Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report

October 2006, NCJ 213530

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Highlights

Drug Use and Dependence, State and 

Federal Prisoners, 2004

By Christopher J. Mumola

BJS Policy Analyst

and Jennifer C. Karberg

BJS Statistician

Prior drug use among State prisoners 

remained stable on all measures 

between 1997 and 2004, according to 

the most recent findings from the Survey 

of Inmates in State and Federal 

Correctional Facilities. Over the same 

period, the percentage of Federal 

inmates who reported prior drug use 

rose on all measures. For the first time, 

half (50%) of Federal inmates reported 

drug use in the month before their 

offense, up from 45% in 1997.

In the 2004 survey, BJS included 

measures of drug dependence and 

abuse for the first time. These estimates 

were based on criteria specified in the 

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of 

Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSMIV). Fifty-three percent of State and 45% 

of Federal prisoners met the DSM-IV 

criteria for drug dependence or abuse. 

Prisoners who met the criteria for recent 

drug dependence or abuse had 

extensive criminal records. Among State 

prisoners who were dependent on or 

abusing drugs, 53% had at least three 

prior sentences to probation or incarceration, compared to 32% of other 

inmates. At the time of their arrest, drug 

dependent or abusing State prisoners 

(48%) were also more likely than other 

inmates (37%) to have been on 

probation or parole supervision.

In 2004 nearly a third of State and a quarter of Federal prisoners committed their 

offense under the influence of drugs, unchanged since 1997

Percent of prisoners

Drug use 2004 1997

In the month before the offense

State 56% 57%

Federal 50 45

At the time of the offense

State 32% 33%

Federal 26 22

Any dependence or abuse

State 53% --

Federal 45 --

-- Not reported.

Among drug dependent/abusing prisoners, 40% of State and 49% of Federal 

inmates took part in drug abuse treatment or programs since admission to prison

• Among inmates who used drugs in 

the month before their offense, 

between 1997 and 2004 participation in drug abuse programs 

increased in both State (from 34% 

to 39%) and Federal prison (from 

39% to 45%).

Type of treatment

Percent of prisoners meeting drug 

dependence or 

abuse criteria — 

since admission State Federal

Any drug treatment or programs 40% 49%

Treatment 15 17

Other programs 35 41

Among both State and Federal prisoners, white inmates were at least 20 times 

more likely than black inmates to report recent methamphetamine use

• State prisoner reports of methamphetamine use in the month before 

the offense rose from 7% in 1997 to 

11% in 2004. 

• Between 1997 and 2004, prior 

drug use by State prisoners was 

stable on all drug types except 

methamphetamine, which rose on 

all measures. 

Percent of prisoners using 

methamphetamine in the 

month before the offense — 

Characteristic State Federal

All prisoners 11% 10%

Male 10 10

Female 17 15

White 20 29

Black 1 1

Hispanic 12 5

• 17% of State and 18% of Federal 

prisoners committed their crime to 

obtain money for drugs.

• Violent offenders in State prison 

(50%) were less likely than drug 

(72%) and property (64%) offenders to have used drugs in the month 

prior to their offense.evised, 1/19/07
2 Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004

Overall drug use by State prisoners 

unchanged from 1997; 

methamphetamine use rose

A third of State inmates said they had 

committed their current offense while 

under the influence of drugs (table 1). 

Over half used drugs in the month 

before the offense, and more than twothirds had used drugs regularly at 

some time in their lives. These figures 

were unchanged from 1997.

Marijuana remained the most common 

drug used by State prisoners. Forty 

percent of State prisoners reported 

using marijuana in the month before 

their offense, and 15% said they had 

used marijuana at the time of the 

offense. All measures of marijuana use 

were within 1% of 1997 estimates.

Reported use of cocaine or crack 

cocaine in the month before the 

offense fell from 25% of State 

prisoners in 1997 to 21% in 2004, 

while use at the time of offense fell 

from 15% to 12%. 

Over the same period, the use of 

heroin and other opiates fell slightly on 

on all measures. Use of hallucinogens 

(including ecstasy) in the month before 

the offense rose slightly from 4% to 

6%.

State prisoner reports of stimulant use 

went up on all measures. Stimulant 

use in the month before the offense 

increased from 9% in 1997 to 12% in 

2004, and use at the time of offense 

rose from 4% to 7%. 

The increases in the use of stimulants 

were attributable to the rising use of 

methamphetamines. Use of 

methamphetamines in the month 

before the offense increased from 7% 

to 11%, and use at the time of the 

offense rose from 4% to 6%. 

Overall drug use by Federal 

prisoners rose; cocaine/crack use 

declined

Across all measures of use, Federal 

prisoners reported higher levels of 

prior drug use from 1997 to 2004 (table 

2). An estimated 26% of Federal 

inmates reported using drugs at the 

time of the offense, up from 22% in 

1997. Drug use in the month before the 

offense rose to 50% of Federal 

prisoners, up from 45% in 1997.

Table 2. Drug use by Federal prisoners, 1997 and 2004 

Percent of Federal prisoners who used drugs —

Ever Regularlya In the month before offense At the time of offense

Type of drug 2004 1997 2004 1997 2004 1997 2004 1997

Any drugb 78.7% 72.9% 64.3% 57.3% 50.2% 44.8% 26.4% 22.4%

Marijuana/hashish 71.2 65.2 53.0 46.6 36.2 30.4 14.0 10.8

Cocaine/crack 43.3 44.8 27.5 28.2 18.0 20.0 7.4 9.3

Heroin/opiates 17.9 16.1 9.2 8.9 5.8 5.4 3.2 3.0

Depressantsc 16.9 16.5 8.6 8.0 4.4 3.2 1.4 1.0

Stimulantsd 21.0 20.9 14.8 12.9 10.8 7.6 7.4 4.1

Methamphetamine 17.9 15.1 12.8 9.6 10.1 6.5 7.2 3.7

Hallucinogense 25.9 19.0 11.9 6.4 5.8 1.7 1.9 0.8

Inhalants 7.5 7.7 3.0 2.6 0.8 0.5 -- --

Note: Detail adds to more than total because prisoners may have used more than one type of drug.

-- Not reported.

aUsed drugs at least once a week for at least a month.

bOther unspecified drugs are included in the totals.

c

Includes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaalude. dIncludes amphetamine and methamphetamine.

eIncludes LSD, PCP, and ecstasy.

Table 1. Drug use by State prisoners, 1997 and 2004 

Percent of State prisoners who used drugs —

Ever Regularlya In the month before offense At the time of offense

Type of drug 2004 1997 2004 1997 2004 1997 2004 1997

Any drug/b 83.2% 83.0% 69.2% 69.6% 56.0% 56.5% 32.1% 32.6%

Marijuana/hashish 77.6 77.0 59.0 58.3 40.3 39.2 15.4 15.1

Cocaine/crack 46.8 49.2 30.0 33.6 21.4 25.0 11.8 14.8

Heroin/opiates 23.4 24.5 13.1 15.0 8.2 9.2 4.4 5.6

Depressantsc 21.3 23.7 9.9 11.3 5.4 5.1 2.0 1.8

Stimulantsd 28.6 28.3 17.9 16.3 12.2 9.0 6.7 4.2

Methamphetamine 23.5 19.4 14.9 11.2 10.8 6.9 6.1 3.5

Hallucinogense 32.9 28.7 13.3 11.3 5.9 4.0 2.0 1.8

Inhalants 13.6 14.4 4.5 5.4 1.0 1.0 -- --

Note: Detail adds to more than total because prisoners may have used more than one type of drug.

-- Not reported.

aUsed drugs at least once a week for at least a month.

bOther unspecified drugs are included in the totals.

cIncludes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaalude. dIncludes amphetamine and methamphetamine.

eIncludes LSD, PCP, and ecstasy.
Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004 3

During the period, marijuana use 

among Federal prisoners in the month 

before the offense rose from 30% to 

36%. Stimulant use in the month 

before the offense grew slightly, due to 

methamphetamines which rose from 

7% to 10%. Use of hallucinogens in the 

month before the offense rose from 2% 

to 6%. 

Heroin or other opiate use among Federal prisoners remained stable. In both 

years 3% of inmates committed their 

crimes while using heroin or other opiates. Depressant use was also 

unchanged.

The percentage of Federal prisoners 

who reported prior use of cocainebased drugs dropped between 1997 

and 2004. Use of cocaine or crack in 

the month before the offense fell 

slightly from 20% to 18%, and use at 

the time of the offense fell from 9% to 

7%. No other drug types displayed a 

decline in prior use during this period.

Women in Federal prison report 

sharp increase in prior drug use

Among Federal inmates, men (50%) 

were slightly more likely than women 

(48%) to report drug use in the month 

before the offense in 2004 (table 3). 

Drug use in the month before among 

women held in Federal prisons 

increased by more than 11 percentage 

points, up from 37% in 1997. Use by 

men was up from 45%. 

Women in State prisons in 2004 

reported slightly lower levels of drug 

use in the month before the offense

Profile of methamphetamine users among State and Federal prisoners, 2004

Among State prisoners in 2004 —

• Female inmates (17%) were more likely than males 

(10%) to report use of methamphetamines in the month 

before their offense.

• White inmates (20%) were almost twice as likely as Hispanics (12%) to have used methamphetamines. Around 

1% of black inmates reported using methamphetamines 

in the month before the offense.

• Violent offenders (6%) were half as likely to use methamphetamines as either drug (19%) or property (13%) 

offenders.

Similar patterns emerged among Federal inmates:

• Females (15%) were more likely than males (10%) to 

have used methamphetamine in the month before the 

offense.

• White inmates (29%) were 6 times more likely than Hispanics (5%) to report using methamphetamines. Black 

inmates (1%) reported low use of methamphetamines. 

• The percentage of drug offenders who reported use of 

methamphetamines (14%) was 3 times higher than that 

of violent or property offenders (4% of each).

Percent of prisoners reporting 

methamphetamine use in the 

month before the offense —

Characteristic State Federal

All prisoners 10.8% 10.1%

Gender

Male 10.4% 9.7%

Female 16.8 15.1

Race/Hispanic origin

Whitea 20.3% 29.4%

Blacka 1.1 0.7

Hispanic 12.1 5.1

Othera,b 17.1 14.4

Age

24 or younger 11.0% 7.5%

25-34 12.6 8.4

35-44 11.5 13.2

45-54 7.7 12.9

55 or older 3.3 2.6

Most serious offense

Violent 6.3% 3.6%

Property 12.9 4.1

Drugs 19.1 14.0

Public order 12.1 7.1

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin.

bIncludes Asians, American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native 

Hawaiians, other Pacific Islanders, and inmates who specified more than one race.

Table 3. Drug use in the month before the offense, by selected characteristics 

of State and Federal prisoners, 1997 and 2004

Percent of prisoners reporting drug use 

in the month before the offense —

State Federal

Characteristic 2004 1997 2004 1997

All prisoners 56.0% 56.5% 50.2% 44.8%

Gender

Male 55.7% 56.1% 50.4% 45.4%

Female 59.3 62.4 47.6 36.7

Race/Hispanic origin

Whitea 57.7% 55.2% 58.2% 49.4%

Blacka 56.0 58.3 52.7 47.2

Hispanic 53.5 55.0 38.4 37.5

Othera,b 52.9 52.7 48.4 38.5

Age

24 or younger 66.2% 63.2% 62.0% 57.2%

25-34 60.9 60.0 56.7 48.5

35-44 54.9 56.5 47.9 46.8

45-54 47.4 40.4 44.9 35.2

55 or older 19.2 18.4 20.9 24.3 aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin.

bIncludes Asians, American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, 

other Pacific Islanders, and inmates who specified more than one race.
4 Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004

In 2004 an estimated 333,000 prisoners were held for drug law violations; 21% of State, 55% of Federal inmates

Between the 1997 and 2004 prison inmate surveys, the 

number of drug offenders in State and Federal prisons 

grew by 57,000 inmates. Despite this numerical growth, 

drug offenders made up the same percentage of State 

prisoners in both 1997 and 2004 (21%). The percentage 

of Federal prisoners serving time for drug offenses 

declined from 63% in 1997 to 55% in 2004.

State drug offenders reported serious criminal records:

• 50% were on probation, parole, or escape at the time of 

their arrest;

• 78% had a prior sentence to incarceration or probation; 

46% had three or more prior sentences;

• 22% had a prior violent offense; 16% reported that all 

prior sentences were for drug offenses.

Drug offenders in Federal prisons had less extensive 

criminal records:

• 24% were on a criminal justice status at the time of their 

arrest;

• 62% had a prior sentence; 30% had three or more prior 

sentences;

• 16% had a prior violent offense; 15% reported prior 

sentences only for drug offenses.

Drug offenders in State prisons (45%) were 3 times more 

likely than those in Federal prisons (17%) to report a 

maximum sentence of less than 5 years. State drug 

offenders (15%) were half as likely as Federal drug 

offenders (28%) to report a sentence of 15 years or 

more. In part, the longer sentences for Federal drug 

offenders reflect the higher proportion of trafficking 

offenders and the more serious drug distribution crimes 

that fall under Federal jurisdiction. 

Percent of prisoners held 

for drug offenses, 2004

State Federal

Type of drug offense

Possession 27.9% 5.3%

Traffickinga 69.4 91.4

Other 2.7 3.3

Criminal justice status at arrest

None 50.1% 75.9%

Any status 49.9 24.1

On parole 22.2 9.8

On probation 27.4 14.1

Criminal history

None 20.7% 37.5%

Priors 79.3 62.5

Violent recidivists 22.4 15.8

Drug recidivists only 16.3 15.3

Other recidivistsb 40.6 31.4

Number of prior sentences

0 22.4% 39.0%

1 15.9 15.5

2 16.1 15.2

3-5 26.4 20.1

6-10 13.2 7.3

11 or more 6.0 3.0

Total maximum sentence length

Less than 36 months 23.6% 6.2%

36-59 months 21.1 10.9

60-119 months 29.9 29.3

120-179 months 10.3 26.0

180 months or more 13.5 25.4

Life 1.6 2.2

aIncludes those reporting an intent to distribute.

bIncludes recidivists with unknown prior offense types.

The percentage of drug offenders serving time for crimes involving stimulants nearly doubled 

between 1997 and 2004

Between 1997 and 2004, the percentage of drug 

offenders in State prisons serving time for drug law 

violations involving stimulants rose from 10% to 19%. 

These sentences covered possession, use, 

manufacture, and trafficking of stimulants. The 

percentage who reported the involvement of cocainebased drugs in their offense dropped from 72% to 62%. 

The percentage of Federal drug offenders who reported 

sentences for crimes involving stimulants grew from 11% 

to 19%, while the percentage serving time for crimes 

involving marijuana fell from 19% to 12%. 

Percent of drug offenders

Type of drug involved State Federal

in the offense 2004 1997 2004 1997

Marijuana/hashish 12.7% 12.9% 12.4% 18.9%

Cocaine/crack 61.8 72.1 65.5 65.5

Heroin/other opiates 12.2 12.8 8.1 9.9

Depressants 2.2 1.2 1.4 0.6

Stimulants 18.6 9.9 18.7 11.0

Hallucinogens 1.7 1.1 2.3 1.7

Note: More than one type of drug may have been 

involved in the offense.
Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004 5

(60%) than in 1997 (62%). The 

percentage of male State prisoners 

who reported drug use in the month 

before their crimes remained 

unchanged (56% in both years). 

Among Federal inmates in 2004, 58% 

of whites, 53% of blacks, and 38% of 

Hispanics reported using drugs in the 

month before the offense. With the 

exception of Hispanics, all racial/ethnic 

groups of Federal inmates reported 

higher levels of drug use than in 1997.

State prisoner reports of prior drug use 

showed little variation by race or 

Hispanic origin. In 2004, between 53% 

and 58% of all racial/ethnic groups 

reported using drugs in the month 

before the offense. In 1997 the same 

range was reported across all groups. 

Prior drug use grew most quickly 

among middle-aged inmates

Drug use in the month before the 

offense was highest among the 

youngest inmates, and these 

percentages declined steadily with 

age. About two-thirds of State and 

Federal inmates age 24 or younger 

reported drug use in the month before 

their offense, compared to a fifth of the 

inmates aged 55 or older. 

Despite the lower level of drug use 

among older offenders, the largest 

increase in prior drug use since 1997 

was reported by middle-aged inmates. 

Among State prisoners aged 45 to 54, 

drug use in the month before the 

offense rose from 40% to 47% in 2004. 

The increase reported by middle-aged 

inmates in Federal prison was larger, 

rising from 35% to 45%.

1 in 4 violent offenders in prison 

committed their offenses under the 

influence of drugs

Nearly three-quarters (72%) of drug 

offenders in State prison reported drug 

use in the month before their offense 

(table 4). Property offenders (64%) 

were more likely than violent and 

public-order offenders (50% of each) to 

have used drugs in the month before 

the offense. Burglary (68%), robbery 

and larceny (67% of both) offenders 

reported the highest levels of drug use 

in the month of the offense.

Drug offenders (44%) were most likely 

to have committed their crimes while 

using drugs, followed by property 

offenders (39%). About a quarter of 

both violent (28%) and public-order 

(25%) offenders reported drug use at 

the time of their offense. Inmates 

serving time for sexual assault (17%) 

and aggravated assault (24%) were 

least likely to commit their crimes while 

under the influence of drugs.

An estimated 59% of Federal offenders 

held for drug trafficking reported using 

drugs in the month before their 

offense, followed by 57% of those held 

for robbery and 54% for weapons. 

About a quarter of Federal inmates 

(26%) committed their crimes while 

under the influence of drugs, led by 

trafficking (34%) and robbery (29%) 

offenders. Federal fraud offenders 

(9%) were the least likely to commit 

their crimes while under the influence 

of drugs.

For most types of offenders, these 

findings showed little change since 

1997. 

Percent of prisoners who 

reported drug use at the 

time of the offense —

Most serious

offense

State Federal

2004 1997 2004 1997

Total 32.1% 32.6% 26.4% 22.4%

Violent 27.7 29.0 24.0 24.5

Property 38.5 36.6 13.6 10.8

Drug 43.6 41.9 32.3 25.0

Public-order 25.4 23.1 18.7 15.6

Table 4. Drug use of State and Federal prisoners, by type of offense, 2004

Percent of prisoners who reported —

Use in the month before the offense Use at the time of the offense

Type of offense State Federal State Federal

Totala 56.0% 50.2% 32.1% 26.4%

Violent offenses 49.6% 49.1% 27.7% 24.0%

Homicide 48.9 44.9 27.3 16.8

Sexual assaultb 32.3 17.0 17.4 13.8

Robbery 66.6 56.9 40.7 29.4

Assault 48.9 42.3 24.1 20.1

Property offenses 64.0% 27.7% 38.5% 13.6%

Burglary 67.7 : 41.1 :

Larceny/theft 66.6 : 40.1 :

Motor vehicle theft 65.4 : 38.7 :

Fraud 56.3 22.8 34.1 9.3

Drug offenses 71.9% 57.3% 43.6% 32.3%

Possession 76.4 46.4 46.0 20.9

Trafficking 70.0 58.8 42.3 33.8

Public-order offensesc 49.9% 41.2% 25.4% 18.7%

Weapons 53.3 53.8 27.6 27.8

Other public-order 48.7 26.5 24.6 8.0

:Not calculated; too few cases to permit calculation.

aIncludes offenses not shown.

bIncludes rape and other sexual assault.

cExcluding DWI/DUI.
6 Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004

1 in 3 property offenders in State 

prisons report drug money as a 

motive in their crimes

Fewer than a fifth (17%) of all State 

prisoners said they committed their 

crimes to get money for drugs. By the 

type of offense, drug money as a 

motive in the offense varied widely. 

About 1 in 3 property offenders 

reported drug money as a motive, 

followed by about 1 in 4 drug 

offenders. Violent offenders (10%) and 

public-order offenders (7%) were least 

likely to report that they committed the 

offense to get money for drugs. 

Among Federal inmates the overall 

percentage who committed their 

offense to get money for drugs (18%) 

was similar to State prisoners. A 

quarter of Federal drug offenders, 15% 

of violent offenders, and 11% of 

property offenders said they committed 

their crimes for drug money.

53% of State and 45% of Federal 

prisoners met criteria for drug 

dependence or abuse 

More than half of State prisoners 

(53%) said they experienced 

symptoms consistent with drug 

dependence or abuse in the 12 months 

prior to their admission to prison (table 

5). Seventeen percent reported 

symptoms that met the criteria for drug 

abuse only. (See box below for abuse 

and dependence symptoms.)

Federal inmates (45%) were less likely 

to meet the drug dependence or abuse 

criteria than State inmates.

Percent of prisoners who 

committed offense to get 

money for drugs

Most serious offense State Federal

Total* 16.6% 18.4%

Violent 9.8 14.8

Property 30.3 10.6

Drug 26.4 25.3

Public-order 6.9 6.8

*Includes offenses not shown.

Prevalence of drug dependence or abuse symptoms among State and Federal prisoners, 2004

Percent of prison inmates

State Federal

Abuse symptoms

Failure to fulfill major role obligations 26.3% 18.2%

Lose job; job/school problems, such as missing too much work/

school, being demoted at work, dropping out of school; not taking 

care of children

Continued use in hazardous situations 34.4 29.3

Get in situations that increased chances of getting hurt, like driving, 

swimming, using machinery or walking in unsafe area

Drug-related legal problems 23.2 17.7

Arrested or held by police due to drug use

Recurrent social or interpersonal problems 44.7 34.1

Arguments/problems with spouse, intimate, family or friends or get 

into physical fights

Dependence symptoms 

Tolerance 33.7% 27.9%

Usual drugs had less effect; or used more drugs to get the wanted 

effect 

Withdrawal 28.6 21.5

Bad aftereffects from cutting down or stopping drugs, such as 

shaking, feeling nervous, anxious, sick to stomach, or taking 

drugs to get over any bad aftereffects

Compulsive use 32.2 27.6

More drug use or using for longer periods than intended

Impaired control 32.4 25.5

More than once wanted to cut down/tried to cut down but couldn't

Time spent obtaining, using, recovering 29.7 23.5

Spent a lot of time using drugs or getting over the bad aftereffects

Neglect of activities 26.5 19.9

Gave up on activities of interest/importance, like work, school, 

hobbies, or associating with family and friends 

Continued use despite problems 35.7 28.0

Continued to use drugs even though it was causing emotional or 

psychological problems.

Note: See References for sources on measuring prevalence of substance dependence or 

abuse using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV). 

The 2004 Survey of Inmates in State and 

Federal Correctional Facilities included 

questions to measure the prevalence of 

substance dependence or abuse as 

defined in the DSM-IV. These new 

estimates are not comparable to 

measures of prior drug use and related 

experiences in previous BJS surveys. 

Abuse symptoms included repeated drug 

use in hazardous situations or recurrent 

occupational, educational, legal or social 

problems related to drug use. Inmates 

reporting any of these symptoms in the 12 

months prior to their admission met the 

abuse criteria. Recurrent social problems 

due to drug use (45% of State and 34% of 

Federal inmates) was the most commonly 

reported abuse symptom.

Dependence criteria covered a range of 

symptoms, including behavioral, 

cognitive, and physiological problems. 

Inmates reporting three or more 

symptoms in the 12 months before 

admission met the dependence criteria. 

Continued use despite emotional or 

psychological problems was the most 

common symptom reported by both State 

(36%) and Federal (28%) inmates, 

followed by increasing tolerance (34% 

State and 28% Federal).
Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004 7

State and Federal prisoners were more 

likely than other adults in the U.S. 

resident population to meet the criteria 

for drug dependence or abuse. Using 

the same criteria, the National 

Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and 

Related Conditions, 2002 (NESARC) 

measured the national prevalence of 

various substance abuse disorders. 

According to BJS’s analysis of 

NESARC data, 2% of U.S. adult 

residents were dependent on or 

abusing drugs in the last 12 months. 

In State prisons, violent offenders 

were least likely to meet criteria for 

drug dependence or abuse 

An estimated 60% of female and 53% 

of male State prisoners were 

dependent on or abusing drugs (table 

6). White inmates in State prisons 

(59%) were most likely to meet the 

drug dependence or abuse criteria, 

followed by Hispanic (51%) and black 

(50%) inmates.

In Federal facilities 46% of male 

inmates and 43% of female inmates 

were dependent on or abusing drugs in 

the year prior to their admission. White 

inmates (59%) reported higher levels 

of drug dependence or abuse than 

black (44%) or Hispanic (34%) 

inmates. 

State prisoners age 45 or older were 

less likely to report drug dependence 

or abuse than other inmates. Between 

55% and 60% of the under-45 age 

groups met the dependence or abuse 

criteria, compared to 47% of inmates 

age 45-54, and 18% of those age 55 or 

older. Among Federal inmates, drug 

dependence or abuse declined 

steadily with age, from 58% of inmates 

24 or younger to 21% of those age 55 

or older.

Violent offenders (47%) were the only 

offender group in State prisons with 

less than half meeting the DSM-IV 

criteria for drug dependence or abuse. 

Property and drug offenders (63% of 

each) were the most likely to be drug 

dependent or abusing.

Drug offenders (52%) were the only 

group of Federal inmates with at least 

half meeting the drug dependence or 

abuse criteria. Property offenders 

(27%) reported the lowest percentage 

of drug dependence or abuse.

Diagnostic criteria

Percent of adult 

U.S. residents, 

2002

Any drug dependence or abuse 2.0%

Dependence and abuse 0.5

Dependence only 0.1

Abuse only 1.4

No dependence or abuse 98.0

Note: Findings from the National Epidemiologic 

Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, 

2002, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and 

Alcoholism. See Methodology.

Table 6. Drug dependence or abuse 

among State and Federal prisoners, by 

selected characteristics, 2004 

Percent of prisoners 

meeting drug 

dependence or 

abuse criteria —

Characteristic State Federal

All prisoners 53.4% 45.5%

Gender

Male 53.0% 45.7%

Female 60.2 42.8

Race/Hispanic origin

Whitea 59.1% 59.2%

Blacka 50.1 43.8

Hispanic 51.0 33.6

Othera,b 50.7 47.2

Age

24 or younger 59.8% 58.2%

25-34 56.5 51.1

35-44 55.1 40.8

45-54 47.2 43.5

55 or older 18.3 20.6

Most serious offense

Violent 46.7% 41.6%

Property 63.2 27.3

Drug 63.1 51.9

Public-order 50.2 41.2

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin.

bIncludes Asians, American Indians, Alaska 

Natives, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific 

Islanders, and inmates who specified more 

than one race.

Table 7. Criminal history of State and Federal prisoners, 

by drug dependence or abuse, 2004 

Percent of prisoners —

State Federal

Characteristic

Dependence 

or abuse

Other 

inmates

Dependence 

or abuse

Other 

inmates

Criminal justice status at arrest

None 51.9% 62.8% 70.1% 75.4%

Any status 48.1 37.2 29.9 24.6

On parole 20.9 15.9 12.1 12.6

On probation 26.7 21.0 17.2 11.7

Criminal history

None 15.6% 32.1% 25.2% 42.8%

Priors 84.4 67.9 74.8 57.2

Violent recidivists 46.8 40.6 28.1 23.5

Drug recidivists only 4.0 2.8 10.2 6.8

Other recidivists* 33.6 24.5 36.5 26.9

Number of prior probation/

incarceration sentences

0 16.9% 34.0% 27.1% 44.2%

1 14.1 17.4 14.4 16.8

2 15.8 16.4 16.1 14.6

3-5 28.5 21.7 25.9 16.5

6-10 16.5 7.9 11.4 5.9

11 or more 8.2 2.7 5.2 2.0

*

Includes recidivists with unknown prior offense types.

Table 5. Prevalence of drug 

dependence or abuse among State and 

Federal prisoners, 2004 

Percent of prison 

inmates —

Diagnostic criteria State Federal

Any dependence or abuse 53.4% 45.5%

Dependence and abuse 34.9 27.5

Dependence only 1.2 1.2

Abuse only 17.3 16.8

No dependence or abuse* 46.6 54.5

Note: See Methodology for definition of 

dependence or abuse based on the Diagnostic 

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth 

Edition (DSM-IV).

*Includes inmates who did not use drugs. 
8 Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004

Half of drug dependent or abusing 

inmates in State prisons reported 

three or more prior sentences

Nearly half (48%) of State prisoners 

meeting the DSM-IV criteria for drug 

dependence or abuse were on some 

form of criminal justice status 

(probation, parole, or escape) at the 

time of their arrest, compared to 37% 

of other State inmates (table 7). 

Federal inmates meeting the DSM-IV 

criteria (30%) were slightly more likely 

to have been on a criminal justice 

status at the time of arrest than other 

Federal inmates (25%).

Drug dependent or abusing inmates in 

State prisons were more likely than 

other prisoners to have a prior offense 

(84% compared to 68%). More than 

half (53%) of drug dependent or 

abusing State prisoners reported at 

least three prior sentences; a third 

(32%) of other State prisoners had 

three or more prior sentences. 

1 in 7 drug dependent or abusing 

inmates in State prison were 

homeless in year before admission

Drug dependent or abusing inmates 

were more likely than other inmates to 

report troubled personal backgrounds, 

including experiences of physical or 

sexual abuse, homelessness, 

unemployment, parental substance 

abuse, and parental incarceration. 

Drug dependent or abusing inmates in 

State prisons (14%) were twice as 

likely as other inmates (6%) to report 

being homeless during the year before 

admission to prison (table 8). They 

also reported lower levels of 

employment in the month prior to 

admission (68% compared to 78% of 

other inmates).

While growing up, 42% of drug 

dependent or abusing State prisoners 

received public assistance, 45% lived 

in single-parent homes, and 41% had 

a substance-abusing parent. By 

comparison, 31% of other inmates 

received public assistance, 39% lived 

in single-parent homes, and 24% had 

a substance-abusing parent.

Reports of prior physical or sexual 

abuse were also higher among drug 

dependent or abusing State prisoners 

(23%) than among other inmates 

(15%).

State prisoners who were drug 

dependent or abusing were about 

twice as likely as other inmates to 

report past incarceration of either a 

mother (8% compared to 4%) or father 

(21% compared to 13%). A majority of 

drug dependent or abusing inmates 

(53%) reported the prior incarceration 

of a member of their immediate family 

(parent, sibling, child, or spouse), 

compared to 40% of other inmates.

Participation in drug abuse 

programs rose in both State and 

Federal prison since 1997

The percentage of recent drug users in 

State prison who reported participation 

in a variety of drug abuse programs 

rose from 34% in 1997 to 39% in 2004 

(table 9). This increase was the result 

of the growing percentage of recent 

drug users who reported taking part in 

self-help groups, peer counseling and 

drug abuse education programs (up 

from 28% to 34%). Over the same 

period, the percentage of recent drug 

users taking part in drug treatment 

programs with a trained professional 

was almost unchanged (15% in 1997, 

14% in 2004). 

Participation in drug abuse programs 

also increased among Federal inmates 

who had used drugs in the month 

before their offense, from 39% in 1997 

to 45% in 2004. While there was no 

change in percentage of these inmates 

who had undergone drug treatment 

with a trained professional (15% in 

both years), the percentage taking part 

in other drug abuse programs rose 

from 32% in 1997 to 39% in 2004.

Table 8. Family background of State and Federal prison inmates, 

by drug dependence or abuse criteria, 2004 

Percent of prisoners —

State Federal

Characteristic

Dependence 

or abuse

Other 

inmates

Dependence 

or abuse

Other 

inmates

Homeless in past year 13.9% 5.7% 5.7% 3.3%

Employed in month before admission to jail 68.2% 77.6% 67.3% 76.8%

Full-time 56.4 67.0 55.6 67.0

Part-time 9.6 8.5 9.1 8.1

Ever abused 23.4% 15.4% 14.0% 8.8%

Physically abused 19.6 12.2 11.8 7.0

Sexually abused 10.1 7.0 5.0 3.5

While growing up — 

Ever received public assistance* 42.2% 31.5% 35.3% 23.4%

Ever lived in a foster home, agency, or institution 17.6 10.9 8.6 7.4

Lived most of the time with— 

Both parents 41.0% 48.5% 43.9% 51.1%

One parent 45.1 39.3 42.8 36.8

Someone else 11.4 10.5 12.4 11.6

Parents or guardians ever abused — 

Alcohol 24.1% 16.8% 23.8% 13.3%

Drugs 3.4 1.6 2.3 1.4

Both alcohol and drugs 13.9 5.3 10.0 2.6

Neither 58.6 76.3 63.9 82.7

Family member ever incarcerated — 53.4% 40.2% 49.7% 34.8%

Mother 7.5 3.9 4.9 3.4

Father 21.2 12.8 16.5 8.9

Brother 36.3 29.0 33.1 24.2

Sister 7.3 4.9 5.7 4.1

Child 2.5 2.6 2.9 3.3

Spouse 1.8 0.8 2.6 1.7

*Public assistance includes public housing, AFDC, food stamps, Medicaid, WIC, 

and other welfare programs.
Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004 9

Number of Federal prisoners taking 

part in drug abuse programs up 90% 

between 1997 and 2004

With the continued growth in the State 

prisoner population, the estimated 

number of inmates reporting drug use 

in the month before the offense rose 

from 598,700 in 1997 to 686,700 in 

2004. Among these users the number 

who took part in any drug abuse 

programs rose from 205,300 to 

269,200.

More than 9,000 additional State 

inmates reported receiving professional drug treatment. However, the largest 

increase was seen in the number of 

inmates taking part in self-help/peer 

counseling groups and drug abuse 

education classes, up 62,000 since 

1997.

During the period, the estimated 

number of Federal inmates who 

reported drug use in the month before 

their offense rose by 25,000 inmates 

from 39,900 to 64,900. In 2004, an 

estimated 9,900 Federal prisoners with 

a recent drug use history had been in a 

drug treatment program with a trained 

professional, up from an estimated 

6,100 in 1997.

The number of inmates taking part in 

self-help or peer counseling groups 

and drug abuse education classes 

increased by more than 12,000 

inmates. The number of recent drug 

users receiving some type of drug 

abuse program in Federal prisons rose 

by 90% (from 15,500 to 29,400 

prisoners).

Over 250,000 dependent/abusing 

State inmates took part in drug 

abuse programs since admission

In 2004, about 642,000 State prisoners 

were drug dependent or abusing in the 

year before their admission to prison. 

An estimated 258,900 of these inmates 

(or 40%) had taken part in some type 

of drug abuse program (table 10). 

These inmates were more than twice 

as likely to report participation in selfhelp or peer counseling groups and 

education programs (35%) than to 

receive drug treatment from a trained 

professional (15%).

In Federal prison, a higher percentage 

of drug dependent or abusing inmates 

(49%) reported taking part in some 

type of drug abuse programs. Nearly 1 

in 3 took part in drug abuse education 

classes, and 1 in 5 had participated in 

self-help or peer counseling groups. 

Overall, 17% took part in drug 

treatment programs with a trained 

professional, and 41% had participated 

in other drug abuse programs.

Estimated number 

of prisoners who 

used drugs in the 

month before the 

offense —

2004 1997

Any drug treatment or 

programs since admission

State 269,200 205,300

Federal 29,400 15,500

Treatment

State 96,800 87,400

Federal 9,900 6,100

Other programs

State 231,400 169,400

Federal 25,200 12,700

Table 9. Drug treatment or program participation since admission among State and 

Federal prisoners who used drugs in the month before the offense, 1997 and 2004 

Percent of prisoners who used drugs 

in the month before the offense —

Type of drug treatment or State Federal

program since admission 2004 1997 2004 1997

Any drug treatment or programs 39.2% 34.3% 45.3% 38.8%

Treatment 14.1% 14.6% 15.2% 15.4%

Residential facility or unit 9.2 8.8 8.7 10.9

Counseling by a professional 6.0 6.0 6.8 5.5

Detoxification unit 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.3

Maintenance drug 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.4

Other programs 33.7% 28.3% 38.8% 31.7%

Self-help group/peer counseling 26.9 23.1 20.8 15.8

Education program 17.0 14.1 28.1 23.8

Table 10. Drug treatment or program participation since admission among 

State and Federal prisoners who met drug dependence or abuse criteria, 2004 

Type of drug treatment or 

Percent of prisoners meeting criteria 

for drug dependence or abuse —

program since admission State Federal

Any drug treatment or programs 40.3% 48.6%

Treatment 14.8% 17.4%

Residential facility or unit 9.5 9.2

Counseling by a professional 6.5 8.7

Detoxification unit 0.8 0.9

Maintenance drug 0.3 0.4

Other programs 34.8% 41.0%

Self-help group/peer 

counseling 28.0 22.1

Education program 17.8 30.2
10 Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004

Methodology 

The findings in this report are based on 

the data in the Survey of Inmates in 

State and Federal Correctional 

Facilities, 2004. Conducted every 5 or 

6 years since 1974 (Federal facilities 

were added for the first time in 1991), 

the inmate surveys are the only 

national source of detailed information 

on criminal offenders, particularly 

special populations such as drug and 

alcohol users and offenders who have 

mental health problems.

The survey design included a stratified 

two-stage sample where facilities were 

selected in the first stage and inmates 

to be interviewed in the second stage. 

In the second sampling stage, 

interviewers from the Census Bureau 

visited each selected facility and 

systematically selected a sample of 

inmates. Computer-assisted personal 

interviewing (CAPI) was used to 

conduct the interviews.

Survey of Inmates in State and Federal 

Correctional Facilities, 2004 

The State prison sample was selected 

from a universe of 1,585 facilities. A 

total of 287 State prisons participated 

in the survey; 2 refused, 11 were 

closed or had no inmates to survey, 

and 1 was erroneously included in the 

universe. A total of 14,499 inmates in 

the State facilities were interviewed; 

1,653 inmates refused to participate, 

resulting in a second-stage nonresponse rate of 10.2%.

The Federal prison sample was 

selected from 148 Federal prisons and 

satellite facilities. Thirty-nine of the 40 

prisons selected participated in the 

survey. After the initial sample of 

inmates was drawn, a secondary sample of 1 in 3 drug offenders was 

selected. A total of 3,686 inmates in 

Federal facilities were interviewed and 

567 refused to participate, resulting in 

a second-stage nonresponse rate of 

13.3%.

Accuracy of survey estimates

The accuracy of the survey estimates 

depends on sampling and measurement errors. Sampling errors occur by 

chance because a sample of inmates 

rather than all inmates were interviewed. Measurement error can be 

attributed to many sources, such as 

nonresponse, recall difficulties, differences in the interpretation of questions 

among inmates, and processing 

errors.

The sampling error, as measured by 

an estimated standard error, varies by 

the size of the estimate and the size of 

the base population. These standard 

errors may be used to construct confidence intervals around percentages. 

Appendix Table 1. Standard errors of the estimated percentages, 

State prison inmates, 2004

Base of Estimated percentages

the estimate 98 or 2 90 or 10 80 or 20 70 or 30 60 or 40 50

1,000 7.14 15.31 20.41 23.39 25.00 25.52

2,000 5.05 10.83 14.43 16.54 17.68 18.04

2,500 4.52 9.68 12.91 14.79 15.81 16.14

5,000 3.20 6.85 9.13 10.46 11.18 11.41

10,000 2.26 4.84 6.46 7.40 7.91 8.07

20,000 1.60 3.42 4.56 5.23 5.59 5.71

30,000 1.30 2.80 3.73 4.27 4.56 4.66

50,000 1.01 2.17 2.89 3.31 3.54 3.61

82,794a 0.79 1.68 2.24 2.57 2.75 2.80

100,000 0.71 1.53 2.04 2.34 2.50 2.55

200,000 0.51 1.08 1.44 1.65 1.77 1.80

400,000 0.36 0.77 1.02 1.17 1.25 1.28

600,000 0.29 0.63 0.83 0.95 1.02 1.04

800,000 0.25 0.54 0.72 0.83 0.88 0.90

1,143,400b 0.21 0.45 0.60 0.69 0.74 0.75

1,226,200 0.20 0.44 0.58 0.67 0.71 0.73

aThe total weighted estimate of female State prisoners, 2004.

bThe total weighted estimate of male State prisoners, 2004.

Appendix Table 2. Standard errors of the estimated percentages, 

Federal prison inmates, 2004

Base of Estimated percentages

the estimate 98 or 2 90 or 10 80 or 20 70 or 30 60 or 40 50

200 10.01 21.44 28.59 32.75 35.01 35.74

500 6.33 13.56 18.08 20.71 22.14 22.60

1,000 4.47 9.59 12.79 14.65 15.66 15.98

2,000 3.16 6.78 9.04 10.36 11.07 11.30

5,000 2.00 4.29 5.72 6.55 7.00 7.15

7,500 1.63 3.50 4.67 5.35 5.72 5.84

9,063a 1.49 3.19 4.25 4.87 5.20 5.31

12,500 1.27 2.71 3.62 4.14 4.43 4.52

15,000 1.16 2.48 3.30 3.78 4.04 4.13

25,000 0.89 1.92 2.56 2.93 3.13 3.20

40,000 0.71 1.52 2.02 2.32 2.48 2.53

50,000 0.63 1.36 1.81 2.07 2.21 2.26

75,000 0.52 1.11 1.48 1.69 1.81 1.85

100,000 0.45 0.96 1.28 1.46 1.57 1.60

120,237b 0.41 0.87 1.17 1.34 1.43 1.46

129,300 0.39 0.84 1.12 1.29 1.38 1.41

aThe total weighted estimate of female Federal prisoners, 2004.

bThe total weighted estimate of male Federal prisoners, 2004.
Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004 11

Estimates of the standard errors have 

been calculated for the 2004 surveys 

(see appendix tables 1 and 2 for standard errors; see appendix table 3 for 

population base estimates). For example, the 95% confidence interval 

around the percentage of Federal 

inmates in 2004 who had used drugs in 

the month before their current offense 

is approximately 50.2% plus or minus 

1.96 times 1.41% (or 47.4% to 53.0%).

A detailed description of the methodology for the State and Federal Prison 

survey, including standard error tables 

and links to other reports or findings 

will be available at <http://www. 

icpsr.umich.edu> in Winter 2007. A 

detailed description of the 

methodology for the Survey of Inmates 

in Local Jails is available at <http://

webapp.icpsr.umich.edu/cocoon/

NACJD-STUDY/04359.xml>.

Measures of drug dependence and 

abuse in the general population

Caution should be used when making 

comparisons between prison inmates 

and the general population based on 

the 12-month DSM-IV structured interview. There are significant variations in 

questionnaire design and data analysis. For example, questions on the 

severity or duration of symptoms and 

questions about whether symptoms 

are due to bereavement, substance 

use, or a medical condition may vary 

from survey to survey. 

For details on the methodology used in 

the National Epidemiologic Survey on 

Alcohol and Related Conditions, sponsored by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, see the 

Data Reference Manual, <http://

niaaa.census.gov/>. For additional 

information on the prevalence of drug 

dependence and abuse in the general 

population, see the National Survey on 

Drug Use and Health, sponsored by 

the Substance Abuse and Mental 

Health Services Administration, <http://

www.oas.samhsa.gov/nsduh.htm>.

References

American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of 

Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV), 1994.

Compton, Wilson M., and others, "Prevalence of Marijuana Use Disorders in 

the United States, 1991-1992 and 2001-2002," Journal of the American 

Medical Association, May 5, 2004, vol. 291, no.17.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Epidemiologic 

Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, 2002, National Institutes of 

Health, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, 

Maryland.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Survey on Drug 

Use and Health, 2002, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration, Office of Applied Studies, Rockville, Maryland.

Appendix table 3. Base estimates for selected characteristics

of State and Federal prisoners, 2004

Base estimate, number of prisoners, 2004

Characteristic State Federal

Gender

Male 1,143,400 120,200

Female 82,800 9,100

Race/Hispanic origin

White, non-Hispanic 431,500 33,600

Black, non-Hispanic 496,900 56,000

Hispanic 222,700 32,400

Age

24 or younger 212,400 11,600

25-34 405,500 49,700

35-44 373,700 37,300

45-54 172,700 22,200

55 or older 61,900 8,500

Most serious offense

Violent 579,100 18,600

Property 226,800 8,300

Drug 257,900 70,600

Public-order 143,500 26,200

Drug dependent/abusing in the

12 months prior to admission

Yes 642,500 57,200

No 558,100 68,300
U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Washington, DC 20531

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use $300

PRESORTED STANDARD

POSTAGE & FEES PAID

DOJ/BJS

Permit No. G-91

*NCJ~213530*

12 Drug Use and Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004

This report in portable document format and in ASCII 

and its related statistical data and tables are available at 

the BJS World Wide Web Internet site: <http://www.ojp. 

usdoj.gov/bjs/>.

Office of Justice Programs

Partnerships for Safer Communities

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov

The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the 

statistical agency of the U.S. 

Department of Justice. Jeffrey L. 

Sedgwick is director. 

Christopher J. Mumola and Jennifer 

C. Karberg wrote this report, under 

the supervision of Allen J. Beck. Todd 

D. Minton, Laura M. Maruschak, and 

Margaret E. Noonan verified the 

report. Tina Dorsey produced the 

report, Doris J. James edited the 

report, and Jayne Robinson prepared 

it for final printing.

Tracy L. Snell, under the supervision 

of Allen J. Beck, was project manager 

for the Survey of Inmates in State and 

Federal Correctional Facilities. 

For the State and Federal prisoners 

survey, at the U.S. Census Bureau 

Steven M. Bittner, Colette Heiston, 

and Kenneth Mayo carried out 

questionnaire design, data collection 

and processing, under the supervision 

of Marilyn M. Monahan, Demographic 

Surveys Division. Renee Arion 

programmed the questionnaire and 

Dave Keating programmed the listing 

instrument, under the supervision of 

Rob Wallace, Technologies 

Management Office. Programming 

assistance in the Demographic 

Surveys Division was provided by 

Chris Alaura, Mildred Ballenger, 

Bach-Loan Nguyen, and Scott 

Raudabaugh, under the supervision 

of David Watt. 

Dave Hornick and Danielle N. 

Castelo, Demographic Surveys 

Methods Division, under the 

supervision of Thomas F. Moore, 

designed the sample and weighting 

specifications. Sydnee ChattinReynolds and Luis Padilla, Field 

Division, under the supervision of 

Richard Ning, coordinated the field 

operations. The affiliations for the 

Census Bureau date to the time of the 

survey.

October 2006, NCJ 213530