Volume IL

immigrant populations in many communities have outpaced postsecondary
institutions’ capacity to offer needed courses and services. (See discussion in the
Interim Report} For these students, access may be increasingly limited, at least
until their numbers stabilize or institutions’ resources increase.

Different types of postsecondary institutions are found in different areas, with
private and for-profit institutions concentrated in urban areas. For example, only
37 percent of public sub-baccalaureate institutions are in urban areas, compared
to 70 percent of proprietary schools and 54 percent of private institutions.‘ So it is
not surprising that minority students are more likely than white students to
enroll in private and proprietary institutions. Blacks are particularly likely to
enroll in proprietary institutions and Hispanics in private schools (see Figure
2.2). Although the distribution of institutions contributes to this enrollment
pattern, institutions’ recruitment strategies and entry requirements, as well as the
existence of private Hispanic colleges, are also likely contributing factors.

Figure 2.2
Race/Ethnicity of Students Enrolled in Sub-baccalaureate Institutions.
by Institution Type, 1989-90

Public Voc-Tech

Community College

Private Two-Year

Proprictary

T
50
Percent

Hi White O Black il Hispanic O Asian Native American

Source: L989 NPSAS.

42 Participation in Postsecoudary Vocational Education

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By these definitions, 32 percent of 1992 high school graduates were advanced
academic students, 24 percent were vocational students, and the largest
proportion — 46 percent — were general track students. The changes over time
in the distribution of these types of students reflect the marked growth of
academics and the decline of vocationalism discussed in Chapter 1. The
proportion of general track students has also declined over the last decade, but
they outnumber vocational students almost two to one and their curriculum
remains the most common one for high school students.

There is a small but increasing overlap between the vocational and academic
tracks. In 1982, only 0.4 percent of vocational students met the advanced
academic course requirements. By 1990, 2.8 percent met these requirements, and
by 1992, 4 percent did so. While this is still a very low proportion, it is indicative
of an overall trend toward more academic preparation for vocational students, as
we will see below.

ACADEMIC COURSETAKING OF VOCATIONAL STUDENTS

One approach to assessing the academic side of vocational education is to see
how much academic education vocational students typically receive relative to
that of other students, and how patterns of academic coursetaking have changed
in the recent past.

In this analysis, we define a basic academic program to include at least 12 credits
in English, mathematics, science, and social studies. Note that this is less
academic work than the advanced curriculum for college prep students
discussed in the preceding section. All academic track (college prep) students
necessarily meet this criterion. Some 96 percent of general track students and 84
percent of vocational students also complete a basic academic education. (See
Figure 5.2.)

The proportions of both general and vocational students who complete a basic
academic program have increased since 1982, apparently in response to the
higher graduation standards resulting from education reforms in the 1980s. Of
the two groups, the proportion of vocational students completing an academic
program has increased at a much faster rate. Thus, the academic coursetaking
gap between (advanced) academic, general, and vocational students is closing,
and it is closing most rapidly for the vocational students.

The much lower basic academic completion rates for vocational students in the
early and mid-1980s (49%, 67%) are consistent with data in Chapter 2, which
show that community college students who had been vocational! students in high
school had lower completion rates than those who had been academic or general
track students. Vocational students’ lower level of academic coursetaking in high
school may have made them less prepared to succeed in a community college

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 109

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Local labor market effects also seem to be reflected in students’ choices of
vocational programs. Rural students are the most likely to earn credits in
agriculture, business, and the trades, while urban students are the most likely to
earn credits in technical fields. (See Figure A-1.1 in the Appendix.)

ENROLLMENT TRENDS

The current distribution of course credits represents a continuation of enrollment
trends throughout the 1980s (see Figure 1.3). As we saw in the Interim Report,
students’ overall coursetaking and academic coursetaking has increased, while
their vocational coursetaking decreased during the 1980s.4 As this trend
continued with the class of 1992, vocational enrollments became a smaller
proportion of the total credits earned (16%) than they have been for any year for
which data are available.

This change in coursetaking reflects a decline in interest in pursuing vocational
programs as well as a decline in casual vocational coursetaking. For example,
while there was a 19 percent decline in the percentage of vocational credits
earned from 1982 to 1992, there was a 28 percent decline in the percentage of
students who concentrated in a vocational program area, and a 39 percent
decline in the percentage who specialized.

Combined with a declining cohort of high school aged students, these enrollment
patterns have had marked effects on the demand for vocational teachers and
courses. If coursetaking had not changed from 1982 to 1992, the demand for all
teachers and courses would have dropped 17 percent, since there were 17 percent
fewer students in 1992. However, since the average student's credit load
increased, the overall demand for secondary school courses declined only

8 percent from 1982 to 1992. There was no decline in the demand for academic
courses, as the increase in academic coursetaking was large enough to counteract
the cohort decline.

But reduced vocational coursetaking combined with the cohort decline led to a
33 percent decline in the demand for vocational courses. This large drop in
vocational course demand helps explain the shrinkage seen in other areas of the
vocational education enterprise, such as in vocational teacher education
programs (see Chapter 3). We can anticipate that as the cohort size increases in
the late 1990s, the rate of decline in vocational demand will attenuate somewhat.

The increase in academic coursetaking is clearly related to high school
graduation requirements, which increased through the 1980s and into the 1990s.
Many vocational educators also feel that graduation requirement increases have
led directly to the decline in vocational enrollments, by making it more difficult
for students to fit vocational courses into their schedules. However, the decline in
vocational coursetaking began before the education reform movement prompted

29

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have higher course utilization rates than the majority of traditional male subject
areas. Therefore, completing a program in one of the traditionally female fields
yields positive economic outcomes via the link of securing a training-related job.

The improved employment outcomes for women in secondary vocational programs
who do not go on to college seem to be driven by the high proportions of women
(over 50%) who have business training and find jobs related to their training.
Business education is the largest secondary vocational education program. The
skilled CUR for women with business training was 53 percent in 1983, and 65
percent in 1985. By contrast, for men with jobs in precision production, the skilled
CUR was 27 percent in 1983, and 36 percent in 1985.24 One qualification to the
apparently strong outcomes for women in this field is that in recent years business
enrollments have been declining, perhaps in response to reduced growth in
secretarial iobs (see Chapter 1). Whether employment outcomes for women with
business training are changing is unclear.

The demand for trained, skilled practitioners in the health field is expanding,
however. Although there are relatively few health programs in secondary education,
the payoff to training in this area is clear. Meyer reported a skilled CUR of 71
percent for women in health fields.

Vocational Education for Students With Disabilities

One goal of the Perkins Act is to improve high schoo! vocational education for
students with disabilities. Vocational education may be particularly appropriate and
beneficial to such students because so few of them go on to postsecondary
education. Wagner?5 observes that students with disabilities “often need training in
both work-related behaviors and specific job skills, if they are to function effectively
in the competitive job market when they leave high school.”

Wagner et al.?6 explored the relationship of vocational education to school
performance for students with disabilities. This analysis included a comparison of
how students who took vocational education classes in high school fared in making
the transition to adult roles and responsibilities, compared with other students. The
data came from the National Longitudinal Transition Study of Special Education
Students (NLTS). The NLTS is a nationally representative sample of more than 8,000
students in all 11 federal special education disability categories, who were ages 13 to
21 and in special education in the 1985-86 school year.

Wagner et al. used the NLTS data to examine whether disabled students who took
vocational education in their most recent year in secondary school were more likely
to have positive outcomes than nonvocational students, both during secondary
school and in their early postschool years. The outcomes include: (a) school
performance as measured by students’ school attendance; (b) grade performance as
measured by whether students received one or more failing course grades; and (c)
persistence in school, as measured by whether the student dropped out. The

140 1538 Employment Outcomes

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Such contrary views, however, may be due in part to the fact that the
methodological approaches as well as the data used in these studies have evolved
over time. Because early studies used cross-sectional data, they provided only a
snapshot of earnings and employment characteristics at only one point in time.

In general, this early work on economic outcomes, particularly for non-college-
bound students, demonstrates few positive effects. Campbell et al.4 summarize the
literature by saying “the evidence is mixed as to whether male vocational educated
high school graduates earn significantly more/hour or more/week than otherwise
similar non-vocational graduates.” The findings are similar for postsecondary
education. In a review of earlier studies, Grubb5 found that individuals with sub-
baccalaureate credentials tended not to earn more than high school graduates of
equivalent experience. Lewis et al.¢ report similar results. Although these early
studies did not find improved economic outcomes for men, they did demonstrate
that both high school and postsecondary vocational education have positive effects
on earnings for women.”

Later studies improved upon early methodology in three important ways. First,
researchers began to look at outcomes for subgroups of the vocational education
population (e.g., degree holders vs. nondegree holders), in order to observe whether
the results of the aggregate analyses masked gains for certain subpopulations.
Second, researchers began employing more sophisticated statistical methods to sort
out the effects of a variety of factors on economic outcomes (e.g., statistical controls
for selection effects). And third, longitudinal data that allowed researchers to follow
the progression of individuals over time became available for analysis.

With increased technical sophistication, the results of later studies have been fairly
consistent. For certain subgroups of secondary and postsecondary students, there
appears to be evidence of a positive effect on wages and employment, at least in the
short run, when other important individual characteristics are controlled for via
statistical techniques.

The following summarizes the factors that have been associated with better
employment and earnings outcomes:

¢ Finding a job in an occupation that matches a field of study. The
research consistently finds that wage and employment outcomes are
superior for those whose field of study and occupation match, as
compared to those without a match.

¢ Concentration of coursework in a particular field of study. Vocational
education students who complete at least two credits in a vocational
specialty area and find jobs related to their training have higher earnings
and less unemployment over time than those with a more general
background. In addition, individuals with higher concentrations of
coursework are more likely to find a training-related job.

Employment Outcomes 1 ec 3 135



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not related to job performance in the industry examined, but that foundation
skills are related to it. Vocational teachers give varying weights to the foundation
skills in their grading decisions. Self-maragement skills receive considerable
emphasis, but research and reference skills, the one SCANS workplace
competency related to performance in the study cited, receive very little.

Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education 105



Volume IT

POSTSECONDARY COMPLETION, PERSISTENCE, AND DROPOUT RATES

Finally, as Chapter 6 shows, obtaining an educational credential (diploma,
certificate, or degree) contributes to the employment success of vocational
students, and thus can serve as one measure of the value or quality of the
education students receive. In this section, we examine the rate at which

postsecondary students, particularly those in sub-baccalaureate institutions, earn
credentials.

Determining postsecondary completion rates is complicated by the different
goals of individuals who enroll in sub-baccalaureate institutions. While some
students attend these institutions to obtain a credential, others intend instead to
transfer to a four-year institution, upgrade their job skills, or meet strictly
personal goals. For these latter students, the receipt of a (less than baccalaureate)
credential is irrelevant to their “success.”

No data sets accurately separate these different groups of students, and doing so
is virtually impossible, as students are often unclear as to their intentions,
exaggerate them, or change them over time. However, by considering only those
students who seem most likely to be working toward a degree or certificate, we
can obtain reasonably valid estimates of completion rates. Here, we restrict our
analyses to recent high school graduates, a group likely to have high rates of
intention to complete postsecondary education, and to full-time postsecondary

* students, another group likely to be planning to earn a credential.!9

Since the available data follow postsecondary students for a limited time (2-4
years), not all students can be definitively categorized as completers and non-
completers. We divide them into three groups: completers (those who have
earned a credentia!), persisters (those still in school), and dropouts (those who
have left school). Eventually, the persisters will complete or drop out, and some
of the dropouts may return to earn a credential — but we cannot determine
which students will follow these paths.

Completion rates over a period of 2.5 years for full-time students enrolled in
sub-baccalaureate institutions range from 26 to 65 percent, depending on the
type of institution (see Table 2.2). The relatively low completion rate and higher
persistence rate at community colleges may reflect the continued enrollments of
students who intend to transfer to four-year institutions, and of those taking
courses for non-credentialing purposes. (Note that the dropout rates across two-
and three-year institutions are nearly identical. Students in community colleges
just seem to take courses over a longer period of time.) If we exclude community
colleges, the remaining completion rates for full-time students (42-65%) are
similar to the rate at four-year institutions, where (using the most comparable
data available) about 40 percent of students entering immediately after high
school receive a-bachelor degree within four years.20

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education 51

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Other researchers have developed their own indices to match field of study and jobs.
Some of the variation across analyses may be due to different algorithms used in
developing those matching matrices. The sensitivity of the research findings to the

methodology employed is a question that has not been explored in the literature, but
may affect results.

The Number of Students Who Match Training and Employment. Bishop '? reported
that less than half of the high school graduates with occupational training obtain a
job associated with their training. Ina related study of graduates who have no
postsecondary education, Wirt et al. found that 38 percent of all occupationally
specific vocational courses were used in skilled jobs.

From the low proportion of secondary vocational students finding a match between
work and employment, Campbell et al.!4 concluded that one reason the earlier
studies of aggregate populations did not find improved economic outcomes is that
the majority of vocational graduates do not get training-related jobs. Meyer further
reports that the course utilization rate varies by gender, and that it is more than 10
percent higher for women than it is for men.

Asa result of the relatively low proportion of high school vocational students who
find related employment, some have argued for an improved system of credentials
for both high school and postsecondary graduates. Triest believes that credentialing
systems could serve to correct any market failures regarding the availability of
information for those looking for jobs as well as for those looking for employees. !5
He reports that “Correcting this failure might be expected to increase the incentive
for skill acquisition, increase the accountability of training providers, and facilitate
the job matching process. Wage rates would be expected to rise, job duration
increase, and frictional unemployment decrease.”

On the other hand, credentialing may lead to a more rigid system of hiring. Triest
observes that although the type of credentials system envisioned in the Goals 2000
Act is voluntary, having the appropriate credential may become an unwritten rule in
hiring. Since secondary students often try out many jobs before settling into a career
(often in fields different from their studies), a credential or lack of a credential may
keep them from exploring the full set of options. From the information available, it is
difficult to predict just how a system of credentials would affect vocational students,
especially with regard to finding a training-related job.

The Effect of Matching on Employment. For both secondary and postsecondary
vocational completers who find jobs matching their field of study, the incidence of
unemployment over time decreases.!6 Campbell et al., using data from High School
and Beyond, reported that high school graduates who found jobs that matched their
field of study had a lower rate of unemployment (3 percentage points less), and
spent almost 20 percent more time in the labor force than a comparable group of
general track students. By contrast, non-college-bound vocational track students

138 Employment Outcomes



Volume I

The major gender differences are not between vocational and academic teachers,
but among vocational teachers in different program areas. Almost all the teachers
in agriculture, industrial arts, and trade/industry (T&l) are male (93%, 96%, and
91%, respectively). On the other hand, almost all secondary home economics
teachers are female (99%), as are about two-thirds of the business teachers (67%).
These gender differences parallel those of secondary vocational students as
described in Chapter 1.

There are few substantial differences in race-ethnicity by program area, although
there are some differences by age. Agriculture teachers tend to be considerably

younger (38.7 years) than average, while teachers in trade and industry tend to
be older (45.6 years).

In all, vocational teachers are a little older than other teachers, but they are no
more likely to be maie, and blacks are somewhat overrepresented. As with
students, there are strong gender differences by vocational program area.
Teachers in the program that many regard as typical of vocational education —
trade and industry — are much more likely than non-vocational teachers to be
male and they tend to be older than other teachers.

Preparation and Qualifications of Teachers

Education and Experience

This section examines the educational credentials, teaching experience, and other
occupational experience of secondary school teachers. Some formal post-
secondary education is required for public school teaching in all states, and the
credentials of teachers are widely considered to be measures of quality in
educational institutions. As Chapter 6 shows, the labor market generally rewards
educational credentials. Although sometimes too much or too little emphasis is
given them, teaching credentials usually reflect essential preparation. Outside the
regular education system, occupational credentials such as licenses reflect the
acquisition of skills that can be essential for teaching vocational subjects.

Work experience tends to improve performance, and pay scales usually
recognize this improvement by rewarding experienced workers more than
beginners. 4 At some point in people’s careers, however, the benefits of
additional experience level off and begin to decline a little. We assume that these
principles apply to teachers as well as others and that teaching experience
improves performance, at least up toa point.

Work experience outside of teaching, if related to the subject taught in school,
can be another valuable element in teacher preparation, especially for those
teaching vocational subjects. Academic teachers in school systems attempting to
integrate academic and vocational subjects might also benefit from work
experience outside of school.

64 83 . Teachers in Vocational Education



Volume II

ENDNOTES

1

6

10

12

14

National Center on Education and the Economy (1990), America’s Choice: High Skills or
Low Wages, Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce.

Osterman, P. (1993), How Conunon is Workplace Transformation and How Can We Explain
Who Adopts It? Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School.

McCormick, A., & Holmes, P. (1994), Computers and Vocational/Techinical Education, draft
report prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education, MPR Associates.

Ibid., p.4.

Krueger, A.B. How computers have changed the wage structure: Evidence from
Microdata, 1984-1989, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 432, 33-59. Cited in
McCormick & Holmes (199+)

Vergun, R,, & Klein, S. (1994), Workplace Skill Requirements: The Upskilling-Deskilling Debate,
draft report prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education, MPR
Associates.

Johnston, W., & Packer, A. (1987). Workforce 2000: Work and Workers for the 21st Century,
Hudson Institute.

Mishel, L., & Texeira, R.A. (1991), The Myth of the Coming Labor Shortage: Jobs, Skills, and
Incomes of America’s Workforce 200), Economic Policy Institute.

Bishop, J., & Carter, S. (1990), The Deskilling Versus Upskilling Debate: The Role of BLS
Projections (Working Paper 90-14), Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies.

Drake, P., & Niewenhuysen, J. (1988), Economic Grozuth for Australia: Agenda for Action,
Committee for Economic Development in Australia Monograph M8, p. 2, Oxford
University Press.

Vergun & Klein (1994), p. 33.
National Center on Education and the Economy (1990).

U.S. Department of Education (1994), National Assessment of Vocational Education: Interim
Report to Congress.

Special populations include the economically and educationally disadvantaged, the
disabled, the limited-English-proficient, single parents, and students in programs non-
traditional for their sex, among others

xvi

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19



Volume II

Table A-2.2

Percent of Enrollments in Each Major That Are Male, by Vocational and
Academic Discipline, Fall 1986 and Fall 1989

Major 1986 1989

Vocational Majors
Health sciences 14.7 178
Business support 8.7 20.6
Consumer services 8.6 21.3
Home economics 5.0 23.2
Allied health 19.7 30.5
Vocational home economics 274 31.3
Agricultural sciences 53.3 37.7
Marketing 40.0 41.1
Business management 45.5 49.2
Computer science 51.2 54.8
Science technology 51.7 63.2
Natural resources 83.0 64.8
Protective services 66.5 678
Communications technician 64.3 69.3
Agriculture 64.8 74.3
Engineering 86.8 84.9
Transportation 89.1 85.9
Precision production 74.4 87.0
Mechanics 93.8 88.7
Engineering technician 88.7 89.4
Construction 91.2 96.6

(continued)
A-16

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Table 5.1
Vocational Program Effects on Academic Achievement by Type of Student

Relation of
Achievement | Program and
Vocational Program Type of Student Test Test
(Gain or Loss)

Consumer /home Rural Math (-)
economics

Health occupations Black Science (+)

Health occupations Special education | Reading (+)

Health occupations Special education | Math ¢-)

Health occupations Dropout Reading (¢-)

Specific labor market Public school Reading (+)
preparation (other)

Specific labor market Dropout Reading (+)
preparation (other)

Specific labor market Native American | Reading (¢-)
preparation (other)

Specific labor market Native American | Science (-)

preparation (other)

Source: Rasinski (1994)

Vocational Skill Outcomes

We would expect training in vocational subjects to contribute to measured skills
and knowledge in those subjects. The available research on this topic is modest,
but it supports the hypothesis.

Bishop has shown that there are substantial and predictable differences between
vocationally trained and untrained students in scores on an occupational
competency test developed by the American Institutes for Research.8 He finds
similar differences between juniors and seniors in performance on the Ohio
Vocational Education Achievement Test. Bishop notes that selective attrition and
maturation may be contributing to the observed differences.

114 Exlucational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

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The analyses in Table 5.4 present a very mixed picture of the effects of vocational
education on dropout rates. Four of the effects (those in Grasso & Shea,!7
Wagner,'8 and Rasinski) are nontrivial and statistically significant; two are trivial
but significant (Mertens et al., grades 10 and 12); and four are not significant
(Mertens et al., grade 11, Catterall & Stern, Stern et al., and Pittman!.

Table 5.4
Regression Estimates of the Effect of Vocational Education on Dropout Rates
Estimated | Statistically
Data Effects Significant Control
Study Source (Percent) (p <.05) Group
Grasso & Shea, 1979 NLS-LME 0.5 yes General track
students
Mertens, Seitz, & Cox, NLS-Y Potential
1982 dropouts with
Grade 10 0.18 yes fewer
Grade 11 = no vocational
courses
Grade 12 0.024 yes
Catterall & Stern, 1986 HSB _ no Students with
less vocational
concentration
Wagner, 1988 NLTS Non -
All variables 2.7 yes vocational
Selected variables 7.0 yes disabled
students
Stern et al., 1989 Academy _ no Non-Academy
students
Pittman, 1991 HSB _ no Students with
less vocational
participation
Rasinski, 1994 NELS 12.38 yes Students with
fewer
vocational
courses

* Relative reduction in dropout rate for each additional unit of vocational education.

Source: Kulik (1994)

120 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

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Figure A-1.3
Change in Vocational Enrollments Relative to Total Enrollments,
by District Size and Locale, 1987 to 1991 (Regular Districts Only)

District Size

<1,000
1,000-2,499
2,500-4,999
5,000-9,999

>10,000

District Locale

Urban
Suburban
Rural q j
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2

NOTE: See text endnote 5 for details of change calculations.

Source: Omnibus District Surveys

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Table 7.3
Percent of Employers Familiar With Vocational Programs,
by Number of Steps Toward High-Performance Workplace

4 or More
Program Level No Steps } 1-3 Steps Steps All Establishments
Secondary 35 45 45 43
Postsecondary 33 48 63 49

NOTE: The Survey asked employers which of eight steps toward a “high-performance
workplace” they had implemented. Establishments that had implemented at least half of the
s eps (4 or more) were considered “high-performance workplaces.”

Source: National Assessment Employer Survey

Table 7.4
Employer Involvement With Vocational Education, by Industry
(Percent)
Industr
All

Number of Activities | Manufacturing | Trade | Services| Other | Industries
None 43 54 43 45 47
One or two 30 29 29 31 30
Three or four 15 11 14 11 12
Five or six 9 4 7 9 7
Seven to twelve 4 2 7 4 4

NOTE: Activities include membership in state, local, or program advisory councils or
committees; providing work-based learning programs; participating in customized employee
training; conducting plant tours; providing professional development for teachers; providing
career information to students; actively recruiting and hiring vocational students; making
facilities /equipment available for on-site teaching of students; donating equipment or money to
vocational programs; and other methods. Totals may not add to 100% due to rounding.

Source: National Assessment Employer Survey

164 Employer Involvement and Satisfaction

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17

18

19

20

21

22

23

Volume Ii

Economically disadvantaged students were defined as those in the lowest quartile of a
constructed SES measure based on a linear combination of parents’ occupation and
education; for dependent students, parents’ income was also included. Educationally
disadvantaged students were those who did not earn a regular high school diploma, (Other
measures of economic and educational disadvantage were also considered; these measures
yielded findings similar to those used in this report.) Students’ disability and marital status
were based on existing NPSAS variables created from student self-reports and institutional
records.

General Accounting Office (1993c).

‘The data for recent graduates are derived from the 1972 National Longitudinal Study (NLS)
and the 1980 High School and Beyond (HSB). Data on full-time postsecondary students are
from the 1992 Beginning Postsecondary Study.

Based on analyses of the 1972 NLS.

‘A dropout rate of 42% was found for both groups in Goodwin, D. (1989), National
Assessinent of Vocational Education, Vol. IV, Postsecondary Vocational Education, U.S.
Department of Education. Rates of 44% and 39%, respectively, were found in Grubb W.N.
(1989), Dropouts, spells of time, and credits in postsecondary education: Evidence from
longitudinal surveys, Economics of Educational Researclt, 8.

Grubb (1989).

Chapter 3, Volume IV of this report discusses this problem in the context of postsecondary
vocational education programs for Native Americans. For obvious reasons, this problem is
more severe for economically disadvantaged groups, such as Native Americans and other

minorities. ~

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of academic rather than vocational education, as the most active and vocal
parents are usually concerned with preparing their children for college. These
situations were evident in Community Case Study sites.

In a small city and county district in an eastern state:

The relationship between the local comprehensive high school and
the [area vocational school] is strained, at best .... When a student
decides to enroll in the half-day program at the [AVS], the home
district loses half of its state aid money for that student. For a
district as poor as this one, any loss in funds is something to be
avoided.

In an eastern state:

The two primary reasons given for the decrease in vocational
enrollments were: (a) no student interest, and (b) the equipment
needed to modernize some programs is far too expensive.

‘In an upper-middle class district in a western state:

The high school had offered such vocational courses as electronics
and auto body in the past, but in response to a strong feeling
among parents . . . that their children will attend college,
accompanied by a general budget crunch, the vocational courses
and program offerings at the high school (with the exception of
keyboarding, marketing, and drafting) have been virtually
eliminated.

Ina western city:

In combination with downsizing and budget cuts, [increased
university entrance requirements and the districts’ corresponding
increase in graduation requirements] have left vocational programs
and career exploration vulnerable. Indeed, many vocational and
career exploration programs, such as work-study credits, have been
eliminated.

In short, vocational programs appear to be more vulnerable than other secondary
education programs to local economic conditions, including both the loss of jobs
for which programs train students and the loss of educational funding that often
results from a faltering economy. The recession of the early 1990s thus probably
has contributed to recent vocational enrollment declines. If so, the end of the
recession, combined with educational restructuring reforms, may have positive
effects on vocational enrollments (see Chapter 1 in Volume III for a discussion of
education reforms).

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 15

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Around 9 out of 10 students say they do not have the skills needed for a job five
years after graduation. Vocational students are not much different from others in
this respect. Of those saying that they need additional skills, a majority in all
groups think they need some postsecondary education, either in college or
technical school. Most of those oriented toward postsecondary education say
they need to attend a two-year or four-year college. Sizable minorities, ranging
from 27 percent to 46 percent, say they need some form of work-based training.
Formal job training/apprenticeship is the preferred option among these work-
oriented students, except for the vocational specialists. Not with standing this
broad preference for postsecondary education, vocational students are more
likely than others to say they need work experience and less likely to say they
need postsecondary education.

The NELS data do not tell us whether students think their high school programs
adequately prepare them for entry-level jobs. What they do tell us is that very
few students, vocational or other, think their programs adequately prepare them
for jobs beyond the entry level. The great majority of students think they will
need additional education and training, and most of them are looking to
postsecondary institutions to provide it.

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS

The National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey collected
information on many characteristics of vocational classes, including grade level,
the size and length of classes, and instructional practices. Each teacher was asked
to provide information on a specific class that he or she taught.2

Basic Features of Vocational Classes

The academic classes on which the teachers reported were fairly evenly
distributed across grades 9, 10, 11, and 12, while the vocational classes were more
heavily concentrated in grades 11 and 12. Some 45 percent of the academic
classes were in these two grades, as compared to 62 percent of all vocational
classes and 74 percent of vocational classes in vocational schools.

In vocational programs, we expect to find somewhat lower teacher/ pupil ratios
because the availability of equipment may limit the number of students a class
can accommodate, and the presence of equipment may require more individual
supervision of students. Also, declining enrollments may result in smaller class
sizes. In the present sample, the mean size of the vocational classes surveyed was
a little smaller than that of the academic classes — 21 as compared to 24 students.
The difference is statistically significant (p<.05), but not dramatic. It may confer a
slight quality advantage on vocational classes, inasmuch as smaller classes give
teachers better control and students more personal attention. Consistent with this
observation, students in the NELS dataset whom we classify as vocational

Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education 89



Volume I]

Nontraditional Enroliments

To improve the vocational education opportunities of all students and to
maximize workforce competitiveness, the Perkins Act fosters the enrollment of
students in vocational programs that are nontraditional for their gender (e.g.,
auto mechanics for girls, secretarial for boys). Monitoring nontraditional
enrollments allows us to determine the extent to which progress is being made in
this area. These data do not, however, indicate the effectiveness of schools’
Perkins (or other) sex equity efforts, as we do not specifically examine these
schools or their programs. (Perkins sex equity and single parent programs are
examined in Chapter 2 of Volume IV of this report.)

Three interesting features of vocational enrollments are revealed in Table 1.7,
which lists vocational program areas in order from those with the heaviest
concentration of male students to those with the heaviest concentration of female
students. First, most vocational program areas have sex-stereotyped enrollments.
Agriculture and the trades have predominantly male enrollments, while health
and occupational home economics have predominantly female enrollments.
Business, marketing, and technical programs have relatively balanced
enrollments.

Table 1.7
Percent of Graduates Who Are Male, and Percent of Those Earning at Least
Three Credits Who Are Male, by Program Area, 1982 to 1992

All Graduates in Area Those Earning at Leat.3 Credits
Program Area 1982 1987 1990 1992 1982 1987 1990 1992
Trade and Industry 79 79 78 77 94 91 oO 91
Agriculture 71 76 72 72 88 83 77 82
Technical 57 55 53 54 72 76 66 72
Marketing 45 4 40 49 42 38. 40 44
Business. 35 38 dt 42 9 16 18 22
Health M 27 34 30 13 7 13 7
Occupational home ec. 19 ey 21 24 15 20 18 20

Sources: 1982 HSB, 1987 NAEP, 1990 NAEP, and 1992 NELS

Second, sex stereotyping is greater among students who concentrate in an area
(and are thus more likely to be preparing for jobs in that area) than it is among all

wy
is]

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

Overall, it appears that completion of a degree program provides greater benefits
than the equal number of courses that do not lead to a degree. This is true for all
types of degrees, including certificates, associate’s degrees, and baccalaureate
degrees. However, while the research shows that completing a degree is important,
the economic benefits of completion also are related to the type of degree, field of
study, and type of institution from which the degree is earned.

Returns to Certificate. Using data from the NLS72, Grubb found that there are no
significant returns, in the form of either increased wages or earnings, for completion
of certificates.52 This result holds for both men and women, and is consistent with
his earlier findings. By comparison, similar analyses using data from the SIPP show
that those with certificates (both men and women) do earn more than high school
graduates. Grubb points out that these differences may be due to an upward bias in
SIPP from self-reported data, or from the omission of variables that measure
achievement.

Returns to Associate's. . .rees, Where Grubb’s earlier work shows significant
effects resulting from the completion of an associate’s degree, when he used NLS72
data and controlled for personal characteristics and high school education, he found
insignificant effects for men and significant increases in wages and earnings for
women. Academic associate's degrees, on the other hand, showed no economic
benefits to women. The comparable analysis using SIPP data showed improved
wages and earnings for both men women with associate’s degrees. These
discrepancies in findings may reflect the upward bias in the SIPP data, due to
self-reporting of transcript information.*3

Lewis et al., using data from HSB, also found positive and significant earnings
payoffs for both participation in and completion of associate’s degrees in vocational
education, compared to the outcomes of high school graduates with no further
education.

Completion of Some Postsecondary Coursework. As an increasing number of
individuals accumulate postsecondary credits without completing a degree, the
question as to the value of this non-degree-producing coursework is raised. Some
argue that those who complete only a few courses leave school because they have
acquired enough training for a specific job and can therefore earn as much as can
completers. Several studies have addressed the value of coursework that does not
end ina degree.

Kane and Rouse analyzed NLS72 and NLSY data to address this issue and found
positive wage benefits for community college students, even if they do not complete
an associate's degree.55 Grubb also looked at the effect of earning credits without
completing a degree to see if this leads to higher earnings. Using data from the SIPP,
Grubb finds that the effects of small amounts of college (attending for less than one
year) are never significant.*° Grubb also reports that the effects of one year of

150 Employment Outcomes

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Volume II

nurses, medical assistants, home health aides, child care workers, and food
preparation workers are among the fastest growing occupations. !

WHO TAKES VOCATIONAL EDUCATION?

We know that vocational enrollments make up a relatively large and constant
percentage of all postsecondary enrollments (at least from 1986 to 1989). But who
are the students that take vocational education, and have these students changed
over time? For example, we saw in Chapter 1 that disabled and disadvantaged
students are increasingly overrepresented in secondary vocational education. In
this section, we examine whether similar patterns are evident at the
postsecondary level. We first review the distribution of students by sex, race, and

special population status, then examine enrollments in programs nontraditional
for one’s sex.

Sex and Race

Although vocational program enrollments tend to be highly sex-typed (as we
will see below), vocational students in general are 54 percent female and 46
percent male, which matches the sex distribution of all postsecondary students.

On the other hand, vocational students are somewhat more likely than students
in general to be black or Hispanic; these students make up 18 percent of all
postsecondary students but 24 percent of vocational students. Blacks are
particularly likely to be overrepresented in vocational education, a fact that is not
just due to their lower socioeconomic status (SES). Independently of SES, blacks
are more likely than individuals of other racial/ethnic groups to enroll in
vocational programs rather than other types of postsecondary programs. !¢ The
reasons for this enrollment pattern are unclear.

Special Population Students

The Perkins Act seeks to ensure that special population students have equal
access to quality vocational education programs at both secondary and
postsecondary levels. Enrollments of these students are thus of particular
interest. As defined in the 1990 Perkins Act, special population students include
those who are educationally disadvantaged, economically disadvantaged,
disabled, limited English proficient, or enrolled in programs designed to
eliminate sex bias in vocational education.

Data on the postsecondary participation of each of these groups are very limited.
Here, we review information available from the NPSAS and the Omnibus
Surveys. Using NPSAS data, we constructed categories for each of the special
population groups except LEP students and for single parents, another group
targeted by the Perkins Act.!7

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education 47

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Volume If

Table A-4.1

Students Taking at Least One Semester of Computer Science,
by Vocational Concentration, 1992

Percent Taking
Vocational Concentration Computer Science
Home economics 16.1
Marketing 20.3
Agriculture 25.1
Health 25.5
Trade and industry 26.6
Business 62.6
Technical and communications 72.0
All high school students 37.4
Source: National Education Longitudinal Study (1992).
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Volume II

the National Education Longitudinal study (NELS) will present the next major
opportunity for such analyses.

THE RELEVANT FACTORS

The chapter now turns to a review of the factors most often associated with labor
market outcomes for secondary and postsecondary students, including:

* How the match between training and employment affects outcomes;

¢ How outcomes differ by concentration of coursework (in a single
program area);

¢ How outcomes differ by years of education;

¢ How outcomes differ for those who completed programs compared
with those who did not;

¢ How the level of a degree (B.S., A.A., certificate) affects outcomes;
¢ How outcomes differ by field of study;

¢ How the type of institution where the degree was earned affects
economic outcomes;

¢ How outcomes differ for men and women;

¢ How vocational coursetaking affects the outcomes of disabled
students; and

¢ How academic coursework affects the outcomes of high school graduates
not continuing on to college.

The rest of this chapter will be devoted to reviewing the literature on the extent to
which students’ successes in the labor market are tied to particular aspects of their
vocational experiences.

In general, there does not appear to be a consensus in the literature on the overall
influence of vocational education on economic outcomes; the evidence appears to be
mixed. Some recent studies have found positive correlations between employment,
earnings and vocational training, while earlier work shows mixed or negative
economic results from these programs.3

134 Employment Outcomes



Volume II

Table 1.4
Average Number of Credits Earned in Different Areas of
Vocational Education, and Percent of Credits Earned in
Vocationai Education, by Student Type, 1992

Average Number of Credits Earned in:
General and Vocational
Consumer Specific All Credits as a
and Home- Labor Vocational Percent of
Student Type making Market Education Total
All students 54 3.22 3.76 16
Sex and single parent status
Males 36 3.55 3.91 17
Females 7 2.87 3.57 15
Single parents 1.01 3.82 4.83 21
Race
White 53 3.19 3.73 16
Hispanic 46 3.32 3.79 16
Black 68 3.24 3.92 17
Asian 36 2.82 3.18 13
Native American 50 4.02 4.53 19
Disability status
Not disabled 53 3.17 3.70 16
Disabled 82 4.76 5.58 24
LEP status
Not LEP 54+ 3.14 3.69 16
LEP 55 3.67 4.22 18
SES status
Highest 25% 36 2.06 241 10
50-75%, 7 3.07 3.54 15
25-50% 65 3.74 4.39 19
Lowest 25% 72 4.03 4.74 20
Grade point average (GPA)
Mostly As 32 2.12 2.44 10
Mostly Bs 51 2.99 3.49 14
Mostly Cs 62 3.70 4.32 19
Mostly below C 69 4.05 474 22
Remedial credits
0 50 3.03 3.54 15
.01-1.99 65 3.74 4.39 19
2 or more 78 4.58 5.36 23
Test quartile
Top 25% 26 2.05 2.30 9
50-75% 46 2.95 3.42 14
25-50% 66 3.70 4.37 19
Bottom 25%, 82 4.23 5.06 22

Source: 1992 NELS

18 Participation in Secondary Vocational Education
39
(nner renters ~



Volume If

Figure 2.4
Changes in Vocational Enrollments at Two-Year
Public Postsecondary Institutions From 1987-88 to 1991-92

Total Vocational
Enrollments

Disabled Vocational
Enrollments

Disadvantaged
Vocational
Enrollments

LEP Vocational

Enrollments a

1
80 100

Percent

WB Decrease [1] No Change Increase

Source: Omnibus Postsecondary Institution Survey

In short, sex equity for women is not being achieved, or even approached, in
postsecondary or secondary vocational education. Vocational majors are more
sex-segregated than academic majors, and while male students at both secondary
and postsecondary levels seem to be moving into some predominantly female
fields, female students show little, if any, tendency to move into predominantly
male fields.

However, this seemingly discouraging pattern may simply reflect adjustments to
a changing labor market. Because of job declines in the trades and increases in
health and human service occupations, it may be that vocationally oriented
women choose to pursue the better employment prospects in fields that have
always been more open to them. On the other hand, men who may have entered
the trades in the past have fewer “male” vocational alternatives to pursue, and so
may be moving into more “female” occupations in order to maximize their
employment prospects.

50 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

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Volume IE

Figure A-1.4
Change in Number of Vocationa) Credits Earned by High School Graduates,
by School Size and Locale, 1982 to 1992

School Size

1-500

501-1,000

1,001-1,500

1,501 or More

School Locale

Urban

Suburban

Rural

-16 8 «-14

Sources: 1982 HSB and 1992 NELS

A-8

194

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education


Volume II

Table A-2.1

Percentage of Vocational Students in Each Special Population Category,
by Institution Type, 1989

Lowest SES Quartile
T
No Regular

Dependent | Independent | High School Single
Institution Type Students Students Diploma | Disabled | Parent
Public two-year 28 30 10 12 8
Public voc-tech 48 47 24 17 8
Proprietary 57 38 27 16 13
Private two-year 36 30 18 10 8
Private four-year 26 27 4 8 5
Public four-year 22 27 4 7 5
Source: Tuma (1993)
Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education A-1S


Volume IT

specialists are more likely than other students to say that their teachers are
interested in students.

Classes in vocational schools are typically longer than classes in comprehensive
high schools. Academic and vocational classes in the comprehensive schools
average 5 hours a week, or one hour a day, fitting conveniently into the master
schedule. However, the classes in vocational schools average 14 hours a week
(almost 3 hours a day). Most of these institutions are area vocational schools
where students are sent from comprehensive high schools for half of each day.
There they receive a little less than 3 hours of instruction daily, on average.

Instructional Practices

Teachers in the survey provided information on the teaching and learning
activities that took place in the designated classes when they met most recently
before the survey administration. Table 4.3 shows their responses to these
questions.

Table 4.3
Activities in Most Recent Class
(Percent of Teachers Reporting Each Activity)

Vocational Classes
Academic Comprehensive | Vocational

Activity Classes All High Schools Schools
Lecture 75 77 75 83
Students writing a 54 42 41 42

paragraph or more
Test or quiz 42 43 40 58
Students using computers 13 40 41 36
Students using instruments, 37 73 70 88

tools, or equipment

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

90 Program Requirements aud Courses in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume I]

schools have incentives to move students through the program quickly, and that
their programs are designed with completion in mind. Data support this theory.

Goodwin concluded, as did Grubb,®° that the type of institution does not tell the
entire story. If the story can be told at all, it will be through the interaction of a
variety of factors, including the number of related courses, the type of institution,
and the field of study.

CONCLUSION

In this review of the literature on economic returns to vocational education for
secondary and postsecondary students, we find that, for certain groups of
individuals who receive vocational training, economic outcomes, in terms of wages
and employment, are better than for similar individuals without vocational training.
This is true in both the secondary and the postsecondary vocational population, and
the effects are almost always stronger for women. We also reviewed the literature on
the economic returns to academic education in an effort to inform the policy debate

on the appropriate mix of academic and vocational training for high school students
not continuing on to college.

A rigorous analysis of employment outcomes (for both academic track students and
vocational graduates) is hampered by a lack of recent, high-quality data. The data
used often rely on self-reported academic information; lack specifics about student
ability prior to coursetaking; may not follow students over time; and for the most
part reflect courses taken over a decade ago.

Methodological issues also pose problems. Correcting for selection bias is very
difficult and developing proxy measures of prior ability often produces its own
confounding effects. Both Gamoran and Medrich arrived at the same conclusion:
Further analysis with more recent and improved data is needed to validate the
results of these studies.

In light of the complications caused by the nature of the data and the methodologies
employed. the conclusions reported in this chapter focus on findings that are
consistent across studies. The following list highlights those findings.

Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

¢ Most important, we find tnat early wage and employment outcomes are
superior for vocational students whose field of study matches their
occupation, as compared to those without matches. Unfortunately, less
thai half of secondary graduates obtain training-related jobs, limiting
benefits to a fairly small group. Postsecondary students are much more
likely than secondary students to find jobs that match their training.
Nearly two-thirds of postsecondary students find training-related jobs.

Employment Outcomes

L71 153



Volume II

can take. Academic coursetaking improves academic achievement; achievement
is related to the amount of postsecondary education one receives; and the latter
improves employment outcomes. Thus, it is important to know what a student
gives up in academic achiévement by taking vocational rather than academic
courses. (It is also important to know what one gains by taking vocational rather
than academic courses. The following chapter examines this issue in the context
of employment outcomes.)

Most studies use standardized test scores as the principal measure of
achievement. Kulik’s review of the literature shows, not surprisingly, that the
average test scores of vocational students are lower than those of academic
(college preparatory) students, but about the same as those of students in the
general track.

Academic students score at about the 71st percentile on standardized
achievement tests at the end of high school, while vocational students score at
about the 34th percentile. Of course, this difference cannot be attributed entirely,
or mostly, to the programs that students participate in. On average, the students
were different in terms of aptitude, prior achievement, and many other
characteristics before they entered the programs. Kulik estimates that the
selection of (substantially different) students into the academic and vocational
tracks accounts for 80 percent of the test score difference between them; 20
percent of the difference is due to the programs themselves. Kulik attributes
about half of this program effect, or 10 percent of the total, to the different
number of advanced academic courses taken in core subject areas (math, English,
history, etc.) by academic and vocational students. The remaining 10 percent is
due to other curricular and program factcrs.

The Kulik review thus finds that participation in a vocational rather than an
academic program has only a small effect on achievement test scores, and part of
this small effect is due to the fact that academic students take more advanced
academic courses than do vocational students.

General track students have about the same scores as vocational students at the
beginning and end of high school, and multivariate analyses indicate that the
effects of the two programs on achievement are equivalent.

Similarly, the Rasinski analysis finds that the test scores of academic students are
higher than those of vocational students, while those of general track students
are only marginally higher. However, when other controls are applied to the
comparison, vocational education turns out to have no effect on academic
achievement scores.

Rasinski uses two-stage multiple regression analysis of 1992 NELS data to assess
the contribution of vocational coursetaking to gains in academic achievement in

112 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

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Volume II

for special needs students, especially those on IEPs .... The
perspective of the district is that generally only special needs
students are going to participate actively in [vocational education].
This perspective is echoed by the [vocational education]
department chair, who agreed strongly that [vocational education]
is seen as a dumping ground for special needs students.

The great push by these communities and their states is for
upgrading academic studies and preparing the maximum number
of students for college admission. Thus, it is not surprising that
overloaded counselors on the one hand give short shrift to
vocational skill needs, and on the other subtly push the less able
students out of comprehensive schools that compete for record
percentages of graduates and college acceptances. (p. 35)

Survey data also show that disabled and disadvantaged students are
overrepresented in vocational schools, although LEP students are
underrepresented (see Figure 1.7). Disabled students are particularly
overrepresented; while only 5 percent of students in comprehensive high schools
are disabled, 14 percent of vocational high school students and 16 percent of AVS
students are disabled. Further, one-third of vocational schools have student
enrollments that are at least 20 percent disabled, compared to less than 2 percent
of comprehensive high schools.

The overrepresentation of disabled and disadvantaged students may be
acceptable as long as vocational programs benefit these students. The evidence
on this issue is mixed. We saw earlier that special population students are more
likely than others to concentrate their vocational coursetaking, which Chapter 6
shows results in higher earnings, especially if a training-related job is found.
Chapter 6 also shows that disabled students who take vocationa! courses have
better labor market outcomes than those who do not. Chapter 5 shows that
vocational coursetaking probably reduces dropout rates, thus keeping some
educationally disadvantaged students in school. However, this benefit may be
offset in that vocational courses’ easier coursework and less homework, which
seem to help reduce dropout rates, also make courses less challenging (thereby
making students less knowledgeable and competitive).

Thus, the disproportionate and growing participation of disabled and
disadvantaged students in vocational education raises a number of important
questions: First and most basic, to what extent does it benefit individual special
needs students? To what extent does it represent an increase in student access to
quality vocational programs? On the other hand, to what extent does it represent
a shirking of responsibility to educate special needs students within
comprehensive high schools or non-vocational programs? Also, what are the
likely long-term effects of this change?

28 Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

Considered by subject field, between 43 and 59 percent of two-year
postsecondary vocational faculty have advanced degrees, with one exception:
Only 28 percent of those in trade and industry have advanced degrees, and
one-third of them have less than a bachelor’s degree. Thus, the proportion of
postsecondary trade and industry faculty without bachelor’s degrees (66%) is
higher than that of secondary Té&l teachers (45%). It also seems odd that a
relatively high proportion of teachers in the engineering /science/technology
field (29 percent) have less than a bachelor’s degree.

In the case of secondary teachers, we saw that outside occupational experience
and credentials take the place of formal education, especially in trade and
industry programs. We do not have data on the occupational experience of
two-year postsecondary faculty, but the fact that vocational faculty tend to have
less formal education, especially in trade and industry, suggests that they may be
more likely than others to have nonteaching work experience and occupational
credentials.

A substantial majority of postsecondary vocational faculty (71%) were trained in
specific occupational fields, while a bare majority (53%) of non-vocational faculty
were trained in specific academic fields, such as math, English, and the social
sciences. If teachers’ education in specific subjects enhances their performance,
postsecondary vocational faculty have an advantage in this respect. The
proportion of vocational faculty with specific occupational training is fairly
constant across subject matter fields, except for those in trade and industry. A
smaller proportion of trade and industry faculty have specific training than do
other vocational teachers and a larger proportion were general education majors.

The data in Table 3.7 tell us something about the relative status and salaries of
noni-vocational and vocational faculty members in two-year postsecondary
institutions. At the time of the survey (1988), vocational faculty had somewhat
lower formal status than other faculty in public two-year postsecondary
institutions. They were less likely to be professors and more likely to be assistant
professors, instructors, or lecturers. Moreover, at each level of rank except one,
the average salaries of vocational faculty were slightly lower than those of other
faculty (the exception is at the professorial level). The combination of lower
status and lower pay within rank meant that the mean salaries of vocational
faculty were lower than those of other faculty members ($30,953 vs. $33,460).

Two qualifications to these findings should be noted. First, some two-year
institutions do not have rank. The usual academic ranks were not applicable to 25
percent of non-vocational faculty and 14 percent of vocational faculty, and no
salary data are available for these categories. Second, we do not have information
on the part-time/ full-time status of faculty by rank. Since part-time pay is lower
than full: ‘ime, the proportion of part-time faculty at a given level will affect the
mean salary at that level.

Teachers in Vocational Education

91



Volume IL

The Ford/Taylor model of industrial production served America well, at least
into the 1960s. However, in the 1970s, third world countries were beginning to
appropriate this form of production, drawing on vast reserves of semi-skilled
and unskilled labor. Other countries, and especially Japan’s export economy,
began moving in the opposite direction, emphasizing high skills and
sophisticated capital equipment, combined in new forms of work organization.

The reorganization of work pioneered in Japan by W. Edwards Deming was key
to this transformation. The new system eliminates layers of management and
assigns front-line workers more responsibility for supervisory functions such as
improving operations, solving problems, and assuring quality control
throughout the process. Teamwork and job rotation are often key elements in the
new model. Customer needs and demands are integrated into the production
process.

This system requires more complex thinking, communication, and collaboration
among workers than the old one, and greater adaptability to a variety of tasks.
Hence, it requires more highly skilled, socially adept, and flexible workers.
Integrated academic/ vocational education holds promise for providing such
workers.

Adoption of high-performance workplace methods in the United States has been
fairly recent, sometimes the result of traumatic change forced by international
competition. In the late 1980s, the proportion of firms using high-performance
work methods seems to have been very small — around 5 percent, by one
estimate.! However, a 1992 survey by Osterman? found evidence of substantial
use of high-performance work methods in 37 percent of firms with more than 50
employees.

Results from the 1993 Survey of Employers conducted for the National
Assessment of Vocational Education are similar to Osterman’s findings. The
survey asked business establishments whether they were engaged in any of eight
different activities that are often part of the high-performance model:

Total Quality Management (TQM)

Just-in-Time (JIT) or synchronous production
Self-managed teams

Quality control integrated into production (SPC)
Increased responsibility for all workers
Employee profit sharing

Reduction of middle management

Mentoring /apprenticeship

If a business reported being engaged in one of these activities, the respondent
was asked how active the establishment’s involvement was, on a scale from 1
(not very active) to 5 (very active). The percentage of establishments engaged in

Introduction

12 *

(an renner rere nents



NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
INDEPENDENT ADVISORY PANEL

Carol L. Ball

Chief Executive Officer
Ball Publishing Company
Arcanum, Ohio

Milton Bins

Vice President
Community Vision, Inc.
Washington, DC

Paul Cole

Secretary /Treasurer
New York State AFL-CIO
Albany, New York

Stephen Denby

Executive Director
Vocational Industrial Clubs of
> America

Leesburg, Virginia

James H. Folkening

Supervisor

Community College Services

Michigan Department of
Education

Lansing, Michigan

James Jacobs

Director of Policy Research
Macomb Community College
Warren, Michigan

Edward J. Liston

President

Community College of Rhode Island
Warwick, Rhode Island

E. Jeanne Lopez-Valadez
Director

Office of Applied Innovation
Northern Illinois University
Cary, Illinois.

Roger Lyons

President and CEQ
Baltimore Urban League
Baltimore, Maryland

Laurel McFarland
Senior Research Analyst
The Brookings Institution
Washington, DC

Steffen E. Palko
President

Cross Timbers Group
Fort Worth, Texas

Darrell L. Parks

Director of Vocational and Career
Education

Ohio Department of Education

Columbus, Ohio

L. Allen Phelps

Director

Vocational Studies Center, School of
Education

University of Wisconsin

Madison, Wisconsin

Nathaniel Semple

Vice President and Secretary

Research and Policy Committee

Committee for Economic
Development

Washington, DC

Marilyn Smith

Reading Specialist for Special Needs
Students

Tulsa Technology Center

Tulsa, Oklahoma

Diane Troyer

Vice President for Academic Affairs and
Student Services

Hartord Community College

Bel Air, Maryland

Loretta Walker

Administrator, School Operations

Division of Adult and Occupational
Education

Los Angeles Unified School District

Los Angeles, California



Volume II

« Amount of schooling. At all levels, additional years of schooling
provide improved employment outcomes. Secondary students who
complete high school have much better employment prospects than their
counterparts who drop out. For postsecondary students, employment
outcomes are directly related to the number of years of schooling.
Baccalaureate degrees provide the greatest returns, followed by two-
year degrees and certificates. Even those students who take courses that
do not lead to a degree show better outcomes compared to high school
graduates with no additional schooling.

¢ Program completion and certification. Postsecondary vocational
education for students who complete a course of study and attain
certification (e.g., an associate’s degree) have better employment
outcomes than individuals who complete the same number of credits
but do not complete a degree program.

* Field of study. The effects of high school and sub-baccalaureate
credentials vary according to fields of study. At the secondary level,
women with training in business and health-related fields have
improved wages and employment, and postsecondary completers with
degrees in health and technical fields also show better earnings than
those in other fields. Though credentials in certain fields do appear to be
related to better economic outcomes, many other fields show no such
relationship.

¢ The type of sub-baccalaureate institution from which a degree or
certificate is attained. For postsecondary students, the type of institution
(community college, private technical, public technical) where
individuals study appears to affect economic outcomes. Studies
consistently show that community college graduates are more likely to

be employed and to use their vocational credits than are graduates from
other types of institutions.

¢ Gender. Throughout all the studies, women who take vocational
education courses have better economic outcomes, in terms of both
wages and employment, than do their male counterparts. This effect is
particularly strong for women in the fields of business and health who

complete degrees and find jobs wherein they can use their vocational
skills.

¢ Vocational education for disabled students. Secondary students with
disabilities derive a number of benefits from vocational coursetaking,
both in school and in the labor market.

The rest of this chapter reviews in detail the findings from the literature for each of
the factors associated with improved economic outcomes for secondary and then

136 1 5 4 Employment Outcomes



Volume II

students earned very few vocational credits, so there was little room for decline;
see Appendix Table A-1.1.)

On the other hand, economically disadvantaged students do not show smaller
vocational course reductions than other students. Instead, students at all levels of
economic status reduced their vocational coursetaking about the same amount.

As a result of the differential decline in vocational coursetaking, the
overrepresentation of special population students in vocational education has
increased. For example, in 1982, 26 percent of vocational students were
educationally disadvantaged (based on test scores), but in 1992, 30 percent were.
Other measures of educational disadvantage show the same trend: The
percentage of vocational students who had a GPA below C increased from 6 to 9
percent, and the percentage who were remedial education students increased
from 23 to 27 percent. Economically disadvantaged (low SES) students also
increased from 25 to 28 percent of all vocational education students.14

Omnibus Survey data suggest that these changes in vocational student
composition are greatest in vocational schools and districts, and among disabled
and disadvantaged students. In vocational districts, the increases in disabled and
disadvantaged vocational students are at least double what they are in regular
districts (see Figure 1.6).!4 The increase in vocational enrollments is smaller for
LEP students, however, and enrollments of these students are not increasing
more in vocational districts than in regular districts.

This change in the composition of vocational enrollments is reflected in the
concerns of some vocational teachers and administrators, who feel that
vocational education is increasingly used as a “dumping ground” for special
needs and problem students. We turn now to this issue.

“DUMPING” AND THE STATUS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

The inappropriate placement of students into vocational education is commonly
called “dumping.” It is nota new practice, but seems to be increasing — more so
in area vocational schools than in others. A number of factors contribute to
“dumping.” For example, as vocational enrollments decline, schools that want to
preserve vocational staff, fund.ng, and programs must actively recruit students
to vocational education. Special population students are often easier to recruit, in
part because regular programs are more willing to let them go. Comprehensive
high schools, often reluctant to send students to area vocational schools because
they may lose funds by doing so, are more willing to send more costly, hard-to-
educate students to AVSs.

The Perkins Act also encourages districts to maximize the participation of special
population students in vocational education. The incentives for AVSs to increase
special population enrollments is particularly strong, as they are eligible for

Participation in Secomlary Vocational Education

46 25



Volume II

business. Additionally, compared with high schools, postsecondary vocational
education takes place in a variety of environments, such as two-year and four-year
colleges, as well as in proprietary and technical institutions. Finally, the
postsecondary students are older and have more labor market experience, which
greatly improves their chances of finding related employment in “career-type” jobs
when they complete their studies. They also have the maturity and knowledge to
select training that they will later use.

The diverse nature of the programs offered adds many dimensions to the analysis of
economic outcomes for postsecondary students. For that reason, the remainder of
this chapter reviews the literature on economic outcomes for postsecondary
vocational education students, expanding upon the topics covered for secondary
education to include important aspects of postsecondary vocational education.

The Match Between Training and Employment

Again, the most striking evidence in this literature is that postsecondary vocational
students who find a match between training and employment show improved
economic outcomes, even when other factors are controlled. The evidence also
indicates that the economic gains to postsecondary vocational students outweigh
those of secondary students, as a much larger proportion of postsecondary students
obtain jobs that match their training.

The Number of Students Who Match Training and Employment. Medrich and
Vergun* found that 61 percent of those aged 18-34 who had attained a
postsecondary degree in a vocational field achieved an occupational match. They
also report that a match between field of study and occupation shortly after
schooling was likely to mean a match throughout the study period. Goodwin#*
found that 58 percent of postsecondary vocational coursework was used on the job.
Grubb, too, found positive effects of matching training and employment, but he
noted that matches also differ by type of credential. He estimates that 76 percent of
men with certificates match jobs and training, but only 22 percent of men with
vocational associate's degrees do the same. The comparable figures for women are
67 percent and 45 percent, respectively.

Grubb, utilizing a matching matrix developed by Medrich and Vergun with data
from the 1984 SIPP, reports that comparable estimates on matching show that 59
percent of males with a certificate and 57 percent with associate’s degrees have a job
that matches their training. The differences in these findings support the earlier
stated hypothesis that different matching algorithms can affect results.47

Stevens, too, reports that a high percentage of postsecondary vocational completers
found a job that matched their training. He reports that in Florida 68 percent of
completers had training-related jobs.46

Employment Outcomes 147

165



Volume II

ENDNOTES

l6

Most postsecondary data do not distinguish between vocational and academic programs or
students. The NPSAS does, but includes only two points in time. We use Department of
Education and Census Bureau data to present longer trends, and to address issues not as
well covered by the NPSAS. These data distinguish between two-year and four-year
institutions and between Associate and Bachelor degrees. This is not a clean vocational-
academic distinction, but is the best available for many long-term trend analyses. Ail
enrollment data are based on student headcounts.

National Center for Education Statistics (1993), Digest of Education Statistics, p. 240, US.
Department of Education.

U.S. Department of Education (1994), National Assessment of Vocational Education: Interim
Report to Congress, pp. 135-136.

Based on the College Board Survey of all postsecondary institutions in 1991-92.
Alsalam, N., et al. (1992), The Condition of Education, p. 58, U.S. Department of Education.

Milne, A., Martindale, M., & Michie, J. (1993), Vocational Education in Communities, p. 38.
Westat.

Alsalam, et al. (1992); Kirshstein R.J., et al. (1990), The Escalating Costs of Higher Education,
Pelavin Associates; National Commission on Responsibilities for Financing Postsecondary
Education (1993), Making College Affordable Again.

National Center for Education Statistics (1992), Digest of Education Statistics, U.S.
Department of Education; National Commission on Responsibilities for Financing
Postsecondary Education (1993).

General Accounting Office (1993c), Vocational Education: Status in Two-Year Colleges in 1990-
91 and Early Signs of Change. One of the five schools visited by the GAO reported difficulty
finding needed Janguage interpreters.

Based on Omnibus Survey data and the Community Case Studies (Milne et al., 1993).

Milne et al. (1993).

Fra;
Is

C. (1990), Proprietary Schools and Student Financial Aid Programs: Background and Policy
Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service.

ies

See the Interim Report, p. 146.

Tuma, J. (1993), Patterns of Enrollment in Postsecondary Vocational and Academic Education,
MPR Associates.

US, Bureau of the Census (1992), Statistical Abstracts of the Ltuited States, 1992, p. 13, U.S.
Department of Commerce.

Tuma (1993).

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education



Volume II

Figure 3.1
Educational Credentials and Related Work Experience
of Secondary Vocational Teachers

Less Than BA Degree Related Work Experience
100

Percent of Teachers

Program Area Program Area

]_ Business/Marketing ([] Home Economics fj Trade and Industry [] Other

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

occupational credentials: 43 percent of T&I teachers have occupational

certification, while only 1-9 percent of other vocational teachers do (data not
shown).

This pattern of less education and more work experience goes back many years.
As Lynch explains,

Beginning with the... 1917 Smith-Hughes Act and
continuing to the present time, nearly all states substitute
years of work experience [for] college preparation [in]
certifying Tél teachers. In fact, only Hawaii and Wisconsin
require the baccalaureate degree for initial certification . . .
Seven states require a baccalaureate degree and five states
require an associate degree for full certification. Beginning

teachers in 43 states may teach in T&I programs without any
college credits. 7

Teachers in Vocational Education

(enenceeeenesetttneeememnsnceennenssn -



DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 371 192 CE 066 676
AUTHOR Boesel, David; And Others
TITLE National Assessment of Vocational Education. Final

Report to Congress. Volume II. Participation in and
Quality of Vocational Education.

INSTITUTION National Assessment of Vocational Education (ED),
Washington, DC.; Office of Educational Research and
Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. Office of

Research.
REPORT NO ISBN-0-16-045242-2; OR-94-3502-IT
PUB DATE Jul 94
NOTE 216p.; For the interim report, see ED 369 929; for

other volumes in this series, see CE 066 675-679.
AVAILABLE FROM U.S. Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents,

Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328 (Stock No.

065-000-00692-8, 5 volume set, $41).

PUB TYPE Reports ~ Evaluative/Feasibility (142)
EDRS PRICE MFO1/PCO9 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS *Educational Assessment; Educational Change;

Educational Development; Educational Legislation;
*Educational Quality; Employer Attitudes; Employment
Patterns; *Federal Legislation; *Outcomes of
Education; Postsecondary Education; Program
Effectiveness; Program Evaluation; Role of Education;
School Business Relationship; Secondary Education;
*Student Participation; Teacher Education; Teacher
Qualifications; *Vocational Education; Vocational
Education Teachers

IDENTIFIERS *Carl D Perkins Voc and Appl Techn Educ Act 1990

ABSTRACT

This document, the second of five volumes that
comprise the final report of the National Assessment of Vocational
Education examines some major features of contemporary vocational
education: students, teachers, classes, and educational and
employment outcomes. The first two chapters address student
participation and program quality, as measured by a number of
indicators. Chapter 1 examines participation and access in public
secondary vocational education; postsecondary participation and
access are addressed in chapter 2. Chapter 3 discusses qualifications
of teachers in secondary and postsecondary institutions, assesses
teacher preparation, and considers shortages of secondary vocational
teachers. Chapter 4 examines program requirements and courses in
secondary vocational education to assess their consistency with
Perkins goals, role in preparing students for work, and zole in
secondary education. Chapter 5 focuses on the relatior between
vocational education and academic coursetaking, studeat achievement,
high school completion, and educational attainment. Chapter 6
investigates the connection between vocational training and
employment outcomes for students who received vocational training in
high school and in subbaccalaureate postsecondary institutions.
Chapter 7 examines employers' opinions of vocational programs and
some ways einployers interact with them. Endnotes follow each chapter;
data tables and a figure are appended. (YLB)



Volume I

about the academic content of vocational classes and the occupational content of
academic classes. The Teacher Survey data enable us to address these questions.

The data files contain information on the proportions of time spent in academic
ana vocational classes working on algebra, writing, biology, chemistry, physics,
and occupational principles. We will focus on basic algebra, math beyond basic
algebra, writing, and occupational principtes, because these subjects are arguably
the broadest and most likely to be involved in efforts to integrate curricula. On
the assumption that more than 10 percent of class time is a minimum needed to
convey much useful information on a subject, Figures 4.1 and 4.2 and Appendix
Table A-4.2 show the percentages of classes spending this much time on the
subjects.

Except in writing assignments, the proportions of all vocational teachers who
devote the minimum amount of time to a given academic subject in their classes
are quite small, 11 percent or less (Table A-4.2). The proportions working with
these subjects for longer periods — 25 percent of the time or more — are smaller
still; only 1 to 3 percent of vocational teachers spend this much time on basic
algebra, more advanced math, biology, chemistry, or physics (data not shown).

Classes in trade and industry and the “other” vocational category (which
includes technical/communications and agricultural education) tend to involve
more math than all other subjects except math and science. Still, only one T&I
class in five devotes more than 10 percent of the time to basic algebra problems,
and only one in 14 devotes that much time to more advanced math. Although
vocational classes do involve a fair amount of basic math (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, percentages, fractions, decimals), few reach the level of
Algebra I.

Another way of looking at the data is to ask not what proportion of vocational
teachers spend a certain amount of time ona specific academic subject, but what
proportion spend that much time on any academic subject. It turns out that a
little over half of all vocational teachers (54%) spend at least 10 percent of their
class time on academics of any kind, and only 14 percent spend at least 25
percent of their time on academics.

The modest amount of academic content in vocational classes is nevertheless
greater than the occupational content of academic classes. Only 18 percent of
academic teachers spend more than 10 percent of their class time on occupational
principles, and only 4 percent spend more than 25 percent of their time on
occupations. Math classes are more likely than others.to give the minimum
amount of time to occupations (28% do), perhaps because of the applied math
classes being taught.

94 Program Requirements and Cow

112

in Secondary Vocational Education



Volume II

Table 7.7
Employer Rating of Overall Quality of Familiar Program(s),
by Number of Steps Toward High-Performance Workplace

(Percent)
4 or More All

Program Level and Rating | No Steps | 1-3 Steps Steps Establishments
Secondary

Excellent or very good 58 37 34 41

Good 24 49 40 41

Fair or poor 18 13 26 18
Postsecondary

Excellent or very good 52 57 51 54

Good 36 33 35 34

Fair or poor 12 10 14 11

NOTE: The Survey asked employers which of eight steps toward a “high-performance
workplace” they had implemented. Establishments that had implemented at least half of the

steps (4 or more) were considered “high-performance workplaces.” Totals may not add to 100%
due to rounding.

Source: National Assessment Employer Survey

than to the National Assessment Employer Survey — around 65 percent;
however, the rate is still low enough to raise concerns about non-response biases.

The second study, conducted by Zemsky,5 consisted of a series of focus groups of
both large and small employers located in the same geographic areas covered by
the Lynn and Wills’ study. Unlike that study, however, the focus groups were
not limited to participating employers. Since these employers were not providing
worksite opportunities, the discussions focused on high school students in
general, rather than toward vocational students.

Like the Employer Survey, the Lynn and Wills survey found that employers
participating in work experience programs are quite satisfied with their
arrangements. According to the report:

¢ Ninety percent of emvloyers surveyed said they either “agree” or
“strongly agree” that students become productive workers.

168 Employer Involvement and Satisfaction

186



Volume II

Dropout Rates by Program Type (Percent of Students)

Table 5.2

Study

Vocational

General

Academic

Non-
Vocational

Peng & Takai, 1983
(High School and
Beyond)
Sophomore definition

Coombs & Cooley, 1983
(Project Talent)
9th grade definition
Followup definition

Weber, 1988
(High School and
Beyond)

Senior definition

Catterall & Stern, 1986

(High School and
Beyond)

Defined by years
voc. ed.

Defined by vocational
concentration

15

21
11

16

12

13

21

15*

17*

4*

at

15
24

11

12

* Rates calculated by Kulik.

Source: Kulik (1994)

school.

Analyzing Project Talent data, Coombs and Cooley! earlier had found that
students who identified themselves as vocational in the ninth grade were more

- likely to drop out than those who identified themselves as non-vocational.
However, ninth grade student reports of curricular status are likely to be
unreliable. Using Project Talent followup data, in which students specified their
high school curricular status after the fact, Coombs and Cooley found that
vocational students were less likely than non-vocational students to drop out of

enssnsesnescnsistciemishhnistetinemnsieiisnsn sia

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

uw

17



Volume If

mastery of basic math skills will become an increasingly irnportant determinant of
wages in future years.

Murnane et al. also found that mastery of basic math skills has a much smaller
impact two years after graduation than six years after graduation, again supporting
the earlier findings that employment benefits accrue over time for an individual.
However, the fact that the benefits to investing in basic math skills accrue over a
period of years may act as a disincentive for students to work hard in school, as the
promise of long-term returns may be too elusive a goal for many high school
students.

On the other hand, additional English courses did not affect employment outcomes,
but taking honors English, compared with English in the regular track, did.
Gamoran hypothesizes that honors English may affect labor market outcomes by
improving cognitive skills, even though the evidence did not show direct results for
Englisk in general. From this evidence, Gamoran concludes that “inconsistencies in
the relative salience of math and verbal skills across studies may indicate that an
underlying set of general cognitive skills, with which scores in all these realms are
correlated, contributes to employment outcomes.”38

The Effect of Cognitive Ability on Employment. While cogtiitive ability measures
have little immediate impact on wages, that is not the case for employment
opportunities. Two exemplary studies found that cognitive skilis may have their
strongest impact at labor market entry. Meyer and Wise® reported that the benefits
of high test scores, measured by the number of annual hours worked, were greater
in the first three years out of school than in the subsequent two-year period. A
second study by Heckman and Roselius reported larger effects on annual hours
worked for men at age 25 than at age 28.40 Qualitative studies of the employment
process support the conclusion from survey research that stronger basic skills enable
high school graduates to find jobs, even if they do not obtain higher wages.

Bishop proposes an explanation for why employment status is improved while
wages are not affected very much by improved cognitive abilities.4! Relying ona
literature that shows competence in reading, mathematics, science, and problem
solving is strongly related to productivity, Bishop concludes that even though the
economic benefits to the employee are quite modest and do not appear until long
after graduation, the benefits to the employer are immediately ~ealized in higher
productivity. If this is true, employers would be more likely to hire high school
graduates who demonstrate higher skills on various tests. This hypothesis is
supported by the consistent findings of improved employment outcomes for those
high school graduates who have taken more academic courses compared with those
who instead took more general track classes.42

Employment Outcones 145

163



FINAL REPORT
TO

CONGRESS

VOLUME II

PARTICIPATION IN AND
QUALITY OF
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

David Boesel

Lisa Hudson

Sharon Deich
Charles Masten

Office of Research

Office of Educational Research and Improvement
U.S. Department of Education

July 1994

renee tern enenetc erence



Volume IT

Figure A-1.5

Average Percent of Change in Vocational Enrollments from 1987 to 1991

Greater Than 10% Converted to 12%

All Vocational
Students

Disabled

Disadvantaged

LEP

Other Special
Needs

4

[

All Vocational
Students

Disabled

Disadvantaged

LEP

Other Special
Needs

2.7]

2

im Regular Districts

Vocationai Districts

Source: Omnibus District Surveys

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

195



Fourth Class Special

!Handena

OR 94 3502 U



Volume II

Figure 4.1
Percent of Vocational Classes Spending More Than
Ten Percent of Time on Specified Subject

Business

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percent of Classes

Home il
Economics
Trade and
Industry 3
89
15
Other | | =
ten Hau 1
5
11
5
Ali ts
' Be 0
2.
T T T T T T T T T
90

C) Basic Algebra
[J Math Beyond Basic Algebra
E] Writing

Wi Occupational Principles

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

100

Progrant Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Ediwvation

113



Volume IL

Figure 1.4
Change in Vocational Enrollments Relative to Total Enrollments,
by District Type and Region of the Country, 1987 to 1991

US. 0.03 I

Region of Country

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

01 0.2

Regular Districts [”_] Vocational Districts

NOTE: See endnote 5 for details of change calculations.

Source: Omnibus District Surveys

vocational districts. Most of these western vocational districts are in California,
so these data largely reflect enrollment growth in vocational districts in that state.

Small schools and districts — which are mainly in rural areas — have
experienced smaller vocational enrollment declines than larger schools and
districts. Likewise, rural areas have experienced smaller declines than suburban
areas, and possibly smaller declines than urban areas (see Appendix Figures
A-1.3 and A-1.4). The enrollment declines in small, rural schools may have been
less severe because the labor market in rural areas continues to rely more on the
jobs for which secondary vocational education prepares students (such as those

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 13

34

_ _



Volume I]

either no relation or a negative relation between length of occupational
experience and teacher performance. The authors of these studies concluded that
a certain minimum of occupational experience — on the order of two to four
years — is beneficial, but that additional experience has no positive effect on
teaching performance. One study of Virginia’s Té&I teachers did find a positive
association between occupational experience and assessed teacher competency,!!
but a subsequent study of these teachers found no association between the two
variables. !2

The relation between vocational student achievement and teachers’ occupational
experience was examined in four studies identified by Lynch. These studies
found either no relation or a negative relation between the two variables. Three
of the four also found that a limited amount of occupational experience was
positively associated with student achievement, but that longer term experience
was negatively related to it. Two studies that showed positive associations
between teachers’ occupational experience and vocational student achievement
were subsequently criticized for failing to provide data to support the
conclusion.

The relation between teachers’ tested occupational competencies and their
occupational experience was examined in five studies reviewed by Lynch. Three
studies, using tests developed by the State of Pennsylvania, found no relation or
a negative relation between years of occupational experience and teachers’ scores
on these tests. Two other studies used tests developed by the National
Occupational Competency Testing Institute. One found positive relationships
between occupational experience and tested competencies, varying with
occupation; a second found no relationships. Lynch could find no validation
studies relating NOCTI test scores to teacher performance, and it is unclear
whether the Pennsylvania tests have been validated.

An experiment in which applicants to New York City career magnet programs
were randomly selected or rejected found that students in magnet programs that
use more teachers recruited from industry had higher absenteeism than control
students. Poor readers in the magnet programs with more teachers recruited
from industry also earned fewer credits than poor readers who applied for these
programs but were rejected.!3

The relations between teachers’ formal education and a variety of other outcomes
were examined in 20 studies reviewed by Lynch. One found that trade and
industry teachers who had degrees in teacher education performed better on the
core battery of the National Teacher Examination than did those with alternative
occupational experience. Two found positive relations between number of
college credits earned by T&I teachers and their performance as assessed by their
supervisors.

74 Teachers in Vocational Education

93



Volume I

Table A-2.3
Ratio of Postsecondary Credits Earned by Men to Credits Earned by Women in
Vocational Program Areas, for 1972 and 1980 High School Seniors

Vocational Program 1972 Seniors 1980 Seniors
Engineering /science technology 17.0 27.0
Trades 7.3 10.0
Agriculture 4.0 5.0
Protective services 4.0 17
Computers/data processing 13 17
Marketing 1.0 0.8
Business and office 0.6 0.6
Home economics 0.2 0.5
Health 0.1 0.3

NOTE: These findings are based on the National Longitudinal Study of 1972 (NLS) and the 1980
High Schoo! and Beyond (HSB), longitudinal studies that collected transcripts from students who
later enrolled in postsecondary education. Since these data are for 1972 and 1980 high school
graduates, they show postsecondary enrollment shifts from about the mid-1970s to the

mid -1980s. The shift toward relatively more credits earned by females in protective services is
attributable to fewer males earning credits in this area, rather than to more females earning
credits.

Source: Hoachlander et al. (1993)

A-18 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

203



Volume II

Table 3.4

Percent of Secondary Academic Teachers Feeling
“Very Well Prepared” to Teach Listed Subjects

Major Teaching Field
Social | Foreign All
Subject English} Math | Science | Science | Language | Teachers
Basic algebra 2 100 61 8 10 38
Math beyond 2 93 35 3 3 30
basic algebra
Writing 89 12 32 46 61 49
Occupational 15 i 8 16 u 12
principles
Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey
Table 3.5
Percent of Secondary Vocational Teachers Feeling
“Very Well Prepared” to Teach Listed Subjects
Major Teaching Field
Home All
Subject Business | Economics T&l Other Teachers
Basic algebra 16 17 22 23 19
Math beyond 7 2 15 13 10
basic algebra
Writing 37 40 18 28 31
Occupational 82 68 80 7] 75
principles

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

Teachers in Vocational Education

58

69



Volume II

Moreover, regardless of skill level, technological changes such as the
proliferation of computers require constantly learning new skills. In the opinion
of Drake and Niewenhuysen, “adaption to technological change is aided by a
better skilled and educated workforce.”!9 Similarly, Vergun and Klein observe
that “technological innovation typically requires a responsible, flexible work
force with problem-solving and social skills.”!!

In view of the small but definite upskilling in the BLS projections, the Bishop and
Carter argument that BLS projections consistently underestimate future skill
requirements, the modest anticipated increase in skills within occupations, and
the need for new technical skills, we can conclude that the next decade will see at
least a modest growth in the demand for skilled workers.

Further, the demand for skills is already high. Over the last two decades, growth
in this demand has been evident in the earnings of individuals with different
levels of education. A number of studies have observed that the earnings of
workers with 12 years of education or less are falling, while those with college
degrees are increasing. For example, the report of the Commission on the Skills
of the American Workforce! found that in the 1980s earnings of college-
educated males age 24 to 34 increased by 10 percent, while those of high school
graduates declined by 9 percent and those of high school dropouts, by 12
percent. The Interim Report!} also found that those with some college were better
off than those with high school diplomas only. in short, every additional year of
education pays off, and the payoff is increasing.

ISSUES ADDRESSED IN THIS VOLUME

Who enrolls in vocational education, what is taught in vocational programs, and
the occupational success of vocational students are all at least partly determined
by this larger economic context. This economic context also provides a criterion
by which to evaluate the current structure and condition of vocational education.
This volume examines many salient features of current vocational programs,
including vocational students, teachers, and classes, and the educational and
employment outcomes of vocational education. These topics are organized in
terms of participation and quality.

Part I. Student Participation and Access

Enrollments in vocational education programs are in part a measure of demarid
for the skills they provide, which depends on the labor market. The composition
of vocational programs tells us about the characteristics of students who receive
vocational education and who bring vocational skills into the labor force.

What are the enrollment trends in vocational education at the
secondary and postsecondary levels? What is the student

Introduction nif

16

(A rererrrnrneneeren encanta



Volume I

Table A-4.3
Competencies Contributing to Students’ Grades
(Percent of Teachers Saying Competency Contributes “to a Great Extent”)

Vocational Classes

Competency Academic Comprehensive | Vocational
Classes All High Schools Schools

Academic Skills

Basic mathematics skills or 24 24 22 30
concepts

Advanced mathematics 12 4 3 9
skills or concepts

Basic science knowledge 14 9 7 15

Advanced science 7 2 2 5
knowledge

Basic reading skills 60 45 45 47

Advanced reading skills 33 12 12 14

Writing skills 41 18 18 17

SCANS Skills — Workplace

Competencies

Completing work on time 47 45 46 44

Teamwork skills 15 27 26 36

Research/ reference skills 12 7 6 11

Understanding of 14 27 26 31

organizational and
technical systems

Ability to use technology 13 37 38 34
SCANS Skills — Foundation
Skills?
Oral communication 34 35 33 aay
Creative thinking and 44 41 40 47
problem solving
Self-management skills 40 52 51 54
Vocational /Integrated Skills
Job-specific skills 4 54 51 73
General employability 9 53 49 69
skills
Ability to apply academic 11 47 46 51

concepts to
occupational tasks

© Foundation skills also include basic skills in reading, writing, and math.

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

A-26 Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education

210


Volume Il

ENDNOTES

10

11

12

~ ction 403 (b) (4).

This discussion does not include schools for special student populations (e.g., special
education, adult education, and alternative schools).

College-bound (or college prep) students are defined as those meeting typical 4-year
college entry criteria: at least four credits in English; at least three credits in mathematics
with at least one credit in algebra or higher mathematics; at least three credits in science
with at least one in physical science; and at least two credits in a foreign language.

U.S. Department of Education (1994), National Assessment of Vocational Education: Interim
Report to Congress, pp. 89-94.

The change measure was calculated by dividing the average change in vocational
enrollments by the average change in total enrollments (where change was measured ona
5-point scale). This ratio was then reduced by 1, yielding negative values for district
categories where vocational enrollments have declined more than (or increased less than)
total enrollments, and positive values where vocational enrollments have declined less than
(or increased more than) total enrollments.

Interim Report, pp. 81-82.

General Accounting Office (1993b), Vocational Education: Status in School Year 1990-91 and
Enrly Signs of Change at Secondary Level (GAO/HRD-93-71).

Milne, A., Martindale, M., & Michie, J. (1993, September), Vocational Education in
Communities, draft report prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education,
Westat.

Hayward, BJ., & Wirt, J.G. (1989), National Assessment of Vocational Education, Final Report,
Vol. V, Handicapped and Disadvantaged Students: Access to Quality Vocational Education, US.
Department of Education.

McCormick, A.C., & Holmes, P. (1994, April}, Computers and Vocational/Technical Education,
draft report prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education, MPR
Associates.

The Interim Report noted significant declines in the percentage of male concentrators in
agriculture and technical programs from 1982 to 1990. Unfortunately, these trends did not
continue in 1992. .

The reported increase in vocational coursetaking by disabled students, discussed in the
interim: Report, appears to be an artifact of differing measures of disability in the 1982 HSB
and 1992 NELS samples. The data reported here use consistent measures from the 1987 and
1990 NAEP samples.

These percentages hold constant the total proportion of students in each special population
category in 1982 and 1992 (at 1992 levels). Thus, the 1982 figures reflect adjusted, not actual,
percentages for that year. The adjustments were quite small; the largest adjustment reduced

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

58 ”

_


Volume II

ENDNOTES

10

Becker. G. (1964), Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis With Special Reference to
Education, Columbia University Press.

Bishop, J. (1993a), Educational Reform and Technical Education (Working Paper 93-04), Center
for Advanced Human Resource Studies, Comell University.

Rumberger, R., & Daymont, T. (1984), The economic value of academic and vocational
training acquired in high school, in Borus, M.E. (Ed.), Youth and the Labor Market: Analyses of
the NLS. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research; Griffin, LJ., & Alexander, K.L. (1978),
Schooling and socioeconomic attainments: High school and college influences, American
Journal of Sociology, 54, 319-347.

Campbell, P.B., et al. (1986), Outcomes of Vocational Education for Women, Mi.orities, the
Handicapped, and the Poor, p. 13, National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Grubb, W.N. (1992a), Postsecondary vocational education and the sub-baccalaureate labor
market: New evidence on economic returns, Economics of Education Review, 11.

Lewis, D., et al. (1993), Efficiency and equity effects of vocationally focused postsecondary
education, Sociology of Education, 66 .

Bishop, J. (1989), Occupational training in high school: When does it pay off? Economics of
Education Review, 8(1), 1-15.

Grubb (1992a); Lewis, et al. (1993); Medrich, E., & Vergun, R. (1993), Earnings and
Employment Outcomes for Postsecondary Degree Holders in Vocational Subject Areas,
draft report prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education, MPR
Associates; Meyer R., Outcomes of secondary vocational education, in Muraskin, L.D.
(1993), Secondary Vocational Education: Availability, Coursetaking, and Outcomes; Goodwin D.
(1989), National Assessment of Vocational Education, Final Report, Vol. IV, Postsecondary
Vocational Education, U.S. Department of Education; Ghazalah, I.A. (1987), "Long-Term
Follow-Up of Vocational Education Graduates: A Study Based on Federal Income Tax
Data,” unpublished manuscript, Ohio University, Department of Economics; Bishop (1989).

For example, I.A. Ghazala’s 1979 Vocational Education Graduates i 1986 (Ohio University,
1991) showed strong and consistent benefits for secondary vocational completers in Ohio;
however, some of these completers almost certainly had some postsecondary education,
while the comparison group, by definition, had none. S. Kang and J. Bishop’s “Vocational
and Academic Education in High School: Complements or Substitutes?” (Economics of
Education Review, 8, 1989) showed positive relations between vocational coursetaking and
employment outcomes, and negative relations between academic coursetaking and these
outcomes. However, the study used senior-year achievement test scores as controls,
thereby absorbing most of the effects of academic coursetaking. It also used self-reports of
vocational coursetaking, rather than transcript data.

Medrich & Vergun (1993), p. 7.

Bishop (1989); Grubb (1992a); Meyer (1993).

Employment Outcomes 175 157



Volume II

If such reforms are to be effected, there will have to be substantial changes in
the way teachers are prepared in colleges and universities. The Perkins Act
should support the pre-service, as well as in-service, preparation of teachers
for integrated, contextualized education oriented toward work. Academic
teachers will need more familiarity with the world of work, possibly through
courses in business and technology, or through work experience outside of
teaching. They will also need to learn how to apply features of their academic
disciplines to work-related subjects. Vocational teachers will need more and
more rigorous courses in the liberal arts. For many prospective vocational
teachers, a greater emphasis on math and computers will be required. Beyond
these changes in teacher education programs, states will need to tailor the
preparation of their teachers to particular elements of reform in their systems.

Teachers in Vocational Education 81

100



Volume II

CHAPTER APPENDICES

189



Volume II

The development of cognitive abilities is pivotal, especially in secondary
school, because they help prepare students for work and/or for
postsecondary education, as well as for lifelong learning, and (arguably)
high-performance workplaces.

The development of broad technical skills can complement and contribute to
that of cognitive skills. The composite that Bishop used reflected a range of
skills in the trades. No doubt other composites based on industries—health
care, transportation, etc.—could be put together. Computer literacy is another
broad technical skill that seems to pay off in the labor market.

Teaching work-related technical skills and knowledge is important not only
because they provide employment benefits, but because they provide a
meaningful context within which cognitive skills can be developed. Chapter 4
of Volume III presents research evidence indicating that contextualized
learning is a more effective pedagogical approach than traditional classroom
methods. For many secondary students, especially those in general and
vocational education, traditional academics is often remote and boring. Yet
the cognitive skill development of these students is critically important.
Applied academics and other forms of contextualized learning show promise
as ways of engaging students actively in processes that will help them learn
to think better.

Concentrating coursework in occupationally specific areas provides benefits
for certain subgroups of students, but as a rule, it pays off only if the program
completer gets a related job, and at the secondary level, that happens in less
than half of the cases.

Thus, the development of cognitive and broad technical skills and knowledge

should be the central goal of secondary education for students preparing for
work.

Moreover, given the clear payoff to postsecondary education, work-oriented
students should be encouraged and prepared to continue their education at
the postsecondary level.

156 Employment Outcomes


Volume II

PART It
QUALITY OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

59

79



Volume II

Single parents (and pregnant teens) also take relatively many vocational courses,
including both occupational courses and consumer/homemaking courses. In this
case, the greater emphasis on consumer and homemaking courses most likely
results from enrollments in parenting and child development courses, which are
of obvious relevance to these students. These courses are often designed not only
to improve single parents’ child-raising skills, but also to help keep young
mothers in school.

The overrepresentation of special population students in vocational education is
also evident in data from other sources. In its Perkins-mandated study of special
population students, the General Accounting Office (GAO) found higher
vocational participation rates for disadvantaged and disabled students (but not
LEP students) than for non-special-population students.” Vocational programs in
the Community Case Studies were also often characterized by higher
enrollments of lower ability and disabled students.’

Course Concentration. Data on the average number of credits does not tell us to
what extent special population students qualify as “vocational” students. Are
special population students also more likely to take concentrated vocational
courses? In most cases, the answer is yes (see Table 1.5).

Given the value of concentrated vocational coursetaking for students’
employment outcomes (as discussed in Chapter 6), it is encouraging to see that
special needs students take concentrated courses at relatively high rates.
Compared to students in general, equal or greater proportions of special
population students are vocational concentrators, even when their higher levels
of vocational coursework are taken into account. Further, among those who
concentrate in vocational education, special population students are also as likely
or more likely than students in general to be vocational specialists (earn at least
four specific labor market credits, with at least two at an advanced level). This is
also encouraging, as it suggests that special population students are not being
unduly relegated to lower-level vocational courses.

Special Population Enrollments by Program Area

Anecdotal evidence, as well as findings from the previous National Assessment,
suggests that special population students, particularly disabled and
educationally disadvantaged students, may be overly represented in low-skill,
lower paying areas within occupational home economics and trade and
industrial education.’ In this subsection, we examine the extent to which special
population students are concentrated in particular vocational program areas.

For these comparisons, we calculated the following ratio: the percentage of all
vocational education credits that are earned in a program area by each special
population group to the percentage earned by that group’s non-special-

population peers. To illustrate, the ratio for disabled students in agriculture is

| Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 40 19

(nneerenereenieerteenteennnnnesientenmmeninemnemetennnemmnneneinntass


Volume IT

Table 7.6
Employer Rating of Overall Quality of Familiar Program(s), by Size
(Percent)
Total Number of Employees
Program Level and Less Over All
Rating Than 50 | 50-249 | 250-999 | 1000 | Establishments
Secondary
Excellent or very good 41 40 32 38 41
Good 40 42 51 40 41
Fair or poor 19 17 16 22 18
Postsecondary
Excellent or very good 53 59 49 64 54
Good 35 30 43 31 34
Fair or poor 12 11 8 5 11

NOTE: Totals may not add to 100% due to rounding.

Source: National Assessment Employer Survey

high-performance workplace components. On the other hand, around half of
employers familiar with postsecondary programs reported the highest level of
quality, regardless of the number of steps taken toward workplace
transformation.

EMPLOYER OPINIONS OF WORK EXPERIENCE PROGRAMS

In addition to the Employer Survey, two recent efforts provide information
concerning employers and their involvement with and views of work experience
programs. The National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workiorce has,
for the past several years, been conducting a series of studies of the youth labor
market. Two of those studies were designed to explore the feasibility of building
a national system of youth apprenticeship programs.

The first study, conducted by Lynn and Wills,4 surveyed employers that
participated in local youth apprenticeship or cooperative education programs in
seven cities. A total of 270 employers responded to the survey, the main goal of
which was to explore incentives to encourage employer participation in work
experience programs. The response rate to this survey was somewhat higher

Employer Involvement and Satisfaction 167

185


Volume TL

that revolve around dumping and its effects; with a single exception, the
following are among the top six problems listed by both kinds of teachers:

1. Inappropriate placement of problem students in vocational
education.

2. The status of vocational education in relation to academic subjects.

3. Student motivation.

4. Maintaining vocational enrollments (vocational teachers only).

5. Coordinating vocational and academic instruction.

6. Student absenteeism.

Omnibus Survey data from administrators are largely consistent with these
views (see Appendix Table A-1.3). Finding teachers trained to instruct special
needs students; maintaining vocational enrollments; and the image of vocational
education among students and parents are among the problems most often cited
by administrators. Recruiting special needs students to vocational education is
least likely to be regarded as a problem.

Vocational schools serving relatively high proportions of disabled students are
also more likely to show the characteristics of schools with a “dumping ground”
reputation (see Figure 1.8). Administrators in these schools are more likely to
report that their school is viewed as a dumping ground, and that they have
problems maintaining vocational enrollments, attracting qualified students, and
with their programs’ image among students and parents. These differences could
reflect lower program quality at these schools; however, high-disabled vocational
schools compare favorably to low-disabled schools on other available quality
indicators, such as their image among the business community, their equipment
and facilities, and the perceived teaching ability of their staffs (see Figure 1.8).
While not conclusive, these administrators’ views are consistent with the notion
that vocational schools with relatively high enrollments of disabled students are
more likely to develop a stigma as a result of those enrollments.

In sum, the substantial overrepresentation of disabled and disadvantaged
students in vocational education, and the gradual increase in their participation,
especially in separate vocational schools, may slowly increase the isolation and
stigmatization of these programs and students. Lowering standards in response
to the advent of more special population students may further aggravate the
problem. In these cases rational decisions may complement prejudice in
motivating more able students to avoid vocational programs. Even if the
programs are well supplied with staff, equipment, and materials, increasing
isolation from the mainstream and an inappropriate level of instruction would
pose significant risks for vocational special population students.

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 52 mn

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Volume II

Table 4.6
Mean Percent of Student Grades Based on
Various Student Performance Measures

Vocational Classes
Academic Comprehensive | Vocational
Measure Classes All High Schools Schools
Teacher-developed tests 39 24 26 18
Student classwork 15 19 21 12
Performance in school lab or 3 17 14 28
shop
Student presentations or 10 12 13 9
projects
Attendance and/or class 5 8 7 14
participation :
Standardized tests 7 6 6 7
Student homework 14 6 6 4
Job performance at worksite 3 3 3
Student portfolios of best 2 2 3
work
Other 2 2 2 3

NOTE: Percentages may not add to 100 because of rounding.

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

Standardized tests play a small but significant role in students’ grades in all
classes. Portfolio assessments are not used much, accounting for only 2 to 4
percent of the grades in all classes.

CONCLUSION

In general, secondary vocational programs need more coherence than they

currently have. Most programs have no prerequisites, and the typical completion
requirement is a number of vocational courses in an occupational area, regardless
of course level. The Perkins Act sets a higher standard for fund recipients: It calls
for coherent sequences that include both academic and vocational courses. About

Program Requirenients and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education 103

121



Volume II

To minimize the growing stigma attached to vocational education, the Perkins
Act should maintain strong requirements for equal access, but should not
otherwise encourage schools to enroll special population students in
vocational programs. Instead, the Act should focus on reforming vocational
education programs, increasing their quality, and ensuring that special
population students exit these programs with the same skills and abilities as
other students (to the extent possible). This focus on quality and outcomes will

best serve both special population and other students preparing to enter the
workforce.

3h Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

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A-25

Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education



Volume II

The differences in postsecondary outcomes are obvious. The question is to what
extent secondary curricular programs contribute to them when students of
similar aptitude, background, and educational aspirations are compared. Kulik
examines two kinds of studies in which such controls were used.

Studies in the first group estimate the probabilities of attending college or any
postsecondary institution. Their results are shown in Table 5.6.

Table 5.6
Probability of Postsecondary Enrollment by Curricular Program
Curricular Program
Non-

Study Academic General Vocational | Academic
Likelihood of enrollment

in two- or four-year

college

Grasso & Shea, 1979 62 32 21 29
Likelihood of enrollment

in any postsecondary

institution

Creech et al., 1977 75 _ _ 44

Grasso & Shea, 1979 81 64 62 63

Campbell & Basinger, 73 68 ‘65 —

1985

Source: Kulik (1994)

Grasso and Shea’s data show that academic students are almost three times as
likely to attend college as vocational students who are similar in aptitude and
background. General track students are half again as likely as vocational students
to attend college. However, this study did not control for educational aspirations
to enroll in college. Since academic students are much more likely than
vocational students to plan on attending college, this kind of self-selection could
explain much of the difference between the two groups.

124 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

142



Volume II

Figure 1.8
Percent of Vocational Schools in Which Vocational Education Is Viewed as a
“Dumping Ground,” and in Which Each Issue Is Rated as a Moderate to
Severe Problem, by Schools’ Disabled Enrollments

Vocational Education Is Viewed
As Dumping Ground

4

Problems Exist With:

4

Maintaining Vocational
Enrollments

Attracting Qualified
Students

Image of Vocational Education
Among Students/Parents

Image of Vocational Education
Among Business

Less Than 20%
Equipment or Ry] Disabled
Facilities

4 20% or More
Disabled
Teachers' Vocational 38
Education Abilities Fs
0 20 40 60 80 100

Source: Omnibus School Survey

We do not believe this problem represents an immediate crisis. Special
population students have long been overrepresented in vocational programs, and
the change in the student composition of these programs is occurring slowly, not
rapidly. However, we do believe it is an issue to be considered in deciding the

future direction for vocational education. The current path makes vocational
education maximally accessible to special needs students, but may in the long,
run be of less value to these students (and to all students) than other more
rigorous and inclusive paths that could be taken.

32 Participation in Secondary Vocational Education



Volume II

Computer
Science

4

Figure A-5.1 (continued)

Average Credits Earned in Different Academic Subject Areas
by Vocational, General, and Academic Students, 1982, 1987, 1990, and 1992

3.5

3

25

2

15

1

0.5

0

Advanced
Math
4

1982 1987

(Algebra | or higher)

3.5

__———*" —__

3

25

2

15

1

0.5

1982 1987 1990 1992

-- Vocational ~~ General - Academic

(continued)

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

roe)
pa
vim


Volume II

parts of the curriculum in regular public high schools and have generally
remained in the same institutions.

Programs requiring large amounts of space and/or specialized equipment, such
as trade and industrial education and health occupations, are usually found in
vocational schools. Other programs, such as agricultural education and

marketing /distribution education, are about equally distributed in both types of
schools.

Demographic Characteristics

While there are demographic differences between vocational and academic
teachers, they are not as great as is often supposed (Table 3.2). In 1990-91
vocational education teachers were a little older, on average, than non-vocational
teachers (43.5 years, as compared to 41.9 years). The difference, while small, is
statistically significant (p <.05). Gender differences between vocational and other
teachers are not significant, but some race/ethnic differences are: Vocational
teachers are more likely than others to be black, although most are white.

Table 3.2
Demographic Characteristics of Secondary Vocational and
Non-Vocational Teachers, 1990-91

Vocational Non-Voeational

Average age (years) 43.5 419
Sex (percent)

Male 52 51

Female 48 4
Race/Ethnicity (percent)

Native American 1 1

Asian 1 1

Black 9 6

White 88 90

Hispanic 2 3

NOTE: Numbers may not add to 100 because of rounding,

Source: 1990-91 Schools and Staffing Survey

Teachers in Vocational Education 8 9 63



Volume II

Table 3.7
Rank and Salary of Two-Year Postsecondary Faculty

Percentage of Faculty Average Salary ($)
Non- Non-

Rank Vocational | Vocational | Vocational | Vocational
Professor 12 7 38,887 39,972
Associate Professor 5 6 36,103 33,247
Assistant Professor 5 8 31,165 29,263
Instructor 48 59 30,412 29,247
Lecturer 2 4 _ _
Other 3 3 _ —_
Not applicable 25 14 - -

Source: Hoachlander et al., (1992), pp. 127, 129.

THE RELATIVE VALUE OF OCCUPATIONAL EXPERIENCE AND FORMAL
EDUCATION

The fact that vocational education teachers in general, and trade and industry
teachers in particular, have less formal education and niere occupational
experience than others has been an issue for some time. There is controversy
about whether T&I teachers, or any teachers, should be able to teach in public
schools without a college degree. Historically, vocational educators have argued
that work experience is indispensable for teaching students how to perform
certain kinds of jobs. Indeed, it is hard to see how teachers who have never been
carpenters or plumbers could teach carpentry or plumbing to students. The
question is not whether any work experience is valuable, but how much is
needed and what level of formal education is needed.

Lynch has reviewed the literature on this subject for the National Assessment of
Vocational Education.!° The review covered studies that related teacher
preparation to several measures of vocational teaching quality: supervisory

assessments of teacher performance and competency; student achievement; and
teacher competency test scores.

The relation between occupational achievement and supervisory assessments of
vocational teachers was examined in six studies identified by Lynch. Four found

Teachers in Vocational Education 73

i<e}
aw)

—


Volume II

Figure 1.6
Average Percent of Change in Vocational Enrollments,
by District Type and Student Type, 1987 to 1991

All Vocational
Students

1.3

Disabled

2.8}

24
Disadvantaged .

45.1]

LEP

Other Special 13
Needs 5

3.24

| Regular Districts A Vocational Districts

|

NOTE: See endnote 14 for details on calculating percentage change.

Source: Omnibus District Surveys

Perkins funds only if they enroll proportions of special population students equal
to or higher than their sending districts. In addition, local and state education
budget cut-backs make schools more reliant on federal funds for supporting
costly programs and services, so students with special needs may be increasingly
encouraged to enroll in vocational programs in order to receive services available
through Perkins funding.

26 4 ” Participation in Secondary Vocational Education



Volume II

A study by Hilton provides evidence that the rates of growth in achievement on
a test of industrial arts knowledge are very different for academic and general
students on the one hand, and for vocational students on the other.? The
industrial arts knowledge of academic and general students falls or remains
constant in grades 7 through 11, while that of vocational students increases
significantly. (See Figure 5.3.) It is interesting that despite the gains of vocational
students, academic students had higher scores throughout the period in question.
This may reflect academic students’ stronger cognitive abilities, which would
enable them to score higher on a range of tests in different subject areas. The role
of cognitive ability in education and employment is discussed in Chapter 6.

Although these studies do not prove conclusively that vocational coursetaking
improves vocational skills, the findings conform to common sense and are quite
believable. Indeed, it would be astonishing if students trained in welding or
carpentry for a reasonable period did not know more about their crafts than
students with no training in these subjects.

HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION

Keeping students in school has been regarded as a strength of occupational
curricula almost from the beginning of public education in this country. Mertens,
Seitz, and Cox observed that:

By 1823, two years after the opening of the first publicly supported
high school in America, 76 of the entering class of 176 had dropped
out. The School Committee of the City of Boston, in response to this
high attrition, recommended that the most useful and practical
subjects should be offered in the first year... The use of
occupationally relevant instruction to prevent high school dropout
had begun.!°

This goal was also reflected in the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, which initiated
federal support for vocational education, and in legislation since then.

It is not hard to see why vocational education might reduce dropout rates.
Students may see occupational courses as more immediately relevant to their
interests, and as we saw in Chapter 4, they regard vocational education as easier
than academics. But does it reduce dropout rates? Kulik’s review of the literature
provides much useful information on this subject. The data he reports are
classified here in three categories: descriptive findings, comparisons of matched
groups, and multivariate analyses.

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 115

133



Volume II

Table 4.5
Homework Assignments of Se’ected Classes
Vocational Classes
Academic Comprehensive | Vocational

Characteristics Classes All High Schools Schools
Percent saying homework is 95 59 57 65

assigned in this class
Percent saying homework 81 45 44 50

was assigned on October

1, 1992
Mean hours of homework in 3 2 2 2

last 5 school days

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

There are marked differences in the proportions of academic and vocational
classes requiring homework. In almost all the academic classes (95%), teachers
assign some homework. On the other hand, only 59 percent of vocational classes
assign any homework. !° (On October 1, 1992, homework was actually assigned in
81% of the academic classes and 45% of the vocational classes.)

On average, vocational classes were about three-fifths as likely as academic
classes to have homework. The amount of homework assigned in vocational
classes is about two-thirds the amount assigned in academic classes (an average
of two hours a week in vocational classes and three hours in academic classes
that assign it). By multiplying the three-fifths and the two-thirds, we can arrive at
a rough measure of the relative homework demands made on students in the two
kinds of classes: On average, vocational students are assigned about 40 percent as
much homework as academic students.

There is also a difference among vocational classes in different kinds of schools
in the tendency to assign homework. Teachers in vocational schools are more
likely to require at least some homework than vocational teachers in
comprehensive high schools, although the average amount of homework is the
same. By program area, T&I classes are the least likely to require homework; only
about half (52%) of them do so. (The Interim Report described the type of
homework assigned in vocational and academic classes. !!)

Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education 99

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Volume II

¢ General track: Students who meet neither of the above criteria. These

students can be considered to be preparing for neither college entry
nor entry into a skilled or semi-skilled occupation.

It is important to recognize that these are constructed categories. While they
reflect underlying realities in the types of educational programs students pursue,
they compartmentalize coursetaking patterns that are inherently much more
complex and indistinct. Schools may or may not define students in these terms,
but they are useful analytic tools. The distribution of students across these
categories from 1982 to 1992 is shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1
Percent of Students in Advanced Academic, Vocational,
and General Tracks, 1982, 1987, 1990, and 1992

80

Percent

Advanced Academic Vocational

|_| 1982 im 1987 i 1990

NOTE: Columns for each year sum to more than 100 because the aavanced academic and
vocational tracks are not mutually exclusive.

General

1992

Sources: 1992 HSB, 1987 NAEP, 1990 NAEP, and 1992 NELS

108 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

126



Volume IT

Figure A-5.1 (continued)
Average Credits Earned in Different Academic Subject Areas
by Vocational, General, and Academic Students, 1982, 1987, 1990, and 1992

Advanced
Science
4

(Advanced biology and all physical sciences)

3.5

3

25

2 es

15

1

0.5

T T
1982 1987 1990 1992

m- Vocational << General -—+- Academic

Sources: 1982 HSB, 1987 NAEP, 1990 NAEP, and 1992 NELS

A-32 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

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grades 10-12. Prior achievement, student background, and academic
coursetaking are among the controls. Rasinski finds no relation between
coursetaking in any vocational program and gains in math, science, or reading
for students of similar backgrounds who took similar academic courses and had
similar achievement scores before taking the vocational courses. The biggest
contributor to test score gains is prior achievement on the tests (a variable
captured in Kulik’s student selection factor).

As expected, participation in various academic courses does affect student
achievement (e.g., taking algebra helps raise math scores), and we can infer that
if the number of academic courses were not controlled in the analysis, vocational
students would still have lower achievement scores than academic students.
Rasinski concludes that students give up some achievement gains by foregoing
academic courses and taking vocational courses instead, although he does not
estimate how much they give up. Kulik’s analysis indicates that the effect of
foregoing academic classes is real, but relatively small.

Rasinski also conducted regression analyses for various subgroups of students
(e.g., rural students, black students, special education students). His major
findings held true for most groups in most vocational programs; that is,
vocational coursetaking per se does not affect academic achievement. There are
some exceptions, however. For certain subgroups of students, participation in
certain vocational programs is significantly related to test score gains (or losses).
Table 5.1, which draws on the results of Rasinski’s regression analyses, shows
these relationships.

The table presents a mixed picture of achievement gains and losses associated
with a few types of vocational programs. Taking consumer and home economics
courses is associated with math losses for rural students. Health education is
associated with improved science scores for blacks and improved reading scores
for special education students; however, it is associated with math losses for
special education students and reading losses for dropouts.

A residual specific labor market preparation category’ is positively associated
with reading gains for public school students (the survey also included private
and parochial students) and for dropouts. It is associated with losses for Native
Americans in reading and science.

Generally test score gains in one area are offset by losses in another, whether one
considers type of program or type of student. For some reason, all but one of
these significant associations are in two small program categories — health
occupations and the residual specific labor market preparation.

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 113



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postsecondary vocational education students. It also examines the evidence
concerning the relationship between tested cognitive and technical skills and
employment outcomes.

SECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

The evidence on returns to secondary vocational education suggests limited benefits,
more evident in some areas than in others. As we saw in the preceding chapter,
participating in vocational education probably reduces the dropout rate, and we
know that graduating from high school confers some economic benefits. Hence,
participation in vocational programs probably has a positive effect on employment
outcor es through this mechanism. The evidence is less clear when completers from
vocational and general education programs are compared. Some studies that seem to
show a payoff to vocational education have methodological problems?; others show
positive employment outcomes primarily for subgroups of vocational students.

The Match Between Training and Employment

Despite the mixed results regarding overall returns to secondary vocational
education, there is evidence of beneficial employment outcomes whenever students
find jobs related to their field of study. The strongest, most consistent finding
throughout the literature is that improved earnings do accrue in situations where
vocational training is directly related to job tasks. To quote Medrich and Vergun,}0
“regardless of age or degree, employment outcomes were superior for those with a
field of study-occupation match as compared with those without a match.” As
vocational training is designed to be relatively occupation specific, this finding is not
surprising. It is understandable that the highest economic returns accrue to
individuals who find employment in the occupation for which they are trained.
Conversely, for non-college-bound vocational trainees whose jobs do not draw on
their training, there are no apparent economic benefits."!

To measure the relationship between coursework and job tasks requires a system to
categorize and link both field of study and occupation. Researchers have therefore
developed indices to measure the proportion of coursework utilized on the job. As
part of the last National Assessment of Vocational Education, the Department of
Education formulated two indices to test the hypothesis that increased coursework
in job-related areas has positive economic outcomes.!? The first index, called the
course utilization rate (CUR), measures the share of all vocational courses taken by
high school students that are related to jobs they eventually obtain. The more
vocational courses related to employment, the higher the index. A second, related
index, the skilled job course utilization rate (skilled jobs CUR), measures the share of all
vocational courses that are related to the jobs obtained only when those jobs require
more than minimal skills. Throughout this section, we will report findings that rely
on the CUR as well as on the skilled jobs CUR.

Employment Outcomes 1 137



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postschool outcomes (for youth who had been out of secondary school for up to two
years) included enrollment in a postsecondary vocational or trade school, and
incidence of paid employment.

Wagner found a “consistent pattern of relationships between enrollment in
occupationally oriented vocational education and better school performance.”
Students who had occupational training were absent from school significantly fewer
days (1.5 fewer days per year; p< .05) than students who did not have such training,
other factors being equal. Similarly, students taking occupationally oriented
vocational education were significantly less likely to drop out of school (p< .01)
when other confounding factors (such as disability and gender differences) were
controlled. “The NLTS estimates show that the likelihood of dropping out rather
than persisting in school was three percentage points lower for vocational students
than for others. The analysis also indicates that vocational students were about three
percentage points less likely than others to have failed a course, although this
difference did not attain statistical significance.”27

Wagner also noted that those youth who had been out of high school for up to two
years, and had taken secondary vocational education classes, were 8 percent more
likely to have attended a postsecondary vocational school in the previous year than
were non-vocational students, controlling for other factors.

In addition, students who took vocational education in their last year in secondary
school were 9 percent more likely to be competitively employed than youth who had
not taken vocational education, other factors being equal. Wagner reports, as well,
that, if the secondary vocational education included work experience, the likelihood
of employment increased an additional 14 percent beyond the increased probability
associated with vocational education enrollment alone.

Thus, the NLTS findings suggest that secondary school vocational education does
appear to hold potential for improving both school performance and postschool
outcomes of disabled students. A later study by Wagner et al. supported these initial
findings, demonstrating that vocational coursetaking increases the likelihood of
postschool employment for youth with mild disabilities (e.g., learning disabled,
speech, and mild retardation) who have been out of school for one to three years.
Their chances of employment increased by 19 percentage points if they took some
vocational education, but fewer than four courses within a specific vocational
program area, and by 20 points if they took at least four courses in a specific
vocational program area. In addition, the study showed increased monetary
compensation for those with at least four courses in one area. The findings are
particularly important because most disabled students have mild disabilities.

Returns to Academic Coursework

Currently, high school students can choose between academic coursework (either
in the general or college track) or vocational courses. But what does this tradeoff

Employment Outconies 1 5 9 141



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CHAPTER 6

EMPLOYMENT OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION

This chapter examines the economic outcomes associated with vocational
education. Specifically, it investigates the connection between vocational training
and employment outcomes for students who received vocational training in high
school and in sub-baccalaureate postsecondary institutions. The chapter begins
by reviewing the data sources and methodological constraints that affect the
studies on employment outcomes. The second section describes the major factors
related to economic success for vocational students. Section three presents the
findings on employment benefits of vocational and academic coursetaking at the
secondary level. The fourth section examines the relation between tested skills
and employment outcomes. Section five presents the findings from analyses of
employment outcomes for postsecondary vocational students.

Both high school and postsecondary vocational education systems serve a
disparate clientele and offer a variety of coursetaking options. Their very
diversity, in fact, complicates analysis of factors associated with economic
outcomes. Vocational courses are provided to an economically, racially, and
ethnically diverse population; individuals vary substantially in the amount of
coursework they complete, the types of skills they acquire, and the extent to
which they concentrate their coursework in a single program area. Additionally,
vocational training at the postsecondary level is provided in an assortment of
public and private institutions. All of these factors are likely to affect outcomes of

students from vocational programs and, therefore, will be considered as part of
this analysis.

STUDIES OF EMPLOYMENT OUTCOMES

The findings reviewed in this chapter were compiled from a growing literature
designed to measure the effects of vocational education on the labor market
performance of individuals. The work on employment outcomes builds on the
human capital model, which predicts that development of additional skills
(through either academic or vocational preparation) is beneficial in the
competition for jobs and wages after high school.!

All of the studies reviewed employed some type of statistical technique, most
often regression analysis, to isolate the effects of curricular and background
factors on the wages, earnings, and employment patterns of vocational students.
Although efforts to isolate the factors that contribute to improved vocational
outcomes have grown increasingly sophisticated, they continue to be hampered

both by a lack of timely, high-quality data and by methodological constraints.
Each of these issues will now be addressed in turn.

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academic education, computers are not usually available in academic classes.
Only 13 percent of these classes involved students using computers on a
particular day. In contrast, 40 percent of the vocational classes in the sample
involved students using computers.

In secondary schools, the computers tend to be located in vocational programs,
particularly in business and office education. However, these computers are
often available to students for academic coursework. It is not unusual to see

students writing English or history papers on word processors in the business
classrooms.

We would expect instruments, tools, and equipment to be used extensively in
vocational programs and in the lab sciences. According to the teachers’ reports,
this occurred in almost three-fourths of the vocational classes and a little more
than one-third of the academic classes sampled. Teachers in vocational schools
were especially likely to report students involved in such activities: 88 percent of
them did so. As observed earlier, area vocational schools were built in part to
accommodate specialized equipment.

These measures do not indicate broad quality differences between academic and
vocational education. Lectures are widely used in both types of classes; tests and
quizzes are fairly frequent, especially in vocational schools. Vocational classes are
less likely to involve writing assignments but more likely to involve the use of
equipment, including computers.

The Use of Computers in Vocational Classes

As we saw in the Introduction to this volume, computers are becoming ever
more present in the .. »rkplace, and workers who use computers on the job tend
to earn more than comparable workers who do not. The importance of computer
literacy in the labor market has been recognized for some time. Over a decade
ago, the National Commission on Excellence in Education recommended that
every high school graduate have at least one-half year of computer science.? Yet
today, less than one-third of high school seniors meet this criterion.

At the secondary level, computer use is concentrated in vocational education. As
Table 4.4 shows, however, there is wide variation in use across different program
areas. According to these Teacher Survey data, only 15-20 percent of the classes
in agriculture, health, and occupational home economics involved computer use
in the most recent class reported by teachers. In the middle range, 32-46 percent
of the classes in marketing, T&1, and industrial arts entailed the use of
computers. Computer use in business classes was higher, at 54 percent, and the
fact that business is the largest vocational subject area means that many students
receive computer experience in this program. However, the program that
involves the most computer work is technical/communications education, where
students used computers in 84 percent of the recent classes reported by teachers.

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However, within each type of institution, vocational students are no more likely
than other students to be disabled, educationally or economically disadvantaged,
or single parents. (Data are not available for LEP students.) This suggests
different levels of access among these institutions, with exclusively vocational
institutions providing the most access for (vocational) special population
students, and four-year colleges the least. A number of factors probably
contribute to this access pattern, including institutions’ entry requirements,
locale, and recruitment strategies.

From 1986 to 1989, few changes occurred in special population enrollments. No
longer-term enrollment data are available, but we do have administrator reports
on vocational enroliment changes from 1987 to 1992 from the Omnibus Surveys.
These data suggest that the proportion of vocational students who are disabled
or LEP may be decreasing, while the proportion who are disadvantaged may be
increasing (see Figure 2.4). We cannot tell, however, if these changes reflect
changes peculiar to vocational education, or whether they are part of more
general changes in the postsecondary student population.

Nontraditional Vocational Education Enrollments

The Perkins Act encourages the enrollment of students in programs that are
“nontraditional” for their gender. Monitoring these enrollments allows us to
determine the extent to which progress is being made in this area. In this section,
we examine nontraditional enrollments by reviewing the gender composition of
students in different majors, and how these have changed over time. (These data
are listed in Appendix Table A-2.2.)

In general, while both vocational and academic majors run the gamut from
predominantly female to predominantly male, more vocational than academic
majors are highly sex-segregated. For example, in 1989, 10 of 21 vocational
majors enrolled at least three-quarters of students of one gender, compared to
only 4 of 19 academic majors. The most male-dominated vocational majors are
those in trade and industry (engineering, transportation, precision production,
mechanics, and construction), and among academic majors, the physical sciences
and philosophy. The most female-dominated majors include vocational majors in
health, business support, consumer services and home economics, and academic
majors in legal assistance, education, and public affairs.

From the mid-1970s to 1989, nontraditional enrollments have shown a one-way
shift: Men have increased their enrollments in predominantly female fields —
business support, consumer services, home economics, and allied health — but
women have not increased their enrollments in predominantly male fields (see
Appendix Tables A-2.2 and A-2.3). These trends are similar to those for
secondary vocational education, where male enrollments have increased in
business and, to a lesser extent, occupational home economics.

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education 49

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disabled and disadvantaged students into more limited vocational areas. But
given the growing importance of computer literacy in the workplace,!” it seems
problematic that these students are less likely to enroll in business and technical
education courses, which tend to provide the most computer experience.

The Perkins requirement to target local grant funds on programs that enroll
high concentrations of special population students, while infrequently used
(see Chapter 1 in Volume V), may encourage the segregation of special
population students in a limited number of vocational program areas. To
increase special population students’ access to the full range of vocational
programs, Perkins local grant funds should be targeted on sites that serve high
concentrations of special population students, but not on programs that serve
high concentrations of these students.

Because the decline in vocational coursetaking over the past decade has been
greater for non-special population students than for their special population
peers, vocational students are now slightly more likely to‘ e special needs
students than they were in the past. (This is true for disabled and disadvantaged
students; data are not available for LEP students.) This change is larger in
vocational schools (especially area vocational schools), where the “dumping” of
special needs students appears to be a particularly serious problem.

The overrepresentation of disabled and disadvantaged students in vocational
education, and the increase in this overrepresentation have mixed outcomes. On
the positive side, vocational education tends to have educational and labor
market benefits for some of these students. Disabled students tend to do better in
the labor market if they have taken vocational education, and educationally
disadvantaged students are more likely to stay in school when they enroll in
vocational courses. However, the decision to place a student in a vocational
program or school is not always made with the student's best educational
interests in mind. Too often, bureaucratic and funding concerns — the pressure
to maintain enrollment levels, turf battles, and so on — drive these decisions.

In addition, the increasing overrepresentation of special needs students in
vocational education is resulting in a growing isolation and segregation from the
educational mainstream, and in pressures to lower program standards and rigor —
trends that run counter to the Perkins Act goals of increasing vocational-academic
integration and vocational program quality. Left unchecked, these trends can only
be detrimental to vocational education, and by extension, to all students who could
or should benefit from high-quality vocational education programs. Rather than
following a path of increasing isolation, stigmatization, and lowering of standards,
vocational education can best serve all students — special population as well as
others — by becoming part of a broader, more rigorous, integrated, and inclusive
program to prepare students for workforce success.

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

a
lap)
&



28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

44

45

Volume II

Gamoran, A. (1994), The Impact of Academic Coursework on Labor Market Outcomes for Youtl:
Who Do Not Attend College: A Research Review, paper prepared for the National Assessment
of Vocational Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Consortium for Policy Research
on Education.

Ibid., p. 20.

Daymont, T., & Rumberger, R. (1982), The impact of high school curriculum on earnings
and employability of youth, in R.E. Taylor, H. Rosen, & F. Pratzer (Eds.), Job Training for
Youth, National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Gamoran (1994), p. 35.

Ibid., p. 21.

Hollenbeck, K. (1993). Postsecondary education as triage: Return to academic and technical
programs, Economics of Education Review, 12.

A. Gamoran, correspondence, March 10, 1994.

T. Russell, Human Resources Research Organization, memorandum, June 8, 1994.
Hunter, J. & Hunter, R. (1984), Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job
performance, Psychological Bulletin, 96. Also see Ree, M. and Earles, J., “The Ubiquitous

Pervasiveness of g,” in Rumsey, M., Walker, C., and Harris, J., (1994}, Personnel Selection and
Classification, Erlbaum.

Murnane, RJ., et al. (1993), “The Growing Importance of Cognitive Skills in Wage
Determination,” unpublished manuscript, Harvard University.

Gamoran (1994), p. 26.

Meyer, R., & Wise, D. (1982), High school preparation and early labor force experience, in
R.B. Furman & Wise (Eds.), The Youth Labor Market Problem: Its Nature, Causes, and
Consequences, University of Chicago Press.

Heckman, J., & Roselius, R. (1993), “U.S. Education and Training Policy: A Re-Evaluation of
the Underlying Assumptions Behind the ‘New Consensus’,” unpublished manuscript,
University of Chicago.

Bishop, J. (1993b), Incentives to Study and the Organization of Secondary Instruction , (Working
Paper 93-08), Cornell University Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies.

Gamoran (1994).
Bishop (1993a).
Medrich & Vergun (1993).

Goodwin (1989).

Employment Outcomes 177 159


Volume Il

Rural districts are the least likely to require a concentration or sequencing of
courses and the most likely to have no definition of a completer. Many of these
districts are small and tend not to have fully developed vocational programs.
Urban districts, on the other hand, are the most likely to require concentration
and sequencing, and the least likely to lack a definition of a vocational completer.
Suburban programs fall in between.

If we regard course concentration in an occupational area as the minimum
necessary to prevare a vocational student for work, we can conclude that most
students have access to vocational programs that require at least the minimum
for program completion. Nevertheless, a significant minority of students (28%)
do not have such access, especially students in rural areas, where higher
proportions of students take vocational courses.

The Perkins Act sets a highe: standard than course concentration, however,
calling upon Title II recipients to develop coherent sequences of vocational and
academic courses. Only a third of the districts, serving about half of the students,
require a sequence of vocational courses. Among Title II funded districts, to
which the Perkins Act applies, 42 percent of districts including 55 percent of
students require a vocational sequence.

Thus, just under half of all secondary students lack access to programs that
require a sequence of vocational courses (47% of students in all regular districts,
45% in Title II funded districts). Clearly the proportions lacking access to a
coherent sequence of both academic and vocational courses are higher, although
we do not know how much higher. Thus it is evident that districts have
considerably more work to do in order to meet the Perkins standard for program
coherence.

PREPARING HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS FOR WORK

A key measure of the effectiveness of vocational programs is how well they
prepare students for work. Chapter 6 looks at the employment outcomes of
vocational education, but here we examine students’ own assessments of their
preparation.

Asa rule, students consider vocational courses more useful but less demanding
than academic courses. For example, among surveyed students taking specific
kinds of courses, 58 percent said their business/vocational courses were “very
useful”; 53 percent said the same of their English courses; 47 percent, their math
courses; 28 percent, their science courses; and 18 percent, their social studies
courses. In the same survey, 54 percent of students characterized their vocational
courses as “very easy,” while 31 percent characterized their English courses in
that way, and 23-26 percent, their science and math courses.!

c
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Volume II

Figure 1.3
Average Number of Credits Earned by High School Graduates, Overall
and in Academic, Vocational, and Personal Use Couz3es, 1969 to 1992

25

20

15

10

pep ttttt ltt HILL Millett sles dt (eee

0 T T T T T
1969 1975-78 1979-82 1982 1987 1990 1992

mun Total Academic sma Vocational ~~~ Personal Use

Sources: Muraskin (1993), 1990 NAEP, and 1992 NELS

large-scale changes in graduation requirements in the mid-1980s, so factors other
than academic reform seem to be involved (see Chapter 1 in Volume III for
further discussion of this issue).

Enrollment Trends Within Vocational Education

Vocational enrollments have declined in all three types of vocational courses —
general and specific labor market and consumer and homemaking courses (see
Appendix Figure A-1.2). In the early 1980s, the decline was largest for general
labor market courses, but recent declines have becn larger among specific labor
market courses.

30

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 9

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Volume IT

Overall Enrollments

Among high school graduates in 1992, the average student earned almost 25
credits, with 3.8 credits (16%) in vocational education. The distribution of student
credits in different course areas is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1
Average Number and Percent of Credits 1992 Graduates
Earned in Different Course Areas

Social Studies English (17.6%)
(15.1%)

Other Academic

(13.8%) Science (12.1%)

Mathematics (14.2%)
Vocational

(15.8%)

Personal Use (11.3%)

NOTE: “Other Academic” includes foreign languages, art, and music, among others. “Personal
Use” includes physical education, driver's education, and community service, among others.

Source: 1992 NELS

While the vast majority of students (97%) earned at least some credits in
vocational education, only one in four (24%) are vocational concentrators, and 8
percent are vocational specialists. One-third of the students (32%) appear to be
college bound,5 and almost one-half (46%) have an undefined or general
education program. Only 4 percent of students, or 17 percent of vocational
students, are both vocational and college prep. (The coursetaking patterns of
these student groups are discussed in Chapter 5.)

a
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When we think of traditional academic classes, we usually imagine a teacher in
front of the class lecturing, or students at their desks writing or taking tests.
When we imagine vocational classes, we may imagine students working at some
occupational task, whether styling hair or working on a car engine, with the
teacher moving around the room monitoring student activities, providing advice
and instruction as needed. To what extent are the activities repovted in our
survey classes consistent with these images?

First, let us look at some classroom activities traditionally regarded as
“academic,” especially those involving verbal instruction and students’ use of
pencils and paper. Such activities include lectures, in-class writing assignments,
and tests or quizzes. The survey data indicate that the occurrence of these
activities in academic and vocational classes does not conform to the popular
image of vocational education as strictly “hands-on” instruction.

Lectures were very common in both academic and vocational classes, occurring
in around three-quarters of the classes. Surprisingly, they were most common in
the vocational schools. Some 83 percent of the classes in vocational schools (and
incidentally, the same proportion of trade and industry classes) involve lectures,
though that is not the only activity that occurs.

In-class writing assignments were also fairly common in both types of classes.
Vocational classes were less likely than academic classes to require students to
write a paragraph or more, but the difference (42% versus 54%) was not
dramatic. Tests or quizzes occurred about as frequently as writing assignments,
in a little over 40 percent of both academic and vocational classes. Again, we find
more of this traditional “academic” activity in vocational high schools (58%) than
in academic classes (42%).

Of course, the survey data cannot tell us whether the lectures were interesting or
boring, the writing assignments basic or advanced, the tests difficult or easy.
However, the evidence here indicates that these traditional “academic” activities
occur at rather similar rates in academic and vocational classes, and that classes
in vocational schools especially have more of them than one might expect.

It should be emphasized that these are not the only teaching activities that occur
in classes. The longer classes in area vocational schools especially allow for a
wide range of activities. Our case studies and site visits provide many examples
of vocational classes beginning with a lecture and then proceeding to work on
occupational projects.

“Hands-on” activities are usually regarded as the domain of vocational
education, and here the data do support the prevalent view. The survey asked
questions about the use of computers and of instruments, tools, and equipment
in the classroom. Although the use of computers for written communication,
mathematical calculations, and the like would seem to be a logical part of

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The Effect of Matching on Employment. Matching training and jobs also appears to
reduce unemployment. Using data from the 1990 SIPP, Medrich and Vergun found
that during a 91-week period, 76.5 percent of vocational education graduates with a
job related to the field of study were employed for the entire period, as compared
with 64 percent of those whose jobs did not match their coursework. Goodwin also
found a lower incidence of unemployment among those who had a match between
jobs and schooling.

The Effect of Matching on Wages. Medrich and Vergun found higher wages for
postsecondary students 18-34 years old with vocational degrees and job-training
matches (compared with degree completers who did not find a job that matched
their training). Breaking earnings. into three categories (less than $900 per month,
$900-2,000 per month, and greater than $2,000 per month), they report that 7 percent
of those with a match earned less than $900 a month, and 15 percent of those
without a match earned less than $900. At the upper end of the distribution, 62
percent of those who had achieved a match earned at least $2,000 a month, whereas
only 54 percent of those who did not find a match realized such earnings.

Atall levels of vocational training, Medrich and Vergun found that women were less
likely than men to have earnings over $2,000 a month. Yet, for full-time employed
females, 59 percent with a field of study and job match earned over $2,000 a month,
whereas only 31 percent of women without a matched job received that level of
compensation. Using multivariate analysis, Goodwin also found that the more one’s
training is related to one’s job, the higher the wages. (See the next section.)

Concentration of Coursework

It appears that benefits from vocational training are positively correlated with the
amount of training received and the coherence of the program. The positive returns
to taking additional courses in a single subject area include increased earnings and
decreased unemployment. In Goodwin’s study of individuals with postsecondary
vocational training (using data from the senior cohort of HSB),a higher level of
coursetaking in the vocational major was associated with a significantly lower
incidence of unemployment and a greater probability of being employed in one’s
chosen field.

Goodwin reports that students who took less than 12 vocational credits were

28 percent more likely to be unemployed than those who took more than 30 credits.
As the number of credits in the field of concentration increased, the unemployment
rate decreased from 20.5 percent for individuals with only a few credits to 16 percent
for those with 30 credits. Each additional 30 credits (i.e., a full year of coursework)
lowered unemployment by 6 percent. This analysis found that vocational subject
credits taken outside of the major field of study do not contribute to a lower
incidence of unemployment.

Employment Outcomes

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schooling that does not lead to a credential are just slightly less positive than the
effects of completing a certificate program.

With data from NLS72, Grubb again finds that, for men, vocational credits in
community colleges, but not in technical or proprietary schools, significantly
increase wages and earnings. Unlike vocational credits, academic credits do not
significantly improve outcomes. He reports just the opposite for women; academic
credits significantly increase wages and earnings whereas vocational credits confer
no benefits.

The results of this work suggest that there are positive, but erratic, employment
outcomes to limited college coursework, but that the benefits depend upon the kind
of credits completed as well as the type of institution in which those credits are
earned.

Level of Degree

The level of the degree attained also appears to affect the economic outcomes of
vocational students. Medrich and Vergun find that a larger proportion of those with
a baccalaureate degree or higher, compared with an associate’s degree or vocational
certificate, have high earnings (over $2,000 per month).

Like Medrich and Vergun, Grubb*” concludes that the strongest effects of
completing a degree are at the baccalaureate level. He estimates that for vocational
credits from a four-year institution, each related credit increases earnings by $241,
after controlling for other variables.

For women, Grubb reported a different pattern. The baccalaureate degree still carries
the highest return, increasing earnings by almost 50 percent, when compared to high
school diplomas for women. However, both certificates and associate’s degrees also
increase wages significantly for women, relative to earnings of womeni with a high
school diploma.

Field of Study

Just as the benefits of certain types of baccalaureate credentials yield higher benefits
than others, one would expect to see differing economic returns according to sub-
baccalaureate credentials. In his analysis of both the NLS72 and the SIPP, Grubb
finds that the returns to vocational education vary substantially with field of study.
For men, he finds positive effects of associate's degrees largely in gaining access to
careers in the health and technical fields. He also finds that public service and trade
and industry credentials have positive effects. For women, he finds increased
earnings from business and health-related fields, as well as from technical associate's
degrees. For other fields of study, including academic subjects, he finds no
statistically significant returns.

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e — At the secondary level, potential dropouts who take vocational courses
probably improve their chances of staying in school and derive benefits
from finishing high school.

The research findings on the employment outcomes of secondary vocational
education in general are mixed. One thing is clear, however: The research
does not show that vocational students have a clear, consistent, and sizable
labor market advantage over general track students. The debate over whether
vocational students do a little better than general students, or about the same,
should not obscure the larger fact that, on average, high school graduates
with no postsecondary education are doing poorly in the labor market (see
the introduction to this volume). Without a large difference between the
outcomes of vocational and general track students, we must conclude that for
most participants, neither program is working very well. However, as we
have seen, some students do derive benefits from vocational education. The
conclusion to Volume I outlines a strategy for reforming both types of
education, while retaining vocational programs for those most likely to
benefit from them.

Outcomes of Academic Coursetaking

* Likewise, this research consistently shows that for secondary students
not continuing on to college, additional academic coursework, compared
with general studies, yields small positive improvements in wages in the
short run with larger gains appearing over a longer period of time.
Employment outcomes show a larger, more consistent gain, in both the
short and long term, for those. students who complete more academic
courses.

¢ For all students, additiona’ years of education pay off with improved
employment outcomes. Returns, as measured by wages and
employment status, are highest for those with baccalaureate degrees,
followed by two-year degrees, certificates, some postsecondary
coursework, and completion of a high school degree.

Outcomes of Tested Skills

General cognitive abilities and broad technical skills, which include a sizable
cognitive component, are strongly related to a variety of employment
outcomes.

The strength of the associations between tested skills and employment
outcomes suggests the need for competency-based approach to education.
The progress of individuals and the success of programs should be
assessed in terms of the skills students acquire rather than the courses they
take and complete.

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Volume I]

This exclusion appears to be a long-standing characteristic of Perkins funding.
According to state administrators, in 1990-91 special schools (or special districts)
were ineligible for Perkins funds in 19 states. Since the implementation of the
1990 Perkins Act, slightly more states have considered these schools ineligible for
funds (23 in 1991-92, 21 ir 1992-93). This relatively widespread ineligibility for
schools that serve special population students exclusively seems inconsistent
with the Perkins Act’s emphasis on improving access to vocational education and
serving those with special needs.

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

Vocational education participation for different types of students, including
special population students, is summarized in Table 1.4. As discussed below,
these data show that special population students take more vocational education
than other students. As a result, while 34 percent of the graduating class of 1992
were special population students (disabled, disadvantaged, or LEP), 43 percent
of the vocational credits earned by this class were earned by special population
students.

Enrollments by Sex and Race. Boys earn slightly more vocational credits than
girls do, but because girls earn more of their vocational credits in consumer and
homemaking education, boys earn notably more occupational credits. This
difference is only partially explained by girls’ slightly greater enrollment in the
college-prep track. Evidently girls do not prepare for labor market work to the
same extent as boys do. .

The pattern of vocational coursetaking also varies among racial/ethnic groups.
Black and Native American students earn more vocational credits than other
student groups; whites and Hispanics earn average amounts of vocational
credits; and Asian students earn fewer vocational credits than other students.
(Black students’ higher level of coursetaking is confined mainly to the non-
occupational consumer and homemaking courses.) Again, the college orientation
of each of these groups explains some, but not all, of these differences.

Enrollments by Special Population Status. Ir general, special population
students earn more vocational credits than their “non-special” peers. LEP
students’ greater vocational coursetaking is mainly confined to occupational
courses, and reflects to some extent the provision of work preparation courses
specifically designed for these students. In contrast, disabled and disadvantaged
students, while earning more occupational credits than non-disabled and
non-disadvantaged students, also earn more credits in consumer and
homemaking courses. Disabled and disadvantaged students may be referred to
these courses in an effort to improve their general life skills, but this emphasis
may come at the expense of academic or advanced occupational coursetaking.

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Volume II

CHAPTER 7
EMPLOYER INVOLVEMENT AND SATISFACTION

INTRODUCTION

The Perkins Act calls for an assessment of “employer involvement in and
satisfaction with, vocational education programs.”! This chapter examines
employers’ opinions of vocational programs and some of the ways employers
interact with them. The degree of employer satisfaction with vocational
education is an important measure of its quality, and as such, it is relevant to the
discussion of quality in Chapters 5 and 6. In addition to the Perkins Act, the
School-to-Work Opportunities Act and the broad policy interest in the school-to-
work transition suggest that it would also be a good idea to examine employer
involvement in, and satisfaction with, work experience programs such as co-op
and apprenticeship.

The National Assessment of Vocational Education conducted a survey of
employers to learn more about their knowledge and involvement with public
vocational and technical programs. The survey included a nationaily
representative sample of business establishments employing at least 10 people
across the range of major industries. (See the Technical Appendix in Volume V
for information on survey design and methodology.)

The intent of the survey was to provide national-level estimates of employer
knowledge and opinions. Slightly more than half of the establishments contacted
responded to the survey (the corrected response rate was 55%). Although this
response rate is higher than average for surveys of employers, it is still lower
than what is normally required for generating national-level estimates.? This
being the case, a cautious yet useful way to characterize the findings from these
data is that they provide important information about the views of the nearly
2,800 employers who did respond to the survey, but may not represent the views
of the entire universe of employers, since there may be biases in the data
resulting from this low response rate. In sum, although the data represent
employers who chose to respond to the survey, the information collected, if
interpreted with care, can provide policymakers and employers with useful
insights.

EMPLOYER FAMILIARITY WITH VOCATIONAL PROGRAMS

A principal objective of the employer survey was to determine how much
knowledge business establishments have about local vocational and technical
programs in the areas from which they hire (within a 25-mile radius). Some 40
percent of the responding employers said they were not familiar with any

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The point here is not that vocational students are less serious than others — for
one thing, they are more likely to hold jobs while in high school. (For example,
71 percent of the vocational specialists in the 1992 NELS reported having jobs, as
compared to 52 percent of college-prep students.) The point is that students in
general, and especially those in vocational programs seem to have the time
outside of school to do more homework than they are doing. We know that
homework improves academic performance, and it is a reasonable guess that it
improves performance in vocational courses as well. These considerations
suggest that vocational teachers should assign their students more homework.

It is possible that increasing the amount of homework in vocational education
would cause some margina! students to drop out of school. Part of the appeal of
vocational courses seems to be that on average, they are regarded as easier than
academic courses. Some students have told us they were staying in school
because vocational education offered them an easier alternative than academics
and because it required no homework.

This apparent tradeoff between homework and the chances of dropping out is
part of a larger problem: If schools increase their expectations of students, some
will not be willing or able to meet the expectations. While it is worthwhile trying
to keep marginal students in school, we think that often too little is asked of
students; that high but realistic expectations in interesting classes can help keep
students in school; and that vocational programs should increase the amount of
homework required of most students.

Factors in Teacher Grading Decisions

The factors that affect secondary students’ grades are important because they
reflect many of the underlying values in the classroom. They indicate what the
teacher, and the educational system, value in student performance. The Teacher
Survey asked teachers how much each of 18 different factors contributed to the
grades of students in their classes. There are three types of factors: traditional
academic skills, SCANS skills, and traditional vocational skills. The SCANS
skills, designed by the Labor Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary
Skills to prepare students for an internationally competitive workforce, are
described in Appendix 4-A.

Vocational teachers are most likely to consider specific occupational skills and
work readiness skills, such as general employability, self-management, and
completing work on time, important in their grading decisions (Appendix Table
A-4.3), Certain SCANS workplace competencies — ability to use technology,
teamwork, and understanding systems — occupy a middle position in grading
decisions.

The proportions of vocational teachers emphasizing academics vary widely,
depending on the type of skills in question. Just under half of the teachers

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Table A-1.3
Percent of Administrators Reporting Problems for Vocational Education
in Their Districts (and Rank)

Regular Districts | Vocational Districts

Funds for vocational classroom 58 (1) 71 (2)
support

Finding vocational teachers trained to 45 (2) 73 (1)
instruct special needs students

Maintaining vocational enroliments 45 (2) 64 (4)

Equipment or facilities for vocational 45 (2) 54 (7)
education

Image of vocational education among 39 (5) 68 (3)
students and parents

Knowledge of relevant trends in 34 (6) 25 (11)
industry

Finding vocational teachers with 33 (7) 60 (5)
ability to provide needed academic
instruction

Support services for vocational special 26 (8) 32 (8)
needs or special population
students

Finding vocational teachers with 25 (9) 56 (6)
training in teaching methods

Image of vocational education among 24 (10) 34 (8)
business community

Finding vocational teachers with 23 (11) 32 (9)
appropriate vocational knowledge
and skills

Recruiting special needs students to 19 (12) 13 (12)

vocational education

NOTE: See Table A-1.2 for explanation of the ranking system.

Source: Omnibus Surveys, Districts B and Vocational

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Volume II

methodological shortcomings or are presented in too little detail to evaluate, but
they should not be discounted entirely. On balance, vocational education seems
to reduce dropout rates, but we do not regard the issue as closed.

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

Educational attainment refers to the years of schooling a student completes and
the degrees or certificates he or she earns. In this case we are interested in how
vocational education affects students’ chances of attending postsecondary
institutions and the amount of education they receive.

Secondary vocational education is usually regarded as a terminal program;
vocational students are assumed to be going to work after high school rather
than to postsecondary education. Indeed, vocational students are less likely than
their academic counterparts to enroll in postsecondary institutions, but the
number who do is still substantial, as we will see shortly.

Postsecondary education is becoming ever more important in preparing people
for work. The skill demands of the workplace are growing; the economic
premium on postsecondary education is increasing; and the economic gains from
high school education are decreasing. Given the current structure and content of
secondary education, the time when a high school diploma, with or without
vocational training, was sufficient preparation for work other than the entry level
of low-wage jobs has long since passed.

High school students, including those in vocational education, understand this.
As we saw in Chapter 4, the great majority of high school seniors in the NELS,
whether vocational students or other, said they did not have the skills needed for
the job they expected to have five years after graduation. Of those who believed
they lacked the necessary skills, the majority said they needed some form of
postsecondary education.

Many vocational students say they plan to enroll in postsecondary institutions. In
the 1992 NELS Followup, some 54 percent of the vocational concentrators and 36
percent of the vocational specialists said, as seniors, that they planned to enroll in
postsecondary institutions the following year.

Expectations such as these are often inflated, but in fact a substantial number of
vocational students do attain some postsecondary education and have done so
for many years. Analyses of postsecondary behavior of high school students
reviewed by Kulik provide data on this point (see Table 5.5).

Between 14 percent and 26 percent of vocational students enrolled in two-year or
four-year colleges within 18 months of graduating from high school, according to
estimates by Creech et al.2! and Hilton. The percentages of vocational students
obtaining some form of postsecondary education, whether in colleges or

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Table 7.2
Percent of Employers Familiar With Vocational Programs,
by Establishment Size

Total Number of Employees

Less Over All
Program Level Than 50 | 50-249 | 250-999 |} 1,000 | Establishments
Secondary 42 44 50 69 43
Postsecondary 46 56 73 82 49

Source: National Assessment Employer Survey

Familiarity by Workplace Model

To test the hypothesis that establishments that have moved toward a high-
performance workplace model are more interested in vocational students than
those still using traditional workplace methods, employers were asked a series of
questions to ascertain if and to what extent their establishment had been engaged
in reorganization. Information on eight kinds of activities, such as the use of self-
managed teams and employee profit sharing, was collected. The results are
summarized in Table 7.3, which shows employer familiarity with vocational
programs by the number of steps taken toward workplace reorganization.

Establishments already engaged in the process of workplace transformation are
more familiar with vocational and technical programs than are those still using
traditional workplace models. This finding is most pronounced for
postsecondary programs. For employers that indicated taking four or more steps
toward reorganization, 63 percent were familiar with postsecondary programs.
In contrast, only 33 percent of establishments that said they had taken no steps
toward reorganization indicated familiarity with vocational programs. To some
extent, this variation may be due to employer size, because high-performance
establishments also tend to be large.

EMPLOYER ROLES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Employers familiar with vocational education were asked to indicate their
involvement in 12 specific activities related to vocational education, such as
participating in advisory councils, providing work-based learning, and devising
customized employee training. Over half (53 percent) of these employers
indicated involvement in one or more activities related to vocational or technical
training (see Table 7.4).

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Figure 2.1
Proportion of Vocational Students Enrolled in Each Type of
Postsecondary Institution, 1989-90

Public 2-Year

Public 4-Year

Private 4-Year

Proprietary

Private 2-Year

Vocational-
Technical

ON8 HO @

Source: Tuma (1993)

ACLESS TO POSTSECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Access to postsecondary education depends largely on three factors: physical
access (the number and location of institutions), intellectual access (prior
preparation), and financial access (affordability). For students with special needs,
access is also affected by the availability of the supplemental services or
programs they require.

Access to Institutions

Since most postsecondary vocational education occurs in sub-baccalaureate
institutions, the availability of these institutions largely determines students’
physical access to it. In 1989, there were 1,408 sub-baccalaureate institutions
(including branch campuses). This is a 5 percent increase from the 1,336
institutions that existed in 1986.2

Although more institutions imply increased access, postsecondary enrollments
increased even more over the same period. This means that institutions must be
expanding program sizes and offerings. It is difficult to say to what extent these
expansions are keeping pace with demand, but the Community Case Studies
suggest that postsecondary institutions are quite flexible in their response to
student demand — with one exception. There is some evidence that the growing

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Figure 4.3
Student Perceptions of Emphasis in Vocational Courses
(Percent Reporting “Major” Emphasis)
, lt I ]
16: College Prep
Helping understand 3h Students
how science and math 3
are used in work 4 General Track
0) Students
Vocational
Concentrators
22
Thinking about the ‘) Vocational
meaning of a problem Specialists
and ways to solve it 46
14
. 13
Helping understand
math/science through
use of tools, machines 40
lab equipment, etc.
si t3
Teaching facts, Se |
rules, steps = 63
9)
T T T T T T T
0 10 2 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of Students
Source: 1992 NELS

OTHER ASPECTS OF VOCATIONAL CLASSES

Homework

The assignment of homework is a traditional way of increasing thé amount of
time students spend ona subject, and there is research evidence that homework
improves students’ performance in school. ? For this reason, we assessed the
extent to which homework is assigned in academic and vocational classes. The
Teacher Survey asked teachers about the amount and kind of homework they
gave their students. Table 4.5 shows the responses.

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CHAPTER 3

TEACHERS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

The Perkins Act calls for an assessment of “the preparation and qualifications of
teachers of vocational and academic curricula.”! This chapter discusses the
qualifications of teachers in secondary and postsecondary institutions, using
measures of preparedness such as teaching experience, education credentials,
nonteaching work experience, and occupational credentials. It examines opinion
data from a survey of secondary teachers on their preparation to teach academic
and vocational subjects. It also discusses vocational teacher education in colleges
and universities. Throughout, the chapter assesses teacher preparation from the
standpoint of the Perkins mandate to integrate academic and vocational
curricula.

In a final section, the chapter addresses the question of whether there are any
shortages of secondary vocational teachers, consistent with the Perkins mandaie
for this assessment.2

SECONDARY EDUCATION

The data on the characteristics, experiences, and opinions of secondary teachers
come from the 1992-93 National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher
Survey and from the Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS) of 1987-88 and
1990-91. The populations surveyed were teachers in grades 9-12 in public
schools. The populations are similar in many ways, but differ in that the
vocational teachers in the Teacher Survey are those in vocational courses
specifically designed to prepare students for occupations, while the SASS
includes teachers of all vocational courses.3 (These surveys are described in more
detail in the Technical Appendix in Volume V.)

Before discussing the preparation and qualifications of vocational teachers, it will
be useful to look at some background information, including their numbers, their
distribution across program areas, and their demographic characteristics.

Based on the SASS, in 1990-91 the number of vocational teachers in the nation’s
secondary schools was estimated at 146,000. This represents a 9 percent decline
from 160,000 in 1987-88. Over the same period, the number of non-vocational
teachers increased 7 percent, from 667,000 to 714,000. Paralleling vocational
student enrollments, the numbers of vocational teachers are decreasing both
absolutely and as a proportion of all teachers.

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Table 1.2
Percent of Graduates Earning Vocational Credits, and Average Number of
Credits Earned, by Vocational Program Areas, 1982 to 1992

Trade
Occup. and
Agriculture | Business Marketing| Health | Home Ec. Industry | Technical
Percent of
students
earning any
credits
1982 10 53 9 5 11 40 13
1987 8 54 9 5 au 38 25
1990 9 55 9 3 10 36 26
1992 10 56 8 4 rl 35 23
Percent of
students
earning at least
3 credits
1982 3 12 1 2 2 15 <1
1987 3 11 1 2 2 13 1
1990 3 9 1 2 2 12 <1
1992 3 8 2 1 2 10 1
Average
number of
credits earned
1982 21 1.03 16 05 17 1.06 All
1987 19 97 16 07 19 96 24
1990 .20 90 16 04 7 87 22
1992 19 85 13 06 18 79 22
Sources: 1982 HSB, 1987 NAEP, 1990 NAEP, and 1992 NELS
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A review of the literature on teacher supply and demand conducted for the
Nationa! Assessment by Henke finds no present or likely future shortages of
vocational teachers:

The existing literature offer: no evidence of a national teacher
shortage in the fields that have been studied, although regional and
local shortages may exist in particular fields. . .. Furthermore,
despite the declining number of vocational education teacher
training programs, . . . no extant data or projections justify the
concerns some have raised regarding future shortages of vocational
education teachers. Because teacher attrition generally has declined
in recent years and enrollments at both the secondary and
postsecondary levels are not expected to increase dramatically in
the next decade, the likelihood of significant vocational education
teacher shortages seems small indeed.?3

Nevertheless, the review notes two possible developments that could contribute
to vocational teacher shortages in the future. First, the recent wave of
occupationally oriented reforms in secondary education — the emphasis on
workforce preparation and the school-to-work transition — could increase the
demand for vocational teachers. (See Chapter 1, Volume III for a discussion of
these reforms.) Second, low morale among vocational teachers and
dissatisfaction with having to teach students whose achievement levels are
decreasing over time may reduce the supply. (See Chapter 1 of this volume.)

hese two possible developments are unlikely to go hand in hand, but they could
occur at the same time in different locations.

While one cannot discount the possibility that there may be vocational teacher
shortages in the future, no systematic data suggest that this will occur.

CONCLUSION

The field of secondary vocational teaching faces some significant problems.
Paralleling student enrollments, the numbers of vocational teachers are
declining, while the numbers of other teachers are increasing. College and
university programs in vocational teacher education are being cut back,
evidently in response to reduced demand. Hence, there is no evidence of any
shortage of vocational teachers.

Secondary vocational teachers tend to have less formal education than others, but
they have more related occupational experience and credentials. This emphasis
on occupational experience in lieu of formal education is concentrated in trade
and industrial education, where it has been guided by state policies in a tradition
going back to the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917.

Teachers in Vocational Education

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Volume I

these activities at any level (1-5), at a moderate level ,3-5), and at a high level (4-
5) is shown in Tables A.1 and A.2 in the Appendix for this introduction.

Thirty-eight percent of business establishments with 50 or more employees are
engaged in at least four of these eight workplace transformation activities at
some level; 31 percent are engaged at a moderate level; and 18 percent are
engaged at a high level.

Large and mid-sized firms (those with 250 or more employees) are the most
likely to report restructuring activities, as are manufacturing firms. Smaller,
service-oriented firms are the least likely to be involved in this transformation.

Together, these data suggest that high-performance workplaces have become
more prevalent since the late 1980s and that they now comprise a significant
portion of American businesses. Still, a note of caution is in order. Surveys are a
good way to generate national estimates, but they cannot capture the depth of
detail and complexity that characterize specitic organizations (or people, for that
matter). To understand what the survey data represent, it is useful to
complement them with case studies or other qualitative approaches. Until we
have data from research that combines quantitative and qualitative methods,
conclusions about the prevalence of the high-performance workplace must
remain tentative.

Technological Change

The third, but by no means least important, factor affecting the skill requirements
of the workplace is technological change. While the introduction of new
technology is an old story, today’s technology is becoming ever more pervasive
and sophisticated. Especially dramatic has been the proliferation of computers
and telecommunications equipment.

As McCormick and Holmes? observe, many industries have been transformed by
the infusion of computer technology into their production and services. In some
cases this has led to dramatic increases in productivity. For example, the use of
computer-assisted design (CAD) technology is estimated to have increased
productivity in drafting at least six-fold as compared to traditional methods. In
one manufacturing firm, the combination of CAD, numerically controlled
machine tools, robotics, and automated delivery and transport systems reduced
the production cycle for locomotives from 16 days to 16 hours.

The insurance industry now routinely uses computerized underwriting software.
Auto mechanics use computerized diagnostic equipment. In agriculture,
computers assist with herd management, crop rotation, and pest control. In many
businesses and offices, of course, computers are now essential for word
processing, financial management, sales information, and a wide range of other
applications.

X Introduction
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Teachers in Vocational Program Areas

The percentage of occupational vocational education teachers in each of the main
program areas is shown in Table 3.1. Business education is the largest field,
followed by trade and industry. Together, these two fields comprise over half of
all secondary vocational teachers. Home economics teachers who prepare
students for occupations make up 14 percent of the total; each of the other
specific fields accounts for less than 10 percent.

Table 3.1
Distribution of Secondary Vocational Teachers by Vocational Program Area

Percent of

Program Area Teachers in Area
Agricultural education 9
Business and office 33
Health occupations 3
Marketing/distributive education 4
Home economics 14
Trade and industrial education 20
Technical/communication 3
Other 12

NOTE: Numbers do not add to 100 because of rounding.

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

Some of these vocational education programs tend to be offered primarily in
comprehensive high schools, others primarily in vocational schools, and still
others in similar proportions in both kinds of schools. Three programs —
business and office education, home economics, and technology education (not
shown separately above) — are located primarily in comprehensive high schools.
Until the 1960s, business and office courses were not usually classified as
vocational education; rather, they formed the core of the “commercial” track in
many regular public high schools. Beginning in the 1960s, business programs
were often incorporated in the vocational education system, but they tended to
remain in comprehensive high schools. Home economics and technology
education (successor to the traditional industrial arts courses) were also familiar

62 8 d Teachers in Vocational Education



Volume IL

Most states do require from 16 to 200 hours of pedagogical preparation in the
first year of teaching, typically obtained through workshops or college courses.
Many states also require licensure in occupations such as cosmetology, health
technologies, plumbing, and auto mechanics. In addition, 12 to 18 states require
individuals within the first year of teaching, or preservize teachers lacking work
experience, to pass National Occupational Competency Testing Institute
(NOCTI) tests.6

Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Abilities

To get teachers’ opinions of their preparation to teach, especially in the context of
integrated academic/ vocational curricula, we asked survey respondents how
well prepared they felt to teach various academic and occupational subjects.
Since these are self-reports, we assume that the respondents gave themselves the
benefit of the doubt in assessing their own abilities. Thus we focus on those who
said they are “very well prepared” to teach a subject, assuming that response
reflects a good grasp of te subject.

The results of these self-assessments are shown in Tables 3.4 and 3.5. Vocational
teachers are more likely to say they are very well prepared to teach writing (31%)
than to teach basic algebra (19%) or math beyond basic algebra (10%). However,
vocational teachers are not as likely as academic teachers to feel prepared to
teach any of these subjects. The comparable proportions for academic teachers
are writing, 49 percent; basic algebra, 38 percent; math beyond basic algebra, 30
percent.

Viewed by subject area, the pattern is different. Academic teachers tend to say
they know their own subjects, but not other areas. For example, all math teachers
say they are prepared to teach basic algebra, but only 12 percent say they are
prepared to teach writing; 89 percent of English teachers say they are prepared to
teach writing, but only 2 percent say they are prepared to teach basic algebra. In
contrast, some vocational teachers in each program area report being able to
teach academic subjects. For example, between one-fourth and one-sixth of
vocational teachers, depending on program area, say they could teach basic
algebra. Between one-fifth and two-fifths report being able to teach writing.
While a significant minority of vocational teachers feel that they could teach
academic subjects, a smaller minority of academic teachers — 12 percent over all
— say that they could teach occupational principles. Judging by these
self-reports, there is probably enough knowledge on each side to begin
integrating academic and vocational education, but much more preparation will
be needed in the long run.

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Employer Roles in Vocational Education. 163
Employer Perceptions of Quality.
Employer Opinions of Work Experience

Endnotes...

CHAPTER APPENDICES A-1



Volume II

Using class time spent on a subject as a measure of course content, there seems to
be enough academic course content in vocational courses and (barely) enough
occupational emphasis in academic classes to begin the process of integration.
The present level of cross-curricular knowledge is compatible with an integrative
approach that might designate academic courses as specific prerequisites for
vocational courses, or with some limited amount of team teaching. However, a
good deal more cross-curricular knowledge would be necessary, especially on
the academic side, for integrated education that involved large-scale
restructuring and a large portion of the student body. These findings reinforce
the recommendation in Chapter 3 that both academic and vocational teachers be

prepared to teach in integrated context, wherever large-scale restructuring is
planned.

Applied Academics in Vocational Education

Applied academics are an important element in the integration of academic and
vocational curricula. By the early 1990s, they were becoming a fairly standard
part of many secondary vocational education programs. As of 1993, virtually all
states (98%) were helping districts purchase applied academic materials from
commercial vendors, and two-thirds of the secondary districts had purchased
such materials for themselves (see Chapter 4, Volume II]).

Vocational students in the 1992 NELS Followup also report the use of applied
academic methods in vocational classes. Based on their coursetaking patterns, the
respondents are categorized as college preparatory students, general track
students, vocational concentrators (those taking three or more courses in an
occupational subject), and vocational specialists (those taking four or more
courses in an occupational subject, at least two of which are advanced courses).”
Figure 4.3 shows the proportions of seniors who say their vocational classes place
major emphasis on applied academics and on a more traditional teaching
approach.

Vocational students, particularly the specialists, are the most likely to report that
their vocational courses place major emphasis on some forms of applied learning
— in utis instance (a) helping st-idents understand how scientific ideas and
mathematics are used in work; (b) thinking about what a problem means and the
ways it might be solved; and (c) helping students understand mathematical and
scientific ideas through the use of tools, machines, lab equipment, and so on. It
seems that there is a substantial emphasis on applied academics in the more
advanced vocational courses.

The vocational students are also the most likely to report that their current or
most recent vocational classes place major emphasis on “facts, rules, and steps,”
the kind of rote learning that many education researchers think is not very
effective (see Chapter 4, Volume II). Nevertheless, this type of instruction may
be a necessary part of some vocational courses.

Progr t Requirements aud Courses in Secondary Vocational tts" 97

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In comprehensive high schools, the education levels of academic and vocational
teachers are rather similar, in most cases reflecting common certification
requirements. However, teachers in vocational schools have considerably less
formal education. While all academic teachers have bachelor’s degrees, only 64
percent of the teachers in vocational schools do. While 60 percent of academic
teachers have degrees above bachelor’s, only 33 percent of the teachers in
vocational schools have this much education.

For many vocational teachers, outside work experience related to the teaching
field seems to replace higher levels of formal education and to provide much of
their subject-matter expertise. Vocational teachers are much more likely than
academic teachers to have related work experience. While only 19 percent of
academic teachers have such experience, 66 percent of all vocational teachers and
78 percent of those in vocational schools have related work experience.

Moreover, the work experience of vocational teachers, and particularly those in
vocational high schools, is more recent than that of academic teachers. Between
1990 and 1992, for example, 7 percent of academic teachers, one-fifth of all
vocational teachers, and one-third of those in vocational schools had (or have)
jobs in fields related to their teaching.> Because the survey measures only work
experience related to teaching field, we cannot conclude that academic teachers
have little work experience outside of teaching; no doubt many have unrelated
jobs.

Only 23 percent of secondary vocational teachers have (nonteaching)
occupational licenses or certificates; that is one-third of the 66 percent who have
occupational experience related to their teaching field. However, this low level of
licensing and certification is not necessarily a problem. All but 2 percent of
vocational teachers (4% of those in vocational schools) have at least an associate’s
degree or occupational certification.

Credentials and Work Experience in Trade and Industrial Education

The tendency for vocational teachers to have less education and more work
experience than academic teachers is heavily concentrated in trade and industrial
education, although most business / marketing teachers also have related work
experience, as Figure 3.1 shows.®

Some 45 percent of trade and industry teachers have less than a bachelor’s
degree, while in other vocational fields few teachers have this little education.
However, T&I teachers are the most likely to have related occupational
experience. In fact, they have more than twice as much experience as other
vocational teachers, on average, 17 years as compared to 8 years. (Figure 3.1
shows that business/marketing teachers are almost as likely as T&I teachers to
have some related work experience, but it does not show how many years of
experience they have.) Trade and industry teachers are also more likely to have

66

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Figure A-1.2
Average Number of Credits Earned in the Vocational Curricular Areas,
1969 to 1992
6
5
4 = a
a P
3 =) —
1]
2
‘ SS}
0 T T T T T
1969 1975-78 1979-82 1982 3987 1990 1992
—— All Vocational
—& Specific Labor Market
-—@— General Labor Market
—@— Consumer/Homemaking

Sources: Muraskin (1993), 1990 NAEP, 1992 NELS

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume IT

Table 4.4
Computers Used in Most Recent Class, by Subject Area
Percent of Percent of

Vocational Subjects Classes _| Academic Subjects Classes
Agricultural education 20 English 7
Business and office 54 Mathematics 15
Health occupations 19 Science 13
Marketing/distributive education 32 Social studies 3
Home economics 15 Foreign language 10
Trade and industrial education 37

Technical/communications 84

Technology education/industrial arts 46

All vocational 40 All academic 13

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

Data from the 1992 NELS Followup show that business and technical students
take more computer courses than other students (see Appendix Table A-4.1).
Some 72 percent of technical/communications students have taken at least one
semester of computer science, as have 63 percent of business students. The
proportions in other vocational fields range from 16 to 27 percent.> Moreover, a
recent study by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement has found that business education not only trains many students in
computer use, but involves a range of computer applications, including word
processing, programming, spreadsheets, and data analysis, among other things.®

We concur with the National Commission on Excellence in Education in
recommending that every high school graduate be required to have at least one
semester of computer training. We think that vocational education, and

especially business programs, are positioned to provide the bulk of the training
in this field.

POTENTIAL FOR ACADEMIC/VOCATIONAL INTEGRATION

Cross-Curricular Content

The emphasis of the 1989 National Assessment on using vocational education in
part as a vehicle for academic instruction, the 1990 Perkins Act’s emphasis on
academics in vocational programs, and the broad emphasis in both documents
on integrating academic and vocational education raise empirical questions

Program Requirements and Cow

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likely that they [receive] instruction in integrating basic skills with
vocational education. !9

Lynch notes that other researchers have also concluded that “vocational

education teachers are not prepared to teach basic skills in integrated education
programs.”

Informing Prospective Teachers About Perkins Reforms

Postsecondary institutions providing preservice education for vocational
teachers have begun to take some steps to inform students about the Perkins Act.
Information from 20 universities affiliated with the University Council on
Vocational Education indicates that most institutions are working within existing
courses to increase awareness of integration and tech prep. These efforts typically
involve the use of video and printed materials, guest speakers, field trips,
teleconferences, and applied academics materials. A few universities have
developed credit courses in integration and tech prep.

Whether these changes do more than scratch the surface, however, is open to
question. One participant in a tech-prep focus group of state administrators of
vocational education observed that:

Nothing is being done at the university level. At every conference I
go to, I ask how many people in the audience [are involved in tech
prep]; they are just not involved. On a preservice basis, it’s business
as usual.... They don’t even know what we are talking about
when we say tech prep.20

Postsecondary institutions with preservice vocational programs seem to be more
active in promoting work experience and links with employers. Most have co-op
or other work experience programs. Five of the 20 universities affiliated with the
University Council on Vocational Education have new courses on apprenticeship,
education-labor force linkages, or work-based education programs. Six others have
infused school-to-work transition issues in their work experience programs.?!

Useful as this information may be, however, it will not provide the solid
academic base that prospective vocational teachers need to help integrate
curricula in high schools. That will require a reconsideration of the college
graduation requirements for these students.

THE DEMAND FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TEACHERS

The Perkins Act, as noted earlier, calls for an assessment of the “shortages” of
vocational and academic teachers. Table 3.8 addresses this question with SASS

Teachers in Vocational Education 77



Volume II

These findings contrast withthe business-community’s negative opinion of the
quality of high school graduates in general, as expressed in surveys and public
statements over the last decade. It is possible that either the business surveys or
the Employer Survey do not accurately represent opinion because of various
survey biases. It is also possible that the difference is due to the different objects
of inquiry — all students and schools, as opposed to vocational programs.
However, we think that the principal reason for the difference may be the
presence or absence of first-hand knowledge of and involvement with the
programs in question. There are analogous findings in other kinds of surveys.
Parents express negative opinions of American public education in general but
positive opinions of their own children’s schools. Citizens are broadly critical of
Congress but favorable toward their own represertatives. Another survey
discussed later in this chapter seems to reflect the same phenomenon.

Quality by Industry

Across industries, employer ratings of overall vocational program quality varied
by small amounts and are somewhat more positive for postsecondary programs
(see Table 7.5). More than half of the responding employers rated the
postsecondary programs as “excellent” or “very good.” The trades, such as
construction and automotive repair companies, were especially positive in their
assessment (i.e., 70% said that the postsecondary programs in their local areas
were “very good” or “excellent.”) Establishments in the service industry were the
least positive about secondary programs.

Quality by Size

For those employers indicating familiarity with secondary programs, there was
no significant variation in quality ratings by size of establishment, (see Table 7.6).
This was not the case, however, for postsecondary programs. Large employers
(over 1,000) are the most positive about postsecondary vocational education:
About two-thirds rate these programs “good” or “excellent.”

Quality by Workplace Model

As illustrated in Table 7.7, comparisons of quality ratings by the number of steps
taken toward adapting a high-performance workplace model show differing
patterns for secondary and postsecondary programs. For those employers
indicating familiarity with secondary programs, a higher proportion of
traditional establishments than of high-performance establishments have positive
views of secondary vocational education. Fifty-eight percent of employers that
had taken no steps toward workplace reorganization indicated the highest
ratings of quality (“excellent” or “very good”), as compared to 34 percent that
had taken four or more steps toward reorganization. Perhaps the skills of high
school vocational trainees are adequate for employers using traditional
workplace models but tend to fall short of expectations for establishments with

166 Employer Involvement and Satisfaction

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* Eighty-six percent of employers indicated that they were satisfied with
the school’s ability to provide students with the skills they needed.6

It is important to note that those surveyed were employers participating in work-
based programs. They are not representative of all employers. Their participation
in these programs suggests that they were favorably inclined toward the
programs from the beginning.

The opinions about high school students in general expressed by non-
participating employers are in marked contrast to these positive responses.
Zemsky sums up the focus group findings as follows: “The employers in the
focus groups expressed extremely negative views about both students and high
schools. ... According to these employers, young people lack discipline; they
expect to be catered to; they don’t want to do the dirty jobs; they don’t respect
authority.”7

Their opinions regarding the basic skills of youth also were negative. Employers
from the focus groups indicated that “Young people lack communication skills;
they are neither numerate or literate; they can’t make change; they don’t
understand the importance of providing customer service.” The opinions
expressed in the focus group are similar to the findings from other surveys in
which employers have expressed concerns about the attitudes and work habits of
high school students in general.8

CONCLUSION

Some 60 percent of employers responding to a national survey said they were
familiar with vocational programs in their areas. Large employers and those with
high-performance workplace components were more likely to be familiar with
vocational programs than were other employers. Just over half of the
establishments familiar with vocational programs (53%) were also directly
involved in vocational education in some way.

The great majority of responding employers who are familiar or involved with
vocational education programs and work experience programs view them as
valuable and successful, whereas those employers who are not involved express
negative attitudes toward young workers in general and toward the academic
preparation of those workers.

Establishments in the process of reorganizing toward high-performance
workplaces are less satisfied with the quality of secondary vocational programs
than are those still using traditional models of production. It appears that when
higher skills are demanded, employers look to workers with more training and
experience than is possessed by high school graduates —~ even those from
vocational programs.

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In sum, while sub-baccalaureate institutions are growing in number, their
growth is not keeping pace with enrollment increases. This leaves it to existing
institutions to increase their program offerings as demand increases. Our
impression is that institutions respond well to these demands in general, but
have a harder time meeting the demand for the special language services and
courses required by increasing numbers of LEP students seeking postsecondary
education. In addition, because urban areas tend to have a broader mix of
postsecondary institutions, including many private and for-profit institutions,
individuals who are most likely to be low-income (those in inner cities) may be
the least likely to enroll in the relatively low-cost public institutions. This factor is
undoubtedly related to their reliance on Pell Grants.

Prior Preparation

Many sub-baccalaureate institutions will accept students who have not

completed high school, but will not enroll these students in a postsecondary-level

program until they have completed remedial education courses. Because high

school equivalency is required before taking most postsecondary coursework, we
| use high school graduation as a measure of prior preparation for postsecondary
education.

High school graduation rates have changed little in the past two decades except
among minority students, for whom rates have increased. For example, from
1973 to 1990, graduation rates for all students inched up from 82 percent to 83
percent, while for black students they increased from 68 percent to 78 percent,

| and for Hispanics from 55 to 60 percent.5

In spite of constant graduation rates, increasing numbers of students have
needed remedial education before enrolling in postsecondary-level courses.® Part
of this growing need for remedial education may be due to expanded assessment
programs and improved identification of student deficiencies. However, the
increasing proportion of high school graduates who enroll in postsecondary
education is another likely cause, as postsecondary institutions must now serve
more lower achieving high school graduates. Remedial programs are currently
needed to assure that all high school completers have equal access to
postsecondary education. A better alternative is to ensure that all high school
graduates—other than the mentally disabled—have the cognitive skills necessary
to enroll in postsecondary programs without the need for remediation. We will
return to this issue later, in the section on “Supplemental Service Availability.”

Affordability

Postsecondary education involves financial costs; only those who can cover these
costs have full access to these institutions. For each student, affordability is
determined by the balance between income, education costs, and available
financial aid.

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education 6 4 43

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Volume II

CHAPTER 2

PARTICIPATION IN POSTSECONDARY
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

This chapter examines access to and participation in vocational education at the
postsecondary level. As in the preceding chapter, we focus on who chooses to
enroll in vocational education, the health of the system as indicated by
enrollment trends, and the nature of movements in and out of postsecondary
vocational education. We also examine determinants of student access to
postsecondary education, and postsecondary completion rates.

The chapter begins with an overview of the postsecondary delivery system, then
reviews changes in access to postsecondary education over time. We find that
access trends are mixed, with access increasing on some measures (e.g.,
institution availability) but decreasing on others (e.g., costs). The chapter then
reviews postsecondary vocational enrollments, including the students who major
in vocational education, the vocational fields studied, and the institutions in
which vocational students enroll. We find that disabled and disadvantaged
students, but not limited English proficient (LEP) students, are overrepresented
in postsecondary vocational education, and that these enrollments differ by type
of institution.

We also find that overall participation in postsecondary education has increased,
with vocational education remaining a constant proportion of all postsecondary
enrollments. Business, health, and technical fields have the largest postsecondary
vocational enrollments, and shifts in these enrollments seem to reflect labor
market trends. Vocational enrollments are also growing in proprietary and
four-year institutions.

The chapter reveals that students complete vocational programs at rates that are
low, but that are comparable to those for academic programs. Indications of
lower completion rates for (former) secondary vocational students, and of
declining completion rates within some institutions, suggest potential problems.

Data Sources

The main source of data for this chapter is an analysis of student characteristics
and program enrollments based on the 1986 and 1989 National Postsecondary
Student Aid Studies (NPSAS). Additional sources include enrollment data from
the U.S. Bureau of the Census and U.S. Department of Education and from the
National Assessment’s Omnibus and 1993 Follow-up Surveys and Community

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

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Volume IL

Table A.2
Prevalence and Intensity of High-Performance Workplace Firms With
More Than 50 Employees, by Type of Industry

Type of Industry
Ware-
house/
Manu- Retail
facturing | Trade Service Other All
Percent of firms, counting % % % % %
steps done with any
intensity (1-5)
No steps 7 12 21 21 15
1-3 steps 36 53 55 46 47
4+ steps 57 35 24 33 38
Percent of firms, counting
only steps done with
moderate or high
intensity (3-5)
No steps 11 18 25 25 19
1-3 steps 46 51 57 48 50
4+ steps 44 31 18 28 31
Percent of firms, counting
only steps done with
high intensity (4-5)
No steps 25 26 40 36 31
1-3 steps 53 52 51 46 51
4+ steps 23 22 9 19 18
Number of firms
Weighted 73,631 65,940 70,109 58,416 | 274,096
Unweighted 694 303 637 264 1898

NOTE: Percentages may not add to 100 because of rounding.

Source: 1993 Employer Survey

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Volume I

better because the students are better: “If they can’t read we send
them to the vocational school.” (p. 32)

The current situation, in which the vocational center staff believe
they are getting poorer and poorer students and becoming a
dumping ground, is in their view causing fewer and fewer
prerequisites to be applied; rather the courses are restructured to fit
the clientele, students are steered into courses the counselors and
teachers feel they can handle, and a significant percentage of
students must go through pre-vocational and remedial training
prior to vocational assignment.

It was also noted in many districts that classes that attract large
numbers of at-risk students, particularly the disabled, come to be
seen as both lower quality and lower status .. .. It is ironic that
these [vocaticnal] classes, because of the federal presence, are often
among the better equipped and better staffed classes... .
Nonetheless, it was noted in a number of districts that classes have
“tipping points,” points at which the better students refuse to come
because of a perceived mass of at-risk students. (pp. 32-33)

Students will not select vocational courses or schools with negative
stigmas ... In one district, students will attend the vocational
school but will not take the bus to get there because the mentally
handicapped who attend are required to ride the bus. (p. 36)

Classes are viewed as being lower quality if they attract less able
students, or heavy proportions of disabled students, with students
being described as less able if they take the less technical courses. In
part, these are self-fulfilling prophecies, so the more capable staff
are aware of this danger and work hard to counter the stigma.
However, teachers note that classes full of the less able students
must be “dumbed down” or “taught down” in order to make any
progress at all. (p. 30)

In the Omnibus Survey, these issues also figure prominently in secondary
teachers’ and administrators’ views on current problems in vocational education.
For example, we asked academic and vocational teachers for their opinions about
problems confronting vocational education in their schools. The percentages
saying that a given issue was a serious problem are shown in Appendix Table A-
1.2. The problems are rank-ordered from 1 to 14, according to the percentage of
teachers who consider them serious.

The rankings are roughly similar for vocational and academic teachers, except in
a few areas.!® The rankings reveal a complex of problems in vocational education

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education



Volume IL

participation in business courses, but girls have not increased their enrollments
in traditionally male fields.

We hypothesize that this lack of movement v. girls into male vocational areas
might result from labor market growth in some traditionally female fields, such
as health care, child care, food service, and other service industries, leading
females to move into these areas, rather than into male fields (many of which are
experiencing labor market declines). Boys’ movement into business may also
result more from their interest in computer wordprocessing skills than from
interest in secretarial skills. As discussed in Chapter 2 of Volume IV, to help
maximize students’ vocational program choices, we recommend that the Perkins
Act consolidate sex equity efforts at the state level.

Special population students (disabled, disadvantaged, and LEP) have less access
to vocational schools than do other students (because most such schools are in
suburban areas), and schools that serve exclusively special needs students have
less access to Perkins funds, at least in 40 percent of the states. These are both
long-standing problems, and are unlikely to change without federal intervention.
The best recourse to address these problems is, we believe, to increase the quality
of vocational offerings in the schools and districts in which special population
students are found. The Perkins Act should maintain its focus on allocating
funds to schools and districts that serve special population students, with
efforts within those sites focused on substantially improving program quality.
The Act should also require that states include public schools that serve
exclusively special population students in their Perkins funding allocations,
even if these schools do not meet the minimum grant requirements.

In spite of these constraints on access, special population students earn more
credits in vocational education than do other students, and are overrepresented
in vocational schools. This overrepresentation applies mainly to disabled and
disadvantaged students; LEP students are slightly overrepresented in vocational
education, but are underrepresented in vocational schools.

Special population students are also as likely or more likely than other students
to concentrate their vocational coursework, a prerequisite for labor market
payoffs after graduation, and to be vocational “specialists” (advanced
concentrators who also take upper-level vocational courses). Thus, special needs
students do not appear to take less coherent or valuable combinations of
vocational courses than other students.

On the other hand, disabled and disadvantaged students tend to concentrate
their vocational coursetaking in certain program areas — agriculture,
occupational home economics and the trades — while taking relatively few
courses in other areas — business, health, and, most notably, technical education.
It is unclear to what extent these enrollment patterns represent appropriate

| matches with students’ interests and abilities, or an inappropriate channeling of

34 Pa Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Data on the teaching experience, nonteaching work experience, and educational
and occupational credentials of secondary teachers are provided in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3
Preparation of Secondary Academic and Vocational Teachers
Vocational Teachers
Compre-
Academic hensive Vocational
Teachers All Schools Schools
Highest degree (percent)
High school diploma or 0 2 1 4
GED
Associate’s degree or * 6 2 22
2-year certificate
Bachelor’s degree 40 39 41 31
Degree above bachelor’s 60 50 55 33
Nonteaching occupational 0 4 2 10
certificate or license
Mean years of teaching 18 17 17 14
experience
Related nonteaching work 19 66 63 78
experience (percent)

* Less than 1%.

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

On average, both academic and vocational teachers have about the same number
of years’ teaching experience — 17 and 18 years respectively, although teachers
in vocational schools have less (14 years) than others.

Secondary vocational teachers also tend to have less formal education than
academic teachers. Twelve percent of vocational teachers lack bachelor’s degrees,
while all academic teachers have them (they are required for academic teacher
certification in all states). Likewise, 60 percent of academic teachers have
advanced degrees, compared to 50 percent of vocational teachers.

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and vocational programs have about the same effect on postsecondary outcomes,
although general programs seem to confer a slight advantage. Because vocational
and general students are similar in many respects, comparison of these two
programs seems the most appropriate. There is some disagreement about
whether the analyses comparing postsecondary outcomes of academic and
vocational students are methodologically sound and whether the comparison is
meaningful. Nevertheless, we think that most secondary vocational students
should have the academic preparation necessary for some form of
postsecondary education, including math and science beyond the basic level.

128 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

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However, the studies differ in ways that affect our interpretation of the results.
When Wagner included absenteeism and course failure as predictor variables in
her analysis, she found that special education students who took vocational
courses have a 2.7 percent lower dropout rate than those who did not take
vocational courses. But lower absenteeism and course failure rates may
themselves result from taking vocational education courses, and they contribute
to lower dropout rates. Because absenteeism and course failure rates could be
outcomes of vocational education, rather than prior controls, Wagner removed
them from her regression analyses. When she did, the difference in dropout rates
increased from 2.7 percent to 7 percent.

Rasinski found the same thing in his analysis of NELS data. When he included
class rank, absenteeism, and special program participation, along with vocational
coursetaking, as predictors of dropout rates, vocationalism showed no effect.
When he took them out, it did. Rasinski found that each additional Carnegie unit
of vocational education courses in the first two years of high school reduces
subsequent dropout rates by a significant amount. He estimated that an
additional vocational course would reduce the dropout rate for students in
grades 11-12 from 5.6 to 4.8 percent.

Mertens et al. included absenteeism, grade point averages, and educational
aspirations, among other things, as controls in their analysis. Kulik therefore
concludes that their slight but significant coefficients showing reduced dropouts
“surely underestimate the effect that vocational education has on dropout
rates.”20 The same logic could also apply to Stern’s analysis, which controls for
attendance.

Of the three remaining studies that show no effect, two (Catterall & Stern, Stern
et al.) provide few details on their regression analyses and their authors tend to
discount them in the face of stronger evidence of vocational effects in other
analyses.

In the third of these studies, Pittman identified 1,100 dropouts in the High School
and Beyond sample and matched them with 1,100 non-dropouts on the basis of
gender, reading performance, and socioeconomic status. His multivariate
analysis of the sample of 2,200 indicates that students’ social relationships with
peers and staff at school affect dropout rates, but that participation in vocational
education does not. Kulik argues that Pittman’s model and the data used are
inadequate. Variables such as race, sex, aptitude, and GPA have no influence on
vocational coursetaking in the model (although we would expect at least some of
them to) and some measures of school experience obtained after the students left
high school are questionable.

In conclusion, the descriptive data, the analyses of matched pairs, and the better
regression analy ndicate that vocational education helps reduce dropout
rates. The multivariate analyses that show no vocational effect have

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 1 a

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Volume II

composition of vocational programs, and how has it changed in
recent years?

Of particular concern in the Perkins Act is access for special population

students!4 to vocational skill training. In earlier years, special populations were

reported to be underrepresented in vocational education. To ensure equitable

participation, the Perkins Act requires states to provide assurances that special

population students have equal access to vocational education and that localities
. ensure their full participation in Perkins-funded programs:

What are the patterns of access and participation for special
population students at the secondary and postsecondary levels?

Chapter 1 addresses these questions for secondary students; Chapter 2 does
so for postsecondary students.

Part II. Quality of Vocational Education
A. Program Quality

Conceptually, program quality can be assessed by examining the inputs,
processes, and outcomes of vocational education. Among the inputs, the
Perkins Act calls for inquiry into the preparation and qualifications of
vocational teachers and their academic counterparts. Today’s vocational
teachers must be able to prepare students for an economy in which the better
jobs require cognitive ability, flexibility, and interpersonal skills. They must
be able to teach the integrated academic/vocational curricula that Perkins
requires of the institutions it funds.

How well qualified are vocational teachers to prepare students for

high-skill jobs and to teach in integrated contexts?

Chapter 3, on the preparation and qualifications of vocational teachers,
addresses these questions.

Quality can also be assessed by examining the pracesses of vocational
programs — the programs, courses, and teaching procedures. Consistent with
its emphasis on integrated curricula, the Perkins Act requires vocationa!
programs to provide coherent sequences of academic and vocational courses.
Also consistent with this emphasis is cross-curricular content — academic
knowledge and skills reinforced in vocational courses and occupational
applications taught in academic classes. More generally, the subject matter,
teaching methods, and class requirements of vocational education all affect
the way students are prepared for the workforce.

xiv Introduction

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Volume II

vocational institutions, were higher. Creech and associates found that 29 percent
of secondary vocational students had enrolled in some form of postsecondary
education within 18 months of graduation. In a second study, Conroy and
Diamond found that 48 percent of vocational students in Massachusetts received
some postsecondary education within six years after graduation. In a third,
Campbell and Basinger?5 found that 61 percent reported receiving such
education within seven years.

Given the increasing returns to postsecondary education and the fact that many
secondary vocational students participate in it, we need to understand better

how secondary vocational programs affect students’ chances for postsecondary
education.

As Table 5.5 shows, vocational students are somewhat less likely than general
track students, and much less likely than academic students, to attend two- or
four-year colleges. They are also much less likely than academic students to
participate in any postsecondary education, although they are closer to general
track students in this respect.

Table 5.5
Percent of Students Enrolling in Postsecondary Schools by High School
Curricular Program

Curricular Program
Non-
Study Academic General Vocational | Academic
Percent enrolled in two-
or four-year college
Creech et al., 1977 69 27 14 21
Hilton, 1971 76 30 26 27
Percent enrolled in any
postsecondary
institution
Conroy & Diamond, _ _ 48 _
1976 :
Creech et al., 1977 81 40 29 35
Campbell & Basinger, 92 60 61 -
1985
Source: Kulik (1994)
Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 123

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14

15

16

the 1982 proportion of low SES students by .74. The percentages of non-vocational students
in these categories did not change from 1982 to 1992.

The percentages in Figure 1.6 are computed from administrators’ responses to Omnibus
Survey questions that ask them to rate enrollment changes on a 5-point scale. The scale
included categories for enrollment increases of greater than 10%, increases of 6-10%,
increases or decreases of 5%, decreases of 6~10%, and decreases of greater than 10%. For
each type of district, we calculated an overall percentage change by taking the weighted
average of category frequencies, using midpoints for the closed-ended categories, and 15%
for the open-ended (greater than 10%) categories. Using other reasonable values for these
open-ended categories did not change the pattern of results. Appendix Figure A-1.5 shows
the values obtained when 12% and 20% are used instead of 15%.

Quotes without page numbers are from unpublished individual case study reports; all
others are from Milne et al. (1993).

The rankings are disparate in three areas: (a) the placement of problem students in
vocational education is the problem most likely to be considered serious by vocational
teachers while it ranks sixth among academic teachers; (b) maintaining vocational
enrollments is ranked fourth among vocational teachers and tenth among academic
teachers; and (c) vocational student absenteeism is ranked second among academic
teachers but sixth among vocational teachers.

McCormick & Holmes (1994).

38

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

PREFACE

This is the second of five volumes in the Final Report of the National Assessment
of Vocational Education, mandated by Congress in the 1990 Perkins Act and
prepared in the Office of Research, Office of Educational Research and
Improvement (OERI). The Final Report substantially expands and updates the
Assessment’s Interim Report, presented to Congress in January, 1994.

This volume contains seven chapters. Each has a principal author (or authors),
but may also incorporate the work and views of other researchers. The chapters
and their principal authors are as follows:

Part I. Student Participation and Access

Chapter 1. Participation in Secondary Vocational Education —
Lisa Hudson

Chapter 2. Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education —
Lisa Hudson

Part II. Quality of Vocational Education
Chapter 3. Teachers in Vocational Education — David Boese:

Chapter 4. Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational
Education — David Boesel

Chapter 5. Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking —
David Boesel

Chapter 6. Employment Outcomes — Sharon Deich
(Pelavin Associates) and Charles Masten

Chapter 7. Employei Involvement and Satisfaction — Sharon Deich
(Pelavin Associates) and Charles Masten

Chapters 5 and 7 are new. The other chapters, earlier versions of which were
included in the Interim Report, also contain new material, including survey data
collected in 1993.

While conducted within OERI, this assessment is an independent study and does
not necessarily reflect the views of OERI or the U.S. Department cf Education.

David Boesel
Director, National Assessment
of Vocational Education



Volume II

46 Grubb (1992a).

47 Grubb, W.N,, unpublished tables.

48 Stevens (1993).

49 Goodwin (1989); Medrich & Vergun (1993); Grubb (1993a); Lewis et al. (1993); Kane, TJ., &
Rouse, C.E. (1993), Labor Market Returns to Ttvo- and Four-Year Colleges: Is a Credit a Credit
and Do Degrees Matter? (Working Paper No. 4268), National Bureau of Economic Research.

50 Grubb, W.N. (1994b), “Postsecondary Education and the Sub-baccalaureate Labor Market:
Corrections and Extensions” (submitted to Economics of Education Review), University of
California.

51 Grubb, W.N. (1994c), “The Returns to Education and Training in the Sub-Baccalaureate
Labor Market, Evidence From the Survey of Income and Program Participation,”
unpublished manuscript, University of California, page iii.

52 Grubb (1994b).

53 Grubb (1994c).

54 Lewis et al. (1993).

55 Kane & Rouse (1993).

56 Grubb (1994b).

57 Grubb (19930).

58 Grubb, W.N. (1994a), “The Long-Run Effects of Proprietary Schools: Corrections”
(submitted to Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis).

59 Lyke, R., Gabe, ‘f., & Aleman, .R. (1991), Early Labor Market Experience of Proprietary School
Students, Congressional Research Service.

60 Sango-Jordan, M. (1989), Economic outcomes, Carcer Training, 5; Goodwin (1989).

61 Bishop, J., et al. (1985), High School Graduates in the Labor Market: A Comparison of the Class of
1972 and 1980. National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

62 Wilms, W.W. (1980), Vocational Training aud Social Mobility: A Study of Public and Proprietary
School Dropouts and Graduates, National Institute of Education.

63 Moore, R.W. (1992), Heroes ar Villains? A Comparison of Proprietary Schoal and Public Sector
Outcomes, paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, San
Francisco. The studies he analyzes are: Wilms (1980), Bishop (1985), Sango-Jordan (1989),
Goodwin (1989), Lyke et al. (1991), and an earlier draft of Grubb (1992a).

64 Lyke et al. (1991).

65 Crubb (1993a), "The Economic Effects of Sub-Baccalaureate Education: Corrections and
Extensions,” unpublished manuscript, University of California.

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Volume II

Table A-2.2 (continued)
Percent of Enrollments in Each Major That Are Male, by Vocational and
Academic Discipline, Fall 1986 and Fall 1989

Major 1986 1989
Academic Majors
Law/legal assistant 32.1 17.2
Education 25.8 18.8
Public affairs 17.8 21.9
Psychology 26.5 26.2
Foreign language 21.5 29,1
Area/ethnic studies 46.3 31.0
Letters 31.7 35.0
General studies 41.7 41.2
Fine arts 40.6 42.2
Military science 61.2 47.3
Communications 49.1 48.4
Theology 64.7 $1.3
Life sciences 49.3 51.8
Parks/recreation _— 53.2
Environmental design 57.0 55.2
Mathematics 50.1 55.6
Social sciences 51.2 59.6
Physical science 714 67.4
Philosophy /religion 68.4 81.1

— Too few cases to estimate.

Source: Tuma (1993)

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This same study also indicates a positive effect on wages from additional credits in a
major field. As the number of completed courses related to the job held increased, so
did hourly earnings. Regression analysis indicated that the estimated wages were
$0.83 an hour higher ($7.42 an hour) for trainees with 30 matched credits, compared
to those who used little of their skills on the job ($6.59 an hour for less than 12
matched credits). Furthermore, each additional 30 credits yields a 12 percent
increase in hourly wages. Yet, only about one-quarter of vocational trainees
complete more than 30 credits. As before, this analysis shows that additional
vocational courses not related to the field of study do not contribute to improved
earnings.

Furthermore, Goodwin examined the relationship between the number of credits in
the major subject area and the proportion of course skills used on the job.
Comparing students with few vocational credits (12 or fewer) to those with a
moderate number (13 to 30), he finds that students with moderate training are more
likely to be in training-related jobs. For trainees with 12 or fewer related credits, the
CUR is 50 percent, whereas for students with 13-30 related area credits (the entire
sample), the CUR increases to 58 percent. For each additional 30 credits taken in the
subject area, the CUR increases by 5 percent.

Completion of a Degree or Certificate

The literature indicates that persons completing a postsecondary degree in a
vocational field have higher earnings than persons with similar amounts of
coursetaking who do not earn a degree.*?

Using data from both the NLS72 and the NLSY, and controlling for family
background, Grubb found improved outcomes for degree completers compared
with those with an equivalent amount of credits that did not lead to a degree.*°
Grubb reports that “In general, completing a certificate is more beneficial than
completing one year of college without a credential, an associate’s degree is more
valuable than two years of college, and a baccalaureate degree increases earnings by
more than four years of college without the credential.”*!

Medrich and Vergun’s analysis also showed that completing a degree improved the
chances of finding employment in a related field, which, in turn, improved economic
outcomes. They report that a high proportion (61%) of those attaining a
postsecondary degree in a vocational field found a match between field of study and
occupation, leading to better employment outcomes. Goodwin, too, found that
among persons who completed a degree, approxiinately 58 percent had obtained a
job related to their field of study. Again, those whose jobs were related to their
postsecondary field of study experienced higher returns to education. For men who
had completed an associate’s degree, Goodwin found increased earnings, though
still significantly less than for a baccalaureate degree.

Employment Outcomes 149

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At the postsecondary level, the demand for short-term programs appears to be
reflected in the continuing growth of proprietary school enrollments. The
conflicting needs for more education and immediate income reflected in this
preference are likely to continue. This conflict provides one of the greatest
challenges for postsecondary vocational education, including tech-prep
programs, as some students enter the labor market as soon as they have
marketable skills, rather than completing the longer term program.?3

The need for immediate income is also a likely cause for the relatively low
completion rates of postsecondary students, in spite of the economic gains that
can be sustained from program completion (as discussed in Chapter 6).
Vocationai students appear to complcte and drop out of programs at rates
comparable to those for academic students, although the limited data on
completions make this conclusion somewhat speculative.

Limited data also suggest that students who were vocational in high school have
lower completion rates than other students at community colleges, although their
completion rates are comparable at the more technical postsecondary
institutions. This pattern could imply that high school vocational students who
enter vocational programs in community colleges complete them at relatively
high rates, but are less likely to complete academic programs. Even so, this
outcome would be problematic, as it implies that secondary vocational students
have more limited postsecondary options than other students.

Finally, tentative evidence indicates that postsecondary students in public sub-
baccalaureate institutions (which account for almost three-fourths of vocational
enrollments) are increasingly leaving school without credentials. These data are
for enrollments from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s; more recent trends may be
different. However, the increasing number of postsecondary students needing
remediation suggests that completion rates may continue to decline, as remedial
instruction increases the time required to complete a program. Recent reforms,
such as the elimination of remedial course credits and stricter academic
requirements for vocational certificate students, also may lower completion rates.

These trends emphasize the need to focus on the most fundamental determinant
of access to postsecondary education — secondary students’ preparation for
further education. For this reason, the Perkins Act should emphasize the use of
funds to substantially upgrade the development of vocational students’
conceptual skills, especially at the secondary level. These skills, including math
and verbal ability, .-. .sually considered academic, but as Chapter 4 of Volume
Ill observes, they can effectively be taught in an applied context. The education
that high school graduates receive should virtually eliminate the need for
postsecondary remedial programs — as well as remedial programs in business
and industry — over the long run.

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Within the specific labor market curriculum, enrollment declines seem to follow
labor market trends. Business and trades programs, while still the most popular,
have had the largest enrollment declines (see Table 1.2). In fact, 90 percent of the
decline in specific labor market credits has occurred in these two program areas.
Other programs have had relatively steady enrollments, with one exception:
Enrollments in technical programs increased sharply from the early to mid-1980s,
but have leveled off since then.

The nature of these program enrollment trends is revealing. Although more
students are earning business credits, fewer students are concentrating in
business. Similarly, more students are earning technical education credits, but the
number concentrating in this area is not increasing. These coursetaking patterns
seem to reflect the growth of computer-related courses, which (as mentioned
above) appeal to many non-vocational students as well as vocational students.

Changes in Coherence of Coursetaking

The Perkins Act requires grant recipients to provide coherent sequences of
vocational and academic courses. A coherent sequence of vocational courses
includes a concentration of courses within a program area and the presence of
upper level as well as lower level courses. Table 1.3 shows what has happened to
coherent vocational coursetaking between 1982 and 1992.

Students who take vocational courses are now less likely to concentrate their
courses within a given program area, or to take advanced courses within their
area of concentration. For example, in 1982, 76 percent of those earning at least
three credits in the specific labor market curriculum met our definition of a
vocational concentrator, but by 1992 orly 65 percent met this definition.
Likewise, the percentage of vocational students who earned at least one upper-
level credit in their area of concentration dropped from 72 percent to 66 percent.
In short, not only were there fewer vocational students in 1992 than there were in
1982, but among those who remained, fewer were taking coherent sequences of
vocational courses.

This decline in “coherent coursetaking” could partially reflect the effects of more
students taking vocational courses for avocational reasons (such as college-
bound students taking courses in computer applications). This type of change
does not present a problem. However, vocational coursetaking for avocational
purposes does not explain the decline in advanced coursetaking among
vocational concentrators.

It is also possible that vocational students are anticipating more complex job
demands; vocational students may be moving toward an interdisciplinary type
of “all aspects of the industry” training. For example, automotive students may
be taking computer programming courses in order to better understand
computer diagnostic systems, and occupational home economics students may

4

r)
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Volume IT

Table 2.3
Completion, Persistence, and Dropout Rates for Class of 1980, by Type of
Postsecondary Institution and High School Program (Percent)

Postsecondary Institution and Completion | Persistence Dropout
High School Program Rate Rate Rate

Community College

Academic 23 46 31

Vocational 13 33 54

General 20 37 44
Vocational-Technical Institute

Academic 41 15 44

Vocational 43 16 41

General 27 21 53
Proprietary Institution

Academic 42 23 35

Vocational 38 17 44

General 31 27 42

Source: Goodwin (1989)

the most disadvantaged students — those with low aspirations, low
socioeconomic status, and low achievement levels.?* This implies that increased
costs, higher graduation requirements, or other factors that differentially affect
disadvantaged students may be contributing to dropout rate increases.

CONCLUSION

Vocational education is a relatively large and stable part of the postsecondary
education system. Over one-third of all postsecondary students are vocational, as
are two-thirds of students in sub-baccalaureate institutions. Vocational
enrollments have been increasing at about the same pace as postsecondary
enrollments in general. These increases have occurred in spite of rising
attendance costs and a declining cohort of college-aged students. It appears that
students continue to be attracted to postsecondary education — both academic
and vocational — because of its ability to improve job opportunities and pay.

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

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Data Sources

The four data sources most commonly used for these studies are the National
Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY), the High School and Beyond (HSB) survey,
the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), and the National
Longitudinal Survey of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS72). Each source has
collected information on vocational attainment, wages, and employment, as well
as on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of individuals over time. In
addition, the results of several special studies that have been conducted for the
National Assessment are discussed in this chapter. (The Assessment studies are
described in the Technical Appendix.)

Several important features of these data sources deserve mention because they
may directly affect the results of any statistical analysis. First, wnile some of these
sources contain data on coursework derived from transcripts, others contain self-
reported data. As Bishop notes in his review of the literature,” institutionally
reported transcript data are the best source for distinguishing between student
participation in vocational and in academic curricula. Self-reported data often fail
to accurately capture student participation, in part because students may have
difficulty differentiating occupational from academic subjects. Furthermore, self-
reported data may contain inflated information regarding course choices and
completion rates. (In fact, many of the studies that rely on self-reported data find
larger returns to education than do studies that use data from transcripts.) Both
the SIPP and the NLSY rely on self-reported data.

Second, in theory, studies of student outcomes should contain a measure of
ability both before and after completion of coursework. The human capital model
suggests that the benefits of vocational and academic training are related to
cognitive growth and development. If the data contain ability measurements
only after coursework has been completed, it is difficult to determine how much
of any gains should be attributed to innate ability, and how much should be
attributed to the coursework itself. Neither HSB senior cohort data nor the NLS72
contain any prior measures of ability.

A third issue—varying time horizons—affects the comparability of these data
sets. Most of the analyses of secondary outcomes using HSB data track students
for two years after completing high school. Analyses using NLSY go out six
years, those using NLS72 data, 10 years. The profile of earnings over time may be
different for vocational and non-vecational students. Thus it is important to be

able to compare them at several points in time after they complete their
education.

Finally, because of the need for longitudinal data, all of these data sources are
somewhat dated. The majority of the studies contain data collected in the 1980s,
for individuals who may have graduated from high school several years earlier.

Employment Ouitconies

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Volume I]

Table 2.1
Changes in Vocational Enrollments From Fall 1986 to Fall 1989,
by Institution Type
Percent of All
Vocational
Vocational Enrollments Enrollments
Percent

Institution Type 1986 1989 Change 1986 1989
Private four-year 60,685 94,769 56 2 3
Public four-year 86,897 172,541 99 3 5
Private two-year 99,079 97,164 2 3
Public two-year 2,086,155 | 2,213,243 6 68 64
Public Voc-Tech 129,746 | 128,520 Al 4 4
Proprietary 601,753 | 767,340 28 20 22
Total? 3,892,380 | 4,309,200 13 100 100

4 Fall enrollments are used because only such enrollments are ayailable in the 1986 NPSAS. Fall
enrollments underestimate total enrollments in the sub-baccalaureate institutions, which typically
have open enrollments during the school year.

© Totals are greater than the sum of institution-type enrollments because institution-type data
were not available for some cases.

Source: 1986 and 1989 NPSAS

agriculture (1%), marketing (2%), occupational home economics (4%), and
“undefined” areas (5%) (most likely students who are undecided on a major).'+
Compared to secondary education, these data show larger enrollments in the
more “high tech” health and technical fields, and smaller enrollments in the
traditionally “low tech” trades.

Changes in postsecondary enrollment largely parallel projections of demand in
the labor market. From 1986 to 1989, enrollments remained constant in most
vocational fields, but decreased in business (39% to 28%) and increased in health
(16% to 23%) and occupational home economics (2% to 5%). Employment
projections show decreasing demand for typists and word processors, while

46 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

CHAPTER 1
PARTICIPATION IN SECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

The Perkins Act mandate for the National Assessment includes an evaluation of
“participation in vocational education programs, including in particular, access
of individuals who are members of special populations to high-quality vocational
education programs.”! This chapter examines participation and access in public
secondary vocational education. Postsecondary participation and access are
addressed in the following chapter, and the availability of supplemental services,
one requirement for equal access for special needs students, is discussed in
Chapter 1 of Volume IV.

This chapter first reviews the participation of students in general and then
examines the access and participation of those defined as special population
students in the 1990 Perkins Act. We find that special population students,
particularly the disabled, take more vocational education than other students.
Vocational participation has declined for all student groups, but has declined less
for educationally disadvantaged and disabled students, with a resulting
concentration of these special populations in vocational programs. The chapter
ends with an examination of student placement into vocational education, which
suggests that secondary vocational education programs and students are
becoming increasingly isolated and stigmatized.

Overview of Secondary Vocational Education?

Most secondary vocational education is provided in the nation’s 15,200
comprehensive high schools. Vocational schools, which enroll about 10 percent
of secondary students, are also important providers, accounting for roughly 12
percent of vocational coursetaking. These vocational schools are mainly of two
types — vocational high schools and area (or regional) vocational schools (AVSs).
Vocational high schools, of which there are approximately 250, focus on
vocational instruction while also providing a full complement of academic
instruction. AVSs, which number about 1,100, are usually located in vocational
districts and provide exclusively vocational instruction; students typically attend
part-time and return to their home high school for academic instruction. For
occupational training, vocational schools are often considered superior to
comprehensive high schools because of their specialized facilities, greater depth
and breadth of training, and greater emphasis on vocational education reform.

In 1991-92, about 74 percent of comprehensive high schools offered vocational
education programs, and almost all, about 93 percent, offered at least
introductory vocational courses such as career exploration or technology

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Volume II

Table 15
Percent of 1992 High School Graduates Who Are Vocational Concentrators,
and Percent of Those Who Are Vocational Specialists, by Student Type

Vocational Concentrators, of:
Those Earning
at Least Concentrators
All Students | 3 Vocational Who Are
Student Type in Group Credits Specialists
All students 24.4 42.0 32.0
Disabled 45.1 56.6 34.5
Educationally disadvantaged
Lowest test quartile 35.5 45.6 36.6
GPA less than C 34.8 45.0 32.5
Earned remedial credits 52.8 46.0 35.4
Economically disadvantaged 33.6 45.2 31.5
(lowest SES quartile)
LEP 33.7 49.8 37.4
Single parent 30.7 42.5 29.6

Source: 1992 NELS

2.10, indicating that disabled students earn 2.10 times as many of their vocational
credits in agriculture as do non-disabled students. These ratios (listed in

Table 1.6) show the extent to which each special population group is more or less
likely than other students to earn credits in each program area, irrespective of the
total vocational credits earned by each group.

In general, special population students appear to concentrate their vocational
coursework in agriculture, occupational home economics, and the trades, and to
take relatively few courses in business, marketing, health, and, most notably,
technical education. These patterns are clearest for disabled students,
educationally disadvantaged students, and single parents. The patterns are less
clear for economically disadvantaged students, who are well-represented in
business, marketing and health, and not overrepresented in the trades. LEP
students take a disproportionate share of technical courses; we hypothesize that
this occurs because of the high proportion of LEP students who are Asian, a
group that tends to be strongly represented in technical fields at all levels.

20 Participation in Secoudary Vocational Education

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Volume II

period of time. It may be that the results of academic coursework on annual earnings
do not appear until individuals are well into their careers.

Other evidence is consistent with this interpretation. Several studies have shown
that wage and earnings benefits to general track students increase over time, while
such benefits as accrue to vocational students tend to be larger at first, but to level
off over time.

The Effect of Academic Coursework on Occupational Status. In contrast to the
effects on annual earnings, effects on occupational status are more consistent with
expectations. These studies suggest that students who take more academic courses
in high school find higher status jobs soon after graduation, compared with students
who take fewer academic courses. Although this effect is not reflected in wages or
earnings at the entry level, it probably yields greater benefits over time.

EFFECTS OF TESTED COGNITIVE AND TECHNICAL SKILLS

As arule, Gamoran finds that tested skills have more consistent effects on
employment outcomes than coursetaking.*4 This conforms to the general
understanding of the function of courses: Students take them in order to acquire
skills and knowledge that will be useful later on. It is not coursework per se that
enables an individual to perform well on the job, but the skills and knowledge
learned in the courses (and elsewhere).

The Effects of Tested Cognitive Skills

The literature on psychological testing indicates that general cognitive ability is the
strongest predictor of job performance.*5 Technically, cognitive ability is defined as
the shared variance in scores across different achievement or ability tests. In
practical terms, it is the thinking ability that, for example, enables students whe
score well on math tests also to score well on reading tests. While to some extent
hereditary, cognitive ability is also affected by environmental influences, the most
relevant of which (for our purposes) is education.

In a meta-analysis of literally thousands of studies, Hunter and Hunter found that
general cognitive ability surpassed more specialized abilities such as mechanical and
spatial aptitude, as well as job knowledge, in predicting performance at work. Job
knowledge is also an important predictor of performance, but only if the work is in
an area related to the knowledge. This is similar to our earlier finding that
occupation-specific training pays off if a training-related job is found.

General cognitive ability also contributes both to specialized abilities such as
mechanical, electrical, and clerical aptitude, and to job knowledge. For example, by
one estimate, cognitive ability accounts for 60 percent of the variance across the 10
subtests of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), six of which
test vocational aptitudes.

Employment Outcomes 161 143



Volume II

Case Studies.! The NPSAS and the National Assessment data collection efforts
are described in the Technical Appendix.

OVERVIEW OF POSTSECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Delivery System

The postsecondary delivery system consists of six major providers: public
two-year to three-year institutions (primarily community colleges, and termed so
here); public less-than-four-year institutions (vocational-technical institutes);
for-profit less-than-four-year (proprietary); private two- to three-year (private
two-year); and public and private four-year institutions. We will refer to the
less-than-four-y ear schools as sub-baccalaureate institutions.

Postsecondary Enrollments

Approximately 5.8 million students were enrolled in postsecondary vocational
education in 1989-90 (the most recent year for which data are available),
comprising 35 percent of postsecondary enrollments. Almost all of these students
(95%) were in sub-baccalaureate institutions; within these institutions, vocational
students make up 67 percent of all students. Like others in these institutions,
vocational students are older than college students in general and more likely to
be attending part-time.

Community colleges, which enroll 66 percent of vocational students, are the
single largest provider of vocational training. Proprietary institutions are the
second largest provider, enrolling 22 percent. The remaining institutions
collectively enroll only 12 percent of vocational students. (See Figure 2.1.)

The major providers of vocational education are institutions with fairly open
access. Community colleges were originally developed in response to federal and
state efforts to maximize student access to higher education. To this end, their
entrance requirements are minimal, tuition costs are low, and convenient
locations and flexible scheduling allow students to work while in school.
Proprietary schools, the other major provider, also typically have minimal
entrance requirements, but high tuition costs. However, they often offer short
programs (of one year or less), which make them appealing to individuals in
search of training that will allow them to enter the labor market quickly.

We now look more closely at student access to postsecondary education.

40 61 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

Types of Vocational Enrollments

Vocational courses can be divided into three types, depending on the skills which
they impart.

¢ General labor market preparation — courses related to preparation for
a wide range of occupationai areas, such as typing, technology
education, career education, and academic courses designed for
vocational students.

¢ Specific labor market preparation — courses related to preparation for
occupations in specific program areas: agriculture, business,
marketing, health, occupational home economics, trade and industrial
(T&l or “the trades”), and technical education (including
communications).

¢ Consumer and homemaking — Nonoccupational courses in consumer
and home economics.

Not surprisingly, most vocational credits (67%) are earned in specific labor
market courses. Another 18 percent are earned in general labor market courses
and 14 percent in consumer and homemaking courses. Within the specific labor
preparation area, business and trades courses are ‘he most popular by far, with
each accounting for one-third of the credits earned. Agriculture, marketing,
health, occupational home economics, and technical education each account for
less than 10 percent of specific labor market credits (see Table 1.2 in the following
section).

Obviously, not every studeat who earns credits in a vocational program area is
preparing for a career in that area. In fact, two of the most popular areas —
business and technical education — also have the fewest vocational concentrators
(see Figure 1.2). Evidence from the Community Case Studies suggests that these
program areas attract many non-vocational students who are interested in
learning about computer programming and computer applications. (Chapter 4
shows that computer use is most prevalent in these courses.)

Vocational Enrollments in Urban, Suburban, and Rurai Areas

Vocational education appears to be somewhat more popular in rural areas than
in suburban or urban areas. Rural students earn more vocational education
credits than those in other areas, and are more likely to meet our definition of a
vocational concentrator. As Table 1.1 shows, 21 percent of urban and suburban
students are vocational concentrators, compared to 30 percent of rural students.
This difference in coursetaking probably reflects differences in labor markets,
and in the college expectations of high school graduates.

22

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14

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

24

25

Catterall, J.S., & Stern, D. (1986), The effects of alternative programs on high school
completion and labor market outcomes, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 8, 77-86.
Cited in Kulik (1994).

Perlmutter, D.E. (1982), Career Training Choice: Project CATCH, A Follow-up Study of
Students Denied Admission to Vocational High Schools, New York City Board of Education,
Office of Occupational and Career Education. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Stern, D., et al. (1989), Benefits and costs of dropout prevention in a high school program
combining academic and vocational education, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,
11, 405-416. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Grasso, J.F., & Shea, J.R. (1979), Vocational Education and Training: Impact on Youth, Carnegie
Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Wagner, M. (1991), The Benefits of Secondary Vocational Education for Young People With
Disabilities: Findings From the Longitudinal Transition Study of Special Education Students, SRL
International. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Pittman, R.B. (1991), Social factors, enrollment in vocational/ technical courses, and high
school dropout rates, Journal of Educational Research, 84, 288-295. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Kulik (1994), p. 29.

Creech, F.R., et al. (1977), Comparative Analysis of Postsecondary Occupational and Educational
Outcomes for the High School Class of 1972, Educational Testing Service. Cited in Kulik
(1994).

Conroy, W.G., & Diamond, D.E. (1976), Tite Impact of Secondary Scliool Occupational
Education in Massachusetts, University of Lowell, College of Management Science. Cited in
Kulik (1994).

Campbell, P.B., & Basinger, K.S. (1985), Economie and Noneconomic Effects of Alternative
Transitions Through School to Work, National Center for Research in Vocational Education.
Cited in Kulik (1994).

Vanfossen, B.E., Jones, J.D., & Spade, J.Z. (1987), Curriculum tracking and status
maintenance, Sociology of Education, 60, 104-122. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Jencks, C.L., & Brown, M.D. (1975), The effects of high schools on their students, Harvard
Educational Review, 45, 273-324. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Hauser, R.M., Sewell, W.H., & Alwin, D.F. (1976), High school effect on achievement, in
W.H. Sewell, R.M. Hauser, & D. Featherman (Eds.), Schooling and Achievement in American
Society, Academic Press. Cited in Kulik (1994).

130

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Volume IT

Seventeen studies in one recent literature review 4 related the post-school labor-
market performance of students to a number of school quality measures, one of
them being the formal education of teachers. (This inquiry focused on all high
school students, not specifically vocational students.) The authors concluded,
among other things, that “better educated teachers produce more effective
employees.”

Many of the studies reviewed here have methodological problems, chief among
them the lack of control on self-selection into different kinds of preparation for
vocational teaching. Nevertheless, the findings across many studies conducted
over a period of 40 years suggest that extensive occupational experience confers
no particular benefits on vocational teaching, although a few years’ experience
has a positive impact. Formal postsecondary education is positively associated
with desirable teacher and student outcomes. In short, trade and industry
teachers would be better off with more formal education and less occupational
experience.

PREPARATION OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

Vocational teacher education programs in colleges and universities are shrinking

in the face of budget pressures and declining secondary vocational enrollments.
As Lynch observes,

Evidence is abundantly clear that at [the]. . . national level,
enrollments in teacher education have declined significantly
in most vocational subject areas, programs have been
eliminated, and. . . teacher educators, although still
employed at the universities, have found work in otl:er than
vocational education.!5

In program after program, the picture is the same!®:

* A62 percent decline in newly qualified agriculture
teachers between 1975 and 1990.

¢ A 37 percent decrease in the number of institutions
offering marketing education since 1989.

* A 15 percent decrease in graduates of home economics
education programs between 1987 and 1989.

¢ A/70 percent decline in technology /industrial arts
education majors over the last 20 years.

Teachers in Vocational Education 75

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12

13

14

15

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

Wirt, J.G., et al. (1989), National Assessment af Vocational Education: Final Report, Vol. 1,
Stuummary of Findings and Recommendations, US. Nepartment of Education. To compute the
CUR, a matching matrix that identifies training-program-to-occupation matches for
vocational education and employment was developed. It includes thousands of vocational
course and program titles, as well as hundreds of census occupational titles.

Bishop (1989).
Campbell et al. (1986).

Triest, R. K. (1994), Occupational Credentialing: A Review of the Enipirical Evidence, draft paper
prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education, p. 29, University of
California-Davis.

Rumberger & Daymont (1984); Campbell, P.B., et al. (1987), The Dynamics of Vocational
Education Efforts on Labor Market Outcomes, National Center for Research in Vocational
Education; Stern, D. et al. (1993), School ta Work Transition and the Relevance of Vocational
Education to Subsequent Employment - Review of Research, National Center for Research in
Vocational Education:

Bishop, J. (1991), Impact of Previous Training in Schools and on Job Productivity (Working Paper
91-27), Cornell University, Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies.

Campbell et al. (1986).

Stevens, D. (1993), The School-to-Work Transition ef High School and Conumunity College
Vocational and Non-Vocational Program Conpleters: 1990-1992, report prepared for the
National Assessment of Vocational Education, National Center on the Educational Quality
of the Workforce. To measure relatedness, Stevens uses an industry rather than an
occupation specific scheme. These broad industry categories are less precise than
occupational categories.

Bishop (1989); Muraskin (1993); Campbell et al. (1987); Wirt et al. (1989).
Campbell et al. (1987).

Wirt et al. (1989).

Meyer (1993).

Wirt et al. (1989).

Wagner, M. (1991), The Benefits of Secondary Vocational Education for Young People With
Disabilities: Findings From the National Longitudinal Transition Study of Special Education
Studeuts, p. 1, SRI International.

Wagner, M., ct al. (1993), What Makes a Differeuce: Influcces on Postsecondary Outcomes of
Youth With Disabilities, SRI International.

Wagner (1991), p.22.

158

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We do not know how often students are placed in vocational education for
reasons other than their best educational interests. However, many school
administrators view this as a problem in their schools. In the Omnibus Survey,
almost half of all school administrators (44%) and over half of all vocational
school administrators (55%) rated “placing problem students into vocational
education programs, regardless of appropriateness” as a moderate to serious
problem in their schools. In addition, 37 percent of school administrators agreed
that “vocational-education is viewed as a dumping ground for educationally
disadvantaged or other special needs students.” This issue is ranked as one of the
most serious problems in vocational education by both administrators and
teachers (see Chapter 4).

The notion of “inappropriate placement” implies that school personnel influence
students’ curricular decisions. Again, we cannot say for sure how often this
happens, but there does appear to be ample room for school personnel to
influence student decisions. In the 1992 NELS survey, almost two-thirds of
vocational students reported that school personnel were involved in their
decision to enroll in their current program of study — that is, the students were
assigned to their current program or made the decision with the assistance of a
teacher or counselor. School staff are likely to have even more influence in cases
where students attend AVSs or vocational high schools, as counselors or other
school personnel must typically sign off on a student transfer to these schools.

Evidence of inappropriate student placement, particularly in vocational schools,
was common in the Community Case Studies >:

Interviews .. . reveal a clearly adversarial position, with the
academic high school appearing to be hanging on to good students
as tightly as possible and the vocational center teachers believing
that the “dumping” is getting worse every year. Turf has become a
concern ina small central/midwestern community where the local
districts do not want the half-day area school to teach academics
but do want to “dump” their poorest students there. (p. 23)

A small midwest city uses tests to “dump” less-prepared students
into the area vocational school, and counsels better students and
class leaders into other electives. (p. 35)

In a small eastern community, the area vocational school complains
that the comprehensive school counselors will not direct business
students their way because this competes with the business courses
given by the comprehensive; on the other hand, they say, all the
disruptive students are directed to the vocational school. (p. 35)

[At one college-oriented site, we] gained the impression that
vocational education was seen by some students and staff as being,

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 27

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POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

The characteristics of vocational teachers in public two-year postsecondary
institutions differ somewhat from those of their secondary counterparts. The data
on these faculty members come from the NCES 1988 National Survey of
Postsecondary Faculty.

Demographic Characteristics

While secondary teachers are about equally distributed by gender, the faculty in
two-year postsecondary institutions are more likely to be male (61%) than female
(39%). This difference reflects a broader pattern in education: The more advanced
the education level taught, and the higher the prestige and salaries, the more
likely the faculty are to be male. Most elementary teachers are female; secondary
teachers in grades 9-12 are about 50/50; two-year postsecondary faculty are
about 60 percent male/40 percent female, and the proportions of male faculty in
four-year institutions range from 71 percent in liberal arts colleges to 81 percent
in private research universities. ? Although both academic and vocational faculty
follow this postsecondary gender pattern, vocational faculty members are a little
more likely than academic teachers to be male (65%, 59%).

Faculty in two-year postsecondary institutions are also somewhat older than
secondary teachers. As with gender, this age difference is part of a broader
pattern in education: The higher the level of the educational institution, the
higher the average age of the faculty. Postsecondary vocational faculty are a little
older than their academic counterparts; 36 percent of vocational teachers are age
50 or older as compared to 31 percent of academic teachers.

The great majority of vocational teachers at both levels are white (91% of
postsecondary and 88% of secondary faculty). However, while secondary
vocational teachers are more likely than others to be black, there are few
significant racial/ethnic differences between academic and vocational faculty at
the postsecondary level.

Experience and Education

The experience and education levels of faculty in two-year postsecondary
institutions are shown in Table 3.6. Vocational faculty have somewhat less
teaching experience than other faculty. For example, 23 percent of non-vocational
faculty and 17 percent of vocational faculty have more than 20 years’ experience
teaching. Among vocational teachers in the various subject areas, there are
substantial differences in experience. Only 9 percent of the computer faculty have
more than 20 years’ experience, presumably because this is a relatively new field.
On the other hand, 31 percent of the faculty in engineering /science/ technology
have been teaching for more than 20 years (and two-thirds have been teaching 10
or more years).

70 Teachers in Vocational Education

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vocational program. Among the 60 percent that did indicate familiarity, 43
percent were familiar with secondary programs, and 49 percent, with
postsecondary programs.

Familiarity by Industry

Table 7.1 shows how many employers in different industries are familiar with
vocational programs by industry. There is little variation by industry for
secondary programs, but knowledge of postsecondary programs is more
variable. Most often, employers in the service industry indicated familiarity with
postsecondary programs (59%), whereas employers in the trades were least
familiar with those programs (40%). For the other industries surveyed, about half
of those responding indicated familiarity with postsecondary vocational
programs.

Table 7.1
Percent of Employers Familiar With Vocational Programs,
by Industry
Industr
All
Program Level Manufacturing | Trade | Service | Other | Industries

Secondary 43 44 41 44 43
Postsecondary 52 40 59 50 49

NOTE: Industries are classified using 2 digit SIC codes. “Trade” includes wholesale and retail
trade. “Other” includes agriculture, mining, construction, transportation, utilities, and finance.

Source: National Assessment Employer Survey

Familiarity by Size

It is hypothesized that the size of an establishment is an important factor in
determining the extent of its knowledge about vocational programs. Larger
employers hire more workers and therefore have a stronger incentive to take the
time to familiarize themselves with potential sources of new employees. Table 7.2
shows famiharity with vocational programs by size of establishment for
secondary and postsecondary schools. Large employers report familiarity with
programs much more often than small employers do, a phenomenon that is true
for both secondary and postsecondary programs.

162 18 gue Involvement and Salisfaction



Volume IT

Appendix 4-A

Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS):
U.S. Department of Labor

SCANS SKILLS
The first five skills are workplace competencies:

Resources — Knowing how to allocate time, money, materials,
space and staff.

Interpersonal skills — Knowing how to work on teams, teach
others, serve customers, lead, negotiate, and work well with people
from culturally diverse backgrounds.

Information — Knowing how to acquire and evaluate data,
organize and maintain files, interpret and communicate, and use
computers to process information.

Systems — Understanding social, organizational, and technological
systems; knowing how to monitor and correct performance; and
knowing how to design or improve systems.

Technology — Knowing how to select equipment and tools, apply
technology to specific tasks, and maintain and troubleshoot
equipment.

In addition, there are three broad foundation skills:

Basic skills — Reading, writing, arithmetic, mathematics, speaking,
and listening.

Thinking skills — The ability to learn, to reason, to think creatively,
to make decisions, and to solve problems.

Personal qualities — Individual responsibility, self-esteem and
self-management, sociability, and integrity.

Abstracted from: Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessar
What Work Requires of Schoo SCANS Report for America 2000, Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor.

Progrant Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational fyi cation A-23
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advocates for disabled individuals indicated problems with these services within
postsecondary institutions.

Summary

Student access to postsecondary education varies in response to students’
preparation for postsecondary coursework, postsecondary attendance costs, and
the availability of institutions, programs, services, and financial assistance. In
general, access to postsecondary vocational education appears to be quite good
for the “typical” student, but is more limited for LEP students and those with
educational or economic disadvantages, as services and financial assistance fail
to keep pace with rising needs. As we will see below, however, postsecondary
vocational enrollments, including those of most special needs students, continue
to increase in spite of these constraints on access.

VOCATIONAL ENROLLMENT TRENDS

Unlike — and in spite of — declining vocational enrollments at the secondary
level, vocational enrollments at the postsecondary level are increasing at about
the same pace as overall postsecondary enrollments. From fall 1986 to fall 1989,
postsecondary enrollments increased 13 percent. Vocational enrollments
increased 11 percent, and non-vocational enrollments increased 14 percent.
Higher postsecondary attendance rates among recent high school graduates
account for part of this growth. Increases in the economic return to
postsecondary education may also be boosting enrollments.

There was also a shift in the distribution of vocational students among
postsecondary institutions from 1986 to 1989. The percentage of vocational
students enrolled in four-year and proprietary institutions increased, while the
proportion enrolled in community colleges declined (see Table 2.1).

The growth of enrollments in proprietary schools may be problematic, as
proprietary student loan default rates tend to be high,!? implying that the
economic gains from these institutions often do not outweigh their costs.
(Chapter 6 also reports mixed findings on the economic outcomes of proprietary
institutions.) This insufficient return is all the more troubling because proprietary
schools serve relatively high shares of minority and low-income students!3 —
those students most in need of better opportunities for economic success.

VOCATIONAL ENROLLMENTS BY PROGRAM AREA
In 1989, almost three-quarters of all postsecondary vocational students were

enrolled in just three program areas: business (29%), health (22%), and technical
(23%), An additional 15 percent were in trade and industry, leaving 11 percent in

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Table 3.6
Experience and Education of Two-Year Postsecondary Faculty
(Percent of Faculty Members)

Engineer-
ing/
Experience and Non- Au Business / Science/ | Trade/
Education Vocational’ | Vocational Office Health { Computer Tech. Industry
More than 20 23 17 20 11 9 31 19
years’
experience
Highest degree
Less than 2 15 4 12 18 29 33
bachelor’s
Bachelor’s 10 36 36 35 37 29 39
More than 87 50 59 52 4d 43 28
bachelor’s
Major®
Specific 53 6 6 5 i 7 1
academic
Specific 15 71 75 75 70 74 63
occupational
Education 29 22 18 20 16 17 34

4 Non-vocational faculty comprise teachers in all fields other than vocational education. Most of
them are academic teachers.

© Specific academic majors include mathematics, sciences, social sciences, letters, humanities,

P i
communications, art, and design. Specific occupational majors include the occupational
categories in the column heads. A small “other” category is excluded from the types of majors.

Source: Hoachlander, E.G., et al. (1992).

Asat the secondary level, two-year postsecondary vocational faculty have less
formal education than their academic counterparts. This is especially the case for
faculty in postsecondary trade and industry programs, probably for the same

A reasuns discussed above.

Surprisingly, the distribution of highest degrees for two-year postsecondary
vocational faculty is very similar to that for secondary teachers. Some 15 percent
have less than a bachelor’s degree, as compared to 12 percent of secondary
teachers; 36 percent have BAs, as compared to 39 percent of secondary teachers;
and 50 percent of both groups have advanced degrees. Non-vocational faculty at

the postsecondary level have considerably more education than at the secondary
level.

Teachers in Vocational Education 7



Volume II

CHAPTER 5

EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES
OF VOCATIONAL COURSETAKING

INTRODUCTION

The Perkins Act calls for the National Assessment to evaluate “the academic and
employment outcomes of vocational education. . . .”1 Employment outcomes are
the subject of the next chapter. In this chapter we examine the relation between
vocational education and academic coursetaking, student achievement, high
school completion, and educational attainment.

The data for the chapter come from the High School and Beyond Survey (HSB);
the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP); a review of the
literature on academic outcomes by Kulik?; and a recent analysis of the 1992
Followup of the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) by Rasinski.3
These data sources are discussed in the Technical Appendix. Because most of the
available data pertain to secondary students, our analysis concentrates on the
academic and educational outcomes of secondary vocational education.

Academic, Vocational, and “General Track” Students

Some secondary students focus their coursetaking on preparation for college,
others on job preparation, while still others have no apparent focus — they
prepare for neither of these alternatives. How many students are in each of these
groups?

To make this determination, students were classified based on the following
criteria:

* Advanced academic: Students who earned at least four credits in
English; at least three credits in mathematics, with at least one credit in
algebra or higher mathematics; at least three credits in science with at
least one in a physical science; and at least two credits in a foreign
language. These criteria approximate current typical college entry
requirements, which are much higher than those used in earlier years.
As a result, this category underestimates the size of the college-bound
pool in earlier cohorts.

* Vocational completers: Students taking at least three credits in a
specific vocational labor market area (agriculture, business, etc.). This
criterion approximates the definition many schools use to define a
vocational completer (see Chapter 4).

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CHAPTER 2 APPENDIX

Partivipation in Postsecondary Vecational Education j Q 9 AAS


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Figure 5.2
Percent of Vocational and General Track Students Meeting
“Basic Academic” Criterion, 1982, 1987, 1990, and 1992

100

90

80 82 4

60

Percent

1990 1992

Vocational General

Sources: 1982 HSB, 1987 NAEP, 1990 NAEP, and 1992 NELS

program. If so, vocational students today would seem to have better chances of
succeeding in these institutions.

How much academic coursework do students take in different subject areas?

Figure A-5.1 in the appendix addresses this question with data on the number of
credits earned in different academic areas by students in the three tracks.

In 1992, vocational students earned an average of 4.0 credits in English, 2.9 in
mathematics, 2.4 in science, 3.3 in social studies, and 0.4 in computer science
(classified in these data sets as a subcategory of mathematics). In all these
subjects except computer science, vocational students earned fewer credits than
academic and general track students. In computer science, vocational students
earned slightly more credits than academic or general students. On the whole,

110 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

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Volume [I

in the traditional trades, agriculture, and small businesses); the same may also be
true in the South. ,

The Effects of Local Economies

The Community Case Studies provide further evidence of how local labor
markets affect the success of vocational programs. In sites where well-paying
technical jobs are available, vocational programs were typically seen as the path
to those jobs and were doing well. In sites where the labor market did not
provide jobs, or provided only low-paying, lower skill service jobs, vocational
programs appeared to be in trouble. Some examples follow.

In an eastern state that has lost its manufacturing base:

Vocational education in this community seemed to be characterized
by a check-and-balance system, related to program demand and
employer input ... . Students in this community had seen their
fathers’ jobs swept out from under their feet, so they and their
parents tended to take their vocational education very seriously.
Programs that didn’t have positive effects for students in the job
market were not in great demand.

In one northeastern city with a troubled economy it was reported that

the school used to have a job fair each year, but last year they
changed the name of the activity because there were no jobs
available. As placement officials retired, they were not replaced.
Sometimes teachers are able to place a few students in jobs . .. but it
is the exception rather the rule.

In a midwestern state:

A depressed economy and lower enrollments in the area vocational
schools ... have prompted the once-selective school to recruit
heavily for almost “any and all” students.

The health of state and local economies also affects education budgets, which in
turn affect educational offerings. Vocational programs seem to be especially
vulnerable to budget cutbacks. In districts where funds follow the students,
comprehensive high schools become less willing to send students to area
vocational schools because doing so involves a loss of funds — although they
may still be willing to send high-cost students with special needs to the AVS.
Further, because vocational courses tend to be expensive and often have small
class sizes, it is tempting for schools to cancel them first. Or courses will remain,
but equipment will not be modernized, which makes vocational courses less
appealing and less practical. Finally, community support tends to fall on the side

14. 35 Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

mean in terms of future labor market outcomes? This section summarizes the
findings from the literature on the labor market returns to academic education.
Such information will be helpful in determining what mix of academic and
vocational courses is most suitable for the workforce preparation of high school
graduates not pursuing baccaiaureate degrees.

To better understand the tradeoff between taking additional academic courses and
additional vocational courses, Gamoran reviewed the literature on the value of
academic preparation for success in the job market among those who do not attend
college.28 He considers four aspects of the labor market — employment, hourly
wages, annual earnings, and attaining occupational status — to test the hypothesis
that academic courses contribute to work outcomes by improving cognitive skills,
which in turn add to labor market success.

His report is exemplary in that it reviews not only the findings of the literature but
the effects that the various methodologies and data sources have on results.
Throughout his review, he gives greater weight in his conclusions to the studies that
were well specified, including those that controlled for cognitive skills and ability
prior to high school, as well as for selection biases. Gamoran first reviews the direct
effects of academic coursework on labor market outcomes, then reviews the
literature on indirect effects that additional coursework may have on cognitive
achievement, as the link to labor market outcomes. His main findings are
summarized below.

The Effect of Academic Coursework on Wages. The best available evidence suggests
that academic courses in high school slightly increase wages in the first few years
after graduation, for those students not continuing on to college. The conclusion
holds more securely for women than for men, because some analyses yielded non-
significant or negative results for men. Effects may have increased during the 1960s
and early 1970s, and they may increase for an individual over time.??

The Effect of Academic Coursework on Employment. The only study that controlled
for ability prior to schooling suggests that students who take more academic courses
are less likely to be unemployed after high school.*° This result also is found in other
studies that do not control for prior ability. In fact, Gamoran reports that the “near
absence of short-term wage effects and the presence of short-term employment
effects are fairly well established in these data.”3!

The Effect of Academic Coursework on Annual Earnings. For Gamoran, the
“analyses of annual earnings yield the most inconsistent and intractable results
among the four outcomes we are considering.” 22 The studies that controlled for test
scores show zero or negative effects with regards to annual earnings. There was one
exception to these findings. Hollenbeck,?3 using NLS72 data, shows that academic-
track males and females both earn substantially more 14 years after graduation,
compared with students of similar ability from the general track. Hollenbeck’s
findings may differ from the other results because he looks at earnings over a longer

142 Employment Outcomes

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For those employers indicating involvement, the most commonly mentioned
activities are (a) providing career information to students, (b) actively recruiting
and hiring students, and (c) supervising students in co-op or work-based
situations. In addition, almost 80 percent of employers indicated they were
involved with a vocational or technical program in some “other” way.

EMPLOYER PERCEPTIONS OF QUALITY

A key issue is how employers regard the quality of vocational programs. To
explore this area, the 2,000 employers who indicated familiarity with vocational
education were asked to rate the quality of local programs. Table 7.5 shows
employer ratings of overall quality for programs with which they are familiar.
The vast majority of responding employers who are familiar with vocational
programs view program quality as good. With regard to secondary school
programs, 82 percent of establishments reported that the quality was “good” or
better. For postsecondary programs, almost 90 percent of employers gave
programs a “good” or better rating.

Table 7.5
Employer Rating of Overall Quality of Familiar Program(s) by, Industry
(Percent)
Industr
Program Level and All
Rating Manufacturing | Trade | Services| Other | Industries
Secondary
Excellent or very 40 42 33 47 41
good
Good 37 41 42 42 41
Fair or Poor 23 17 25 10 18
Postsecondary
Excellent or very 52 70 4a 47 54
good
Good 33 25 41 37 34
Fair or Poor 15 5 12 16 11

NOTE: Industries are classified using 2-digit SIC codes. “Trade” includes wholesale and retail
trade. “Other” includes Agriculture, Mining, Construction, Transportation, Utilities, and Finance.
Totals may not add to 100% due to rounding.

Source: National Assessment Employer Survey

Employer (volvement and Satisfaction 165


Volume II

manufacturing jobs have migrated to countries such as Taiwan, China, Korea,
and Mexico.

In many areas of manufacturing, America’s unskilled and semi-skilled workers
cannot compete with workers in countries such as these, and could not do so
without a dramatic reduction in wages. Therefore non-transportable sales and
service jobs such as cashier, restaurant worker, janitor, and beautician are slowly
becoming the mainstay of unskilled and semi-skilled labor in this country. They
remain viable in part because they are not subject to foreign competition.

America has much greater actual and potential competitive strength in skilled
labor and sophisticated capital equipment. To exploit this strength, a number of
influential reports have recommended, and the federal government has adopted
as a policy goal, substantially increasing the skills of the American workforce,
especially of those who in the past would have been classified as unskilled or
semi-skilled workers. The students most likely to leave American high schools
with these relatively low skill levels are the non-college-bound students, who
have been called “the forgotten half” and “the neglected majority.”

Improving American competitiveness by increasing the skills of its workforce is
the principal goal of the Perkins Act:

It is the purpose of this Act to make the United States more
competitive in the world economy by developing more fully the
academic and occupational skills of all segments of the population.
This purpose will principally be achieved through concentrating
resources on improving educational programs leading to academic
and occupational skill competencies needed to work ina
technologically advanced society.

New Forms of Work Organization

Increased competition, both foreign and domestic, is leading American
companies to adopt new forms of work organization, the second factor affecting
the skills required of the workforce. Organizational principles that worked well
for over a half century are being reexamined and, with increasing frequency,
replaced.

In the early part of the century, Henry Ford pioneered, and Frederick Taylor
rationalized, a system of industrial production based on extensive division of
labor, specialization, routine repetition of tasks, and authoritative top-down
management. This system casts the worker as a cog in a machine, and it requires
reliable, responsible behavior more than thinking skills and flexibility from front-
line workers. Management is primarily responsible for supervision, higher-order
thinking, and leadership.

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CHAPTER 5 APPENDIX

Educatn.al Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking A-27



Volume II

Two studies estimated the probability of obtaining any kind of postsecondary
education (in colleges or vocational institutions) and controlled for student
aspirations. Creech found that academic students had much higher chances of
attending college than non-academic students, other things equal. Campbell and
Basinger, however, found only small differences between the two groups. Grasso
and Shea’s estimates, which do not control for aspirations, show that academic
students are somewhat more likely than vocational students to enroll in
postsecondary institutions.

The second set of studies examined by Kulik estimated the years of education
attained by students of average background from different high school
programs. (See Table 5.7.)

Table 5.7
Estimated Postsecondary Attainment by High School Curricular Program for
Students of Average Background: z-scores (years)

Curricular Program
Non-
Study Academic | General | Vocational | Academic
College only
Grasso & Shea, 1979 0.41 ~0.24 -0.40 -0.29
(14.0) (12.6) (12.3) (12.5)
Hilton, 1971
One-year follow-up 0.15 -0.25
Three-year follow-up 0.15 -0.24
College and/or
postsecondary training
Jencks & Brown, 1975 0.13 ~0.13
(14.4) (14.0)
Hauser, Sewell, & 0.16 -0.17
Alwin, 1976 (13.7) (13.1)
Vanfossen, Jones, & 0.28 -0.17 -0.27 -0.20
Spade, 1987

NOTE: A positive z-score implies a higher than average probability of postsecondary attainment;
a negative z-score implies the opposite. Values in-parentheses are predicted years of schooling
completed.

Source: Kulik (1994)

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 125

143



Volume IT

Though vocational education, per se, did not change dramatically during that
period, recent moves toward bolstering and integrating academic components
into the vocational curriculum are not reflected in these data. Furthermore, in all
likelihood, recent college graduates face different skill requirements and more
competition from experienced workers than did their counterparts who
graduated in the 1980s.

Methodological Issues

Methodological issues related to the measurement of coursetaking, the
measurement of ability, and selection bias complicate the analysis of
employment outcomes.

Measurement of Coursetaking. Researchers traditionally use one of two methods
to measure coursetaking: membersnip in a curricular track, typically academic or
vocational, and the number of academic or vocational courses taken. The
preferred method is the number of vocational courses taken, collected from
transcript data rather than from reports made by individuals.

Measurement of Ability. As noted earlier most of these data sets lack measures of
ability prior to coursetaking. When information on prior ability is not available,
researchers attempt to control for characteristics of individuals and schools that
may proxy ability. If a large array of control variables is introduced into the
regression equations, the likelihood that the control variables will be correlated
with each other increases greatly, leading to multicollinearity among predictor

variables. These correlations make interpretation of regression coefficients more
difficult.

Selection Bias. In all of the studies reviewed, it is possible that some unmeasured
characteristics of students, such as motivation and ability, affect (a) the likelihood
of enrollment in vocational education, (b) subsequent student performance and
(c) success in the labor market. If these characteristics differ systematically
between vocational and academic students (that is, if different kinds of students
are “selected” into vocational and academic programs), it may appear that their
coursetaking patterns, rather than attributes such as motivation and ability, affect
employment outcomes. Yet, short of a controlled experiment in which
individuals are randomly assigned to tracks, there is no means to completely
control for this type of bias. Although some studies do attempt to control for
individual characteristics that are related to ability, the inability to pinpoint
innate characteristics is endemic to systematic research on individual outcomes
and should be kept in mind in interpreting the results of these studies.

The complexity of these issues and their varying effects on study results require
extreme care when interpreting findings, especially between studies that utilize
different data sources. These issues also point to the need for analyses of better
and more recent data to explore employment outcomes. The 1994 Followup to

nd
Employment Outcomes 1 v 1 133


Volume II

who did not find jobs matching their field of study had no employment advantages
over the general track students.

The Effect of Matching on Wages. Bishop!’ discovered a positive effect of secondary
vocational education on wages for those employed in a job related to their field of
study. He reports that the more relevant coursework an individual has, the higher
the wages. Campbell et al., too, found higher wages for high school vocational
education graduates with a match between field of study and employment. !8 They
report that high school graduates earned 7 to 8 percent more, monthly, when their
current job was related to their training. Stevens too, found that for high school
program completers in Florida, those with related jobs had significantly higher
earnings than those with unrelated jobs.!9

Concentrations of Coursework

Another important finding in this literature is that students who concentrate ina
single area of coursework have better economic outcomes than those who take
courses in a variety of subjects. This is true for both the secondary and the
postsecondary market.2° The effects of course concentration (earning more than two
credits in a specialty) appear to influence outcomes via the link between training and
related jobs. That is, taking more courses in a major subject pays off only if work is
in a related field. The more’credits that trainees take in their major subject area, the
higher the proportion of vocational education credits they use on their jobs, and the
more likely they are to obtain a training-related job.

Campbell et al.2! found that high school students who concentrated in a particular
vocational field and obtained employment in a related field earned 7 to 8 percent
more than vocational students who found employment in unrelated fields or
students who completed a general track program in high school. Campbell also
reported that the probability of finding a training-related job (which pays higher
wages) increases with course concentration. Approaching the same issue from the
opposite direction, Wirt et al.2? report that “For men, enrollment nonconcentration
(not taking a coherent group of courses) was a consistently large source of course
underutilization (23 percent in 1983).” This underutilization results in fewer job
placements and lower wages.

Field of Study

Another potential explanation for the wide variation in economic benefits to
vocational education is the possibility that the particular field of study affects wages
and earnings and that looking at outcomes for the population as a whole masks the
differences by field. The literature indicates that the effects of credentials do indeed
vary by field of study.

Meyer?3 finds that women with high school vocational training most often complete
programs in business, health, and home economics. Those traditionally female fields

Employment Outcomes I 5 v4 139



Volume IT

Figure 1.7
Percent of Students Who are Disabled, LEP, or Economically Disadvantaged,
by School Type
40
35.6
30
123.5)
20
16.1)

13.9

10
5.3
0 T TT -
Disabled LEP Economically Disadvantaged
(Receive Federal Lunch)
Comprehensive HS C] Vocational HS || AVS

Source: Omnibus School Survey

The Effects of Dumping on Vocational Programs

Vocational teachers and administrators are concerned that the “dumping” of
students into vocational education harms the reputation and quality of these
programs, which in turn lowers the value of this educational alternative for all
students. The concern is that the overrepresentation of disabled and
educationally disadvantaged students makes it more difficult for vocational
schools or programs to attract the mid-level students needed to maintain
program rigor, quality, and appeal. Again, evidence (or at least perceptions) of
this effect abounds in the Community Case Studies:

In the vocational magnet in a midsize southern district, health, data
processing, and computer programming are seen as good
programs, but the classes... at the comprehensives are seen as

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education t

Demeter cieeneernensnnenttaatdeemetenentnn



Volume II

Figure A-5.1 (continued)
Average Credits Earned in Different Academic Subject Areas
by Vocational, General, and Academic Students, 1982, 1987, 1990, and 1992

Science
4

3.5

3

2.5

15

2 — oe

1

0.5

0 T

1982 1987

Social
Studies
4

1990 1992

3.5

3

2.5

2

1.5

1

0.5

1982 1987

1990 1992

@- Vocational

<> General

—t Academic

(continued)

A-30

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

213



Volume II

INTRODUCTION

This volume examines some of the major features of contemporary vocational
education, including student participation and program quality, as measured by
a number of indicators: the preparation and qualifications of teachers;
characteristics of vocational programs and courses; and educational and
employment outcomes.

In the final analysis, the quality and appeal of vocational education are
determined by how well it provides students with the skills they need to enter
and succeed in the workplace. Those skill requirements are changing as a result
of economic changes over the last several decades. Before discussing vocational
education, therefore, it will be useful to examine the context within which it now
functions.

THE ECONOMIC CONTEXT

The skills required of workers have been affected by three major developments
since the early 1970s — the emergence of a global economy; more recently, the
growth of high-performance workplaces; and the continuing impact of new
technology. This section of the introduction examines these topics.

A Global Economy

The emergence of the global economy brought with it a decline in America’s
competitive position and made improved competitiveness a major goal of federal
policy. For more than 20 years after World War II, the United States faced only
limited foreign competition, in part because the war had weakened many
economically developed nations and in part because many other countries, or
colonies, were underdeveloped. However, the recovery of industrialized
European and Asian nations, together with the decolonization and economic
development of others, greatly intensified global competition. By the 1970s
America’s share of the world market had begun to shrink, and its economic
position continued to decline through the 1980s. Although there have been recent
improvements in some sectors of the economy, the nation’s competitiveness
remains an issue of critical importance.

Our competitors include high-skill manufacturing economies with weil-educated
workforces, often employing new technology and new forms of work
organization to produce high-quality products. Japan’s export-oriented
manufacturing sector is an example of this kind of economy. Our competitors
also include nations with less well educated but disciplined workforces able to
perform the sort of semi-skilled work that has been the backbone of American
manufacturing, and willing to do so for lower wages. Thus, many American

itroduction vii

10

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Volume II

students taking courses in an area. For example, while technical education
enrollments in general are relatively balanced, with 54 percent of enrollees being
male, technical concentrators are 72 percent male.

Third, from 1982 to 1992, there was little consistent change in nontraditional
enrollments, measured both by general enrollments and by those who
concentrate in an area. Business programs show the largest and most consistent
shift, with enrollments increasing from 35 to 42:percent male and concentrators
increasing from 9 to 22 percent male. Concentrators in occupational home
economics have also shifted to become more male and those in agriculture are
more female, but these changes are smaller and less consistent over time.!!

This limited change in nontraditional enrollments is somewhat discouraging,
although perhaps not surprising, given the traditionally sex-typed nature of the
jobs for which vocational programs train students, and the strong effects of peer
pressure among secondary school students. Also, as noted in Chapter 2,
nontraditional enrollment trends may be tempered by changes in the labor
market which make many traditionally female jobs (health care, service jobs)
more sought after than many traditionally male jobs (some trades jobs). This does
not explain, however, the shift of male students into business, an area of
declining job demand. The reason for this shift is unclear, but we surmise that it
has something to do with the value of the computer experience gained in many
business courses.

CHANGES IN WHO PARTICIPATES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

We know that students in general are taking fewer vocational courses. But are all
students “leaving” vocational education at the same rate, or are some types of
students leaving at a greater rate than others? For which students has vocational
education most lost its appeal? In this section, we answer these questions by
examining the coursetaking trends of different groups of students. Data are
available to examine these trends for students with educational and economic
disadvantages from 1982 to 1992, and for disabled students from 1987 to 1990.
(Trend data are not available for LEP students or single parents.)

As Figure 1.5 shows, disabled and educationally disadvantaged students have
decreased their vocational coursetaking less — or not at all — while their
“non-special” peers have had larger decreases. For example, disabled students
did not reduce their vocational coursetaking from 1987 to 1990, while
non-disabled students reduced their coursetaking by .32 credit.! From 1982 to
1992, students earning relatively large numbers of remedial credits increased
their vocational coursetaking, while other students decreased their coursetaking,
and those with lower grades and lower test scores had smaller declines in
coursetaking than those with higher grades and test scores. (The small decline for
students in the highest test quartile probably reflects the fact that in 1982 these

Participation in Secondary Vocational Flucation

44 s



Volume II

ENDNOTES

w

10

12

Bishop, J. (1993b), Educational Reform and Technical Education, p. 25. Cornell University,
Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies.

Because asking teachers to report on a random sample of classes was not feasible, we
specified a class taught by our random sample of teachers on a particular school day. This
event was “the first class you taught in your primary assignment to 9th, 10th, or 12th
graders on October 1, 1992.” The particular date was used only to select the classes to be
examined. Most of the questions about these classes are general in the sense that they are
not limited to events occurring on October 1, 1992.

National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983), A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for
Educational Reform, p. 24, U.S. Department of Education.

McCormick, A., & Holmes, P. (1994), Computers and Vocational/Technical Education, draft
report prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education, MPR Associates.

Ibid. p. 12.
Ibid., p. 11.

The definition of college prep students is complex and is found in Chapter 1 in the present
volume; vocational concentrators and specialists are described in the immediate text;
general students are those who do not fallin any of the other three groups.

We do not know what kinds of vocational courses these students are reporting on. It is
possible, but unlikely, that the differences in Figure 4.3 are due to differing perceptions of
similar courses. The more plausible explanation is that they are reporting on different
kinds of vocational courses, and that the vocational concentrators and specialists are
describing more advanced vocational courses than the college prep or general track
students.

See Anastazi, A. (1982), Psyclological Testing, MacMillan. Also see Rock, D.A., et al. (1985),
School Quality and Student Outcomes, Educational Testing Service.

Homework assignments in vocational education may be increasing. Based on 1987 data,
Bishop (1993b) reported that 60% of vocational classes had no homework.

U.S. Department of Education (1994), National Assessment of Vocational Education: Interim
Report to Congress, p. 251.

Cappelli, P., & Rogovsky, N. (1993), Skills and Individual Performance, University of
Pennsylvania, National Center on Educational Quality of the Workforce.

106

Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education

Aes



Volume IL

PART I
STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND ACCESS



Volume II

How many vocational programs require coherent sequences of
courses and provide cross-curricular content? How challenging are
vocational classes? How well do vocational students think they are
being prepared for work?

Chapter 4, on the program requirements and courses in secondary vocational
education, examines these issues.

Although secondary vocational programs are designed to prepare students
for work, they do not necessarily prepare them for jobs immediately after
high school, or to the exclusion of postsecondary education. Given the
substantial and growing income advantage derived from postsecondary
education, many vocational students enroll in community colleges and
proprietary schools, and a smaller number, in four-year colleges. The Perkins
Act recognizes the relevance of academic achievement and postsecondary
attainment in calling for an examination of academic outcomes of vocational
education. The Assessment looks more broadly at several educational
outcomes.

What are the effects of secondary vocational coursetaking on
student retention, academic achievement, and postsecondary
attainment? Does taking vecational courses affect secondary
students’ dropout rate? What are the effects on students’
performance on academic achievement tests? How does it affect
their postsecondary chances?

These questions are addressed in Chapter 5, on the educational outcomes of
vocational coursetaking.

The bottom line in assessing the quality of vocational programs is whether
they help vocational students get better jobs than comparable students
pursuing other courses of study. Hence, the Perkins Act calls for an
assessment of the employment outcomes of vocational education. It also
requires an examination of employer involvement in, and satisfaction with,
vocational education programs.

What effects do vocational coursetaking and program completion
have on students’ employment outcomes? How satisfied are
employers with these programs?

Chapter 6 examines employment outcomes; Chapter 7 assesses employer
involvement in, and satisfaction with, vocational education.

Introduction Bsa

18

(RRR nrc eetietin ites eeeemnemnacceeane



Volume II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume II Participation in and Quality of Vocational Education

Introduction,

Part I. Student Participation and Access

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education.._.3

Introduction.
Current Enrollments...
Enrollment Trends,
Access and Participation of Special Population
Students... . vessesseeeene 16
Changes in Who Participates i in Vocational _
Education............ vesneveeee 23
“Dumping” and the Status of Vocational —
Education... cccceeccccessesssssssessnsenstsssssssnseneassesne 20
Conclusion.
Endnotes...

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational
Bdrcation, oc cccccsceseeseeeettenennnnerenceeeenteerrnnens OD

Introduction............. setecceeeeeeeee BD
Overview Of Postsecondary “ocational —

Education.
Access to Postsecondary Vocational Education
Vocational Enrollment Trends............
Vocational Enrollments by Program Area.
Who Takes Vocational Education?. 7
Postsecondary Completion, Persistence, and

Dropout Rate:
Conclusion. ...... coeceeeeenees
EMdn0t eS... scceeseessssesessssstsvretntneeeteeee

Part II. Quality Of Vocational Education

Chapter 3

Teachers in Vocational Education. 61

Introduction...
Secondary Education........
Postsecondary Education...
The Relative Value of Occupational

Experience and Formal Education......0000.0.............73



Volume II

Weber’s!3 analysis of High School and Beyond data, which used seniors’ reports
of their curricular status, showed that vocational students were less likely than
general track students to drop out, and that academic students were the least
likely of all to do so.

Data from Catterall and Stern, !4 as transformed by Kulik, show the same pattern:
General track students are the most likely to drop out of school; vocational
students are less likely to drop out; and academic students are the least likely to
do so. These findings are implicit in the Catterall and Stern data, not explicit.
Data in one of their analyses show that vocational and non-vocational students
have about the same dropout rates — 11 to 12 percent. However, Kulik observes
that non-vocational students can be divided into two groups: academic students,
who constitute 40 percent of non-vocational students in High School and Beyond
and are known to have a 4 percent dropout rate; and general track students, who
constitute 60 percent of the non-vocational youth and whose dropout rate must
be higher than the 11-12 percent for all non-vocational students. In two different
analyses, Kulik’s calculated dropout rates for general track students are 15
percent and 17 percent. (The dropout rates for general track students vary
because the definition of this group changes with the definition of vocational
students. General students are the “other” group left after vocational and
academic students have been defined.)

Comparisons of Matched Groups

Descriptive analyses such as those in the preceding section tell us that students in
different programs have different probabilities of dropping out, but they do not
indicate whether these outcomes are due to the programs or to other things.
However, the fact that vocational and general students are similar in many ways
suggests that student characteristics do not account for the different dropout
rates between these two groups.

Studies that compare matched groups of students hold important student
characteristics constant while looking at differences between programs in
dropout rates. Table 5.3 shows the results of these studies.

In an experiment in New York City schools, Perlmutter!5 examined the dropout
rates of selected students who applied and were admitted to a vocational high
school, who applied but were not admitted, and who did not apply. The students
were matched on the basis of schools previously attended and measures of math
and reading achievement. Sixteen of the selected 99 students in the vocational
high school dropped out over a five-year period; 24 of the 99 students who
applied but were not admitted dropped out; and 18 of the 99 who did not apply
dropped out. Moreover, across all students in the experiment, the dropout rate
for those who entered the vocational high school or took vocational courses in
other schools was 12 percent; the rate for those with no vocational courses was 31
percent.

118 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetuking

136



Volume II

Figure 4.2
Percent of Academic Classes Spending More Than
Ten Percent of Time on Specified Subject

English

Math

Science

Social
Studies

o_|
Foreign |0
Language
10)
26
All 6 :
. ihe: z
18}

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of Classes

(1 Basic Algebra
(J Math Beyond Basic Algebra

Writing

HE Occupational Principles

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

% Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education

114



Volume II

Table 2.2
Completion, Persistence, and Dropout Rates for Full-Time Students Entering
Sub-Baccalaureate Institutions in 1989-902 (Percent)

Completion | Persistence Dropout

Institution Type Rate Rate Rate
Less-than-two-year

Public 44 * 52

Private 52 * 41

Proprietary 65 * 33
Two- or three-year

Public 26 32 40

Private 42 17 41

Proprietary 52 6 42

* These data are collected two-and-a-half years after program entry. Very few students at less-
than-two-year institutions persist in their studies for this long. The persistence rates for these
institutions are 4,7, and 2 percent respectively.

4 Rates as of February 1992.

Source: 1992 Beginning Postsecondary Study

Completion rate data for vocational students are limited, but suggest that within
community colleges, vocational and academic students are equally persistent,
leaving school at about the same rate.2! The data on students who pursued a
vocational program in high school are more mixed. In community colleges, those
who were enrolled in secondary vocational programs are the most likely to drop
out and the least likely to complete. But at public technical institutes and
proprietary schools, which tend to have shorter programs with less academic
emphasis, those who were high school vocational students complete at relatively
high rates (see Table 2.3). These findings suggest that high school vocational
students are relatively well-prepared for short, occupationally focused
postsecondary education, but are the least prepared of all high school students
for longer-term postsecondary education with an academic foundation.

The data also enable us to examine trends in persistence rates. Dropout rates at
community colleges and public technical institutes increased from the 1970s to
the 1980s, although they remained constant at proprietary institutions (see
Appendix Table A-2.4). Whether these higher dropout rates signify increased
difficulty completing programs, more students pursuing non-credential goals, or
other factors is unclear. However, the increases were most pronounced among

2 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

NY 5: Se



Volume II

Figure A-5,1
Average Credits Earned in Different Academic Subject Areas
by Vocational, General, and Academic Students, 1982, 1987, 1990, and 1992

English
4.5

+

4

Fa --
_—
3.5

3

2.5

2

15

1

0.5

0

1982 1987 1990 1992

Math

un

1982 1987 1990 1992

-TM Vocational << General -+— Academic

(continued)

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 9 1 2 A-29



Volume II

Figure 1.2
Percent of 1992 Graduates Earning Credits in Each Vocational Program Area,
and Percent of Earners Who Concentrate in That Program Area;

Earn Any Credits In:

Business ERIC 56

Trade and Industry | = RED

Technicat : 23

Occupational Home Ec i

Agriculture 7

Marketing [9]
x

Health [7

Earners Who Concentrate In:

Trade and Industry a

Agriculture 36

Occupational Home Ec | Wy
Marketing | Te
Health 16]

Business 5

Technical |

Source: 1992 NELS

Table 1.1
Vocational Coursetaking of 1992 Graduates in Urban,
Suburban, and Rural Areas

School Locale
Measures of Vocational Coursetaking Urban Suburban Rural
Number of vocational credits earned 3.47 3.34 4.43
Percent of credits earned in 15 14 19
vocational education .
| Percent of students wha are 21 21 30
| vocational concentrators
Percent of concentrators who are 35 31 31
vocational specialists
Source: 1992 NELS

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education oO

nn



Volume IT

ENDNOTES
1 Section 403 (b) (5).
2

10

1

13

Kulik, J.-A. (1994), High School Vocational Education and Curricular Tracking, draft report
prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education, University of Michigan.

Rasinski, K. A. (1994), The Effect of High School Vocational Education on Academic Achievement
Gain and High School Persistence: Evidence From the NELS 88, draft report prepared for the
National Assessment of Vocational Education, National Opinion Research Center.

For example, see Rasinski (1994), pp. 16ff. Also see Bishop, J. (1993b), Educational Reform

and Techical Education, p. 11, Cornell University, Center for Advanced Human Resources
Studies

Wirt, J.G., et al. (1989}, National Assessment of Vocational Education: Summary of Findings and
Recommendations, pp. 79ff, U.S. Department of Education. The math score increases
attributed to taking these vocational courses was not as great as the increases attributable
to taking regular math courses.

This assumes a constant level of coursetaking overall. In the 1980s students increased their
total courseload, and to the extent that this occurs, the need for a tradeoff between
academic and vocational education is reduced.

Denotes occupationally specific training in other than the eight major categories of
secondary vocational programs: agriculture, business, consumer/homemaking education,
health occupations, marketing/distribution, occupational home economics,
technical/communications, and trade and industry. This special labor market preparation
category includes five types of activities: Cooperative Education 1; Cooperative Education
2; Off-campus Voc/Tech Training (unspecified); Community Vocational and Adult
Education; and Courses in Regional Occupational Centers (unspecified).

Bishop (1993b), p. 15.

Hilton, T.L. (1971), A Study of Intellectual Growth and Vocational Development: Final Report,
Educational Testing Service. Cited in Kulik, p. 38 (1994).

Mertens, D. M., Seitz, P., & Cox, S. (1982), Vocational Education aud the High School Dropout,
Ohio State University, National Center for Research in Vocational Education. Cited in
Kulik (1994), p. 18. a

Peng, A.A., & Takai, R.T. (1983), High school dropouts: Descriptive information from High
School aud Beyond, National Center for Education Statistics Bulletin, U.S. Department of
Education. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Coombs, J., & Cooley, W.W. (1968), Dropouts: In high school and after school, American
Educational Research Journal, 5, 343-363. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Weber, J.M. (1988). Dropout rates for students in different high school curricula, Jornal of
Vocational Education Research, 13, 35-49. Cited in Kulik (1994).

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Conrsetaking 129

147



Volume II

Occupations requiring computer literacy have been among the fastest growing in
the last several c.ecades, though they still comprise a minority of all jobs. In 1989
the Current Population Survey (CPS) found that 36 percent of workers used
computers on the job.4 Women were more likely to use them than men (42%,
31%), and computer use increased with education level.

There is evidence that employees with computer skills receive higher wages than
similar employees who lack such skills. In a recent analysis of CPS data, Krueger
found that — controlling for background characteristics, education, training, and
occupation — employees who use computers at work earn higher wages than
other comparable workers.*

The Debate Over Skills

The extent to which economic changes such as these have affected and will affect
skill requirements has been a subject of debate. Vergun and Klein have examined
this issue in a review of the literature for the National Assessment. Much of the
information in this section is drawn from their review.

Some analysts have argued that the skills required of workers are growing
rapidly, outstripping the ability of education and training systems to provide
them. Noting the rapid growth of professional, technical, and managerial jobs,
analysts such as Johnston and Packer? warn that the country should be prepared
for an explosion in the demand for skills by the turn of the century. On the other
hand, critics of this view, such as Mishel and Texeira’ observe that the fastest
growing occupations comprise only a small part of the workforce, and that less
skilled, less highly paid occupations, though decreasing slowly, will continue to
be the norm.

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projections from 1990 to 2005 shed some light on
the debate (Table A).

Combii_ «g occupations, we see that the highly skilled professional, technical,
and managerial jobs are projected to increase from 26.5 to 28.9 percent of all jobs
in this period. Less skilled sales and service jobs are also expected to grow, in this
case from 27.2 to 28.8 percent of the workforce. Together, these highly skilled and
less skilled jobs are projected to increase by 4 percentage points, from 53.7 to 57.7
percent of the workforce. Other occupations will make up a declining share of
the workforce. These include clerical and other administrative support; crafts and
precision production; operators, fabricators, and laborers; and agricultural
workers. Jobs in these categories are projected to decrease by 4 percent, from 46.4
to 42.4 percent of the workforce.

These data show a modest increase in the demand for skills, much of it in
professional and managerial jobs requiring at least four years of college.
However, Bishop and Carter’ argue that BLS projections have historically

Introduction 1 4 xi

(ren reeerrrrenermenencteeenietetreenterieeenreniemeenenee



Volume II

students are less problematic than the others, because these two groups are
similar at the outset.

We agree that comparisons between vocational and general students are the most
likely to be valid and that the two groups differ little in postsecondary outcomes.
However, we do not think that the comparisons with academic students can be
dismissed, despite their methodological problems. Essentially they show that
academic programs are doing what they are designed to do — preparing
students for college. The alternative explanation is that academic programs
merely select students who are smart and would go to college regardless of what
high school program they took. Given what we know of college entrance
requirements, this seems not to be the case. However, the differences between
academic and vocational students in the probability of attending any
postsecondary institution — whether collegiate or vocational — may indeed be
small when other factors are controlled.

CONCLUSION

Given the Perkins emphasis on improved academics for students concentrating
in vocational education and the mandate to assess the academic outcomes of
vocational education, this chapter has examined the relation between secondary
vocational education and academic coursetaking, student achievement, high
school completion, and educational attainment. The findings are fairly
straightforward.

First, students defined as vocational concentrators (“vocational students”) take
fewer academic courses than those preparing for college and about the same
number as general track students. The deficit of vocational students is greatest in
math and science. However, vocational and general students are closing the gap
with college preparatory students, probably because of increased academic
requirements for graduation. Vocational students are gaining more rapidly than
general students.

Second, though academic students score better than vocational and general
students on standardized achievement tests, the difference is due primarily to
pre-existing differences among the students, not to participation in different
curricula. Kulik estimates that 80 percent of the difference in test scores is due to
characteristics of the students themselves, 10 percent to the fact that academic
students take more advanced academic classes, and 10 percent to other program
factors.

Third, vocational education probably helps reduce dropout rates, although there
is some evidence to the contrary.

Fourth, most studies find that academic programs improve students’
postsecondary outcomes relative to vocational and general programs. General

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 127

145



Volume II

ENDNOTES

1 Section 403(b)(6).

N

Martindale, M., & Branden, L. (1994), Survey of Employers, draft report prepared for the
National Assessment of Vocational Education, Westat.

All tables are weighted estimates. The sample was drawn with probability proportional to
establishment size, so weights proportional to the inverse of the probability of selection are
needed to accurately reflect the population. Westat adjusted these base weights to correct
for non-response, a process that assumes that non-respondents would have provided
answers similar to those provided by similar respondents. Validity of inferences from these
tables hinges on the accuracy of this assumption.

Lynn, 1. & Wills, J. (1994), School-to-Work-Transition Lessons on Recruiting and Sustaining
Employer Involvement, Institute for Educational Leadership.
Zemsky, R. (1993), What Employers Want: Youth Apprenticesltips and the Development of

Effective Policies for linproving the Educational Quality of the American Workforce, paper for the
Association for Public Policy and Management Conference.

a

6 Lynn and Wills (1994), p. 27.
7 Zemsky (1993), p. 8.

8 Lynn and Wills (1994), p. 6

170 Employer Involvement and Satisfaction



Volume IL

Table 1.3
Percent of Graduates Meeting Different Definitions of
“A Coherent Sequence of Courses,” 1982 to 1992

1982 | 1987 | 1990 | 1992

Percent of graduates earning at least 3 credits 76 72 70 65
in specific labor market courses who earned
at least 3 of those credits in one labor
market area (concentrators)

Percent of concentrators earning at least one 72 75 60 66
upper-ievel credit in their area of
concentration

Percent of graduates earning at least 4 credits 70 63 60 58

in specific labor market courses who earned
at least 4 of those credits in one labor
market area (advanced concentrators)

Percent of advanced concentrators earning at 41 42 29 13
least two upper-level credits in their area of
concentration (specialists)

Sources: 1982 HSB, 1987 NAEP, 1990 NAEP, and 1992 NELS

be taking business courses to better prepare for working in industry. Assuming
some of these are upper-level courses, this coursetaking pattern could account
for the fact that vocational students are still taking the same relative proportion
of upper-level courses, while fewer students take upper-level courses within
their program area. This interpretation is speculative; school staff did not note
such trends in the case studies, but they were not explicitly asked about this
issue. It is also possible that vocational students are simply less focused than they
were a decade ago, that fewer courses are available, or that completion
requirements for vocational programs have changed.

Enrollment Trends by Institution Type and Location

According to district administrators, vocational enrollments have declined more
in vocational districts than in regular districts (see Figure 1.4).5 However, this
pattern varies by region of the country. The national pattern characterizes
enrollment trends in the Northeast and Midwest, but in the South, vocational
enrollments have held their own in both types of districts, while in the West,
vocational enrollments have declined in regular districts and increased in

12 Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

33

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Volume II

Type of Institution

Several of the studies considered in this chapter also examined outcomes for
postsecondary vocational education students by the type of institution they
attended. The assumption is that if there are systematic quality differences across
institution type, one might expect to see differences in economic outcomes for
individuals with the same level of education attainment but in different types of
institutions.

The evidence of economic effects of proprietary schools is generally negative. The
only exception is that Grubb reports that for women, vocational credits in
proprietary schools increase wages significantly, but there is no effect on earnings.*8
Lyke et al. reported the same result.*? There also is some evidence that completion
rates are higher than in other institutions, but this does not hold when the analysis
controls for background factors.

Goodwin and Lyke et al. also found that when background factors were controlled,
unemployment rates were higher for proprietary school students than for students
who had attended other sub-baccalaureate postsecondary institutions. Goodwin,
using data from the High School and Bi.yond (senior cohort), reports that the type of
postsecondary institution (sub-baccalattreate) is related to the incidence of
unemployment for former students in the labor market. Individuals who attended
proprietary schools were more likely to be unemployed (27.7%) than those at
community colleges (18.9%) or public technical schools (16.5%), and were less likely
to use their training on the job.

Furthermore, students at proprietary schools had lower CURs (53%) than did their
counterparts in community colleges or public technical schools (both 60%).

On the other hand, studies by Sango-Jordan and Goodwin show that wages and
annual earnings of employed proprietary completers are substantially higher than
those of students from other sub-baccalaureate institutions. Bishop et al.6! found
that proprietary graduates are paid 4 percent more in their initial employment,
while Wilms® found that proprietary students earn more on their first job, but that
their later earnings are not significantly higher than comparable graduates from
other institutions. The only significant differences in the wages by type of institution
found by Goodwin were that students from public technical institutes earn about 11
percent less than students from community colleges, and 20 percent less than
students from proprietary schools.

As for completion rates, Moore® reviewed the research that analyzes the outcomes
of proprietary schools and comparable public programs. All but one of the studies
that analyzed completion rates found substantially higher rates for proprietary
schools when compared to similar programs in the public sector. However, this
effect disappeared when the completion rate was corrected for different background
factors of students at different types of institutions.*+ Moore notes that proprietary

152 Employment Outcomes

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CHAPTER 1 APPENDIX

Volume I

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

190



12

13

14

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

Volume II

Mullins, A.W. (1993), The Relationship Between Desirable Teacher Competencies and Years of Trade
Experience, Years of Teaching Experience, and Teacher Training of Trade and Industrial Teachers in
Virginia, Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University. Cited in Lynch (1994), p. 8.

Memorandum from Robert Crain and Robert Thaler, June 1994, Teachers College, Columbia
University, New York City.

Johnson, A.W., & Summers, A.A. (1993), What Do We Know About How 2zhools Affect the Labor
Market Performance of Their Students? University of Pennsylvania, National Center on the
Educational Quality of the Workforce. Cited in Lynch (1994), p. 12.

Lynch (1993), pp. 5-6.
Tbid., pp. 6-11.

Finch, C.R., et al. (1992), Course-Taking Patterns of Vocational Teacher Education Baccalaureate
Degree Recipients: Teacher Preparation, General Education, and Teaching Content Arca Studies,
National Center for Research in Vocational Education, in the literature review by Lynch,
(1993), pp. 20-22.

Ibid., p. 22.
Lynch (1993), p. 22.

National Assessment of Vocational Education Focus Group on Tech Prep, meeting of the
National Association of State Directors of Vocational and Technical Education, Kansas City,
September 1992.

Lynch (1993), pp. 28-34.

The probability that a vacancy will occur in a particular field in a school is a function of the
number of teachers in that field in that school. The SASS data do not permit these estimates,
but calculations at the aggregate teacher level indicate that taking number of teachers into
account does not substantially change the conclusions drawn from Table 3.8, except that
shortages of special education teachers are much more pronounced than the table suggests.

Henke, R. (1994). The Supply and Demand of Vocational Education Teachers: A Review of the
Literature, p. 2, MPR Associates.

Teachers in Vocational Education



Volume II

Grasso and Shea found substantial differences in the amount of college education
obtained by academic and vocational students who were similar in aptitude and
background, though not necessarily in college aspirations. There was little
difference between general track and vocational students. Academic students
could expect to attain 14 years of education, on average, while vocational
students could expect 12.3 years and general students, 12.6 years. Hilton found
that students who were average in aptitude and background but were enrolled in
academic or non-academic programs differed by .40 standard deviation in years
of schooling attained. His analysis did not control for educational aspirations and
did not distinguish between vocational and general track students.

The study by Vanfossen, Jones, and Spade?+ did control for aspirations as well as
for aptitude and student background; it found a moderate difference between the
educational attainment of academic and vocational students (.55 standard
deviation) and a very small difference between that of general and vocational
students (.10 standard deviation). Studies by Jencks and Brown? (which also
controlled for aspirations), and Hauser, Sewell, and Alwin?6 (which did not)
found rather small differences (.4 to .6 year) between the attainment of academic
students and that of non-academic students. Neither of these studies separated
vocational from general students.

On the whole, these studies find fairly large differences (.4 to .8 standard
deviation) between academic and non-academic students, and between academic
and vocational students, in the probability of attending college and in years of
college completed. They find smaller differences (roughly .2 to .5 standard
deviation) between academic and non-academic students in the probability of
attending any postsecondary institution and in years completed. They find very
small differences (.02 to .16 standard deviation) between academic and
vocational students in the likelihood of attending any postsecondary institution
and in years of education completed (a few months at most).

Kulik thinks that most of the differences between academic and vocational
students in these studies cannot be regarded as program effects, however. He
considers students’ plans for education or work after high school the critical
factor. Only two studies control for educational aspirations and compare
vocational students with academic students. One (Campbell & Basinger) shows a
very small difference (.08 standard deviation) in their probabilities of obtaining
some postsecondary education. The other (Vanfossen, Jones, & Spade) shows a
moderate difference in years of education attained (.55 standard deviation). Two
other studies (Creech et al., Jencks & Brown) control for aspirations and compare
academic with non-academic students. Both find significant but rather small
differences between the two groups.

In general, Kulik thinks that methodological problems, including inadequate
measurement of educational aspirations, cast doubt upon the findings of all the
studies, However, the comparisons between vocational and general track

Ro Caucational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking

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Volume Hf

Only in the area of vocational special needs has there been an increase in
enrollments of teacher-trainees (14% over three years), no doubt reflecting the
changing composition of vocational enrollments discussed in Chapter 1.

Coursework of Prospective Vocational Teachers

We saw earlier that vocational teachers are less likely than their academic
counterparts to have bachelor’s degrees. The majority have completed college,
however, and it will be useful to learn what kind of courses prospective
vocational teachers take in colleges and universities. How well prepared are they
to teach integrated academic and vocational education?

A recent analysis of the transcripts of vocational teachers who received
baccalaureates from 22 southern universities!7 found that 30 percent of their
coursework in general studies (including the liberal arts) was transferred from
other institutions, presumably community or technical colleges for the most part.
Almost all of it (92%) was completed in lower division courses in the freshman
and sophomore years. Further, this coursework was more concentrated in the
social sciences, humanities, and English than in math and science. Vocational
graduates of these programs have completed an average of eight credits in
math/computers — roughly, a one-semester course in math and one computer
course — and 10.5 credits in the natural sciences. The authors of this analysis
comment that there may be deficiencies in the undergraduate programs of
vocational teachers.

It seems clear that, in general, beginning vocational education
teachers did not pursue a rigorous liberal arts program .

Moreover, T&l teachers took significantly fewer courses in these
academic areas in their preservice preparation than any of the other
beginning vocational teachers.!6

They also note that

This is of particular concern if these graduates begin their careers
by working with teachers of mathematics, science, and other
general areas in the integration of academic and vocational
education.

Similarly, Lynch observes that

It can generally be assumed that [graduates receive] industry- or
business-based occupational experience, preparation to work with
at-risk or special needs students, a course in computer applications,
preparation on advising vocational youth organizations,
preparation to work with business-or industry-based groups, and
experience in a pre-service teaching clinical environment. It is less

76

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> Teachers in Vocational Education



Volume II

Table A-1.2
Percent of Teachers Reporting Problems for Vocational
Education in Their Schools (and Rank)

Vocational Teachers
Academic Comprehensive | Vocational
Problem Teachers | All High Schools Schools
Placing problem students into 39 (6) 55 (1) 56 (2) 52 (1)
vocational education
programs regardless of
appropriateness
Status of vocational education 45 (3) 54 (2) 57 (1) 43 (3)
in relation to academic
subjects
Student motivation 52(1) 49 (3) 49 (3) 48 (2)
Maintaining vocational 33 (10) 47 (4) 49 (3) 41 (4)
enrollments
Coordinating vocational and 43 (4) 42 (5) 42(5) 39 (6)
academic instruction
Student absenteeism 7 (2) 41 (6) 40 (6) 41 (4)
Adequacy of equipment 36 (7) 39 (7) 40 (6) 33 (8)
Time available for working 40 (5) 38 (8) 39 (8) 37 (7)
with students other than
students with special needs
Access to computers 35 (8) 34 (9) 36 (9) 27 (10)
Teachers’ preparation in 31 (12) 33 (10) 34 (10) 30 (9)
instructing students with
special needs
Support services for students 24 (14) 3011) 32 (11) 23 (12)
with special needs
Student discipline 349) | 27 (12) 27 (13) 26 (11)
Link between vocational 32.(11) 26 (13) 28 (12) 18 (14)
curriculum and local labor
market
Maintaining high instructional 29 (13) 24 (14) 25 (14) 20 (13)
standards

NOTE: Along with a list of potential problems in their schools, teachers were asked to rate each
problem on a scale ranging from no problem (1) to serious problem (4). The rankings shown
reflect the proportion of teachers who rated each problem as serious. Thus inappropriate
placement of problem students in vocational education is ranked number | among vocational
teachers because the proportion who considered it a serious problem is larger than for any other
problem.

Source: National Assessment of Vocational Education Teacher Survey

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education t 57 AIL


Volume II

Table A
Employment by Major Occupational Group, 1990 and Projected 2005
1990 2005
Occupation Number Percent Number Percent
Total, all occupations 122,573 100.00 147,191 100.00
Executive, administrative, 12,451 10.2 15,866 10.8
and managerial
Professional specialty 15,800 265 © 199 20,907 289% a2
Technicians and related 4,204 34 5,754 39
support
Marketing and sales 14,088 us 17,489 19
27.2 28.8
Service occupations 19,024 187 24,806 16.9
Administrative support 21,951 179 24,835 169
occupations, including
clerical
Precision producticn, craft, 14,124 ns 15,909 10.8
and repair
Operators, fabricators, 17,245 ira 17,961 12.2
and laborers
Agricultural, forestry, 3,506 29 3,665 25
fishing, and related
occupations

Source: Silvestri & Lukasiewicz

underestimated growth in skill requirements, because of conservative biases in
their methods. Bishop and Carter estimate that professional, technical, and
managerial jobs will increase from 27 percent in 1990 not to 29 percent, as BLS
estimates, but to 34 percent.

In addition to these changes across occupations, technology and new forms of
work organization are changing, skill requirements within occupations. As
Vergun and Klein point out, though computers are deskilling many traditional
occupations such as bookkeeping and precision machining, skill requirements in
most occupations are likely to remain constant or increase slightly.

Nii Introduction

15 —-



Volume II

ENDNOTES

1

10

u

Section 403 (b) (3).
Ibid.

Apart from the timing of the two surveys, there are important differences in their design. For
this chapter, the most important difference is that the National Assessment Teacher Survey
included only those vocational teachers who were training students for occupations, while
the SASS included all vocationally oriented teachers. In particular, the SASS included all
home economics and industrial arts teachers, while the Teacher Survey included only the
teachers of those courses specifically designed to prepare students for occupations (e.g.,
commercial food preparation in occupational home economics). The occupational and
non-occupational vocational teachers in the SASS cannot be distinguished. Thus, the
characteristics associated with teaching for occupations are more pronounced among the
National Assessment teachers than among the SASS teachers. This chapter and the next rely
mainly on data from the Teacher Survey, so the teachers referred to are primarily those who
teach occupational vocational courses. Only the SASS data will refer to non-occupational
teachers as well.

Hamermesh, D.S., & Rees, A. (1984), The Economics of Work and Pay, Harper and Row.

It is also interesting that teachers in vocational high schools are about twice as likely as other
teachers to have had related work experience in the Armed Forces: 12% vs. 6%. The tendency
of vocational schools to hire former military members is of particular interest during this time
of reductions in military manpower. Virtually all enlisted personnel have high school
diplomas; many have some college, often acquired in the military; and most have acquired
vocational -technical training and work experience in the military.

Relatively high proportions of health occupation teachers also lack college degrees, but their
numbers are small.

Lynch, R.L. (1993), Vocational Teacher Education in U.S. Colleges and Universities and Its
Responsiveness to the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990
p. 11, University of Georgia, School of Leadership and Lifelong Learning.

Ibid., p. 17.

Russell, H., et al. (1990), Faculty in Higher Education Institutions, U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement; Hoachlander, E.G., et al. (1992),
Vocational Education in the United States, 1969-1990, U.S. Department of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics.

Lynch, R. (1994), Occupational Experiences as the Basis for Alternative Teacher Certification in
Vocational Education, University of Georgia, Schoo! of Leadership and Lifelong Learning.

Schwartz, N.K. (1974), Effects of Trade Experience, Teaching E3
on the Classroom Teaching Performance of Secondary School Vocational Industrial Education
lustructors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Instituie and State
University. Cited in Lynch (1994), p. 8.

wrience, aud Professional Education

82

Teachers in Vocational Education

104



Volume II

Figure A-1.1

Average Number of Credits 1992 Graduates Earned in Each

Vocational Program Area, by School Locale

Agriculture [i701]

Business

Marketing

Health

Occupational
Home Economics

Trade and Industry

Technical

im Suburban | Rural

Source: 1992 NELS

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191



Volume H

Traditionally, secondary vocational programs have trained students for entry-
level jobs after they leave high school. However, entry-level jobs can quickly
become dead-end jobs for those who cannot use thein as stepping stones to better
positions. While we have no data on how well students think they are prepared
for work immediately after high school, the NELS survey contains student
assessments of their preparedness for jobs later on. Table 4.2 shows how well
four different groups of students think they are prepared for jobs they might
have five years after graduation.

Table 4.2
Seniors’ Assessment of Their Skill Needs for Jobs Five Years After Graduation
(Percent in Each Type of Program)

College Vocational Vocational
Prep General | Concentrators* | Specialists>
Enough skills now for
job five years from now?
Yes 4 11 14 11
No 96 89 86 89
Of those lacking skills,
percent needing:
Job training/ 24 21 26 17
apprenticeship
Work experience, on- 3 9 20 21
the-job training
2- or 4-year college 72 61 37 49
Vocational/trade 1 10 16 12
school

NOTE: Percentages do not add to 100 because of rounding.
* Those taking three or more courses in an occupational subject.

> Those taking four or more courses in an occupational subject, at least two of which are
advanced courses.

Source: 1992 NELS

rogram Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education
88 Program R ts and C Secondary Vocational Educat

106


CHAPTER 4 APPENDIX

Volume II

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205

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Volume II

Table A-1.1

Average Number of Vocational Education Credits Earned,

by Student Type, 1982 to 19924

Student Type 1982 1987 1990 1992
Disability status
Not disabled — 4.37 4.05 _
Disabled _— 5.99 5.99 _
Test quartile
Top 25% 2.84 ~ _ 2.30.
50-75% 4.66 _ _ 3.42
25-50% 5.55 _ — 4.37
Bottom 25% 5.92 _ _ 5.06
GPA
Mostly As 3.23 2.90 2.59 2.44
Mostly Bs 439 4.10 3.69 3.49
Mostly Cs 5.26 5.02 4.85 4.32
Mostly below C 4.96 5.08 5.00 4.74
Remedial credits
0 4.47 4.17 3.76 3.54
.01-1.99 5.24 5.01 4.93 4.39
2 or more 5.13 5.53 5.53 5.36
SES status
Highest 25% 3.23 _— _ 2.41
50-75% 4.44 - - 3.54
25-50% 5.12 _ _ 4.39
Lowest 25% 5.56 —_ _ 4.74
1

* Comparable data across years are not available for single parents or LEP students. Disabled
students were defined consistently only in the 1987 and 1990 NAEP, and test score and SES data

are available only in the 1982 HSB and 1992 NELS.

Sources: 1982 HSB, 1987 NAEP, 1990 NAEP, 1992 NELS

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume IL

one-third of regular school districts, encompassing one-half of secondary
students, require sequences of vocational courses for program completion. The
proportion requiring sequences of vocational and academic courses is almost
certainly smaller. Except in districts with few vocational offerings, it should be
possible for vocational and academic educators to create the coherent course
sequences called for in Perkins. Doing so would provide more of the educational

structure and context that many students outside the college prep track seem to
need.

While secondary vocational programs may prepare students for entry-level jobs,
vocational students say they are not prepared for the jobs they expect to hold five
years after graduation. In fact, the great majority of all secondary students feel
that they need more skills for such jobs. Of these, the majority say they need
some form of postsecondary education.

In some ways, secondary vocational classes resemble academic classes. Lectures,
paper-and-pencil classwork, and tests are fairly common in both types of classes.
However, vocational courses do place more emphasis on working with
equipment, activities related to occupational projects, and performance in class.

Instruction in computer literacy is a strength of secondary vocational education
and i: concentrated mainly in business and technical courses. Vocational
education should build upon this strength, becoming the principal provider of
computer literacy for all secondary students.

Vocational programs have a modest amount of academic content, which tends to
be basic rather than advanced. Applied academics seem to receive major
emphasis in the more advanced vocational courses, though. Academic courses
have very little occupational content, judging from the amount of class time
spent on the subject. On the whole, there is enough academic subject matter in
vocational education and barely enough occupational emphasis in academic
classes to permit integration to begin. However, large-scale integration will
require much more cross-curricular content than exists now.

Homework is a significant contributor to academic achievement, and arguably to
vocational achievement as well. Yet vocational students do considerably less
homework than their academic counterparts and clearly have time to do more.
We think that local education systems should give homework more emphasis
in preparing students for the workforce. This emphasis should go hand-in-
hand with curricular integration.

In grading decisions, which reflect educational priorities, vocational programs
place considerable emphasis on specific occupational skills and on work
readiness skills. The SCANS workplace competencies, such as teamwork and the
ability to use technology, are significant contributors to students’ grades.
However, an empirical study finds that the SCANS workplace competencies are

104 Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education

122



Volume II

Vocational programs enroll a higher proportion of disabled, disadvantaged, and
single-parent students than do other postsecondary programs (see Figure 2.3).
This pattern mirrors that at the secondary level, where disabled and
disadvantaged students participate in vocational education at higher rates than
other students. However, while secondary LEP students enroll in vocational
education at relatively high rates, at the postsecondary level they enroll at
relatively low rates. The GAO found that over 40 percent of “regular” students
are in vocational education programs, as are over 50 percent of disabled and
disadvantaged students, but only 33 percent of LEP students. !8 It is unclear
whether this low participation rate results from a shortage of vocational
language services or from different educational goals among these students.

Figure 2.3
Postsecondary Students in Each Special Population Category
by Program Type, 1989
40
35 ee
30-14)
~ 25
=z 6]
g 20 2
245-1 20
104 14 Ki p
54 g $
oA cit 2
Low SES: Low SES: No Regular Disabled Single
Dependent Independent High School Parent
Students Students Diploma
Vocational JJ Academic, Non-Baccalaureate [Baccalaureate
Source: Tuma (1993)

For those groups that are overrepresented in vocational education, enrollment
imbalances exist primarily across, not within, institutions. The exclusively
vocational institutions (vocational-technical institutes and proprietary schools)
enroll the highest proportions of special needs students, while the four-year
institutions, with a predominantly academic focus, enroll the smallest

proportions. The more “mixed” institutions, such as community colleges, fall in
between. (See Table A-2.1 in the Appendix.)

48 6 9 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education
|

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Volume II

Vocational programs serve a wider array of students, particularly special
population students, than do other postsecondary programs, mainly by
providing programs in more diverse and accessible institutions. Blacks and
Hispanics are overrepresented in postsecondary vocational education, and in the
more costly vocational institutions, perhaps because of a greater interest in the
shorter programs offered by these institutions, as well as greater concentration of
non-public institutions in urban areas.

Disabled and disadvantaged students are also overrepresented in vocational
programs, but LEP students are underrepresented (relative to their enrollments
in other postsecondary programs). It is difficult to determine what motivates
these enrollment patterns. We do know, however, that although public sub-
baccalaureate institutions offer a wide array of supplemental services for special
population students, some institutions have difficulty meeting the special needs
of educationally disadvantaged and LEP students. Our impression is that these
problems are most severe in areas where disadvantaged and LEP populations are

relatively large and growing, placing an excessive burden on institutions’
resources.

To more adequately meet the needs of all special population students, Perkins
funds should be more closely targeted on institutions with large and growing
concentrations of special population students. The concentration of immigrant
populations in the institutions’ local area (or some other measure of LEP
student concentration) should also be considered in the allocation of funds.

Postsecondary vocational enrollment trends are very different from those at the
secondary level. While secondary vocational enrollments are declining,
postsecondary enrollments are increasing, and while the concentration of special
population students in vocational education is increasing at the secondary level,
it appears to be holding steady — or declining — at the postsecondary level.
These different trends may represent adjustments to a labor market that is
shifting to higher-level vocational skills. To some extent, it may also represent the
different pressures that affect secondary rather than postsecondary vocational
education — factors such as the need to educate all students, increased academic
requirements, and declining program budgets.

Within vocational program areas, secondary and postsecondary vocational
education appear to be responding similarly to labor market conditions.
Postsecondary enrollments are increasing in areas of job growth, such as the
health, child care, and food service industries, and declining in low-growth job
areas, such as business. Federal policy action cannot effectively initiate these
adjustments to the labor market, but it can help them occur more quickly by
providing funds for new equipment and curricula, as the Perkins Act currently
does. To improve vocational programs’ labor market responsiveness, and
ther2fore students’ employment prospects, Perkins funds should be targeted
within institutions on programs in areas with growing job demand.

54 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education



Volume II

Table A-2.4
Completion, Persistence, and Dropout Rates for Classes of 1972 and 1980,
Four Years After High School Graduation (Percent)

Community Public Technical Proprietary
College Institute School

Class of 1972

Completion 23 32 38

Persistence 48 32 21

Dropout 30 36 41
Class of 1980

Completion 19 36 36

Persistence 39 18 22

Dropout 42 46 42

Sources: Goodwin (1989); Grubb (1993a).

Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

204

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APPENDIX FOR INTRODUCTION

Volume II

Introduction



Volume II

The Effect of Tested Occupational and Technical Skills

Bishop examined the effects of occupation-specific skills and broader technical skills
on outcomes such as wages, earnings, and employment. He reports that a
constructed measure of broad technical skills is strongly related to employment
outcomes, regardless of the type of job obtained. Bishop created a composite score
from the ASVAB’s mechanical, auto shop, and electronic subtests. After controlling
for a range of other variables, he found that scores on this test composite were
strongly related to wages, earnings, and employment status. Moreover, these effects
increased over time for the individual.

Two things are notable about this analysis. First, the breadth of the measure seems to
permit employment effects that are not dependent on training-related jobs. Second,
the measure no doubt reflects a substantial amount of general cognitive ability. As
we saw earlier, cognitive ability accounts for much of the variance across ASVAB
subtests, and it also is associated with employment outcomes that increase over
time. The analysis does not assess the independent effects of the underlying
cognitive ability.

Summary of Secondary Employment Outcomes

Evidence regarding the effects of vocational coursetaking per se on employment
outcomes is mixed, but there are clear benefits early in one’s career if a training-
related job is found. Academic coursetaking has small effects on early employment
outcomes, but somewhat larger effects later on.

Tested skills have more consistent effects on these outcomes than do courses, no
doubt because skills affect job performance. Cognitive skills improve wages and
earnings, especially later in one’s career. Measures of broad technical skills are also
related to improved wages and earnings although it is unclear how much of the
relation is due to underlying cognitive skills. Nonetheless, these findings are
consistent with an educational approach that emphasizes the development of
cognitive and broad technical skills.

Outside the context of educaiicn, the psychological testing literature shows that
general cognitive ability is the strongest predictor of job performance and a strong
predictor of other educational and employment outcomes. Joh knowledge is also a
good predictor of performance in related jobs.

POSTSECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Vocational education at the postsecondary level is quite different from vocational
education in high school. First, and probably most important, postsecondary
education is voluntary whereas secondary education is mandatory (at least through
age 16). Postsecondary programs also are more intensive, more sophisticated, and
more likely to be in fields of study that lead to high-paying jobs, such as health or

” 16 4 Employinent Outcomes



Volume II

CHAPTER 4

PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS AND COURSES IN SECONDARY
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Having discussed the preparation and qualifications of vocational teachers, we
turn to an examination of program requirements and courses in secondary
vocational education, to assess their consistency with Perkins goals, their role in
preparing students for work, and some aspects of their role in secondary
education. The chapter draws on data from the Omnibus Surveys, the
Community Case Studies, the National Assessment of Vocational Education
Teacher Survey, and the National Education Longitudinal Study’s (NELS) 1992
Followup Survey. (These data sources are discussed in the Technical Appendix.)

The chapter first examines completion requirements in secondary vocational
programs, with reference to the Perkins standard that recipient programs should
comprise a coherent sequence of academic and vocational courses. It then looks
at students’ assessments of their preparation for jobs in the future.

After desccibing some of the teaching and learning activities in vocational classes,
the chapter turns to course content. It examines computer training, cross-
curricular content (e.g., academic subject matter in vocational classes), and
applied academics in vocational education. Cross-curricular content is important
because of its potential to facilitate the Perkins goal of integrating academic and
vocational education.

The chapter also describes and/or assesses some other aspects of education in
vocational classes — the assignment of homework, factors in grading decisions,
and methods of measuring student performance.

VOCATIONAL PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS

Program requirements establish criteria for entering and completing vocational
programs, among other things. In so doing, they determine much of the subject
matter a vocational student learns. Our Community Case Study and Omnibus
Survey data provide some information on program requirements. Course
materials collected in the 20 case study sites contain information on prerequisites
for vocational courses. In addition to this information, the Surveys contain data
on completion requirements for vocational programs.

An examination of the course materials from the case study sites indicates that
vocational courses usually do not have prerequisites. They are generally open to
all students in a given grade range. This “open admissions” approach is often

Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education 85

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Volume IT

education. Virtually all comprehensive high schools (98%) either offered
vocational education courses or provided access to area vocational schools.
Among schools with access to an AVS, less than one-third of vecational
coursetaking (29%) occurs at the AVS. This percentage is relatively low because
some schools do not send any students to the AVS, often because distance is a
problem. Among the 72 percent that do utilize AVSs, 40 percent of vocational
credits are earned at these schools.

In spite of its widespread availability, vocational education makes up a relatively
small part of the high school curriculum. On average, about 20 percent of grade
9-12 teachers are vocational education teachers, 16 percent of the credits high
school students earn are in vocational education, and about 24 percent of high
school students are vocational students (as defined in the following section).

CURRENT ENROLLMENTS

To assess participation in secondary vocational education, we use teacher and
administrator reports on student enrollment patterns from the National
Assessment’s Omnibus Surveys, Follow-up Surveys, and Community Case
Studies. We also use student high school transcript records, which provide more
detailed and precise information on course enrollments. (All of these data
collections are described in more detail in the Technical Appendix.)

‘The Transcript Data

The transcript data are derived from a series of studies conducted by the U.S.
Department of Education. As used here, the studies provide records of students’
enrollments in grades 9-12 for the public high school graduating classes of 1982
(in the High School and Beyond survey, or HSB), 1987 and 1990 (the National
Assessment of Educational Progress, or NAEP), and 1992 (the National
Education Longitudinal Study, or NELS). Coursetaking in the transcript data is
counted in Carnegie units, each of which is equivalent to a one-hour course that
meets daily for a full school year. For the sake of simplicity, we will refer to a
Carnegie unit as a course or credit.

We use the transcript data to define vocational students (or concentrators) and
vocational specialists. Vocational students are those who earn at least three
credits in a specific vocational program area, such as agriculture or business.
Vocational specialists are those who earn at least four credits in a vocational
program area, with at least two of those credits at an advanced or upper level.
We use the terms vocational student and vocational concentrator
interchangeably.

[a . .
4 RScipation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume ff

CONCLUSION

Almost every high school student earns at least some credits in vocational
education courses, but only one in four graduates as a vocational student — that
is, earns at least three credits within one vocational program area. Among the 24
percent of students who do concentrate their vocational coursetaking, business
and trade and industry (“the trades”) are by far the two most popular program
areas. Technical education courses are also relatively popular, although very few
students concentrate in this area. Opportunities for computer experience seem to
motivate much of the interest in business and technical education courses.

Vocational enrollments have been declining since the early 1980s, and as of 1992
this decline shows no signs of abating. The decline has occurred throughout the
vocational curriculum, but has been most pronounced in business and trades
courses. Other program areas (agriculture, marketing, health, occupational home
economics, and technical education) show only small enrollment declines or —
for technical education — an increase. These enrollment trends seem to follow
labor market trends, suggesting at least some degree of responsiveness to labor
market conditions. Other factors, such as academic reforms and economic
recession, may also be contributing to vocational enrollment declines.

Declines in vocational enrollments have been larger in vocational schools than in
other schools, and smaller in rural areas and the South than elsewhere. The
relative strength of vocational education in rural areas and the South may reflect
a greater reliance on jobs in traditional vocational fields in these areas. The
greater declines in vocational schools probably reflect a variety of conditions,
including expanding turf battles as school budgets decline, the growing
stigmatization of vocational schools as they increasingly focus on serving at-risk
students, and students’ having less time to travel to AVSs as they attempt to meet
higher graduation requirements.

Students’ vocational coursetaking has also become slightly less “coherent,” in the
sense that it is not as concentrated within an individual program area as it was a
decade ago. Since concentrated vocational coursetaking leads to better
employment outcomes, this shift may be problematic. On the other hand, it could
represent a more interdisciplinary pattern of coursetaking occurring in response
to changes within the labor market. It is also possible that as enrollments and
budgets drop, schools are less able to maintain small upper-level vocational
courses, so that students’ opportunities for coherent coursetaking may have been
reduced.

Secondary vocational enrollments continue to be highly sex-typed. Only
marketing has fairly balanced vocational student enrollments, with vocational
concentrators in trade and industry, agriculture, and technical programs being
mostly boys, and vocational concentrators in business, health, and occupational
home economics being mostly girls. Over time, boys have increased their

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 54 3

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Volume II

Postsecondary vocational faculty also have less formal education than others,
although they are more likely to have subject-specific training. In fact, the
educational level of postsecondary vocational faculty is about the same as that of
secondary vocational teachers. Those in trade and industry have even less formal
education than their counterparts in secondary schools.

The chapter examined studies bearing on the relative emphasis that should be
accorded occupational experience and formal education in certifying vocational
teachers, especially those in trade and industry. On balance, substituting
occupational experience for formal education does not seem to be a good idea. The
evidence suggests that more than two to four years of occupational experience,
does little to improve teaching and may be counterproductive. On the other hand,
formal postsecondary education is associated with positive teaching outcomes.

We recommend that state certification requirements for all new vocational
teachers, including those in trade and industry, include attainment of a
bachelor’s degree and preparation in teaching methods. Depending on the
educational field taught, some occupational experience should also be
required. Postsecondary institutions, whose T&I teachers are even less likely
than those at the secondary level to have completed college, should also
require bachelor’s degrees of all new occupational faculty. The fact that most
vocational teachers, and over half of those in secondary trade and industry
programs, already meet these standards suggests that changing the requirements
should not make it too difficult to recruit qualified teachers.

Vocational education is changing as a result of reform activities at the federal,
state, and local levels. (See Chapter 1, Volume III.) States and localities are
beginning to respond to the reforms called for in the Perkins Act and the federal
School-to-Worl. initiative. Some states are undertaking fundamental reforms of
secondary education to better prepare non-baccalaureate students for the
workforce. Assuming these reforms continue to spread and take on substance,
the ways in which vocational and academic teachers are prepared for their jobs
will have to change.

The reforms that teachers will need to be prepared for include:

An orientation toward workforce preparation for a large part of the
secondary student body;

Emphasis on developing cognitive and broad technical skills in an
integrated context;

Preparing non-baccalaureate students for postsecondary education
in community colleges and technical institutes through

arrangements such as tech-prep programs; and

Student participation in work experience programs.

80 Teachers in Vocational Education

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Volume IT

ACCESS AND PARTICIPATION OF SPECIAL POPULATION STUDENTS

In this section we examine the access and participation of special population
students in secondary vocational education. As defined in the Perkins Act, these
students include disabled students (special education students on the NELS,
students with Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) on the NAEP);
educationally disadvantaged students (defined variously as those with low GPAs
or low test scores, or those who have taken remedial courses); economically
disadvantaged students (based on a composite measure of parents’ income,
education, and occupation or on eligibility for federal lunch program); and
limited English proficient (LEP) students (as identified by eighth grade teachers).
We also include single parents (including pregnant teens) in some analyses.

We first analyze data from the Omnibus Survey and 1993 Follow-up Survey to
assess access; then we examine transcript and other data to describe participation
in vocational education. The transcript studies differ in the categories of special
needs students they permit us to identify; disabled students were defined in a
consistent manner (based on IEPs) only in the 1987 and 1990 NAEP studies, and
LEP students are appropriately defined only in the 1992 NELS. These special
population student categories are discussed in more detail in the Technical
Appendix

Access to Vocational Schools

Although vocational education is widely available, vocational schools are not.
The Interim Report noted that only 64 percent of public school districts offer
access to vocational schools, with suburban schools having slightly more access
overall (65% versus 50% for rural and urban schools).® Because suburban schools
enroll smaller proportions of special population students than do rural and
urban schools, specialized vocational schools tend to be less accessible to special
needs students. However, these students tend to take more vocational
coursework and to enroll in vocational schools at higher rates than other
students, so that most special population groups are overrepresented in
vocational schools in spite of their lower levels of access (see Figure 1.7 in the
section on “Dumping”).

Special Schools

In Chapter 1 of Volume V, we note that under the new Act, Perkins funds have
become more concentrated in districts with large numbers of special population
students. This concentration of funds reflects Congressional interest in serving
the most needy students. However, as the new Perkins Act was being
implemented, we heard from a number of schools that serve special needs
students exclusively — such as schools for the disabled, alternative schools for
dropouts or potential dropouts — that they were excluded from receiving
Perkins funds.

16 Participation in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

Vocations! students who derive the greatest benefits early in their
careers ary :nase who take many vocational courses in a coherent
program of study and find jobs that utilize their training. This is true for
both secondary and postsecondary students.

Those who complete a postsecondary occupational program tend to
have better economic outcomes than individuals with an equivalent
number of credits that do not lead to a degree. A much larger proportion
of degree completers find jobs that match their training. Taking some
postsecondary vocational courses without completing a degree also
provides greater benefits than high school graduation alone.

The level of the degree attained affects economic outcomes. Those with
baccalaureate degrees gain the most in terms of wages and employment.
There also are benefits for those completing vocational associate’s
degrees, but the effect is complicated by a variety of factors, including
the field of study and the institution where the degree was earned. The
results for completers of vocational certificates are mixed. Results from
the NLS72 show no improvements in employment outcomes, whereas
the SIPP data show improved economic outcomes compared with high
school graduates.

Not surprisingly, specific fields of vocational study are related to
different economic outcomes. At both the secondary and postsecondary
level, men and women with degrees or certificates in business or health-
related fields have improved wages and earnings. In addition, women
with technical associate’s degrees fare better than most men or other
women.

The type of institution where individuals study affects economic
outcomes. Studies consistently find that community college students are
more likely to be employed and are more likely to utilize their vocational
credits than are students from other types of institutions.

Throughout this review, economic outcomes for women with vocational
credentials surpass those for men, even controlling for other intervening
factors. Women are ma _ “ely to improve their wages and earnings
with vocational training; uiey are more likely to find a match between
training and employment; and they are more likely to benefit from
completing a degree, at all levels.

For high school students with disabilities, participation in vocational
programs appears to improve academic performance, reduce dropout
rates, and improve the likelihood of employment after school
completion.

154

1 72 Employment Outcomes



Volume IT

Table 5.3
Proportion of Students in Matched Groups Who Dropped Out of High School
Non-

Study Vocational | Vocational
Perlmutter, 1982

Vocational/non-vocational coursetaking 12 31
Stern et al., 1989 (Academy / Comparison)

Over 3 years 7 15

Over 2 years 7 14

Over 1 year 3 2

Source: Kulik (1994)

Stern and associates!® collected data on students in 11 California occupational
academy programs (see Chapter 4 in Volume III) and on other students in the
same schools matched on race, gender, attendance, grades, and test scores. Table
5.3 shows that over periods of two and three years, academy students were less
likely to drop out than comparison students. The lack of difference in rates over
one year is not very important; it evidently reflects measurements at the
beginning and end of the 1987-88 school year, whereas most dropouts occur
between school years.

Multivariate Analyses

Studies using multivariate analyses carry the process of controlling factors other
than vocational education a step further. Where the previous studies matched
students on several characteristics (e.g., gender, race, achievement) before
comparing them, regression analyses can match students on additional
characteristics, including features of the schools and programs they enroll in.

Table 5.4 summarizes the results of regression analyses in seven different studies
that examined the relation between vocational education and dropping out of
school. The table shows the estimated reduction in the dropout rate due to
participation in vocational education programs. (Studies in which the control
group is non-vocational or general students report percentage point differences.
Those in which the control group is students with fewer vocational credits report
relative percentage reductions for each additional vocational credit.)

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking 119

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Volume IT

Table A.1
Prevalence and Intensity of High-Performance Workplace Firms With
More Than 50 Emp!oyees, by Size of Firm

Total Employees

50-249 | 250-999} 1,000+ All

Counting steps done with any % % 1 % %
intensity (1-5)
No steps 17 5 3 15
1-3 steps 49 38 40 47
4+ steps 35 56 57 38

Counting only steps done with
moderate or high intensity (3-5)

No steps 21 8 13 19
1-3 steps 52 45 41 50
4+ steps 27 47 46 31

Counting only steps done with high
intensity (4-5)

No steps 33 19 25 31

1-3 steps 51 47 47 51

4+ steps 15 34 27 18
Number of firms

Weighted 229,364 | 38,089 6,642 | 274,096

Unweighted 909 618 377 1,898

NOTE: Percentages may not add to 100 because of rounding.

Source: 1993 Employer Survey

NViii 2 1 Introduction



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Volume II

In the 1960s and 1970s, affordability improved as tuition costs rose more slowly
than family income, and financial aid programs grew. Since 1980, however,
college costs have risen faster than inflation, family income, and financial aid. In
addition, shifts in financial aid from grants to loans have further increased the
financial burden of college attendance.”

From 1980 to 1990, tuition increased at all types of postsecondary institutions,
with the largest increases at four-year institutions, and the smallest increases at
public two-year institutions,8 the institutions that provide most postsecondary
vocational training. However, in recent years, state budget crises have reduced
many states’ support for community colleges, necessitating tuition increases that
are not reflected in these data. In short, affordability appears to be an increasing
problem for all postsecondary students.

Supplemental Service Availability

The extent to which supplemental services are available as needed for special
population students (i.e., disabled, educationally or economically disadvantaged,
and LEP students) is difficult to determine. Institutions claim to provide services
to any student who expresses a need for assistance, and by and large institutions
seem to make good faith efforts to provide these services. Nonetheless, some
problems do exist. We noted above that services and programs for LEP students
seem to be in short supply in some areas. The General Accounting Office (GAO)
also noted in their recent study of postsecondary vocational education that some
schools have difficulty finding language interpreters for LEP students.?

As mentioned above, there is also an increasing need for remedial education and
other services for educationally disadvantaged students. Remedial programs are
currently quite common; 95 percent of public two-year postsecondary
institutions offer these programs, and remedial programs are expanding.1°
However, these offerings apparently are not keeping pace with demand; the
GAO study noted that of all supplemental services, colleges have the greatest
difficulty meeting the need for remedial courses and tutors.

Further, demand for these services is likely to rise, in response to both increasing
postsecondary enrollments and new state standards and policies. For example,
some states are prohibiting remediation in four-year institutions, and others are
increasing the academic requirements for postsecondary vocational students. !!
Both of these policies will increase demand for remedial education programs in
sub-baccalaureate institutions.

Services for disabled students seem to be more adequately addressed, most likely
because of strong federal legislation (the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act), as well as the relatively small and stable size of this population. For
example, the GAO study noted that neither students with disabilities nor

44 Participation in Postsecondary Vocational Education

65



Volume Il

Figure 5.3
Mean Standardized Scores on TGI Industrial Arts Scale
by Year and Curriculum

58 5

57 fan _ a

Crt,
went yom
Cnesscetureerenscereresestyy
qT qT
Grade 9 Grade 11
(1966) (1967)
mame Academic Vocational «swe General +--vve, Business

Source: Based on Hilton (1971)

Descriptive Findings

The dropout rates from several of the studies reviewed by Kulik are shown in
Table 5.2.

Analyzing High School and Beyond data and using sophomore student reports
of their curricular status, Peng and Takai"! found that vocational students were a
little more likely than general students to drop out, and much more likely than
academic students to do so.

6 Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking
134
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Volume Ti

Findings from the NELS survey are consistent with the teachers’ reports. Figure
4.4 shows how much homework vocational and academic students report doing,
and some of the other ways they spend time outside of school.

Figure 4.4
Student Activities Outside School

a a |

my College Prep
ial Students

Less than 1 hour
of homework per week

| | General Track
Students

Vocational
Concentrators

Less than 1 hour
of non-school
reading per week

Oo
| Vocational

Specialists

Drive or ride
around every day/
almost every day

70 «680 690) «6100
Percent of Students

Source: 1992 NELS

Vocational students, and particularly the specialists, do less homework than
college prep students, and they also do less outside reading. On the other hand,
they watch more TV, are more likely to play video or computer games such as
Nintendo, and are more likely to spend time driving or riding around in cars.
General track students tend to do more homework and reading outside of school
than vocational students. They also spend a little more time watching TV and are
about as likely to play computer games or ride around in cars.

loo Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education

118



Volume It

consider applied academic and basic reading skills important; one-fourth
consider basic math important; and smaller proportions consider other academic
skills important in grading. While basic academics play a role in these decisions,
advanced academics usually do not.

The SCANS skills play a fairly important role in the grades assigned by teachers
in vocational schools. Yet the definition of these skills is relatively new, and their
contribution to job performance is a subject that requires investigation. One
empirical study of SCANS in the utilities industry finds that the “foundation
skills,” which emphasize academics, thinking skills, and personal character, are
significantly related to job performance.” The “workplace competencies” (e.g.,
teamwork skills, understanding technological systems) are not significantly
related to job performance, with one exception — information management,
probably the most academic of these competencies.

Vocational teachers place a good deal of emphasis on some foundation skills
(oral communication, creative thinking, self-management), but less on others
(basic math, and especially writing). The workplace competencies, which do not
seem to pay off in the utilities industry, receive moderate to heavy emphasis from
vocational teachers. The one exception is research and reference skills, which are
associated with better job performance, but which receive little emphasis in
vocational (or academic) grading decisions.

Measures of Student Performance

This section looks briefly at the ways in which vocational and academic teachers
measure student performance. While factors in grading decisions reflect the
educational values of the class, performance measurement makes it possible to
chart students’ progress and identify areas where they need more work. The
percentages of academic and vocational teachers who use various means of
measuring student performance are shown in Table 4.6.

Teacher-developed tests account for the largest part of the grades given in both
academic and vocational classes. Student classwork, and presentations or
projects also play a prominent role in determining students’ grades in both kinds
of classes. There are, however, marked differences in the extent to which
academic and vocational teachers rely on these and other measures.

Academic teachers rely more heavily on tests that they develop and on
homework than do vocational teachers, especially those in vocational schools.

Vocational teachers, especially in vocational schools, emphasize performance in
lab or shop much more than do academic teachers. In fact, in vocational schools
performance is more important than any other measure as a determinant of
students’ grades .

102 Program Requirements aud Courses in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume I

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Preparation of Vocational Teachers in Colleges
and Universities,..... seceeseneseseeceeeee

The Demand for Vocational Education |

Teachers.

Program Requirements and Courses in
Secondary Vocational Education... 85

Introduction...
Vocational Program Requirements. .
Preparing High School Students for Work...

Class Character istics...

Conclusion...
Endnotes.............

Educational Outcomes of Vocational
Coursetaking. ._..... secsatsseesesensteneseesesiees .... 107

Introduction... we... 107
Academic Coursetaking of Vocational Students... 109
Student Achievement.

High School Completion. ......
Education d Attainment...
Conclusion,

Endnotes ......
Employment Outcomes... cceeeeeeseeeeeeeee LBL
Introduction, ....000....... 131

Studies of Employment Outcomes.
The Relevant Factors...............
Secondary Vocational Education
Effects of Tested Cognitive and
Technical Skills...
Postsecondary Vocational Education.
Conclusion.
Endnotes........

Employer Involvement and Satisfaction... 161

Introduction... 161
Employer Familiarity with Vocational Programs 161



Volume II

Table 3.8
Indicators of Demand for Teachers in Public Secondary Schvols
Of Schools With

Percent of Vacancies, Percent of All

Schools With | PercentSaying | Schools With

Teaching Vacancies Very Hard -to-Fill

Subject Area Vacancies Hard to Fill Vacancies

English A421 48 2.0
ESL 9.0 35.2 3.2
Biological Science 25.2 14.6 3.7
Vocational Education 275 17.4 48
Math 39.6 12.6 5.0
Physical Science 26.5 19.3 5.1
Foreign Language 26.1 27.0 74
Special Education 37.5 27.1 10.2

Source: 1990-91 Schools and Staffing Survey

data showing the percentage of secondary schools with vacant teaching positions
in a number of different fields; the proportion of those that said it was very
difficult or impossible to fill the vacant positions; and the resulting proportion of
schools that had positions that were very difficult or impossible to fill (the
product of the first two columns).

The proportion of districts with vacancies in vocational education was about
average — less than the percentage of schools with vacancies in English, math,
and special education, more than the percentage of schools with vacancizs in
English-as-a-Second Language.?? Similarly, the proportion of schools with
vacancies in vocational education that found those vacancies very difficult or
‘impossible to fill was also in the middle range of the various subjects.

Consequently, the same is true of the proportion of all secondary schools with
hard-to-fill positions. An estimated 5 percent of all schools had hard-to-fill
positions in vocational education, about the same as the proportions for math
and the physical sciences. Comparable proportions in other subjects ranged from
2 to 10 percent. The subject in which there clearly was a shortage, relative to
other subjects, was special education.

78 Teachers in Vocational Education

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Table 1.6
Ratio of Share of Vocational Credits Earned in Each Vocational Program Area
by Special Population Students to That Earned by
Non-Special Population Students

Occup Trade
Student Type Agriculture | Business | Marketing | Health | Home Ec and Technical
Industry
Disabled 2.10 48 31 66 187 1.40 36
Educationally
Disadvantaged
Lowest test 1.46 60 94 93 1.74 1.25 52
quartile
GPA less than 98 74 1.25 64 1.08 131 42
Cc
Earned 1.26 66 82 89 1.86 1.34 48
remedial
credits
Economically
Disadvantaged
Lowest SES 1.32 34 1.03 146 1.36 Re) 63
quartile
LEP 1.33 33 47 At 115 1.06 1.67
Single parent? 1.20 70 68 59 1.82 1.93 47

* The ratios for single parents compare the credits earned by these students to those earned by all
female students.

Source: 1992 NELS

Based on these data, we cannot tell to what extent special population students are
being inappropriately channeled into the “low-tech” programs typical of
occupational home economics and the trades — or to what extent their
overrepresentation in these areas represents realistic matches between student
abilities and vocational programs. However, we believe that the underenrollment
of special population students in business and technical courses poses a problem,
as these courses provide much of the computer training that is of growing
importance in the workplace.!0

| Participation in Secondary Vocational Education 4 2 21
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Volume II

Cognitive ability, then, not only affects job performance directly, since general
thinking skills are used every day on the job, it also enables individuals to learn
more specific skills. The military uses a single score from four tests of verbal and
mathematical aptitude to help assess the qualifications of applicants—essentially
their trainability. Then the specialized vocational aptitude tests are used to help
determine what kind of training a recruit should receive.

As reflected in Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, cognitive ability also predicts
enrollment and success in postsecondary education. Further, it is closely related to
(some say synonymous with) the ability to learn, which is essential to obtaining the

additional training and education necessary for later jobs, careers, and lifelong
learning.

It also seems likely that general cognitive ability is especially useful in high-
performance workplaces, which require flexibility, adaptability, and problem-
solving ability, as compared to more routinized jobs, such as those on assembly lines
in the traditional Ford/Taylor model.

Thus, the development of cognitive ability is a central and pivotal goal of education.
It enables students to learn specific skills, perform well on the job, and/or prepare
for postsecondary education, careers, and lifelong learning.

Most of the psychological literature discussed above relates tested skills to job
performance. Other research, reviewed by Gamoran, relates the tested skills of high
school students to wages and earnings, and employment.

The Effect of Cognitive Ability on Wages and Earnings. Studies show that in the
short run, improved cognitive skills do not contribute much to job success, but the
benefits increase over time. Bishop has shown in a series of reviews and analyses
that few benefits of cognitive ability are evident for young men and women, but that
for both men and women in their mid-twenties, there are small to moderate effects
on wages and earnings. Estimates of returns to wages or earnings resulting from an
increase of one standard deviation in test scores ranged from 3 to 8 percent for
males, and from 4 to over 15 percent for females.

In another effort to explore how one cognitive skill — math — affects the wages of
graduating high school seniors (with no further education), Murnane et al.27
compared the wages of 24-year-olds who graduated in 1972 with those of 24-year-
olds who graduated in 1980. Each group had been out of high school for six years.
The math skills that were measured required no knowledge of geometry or
advanced algebra and should have been taught no later than the eighth grade. Using
data from NLS72 and High School and Beyond, the researchers estimated that
between 1978 and 1986, “the premium for mastery of elementary mathematics skills
rose from $0.46 per hour to $1.15 for men (in 1988 dollars) and rose from $1.15 to
$1.42 for women after years of schooling are controlled.” Evidently basic math is
becoming more valuable in the labor market, as the authors concluded that a

144 Employment Outcomes

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vocational and general students are more nearly similar in their coursetaking
patterns than either group is to academic students.

Mot surprisingly, academic students look most different from other students in
the “gateway” subject fields of mathematics and science. These are also the
subjects in which general track students most surpass vocational students. In
other words, it is in mathematics and science that vocational students’ academic
“deficit” is largest. Since many vocational and technical careers require
mathematics and science training (e.g., drafting, health-related careers,
carpentry), this deficit demands the attention of education policy makers.

The data in Figure A-5.1 also show that vocational students have gained on
academic and general track students in English, mathematics, computer science,
and science, although they lost ground in social studies. Until 1990, their gains
were smaller for advanced mathematics and science courses than for others,
although the 1990-92 span showed some improvement in this respect.

In general, it seems clear that increased academic standards have improved the
academic coursetaking of vocational students, especially in English and the basic
math and science courses.

STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

The preceding section examined the academic coursetaking of vocational
students. This section examines the effects of vocational coursetaking on the
tested academic achievement of students.

It is reasonable to ask why we should be concerned about the consequences of
vocational coursetaking for academic achievement. After all, common sense
suggests that pursuing a course of study tends to raise one’s level of skills in the
subject taught — that is the purpose of education and training. And despite some
obvious qualifications to this statement (e.g., a poor course may add nothing to
one’s achievement in a subject), there is ample evidence to support this view.*
Participation in academic classes tends to increase academic achievement and
Participation in vocational courses tends to increase occupational skills.

Still, there are at least two reasons for wanting to know just how vocational
education is related to academic achievement. The first is that the education
reform movement and the Perkins Act emphasize increased academics for
vocational students, generally through integrated coursetaking. There is
evidence, consistent with contextual learning theory, that some vocational
courses can increase academic test scores: The last National Assessment of
Vocational Education found this to be true of math-enriched vocational courses.5

The second reason is that there is a tradeoff between vocational and academic
courses — the more vocational courses one takes, the fewer academic courses one

Educational Outcomes of Vocational Coursetaking M1

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Volume IL

seen as necessary to help maintain vocational enrollments, and is often defended
on equal access grounds. At the same time, this approach foregoes an effective
means of linking vocational courses with other relevant courses, both vocational
and academic. Easy-entry, stand-alone vocational courses may serve the interests
of students who want to explore occupational areas, acquire a limited set of
specific skills, or fill out an otherwise demanding schedule with an easier course.
But they do not facilitate the concentration of vocational courses that is
associated with better employment outcomes (see Chavter 6), nur are they
consistent with the development of coherent sequences of academic and
vocational courses that the Perkins Act requires of its Title II fund recipients.

The completion requirements of secondary vocational programs are also a matter

of concern. Table 4.1 shows how districts define completers in their vocational
programs.

Table 4.1
Districts’ Vocational Completion Requirements by Urbanicity
. (Percent of Districts, Students)

All All Urban | Suburban Rural
Districts | Students | Districts | Districts | Districts
No definition of 34 16 1G 24 42
completer
Minimum number of 13 11 12 14 12
courses
Course concentration 54 72 69 59 49
Course sequence 35 53 54 39 32

Source: Omnibus District Survey, Version A

Some 54 percent of districts encompassing 72 percent of students require a
concentration of vocational coursetaking for program completion (e.g., three or
more courses in business education). A smaller proportion, 35 percent of districts
encompassing 53 percent of students, require a sequence of vocational courses
(¢.g., Introduction to Technology, Electronics 1, Electronics 2 — sequencing is a
subcategory of concentration). Some 34 percent of districts with 16 percent of
students Have no completion requirements, and 13 percent of districts with 11
percent of students require completion of a minimum number of vocational
courses, regardless of occupational area.

86 Program Requirements and Courses in Secondary Vocational Education

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Volume II

Non-Disabled
Disabled

Highest Test Score Quartile
Mid-High
Mid-Low

Lowest

GPA Mostly As
GPA Mostly Bs
GPA Mostly Cs
GPA Mostly Below C

No Remedial Credits

.01-1.99
2 or More

Highest SES Quartile
Mid-High
Mid-Low

Lowest

Change in Average Number of

Figure 1.5

Credits Earned in Vo
by Student Type, 1982 to 1992
(Disability Data for 1987 to 1990)

cational Education,

Eeg]o23

FOR

2

AS

a

05

Sources: 1982 NELS, 1987 and 1990 NAEP, i992 NELS

1S

Participation in Secondary Vocational Education