A Dreissena Risk Assessment for the Colorado River 

Ecosystem 

By Theodore A. Kennedy 

Open-File Report 2007-1085 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 
Cover: Quagga mussels (top row) and zebra mussels (bottom row). Photograph courtesy of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. 
A Dreissena Risk Assessment for the Colorado River 

Ecosystem 

By Theodore A. Kennedy 

Open-File Report 2007-1085 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 
 ii

U.S. Department of the Interior 

DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Mark D. Myers, Director 

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 2007 

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Kennedy, T.A., 2007, A Dreissena risk assessment for the Colorado River ecosystem: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007-1085, 17 p. 

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 iii

Contents 

Exacutive Summary............................................................................................................................................................1

Background .........................................................................................................................................................................2

Risk of Dreissena Establishing and Maintaining High Densities ...............................................................................3

Sediment...........................................................................................................................................................................3

Colorado River Ecosystem ........................................................................................................................................4

Water Velocity.................................................................................................................................................................7

Colorado River Ecosystem ........................................................................................................................................7 

Downstream Transport of Larvae................................................................................................................................9 

Colorado River Ecosystem ......................................................................................................................................10 

Water Temperature......................................................................................................................................................10 

Colorado River Ecosystem ......................................................................................................................................10 

Tributaries ..................................................................................................................................................................10 

Flooding ..........................................................................................................................................................................10 

Risk of Ecological Impacts Because of Dreissena.....................................................................................................11 

Lake Powell and Glen Canyon Dam Releases.........................................................................................................11 

Colorado River Ecosystem ......................................................................................................................................11 

In situ Impacts of Dreissena in Lees Ferry...............................................................................................................12 

In situ Impacts of Dreissena in the Colorado River Ecosystem ...........................................................................13 

Risk of Dreissena Introduction to Tributaries .............................................................................................................14 

Conclusions and Recommendations.............................................................................................................................14 

References Cited ..............................................................................................................................................................15

Figures 

1. Quagga mussels (Dreissena bugensis) and zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha).......................................2 

2. Suspended sediment concentrations (mg/L) for Lees Ferry and mainstem Colorado River ecosystem, 

1999–2006 ...............................................................................................................................................................5 

3. Water clearance potential for Dreissena at various densities and filtration rates for Lees Ferry and 

mainstem Colorado River ecosystem (CRE)...................................................................................................13 

Tables 

1. Concentrations of suspended inorganic sediment, suspended particulate organic matter, and 

inorganic:organic (I:O) ratios for Lees Ferry and regions of the Colorado River ecosystem..................6 

2. Concentrations of suspend inorganic sediment, particulate organic matter, and inorganic:organic (I:O) 

ratios for the Colorado River ecosystem ..........................................................................................................8 
 iv

Conversion Factors 

Multiply By To obtain 

Length 

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.) 

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi) 

Area 

square meter (m2) 10.76 square foot (ft2) 

Volume 

liter (L) 1.057 quart (qt) 

Flow rate 

meter per second (m/s) 3.281 foot per second (ft/s) 

liter per second (L/s) 15.85 gallon per minute (gal/min) 

Mass 

gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows: 

°F=(1.8×°C)+32 

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or micrograms per liter (μg/L). 

NOTE TO USGS USERS: Use of hectare (ha) as an alternative name for square hectometer (hm2

) is restricted to the measurement 

of small land or water areas. Use of liter (L) as a special name for cubic decimeter (dm3

) is restricted to the measurement of 

liquids and gases. No prefix other than milli should be used with liter. Metric ton (t) as a name for megagram (Mg) should be 

restricted to commercial usage, and no prefixes should be used with it. 
 1

A Dreissena Risk Assessment for the Colorado River 

Ecosystem 

By Theodore A. Kennedy 

Executive Summary 

Nonnative zebra and quagga mussels (Dreissena polymorpha and Dreissena bugensis, 

respectively; fig. 1) were accidentally introduced to the Great Lakes in the 1980s and subsequently 

spread to watersheds of the Eastern United States (Strayer and others, 1999). The introduction of 

Dreissena mussels has been economically costly and has had large and far-reaching ecological 

impacts on these systems. Quagga mussels were found in Lakes Mead and Havasu in January 2007. 

Given the likelihood that quagga mussels and, eventually, zebra mussels will be introduced to Lake 

Powell and the Colorado River at Lees Ferry, it is important to assess the risks that introduction of 

Dreissena mussels pose to the Colorado River ecosystem (here defined as the segment of river 

from just below Glen Canyon Dam to Diamond Creek; hereafter CRE). In this report, I assess three 

different types of risks associated with Dreissena and the CRE: (1) the risk that Dreissena will 

establish at high densities in the CRE, (2) the risk of ecological impacts should Dreissena establish 

at high densities in the CRE or in Lake Powell, and (3) the risk that Dreissena will be introduced to 

tributaries of the CRE. 

The risk of Dreissena establishing within the CRE is low, except for the Lees Ferry 

tailwater reach where the risk appears high. Dreissena are unlikely to establish at high densities 

within the CRE or its tributaries because of high suspended sediment, high ratios of suspended 

inorganic:organic material, and high water velocities, all of which interfere with the ability of 

Dreissena to effectively filter feed. The rapids of Grand Canyon may represent a large source of 

mortality to larval Dreissena, which would limit their ability to disperse and colonize downstream 

reaches of the CRE. In contrast, conditions within the Lees Ferry tailwater generally appear 

suitable for Dreissena establishment, with the exception of high average water velocity. 

If Dreissena establish within the CRE, the risks of negative ecological impacts appear low. 

If Dreissena are able to attain moderate densities in Lees Ferry, estimates of filtration capacity 

indicate they are unlikely to substantially alter the composition (e.g., nutrient concentrations, 

suspended organic matter concentrations) of water exported from Lees Ferry. Further, a moderate 

density of Dreissena within Lees Ferry may actually increase food available to fishes by increasing 

habitat complexity and stimulating benthic production. If Dreissena attain moderate densities in the 

CRE mainstem, which seems unlikely, ecological impacts will probably be comparable to Lees 

Ferry—an increase in benthic production. Dreissena may have ecological impacts on the CRE, if 

they become established in Lake Powell and substantially alter the composition of water released 

from Glen Canyon Dam; however, it is unclear whether changes in the composition of water 

released from Glen Canyon Dam will have a net positive or negative impact on food availability in 

the CRE mainstem. 
 2

The risk of Dreissena introduction to tributaries appears low. None of the tributaries have 

upstream lakes or reservoirs that could actually serve as a source population for Dreissena; 

reservoirs on the Little Colorado River may eventually support Dreissena, but they are far up in the 

watershed and the segment of river connecting them with the mainstem CRE is intermittent. If the 

CRE mainstem is colonized by Dreissena, there are no significant vectors for transporting them 

upstream into the tributaries. In addition, lethally high summer water temperatures make it unlikely 

that Dreissena will establish in many tributaries. 

Lake Powell is a logical focus for management and research efforts, given that maintenance 

of Dreissena populations within the CRE will require an upriver source population and the 

uncertainty associated with the downstream impact of changes in Lake Powell water quality. 

Background 

Nonnative zebra and quagga mussels (Dreissena polymorpha and Dreissena bugensis, 

respectively; fig. 1) were accidentally introduced to the Great Lakes in the 1980s and subsequently 

spread to watersheds of the Eastern United States (Strayer and others, 1999). The introduction of 

Dreissena mussels has been economically costly and has had large and far-reaching ecological 

impacts on many freshwater ecosystems.

Figure 1: Quagga mussels (Dreissena bugensis, top row) and zebra mussels (Dreissena 

polymorpha, bottom row). Photograph courtesy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. 
 2

The major ecological impacts of Dreissena introductions in the Eastern United States have 

been large declines in the density, and possible extinctions, of native mussels and a diversion of 

energy resources in lakes and rivers from the water column to the benthos (i.e., lake or river bottom 

substrata). Declines in the density of native mussels following Dreissena invasion result from the 

overgrowth of native mussels by Dreissena, and possibly negative effects of competition for 

limited food resources (Ricciardi and others, 1998; Strayer and Malcom, 2007). Dreissena have 

diverted resources from the water column because of their tremendous capacity to filter water 

(Strayer and others, 1999); zebra mussels in the Hudson River estuary completely filter the water 

column once every 1 to 4 d. Filter feeding by Dreissena mussels has led to large declines in 

phytoplankton and zooplankton density and increases in water clarity (Strayer and others, 1999). 

Increases in water clarity, coupled with the nutrient-rich feces and pseudofeces that Dreissena

excrete on the benthos, has shifted primary production in Dreissena infested rivers and lakes from 

the water column to the benthos. Consequently, Dreissena infested rivers and lakes generally 

support higher densities of benthic algae and macrophytes, such as the filamentous alga 

Cladophora, and higher densities of benthic invertebrates, including amphipods like Gammarus, 

relative to lakes and rivers where Dreissena are absent (Beekey and others, 2004; Bially and 

MacIsaac, 2000; Botts and others, 1996; Greenwood and others, 2001; Stewart and others, 1998; 

Strayer and others, 1998). Increases in the density of benthic invertebrates associated with 

Dreissena invasion appear to be because of both increases in habitat complexity and benthic 

primary production; Dreissena shells and the nutrient-enriched microenvironment around them 

make for habitat that supports higher densities of benthic invertebrates relative to the unstable and 

sandy substrates they replaced (Botts and others, 1996). The Dreissena induced shift in the location 

of food resources (from the water column to the benthos) appears to have led to shifts in the 

abundance or distribution of fishes. Strayer and others (2004) report that following Dreissena

invasion of the Hudson River, populations of “open-water” species that feed on zooplankton 

decreased by a median value of 28%, while populations of “littoral” species (those that reside near 

the shore, where zebra mussel beds occur) that feed on benthic invertebrates increased by a median 

value of 97%. Thus, the reduction in “open-water” fish species has been offset by increases in 

“littoral” species leading to no net change in fish abundance or biomass. 

Quagga mussels were found in Lake Mead and Lake Havasu in January 2007. The primary 

vector of mussel transport among watersheds is recreational watercraft (Johnson and others, 2001; 

Leung and others, 2006). Because the number of recreational watercraft moving from Lakes Mead 

and Havasu to Lake Powell and the Colorado River above and below Glen Canyon Dam is high, 

the introduction of quagga mussels into the Colorado River below Glen Canyon Dam is likely. The 

Colorado River in Grand Canyon supports populations of federally endangered humpback chub 

(Gila cypha) and the Lees Ferry tailwater supports an important rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus 

mykiss) fishery. Because Dreissena introductions to lakes and rivers of the Eastern United States 

have led to broad ecosystem-scale changes, it is important to assess the risks that the introduction 

of Dreissena poses to the ecosystem below Glen Canyon Dam. 

The following is a Dreissena risk assessment for the Colorado River ecosystem (CRE), 

which is here defined as the segment of river from just below Glen Canyon Dam to Diamond 

Creek, including tributaries. I will assess risks for the Lees Ferry reach (just below Glen Canyon 

Dam to Lees Ferry; hereafter Lees Ferry reach), the mainstem CRE (from Lees Ferry to Diamond 

Creek; hereafter mainstem CRE), and major tributaries of the Colorado River (e.g., Paria River, 

Little Colorado River, Bright Angel Creek, etc.; hereafter tributaries) separately. I assess risks 

posed by Dreissena mussels in general, not just quagga mussels, because it is likely that zebra 
 3

mussels will be introduced to the system at some point in the future, habitat requirements and 

impacts of zebra and quagga mussels are generally similar (though I will note differences between 

species where they have been documented), and the literature on zebra mussels is more extensive 

than quagga mussels. I assess three different types of risk associated with Dreissena mussels and 

the CRE: (1) the risk that Dreissena mussels will establish at high densities in the CRE, (2) the risk 

that Dreissena mussels will have ecological impacts on the CRE, and (3) the risk that Dreissena

will be introduced to tributaries (I assume that risk of introduction to the CRE mainstem and Lees 

Ferry is extremely high). I will also discuss how installation of a temperature control device on 

Glen Canyon Dam might affect the risks of Dreissena establishment. 

Risk of Dreissena Establishing and Maintaining High Densities 

The risk of Dreissena establishing and maintaining high densities in the CRE and its 

tributaries is low, except for the Lees Ferry reach where the risk seems high. The risk of Dreissena

establishing and maintaining high densities in the mainstem CRE is low principally because of the 

high inorganic-sediment concentrations, the high ratio of inorganic:organic suspended particles 

(I:O ratio), high water velocities within the mainstem CRE, and turbulence in rapids. Dreissana are 

unlikely to establish and maintain high densities in tributaries because of high I:O ratios, high baseflow water velocities, periodic floods that mobilize the bed, and lethally high summer water 

temperatures (>25oC). High water velocities may limit the ability of Dreissena to attain high 

densities within Lees Ferry, but otherwise this reach appears suitable for Dreissena. The bases for 

these conclusions are detailed below. 

Sediment 

High sediment concentrations and high inorganic:organic ratios are likely to limit the ability 

of Dreissena to establish and maintain high densities in the mainstem CRE. Studies by MacIsaac 

and Rocha (1995), Madon and others (1998), and Schneider and others (1998) all found zebra 

mussels’ ability to feed and grow is severely compromised, or nonexistent, at high concentrations 

of suspended sediment or high ratios of inorganic:organic particles. MacIsaac and Rocha (1995) 

found that production of pseudofeces and, to a lesser extent, feces by zebra mussels increased with 

increasing concentrations of suspended clay. Pseudofeces are suspended particles that have been 

filtered by a mussel but are expelled from the animal before they are ingested. Production of 

pseuodofeces appears to be a mechanism whereby Dreissena mussels can preferentially select 

higher quality food items. If filtered particles are dominated by inorganic sediment, they are likely 

to be rejected as pseudofeces, but if filtered particles contain predominantly organic matter they are 

likely to be ingested and then excreted in the form of feces. Production of pseudofeces requires the 

expenditure of energy by the mussel, so preferential selection of higher quality particles comes at 

an energetic cost to the animal. The implications of this study are that as sediment concentrations 

increase, mussels must reject more and more of what they filter in the form of pseudofeces, at a 

cost to their overall energy balance. 

The study by Madon and others (1998) found that a variety of zebra mussel feeding and 

growth indices were strongly and negatively correlated with increasing inorganic-sediment 

concentrations and increasing ratios of inorganic:organic particles. Specifically, Madon and others 

(1998) report that clearance rates (the amount of water filtered per mussel per hour), ingestion rates 

(the amount of food particles actually ingested per mussel per hour), and assimilation efficiency 

(the efficiency at which ingested food particles were assimilated by the mussel) all declined sharply 
 4

at suspended-sediment concentrations above 1 mg/L. Assimilation efficiency was 0% at sediment 

concentrations of 100 mg/L, regardless of the I:O ratio. They also found exponential declines in 

clearance rates, ingestion rates, and assimilation efficiencies with increasing I:O ratios. Further, 

Madon and others (1998) report that scope for growth (the ability of zebra mussels to grow—the 

balance between energy gained via assimilation and energy expended during feeding and 

maintenance) for zebra mussels was negative at I:O ratios above 1.71. Simply put, Madon and 

others (1998) found that zebra mussels cannot sustain positive growth when the mass of suspended 

sediment exceeds the mass of particulate organic matter by a factor of 1.71. The organic matter fed 

to zebra mussels in this study was a slurry of phytoplankton, high-quality organic matter because of 

its high nitrogen and phosphorus content. Schneider and others (1998) used natural Illinois River 

water and natural Illinois River water augmented with a slurry of phytoplankton in their study, and 

found basically the same results as Madon and others (1998); zebra mussel scope for growth was 

negative at I:O ratios exceeding 2. 

In contrast to the above experimental studies, several studies have found that high 

suspended-sediment concentrations do not completely limit the ability of Dreissena to establish in 

rivers (Allen and Ramcharan, 2001; Allen and others, 1999; Sprung, 1993; Thorp and others, 

1998). Allen and Ramcharan (2001) found that ionic conditions (i.e., calcium concentrations), but 

not sediment, determined whether zebra mussels were able to successfully establish in rivers where 

they were known to have been introduced. Allen and others (1999) found that zebra mussels were 

able to maintain positive growth on an annual basis in the lower Mississippi River despite sediment 

concentrations that were high throughout the year (mean of ~100 mg/L). Trefry and others (1994) 

sporadically measured suspended-sediment and organic-matter concentrations for the Mississippi 

River from 1974 to 1991 and found average sediment concentrations were 98 mg/L and organic 

matter represented 2.66% of total suspended particulates—this is equivalent to an I:O ratio of 37. 

The lowest I:O ratio observed by Trefry and others (1994) was 13.0. Thorp and others (1998) found 

that turbidity, a proxy for sediment concentration, had no appreciable effect on Dreissena survival 

or growth, but sediment concentrations were not measured, so it is not possible to interpret the 

results of their research in the context of the CRE. Regardless, all of these studies indicate 

Dreissena are in fact capable of establishing in environments that have high suspended-sediment 

concentrations and high I:O ratios, but the experimental studies clearly indicate that Dreissena

density is going to be limited in systems with high sediment loads, which will limit their potential 

for ecological impacts. For example, I spoke with several scientists working in the lower 

Mississippi River and, although none of them could provide me with an estimate of zebra mussel 

density, they all agreed that zebra mussel densities there are low and ecological impacts are 

therefore negligible (Dr. John Lynn, Dr. Robert McMahon, personal communications). 

Colorado River Ecosystem 

Concentrations of suspended sediment in the CRE mainstem indicate that Dreissena scope 

for growth may be negative for much of the year (fig. 2, table 1). Madon and others (1998) found 

that potential for growth drops sharply at suspended-sediment concentration above 1 mg/L and was 

zero/negative at concentrations above 100 mg/L. Since 1999, when regular measurements of 

suspend sediment in the CRE mainstem were initiated, concentrations of less than 1 mg/L have not 

been measured and concentrations have been above 100 mg/L for significant amounts of time (fig. 

2). It should be noted that this record is from sediment samples that were collected at regular 

intervals, along with event-based sampling. In other words, the data in figure 2 are weighted 

towards times of high sediment concentrations. Sediment concentrations were measured 
 5

sporadically from 1991–2000 by Yard (p.123; 2003). Although concentrations greater than 100 

mg/L were not observed as frequently by Yard (2003; table 1) relative to the apparent frequency of 

their occurrence in figure 2, concentrations less than 1 mg/L were never observed by Yard in the 

mainstem CRE and the majority of values were above 10 mg/L. It should be noted that sand 

(defined as inorganic particles greater than 63 μm in size) can represent a significant portion of 

suspend sediment in the CRE during certain time periods. Studies by MacIsaac and Rocha (1995), 

Madon and others (1998), and Schneider and others (1998) evaluated the effects of silt/clay 

(particles less than 63 μm in size) on Dreissena feeding and growth metrics. Although sand is 

larger than the particles that Dreissena typically consumes, which means it may be easier for 

Dreissena to reject these particles than clay/silt that are similar in size to preferred foods, high 

concentrations of sand may actually cause abrasion and physically damage the feeding structures of 

Dreissena (Dr. Robert McMahon, personal communication). 

Figure 2. Suspended sediment concentrations (mg/L) for Lees Ferry and mainstem 

Colorado River ecosystem, 1999–2006. 
 6

Table 1. Concentrations of suspended inorganic sediment, suspended particulate organic matter, 

and inorganic:organic (I:O) ratios for Lees Ferry and regions of the Colorado River ecosystem. I:O 

ratios in red text are >1.7, indicating Dreissena growth potential is likely to be negative (Madon and 

others, 1998). Lees Ferry encompasses river miles (RM) -15 to 0, Marble Canyon is RM 0 to 61, 

central Grand Canyon is RM 61 to 144, and western Grand Canyon is RM 144 to 225. Data are from 

Yard (2003). 

Location Date Q (m3/s) n Inorganic (mg/L) Organic (mg/L) I:O

Lees Ferry June–July 1991 142 9 2 8 0.3

Lees Ferry May–June 1994 227 8 5.2 1.2 4.3

Lees Ferry August 2000 227 3 1.3 0.8 1.6

Lees Ferry May 1991 425 6 1.4 3.7 0.4

Lees Ferry May 1998 300–540 6 0.3 0.6 0.5

Lees Ferry May 1999 410–620 18 2.1 1.1 1.9

Lees Ferry May–June 1992 160–400 12 1.4 2.6 0.5

Lees Ferry August 1998 340–675 3 0.5 2 0.3

Lees Ferry August 1999 410–660 3 1.1 0.2 5.5

Median 1.4 1.2 0.5

Marble Canyon June–July 1991 142 14 3 6.8 0.4

Marble Canyon May–June 1994 227 20 8.7 1.9 4.6

Marble Canyon August 2000 227 24 2.6 1.2 2.2

Marble Canyon May 1991 425 14 7.7 6.1 1.3

Marble Canyon May 1998 300–540 59 6.4 1 6.4

Marble Canyon May 1999 410–620 48 92.4 3.1 29.8

Marble Canyon May–June 1992 160–400 51 347 31 11.2

Marble Canyon August 1998 340–675 44 38.7 1.7 22.8

Marble Canyon August 1999 410–660 46 66.1 2.3 28.7

Median 8.7 2.3 6.4

Central Grand Canyon June–July 1991 142 21 8.3 6.2 1.3

Central Grand Canyon May–June 1994 227 20 10.8 2 5.4

Central Grand Canyon August 2000 227 54 6.2 1.5 4.1

Central Grand Canyon May 1991 425 27 36.4 11.7 3.1

Central Grand Canyon May 1998 300–540 48 48.6 2.3 21.1

Central Grand Canyon May 1999 410–620 54 403 7.1 56.8

Central Grand Canyon May–June 1992 160–400 64 417 33.3 12.5

Central Grand Canyon August 1998 340–675 57 151 6.2 24.4

Central Grand Canyon August 1999 410–660 60 4501 205 22.0

Median 48.6 6.2 12.5

Western Grand Canyon June–July 1991 142 18 16.3 9.3 1.8

Western Grand Canyon May–June 1994 227 21 16.7 1.2 13.9

Western Grand Canyon August 2000 227 69 16 2.2 7.3

Western Grand Canyon May 1991 425 24 66 17 3.9

Western Grand Canyon May 1998 300–540 48 50.7 2.2 23.0

Western Grand Canyon May 1999 410–620 53 180 4.7 38.3

Western Grand Canyon May–June 1992 160–400 60 183 28.7 6.4

Western Grand Canyon August 1998 340–675 62 228 9.8 23.3

Western Grand Canyon August 1999 410–660 69 4914 190 25.9

Median 66.0 9.3 13.9
 7

Suspended-sediment concentrations in Lees Ferry are unlikely to strongly limit the ability 

of Dreissena to establish and maintain high densities there (table 1); sediment concentrations <1 

mg/L are normal for Lees Ferry. 

The I:O ratio of suspended particles in the mainstem CRE and its tributaries also indicate 

that Dreissena scope for growth will be negative for much of the year (table 1). Recall that Madon 

and others (1998) report that Dreissena scope for growth is negative at I:O ratios above 1.7. Of the 

nine time periods when Yard (2003; table 1) calculated I:O ratios, seven of those taken in Marble 

Canyon, eight in central Grand Canyon, and nine in western Grand Canyon were above the 1.7 

threshold reported by Madon and others (1998). Recent measurements of I:O ratios (n = 22) along 

the mainstem CRE during 2006–07 show the same pattern (table 2). The I:O ratio in tributaries 

during base-flow conditions was measured in April and June 2006 (Kennedy and others, 

unpublished data). The median I:O ratio for all tributaries and dates was 10.1, the minimum was 

2.3, and the maximum was 24. These data indicate that tributaries are not well suited for Dreissena 

establishment. 

The I:O ratio of suspended particles is unlikely to limit the ability of Dreissena to establish 

in Lees Ferry (tables 1 and 2) because I:O ratios <1.7 are regularly observed in Lees Ferry. 

Water Velocity 

The high water velocities typical of the mainstem CRE and Lees Ferry are also likely to 

limit the ability of Dreissena to establish and maintain high densities (Ackerman, 1999). Ackerman 

(1999) investigated the effect of velocity on the filter feeding of both zebra and quagga mussels and 

found that both species reacted similarly to flow. Moderate water velocity (0.1 m/s) led to increases 

in the filtration rates of mussels relative to stagnant flows (0 and ~0.03 m/s), but higher water 

velocities (0.2 m/s) resulted in lower filtration rates than those observed under even stagnant 

conditions. Specifically, filtration rates were around 0.06 L/mussel/hr at stagnant/low velocities, 

~0.135 L/mussel/hr at moderate velocity, but only ~0.025 L/mussel/hr at the highest velocity 

tested, 0.2 m/s. Ackerman (1999) concluded that moderate water velocities lead to increases in 

filtration rates because of the increased rate of particle delivery to the filtration structures (i.e., their 

‘mouth’ becomes full quicker), but higher velocities actually interfered with the functioning of 

these filtration structures. The unimodal response of bivalve feeding to increasing water velocity, 

where filtration rates peak at moderate velocities and then decline or stop at higher velocities, has 

been observed in a variety of freshwater and saltwater taxa (Ackerman, 1999, and references 

therein). 

Colorado River Ecosystem 

Graf (1995) found that across a range of discharge, average water velocity for the 360-kmlong mainstem CRE is 0.98 m/s. Within the channel, particularly along the shorelines, there will be 

refuges where water velocity is lower than 0.98 m/s. Regardless, it is likely that large segments of 

the mainstem CRE will be unsuitable for Dreissena because of high water velocities that interfere 

with their ability to filter feed. This will limit the total abundance that Dreissena can attain in the 

CRE, which will limit their potential for large ecological impacts. Graf (1995) found that water 

velocity in Lees Ferry ranges from 0.3 to 1 m/s, depending on discharge; high water velocities may 

even limit Dreissena in the clearwater Lees Ferry reach. Water velocity data for tributaries are 

scant. However, all tributaries are high gradient and likely to have water velocities that limit or 

prevent Dreissena from filter feeding. For example, water velocity for the Little Colorado River 
 8

Table 2. Concentrations of suspend inorganic sediment, particulate organic matter, and 

inorganic:organic (I:O) ratios for the Colorado River ecosystem. I:O ratios in red text are >1.7, 

indicating Dreissena growth potential is likely to be negative (Madon and others, 1998). Kennedy 

and others, unpublished data. 

River Mile Date Inorganic (mg/L) Organic (mg/L) I:O ratio

-15 Apr-06 trace 0.53 <0.1

-15 Jun-06 trace 0.44 <0.1

-15 Jul-06 0.32 0.35 0.88

-15 Sep-06 trace 0.34 <0.1

-15 Oct-06 1.05 0.52 2.00

-15 Nov-06 0.90 0.47 1.86

-15 Dec-06 0.88 0.42 2.03

Median 0.32 0.44 0.88

0 Apr-06 1.12 0.48 2.54

0 Jun-06 0.04 0.95 0.13

0 Jul-06 0.75 0.48 1.49

0 Aug-06 1.26 0.38 3.72

0 Sep-06 0.33 0.64 0.50

0 Oct-06 2.13 0.52 4.12

0 Nov-06 0.40 0.51 0.79

0 Dec-06 0.79 0.47 1.70

Median 0.77 0.50 1.59

30 Apr-06 86.65 8.32 11.69

30 Jun-06 5.14 1.11 4.45

30 Sep-06 809.44 71.89 11.27

Median 86.65 8.32 11.27

62 Apr-06 46.14 1.88 30.18

62 Jun-06 14.22 2.81 5.18

62 Sep-06 2826.41 83.98 12.40

Median 46.14 2.81 12.40

125 Apr-06 18.83 1.02 25.89

125 Jun-06 11.42 1.40 7.71

Median 15.13 1.21 16.80

165 Apr-06 29.81 2.78 10.23

165 Jul-06 31.08 2.61 11.93

165 Sep-06 212.02 17.73 12.01

Median 31.08 2.78 11.93

225 Apr-06 33.80 1.57 29.61

225 May-06 10.76 1.85 5.87

225 Jul-06 72.23 4.12 17.89

225 Aug-06 4927.00 110.33 44.68

225 Sep-06 183.68 29.82 6.16

225 Oct-06 858.71 53.71 16.05

225 Dec-06 141.20 10.76 18.76

Median 141.20 10.76 17.89
 9

near the confluence with the Colorado River averages 0.41 m/s at base flow (USGS gage 

09402300, period of record is 1990–present). 

Downstream Transport of Larvae 

Cold water temperatures, the short residence time of water in the CRE, and high rates of 

larval mortality in rapids are all likely to limit the ability of larval Dreissena exported from Lake 

Powell to colonize the CRE. Because Dreissena veligers (larvae) are free floating during the 1 to 4 

weeks required for their development (Sprung, 1993), they are displaced downstream in 

environments with unidirectional flow (Bobeldyk and others, 2005; Horvath and Lamberti, 1999; 

Horvath and others, 1996; Stoeckel and others, 2004). Maintenance of Dreissena populations in a 

stream or river requires the presence of upriver sites that support self-recruiting populations of 

Dreissena that can serve as a source for veligers (Horvath and others, 1996; Stoeckel and others, 

2004). Even with an upstream source population, the density of Dreissena in streams and rivers 

declines with distance from the source population (Bobeldyk and others, 2005; Horvath and 

Lamberti, 1999; Horvath and others, 1996; Schneider and others, 2003). This is because of high 

rates of larval mortality in rivers (Horvath and Lamberti, 1999; Rehmann and others, 2003) and the 

fact that populations in rivers are generally not self recruiting (Bobeldyk and others, 2005; Horvath 

and others, 1996; Schneider and others, 2003). That is, because streams and rivers are marginal 

habitat for Dreissena, an upstream lake or reservoir usually supplies the overwhelming majority of 

larvae that successfully establish in the river and mortality of those larvae is high enough that the 

population density declines with distance from the source population. 

Larvae must attain a size of >0.2 mm before they settle and transition to the adult life stage, 

and the time required to attain this size is strongly dependent on temperature (Sprung, 1993). 

Larvae in 24oC water may take as little as 8 d to reach this size threshold, while larvae in 10oC 

water may take as long as 4 weeks to attain this size (Sprung, 1993). Thus, in the case of a river 

that is dependent on an upstream source population for colonization, only those larvae that can 

attain a size of >0.2 mm while they are in the river will be able to colonize the river; if the 

residence time of water is short and water temperatures are cold, very few larvae will attain a size 

of >0.2 mm before being exported out of the system. 

Turbulence in the rapids of the CRE may lead to higher rates of larval mortality, and thus 

larger downstream declines in density, relative to other systems that have been studied (Bobeldyk 

and others, 2005; Horvath and Lamberti, 1999; Horvath and others, 1996; Schneider and others, 

2003). Dreissena veligers are highly susceptible to damage from physical forces such as shear 

stress or turbulence (Horvath and Lamberti, 1999; Rehmann and others, 2003). Horvath and 

Lamberti (1999) quantified the number of live Dreissena veligers in a lake-outlet stream at various 

distances from the lake source. They found 90% of veligers were live immediately below the lake 

outlet but only 40% were live 18 km downstream. Rehmann and others (2003) quantified mortality 

of veligers exposed to a range of bubble induced turbulence for a period of 24 h. They 

hypothesized, and then verified, that veliger mortality depended on both the strength of turbulence 

and the size of the veliger; if the size of the veliger was greater than or equal to the size of the 

smallest turbulent eddy, then mortality increased significantly, from ~60% survival at no 

turbulence to ~30% survival at the high turbulence treatment. Rehmann and others (2003) reasoned 

that if turbulent eddies are too large (size of smallest eddy greater than the size of the veliger) they 

will merely transport veligers, but if turbulent eddies are small, then “velocity gradients exist on a 

scale small enough to affect larvae.” Rehmann and others (2003) also estimated the size and 

strength of turbulence present in the stream studied by Horvath and Lamberti (1999) and concluded 
 10

that the degree of veliger mortality those investigators observed can be explained largely by the 

turbulent energy within the stream. 

Colorado River Ecosystem 

The density of Dreissena in the CRE is likely to decline with distance from the dam 

because cold water temperatures, the short water residence time, and high rates of mortality in 

rapids will effectively limit the supply of larval Dreissena from Lake Powell. The cold water 

temperatures in the hypolimnion of Lake Powell and the CRE (Vernieu and others, 2005) will 

restrict larval Dreissena growth rates. Slow growth rates, and the fact that it only takes 5 d for 

water to travel from Glen Canyon Dam to Diamond Creek, will mean that very few larvae exported 

from Lake Powell will be large enough (i.e., >0.2 mm) to colonize the CRE before they reach Lake 

Mead. Further, larval mortality in the rapids of Grand Canyon is likely to be high because flow is 

fully turbulent everywhere (Kieffer, 1987). If exposure to acute turbulence can actually pull apart 

veligers, as Horvath and Lamberti (1999) suggested, the rapids of Grand Canyon will represent a 

significant source of mortality for veligers. 

Water Temperature 

Colorado River Ecosystem 

Water temperature is unlikely to limit the ability of Dreissena to establish and maintain 

high densities in the CRE mainstem or Lees Ferry. The range of water temperatures that occur 

throughout the CRE is ~5–20oC (Vernieu and others, 2005), well within the tolerance limits of both 

zebra and quagga mussels (Spidle and others, 1995). 

Installation of a temperature control device on Glen Canyon Dam is likely to make 

conditions in the mainstem CRE less suitable for Dreissena. The above assessment indicates that 

sediment concentrations and I:O ratios, in particular, will severely limit the ability of Dreissena to 

maintain a positive carbon balance for much of the year. Installation of a temperature control 

device is predicted to warm summer release temperatures by ~ 5oC. Increasing water temperatures 

will increase respiration rates and energetic demands of mussels, without a concomitant decrease in 

sediment concentrations, making it even more difficult for them to balance energetic demands. 

Tributaries 

Extreme summer water temperatures are likely to prevent Dreissena, quagga mussels in 

particular, from maintaining populations in many tributaries, including the Paria River, the Little 

Colorado River, Bright Angel Creek, Kanab Creek, and Havasu Creek. The upper temperature limit 

for zebra mussels is ≥30oC and for quagga mussels it is ~25oC (Spidle and others, 1995). Maximum 

summer water temperatures for all of the tributaries listed above exceed 25oC (Korn and Vernieu, 

1998). Temperatures within the Paria River and Kanab Creek are particularly unsuited for 

Dreissena, with mean daily temperatures in July and August ≥25oC and maximum daily 

temperatures ≥32oC. 

Flooding 

Floods are likely to prevent Dreissena from maintaining high densities in tributaries. Bedmobilizing floods occur frequently in the tributaries of Grand Canyon. Even if Dreissena are able 
 11

to establish at high densities in tributaries, floods will undoubtedly reduce the density of, or 

completely eliminate, Dreissena from these habitats. 

Risk of Ecological Impacts Because of Dreissena 

The risk of negative ecological in situ impacts because of Dreissena appears low for Lees 

Ferry, the mainstem CRE, and tributaries. However, Dreissena could have ecological impacts on 

the CRE by attaining high densities in Lake Powell and changing the composition (e.g., dissolved 

nutrients, plankton concentrations, etc.) of water released from Glen Canyon Dam, though largescale impacts seem unlikely (see below). The types of changes to lakes/reservoirs of the Eastern 

United States that have occurred following Dreissena invasion (e.g., reduction in density of phytoand zooplankton, increase in water clarity and concentration of dissolved nutrients) are likely to 

increase algae and invertebrate production in Lees Ferry, but the net impact to the mainstem CRE 

is uncertain. In situ Dreissena impacts on the CRE are contingent on the mussels maintaining high 

densities, which is possible for Lees Ferry but seems unlikely for the CRE mainstem. If Dreissena

maintain high densities in Lees Ferry or the CRE mainstem, liberal estimates of filtration capacity 

indicate they may be capable of stimulating benthic production, but it seems unlikely that they will 

substantially alter the concentration of particulate organic matter, which is the food resource for 

filter-feeding black fly larvae (Simulium spp.) in the CRE. The introduction of Dreissena to the 

Eastern United States has resulted in large declines and possible extinctions of native freshwater 

bivalves (Ricciardi and others, 1998; Strayer and Malcom, 2007). The CRE does not support any 

native species of bivalves. 

Lake Powell and Glen Canyon Dam Releases 

It is unlikely that Dreissena in Lake Powell will have a major impact on water released 

from Glen Canyon Dam. In lakes and reservoirs of the Eastern United States, Dreissena invasions 

have resulted in declines in phytoplankton and zooplankton density and concomitant increases in 

water clarity and concentrations of dissolved nutrients (MacIsaac, 1996). However, the largest 

changes have occurred in shallow water bodies that are not thermally stratified and where the 

benthic surface area:volume ratio is high; Dreissena can access the entire water column in unstratified systems and their total abundance is high when there is a large benthic surface area 

(MacIsaac, 1996; Yu and Culver, 1999). Dreissena are unlikely to have a major impact on water 

released from Glen Canyon Dam because Lake Powell is deep (maximum depth of 157 m) and 

stratified throughout the year (Vernieu and others, 2005), and the benthic surface area:volume ratio 

is low because the ‘shoreline’ is a vertical cliff. 

Colorado River Ecosystem 

If Dreissena establishment in Lake Powell results in major changes in the composition of 

water released from Glen Canyon Dam, this will likely result in increased algae and invertebrate 

production in Lees Ferry, but it is unclear what the net impact will be for the CRE. Reductions in 

phytoplankton or zooplankton concentrations of release waters are unlikely to have an impact on 

the Lees Ferry reach because these resources do not appear to play a major role there. In other 

systems, zooplankton represent a major component of fish diets, particularly for juvenile fishes 

(Wetzel, 2001). Benthic algae and invertebrates are the dominant food items for rainbow trout in 

Lees Ferry and zooplankton are rarely eaten (Angradi, 1994; McKinney and Speas, 2001). Filterfeeding black fly larvae are uncommon in Lees Ferry and rarely consumed by fish there. Increases 
 12

in dissolved nutrients associated with Dreissena establishment in Lake Powell should stimulate 

production of benthic algae in Lees Ferry because it is limited by both nitrogen and phosphorus 

(Kennedy and others, unpublished data). 

Reductions of phytoplankton in release waters may lead to reductions in the density or 

growth rates of black fly larvae in the CRE, but increases in dissolved nutrients may offset this by 

stimulating production of algae. Black fly larvae are the dominant food item for many fishes in the 

mainstem CRE and diatoms represented ~30% of black fly diets at downstream locations in June 

2006 (Holly Wellard, Loyola University Chicago, unpublished data). However, it is unclear 

whether these diatoms are planktonic and originated in Lake Powell or if they are benthic and 

originated within the CRE (The Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program’s food base 

project is currently working to resolve this question.). If these diatoms came from Lake Powell, a 

reduction in phytoplankton concentrations of release waters could negatively affect growth of black 

fly larvae far downstream by decreasing their food supply. However, if the concentration of 

dissolved nutrients in release waters increases, this may stimulate production of benthic algae and 

invertebrates within the CRE, potentially offsetting declines of black fly larvae associated with 

reductions of Lake Powell derived phytoplankton. 

In situ Impacts of Dreissena in Lees Ferry 

If Dreissena establish at high densities in Lees Ferry, food availability may increase by 

shifting resources to the benthos and increasing habitat complexity, but estimates of filtration 

capacity (fig. 3) indicate they are unlikely to substantially alter the concentrations of organic matter 

exported from Lees Ferry. Figure 3 shows the filtration capacity of Dreissena across a range of 

mussel densities and filtration rates. At the highest density (10,000 mussels/m2), Driessena will 

shift substantial resources to the benthos and alter the composition of water exported from the Lees 

Ferry reach, regardless of the individual filtration rate. At moderate densities (100–1,000 

mussels/m2), individual filtration rates will play a large role in determining the magnitude of the 

effects. Across all filtration rates, it seems likely that moderate densities of mussels in Lees Ferry 

will increase food availability by shifting resources from the water column to the benthos and 

increasing habitat complexity. However, it seems unlikely that at moderate densities Dreissena will 

be capable of substantially altering the concentration of water exported from Lees Ferry; even at a 

maximum filtration rate of 2 L/mussel/d and a density of 1,000 mussels/m2

, mussels will only be 

filtering 12.5% of the water column by the time it is exported from Lees Ferry. At low densities (1–

10 mussels/m2

), Dreissena may increase benthic production by increasing habitat complexity, but it 

seems unlikely that this effect will be large. 

For the purposes of estimating in situ impacts in Lees Ferry, I will use the average density 

of Dreissena in the Hudson River, ~1,000 mussels/m2

 (Strayer and others, 1999). I consider this an 

overestimate given the low water column chlorophyll concentrations (~1 μg/L) and fast average 

water velocity characteristic of Lees Ferry. Although numerous factors influence individual 

filtration rates of Dreissena, including mussel size, sediment concentrations, the I:O ratio, and 

water velocity (Ackerman, 1999; Madon and others, 1998; Schneider and others, 1998), for the 

purposes of estimating in situ effects in Lees Ferry, I will assume only the effects of water velocity 

are relevant. Ackerman (1999) reports that at a water velocity of 0.20 m/s, individual filtration for 

11-mm-long mussels was 0.6 L/mussel/d. I will use this value even though it is probably an 

overestimate, given average water velocity in Lees Ferry ranges from 0.3–1 m/s. This gives us a 

liberal estimate of the filtration potential for Dreissena in Lees Ferry of ~6.25%. In other words, a 

population of Dreissena in the Lees Ferry reach may be capable of filtering 6.25% of the water 
 13

column by the time it reaches Lees Ferry. Thus, even at what I would consider an overestimate of 

density and filtration rates, Dreissena in Lees Ferry are unlikely to substantially alter the 

concentrations of particulate organic matter exported from Lees Ferry. However, Dreissena at these 

densities and filtration rates are likely to increase the amount of food available for fish by 

stimulating algae growth with their nutrient-rich feces and excretion products, and increasing 

habitat complexity for invertebrates. 

Figure 3. Water clearance potential for Dreissena at various densities and filtration rates for Lees 

Ferry and mainstem Colorado River ecosystem (CRE). Lines represent the percentage of the water 

column that Dreissena have filtered when the water arrives at the bottom end of the Lees Ferry 

reach (a) or at the bottom end of the CRE (b). Calculations follow the methods of Strayer and others 

(1998) as follows: The product of individual filtration rates (m3

/d) and mussel density (#/m2) is the 

populations’ clearance rate (m/d). This represents the depth of water (m) that a population of 

mussels can filter in a day. The product of clearance rate and average depth of the CRE, which I 

assume to be 4 m, is the proportion of the CRE that a population of mussels will filter in a day. 

Multiplying this value by typical travel times (dam to Lees Ferry = 0.5 d and dam to Diamond Creek = 

5 d, Graf, 1995) yields the proportion of the water column a population of mussels will have filtered 

when it arrives at each location. Note the log10 x and y-axis. 

In situ Impacts of Dreissena in the Colorado River Ecosystem 

It is unlikely that Dreissena within the CRE will have any major impacts on the CRE 

because the high sediment loads, the high I:O ratios, and the high water velocities will almost 

certainly prevent Dreissena from attaining high densities. Nonetheless, a very liberal estimate of 

possible Dreissena density in the CRE is 100/m2

. If we use the same individual filtration rate as 
 14

above, 0.6 L/mussel/d, we see that by the time a parcel of water arrives at Diamond Creek, 

Dreissena will have filtered ~6.5% of the water column. As with Lees Ferry, it seems like the only 

impact this can have on the CRE is to increase food resources for fishes. 

Risk of Dreissena Introduction to Tributaries 

Dreissena are unlikely to be introduced to tributaries because there are no good vectors to 

transport veligers or adults. Introduction of Dreissena to tributaries will require an upstream source 

of veligers or a vector that can transport them upstream from the CRE should Dreissena colonize 

the CRE, and maintenance of populations in tributaries will require a continuous supply of veligers 

from either of these two potential sources. Lake Powell will undoubtedly provide the upriver 

population of Dreissena needed to support and maintain populations in the CRE. 

 Introductions of Dreissena veligers or adults from upstream sources within tributaries are 

unlikely because tributaries generally lack impoundments or lakes that could support self-recruiting 

populations. In fact, the only tributary that has any sizable upstream reservoirs is the Little 

Colorado River, but these impoundments are far up in the watershed. Further, the segment of river 

between these impoundments and where the Little Colorado River meets the CRE is ephemeral and 

only contains water during times of flooding, when any veligers or adults present would be 

expected to be killed or damaged because of turbulence or other physical forces associated with a 

flood. 

If the CRE mainstem is colonized by Dreissena, then larvae or adults could be transported 

upstream into the tributaries if vectors existed, but they are absent. Anglers regularly move between 

the CRE and Bright Angel Creek, and hikers regularly move between the mainstem CRE and all 

tributaries. But anglers or hikers are unlikely to transport veligers or adults very far up tributaries 

and they are unlikely to transport the large number of veligers or adults required to maintain a 

population of Dreissena in an environment with continual downstream flow. 

Conclusions and Recommendations 

It is obviously prudent to do everything possible to prevent the introduction of nonnative 

species, particularly ones such as Dreissena that have had major economic and ecological impacts. 

However, the above assessment indicates that the introduction of Dreissena to the CRE does not 

appear to pose a great risk to Lees Ferry, the CRE mainstem, or its tributaries. Although Dreissena

will probably establish at moderate densities in Lees Ferry, it appears that the ecological impact 

will be an increase in algae and invertebrate production. The combination of high suspendedsediment concentrations, high I:O ratios, high water velocity, and turbulence in rapids make it 

unlikely that Dreissena will establish at even moderate densities in the CRE or its tributaries. Even 

if this does occur, it appears the ecological impacts will also be an increase in algae and 

invertebrate production. Dreissena will undoubtedly become established in Lake Powell, but it 

does not appear that they will substantially alter the composition of water released from Glen 

Canyon Dam. If the composition of water released from Glen Canyon Dam is altered by Dreissena

populations in Lake Powell (increase in dissolved nutrients and water clarity, decrease in 

phytoplankton and zooplankton concentrations), it is unclear how this will impact the CRE, but it 

will likely stimulate algae, and presumably invertebrate, production in Lees Ferry. 

Maintenance of Dreissena populations in a stream or river requires the presence of upriver 

sites that support self-recruiting populations of Dreissena that can serve as a source for veligers 

(Stoeckel and others, 2004); without an upriver source of veligers, a population of Dreissena will 
 15

be continually displaced downriver. Lake Powell will eventually become this upriver source 

population. 

With the discovery of Dreissena in Lake Mead for the first time in January 2007, 

prevention of further introductions is a logical focus for management. Preventing introduction of 

Dreissena to Lake Powell, and preventing spread of Dreissena from Lake Powell to other 

watersheds and upriver within the Colorado River watershed, would parallel initial approaches to 

exotic species invasion taken elsewhere in the United States. Preventing or delaying the eventual 

introduction of Dreissena to Lake Powell will give scientists time to better estimate potential 

impacts of a Dreissena invasion on Lake Powell and how changes in Lake Powell water quality 

will affect the CRE. If Lake Powell eventually supports a large population of Dreissena, it may 

serve as a source for Dreissena spread throughout the Western United States because of the large 

number of recreational watercraft that are transported from Lake Powell to other watersheds or 

upstream within the watershed. 

Research efforts might focus on estimating potential maximum density and distribution of 

Dreissena within Lake Powell and estimating the types and magnitude of changes in Lake Powell 

water quality that may occur. Lake Powell is relatively unproductive (Vernieu and others, 2005) 

and large portions of Lake Powell may prove unsuitable for Dreissena because of low dissolved 

oxygen concentrations in the hypolimnion (Alexander and McMahon, 2004; Karatayev and others, 

1998); both of these factors may limit the eventual density and total population size of Dreissena, 

which will limit its potential for ecological impacts there. Because Lake Powell is thermally 

stratified throughout the year, Dreissena will not have access to the entire water column; this will 

further limit its potential for large ecological impacts (MacIsaac, 1996; Yu and Culver, 1999). 

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