern another group has generated, given only its diffracted image.

Figure 4. (a) Image of square grid pattern and (b) corresponding diffraction

pattern produced in lab experiment. (c) Image of rectangular grid pattern

and (d) corresponding diffraction pattern.

INSTRUCTOR NOTES:

Be sure to provide as much time and independent access to the equipment as possible, so the

students have the opportunity to develop their insight and understanding.

SUMMARY:

We have described one of the structured lab activities that is a component of a new introductory

materials science course developed within the ECSEL program at the University of Washington.

The activity has the qualitative feature that it provides students with a relatively simple

mechanism for exploring concepts that are relatively complex, and at the heart of modem

experimental materials science. It is an activity which is quite inexpensive in terms of equipment

requirements but quite rich in its potential applicability. It could well be used as a supplement to

a wide variety of other classroom or laboratory activities having to do with diffraction.

496
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

Theauthorswouldlike to thankDr. G. H. Kim for his help in this experiment.

REFERENCES:

.

Kalonji, Gretchen: A Novel Introductory Materials Science Course and the Challenges it

Poses for Long-term Institutionalization. in Towards 2000." Facing the Future in

Engineering Education, ed. L.P. Grayson, p. 719. Proceedings of "Frontiers in

Education" conference, Nashville, TN, November, 1992.

. Kalonji, Gretchen: Alternative Assessment in Engineering Education: The Use of

Journals in a Core Materials Science Subject. in Engineering Education: Curriculum

Integration and Innovation, p. 215. Proceedings of the Engineering Foundation

Conference, Santa Barbara, CA, January 1992.

3. Taylor, Charles: Diffraction. IOP Publishing Limited, Bristol, 1987.

.

Lipson, S. G. and Lipson, H.: Optical Physics. Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge, 1981.

. Halliday, D. and Resnick, R.: Physics, Part H. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,

1978.

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES:

The optical bench including laser and lenses can be obtained from many companies selling general

scientific lab equipment. Camera and slide film supplies are available at stores selling

photography equipment. CrystalPaint software is no longer available.

497

TESTING RIGIDITY, YIELDPOINT, AND HARDENABILIITY

BY TORQUE WRENCH

Edward L. Widener- MET Dept.

Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN

KEY WORDS: force, elastic-plastic, resilience, rigidity, stiffness, stress-strain, torsion, toughness.

PREREQUISITES: Brittle and ductile materials; elastic or plastic deformation of metals; workhardening of ductile or malleable metals.

OBJECTIVES: To demonstrate the phenomenon of work-hardening in ductile metals; to

estimate a yield point and measure the shear strength; to use a torque-wrench and raise the

material-stiffness.

EQUIPMENT/SUPPLIES:

Assorted metal bars, 3-mm sq x 5-cm.

Small bench-vise, or C-clamp.

End-wrench, or crescent-wrench, for 3-mm bar-stock.

Torque-wrench, "Craftsman" or equivalent, 45-cm (18" lg), 150 ft-lb capacity (+ or -).

INTRODUCTION: Tensile tests and stress-strain curves provide mechanical properties, such as

Young's elastic-modulus (E). Literally, based on Hooke's Law, this familiar design-parameter

represents material stiffness of a homogeneous metal sample, loaded axially and umformly to its

elastic limit; however, such stiffness typically is the slope of a straight line, from origin to

proportional limit, on a stress-strain curve. Often, such limits are almost identical to the material's

yield point; then the triangular area under this line (stress times strain over two) defines elastic

energy in the sample (resilience modulus). Consider the axial Moment-of-Inema (I) to be shapestiffness of a cross-section, so your overall stiffness of design is E times I (Ref. J.P.Den Hartog,

"Strength of Materials" ", Dover Inc, 1961). .

Rigidity (G) is a similar modulus, representing a direct linear relationship between shearstress/strain-angle, but for torsional loads and maximum strains at the outside surface of a twisted

sample. Theoretically, to resist torque, the optimal design is a right-circular prism, shaped as a

thin-wall tube not a solid rod. The ultimate distribution of material, limited by zero thickness and

infinite radius, would be a mono-molecular layer at maximum distance from the neutral axis.

Hence, our overall torsion-design stiffness is G (rigidity) times J (polar moment-of-inertia).

PROCEDURE:

A. For a start, 1) clamp the large-loop of a paper-clip in a small vise; 2) hook a fish-scale (springloaded) over the small inside-loop; 3) pull until that small loop bends about 90-degrees; 4)

reverse the pull to restore the loop and straighten the clip; 5) have a student read both pulls

(forces); 6) the restoring force should exceed the original one, if the leverage is constant. (Note:

Weights could be hung on a horizontal clip to bend and harden the wire. However, avoid bending

at new places on the wire, as work-hardening occurs in the old.)

B. For practical tests of ductile metals: 1) clamp a 5cm length of 3mm square rod (say 3/4" by

3/4" by 2") in a vise; 2) fit an end-wrench onto the rod; 3) twist 90-degrees, then 180; 4)reverse

twist to 90-degrees, then back to zero; 5) feel increasing twist-resistance from work-hardening,

until fatigue and fracture occur. (Ref: M.A. Sarapin, "United Association Apprentice Training

Program", Metals Course #38, 1979-89).

C. For quantitative tests, use a torque-wrench: 1) braze a square socket-fitting to the wrench end;

2) mount a new rod in the vise; 3) twist the rod slightly, then release and observe its elastic return

_ffr.),tf_ PAGE BLAr_K NOT FILII_ID
tO zero-degrees; 4) record the twist-angle at yield-point, via protractor, just after Qe rod has a _-,

permanent set; 5) twist an extra 45, 90, 135, 180 degrees, recording the corresponolng torques; o)

reverse the twist, then record torques which restore the rod to 135, 90, 45, and zero degrees; 7)

test small rods (3-mm square) of steel, cast-iron, aluminum, copper, brass; 8) plot torques vs.

angles for all samples; 9) compare results with published moduli of E and G (Ref: ASM Metals

Handbook, ed.9, v 1 & 2).

has taught Mechanical Engineering Technology

at Purdue University since 1978, concentrating on statics,

fluid mechanics, materials, and technical writing. Member

of ASME, ASEE, ASM, TAPPI. Registered PE in New York and

Indiana. ABET visitor from 1983-1990. BS(Physics) and BS(ME)

from Purdue University;, MS(EM) from University of Kansas...

Taught nights at IUPU-Indianapolis and Danville-JC,IL.

Mechanical Development Engineer for "Coria"collagen

meat-casing with Teepak Co., Continental Group, IL (1976-78).

Process Group Leader for mechanical contractor, Baker-McHenryWelch, lndianapolis (1974-76). Project Leader for creped-wadding

and secondary-fiber with Kimberly-Clark Co., Memphis, TN (1968-74).

Process Engineer for "Nomex" nylon with E.I.duPont Co. Richmond,

VA (1963-68). Associate Engineer for electric-furnace alloys

with Union Carbide Co., Niagara Falls, NY (1952-60). Fuel

Engineer for open-hearths and rail-mills with U.S.Steel Co., Gary,

In (1951-52).

502
ADHESIVES AND ADHESION

THE STATE OF THE INDUSTRY

Elizabeth C. Edblom

Senior Research Chemist

3M Center

Building 251-3B- 13

St. Paul, Minnesota 55144-1000

Telephone 612-736-7372

503

ASTM Definition

An adhesive is a substance

capable of holding material

together by surface

attachment.

Practical Adhesion

The ability to form a bond

that can carry a load.

......_o_

505
Practical Adhesion

Classifications

Autohesion: When adherend and

adhesive have similar chemical

compositions and rheological states

Heterohesion: When adherend and

adhesive are different in composition

and mechanical state

Why Use An Adhesive?

1. Uniformly distribute stress over the entire

bonded areas.

2. Effectively bond dissimilar materials.

3. Maintain integrity of the bonded material.

4. Provide maximum fatigue resistance.

5. Provide continuous contact between mating

surfaces to effectively bond and seal against the

environment.

6. Cut costs; increase and simplify production.

506
Adhesive Classifications

1. Structural Adhesives

2. Hot Melt Coatable Adhesives

3. Pressure Sensitive Adhesives

4. Reactive Adhesives

5. Solvent Activated Adhesives

Testing Adhesive Bond

Strength

Adhesives are tested to fracture but

used in a region of small deformation.

Fracture

Stress

Strain

507
Theories of Adhesion

• Diffusion Theory

•Electrostatic Theory

[ Material A J I ++++++++++I

I I I I

Material B

Theories of Adhesion

• Mechanical Interlocking Theory

• Surface Energetics and Wettability

Theory

508
Physical Forces of

Adhesion

• Dipole-Dipole

• Dipole-Induced

• Electrostatic

• Dispersion

What Makes an Adhesive

Tacky?

Wetting

and

Resistance to Debonding

509
Bond Making

Linear Properties

Longer Times

• Surface Properties

-Conditions for Wetting and Spreading

• Bulk Properties

-Time to Achieve Contact

Bond Making

For Wetting

• Substrate must not have a weak boundary

layer, 1.e. od, water, dust, rust, processing

aids.

• Adhesive's critical surface tension for

wetting, _'¢must be lower than the surface

energy of the substrate.

510
Bond Making

IFor Contact

• Adhesive's shear modulus at time and

temperature of contact must be below

lxl06 dynes/cm 2 (14.5 psi).

• Elasticity (spring-back) must be less than 40%

of the first 10 sec. deformation.

• Viscosity (non-recoverable flow) must be at

least 30% of deformation.

Bond Breaking

Non-Linear

Fracture Properties

• Surface Properties

-20-10%

• Bulk Properties

-Adhesive strength

-80-90%

Shorter Times

511
Bond Breaking

For Strength

• Adhesive must store elastic energy to

exhibit strength.

• Relates to adhesive's energy to

fracture.

• Relates to adhesive's stress relaxation

rate versus the testing rate.

Acknowledgements

• Dr. Gregg Dahlke

• Linda Gapp

• Dr. Ramsis Gobran

• Dr. Albert Martin

• Dr. Spencer Silver

• Dr. David Yarusso

512
References

Dahlquist, Carl A.: Adhesion An Interdisciplinary Science. Interdiscip. Sci.

Rev., vol. 2, 1977, pp. 140-150.

Dahlquist, Carl A.: An Overview of Adhesive Technology. In Hi.ithig, Alfred,.

ed:Kautschup + Gummi Kunststoffe, vol. 38, no. 7, 1985, pp. 617-620.

Houwink, R.; and Salomon, G., eds.: Adhesion and Adhesives, Second ed., vol.

1. Elsevier Publishing Company., 1965.

Houwink, R.; and Salomon, G., eds.: Adhesion and Adhesives, Second ed., vol.

2. Elsevier Publishing Company., 1967.

Kaelble, D. H.: The Theory and Analysis of Peel Adhesion: Mechanisms and

Mechanics. Trans. Soc. Rheol., vol. 3, 1959, pp. 161-180.

Kaelble, D. H.: The Theory and Analysis of Peel Adhesion. In Weiss, P., ed.:

Adhesion and Cohesion. Elsevier, 1962, pp. 74-88.

Mizumachi, Hiroshi: Theory of Tack of Pressure Sensitive Adhesive. I. J.

Applied Poly. Sci., vol. 30, 1985, pp.2675-2686.

Patrick, Robert L., ed.: Adhesion and Adhesives vol. 1-4. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,

1969.

Satas, Donatas, ed.: Handbook of Pressure Sensitive Adhesive Technology,

Second ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold Company., 1989.

Skeist, Irving., ed.: Handbook of Adhesives, Second ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold

Company., 1977.

513

USE OF BELLS TO ILLUSTRATE

CERAMIC FIRING EFFECTS

Steven W. Piippo

Material Science Technology

Richland High School

930 Long Avenue

Richland, Washington 99352

Telephone 509-946-5121

and

L. Roy Bunnell

Senior Research Engineer, Materials Science Department

Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratories

P. O. Box 999 MSIN P8-44

Richland, Washington 99352

Telephone 509-376-2799

P_._r3=E_ANR NOT FIL_,Eg_

515
Steven Piippo

Richland High School

ORIGINAL PAGE

E_L.t_CK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH

516
USE OF BELLS TO ILLUSTRATE CERAMIC FIRING EFFECTS

Steven W. Piippo

Richland High School

Richland, WA 99352

KEY WORDS:

Casting

Porcelain Ceramics, Firing, Densification, Slip

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: This demonstration is designed for

high school students in Materials Science, and demonstrates

the effects of densification and glassy bond formation in a

porcelain composition on the ringing quality and tone of a

simple bell. Understanding is largely intuitive, so there is

no special prerequisite knowledge necessary.

OBJECTIVE: Students will develop an understanding of the

effect of glass formation on properties of a ceramic object,

and will observe the glass content to increase with firing

temperature.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES:

i. At least six simple slip-cast I bells, purchased from a

local hobby ceramics supplier and with an original weight

constant to within 5%; the bells should be made from a lowfiring clay to permit densification within laboratory furnace

capabilities.

2. Laboratory furnace capable of 1200 C and preferably

programmable for unattended operation.

3. Common steel drill, 1/16-1/8 in., to make holes for

hanging, plus suitable string to suspend bells.

4. (Optional) Special high-temperature marking crayon, for

noting firing temperature on sides of bells. An alternative

would be to scratch the information with a sharp tool.

PROCEDURE: Using a wet sponge, remove all flash (excess clay

at the joint between the mold halves) from the bells. Using

an electric drill, make the hole for hanging the bells.

Number all the bells, using a special crayon capable of

leaving a mark that will withstand firing, or scratch

reference numbers in the bells. Weigh all of the bells after

cleaning and drying at i00 C, to be certain that all are

within 5% of the same weight, and record the weight of each

bell. Using the inside-marking blades of a dial-gauge

caliper, make two scratches on each bell, i" apart at the open

lip at the bottom. These will be used later to calculate

relative density.

ISlip casting is a technique for making hollow ceramics, in

which a suspension of clay (the slip) is poured into a mold made

from plaster of Paris. The porous mold absorbs water from the slip

next to it, creating a hollow clay shell when the remaining slip is

poured out.

517
Consult your local ceramic supplier to find the proper

temperature for bisque firing 2 and for firing to full

maturity. If these temperatures are given as pyrometric cone

numbers, the ceramic shop will have a conversion table that

can be used to obtain corresponding temperatures. For

instance, say that bisque firing temperature is 700C and full

firing is carried out a_ ii00 C. One of the bells should be

left unfired, one should be fully fired, and three bells

should be fired to temperatures evenly spaced between the

highest firing temperature and the bisque firing temperature.

For our example, one bell would be fired at 700, one at 800,

one at 900, one at I000, and one at ii00 C. Mark the firing

temperatures on the bells before firing them. Bells should be

fired one at a time, each time starting with the furnace at

room temperature and firing to the set temperature, holding

one hour, and cooling in the furnace with door closed. A

programmable controller would be preferable, and should be set

to heat at about i00 C/h to the set temperature, hold one

hour, and turn off to allow the bells to furnace cool. Weigh

the bells after firing, recording data in the journal. After

firing, measure the distance between scratch marks, using the

same dial-gauge caliper used to make the marks. Weigh the

bells, recording the weights and reference distances in the

journal. Calculate relative density by the formula

Relative Density = Weiqht Before Firinq/Weiqht After Firinq

(Reference Distance)3

This relative density is relative to the starting density of

the bells before firing. While not an actual density, the

relative density is easy to determine on the irregular bell

geometry and gives an indication of temperatures at which

bells are densifying.

If desired, evaluate the fired bells to determine how

much open porosity remains, using the methods outlined in any

standard ceramics text; see, for example, ref. i. For a more

rough-and-ready approach, try an old ceramist's trick; apply

your tongue to the fired pieces, and see whether the moisture

is removed by capillary action of fine surface-connected

pores. If this happens, the tongue will stick to the bell.

As the glassy bond develops and the pores are eliminated, the

sticking tendency will lessen noticeably and may disappear

altogether.

Finally, attach string to the bells, using the holes

drilled previously. Lift each bell in order of firing

temperature and strike it very gently, using an available

2Bisque firing is a term used by ceramic artists, meaning a

firing temperature sufficient to drive hydration water from the

clay, but not high enough to develop significant glassy phase. At

the bisque stage, the ceramic is quite durable and may be handled

more readily than in the slip-cast condition.

518
metal piece such as a machine screw 1/4 in diameter and 4"

long. The nonfired bell will emit only a very dull thud and

will be quite fragile, as it is only bonded together by the

clay structure. The bisque-fired bell will be thoroughly

dehydrated but should not contain any bonding glass. It may

ring, but the frequency will probably be quite low and the

ring duration will be shorter than higher-fired bells. The

four remaining bells will ring for a longer time and at a

frequency that increases with firing temperature, because the

high frequencies resulting from the striking process will

propagate better in the denser, better-bonded ceramic

material. The highest-fired bell will ring best of all. The

amount of glassy material in each bell can be visualized by

holding them close to a light bulb. The glassy phase in the

high-fired bell transmits light better than the porous

material fired at the lower temperature. Firing at

excessively high temperature, or holding for a long time at

peak temperature, can result in slumping, caused by the

combination of excessive glass and low glass viscosity at low

temperature. An example of such an overfired condition could

also be made, to illustrate this effect.

SAMPLE DATA SHEETS: Not applicable, except if optional

porosity measurements are made as part of the experiment.

INSTRUCTOR'S NOTES: The explanation above should be

sufficient to make a set of bells. Once made, the bells

should last for years, given reasonable care and if they are

not struck too hard. (It might be prudent to buy extra bells

left unfired, as this condition will be the most fragile).

This demonstration would make a good lead-in to a more indepth study of the effects of firing temperature on the

structure of a porcelain composition. The composition could

be located approximately on a ternary phase diagram and its

structure inferred. As a follow-on, the time dependence of

glass formation could be easily studied by firing bells at a

temperature one increment less than the highest temperature--

Ii00 C in our example--for several different times, say 1 h,

2h, 4h, and 8h, and the effect on ringing determined. A

microphone and oscilloscope might even be used to analyze the

frequency response of the bells. The slip casting process

itself could be included in this experiment, by simply buying

a plaster of Paris bell mold from the ceramic supply house,

along with a supply of suitable slip. Slip is a water

suspension of fine clay, with an agent added to neutralize the

surface charge causing clay particles to clump together. The

solids content of such a material can be quite high, as may be

demonstrated by measuring the density of the liquid. The

plaster mold draws water away from the slip next to it,

causing a hard casting to build up. If you elect to cast your

own bells, there should be a consistent overnight drying

period between castings, to allow the water to leave the mold.

519
The reason for the original tolerance on bell weight is to

minimize effects of thickness on the ringing qualities of the

bells.

REFERENCES

I. Van Vlack, i,_ H,, Physical Ceramics for Enqineers,

Addison--Wesley, 19_4.

520

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1. AGENCY USE ONLY(Leave b/ank) 2. REPORT DATE

April 1994

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

National Educators' Workshop: Update 93

Standard Experiments in Engineering Materials, Science

and Technolo_

6. AUTHOR(S)

Compilers: James E. Gardner, NASA Langley Research Center,

Hampton, VA, and James A. Jacobs, Norfolk State University,

Norfolk 1 VA

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

NASA Langley Research Center

Hampton, VA 23681-0001

3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

Conference Publication

S. FUNDING NUMBERS

505-63-50-01

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION

REPORT NUMBER

L-17396

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

D.C. 20546=0001; Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA 23504; NASA CP-3259

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD

20899; United States Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN

37831-6132

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

American Society for Engineering Education; ASM Foundation; Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratories;

Fernald Environmental Restoration Management Corp.; Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc.; Materials

Education Council

12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

Unclassified-Unlimited

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13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

This document contains a collection of experiments presented and demonstrated at the National Educators'

Workshop: Update 93 held at the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, on November 3-5,

1993. The experiments related to the nature and properties of engineering materials and provided information

to assist in teaching about materials in the education community.

14. SUBJECT TERMS

Materials; Experiments; Education

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