Federal Aviation 

Administration

2006 R&D Annual Review
Photo courtesy of ©Audiovisual Library of the European Commission, 2005

Contents

Vision and Mission 3

Introduction 4

Aeromedical 6

Aircraft Safety 11

Airport Technology 28

Aviation Weather 37

Capacity 40

Commercial Space 45

Environment and Energy 48

Human Factors 59

Information Technology 66

Research, Engineering & 

Development Advisory 

Committee 71
Vision: Provide the best air transportation 

system through the conduct of world-class, cutting 

edge research, engineering and development.

Mission: Conduct, coordinate, and support 

domestic and international R&D of aviationrelated products and services that will ensure a 

safe, efficient, and environmentally compatible 

global air transportation system.
page 

Critical to our national well-being and interests, 

aviation serves as our first 

line of defense in an uncertain 

world. It provides invaluable 

opportunities for new business, 

for jobs, and for the general 

growth and development of 

the U.S. economy. It serves 

an important role in attracting 

investment to local communities 

and helps stimulate and sustain 

growth by opening new markets 

and supply chains, nationally and 

internationally. 

The United States has an aviation 

system that is second to none 

– one that has proven it can 

respond quickly to our changing 

and expanding needs. It is a 

complex global system with 

numerous public and private 

sector stakeholders. It consists of 

thousands of aircraft and airports 

supporting business travel, 

scheduled passenger service, 

airfreight, and recreational flying.

The U.S. continually introduces 

new technologies, procedures, 

policies, and management 

Aviation is an integral part of our daily lives. Airplanes bring 

individuals closer to family and friends. Record numbers of us 

now “catch a plane” from time to time for work or recreation. 

Special aircraft provide emergency transportation, deliver medical 

services and supplies, and rush critical safety services wherever 

they are needed. 

Introduction
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 

practices to ensure our worldwide 

aviation leadership. Research and 

development (R&D) is central to 

this innovation. Ever evolving 

R&D helps to achieve virtually 

all of the FAA’s short- and 

long-term goals and objectives. 

Dedicated professionals facilitate 

the day-to-day operations of the 

national aerospace system while 

they simultaneously develop the 

next generation air transportation 

system. The R&D community 

conducts research activities from 

materials and human factors 

development to the creation 

of new products, services, and 

procedures. 

The FAA has established the 

following goals to focus an 

integrated R&D program on 

meeting the nation’s needs: 

• Reduce aerospace 

environmental impact in 

absolute terms

• Develop a system that 

moves anyone and anything, 

anywhere, anytime quickly on 

schedules that meet customer 

needs

• Maintain the best qualified and 

trained workforce in the world

• Create an aerospace system that 

adapts to, compensates for, and 

augments human performance

• Ensure no fatalities, injuries, 

and adverse health impacts 

on people due to aerospace 

operations

• Prevent accidents and incidents 

due to aerospace vehicle design, 

structure, and subsystems

• Prevent accidents and incidents 

due to aerospace vehicle 

operations in the air and on the 

ground

• Provide common, accurate, 

and real-time information on 

aerospace operations, events, 

crisis, obstacles, and weather

• Assess how change to the 

system impacts performance 

and risk, and how the system 

itself impacts the nation

• Be a globally recognized 

leader in aerospace technology, 

systems, and operations

Our researchers, scientists, 

engineers, and professional 

staff are creating the tools, 

technologies, and procedures that 

will lead us to the next generation 

aerospace transportation system. 

We are conducting critical 

research for aviation’s future. 

The Fiscal Year (FY) 2006 R&D 

Annual Review tells readers what 

we have accomplished to achieve 

our ambitious goals. 

For additional information on 

the R&D program, please see the 

National Aviation Research Plan, 

which includes a description of 

our R&D projects, our research 

partners, budget information, and 

anticipated results.
page 

Aeromedical

“We are improving the health and 

safety of passengers and aircrews.” 

Melchor J. Antuñano, M.D.

Director, Civil Aerospace Medical Institute
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 

Determining the Prevalence 

of Methamphetamine in U.S. 

Aviation Accident Pilot Fatalities 

between 1995 and 2004

FAA medical researchers continue 

to improve our understanding 

of health factors that can affect 

aircraft pilots, crews, and passengers. After a fatal aircraft 

accident, the Agency’s forensic 

toxicologists routinely attempt 

to detect and measure drugs, 

alcohol, toxic gases, and toxic industrial chemicals in the remains 

of aviation personnel to rank 

these factors among the causes of 

the event. 

Methamphetamine is an addictive 

stimulant drug that strongly activates certain systems in the brain, 

and its abuse is one of the fastest 

growing epidemics in America. 

Upon toxicological analysis, a 

methamphetamine positive in 

postmortem fluids and/or tissues 

of crew members has serious 

legal consequences and may help 

determine the cause of an aviation 

accident. In FY 2006, researchers conducted an epidemiological 

study examining drug findings 

from aviation pilot fatalities from 

1995 to 2004. Results showed 

that fatal aviation accidents associated with methamphetamine are 

infrequent, accounting for only 

0.37 percent of all fatal events 

in a given period. These findings will serve as baseline data 

to evaluate future prevalence of 

methamphetamine. Furthermore, 

by evaluating chemical parameters affecting aviation personnel, 

potential mitigation strategies 

may become apparent for accident prevention.

Discovering Gene Expression 

Changes as a Result of 

Sleeplessness

Fatigue is well recognized in both 

the public sector and in military 

units as a factor affecting human 

performance. To date, research 

has focused on how being tired 

affects a person physiologically 

and what can be done to treat 

fatigue symptoms. Little attention 

has been paid, however, to finding 

the underlying molecular changes 

that occur as a result of fatigue or 

how they might cause changes in 

performance or cognition. 

Discovery of the molecular basis 

for fatigue is important to the 

future of aviation medicine for 

several reasons. A more exact 

understanding of the biochemical 

changes resulting from sleeplessness may allow accident investigators to prove that fatigue is 

a factor in the probable cause 

of some accidents. In addition, 

knowledge gained from this 

inquiry may improve the FAA’s 

ability to prepare fact-based, 

scientifically defensible regulations. These investigations may 

also lead to the development 

of new intervention therapies 

for situations where extended 

duty-cycles are unavoidable. By 

targeting the specific biochemical 

pathways clinically shown to be 

affected by fatigue, doctors may 

be able to help aviation personnel 

to increase performance levels 

and alertness in ways that neither 

harm the aviators nor jeopardize 

the public.

In collaboration with military 

investigators at the U.S. Air 

Force Brooks-City Base, FAA 
page 

researchers conducted a study 

of the changes in gene expression over an extended period 

of sleeplessness. The study was 

designed to collect participant 

samples at 24 hour intervals for 

four days, including two samples 

collected after 15 and 35 hours 

of being awake. Researchers 

discovered 158 genes that affect 

fatigue. Some of the biochemical pathways affected by fatigue 

are cell-cell signaling, cellular 

assembly and organization, lipid 

metabolism, hematological system development and function, 

and small-molecule biochemistry. 

Clustering by expression pattern 

revealed that the differentially 

expressed genes follow one of 

five expression patterns over time. 

When validating their results, 

researchers observed that genes 

in similar biochemical pathways 

have the same expression pattern 

clusters. Functional analysis of 

clustered genes demonstrated that 

there was coordinated regulation 

of genes within clusters.

These results will serve as baseline data upon which to extend 

this work to a broader population. 

Working with larger numbers of 

more diverse subjects will help 

the project to achieve its goal of 

isolating biomarkers that are useful both in accident investigations 

and in other forensic applications.

Testing General Aviation Oxygen 

Systems at Altitude

Innovative new designs in aviation equipment are not always 

described in existing FAA 

regulations or guidelines. To 

ensure safety, Agency researchers often study new equipment to 

ensure compatibility with existing 

regulations and, if necessary, to 

recommend changes or additions 

to those regulations. 

In 2006, researchers studied a new 

type of oxygen system designed 

for use in general aviation aircraft. 

The pulse oxygen delivery system 

relies on simple oxygen delivery 

equipment similar to the passenger masks found in commercial 

aircraft. It can also use the type of 

nasal cannula that delivers oxygen 

to medical patients. As with the 

latter system, the design of the 

pulse oxygen system provides a 

simple, inexpensive system that 

conserves the aircraft’s oxygen 

supply. 

When this hybrid oxygen system 

was first developed, current regulations did not provide applicable 

standards or criteria for its testing. 

The researchers therefore drew 

upon available resources and used 

the FAA Civil Aerospace Medical 

Institute’s (CAMI) altitude chamber to develop and execute a test 

protocol on human subjects. Ten 

male and six female subjects were 

exposed to altitudes reaching 

25,000 feet. Two different pulse 

oxygen systems were tested, one 

that used a mechanical regulator 

to determine when and how much 

oxygen should be delivered, and 

one that used an electronically 

controlled regulator for oxygen 

delivery. 

Researchers also conducted tests 

of the oxygen systems at 18,000 

feet with the subject wearing a 

nasal cannula and at 25,000 feet 

with the subjects wearing an 

oxygen mask. While at these alAeromedical
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 

titudes, the subjects alternatively 

used each of the regulator systems 

to maintain the blood oxygen 

saturation at a level equivalent to 

altitude exposure at 5,000 feet. 

This is considered to be the lowest altitude where the effects of 

hypoxia (lack of oxygen) could 

result in symptoms such as a loss 

of night vision.

The test results showed that, 

at either 25,000 or 18,000 feet, 

the mechanical system could 

not provide adequate oxygen 

to maintain the subject’s blood 

oxygen saturation at the 5,000 

foot equivalent level. With the 

mechanical system, some of the 

subjects experienced symptoms 

of hypoxia and had to switch to 

an emergency oxygen system to 

recover. The electronic oxygen 

delivery system, however, did 

provide adequate oxygen to keep 

the subject’s blood oxygen saturation level at or below the 5,000 

foot criteria. Besides conducting 

certification testing for the two 

pulse oxygen systems, researchers 

exposed the subjects to altitudes 

of 10,000, 12,500, and 14,000 feet 

without supplemental oxygen. 

Findings from these tests showed 

that, as the exposure altitude 

increased, the various subjects 

reacted in increasingly different 

ways. Current regulations allow 

flight at altitudes up to 12,500 feet 

without supplemental oxygen, 

and pilots are permitted to stay 

at altitudes between 12,500 and 

14,000 feet for 30 minutes without supplemental oxygen. Results 

from these studies indicate that 

some individuals may not be able 

to tolerate even these altitudes 

without supplemental oxygen.

Certifying Aircraft Seats

To be certified for use, any new 

or modified aircraft seat must be 

shown to be safe through impact testing. Manufacturers are 

required to provide test results 

demonstrating that the seat and 

its restraint system will protect 

their occupant during a representative emergency landing or 

crash. These tests are expensive, 

destroy the specially built test 

article, and can only demonstrate 

a small number of potential 

crash scenarios. FAA certification and research personnel are 

working with industry experts 

to streamline the process of seat 

certification to include the use of 

computer modeling as an aid in 

certification. The computer model 

can significantly reduce the cost 

of testing and can allow more 

test scenarios to be evaluated to 

identify potential deficiencies. 

However, the computer model 

must be determined to be accurate 

when compared to actual impact 

tests. 

To provide assurances that modeling does provide valid analyses, 

researchers conducted a comparison test. They set out to determine 

whether various computer models 

could accurately predict the arc 

that the head of an anthropomorphic test dummy would travel 

during a crash – as simulated 

on the CAMI sled track. Four 

modelers provided independent 

input data and computer scenarios 

in preparation for a simple crash 

test. The researchers found that 

seemingly small differences in the 

assumptions made by the individual modelers lead to significant 

differences in the model result. 

This emphasized the importance 

of establishing uniform parameters prior to the use of any 

computer simulation. Also, when 

compared to actual test results, 

models tend to under-predict head 

travel, and model-based predictions are being reassessed and 

revised accordingly. 

Studying Medical Certification 

Requirements

The FAA is called upon to certify 

pilots with varying characteristics. 

The Agency recently conducted 

a large cross-functional study 

concentrating on how female 

pilots compare with males with 

regard to various other characteristics and performance. Researchers used the Aerospace Medical 

Research Scientific Information 

System (ARMSIS) to select from 

7,911,739 records of medically 

certified, active male and female 

pilots, representing 1,427,223 

individuals over the 1993-2003 

timeframe. They also drew on 

information from the National 

Transportation Safety Board, and 

FAA Aerospace Medical Research 

Toxicology and Autopsy databases. 

Of the 20,191 records used in the 

study, 0.26 percent were associated with accidents and incidents logged by the NTSB; 736 

represented 717 individual female 

aviators. Ninety-five of these 

female pilots experienced a fatal 

accident as a pilot-in-command, 

and of these, 90 percent resulted 

from general aviation operations. 

The ages of the pilots at the time 

of the accidents ranged from 17 to 

77 years, with an average age 
page 10

of 41. Twenty-four percent of the 

pilots held a 1st class medical certificate, while 24 percent held 2nd class 

certificates and 41 percent held 3rd 

class certification. In terms of the 

NTSB investigation of the 95 fatal 

accidents, investigators identified 327 

causes and factors, and they attributed 

55 percent of those factors to the pilot 

in command. Researchers found that 

the most common causes were the lack 

of airspeed (23 percent) and lack of 

experience (29 percent). 

The researchers also looked at toxicological causes of events. Twenty-three 

percent of the pilots reported having 

taken medications, and females proved 

more likely to self-report medications than males. Only four cases 

were relevant in terms of the type of 

medication identified, including abused 

or disqualifying drugs (e.g., cocaine, 

sertraline, hydrocodone, and alprazolam). Investigators found a low use 

of alcohol, with only one pilot testing 

positive for ethanol. A total of 323 

injuries resulted from the 95 aircraft 

accidents. Other findings included 310 

fatalities, 11 serious injuries, and two 

minor injuries. In terms of autopsy 

findings, researchers identified 710 

types of injuries: thorax (22 percent), 

lower and upper extremities (18 and 16 

percent respectively). They found the 

distribution and severity of injuries by 

body region similar for males and females, except for the thorax, where the 

incidence of injury proved significantly 

greater for males (28 vs. 23 percent for 

females).

This study represents evidence-based 

medicine. It enhances the understanding of the civilian pilot population by 

implementing a cross-functional and 

integrated assessment through the 

AMRSIS process. It also provides 

the aeromedical community a historybased foundation to the medical certification decision-making processes. By 

understanding the past, we are better 

prepared for the future, and therefore 

can reduce risk, optimize research 

investment strategies, and enhance 

aeromedical education programs.

Aeromedical
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 11

Aircraft Safety

“Our mission is to provide a safe 

global air transportation system by 

developing new technologies, tools, 

and practices.”

Patrick Lewis,

Airport and Aircraft Safety R&D Program Director

Air Traffic Organization Operations Planning
page 12

Conducting Thermal Analysis of 

Polymer Flammability

Industry and academia have 

worked hard over the past few de-

cades to relate laboratory analyses 

to the real-world flammability of 

polymers (plastics). Most thermal 

analyses relate a single property, 

such as char yield, (a noncombus-

tible gas) and carbonaceous char 

(a noncombustible solid) heat of 

combustion, or thermal decompo-

sition temperature to the fire test 

performance. Efforts to under-

stand how fires really behave 

based on the study of individual 

material prop-erties have, how-

ever, met with limited success.

Recently, FAA researchers 

demonstrated the benefits of an 

experimental thermal analytical 

procedure known as pyrolysiscombustion flow calorimetry 

(PCFC). This technique allowed 

them to separate the effects of 

the condensed phase (pyrolysis) 

process, from those of the gas 

phase (combustion) process of 

flaming combustion. Through 

this new methodology, the FAA 

can now screen hundreds of very 

small samples (milligrams only) 

of new plastics and compositions 

for flammability. 

This new capability has greatly 

accelerated the discovery of 

ultra fire resistant plastics for 

a fireproof cabin. The FAA has 

described its thermal analysis 

method and the underlying theory 

for measuring flammability pa-

rameters in “A Thermal Analysis 

Method for Measuring Polymer 

Flammability,” Journal of ASTM 

International, 3(4), 1-18 (2006).

Developing Ultra Fire Resistant 

DDE Polymers

In 1995, the FAA began a 

long-range research program to 

eliminate burning cabin materi-

als as a cause of death in aircraft 

accidents. The technical objective 

of the program was an order-ofmagnitude reduction in flaming 

heat release rate compared to cur-

rent cabin materials. FAA criteria 

for commercial aircraft described 

in Title 14 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations, Part 25 were used to 

test all materials. Because plastics 

of a wide variety are used in air-

craft cabin components, research-

ers drew from the insights of 

versatile, cost-effective polymer 

chemistry to satisfy both the tech-

nical and economic constraints on 

a fireproof cabin.

Previously, the FAA measured 

the microscale heat release rate 

of a polycarbonate containing 

the chemical group 1,1-dichloro2,2-diphenylethene (DDE) and 

found it to be 13 times lower 

than conventional polycarbon-

ate (LEXANTM) and four times 

lower than the polyetherimide 

(ULTEMTM) currently used in 

thermoformed aircraft cabin parts. 

Researchers had hoped to find a 

way to benefit from the low-cost 

and high fire resistance of DDE 

plastics synthesized from bisphe-

nol-C (BPC), a potential build-

ing block for an entire family 

of plastics. But first they had to 

synthesize and evaluate over 30 

different DDE plastics to identify 

the molecular mechanism respon-

sible for their remarkable, shared 

fire resistance.

Aircraft Safety
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 13

The research team found that 

DDE plastics are low-cost, easily processed, tough, and under 

normal conditions, have good 

mechanical properties. In a fire, 

the “fire smart” DDE functional 

group undergoes a thermally-activated molecular rearrangement 

that produces hydrogen chloride 

in quantitative yield. The flammability and mechanical properties 

of DDE containing polymers are 

described in an FAA Final Report 

DOT/FAA/AR-06/12, “FireSmart DDE Polymers,” published 

in March 2006. This account 

will also appear in an upcoming 

review article to be published in 

the journal High Performance 

Polymers.

Studying Ignition Hazards in 

Aircraft Fuel Tank Electronics

FAA researchers recently investigated the ignition hazard 

presented when small fragments 

of steel wool and energized 

electrical circuits make contact 

in a flammable environment. The 

conditions set up in this study 

mimic those present in aviation 

environments and allow researchers to quantify the minimum ignition energy needed to ignite the 

flammable vapors in an aircraft’s 

fuel tank. 

The team used various types 

of steel wool and five different 

methods of shorting the tested 

circuit. A 28-volt direct current 

(dc) power supply simulated energized aircraft electrical wiring. 

Thin-film, non-inductive resistors 

limited the electrical current to 

appropriate levels. An additional 

ignition detection technique 

helped researchers to determine if 

a sparking or burning event could 

ignite a gaseous mixture with a 

known minimum ignition energy 

of 200 micro Joules (ȝJ) – the accepted minimum ignition energy 

of hydrocarbon fuel vapor. 

The ignition detection technique employed a 36-liter 

cubic aluminum chamber with a 

blowout hole on top and a clear 

acrylic front panel with thermocouple and lever mechanism 

pass-throughs. The researchers 

introduced a standard flammable 

gas mixture into the chamber and 

used a standard voltage spark ignition source (SVSIS) to calibrate 

the mixture with a 200-ȝJ voltage 

spark. They recorded voltage and 

current traces and noted the temperature rise for each test. Then, 

they sealed the chamber blowout 

hole with a thin sheet of aluminum foil and defined ignition as 

a recorded rise in pressure that 

inflated or ruptured the aluminum 

foil sheet. At the end of testing, 

they recorded the electrical current at ignition to determine the 

minimum ignition current. 

The tests showed that the lowest 

current causing the gas mixture 

to ignite was 99 milliamps (mA). 

In this instance, the researchers 

observed that a wad of superfine steel wool ignited and then 

caused the gas mixture to ignite. 

All further tests concentrated on 

igniting the steel wool. Although 

the ignition characteristics tended 

to vary with each wad of steel 

wool, testing showed that the 

lowest current that could ignite 

the material was about 45 mA. 

The team concluded that the 

maximum allowable steady-state 

current limit of 10 mA root mean 

square, specified by the FAA in 

draft Advisory Circular 25.981-

1C, does prevent ignition. The 

FAA published the test findings 

in DOT/FAA/AR-TN05/37, 

“Intrinsically Safe Current Limit 

Study for Aircraft Fuel Tank 

Electronics.”

Determining Fire Hazards of 

Lithium Ion Batteries

Fire safety researchers conducted 

a series of tests to determine 

the flammability characteristics 

of single 18650 rechargeable 

lithium-ion batteries and of these 

batteries packaged for bulk shipment onboard cargo and passenger aircraft. They designed the 

tests to discover the conditions 

necessary for battery ignition, the 

characteristics of a battery fire, 

the effects of state of charge on 

igniting batteries, the potential 

hazard to the aircraft as a result 

of a battery fire, and the effectiveness of the standard Halon 

1301 fire suppression systems 

in extinguishing a battery fire. 

Several serious fires on cargo pallets loaded with lithium batteries 

precipitated this study. 

After a series of tests, the researchers determined that a relatively small fire source can heat 

the lithium-ion battery above the 

temperature required to activate 

the pressure release mechanism 

in the battery. This causes the battery to vent its highly flammable 

and easily ignitable electrolyte 

through the relief ports near the 
page 1

4

positive terminal. Halon 1301, the 

fire suppression agent installed 

in transport category aircraft, is 

effective in suppressing the elec-

trolyte fire and easily extinguishes 

any fire both at the five percent 

knock down concentration and 

at the three percent suppression 

concentration. 

The release of an electrolyte 

caused by heating a lithium-ion 

battery produces a pressure pulse 

that can raise the air pressure 

within a cargo compartment. 

Cargo compartments are only 

designed to withstand approxi-

mately a one pound per square 

inch pressure differential. Thus, 

the FAA researchers also exam-

ined whether a fire involving a 

bulk-packed lithium-ion shipment 

might compromise the integrity 

of the compartment and cause the 

halon to leak out of the compart-

ment. Fortunately, the results 

showed that such a cargo fire 

would not present any unusual 

stresses on the cargo liner mate-

rial.

The FAA published these findings 

as DOT/FAA/AR-06/38, “Flam-

mability Assessment of BulkPacked, Rechargeable Lithium 

Ion Cells in Transport Category 

Aircraft,” in September 2006 

(http://www.tc.faa.gov/its/world-

pac/techrpt/ar06-38.pdf).

Studying Flameless Ration 

Heaters 

Flameless ration heaters (FRH) 

are used to cook self-heating 

meals known as Meals, Ready to 

Eat (MRE). Prepackaged meals 

have traditionally been used by 

the military to feed soldiers, but 

now they are also used by camp-

ers, boaters, disaster response 

teams, etc. When salt water is 

added to a combination of food 

grade iron and magnesium, an 

exothermic reaction creates tem-

peratures of up to about 100°C in 

a relatively short time. 

The potential use aboard commer-

cial aircraft of FHRs has raised a 

concern because of the high tem-

peratures involved, as well as the 

release of hydrogen that occurs 

during heating. Researchers have 

sought to measure this release 

of hydrogen to determine if it 

could pose an airborne fire safety 

threat. They tested the heating of 

individual MREs under varying 

conditions in an open area, as well 

as the heating of multiple MREs 

placed in a confined space. They 

also examined the potential of the 

accidental activation of FRHs in a 

confined area aboard the aircraft, 

such as in overhead storage bins 

or a cargo compartment. They ob-

served temperatures in excess of 

215oF and violent ignition events, 

making it clear the release of hy-

drogen gas from the use of FRHs 

does pose a potential hazard on a 

passenger aircraft. The FAA pub-

lished the results of this research 

in DOT/FAA/AR-TN06/18, 

“The Fire Safety Hazard of the 

Use of Flameless Ration Heaters 

Onboard Aircraft” ) www.tc.faa.

gov/its/worldpac/techrpt/artn06-

18.pdf). The FAA has briefed the 

airlines on the potential hazards 

of flameless ration heaters so they 

can prevent passengers from us-

ing these heated meals.

Aircraft Safety
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 15

Supporting Fire-Fighting 

Operations

 

Recognizing that U.S. Forest 

Service air tanker aircraft carry 

heavier loads than those anticipated in their original design and 

certification, the FAA initiated 

a loads monitoring research 

program to characterize the 

structural loads environment on 

these aircraft. In cooperation with 

the U.S. Forest Service, FAA 

researchers installed multi-channel load recorders on a P-2 and 

P-3 airplane used in fire-fighting 

operations. The research team 

collected data from approximately 400 flights during the 2005 

firefighting season and expect to 

collect data on another 400 flights 

during 2006. The operators provided the data to the FAA-funded 

researchers at Wichita State University for analysis.

The team found that, contrary 

to the common assumption, the 

highest wing loads do not occur 

during the retardant drop, but 

while fully loaded and cruising to 

the drop zone. Because they need 

to get to the fire scene quickly, 

the pilots of these aircraft generally do not alter their route to 

avoid turbulence, a major stress 

factor on wing loading. During 

firefighting operations, the pilot 

drops retardant approximately 

4,600 seconds into the flight. The 

associated wing strain at the time 

of the drop is considerable less 

than that experienced during the 

outbound flight cruise. Actually, 

there is only one peak load during the drop, while there can be 

multiple higher loads prior to the 

drop.

Based on these findings, it is 

recommended that the U.S. Forest Service develop a structural 

health monitoring program and 

undertake an engineering analysis 

to ensure the structural safety 

of firefighting aircraft. Also, 

it is recommended that these 

aircraft undergo a fatigue and 

damage tolerance assessment of 

critical structural areas. The FAA 

published its research results in 

DOT/FAA/AR-05/35, “Consolidation and Analysis of Loading 

Data in Firefighting Operations: 

Analysis of Existing Data and 

Definition of Preliminary Air 

tanker and Lead Aircraft Spectra” 

(http://155.178.136.203/eosweb/

opac/index.asp).

Collecting Loads Data for the 

Boeing 777

FAA researchers have collected 

the operational loads history of 

the Boeing 777-200 in DOT/

FAA/AR-06/11, “Statistical 

Loads Data for the B-777/200 

Aircraft in Commercial Operations” (http://tc.faa.gov/its/

worldpac/techrpt/ar06-11.pdf). 

This report provides analysis of 

Boeing 777-200ER aircraft operational usage data from 10,047 

flights, representing 67,000 flight 

hours of a single international 

airline operator. It also contains 

statistical information on aircraft 

usage, ground and flight loads 

occurrences, and the operational 

usage of certain systems, as well 

as statistics on aircraft weights, 

flight distances, altitudes, speeds, 

and flight attitudes. Ground loads 

data include statistics on vertical, 

lateral and longitudinal load factors along with ground speed and 

aircraft weight during different 

ground operational phases. Flight 

loads data include statistical 

information on gust and maneuver load factors, derived gust 

velocities, and ground-air-ground 

cycles. Systems operational data 

include statistics on flap usage 

and engine fan speed. 

Assessing Wire Separation and 

Segregation Arc Damage

At the FAA Arc Fault Evaluation Laboratory, researchers 

have developed a new method 

for quantifying electrical hazard 

damage. To develop this method, 

the research team used arc damage assessment data and separation and segregation of electrical 

systems data to quantify the 

damage electrical systems can 

impose on adjacent electrical and 

non-electrical systems. Using this 

new method, they can now determine minimum distances needed 

between certain electrical bundles 

to avoid catastrophic damage 

(loss of functionality of critical systems) and loss of system 

function. Data from this method 

will support the development of 

guidelines on safe separation and 

segregation distances. 

Developing a Risk Analysis Tool 

FAA sponsored research has led 

to the development and enhancement of an electrical systems risk 

analysis tool (RAT). Designed to 

perform risk analysis of an aircraft electrical wire interconnect 

system (EWIS), the new software 
page 16

simplifies analysis of hazards that 

can cause damage to structures 

and cause fires. The tool can also 

be used to examine how potential 

failures in the EWIS could affect 

the functionality of the connected 

systems. 

The tool combines routing and 

architecture data with an automat-

ed structured safety analysis. It 

considers common cause failures 

that can result in the functional 

loss of systems sharing a common 

wire bundle. The analysis logic 

considers all wire failure modes, 

including arcing faults occurring 

within a wire bundle and arc-

ing to adjacent wire bundles or 

structure. 

This new tool provides a simpli-

fied method of processing large 

quantities of EWIS design data 

through a powerful analysis 

process that will assess virtually 

all potential EWIS hazards. In 

addition, it can be updated with 

fleet data to reflect the latest effect 

of fault mitigation technology on 

wiring systems. It will also help 

to bring about greater consistency 

in the certification process and be 

of considerable safety benefit to 

the aviation community. The tool 

will provide advanced capabili-

ties to help certification officials 

analyze EWIS designs. 

Training Maintenance and 

Repair Personnel for Composite 

Structures

Working with Edmonds Com-

munity College, a member of the 

Joint Advanced Materials and 

Structures Center of Excellence, 

the FAA is developing a course to 

teach the maintenance and repair 

of composite aircraft structures. 

The FAA’s latest developments in 

composite maintenance research 

will be incorporated into the 

course. The SAE Commercial 

Aircraft Composite Repair 

Committee (CACRC), which 

is chartered to establish airline 

industry consensus on standards 

regarding composite materials 

maintenance and repair, is also 

involved in course development 

and will provide continuing sup-

port through its Training Task 

Group. The course will blend 

distance (web-based) learning on 

composite maintenance and repair 

knowledge with work in regional 

laboratories, where students will 

receive hands-on training. A com-

posite specialist from industry 

will teach the course and advise 

laboratory instructors.

In FY 2006, researchers held two 

workshops with industry to de-

velop course standards. At these 

workshops, Airbus and Boeing, 

major aerospace original equip-

ment manufacturers (OEMs), 

provided detailed internal reviews 

of the course content. The FAA 

gained industry consensus on 

items that must be addressed in 

composite maintenance training. 

Evaluating Environmental and 

Aging Effects on Composite 

Structures 

Because more composite mate-

rials are being used on aircraft 

structures, the FAA is evaluating 

environmental and loading effects 

on aging composite structures. 

Aircraft Safety
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 17

Currently, researchers are studying a composite stabilizer after 

18 years of service. In August 

1982, Boeing manufactured and 

certified five shipsets of 737-200 

graphite/epoxy stabilizer as part 

of the NASA Aircraft Energy 

Efficiency (ACEE) program. 

Three shipsets have been retired, 

and two are still in service. This 

past year, FAA-funded researchers at Wichita State University’s 

National Institute of Aviation 

Research (NIAR), a member of 

the Joint Advanced Materials and 

Structures (JAMS) Center of Excellence, performed an evaluation 

of one of the retired structures.

Researchers from NIAR, the FAA 

Airworthiness Assurance Nondestructive Inspection Validation 

Center, located at Sandia National Laboratories, and Boeing 

assessed the results of a number 

of standard and novel nondestructive inspection (NDI) methods 

performed on the stabilizer 

prior to teardown. These inspections included thermography, 

RapidScan, laser ultrasonics, 

pulse-echo ultrasonics, and 

photogrammetry. The research 

team compared the accuracy of 

the different inspection methods in detecting flaws, such as 

delaminations, disbonds, impact 

damage, moisture ingression, or 

corrosion of the aluminum lightning protection scheme. 

After tearing down the stabilizer, 

researchers found it in good condition, with only a few corroded 

fasteners. Then they compared 

the results of the teardown with 

the NDI data obtained prior to 

the structure’s disassembly. After 

that, researchers performed a 

complete destructive evaluation, 

including physical and mechanical testing, to confirm the structural condition of the stabilizer. 

This sequenced investigation 

resulted in better understanding the effects of aging on the 

composite structure and identified 

changes in the material properties 

over the service life. Ultimately, 

they found the structure had 

not degraded in its 18 years of 

service.

Developing Guidelines for 

Adhesively Bonded Aircraft 

Structures

The FAA undertook a number 

of activities in 2005 and 2006 to 

evaluate the adequacy of current 

certification requirements for 

adhesive bonded aircraft structures. Adhesive bonding is used 

in many manufacturing and repair 

applications for aircraft structures. The technical issues for 

bonding are complex and require 

cross-functional teams for successful applications. Researchers 

looked at bonding composite-tocomposite, metal-to-metal, and 

composite-to-metal structures to 

acquire knowledge about these 

construction and repair methods. They conducted a survey to 

benchmark industry practices and 

collect information on the safety 

issues and certification considerations for bonded aircraft structures and repairs. Thirty-eight 

companies with experience and 

history in adhesive bond manufacturing and repair practices 

responded to the survey. 

After reviewing the survey 

results, the FAA sponsored 

workshops to gather additional 

information. 142 representatives 

from industry, academia, and 

governmental agencies representing 70 companies, universities, and governmental agencies 

attended the first workshop. 

A second workshop, held in 

Europe, provided international 

input about areas that need to be 

addressed to enable the safe and 

reliable application of adhesive bonding in manufacturing 

aircraft. This cooperative effort of 

industry, government groups, and 

academia led to the development 

of initial guidelines. Future joint 

efforts by the FAA, industry, and 

academia will lead to recommendations on standardization, 

engineering guidelines, shared 

databases, and focused research 

for bonded structures.

Keeping Acrobatic Aircraft Fleet 

Safe

To understand the fatigue and 

corrosion problems of aging acrobatic aircraft better, FAA-funded 

researchers at the National 

Institute for Aviation Research 

conducted a tear down inspection of a T-34A N141SW that 

had previously been involved in 

an accident. In their destructive 

evaluation, the researchers looked 

particularly for signs of cracks 

and corrosion in the right wing 

front carry-through lower spar, 

horizontal and vertical stabilizer 

attachment points, right wing rear 

spar lower cap wing station 66, 

and right wing rear spar lower 

bathtub fitting. 
page 1

8

The researchers opened the cracks 

found on the aircraft and analyzed 

them to determine their respon-

sible failure mode. They also inspected the surrounding structure 

microscopically for additional 

defects. During the destructive 

evaluation, the research teams 

found a total of 25 cracks on the 

right wing front carry-through 

lower spar, ten cracks on the 

horizontal and vertical stabilizer 

attachment points, two cracks on 

the right wing rear spar lower cap, 

and one crack on the right wing 

rear spar lower bathtub fitting. 

In the carry-through structure, 

overload caused three cracks, 

ranging in size from 0.15 to 5.28 

inches. Sixteen cracks had fatigue 

origins with fatigue lengths rang-

ing from 0.05 to 0.53 inch. These 

sixteen cracks then extended due 

to overload conditions. The cause 

of failure could not be determined 

in the other six cracks, which 

ranged in length from 0.10 to 1.17 

inches. 

The researchers found four 

cracks, resulting from overload, 

on the vertical stabilizer bulkhead; 

these cracks ranged from 0.28 to 

1.4 inches. They also found six 

cracks, caused by overload, on 

the horizontal stabilizer bulkhead; 

these ranged in length from 0.13 

to 1.13 inches. Two 1.187-inchlong cracks also appeared on the 

right wing rear spar at WS 66. 

Extensive metal smearing on the 

fracture faces made the cause of 

failure for these cracks difficult 

to determine. In addition, another 

crack, measuring 3.29 inches, was 

found on the right wing rear spar 

lower bathtub fitting. The failure 

mode of this crack could not be 

determined. 

Due to the recent history of 

fatigue cracking and failure on 

T-34A aircraft, this research will 

aid the FAA in understanding and 

addressing T-34A concerns, and 

will help determine the condition 

of a high-time acrobatic category 

aircraft. A complete report of the 

teardown evaluation can be found 

at www.tc.faa.gov/its/worldpac/

techrpt/artn05-57.pdf

Assessing Fatigue Crack Growth 

Methods for Rotorcraft 

Applications

Researchers at the FAA, NASA, 

and Mississippi State University 

are working to adapt fixed-wing 

aircraft damage tolerance technol-

ogies and techniques for rotorcraft 

applications. The phenomenon 

of fatigue crack growth is a major 

area of concern in this work. The 

stress that can be tolerated before 

small cracks begin to grow has 

been determined for many materi-

als used in fixed-wing aircraft and 

researchers want to determine 

tolerable stress levels for materi-

als used in rotorcraft.

Currently, the standard crack 

growth region is defined in 

American Standard Test Meth-

ods (ASTM) E-647. Using this 

standard, re-searchers computed 

and analyzed a substantial body 

of rotorcraft fatigue crack growth 

data and identified some problems 

with the standard test method. As 

a result, researchers are finaliz-

ing a new experimental method 

to replace or supplement ASTM 

E-647. The researchers informed 

the ASTM committee of their 

findings. Additional details about 

the FAA Fatigue-Crack-Growth 

Aircraft Safety
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 19

research can be at: http://aar400.

tc.faa.gov/Programs/agingaircraft/rotorcraft/RCDT%20FCG_

Background.htm.

Ensuring Safety of Health and 

Usage Monitoring Systems

Increasing demands for safety 

improvement and the availability 

of new enabling technologies and 

sciences are driving advances in 

Health and Usage Monitoring 

Systems (HUMS) technologies 

and applications. These advances, 

however, present complex certification issues related to HUMS 

hardware and software. Both 

the airborne and ground-based 

parts of the new systems must 

be carefully studied. To collect 

and validate the data and processes needed to address these 

challenges, the FAA researchers 

have developed the HUMS R&D 

Strategic Plan and Roadmap. 

The resulting research effort will 

also support the development and 

revision of HUMS advisory guidance materials. 

At a 2006 meeting, FAA researchers unveiled their plan 

and roadmap to approximately 

60 representatives from the U.S 

and European rotorcraft industries, NASA, U.S. Department of 

Defense, Canadian Department of 

Defense, Australian Defense Science and Technology Organization, and United Kingdom Civil 

Aviation Authority. The FAA is 

now working with the U.S. Army, 

and the United Kingdom Civil 

Aviation Authority (CAA) on 

various HUMS research topics.

Evaluating General Aviation 

Alternative Fuels

A 1990 amendment to the Clean 

Air Act prohibited the sale of 

leaded gasoline, effective January 

1995. Although the law exempted 

the aviation, marine, racing, and 

farming communities from this 

ban, the FAA is working with 

industry to develop alternative, 

unleaded fuels.

FAA researchers are leading efforts to bring industry, academia, 

and the aviation community 

together to find an alternative, 

unleaded, high-octane general 

aviation fuel. They have helped 

to establish two Coordinating 

Research Council (CRC) working groups under the Aviation 

Gasoline Subcommittee. Membership in the Unleaded Aviation 

Gasoline Development Group 

and the High Octane Rating 

Group includes aircraft owner 

and pilot associations, petroleum 

producers, specialty chemical 

companies, engine manufacturers, air-craft manufacturers, 

experimental aircraft associations, universities, and independent consultants. An FAA test 

facility is the leading independent 

laboratory providing spark ignition, reciprocating aircraft engine 

test data on unleaded fuels to the 

CRC Aviation subcommittee and 

the American Society for Testing 

and Materials.

In FY 2006, FAA researchers and colleagues at the South 

Dakota State University evaluated an ethanol-based aviation 

fuel at the FAA Small Engine 

Test Facility. They studied power 

performance, endurance, and 

detonation performance of Aviation Grade Ethanol 85 (AGE-85) 

in a Lycoming IO360-C engine. 

AGE-85 is a blend of at least 

85% ethanol denatured with 2% 

automotive gasoline, less than 

1% biodiesel, and pentane isomerate. Under the conditions of 

this test, the results indicated that 

the engine experienced normal 

wear except for the exhaust valve 

faces and stems, which showed 

a hammered effect. The research 

team found minimal combustion 

and fuel system deposits and a 

moderate level of intake valve 

deposits. The engine produced an 

average of 2.8% more peak horse 

power on AGE-85 than isooctane 

(ISO), but required an average of 

56.5% more fuel mass flow. This 

resulted in a drop in efficiency at 

maximum power from 0.470 lb/

hphr for ISO to 0.716 lb/hphr for 

AGE-85. The AGE-85 produced 

exhaust gas temperatures that 

averaged 20°F higher than ISO at 

best power mixture strength. Test 

results are published in DOT/

FAA/AR-06//43, “Spark Ignition 

Aircraft Engine Endurance Test 

of Aviation Grade Ethanol 85” 

(http://tc.faa.gov/its/worldpac/

techrpt/ar06-43.pdf).

FAA researchers also worked 

closely with their counterparts 

at the Cessna Aircraft Company 

to evaluate an ethanol derivative, ethyl tertiary butyl ether 

(ETBE), for endurance, power 

performance, and detonation 

performance when fueling a Lycoming IO360-C engine. Cessna 

has proposed ETBE as a potential 

stop gap fuel in the event of a 

supply disruption to the current 

leaded aviation gasoline, 100ll. 

The endurance test results indi-
page 20

cated that the engine experienced 

normal levels of engine wear 

after the 150-hour test. Research-

ers found minimal engine sludge 

and varnish deposits, combustion 

chamber deposits, and fuel system 

deposits. The engine lubrication 

oil analyses showed minimal 

fuel dilution, viscosity change, 

and acid content. There were no 

observations of difficulty with 

starting or material compatibil-

ity issues. Final Report DOT/

FAA/AR-06/27, “Spark Ignition 

Aircraft Engine Tests of Ethyl 

Tertiary Butyl Ether,” is available 

online at http://www.tc.faa.gov/

its/worldpac/techrpt/ar06-27.pdf.

Developing Best Practices for 

Tool Calibration Program

With technological advances in 

aircraft design and manufacturing, 

airplanes are becoming increas-

ingly sophisticated and complex 

machines. The safe and efficient 

operation of modern airplanes 

depends on a proper maintenance 

program, which requires the 

use of many precision tools. As 

mandated in Parts 43.13 (a) and 

145.47 (b) of the Title 14 Code 

of Federal Regulations, the FAA 

requires aircraft repair station 

personnel to inspect and calibrate 

tools to ensure their reliable 

and accurate performance. A 

repair station typically develops 

and uses an internal program to 

perform and manage the calibra-

tion of tools. However, no single 

standard exists within the aviation 

community to provide uniform 

guidance for the development 

of an effective tool calibration 

program. 

Under a cooperative agreement 

with the Wichita State University 

National Institute for Aviation Re-

search, the research team developed calibration “best practices” 

that could help to establish an 

effective tool calibration program. 

Based on a literature review and 

an analysis of about 10,000 re-

cords of the FAA Program Track-

ing and Reporting System, the 

researchers identified and devel-

oped possible solutions to address 

major areas of concern. These 

areas include calibration due date, 

missing tags and stickers, lack of 

control, personnel errors, miss-

ing records, and traceability. The 

researchers also shadowed FAA 

inspectors visiting repair stations 

to gain field experience and assess 

the practicality of the proposed 

solutions.

In May 2006, the research team 

proposed a calibration manage-

ment structure that incorporates 

guidance for best practices in 

areas such as environmental 

controls, calibration frequen-

cies and intervals, calibration 

labeling, personnel and training 

standards, effective tracking and 

control, calibration subcontract-

ing, the handling and storage of 

calibration instruments, calibra-

tion certificates, documentation, 

measurement traceability, and 

internal audits. The team devel-

oped two new checklists to help 

FAA inspectors in monitoring 

compliance with the tool calibra-

tion requirement. To provide the 

FAA with guidance on how to 

approve calibration of foreignmade tools, the research team 

recommended a path in which a 

source country’s eligibility can be 

Aircraft Safety
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 21

determined through its association with international accreditation bodies. The FAA plans to use 

these research results to develop 

advisory circulars applicable to 

the tool calibration program.

Assessing the Airworthiness of 

Commercial Aircraft

Airframe teardown inspections 

and extended fatigue testing are 

effective means to help determine 

the continued airworthiness of 

high-time operational aircraft 

– particularly those approaching 

their design service goal (DSG). 

Essential information and data 

needed to evaluate the kinds 

of airframe structures that are 

susceptible to widespread fatigue 

damage (WFD) are obtained from 

teardown inspections. While the 

expertise and knowledge base 

required to conduct teardown 

inspections are well established 

by the large commercial airframe 

original equipment manufacturers 

and military sectors, the broader 

aviation community lacks welldocumented guidelines and data.

In a joint effort by the FAA and 

Delta Air Lines, researchers conducted a teardown inspection and 

extended fatigue testing of a fuselage obtained from a retired Boeing 727 revenue-service passenger airplane near its DSG. They 

removed eleven large fuselage 

sections, selected as representative of structure susceptible to developing WFD. Focusing on the 

lap joints, the research team used 

both conventional and emerging 

nondestructive inspection (NDI) 

methods before and after removing the fuselage sections from the 

airplane. 

Using a destructive evaluation 

procedure developed for the 

study, the team performed fractographic examinations on each of 

the seven panels to characterize 

its state of multiple-site damage. 

They then used this confirmed 

information to assess the capability of 20 NDI methods to predict 

the presence of small hidden 

cracks. Later, the researchers 

used the FAA Full-Scale Aircraft 

Structural Test Evaluation and 

Research Facility to conduct 

extended fatigue testing on two 

of the panels, while continuously 

assessing damage of those panels 

through both conventional and 

emerging NDI methods. 

The project collected and 

analyzed an extensive amount 

of data, which is documented in 

a five-volume report. The team 

developed a companion engineering database that contains the 

processed data collected from 

fractography, nondestructive 

inspections, and full scale testing 

of the crown skin panels. This 

database can be used to evaluate 

the sensitivity and effectiveness 

of standard and emerging NDI 

methodologies to detect small 

cracks hidden in assembled structures. It also provides for the efficient transfer of information to 

engineering organizations for the 

future calibration and validation 

of predictive methodologies for 

structural fatigue. Data from this 

project will continue to provide 

guidelines for future programs 

that help to ensure the continued 

airworthiness of the aging commercial fleet.

Graduating the First Doctoral 

Student in the FAA-Drexel 

Fellowship Program 

The FAA-Drexel Fellowship 

Program is a collaborative effort 

established in 1998 to promote 

aviation safety research within 

academia and support ongoing 

research activities within the 

FAA’s Aging Aircraft Research 

Program. Participating students 

are an integral part of the program and have the opportunity to 

work on real world problems that 

face the aviation industry. A goal 

of the FAA-Drexel fellowship 

program is to develop the next 

generation of engineers able to 

address aircraft safety issues.

On June 5, 2006, FAA-Drexel 

Fellow Abubaker Ahmed became 

the first Ph.D. graduate from 

the fellowship program. The 

research for his dissertation, 

entitled “Growth of Multiple-Site 

Damage (MSD) in a Fuselage 

Lap Joint Curved Panel,” deals 

with widespread fatigue damage (WFD), a critical safety 

issue of aging airframe structure 

facing the aviation industry 

today. Conducted at the FAA’s 

Full-Scale Aircraft Structural 

Test Evaluation and Research 

(FASTER) facility, this research 

rigorously tested a fuselage panel 

constructed to a major airframe 

manufacturer’s specifications. 

Dr. Ahmed studied how MSD 

formed and evolved in a panel 

within the airframe fuselage test 

panel. This research will provide 

key information that will be useful for the aviation industry in 

developing programs to prevent 

the occurrence of WFD in the 

aging aircraft fleet. Dr. Ahmed 
page 22

accepted a position with the Dam-

age Tolerance Group of Boeing 

Commercial Airplanes in Everett, 

Washington.

Updating of Default Probability 

of Detection Curves for 

Ultrasonic Inspection of HardAlpha Inclusions in Titanium 

Billet

The United Flight 227 accident in 

Sioux City, Iowa, in 1988 led to 

the incorporation of damage toler-

ance principles into the design 

and life-cycle management of the 

rotating components of aircraft 

jet engines. A key parameter in 

establishing damage tolerance 

is a quantification of the ability 

of inspections to remove flawed 

components from service based 

on the probability of detection 

(POD). 

Traditional means for determin-

ing POD are based on empirical 

measurements made on samples 

containing known representa-

tive defects. However, using this 

method, it would be cost prohibi-

tive to manufacture the number 

of samples required for the POD 

determination of rotating engine 

components. With these compo-

nent flaws, mostly hard-alpha in-

clusions, an alternate approach is 

to estimate POD based on defects 

found during the manufacturing 

process. The FAA used such an 

approach to produce the 1995 

Default POD Curves that appear 

in AC33.14-1, Damage Tolerance 

for High Energy Turbine Engine 

Rotors (ANE-110, 1/8/01). In 

FY 2006, a FAA research team 

used a small sample size with the 

addition of data readily available 

within the community to derive 

better estimates of the default 

POD curves. Besides drawing on 

alternative sources of data, such 

as physics-based models of the 

inspection process, they applied 

more powerful statistical analyses 

than had previously been used in 

estimating POD curves. Drawn 

from larger data sets that included 

multizone inspection data as well 

as conventional inspection data, 

and analyzed more rigorously 

through physics-based techniques, 

the new curves are more realistic 

than those previously available. 

This ability to quantify current 

performance and its variability 

will help shape the development 

of future damage tolerant design 

concepts of fracture-critical tita-

nium alloy rotor designs. 

Developing Nondestructive 

Inspection Technologies

The advantage of employing non-

destructive inspection (NDI) tech-

nologies to evaluate the condition 

of underlying aircraft structures is 

clear: the aircraft does not have to 

be torn apart to see beneath its ex-

terior. When FAA researchers can 

examine actual underlying aircraft 

structures to verify the accuracy 

of – and ideally strengthen their 

confidence in – NDI findings, 

they embrace the opportunity. 

Recently, a collaborative research 

team had such an opportunity. 

While performing extensive de-

structive evaluation and extended 

fatigue testing of a fuselage struc-

ture from a retired transport air-

Aircraft Safety
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 23

craft, the researchers looked into 

the effectiveness of twenty NDI 

technologies that were applied 

to the aircraft prior to its being 

dismantled. They focused on the 

ability to detect cracks emanating 

from lower row fastener holes 

in the lower lap joint skins of a 

Boeing-727 aircraft. The Airworthiness Assurance Working 

Group had previously identified 

these longitudinal lap joints as 

susceptible to widespread fatigue 

damage, and the vulnerability of 

these parts is also the subject of 

Airworthiness Directives (AD) 

99-04-22 and 2002-07-09. 

Researchers from the FAA, Delta 

Airlines, and the FAA’s Airworthiness Assurance NDI Validation 

Center assessed the readiness 

of conventional and experimental NDI technologies for use at 

airlines or maintenance, repair, 

and overhaul (MRO) facilities. 

The various NDI findings had 

indicated the test lap joint panels 

removed from the retired aircraft 

contained service-induced cracks. 

Destructive tests later confirmed 

these findings. 

The conventional NDI technologies used in the study included 

directed visual inspection, 

external low-frequency eddy-current (LFEC) sliding probe, and 

internal medium-frequency eddycurrent (MFEC) methods. All of 

these are called out in the Boeing 

NDI manuals. The emerging 

methods, designed to inspect the 

inner skins from the exterior fuselage surface, included a variety 

of advanced eddy current, ultrasonic, and radiography systems. 

The research team evaluated each 

technique according to its sensitivity and reliability, ease-of-use, 

speed, and fieldability. 

The study yielded useful results. 

The internally-applied MFEC 

methods reliably detected cracks 

longer than 0.090-inches, better sensitivity than that of any 

externally-applied NDI technologies. External methods that 

provided the best sensitivity were 

the Meandering Winding Magnetometer (MWM), Remote Field 

Eddy Current (RFEC), Giant 

Magnetoresistive Sensor (GMR), 

digital radiography, and RivetCheck. The LFEC sliding probe, 

Array Eddy Current, the Magneto Optical Imager (MOI), and 

Turbo-MOI Methods proved the 

fastest methods to deploy. Emerging methods determined to be 

ready for immediate implementation at airline or MRO facilities 

included the MOI, Turbo-MOI, 

and MAUS. All of these technologies are currently in use, but 

not on a widespread basis. The 

technologies deemed promising 

for implementation at an airline 

or MRO facility in the near future 

included MWM, RFEC, GMR, 

digital radiography, RivetCheck, 

and a high frequency ultrasonic 

array. 

Results from this study will aid 

in the acceptance and adoption 

of these emerging technologies 

as alternate means to inspect for 

cracks in aircraft fuselage substructures without the need to tear 

the aircraft down.

Developing an Enhanced Life 

Management Process

The FAA is currently working 

with industry to enhance the current life management processes 

for aircraft engines. Based on 

probabilistic damage tolerance 

principles, the new process will 

address the threat of material 

or manufacturing anomalies in 

high-energy turbine engine rotating components. One existing 

process for detecting hard alpha 

(HA) anomalies in titanium 

rotors is documented in FAA 

Advisory Circular (AC) 33.14-

1. Future revisions to AC 33.14 

will address other materials and 

anomaly types. In FY 2006, researchers completed a multi-year 

research program and published 

their findings in “Turbine Rotor 

Material Design—Phase II.” This 

work addresses data and technology requirements to support and 

enhance the AC and its implementation. 

The team includes researchers 

from Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), GE Aircraft Engines, 

Pratt & Whitney, Honeywell, 

and Rolls-Royce Corporation. 

Together, they developed the DEFORMTM forging microcode, an 

enhanced predictive tool capability with supplementary material/

anomaly behavior characterization and modeling. They used detailed nondestructive evaluation 

and metallography techniques 

to validate the tool, as applied 

to forgings with HA anomalies. 

They also used the microcode 

to characterize the conditions 

associated with cracking of HA 
page 2

4

anomalies during forging. Studies 

of representative forging shapes 

indicated that ingot-to-billet con-

version and component forging 

would, under common processing 

conditions, create cracks in all HA 

anomalies.

The researchers conducted addi-

tional experiments to understand 

the fatigue behavior of embed-

ded HA. They performed fatigue 

tests on coupons machined from 

seeded forgings and conducted 

spin pit tests with material from 

earlier forgings containing HA 

anomalies. The total fatigue life 

observed was at least twice as 

long as the calculated life, based 

on the assumptions that crack 

nucleation life was zero and 

the initial crack size was equal 

to the core plus diffusion zone 

size. Analyses using the fracture 

mechanics module (Flight-Life) 

in the Design Assessment of Reli-

ability with Inspection (DAR-

WIN®) code indicated that initial 

crack sizes more nearly corresponded to core sizes than core 

plus diffusion zone sizes. 

As a result of this work, research-

ers have improved the overall 

efficiency and accuracy of the 

DARWIN risk assessment compu-

tations. In addition, they devel-

oped an infrastructure for soft-

ware management, code licensing 

and distribution, and support for 

users. 

Releasing the Uncontained 

Engine Debris Damage 

Assessment Model 

Hazards from uncontained engine 

failures must be mitigated during 

the design layout of the aircraft 

systems that will be used in 

turbine-powered aircraft. Un-

contained engine failure events 

release high-energy fragments 

that can impact and disable criti-

cal systems and reduce the air-

worthiness of the vehicle. When 

multiple systems are disabled, the 

potential for an accident increas-

es. The redundancy and separa-

tion of systems, coupled with the 

thoughtful location of components 

in the design of an aircraft, can 

make significant improvement in 

the vehicle’s ability to survive a 

high-energy event.

In FY 2006, FAA researchers, 

working with their counterparts at 

the Naval Air Warfare Center, re-

leased an improved version of the 

Uncontained Engine Debris Dam-

age Assessment Model (UED-

DAM). This model is designed to 

support the certification process 

and has tailored outputs that 

match the certification package re-

quirements. Although the model is 

not yet being used for commercial 

certification, the U.S. Air Force 

has been using the model for 

several years. In a 2004 descrip-

tion of its C5 re-engine program, 

the USAF reported: “In a unique 

approach to the problem, we 

were able to answer both LFT&E 

(live fire test and evaluation) and 

safety issues by using the latest 

Federal Aviation Administration 

endorsed methodology. The use 

of the Uncontained Engine Debris 

Damage Assessment Model 

(UEDDAM) allowed the program 

to realize large cost savings while 

answering vital questions about 

the safety and vulnerability of the 

upgraded engines due to cascad-

ing damage.” 

Aircraft Safety
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 25

Version 3 of the Uncontained Engine Debris Damage Assessment 

Model, released in September 

2006, incorporates several improvements, including the ability 

to support analysis of decompression hole size as a code output. 

Other significant improvements 

include the user defined material property inputs that make it 

possible for manufacturers with 

proprietary materials to insert 

their own material data within the 

code. 

Evaluating Remote On-Ground 

Ice Detection Systems 

Undetected ice remaining after 

the deicing process can cause 

dangerous lift loss during takeoff. 

This is a critical issue for all 

aircraft, but especially for hard 

wing regional jets. In 2006, FAA 

Flight Safety researchers, scientists in the FAA Human Factors 

programs, and personnel at the 

Transport Canada Transportation 

Development Center teamed to 

determine the effectiveness of 

two prototype remote on-ground 

ice detection systems (ROGIDS). 

Using a special camera, ROGIDS 

captures and interprets the infrared reflections given off by ice 

on critical aircraft surfaces. In 

preparation for future regulatory 

approval of a commercial version 

of ROGIDS, researchers first 

determined how well deicing personnel detected ice by traditional 

visual and tactile methods. Those 

results provided the baseline to 

evaluate the ability of the two 

ROGIDS prototypes to detect ice 

on an aircraft wing. 

The ice samples used were 

beneath a residual layer of deicing fluid typical of what would 

remain on an aircraft wing after 

the deicing process is completed. 

The first study showed that deicing personnel can easily detect 

very thin ice by touch when the 

sample is contained in a small 

area, but they have a much more 

difficult time seeing clear ice on 

bare and painted aircraft aluminum surfaces. The study showed 

that despite the impressive 

sensitivity of human fingers to 

ice, the abilities of one ROGIDS 

prototype were significantly 

superior to those of experienced 

deicing personnel (who performed both the visual and the 

tactile inspections) in detecting 

ice patches of varying areas and 

thicknesses scattered on an aircraft wing. The other ROGIDS 

prototype, which had not had a 

significant amount of shakedown 

testing prior to this test, proved 

to be roughly equivalent to the 

deicing personnel. As a result of 

these tests, the FAA and Transport Canada Flight Standards 

organizations feel ROGIDS has 

potential to increase the level of 

safety in icing conditions with 

further work.

Two reports document these tests: 

Human Visual and Tactile Ice Detection Capabilities under Aircraft 

Post Deicing Conditions (DOT/

FAA/TC-06/21) and Comparison 

of Human Ice Detection Capabilities and Ground Ice Detection 

System Performance under Post 

Deicing Conditions (DOT/FAA/

TC-06/20). Both reports are 

available online at: http://www.

tc.faa.gov/acb300/330_documents.asp. Researchers presented 

the results of these tests at the 

SAE Committee G-12 (Ground 

Deicing) annual meeting in Lisbon, Portugal, on May 24, 2006, 

and at the Human Factors and 

Ergonomics Society Confer-ence 

in San Francisco, October 19 and 

20, 2006.

Providing New Guidance on 

Instrumentation for Icing 

Certification Flights

Federal aviation regulations, 

such as Title 14 Code of Federal 

Regulations (CFR) 25.1419, “Ice 

Protection,” require flight tests 

in measured natural or simulated 

icing conditions for aircraft being 

certificated for flight in icing 

conditions. Different aircraft 

manufacturers have employed 

different types of instrumentation to measure the relevant 

icing cloud variables, primarily 

water content, droplet sizes, and 

temperature. The available instrumentation ranges from the simple 

to the complex, from the old to 

the new, and from the relatively 

inexpensive to the expensive. 

Most of the instrumentation 

comes from the cloud physics 

research community. The use of 

this technology requires a certain 

amount of knowledge and experience to ensure that the probes are 

properly installed, calibrated, and 

operated. In addition, all probe 

types can have subtle systemic 

errors that may be difficult for the 

inexperienced operator or data 

analyst to recognize.

As a result of these complexities, FAA Aircraft Certification 
page 26

Offices (ACO) have either had to 

rely on the aircraft manufacturers 

to supply adequate instrumenta-

tion and technicians, or they have 

had to hire experienced contrac-

tors to install and operate suitable 

instrumentation and analyze the 

icing cloud data. 

To provide advice to the ACOs 

and to help standardize policy 

and procedures for icing certifica-

tion projects, research was done 

to provide technical data on the 

variety of instrumentation used to 

analyze and measure the proper-

ties of the icing conditions expe-

rienced during test flights. The 

result was the 2006 publication of 

a set of four technical notes:

• DOT/FAA/AR-TN06/29, 

“Cloud Sampling Instruments 

for Icing Flight Tests: (1) Icing 

Rate Indicators,”

• DOT/FAA/AR-TN06/30,“Cloud 

Sampling Instruments for Icing 

Flight Tests: (2) Cloud Water 

Concentration Indicators,” 

• DOT/FAA/AR-TN06/31,“Cloud 

Sampling Instruments for Icing 

Flight Tests: (3) Cloud Droplet 

Sizers,” and

• DOT/FAA/AR-TN06/32, 

“Cloud Sampling Instruments 

for Icing Flight Tests: (4) Large 

Drop Sizers.” 

These reports provide informa-

tion on the suitability, procedures, 

and precautions for the most 

commonly used instruments for 

measuring icing rate, cloud water 

concentration, and droplet sizes in 

natural clouds or airborne tankersprays. They also include advice 

on the data quality assurance, data 

processing, and presentation of 

results. 

The technical notes are intended 

to be a ready reference for ACOs, 

designated engineering represen-

tatives, aircraft manufacturers, 

and other interested parties. They 

can be found at http://actlibrary.

tc.faa.gov. 

Operating Aircraft in Ice Pellet 

Conditions

Under certain atmospheric condi-

tions, precipitation falls on air-

craft as pellets of ice. From 1992 

to 2004 many air carriers were 

allowed to operate in ice pellet 

conditions provided the flight 

crew did a contamination check 

of the wings within five minutes 

of takeoff. For most passenger 

aircraft, this check was conducted 

from inside the aircraft, but for 

freighters, which generally have 

no cabin windows, it was done 

from the outside. Operations in 

the presence of ice pellets were 

incorporated into the deicing 

and anti-icing programs of many 

individual air carriers and were 

approved annually by the Princi-

pal Operations Inspector for those 

carriers.

Recently, due in part to Agency 

and industry concerns, the FAA 

decided to reassess its policy 

with respect to operation in ice 

pellet conditions. At the request 

of Flight Standards Service, the 

Flight Safety Branch, in coop-

eration with Transport Canada, 

conducted relevant runway testing 

in Canada in March 2006. Using 

a turbine powered aircraft, they 

simulated ice pellet contamina-

tion in a specific type of anti-icing 

fluid on the wing. Type IV is the 

thickened (viscous) anti-icing flu-

Aircraft Safety
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 27

id commonly used by airlines in 

North America. The aircraft was 

accelerated to rotation speed, and 

then stopped. Crushed ice from 

blenders was used to simulate ice 

pellets. The ice mixture was run 

through sieves to get a size distribution similar to natural pellets. 

Known quantities were distributed over the wing from modified 

hand held seed spreaders. 

The results indicated that, when 

the aircraft was protected with 

Type IV anti-icing fluid, the simulated pellets would readily flow 

off prior to rotation. A review 

of the research indicated that a 

25-minute allowance after antiicing in light ice pellets afforded 

a large safety margin, and Flight 

Standards has since approved that 

allowance as sufficient to ensure 

a safe takeoff from most airports.
page 28

Airport 

Technology

“We are dedicated to developing 

scientific knowledge and technology 

to improve the construction, 

maintenance, and operation 

of airports.”

Satish Agrawal

Airport Technology R&D Program Manager

Air Traffic Organization Operations Planning
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 29

Evaluating the End-Around 

Taxiway (EAT) Screen

Because of the need to increase 

operational capacity, airports 

have added dual and sometimes 

triple parallel runways. Typically, 

departing aircraft use the inboard 

runways for takeoff while arriving 

aircraft use the outboard runways 

for landings. To increase operational capacity and to mitigate the 

risk of potential runway incursions, airports are considering, or 

are in the process of constructing, taxiways that go around the 

runway ends. These are usually 

called End-Around Taxiways 

(EAT). In some cases, since an 

aircraft taxiing on the EAT may 

look like it is actually crossing the 

departure end of the runway, a potential problem exists for aircraft 

taking off on a runway with an 

EAT. The pilot may perceive that 

there is a runway incursion and 

abort the takeoff, or perform an 

inappropriate maneuver to avoid 

what appears to be a possible 

accident.

To mitigate this situation, the 

FAA Airport Obstruction Standards Committee (AOSC) Executive Steering Group directed that 

a visual, screen-type device be 

designed and installed at airports with EAT facilities. The 

basic design was to be based on 

simulator evaluations of a screen 

13 feet in height and 700 feet in 

length. Screened images would 

help pilots, who were executing 

a takeoff roll, tell when another 

aircraft was actually crossing 

the active runway versus when 

it was simply operating on the 

EAT. (A possible exception might 

be where the EAT is shielded by 

natural terrain.) 

FAA airport safety researchers 

investigated the most conspicuous 

configuration and combination of 

color and materials for the EAT 

screen. The results of this evaluation validated that the pre-specified minimum screen height of 

13 feet was satisfactory, that the 

color and size combination of 12 

feet wide red and white engineering grade reflective material in 

a diagonal pattern proved most 

effective, and that no additional 

external lighting was necessary 

to enhance screen visibility at 

night. Additional findings were 

made regarding effective access 

for emergency equipment, and 

no degradation of the screen’s effectiveness resulted from tilting it 

at an angle of 14 degrees to avoid 

interference with radar systems.

On September 29, 2006, as a 

result of this research, the FAA 

issued change 10 to the Airport Design Advisory Circular 

150/5300-13. This change adds 

design criteria for EAT Screens.

Installing the Next Generation 

High Reach Extendable Turret

Past research done by the FAA 

Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting (ARFF) Research Program 

determined the advantages and 

benefits of ARFF vehicles using 

High Reach Extendable Turrets 

(HRET) equipped with penetrator 

nozzles in aviation fire fighting. 

Since the introduction of HRETs 

in 1986, approximately 350 of the 

turrets have been retrofitted into 
page 30

existing ARFF vehicles or pur-

chased already on new ARFF vehi-

cles. Some advantages and benefits 

of this technology include: in-

creased throw range performance, 

increased range of motion of the 

turret, more efficient application of 

the agent by directing it to the seat 

of the fire, faster extinguishing of 

two-dimensional pool and threedimensional flowing fuel fires, and 

the ability to penetrate inside an 

aircraft to cool the interior cabin 

and extinguish fire. Essentially, this 

technology increases passenger 

survivability, protects property, and 

extinguishes fire faster right after 

an aircraft crashes.

The December 18, 2003, aircraft 

accident at Memphis International 

involving a wide body DC-10 

cargo aircraft demonstrated the 

importance an HRET outfitted 

with a penetrating nozzle can have 

at an accident. Upon landing, the 

failure of one landing gear caused 

the aircraft to skid on its fuselage 

and be consumed on one side by 

fire. While two ARFF vehicles 

concentrated on the fuel spill fire, 

the ARFF vehicle with the HRET 

penetrated the aircraft from the 

opposite side. Although firefight-

ers were concerned that the fire 

would burn through the fuselage 

and create an interior fire, the 

HRET-equipped vehicle flooded 

the interior with foam. Ninety-nine 

percent of the cargo was spared 

fire damage. The saved cargo value 

estimate of $25 million was greater 

than the value of the aircraft.

This accident demonstrated the 

need and ability of a HRET at an 

aircraft accident, and the role it can 

play in protecting cargo and in-

creasing survivability in passenger 

aircraft. Because the current HRET 

performance criteria have been in 

place for over a decade, research-

ers have begun work to develop 

new HRET performance criteria to 

meet the challenges posed by the 

new Airbus A380 and other New 

Large Aircraft soon to be manufac-

tured. The distance from the front 

of the ARFF vehicle to the burning 

aircraft fuselage is commonly 

referred to as standoff distance. 

Current HRETs cannot reach a 

second level doorway of a Boe-

ing 747 or Airbus A380 unless the 

ARFF vehicle is positioned right 

next to the aircraft fuselage. Unfor-

tunately, this placement eliminates 

visibility of the operator control-

ling the HRET as well as requiring 

the operator to be positioned in the 

hazard area. Other challenges that 

NLA present to the firefighters are 

complex slide arrangement and 

engine pylon locations. 

The ARFF Research Program has 

completed the installation of a 

Next Generation HRET on their re-

search vehicle. Testing of this new 

technology has begun to further re-

fine the performance requirements 

to meet the challenges of today’s 

commercial aviation fleets as well 

as the fleets of tomorrow.

Deploying FAArfield 1.0 – 

Advanced Airport Pavement 

Thickness Design Software

Researchers completed a new 

computer program, FAA Rigid and 

Flexible Iterative Elastic Layer De-

sign, or FAArfield 1.0, on Septem-

ber 28, 2006. The new program in-

corporates three-dimensional (3D) 

Airport Technology
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 31

finite element structural analysis 

to compute stresses for rigid 

(concrete) pavement and rigid 

overlay thickness design. Previous FAA computer programs 

for thickness design (LEDFAA 

1.3) estimated rigid pavement 

stresses based on layered elastic 

analysis (LEA). FAArfield is a 

significant advance in pavement 

design technology and represents 

the first time the powerful and accurate 3D finite element method 

has been used in a routine design 

procedure to compute the critical 

design stresses (stresses at the 

slab edges) for complex aircraft 

gears. 

Previously, 3D finite element 

based procedures were considered impractical for PC–based 

design applications because of 

the excessive time it took to 

complete modeling. A combination of faster computer processors and innovative programming 

methods reduced run times to the 

point where FAArfield 1.0 can be 

used for routine pavement design. 

Some of the strategies employed 

by the FAA included optimizing 

the 3D meshes and using less 

accurate, less computationally 

intensive methods in initial iterations to reduce overall processing 

time.

The look and feel of FAArfield 

1.0 is virtually identical to the 

LEDFAA 1.3, so users will have 

no trouble adjusting to the new 

program. However, researchers 

have incorporated many changes 

into the new software. The entire 

program uses the Microsoft 

Visual Studio.NET programming 

environment, making it more 

compatible with current PCs and 

operating systems. Engineers 

have completely revised the 

rigid pavement failure models to 

incorporate new full-scale test 

data for four- and six-wheel gears 

from the National Airport Pavement Test Facility rigid pavement 

tests. For flexible pavements and 

overlays, FAArfield incorporates 

all the changes made in LEDFAA 

1.3 and adds automatic base 

layer design. Researchers also 

have completely rewritten the 

rigid overlay design procedures, 

making them more efficient than 

previous algorithms.

FAArfield 1.0 will be the basis 

for a major revision to AC 

150/5320-6, expected in 2007. 

In anticipation of this change, 

FAArfield includes more runtime guidance. Also, the internal 

aircraft library has been revamped and expanded to include 

all current fleet aircraft and new 

models, including the A380.

Completing Full-Scale Flexible 

Overlay Tests 

Asphalt overlays on concrete 

pavements often fail because the 

joints cause cracks in underlying concrete slabs that reflect 

through the asphalt to the surface. 

Rubblization is a relatively new 

pavement construction method 

in which a machine breaks apart 

an existing concrete pavement 

before the old surface is overlayed with a new asphalt one. The 

theory is that any remaining slab 

action within the concrete layer 

is destroyed, thus eliminating the 

risk of this “reflection cracking.” 

Rubblization was originally developed for highway pavements. 

In October 2005, the FAA completed a set of full-scale asphalton-concrete tests at the National 

Airport Pavement Test Facility. 

These tests provided performance 

data on both rubblized and unrubblized concrete pavements overlaid with asphalt. These data will 

help the FAA to update its current 

design guidance for overlays on 

rubblized pavements.

The National Airport Pavement 

Test Facility overlay tests were a 

follow-on to the full-scale rigid 

pavement tests, designated CC2, 

completed in December 2004. 

Researchers designated the overlay tests as CC2-O (for overlay). 

In these tests, engineers overlaid 

severely deteriorated slabs left 

over from the CC2 series with 

five inches of asphalt surface. 

They reduced the slabs on the 

north side of the centerline into 

rubble prior to overlay using the 

resonant-breaker type of rubblization equipment. They left the 

south side slabs in the deteriorated condition. 

The research team then used 

the test facility load vehicle to 

traffic both sides with simulated 

aircraft taxi loads. Traffic loads 

began at 55,000 pounds per 

wheel, but were later increased to 

65,000 pounds to accelerate the 

failure. The design allowed the 

researchers to conduct side-byside tests on the rubblized and 

non-rubblized overlays. Each side 

contained three test items, which 

differed from each other in the 

type of base construction used. 

All test items were constructed 

on a medium-strength clay subgrade soil.
page 32

Test results on the rubblized side 

indicated that the overlays per-

formed significantly better than the 

design prediction based on current 

interim FAA guidance (Engineer-

ing Brief 66). The researchers 

expected this outcome, because the 

interim guidance is known to be 

conservative. When failure did oc-

cur, it generally resembled failures 

associated with flexible pavements. 

Researchers did not observe any 

reflection cracks on the unrub-

blized side. They also expected this 

result, since they had not exposed 

these sections to the daily tem-

perature cycling that contributes to 

reflection crack failures. 

Reconstructing Rigid Pavement 

Test Sections At The National 

Airport Pavement Test Facility

In preparation for a new series 

of full-scale traffic tests on rigid 

(concrete) overlay pavements, 

engineers constructed three pave-

ment test items at the National 

Airport Pavement Test Facility. In 

a project of the Innovative Pave-

ment Research Foundation (IPRF), 

funded by the FAA through a Co-

operative Agreement, the overlay 

tests were designated Construction 

Cycle 4 (CC4). These tests differ 

from previous studies conducted 

at the facility because, under the 

agreement, the FAA was required 

to reconstruct and prepare the sub-

grade soil to certain specifications, 

provide facilities for data collec-

tion, and operate the test vehicle. 

IPRF designed the test sections and 

testing plan, and constructed the 

test sections above the subgrade. 

Quality Engineering Systems of 

Connaught Lake, Pennsylvania, 

the IPRF contractor, performed the 

work at the FAA test facility. FAA 

engineers completed reconstruction 

of the subgrade in January 2006, 

and completed construction of 

the test items in March 2006. The 

reconstructed sections consist of 

a jointed concrete overlay placed 

over a jointed concrete base course. 

The concrete layers are separated 

by a thin asphalt interlayer. Joint 

offsets, the initial condition of the 

base layer, and the thickness of the 

overlay relative to the base layer 

are among the variables considered 

in the experiment. The overlays 

are subjected to traffic simulating 

four-wheel and six-wheel heavy 

aircraft gear loads. Traffic testing 

is expected to continue through the 

end of 2006.

The CC4 series of tests provides 

full-scale test data on the perfor-

mance of concrete overlays on 

concrete pavements to fill a gap 

in empirical knowledge. Previous 

tests on this type of construction 

are at least 35 years old and do not 

reflect current construction prac-

tices or aircraft loads. The present 

tests are intended to yield reliable 

performance data that the FAA can 

use to update the overlay thickness 

design procedures in its FAArfield 

computer program. The CC4 test-

ing program largely follows a test 

plan that was prepared under a 

previous IPRF project, and is avail-

able at www.iprf.org. 

Partnering for Airport Research 

In December 2003, Congress 

authorized the Airport Cooperative 

Research Program (ACRP) as part 

of the Vision 100-Century of Avia-

tion Reauthorization Act. The FAA 

sponsors the program, which the 

National Academies Transportation 

Airport Technology
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 33

Research Board manages. The 

purpose of the ACRP is to carry 

out applied research on problems 

shared by airport operating agencies. These problems, as well as 

some others that are too costly or 

complex for individual airports 

to solve, are not adequately 

addressed by existing federal 

research programs. In FY 2006, 

FAA research partners initiated 

33 projects under the ACRP. 

Those projects include: 

• Developing a guidebook 

for managing small airports 

– Management resources at 

small airports are usually very 

limited because many operate 

with small budgets. Airport 

managers have a wide variety 

of experience and educational 

backgrounds. Although some 

management guidance is available for their use, much of it 

is dated, focused on specific 

issues, intended for larger airports, or designed as a textbook 

rather than a practitioner’s 

handbook. Research will provide operators and managers 

of small airports with current, 

comprehensive advice on 

resources and techniques that 

can be applied to meet their 

responsibilities. 

• Studying the use of Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) 

in airport obstructions surveys 

– The use of airborne LIDAR 

data has been proven technically effective for obstruction 

analysis. Further research is 

needed to establish a costeffective methodology that 

airports and their consultants 

can adopt to procure, process, 

and use these new data. This 

research is determining the 

requirements that must be met 

to use LIDAR data in aeronautical obstructions surveys 

and airport layout plan elevation surveys, recommending 

procurement specifications and 

procedures that could be used 

by airports or other agencies 

for procuring and using LIDAR 

data, and describing the technical bases that could justify 

acceptance of LIDAR-based 

obstructions surveys. 

• Developing a guidebook for 

use with airport-user survey 

methodology – Airport-user 

surveys are the primary source 

of information for airport 

operators and other agencies on 

airport-user characteristics and 

airport ground access mode 

use. They play a critical role in 

airport planning and air travel 

forecasting. The planning, 

development, and conduct 

of airport-user surveys can 

be complex, expensive, and 

subject to a number of pitfalls. 

Surveys are often conducted at 

infrequent intervals by different 

contractors, and there is often 

a lack of continuity between 

successive surveys for the 

same airport. The lack of comparability between surveys at 

airports in multi-airport regions 

can be a particular problem for 

analyzing airport choice decisions or for performing studies 

of traffic “leakage” to airports 

in adjacent regions. 

• Determining appropriate 

methods for using LightningWarning Systems at airports 

– Air carriers and airports are 

concerned with the potential 

hazards of lightning. Safety 

policies and practices require 

that ramp operations be discontinued when the potential for 

lightning exists. Ramp closures 

significantly affect all facets of 

airport operations, including 

landside, terminal, and airside 

operations – effects which 

ripple through the National 

Airspace System. The severity of these effects could be 

reduced if current airport lightning-warning systems were 

enhanced to more precisely 

identify the periods when ramp 

closures must be in effect. For 

example, this could be accomplished by integrating measurements from other weather-observing systems, such as radar, 

into the lightning-warning 

systems. 

• Studying new design concepts 

for airport terminal landside 

facilities – Airport terminal 

landside facilities evolve in response to changes in travelers’ 

needs and industry development. Increased passenger and 

baggage screening, provisions 

for self-service check-in, blast 

protection and chemical-biological threat mitigation, the 

need to improve intermodal 

connections among various 

ground transportation services, 

new technology, new legislation, and the special needs 

of an aging population and 

persons with disabilities are 

all making pressing demands 

on the limited airport terminal area. To address these 

demands, some airports have 

moved functions from their 

traditional locations, reallocated space within the terminal, 
page 3

4

converted and reconstructed 

facilities, or created new types 

of facilities. Such changes have 

varied impacts on passengers’ ex-

periences, airlines’ relationships 

with their customers, and airport 

revenues and costs. Research is 

underway to study the interface 

between various airport terminal 

landside elements (e.g., garages, 

roads, curbs, terminals) to iden-

tify improved ways of accom-

modating new airport terminal 

functions. 

• Establishing guidelines for the 

collection and use of geospa-

tially referenced data for airfield 

pavement management – The 

collection of data on pavement 

structure, pavement condition, 

traffic, climate, maintenance 

actions, testing and evaluation, 

and other items is essential for 

effective management of airfield 

pavements. While such data sets 

are regularly collected by many 

agencies and airports across the 

country, the information often 

differs greatly in definition and 

format, making it difficult for oth-

ers to interpret and use it. Also, 

state-of-the-art technologies such 

as global position systems have 

typically not been effectively 

used in collecting the informa-

tion. Guidelines are needed to 

make these collection efforts 

economical, compatible and effective. 

• Developing alternative aircraft 

and airfield deicing and anti-ic-

ing fluid formulations – The 

discharge of spent aircraft and 

airfield deicing/anti-icing fluids 

(ADAF) to receiving waters is a 

growing environmental concern 

at airports across the United 

States. The presence of these 

fluids in storm water runoff cre-

ates a potential to elevate aquatic 

toxicity as well as creates a 

high biological oxygen demand 

(BOD5 ). Lower aquatic toxicity 

and BOD5 may reduce infrastruc-

ture costs to airports, provide 

greater operational latitude to 

aircraft operators and airports in 

deicing/anti-icing operations, and 

improve overall air transportation 

system reliability.

• Analyzing hazard mitigation for 

runway end approach lighting 

structures – Elevated approach 

lighting systems are in place at 

many airports throughout the 

country due to uneven terrain or 

close proximity to water. These 

high voltage structures are de-

signed for longevity and sustain-

ability; however, regulations also 

require these structures to be 

easily broken should a collision 

with aircraft occur. This research 

attempts to reduce the damage 

to aircraft caused from pos-

sible impact on elevated lighting 

structures, as well as improving 

the emergency rescue situation by 

reducing and/or eliminating the 

electrical hazards from these high 

voltage systems.

• Developing a guidebook for 

implementing airport Safety 

Management Systems - The 

airport Safety Management 

System (SMS) is a powerful tool 

for reducing the hazards and risks 

of aircraft accidents/incidents 

and runway incursions during 

approaches, takeoffs, and ground 

operations. This issue has been 

seriously considered in several 

parts of the world besides be-

ing an ICAO standard for the 

Airport Technology
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 35

international airports since 

November 2005. The objective 

of this research is to produce a 

guidebook for developing an 

effective airport safety management system for different 

airport sizes based on FAA 

regulations that will be issued 

in the near future. 

• Developing improved civil 

aircraft arresting systemsCurrently, the FAA has approved a single civil aircraft 

arresting system, called an 

Engineered Materials Arresting 

System (EMAS). The system 

has been successfully deployed 

at a number of airports that 

have limited space for standard runway safety areas, and 

has demonstrated its value 

in several overrun accidents 

to date. However, expensive 

construction and maintenance 

requirements can make EMAS 

technology prohibitive for installation at small airports. The 

objectives of this research are 

to identify alternative candidate arresting systems that are 

comparable to EMAS and to 

identify alternative means of 

EMAS construction.

Foreign Object Debris Radar 

Detection System

The presence of foreign objects 

in the airport environment presents a major hazard to aircraft 

safety. Foreign object debris 

(FOD) is any substance, debris, 

or article alien to the vehicle or 

system that would potentially 

cause damage. The presence of 

FOD can be the result of the loss 

of parts from aircraft, pavement 

cracking, wildlife, ice and salt 

accumulation, and construction 

debris. Identification of FOD at 

airports requires regular observation of airport surfaces by airport 

personnel, or by chance recognition by aircraft pilots operating 

on airport pavement. Removal 

of such FOD is only triggered by 

those actual observations.

In 2005, the FAA in cooperation 

with the University of Illinois 

conducted a preliminary short 

term evaluation of a radar based 

FOD detection system at the 

John F. Kennedy International 

Airport. Through the use of millimeter wave radar, this system 

demonstrated that it was capable 

of detecting objects as small as a 

two-inch long bolt on the pavement surface. As a result, it was 

determined that this type of system could easily provide airport 

personnel with immediate FOD 

alerts, and even provide specific 

information on where the object 

is located. The conclusions from 

the preliminary research effort 

recognized successful detection 

of FOD under many operational 

and environmental conditions, 

but also identified a need to 

conduct further evaluation of 

the FOD radar at an airport on a 

longer term basis, under varying 

seasonal conditions.

The FAA is currently developing plans for further FOD 

radar research at the Theodore 

Francis Green State Airport in 

Providence, Rhode Island. A 

total of two radar units will be 

installed at strategic locations 

on the airport surface that will 

collectively provide full FOD 

detection capability for the entire 

airport surface, including an alert 

mechanism to provide instant 

alert and location to airport 

personnel. Installation will be 

initiated in the early spring of 

2007, and will be immediately 

followed by testing and evaluation throughout the remainder of 

2007. Completion of the project 

is scheduled for early 2008. 

Wildlife Mitigation R&D 

Program

The FAA’s wildlife hazards mitigation R&D program consists 

of three main efforts aimed at 

reducing the risks of aircraft encountering wildlife on airports. 

The first main area is Wildlife 

Hazard Management research 

which focuses on techniques for 

managing the wildlife habitat 

on or in the vicinity of airports 

to make them less attractive for 

hazardous wildlife. The wildlife 

management area also includes 

the study of methods for controlling wildlife presence such as 

methods of deterring or scattering birds. 

The second main area is aimed 

at detecting birds on or near 

airports to reduce the risk of aircraft striking the birds. The third 

main area is the development of 

a North American Bird Strike 

Advisory System (NABSAS). 

In all three areas, the current 

focus is on obtaining accurate 

and timely information that will 

ultimately lead to more effective 

management and reduced risks 

of severe and potentially catastrophic wildlife-aircraft strikes.

Wildlife Management and Control R&D Projects were carried 

out under agreements with the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 
page 36

(USDA). Studies conducted in 

2006 included airport habitat stud-

ies which looked at the charac-

teristics of water retention basins 

on airports that potentially attract 

bird populations. Researchers also 

studied alternative varieties of 

vegetation to identify bird foraging 

preferences and ultimately reduce 

their attractiveness for birds. Trash 

transfer facilities near airports can 

also be attractive to bird species. 

Studies continued to investigate the 

types and characteristics of trash 

transfer facilities that make them 

wildlife attractants. Potentially 

improved methods for assessing 

bird activity on airports were also 

evaluated. The ability to survey 

accurately bird activity is essential 

for habitat management and spe-

cies population control. 

In New York City, the USDA col-

lared 300 resident Canada Geese 

and tracked their local movements. 

Data from this study will help air-

port wildlife biologists understand 

the nature of local bird movements 

and enable more effective control 

of airport avian hazards. The 

USDA also studied the use of avian 

effigies as a method to deter birds 

from controlled areas. 

In 2006, the FAA established 

several cooperative agreements 

with key universities, agencies and 

airports as first steps toward the 

development of the NABSAS. The 

system is based on a strategic plan 

drafted in 2005 by the FAA, U.S. 

Air Force, and Transport Canada. 

The vision of the original draft 

remains to develop an advisory 

system for a variety of end-users 

that will provide near-real time 

information about bird hazards 

at North American Airports. Key 

cooperators include the U.S. Air 

Force, USDA, University of Il-

linois Urbana-Champaign, Embry 

Riddle Aeronautical University, 

and several commercial airports 

including Seattle-Tacoma, John F. 

Kennedy International, and Dallas/

Fort Worth International as well as 

bird detection radar vendors. The 

FAA also serves as a participating 

partner in a similar effort being 

conducted by the U.S. Navy. 

Through these cooperative efforts, 

the goal is to establish a national 

network of bird detection radars 

at airports known as “nodes”. Ac-

curate and timely radar data from 

each node will be reported to a 

central repository and processing 

center where appropriate informa-

tion will be generated for each end 

user. Field studies will begin at 

the first of several test nodes in the 

early 2007. The first test nodes 

will be established at Seattle-Ta-

coma International, John F. Ken-

nedy International, and Dallas/Ft. 

Worth International Airports. This 

initial nodal network provides busy 

commercial airport environments 

in different regions with differing 

bird populations, wildlife control 

methods and different radar manu-

facturers.

Work began at the University of Il-

linois in 2006 to develop a protocol 

for calibrating bird detection radars 

prior to field evaluations. Addi-

tionally, Embry-Riddle Aeronauti-

cal University initiated efforts to 

develop a central repository and 

processing center for receiving, 

processing and distributing data 

from each airport node.

Airport Technology
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 37

Aviation 

Weather

“Our mission is to provide accurate 

and accessible weather forecasts to 

improve system safety, capacity, 

and efficiency.”

Gloria Kulesa

Aviation Weather Research Program Manager

Air Traffic Organization Operations Planning
page 3

8

Avoiding In-flight Icing Conditions

The formation of even a thin coat 

of ice on an aircraft surface can 

seriously affect an airplane’s ability 

to fly by increasing drag, decreasing 

lift, and increasing aircraft weight. 

In many cases, the build-up of ice 

is so rapid that the pilot does not 

have enough time to take correc-

tive action. National Transportation 

Safety Board records indicate that 

in-flight icing causes more than 25 

accidents annually, with over half 

of these resulting in fatalities and 

destroyed aircraft. This equates to 

$100 million in injuries, fatalities, 

and aircraft damage each year. 

To address this problem, FAA 

researchers developed the Cur-

rent and Forecast Icing Potential 

products to alert users to areas of 

in-flight icing by displaying graphi-

cally the likelihood that icing will 

occur along their route of flight. 

During the year, the FAA upgraded 

the Current Icing Potential product. 

It also received a new name, Cur-

rent Icing Product, to distinguish 

it from its preceding version. The 

upgrade provides more spatial reso-

lution of icing conditions. Users can 

now see the finer details of weather 

structure contributing to potentially 

hazardous icing conditions. This 

improvement allows pilots to devise 

flight plans that more effectively 

avoid the icing hazard. 

In addition, the upgraded product 

has another new feature, a severity 

index, to enable better decisionmaking by the user. Severity is 

needed to delineate where icing 

conditions are found, so aircraft can 

avoid these areas. While the previ-

ous version used an icing potential 

index, the upgraded software uses 

a relative scale calibrated to depict 

the true probability of encountering 

ice. The colors now change from 

cool (light blue) to warm (orange) 

and the vertical range has been 

extended to 30,000 feet. Addition-

ally supercooled large drop regions 

(conditions outside current aircraft 

certification envelopes) are de-

picted. These improvements allow 

users to plan more effective routes 

of flight that will avoid hazardous 

icing areas.

Avoiding Volcanic Ash 

Volcanic ash is a significant safety 

hazard to aviation that has caused 

more than $250 million dollars in 

damage to aircraft over the past 

20 years. To address this problem, 

FAA researchers have developed 

a Volcanic Ash Coordination Tool 

to improve the timeliness, coordi-

nation, and accuracy of volcanic 

ash warnings and forecasts. The 

tool also enhances the efficiency 

of the national airspace system by 

enabling better identification of 

airspace that is unsafe to use. 

The FAA and National Weather 

Service implemented this new tool 

in Alaska at the Anchorage Volcanic 

Ash Advisory Center, the Alaska 

Volcano Observatory, and the 

Anchorage air route traffic control 

center weather service unit. Most 

of the volcanoes that affect U.S. 

airspace are found in Alaska. This 

new tool allows the FAA, National 

Weather Service, and other national 

and local organizations with respon-

sibility for detecting eruptions and 

issuing advisories and forecasts for 

volcanic ash to coordinate activities 

in real-time.

Aviation Weather
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 39

Assessing Quality

Because verification is critical to 

providing reliable information for 

improved weather forecasts, FAAsponsored researchers are developing verification techniques and tools 

that allow forecasters, developers, 

and program leaders to generate and 

display statistical information in near 

real time. This past year, researchers 

developed critical enhancements to 

the Real-Time Verification System 

(RTVS). This system provides verification of research and operational 

weather products in real time via the 

Internet. It allows aviation decision 

makers to know how well any FAA 

forecast tool product is performing. When implemented at National 

Weather Service Headquarters early 

next year, RTVS will provide easier 

and faster access to statistical results 

and enhanced ability to verify turbulence, icing, convection ceiling, and 

visibility forecasts.

These enhancements are another 

major milestone in achieving full 

operational verification capability at 

the National Weather Service. Users 

of the system include the National 

Weather Service Aviation Weather 

Center, the FAA Air Traffic Control 

System Command Center, the FAA/

National Weather Service Aviation 

Weather Technology Transfer Board, 

and several airline dispatch centers.

Mitigating the Effects of 

Convective Weather

Spring and summer thunderstorms 

account for a significant reduction 

in airspace capacity and are responsible for approximately 75 percent of 

weather delays from April through 

September. Similarly, winter storms 

create havoc throughout that season. 

While this raises a system capacity/efficiency concern, there also is a 

safety consideration. Turbulence induced by convective weather causes 

$22 million per year in injuries, 

fatalities, and aircraft damage. 

To mitigate weather delays and 

improve aviation safety, the FAA 

is investing in new storm detection 

and nowcast capabilities to enhance 

safety and reduce weather-related delays. In June 2006, FAA-funded researchers began an effort to integrate 

existing capabilities into a single 

system that provides consistent 

storm forecasts (summer and winter). 

They anticipate that the Consolidated 

Aviation Storm Forecast System 

will eventually replace more than a 

dozen legacy forecast products. The 

research team has already met with 

stakeholders to determine user needs 

and is proceeding with development 

efforts.

During the fiscal year, the FAA 

delivered the Terminal Convective 

Weather Forecast product, which is 

designed to minimize terminal delays caused by convection. The new 

tool provides an animated one-hour 

forecast of thunderstorms, including 

growth and decay. It also provides a 

higher resolution (1 kilometer), longrange precipitation map for a more 

precise depiction of surrounding 

storms, and much better depiction 

of winter precipitation. This new 

software is currently being installed 

on the FAA Integrated Terminal 

Weather System (ITWS), with the 

debut deployment in New York this 

past summer. By the end of calendar 

year 2006, FAA deployed the tool on 

an additional 17 sites. The FAA estimates by the end of FY 2008 when 

all systems are deployed, ITWS will 

deliver an annual benefit of $524 

million. This benefit will not be lost 

in the future consolidation work. 

The Terminal Convective Weather 

Forecast product will be incorporated into the Consolidated Aviation 

Storm Forecast System before the 

delivery of the final product.

Forecasting Turbulence

Although only 35 percent of its 

conditions are forecasted, turbulence accounts for 65 percent of all 

weather-related injuries, while only 

35 percent of its conditions are forecasted. Because observations and 

forecasts are not accurate enough 

to predict the location, time, and 

intensity of turbulence, FAA funded 

the development of the Graphical 

Turbulence Guidance product. This 

tool produces easy-to-interpret depictions of turbulence. It is available 

on the web-based Aviation Digital 

Data Service, allowing anyone with 

an Internet connection access to the 

display. The output shows relative 

turbulence intensities at user-selected 

altitudes. 

Using input from several numerical weather prediction models, the 

Graphical Turbulence Guidance 

product refines turbulence assessments by comparing the models with 

current pilot reports of turbulence. It 

produces turbulence forecasts out to 

twelve hours and clear-air turbulence 

forecasts for altitudes above 20,000 

feet. Development has been completed on the next phase of this product, which extends forecasts down 

to 10,000 feet. This enhancement is 

anticipated to become operational in 

2007. When fully developed, the advanced Graphical Turbulence Guidance product will provide forecasts 

for all altitudes and will have the 

capability to forecast mountain-wave 

and convectively-induced (regions 

involving thunderstorm activity) 

turbulence. 
Center for Advanced 

Aviation System 

Development (CAASD)

“The mission of CAASD is to 

perform the studies, analysis and 

concept formulation for continued 

advanced aviation research for the 

modernization and development 

of the NAS.”

Bob Bostiga

FAA CAASD Program Manager
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 41

Developing Performance-Based Air 

Traffic Management Operations 

for Improving Safety, Capacity, and 

Productivity

 Aviation is a critical part of the U.S. 

economy. Yet increases in air traffic 

volume and complexity, combined with 

projected budget constraints over the 

coming years, will create challenges 

for our nation’s air traffic management system. The safety, capacity, and 

productivity of the national airspace 

system can be improved by integrating 

enhanced automation technologies into 

it, enabling operational demands to be 

met in an efficient and safe manner.

The FAA’s Center for Advanced Aviation System Development (CAASD), 

operated by the MITRE Corporation, 

developed an end-to-end concept for 

air traffic operations known as Performance-Based Air Traffic Management 

(P-ATM). The concept includes fundamental shifts in the use of automation 

capabilities across the national airspace 

system, while still maintaining a human-centered operation. It is a crossdomain set of air traffic capabilities, 

procedures, and new roles and responsibilities that will revolutionize the way 

the FAA operates its air traffic system. 

Under the concept, many routine air 

traffic control tasks would be automated, responsibility for problem prediction would move from controllers to 

automation, and controllers would resolve problems using automated resolution assistance. At the same time, airspace would be redesigned to optimize 

service and improve productivity, and 

additional routes would be designed 

to increase flexibility, efficiency, and 

capacity. In addition, automation would 

enable aircraft to fly accurate route and 

altitude profiles through the exchange 

of flight status and intent information between the aircraft and ground 

systems. This integration of technologies should provide vastly improved air 

traffic services that promote increased 

safety, capacity, and productivity. The 

P-ATM concept will transform air traffic operations and change controllers’ 

jobs to safely and efficiently meet the 

future demands on the system. 

In FY 2006, FAA-funded researchers 

at CAASD designed and conducted numerous human-in-the-loop experiments 

of this future environment. FAA en 

route and terminal front line managers 

from across the country assessed both 

the quantitative benefits and operational feasibility of this P-ATM concept. 

The results of the work conducted thus 

far have had a significant impact in the 

FAA’s plans for the next generation 

air transportation system. The P-ATM 

concept aligns very well with the core 

capabilities that are part of the future 

vision, but also represents a set of operational changes that can be achieved 

in a more near-term timeframe.

Estimating Runway Capacity at 

Complex Airports

An estimate of runway capacity can 

provide a key measure of the effectiveness of new technologies, procedures, 

and infrastructure intended to improve 

the air traffic control system. An accurate model for estimating runway capacity is a valuable tool for predicting 

the effects of new technologies on the 

system and for making decisions about 

building new runways. Accurately 

modeling runway capacity has become 

even more complex because today’s 

environment consists of multiple decision support systems in the cockpit and 

on the ground, specialized separation 

rules for multiple approach and depar-
page 

42

ture traffic streams, and interac-

tions between nearby airports in 

major terminal areas. 

To capture the dynamic effects of 

the interactions between traffic 

streams in runway capacity model-

ing, CAASD researchers devel-

oped a prototype simulation-based 

modeling system called runway-

Simulator. In less than an hour, 

a trained analyst can configure 

this system to simulate the traffic 

streams for a set of runways at a 

single airport, or a group of nearby 

airports, operating under any set of 

air traffic control separation tech-

niques. The simulation presents its 

results both as numerical measures 

of throughput and as an anima-

tion of the aircraft traffic streams 

that produced the numbers. The 

modeling system captures statistics 

describing runway usage, interac-

tions between the traffic streams, 

and flow rates. These results are 

categorized in a variety of ways, 

including by the particular aircraft 

types and runways being used. 

Together, the statistics and anima-

tion provide increased insight into 

the most efficient way to operate a 

complex system of runways. 

The new runwaySimulator pro-

vides important advantages over 

the Enhanced Airfield Capacity 

Model that is currently used to 

calculate estimated runway capac-

ity. The older analytical steadystate model estimates the average 

maximum sustainable throughput 

for a limited set of configurations 

using predetermined separa-

tion rules. The new system also 

estimates the average maximum 

sustainable throughput, but it can 

model any configuration and any 

set of separation rules. In addition, 

being a simulation, it also captures 

the dynamic interaction between 

traffic flows and produces much 

more detailed output that permits 

greater insight into why an airport 

is limited to a given capacity.

In FY 2006 the development team 

introduced the runwaySimulator to 

the modeling experts within FAA. 

Together, they began a thorough 

evaluation of the model’s capabili-

ties to assess the potential effects 

of planned procedures, technolo-

gies, and infrastructure upon an 

airport’s capacity.

Creating Clean Sheet Airspace 

Design Tools

Historically, airspace has been 

redesigned by air traffic control-

lers who were working to solve a 

problem like enabling a specific 

merge area to safely handle a large 

volume of traffic. Since many air-

space design efforts cross facility 

boundaries, they can be costly and 

labor intensive processes. Control-

ler teams often must spend extend-

ed periods of time away from their 

facilities to participate in detailed 

airspace design activities. Also, 

due to the size, complexity, and 

inter-connectedness of the national 

airspace system, the solutions con-

trollers find to their local problems 

may have unintended ripple effects 

elsewhere in the system. 

To make airspace redesign more 

efficient, CAASD researchers 

developed a prototype set of Clean 

Sheet airspace design tools. These 

tools feature a three-step, semiautomated process for airspace 

redesign that wipes the slate clean 

of preconceived notions about 

CAASD
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 43

airspace redesign and produces 

completely objective solutions. 

Using repeatable and transparent 

methods, the tools allow faster, 

less expensive, more efficient airspace redesigns applicable to virtually any user input traffic flow, 

regardless of existing sectors or 

control facility boundaries. 

The first step creates a map 

of geographically distributed 

traffic complexity (based on a 

specific set of metrics) in the 

area to be redesigned. Once a 

map is created, an automated 

Airspace Practitioner tool divides 

the airspace into areas of equal 

complexity. The target amount 

of complexity for each partition is adjustable and the tool 

can design sectors requiring 

one, two, or three controllers. 

The next step in the Clean Sheet 

process is a fast-time, dynamic 

simulation model, called Solution Option Manager (SOM), that 

tests the complexity regions and 

identifies operational problems 

that controllers might experience. 

The third step employs the Sector 

Evaluation Tool (SET), which 

uses a knowledge database of airspace design principles and best 

practices captured from air traffic 

control experts to suggest solutions to the problems identified in 

the second step. Work continues 

to enhance the SET knowledge 

database and to apply it earlier in 

the process.

In 2006, SET and SOM helped 

make airspace design decisions in Florida and Chicago 

(respectively). The whole 

Clean Sheet process was used 

to create a proposed redesign of 

all high altitude airspace west 

of the Mississippi River, taking 

into consideration future traffic 

levels and user-preferred routing. 

The proposed redesigns were 

presented to the FAA in late 2006 

and are currently under consideration.

Developing Advanced Systems 

for Air Traffic Workforce 

Training

With a large percentage of the 

nation’s air traffic controllers 

expected to retire over the next 

decade, the FAA faces the daunting task of training just under 

12,000 new en route controllers. 

What makes this situation even 

more challenging is that training and certifying a controller 

requires a great deal of instructor 

resources and can currently take 

three to five years.

To help determine how to accelerate training to meet the 

anticipated demand for new 

controllers, and to improve the 

efficiency and effectiveness of 

the training program, a CAASD 

research team developed a new 

high-fidelity instruction prototype. Known as the enrouteTrainer, this stand-alone system simulates the effect of winds, aircraft 

climb/descent rates, and aberrant 

conditions to provide students a 

realistic practice environment. 

The system’s speech recognition 

and synthesis capabilities simulate pilot/controller interaction to 

enable self-paced training while 

still increasing standardization. 

The enrouteTrainer simulates a 

variety of scenarios to familiarize 

the student with sector and area 

operations, procedures, and traffic patterns. Following a training 

session, the instructor can play 

back any scenario to assess the 

trainee’s performance. To aid 

in records keeping, the instructor also can generate reports on 

significant measures, including 

operational deviations and student errors.

By encouraging practice and providing feedback, the technologies 

embodied in the enrouteTrainer 

are expected to reduce the cost of 

certifying controllers and potentially could cut training time in 

half. Perhaps most importantly, 

they are expected to achieve 

these savings while improving 

the quality and consistency of 

training. 

In FY06, an evaluation of the 

enrouteTrainer began at the 

Indianapolis Air Route Traffic 

Control Center. Before beginning 

their on-the-job training with 

live traffic, a group of students 

were trained using this system 

during their final stage of radar 

simulation training. Both the 

instructors and the students were 

impressed with the fidelity of the 

simulation capabilities, improved 

training context, and streamlined 

processes. The qualitative and 

quantitative assessment of ongoing benefits is being measured 

as the students continue through 

their training. The project results 

will help to define training 

program changes and automation 

enhancements that will ultimately be incorporated into the En 

Route Automation Modernization (ERAM) system.
page 44

Modeling Improvements to the 

National Airspace System

The performance of the national 

airspace system, commonly 

measured by flight delays and 

traffic loads on airports and 

airspace, depends on the complex 

interactions of airspace users, air 

traffic service providers, aviation 

infrastructure, and weather. Analysts use simulations to capture 

these complexities when estimating the effects on the national 

airspace system of increasing 

traffic volumes, new fleet mixes, 

alternative route structures, new 

runways, and improved technologies, procedures, and operational 

concepts.

In 2006, CAASD researchers developed a new prototype 

fast-time simulation capability, 

systemwideModeler, to help 

the Agency examine proposed 

improvements to the NAS more 

effectively and faster. The new 

tool simulates the progress 

of individual flights through 

airports, terminal areas, and en 

route sectors. Meanwhile, it 

considers airport capacities and 

traffic management initiatives 

while it models the delays and 

workloads caused by congestion 

and weather. Implemented in a 

state-of-the-art simulation language with a flexible architecture, 

systemwideModeler simulates 

a day of operations in less than 

fifteen minutes and can report 

details for aggregate or focused 

analysis and visualization. The 

system has already provided a 

detailed analysis of the FAA’s 

Operational Evolution Partnership and predicted airports that 

will have capacity problems.

The systemwide Modeler uniquely reflects differences associated 

with merging and spacing flows, 

resolving conflicts, and managing climbing and descending 

traffic in its analyses of en route 

controller workloads. Through 

its representation of traffic events 

and controller tasks, it goes 

beyond traditional traffic countbased models to help analysts 

understand the effects of new 

communications and automation 

technologies as well as new procedures and airspace design.

Simplifying New Aviation 

Concept Testing with AviationSimNetTM

In the past, enabling laboratories 

at government agencies, commercial airlines, and universities 

to collaborate on evaluations of 

new aviation concepts required 

extensive funding, time, and 

communications resources. These 

difficulties limited opportunities for collaborative research. 

To overcome these difficulties 

CAASD joined with others in the 

aviation community to develop a 

new standard to facilitate distributed evaluations between simulation laboratories. 

Known as AviationSimNet, 

the standard is a flexible, reusable technical specification for 

conducting real-time air traffic 

management (ATM) simulations 

over the public Internet. Building on proven simulation and 

communication standards like 

the Department of Defense’s 

high-level architecture and FAA 

and International Civil Aviation 

Organization standards, AviationSimNet reduces the time and cost 

of fielding new capabilities. 

The second version of the AviationSimNet standard, initially 

available to the public in August 

2006, continues to be expanded 

to meet needs identified by the 

AviationSimNet community. The 

next release will include flight 

object and weather extensions, 

in addition to more simulation 

management capabilities.

Organizations participating in 

AviationSimNet include: the 

Air Line Pilot Association; The 

Boeing Corporation; the Center 

for Applied ATM Research at 

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Crown Consulting; Lockheed Martin Transportation and 

Security Solutions; NASA Ames 

Research Center; NASA Langley Research Center; Raytheon; 

and UPS. In addition to building 

gateways that make their labs 

accessible via AviationSimNet, 

participating organizations are 

also hosting SimCenters, which 

are communications facilitators 

for the simulation environment 

that include labs at multiple organizations. The AviationSimNet 

environment was used to conduct 

a joint demonstration between 

Lockheed Martin and MITRE in 

September 2006. More information can be found at http://aviationsimnet.net.

CAASD
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 45

Commercial Space 

Transportation

“Our mission is to ensure protection 

of the public property and the national 

security and foreign policy interests 

of the U.S. during commercial 

launches or re-entry activities, while 

encouraging, facilitating and promoting 

U.S. commercial space transportation.”

Patti Grace Smith

Associate Administrator for

Commercial Space Transportation
page 46

Understanding the Physiological 

Challenges of Space Flight

The Commercial Space Launch 

Amendments Act of 2004 requires that 

spaceflight participants be informed of 

the health risks associated with short 

duration spaceflight. Although much 

is known about how young, healthy 

individuals withstand the rigors of long 

duration spaceflights, the medical risks 

of short duration microgravity exposure 

are not well understood. In addition, 

the typical space tourist who boards 

a suborbital flight will not always be 

ideally young and healthy. Hence, the 

regulatory community needs to understand better the physiological challenges 

of manned space flight to ensure optimal 

performance and safety for a wide range 

of passengers. 

In 2006, the FAA Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation completed a research project that prepares it to collect 

voluntary medical data from commercial 

flight crew and space flight participants. 

Researchers defined the biomedical 

parameters recommended for pre-flight, 

in-flight, and post-flight monitoring to 

form a more complete understanding of 

the effects of suborbital flight on human 

physiology. The successful completion 

of this research project enabled the FAA 

to recommend to launch operators the 

specific types of biomedical data – along 

with methodologies for their proper 

collection and processing – needed to 

clarify the physiological effects of short 

duration spaceflight.

Analyzing Debris Risk

FAA researchers completed a milestone study on debris risk analysis. The 

Agency often uses computer-based 

models to anticipate public casualties 

related to commercial launch accidents. 

Researchers examined how well current computer models could predict the 

hazards to humans inside of buildings 

subjected to external explosive forces. 

They compared model predictions to 

the outcomes of historic real-world 

incidents and to the results of explosive 

debris and blast forces on uninhabited 

test articles. They found a correlation 

between predicted and actual results that 

reinforces the credibility of how insurance requirements and liability limits 

are currently established for commercial 

launch activities.

In a related 2006 project designed to 

further determine and refine the accuracy of debris dispersion models, FAA and 

NASA researchers studied characteristics of debris recovered from the Space 

Shuttle Columbia accident. As part of 

this study, researchers established a processing area and set up scales, cameras, 

computers, and other equipment for 

recording information into a database. Then they began to develop and 

optimize the procedures for the laborintensive task of processing the large 

quantity of debris. The debris collection, 

stored in the Vehicle Assembly Building 

at Kennedy Space Center, contains over 

84,000 items, most of which are associated with GPS latitude and longitude 

impact coordinates. The coordinates, 

Commercial Space Transportation
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 47

along with physical measurements and aerodynamic features, 

such as shape and ballistic coefficient, can help researchers and 

analysts develop and refine debris 

dispersion models that are used 

for establishing safety requirements and evaluating public risk 

associated with space operations. 

The nearly complete procedure 

development phase of the study 

will help to determine process 

throughput and associated costs 

for a possible continuation of this 

project in 2007.

Separating Space Flight Traffic

The FAA is responsible for 

ensuring public safety as the 

commercial space transportation 

industry evolves. With a focus on 

the rapid evolution and complexity of new launch vehicles, 

Agency researchers are leading 

efforts to establish new processes 

to evaluate and approve the 

safety of critical launch vehicle 

components, systems, and space 

vehicle traffic. During FY 2006, 

researchers began a study to 

determine the separation requirements that will allow certain aircraft and commercial spacecraft 

to operate safely together within 

the national aerospace system. 

Vehicle operators define the 

vehicle and space mission characteristics. General risk analyses 

determine initial separation 

requirements based on space 

vehicle and launch site characteristics. Fast-time simulations test 

the combination of mission and 

separation requirements within a 

high-fidelity model of the actual 

traffic environment. If the initial 

separation criteria and mission 

requirements result in unacceptable traffic impacts, then vehicle 

characteristics, mission characteristics, and/or risk analysis 

parameters are proposed that will 

mitigate those impacts.

The results of this process support development of the operational information needed in the 

field to conduct the mission, 

including operational procedures, 

agreements, and airspace design.
page 48

Environment Energy

“We are developing methodologies and 

tools to better target and mitigate the effects 

of aircraft noise and aviation emission.”

&

Dan Elwell, Assistant Administrator for

Aviation Policy, Planning and Environment
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 49

PARTNERing for Success

The Partnership for AiR Transportation Noise and Emissions 

Reduction is an FAA/NASA/

Transport Canada-sponsored 

Center of Excellence. PARTNER 

fosters breakthrough technological, operational, policy, and workforce advances for the betterment 

of mobility, economy, national 

security, and the environment. 

The Center’s operational headquarters is at the Massachusetts 

Institute of Technology; Professor 

Ian Waitz of the MIT Aeronautics 

and Astronautics Department is 

the director.

PARTNER comprises ten collaborating universities (with projects 

funded at three more), and approximately 50 advisory board 

members. One of PARTNER’s 

strengths is the advisory board’s 

diversity and inclusiveness. Its 

members include aerospace 

manufacturers, airlines, airports, 

national, state and local government, professional and trade 

associations, and non-governmental organizations and community groups. They are united in 

the desire to foster collaboration 

and consensus among some of 

the best minds in aviation so, together, they can advance environmental performance, efficiency, 

safety, and security.

Now entering its fourth year 

of operation, PARTNER has 

launched 18 research projects, 

including the Low Frequency 

Noise Study, Continuous Descent 

Arrival, Measurement of Emissions, Valuation and Trade-offs 

of Policy Options, Sonic Boom 

Mitigation, and Health Impacts 

of Aviation-related Air Pollutants. Much more on PARTNER, 

including information on all projects, is available at http://www.

partner.aero/. 

Developing Analytical Tools for 

Effective, Comprehensive Noise 

and Emission Mitigation

Aviation noise and emissions are 

highly interrelated phenomena 

that must be understood and 

mitigated together. This complex 

task requires analysis of substantive data on the interrelations of 

many seemingly disparate factors. 

FAA and NASA researchers are 

developing an integrated suite 

of analytical tools: the Environmental Design Space (EDS); 

Aviation Environmental Design 

Tool (AEDT); and the Aviation 

environmental Portfolio Management Tool (APMT). Each tool 

will provide a key component 

of an integrated decision making capability. EDS generates 

performance, cost, source noise, 

and exhaust emissions data within 

an aircraft design environment 

capable of simulating future aircraft properties. AEDT computes 

and identifies interrelationships 

among noise, fuel burn, and 

various emissions at the local, 

regional, and global operational 

levels both for base years and for 

future scenarios. Using data from 

EDS and AEDT, the APMT will 

compute economic and health 

impacts while assessing the costbenefit of mitigation strategies. 

Individually, these tools will provide critical data; as an integrated 
page 

50

set, they can help government 

and industry undertake operations 

and projects that more effectively 

target and control aviation noise 

and emissions. The toolset will 

also help the aviation community 

educate the public about how avia-

tion noise and emissions interact 

to affect local, regional, and global 

communities.

PARTNER member universities 

are developing the EDS and APMT 

modules. This endeavor builds on 

past aviation environmental eco-

nomic analysis tools, anticipates 

future international and domestic 

analysis needs, and encompasses 

best practice guidance. During 

the 2005 to 2006 period, design 

requirement research saw comple-

tion of the APMT requirements 

and architecture studies as well 

as development of APMT proto-

type Version 0.0. The prototyping 

effort focused on the construction 

of an APMT functional module, 

although one with more limited 

capabilities than is planned for the 

final versions. This enabled initial 

testing of APMT’s abilities to ad-

dress policy questions, assess un-

certainties, and determine priority 

areas for future development and 

refinement. The 2006 assessment 

of the APMT prototype provided a 

roadmap for future development, 

and a preliminary evaluation of 

capabilities with respect to fidelity 

requirements. It also established a 

procedure for future assessment.

Describing APMT Modules

To help evaluate policy costs, 

APMT architecture uses aviation 

demand and policy scenarios to 

simulate producer and consumer 

behavior. Detailed operational 

modeling of the air transportation 

system provides estimates of the 

emissions and noise outputs. Then, 

a benefits valuation module puts a 

price tag on the health and welfare 

impacts of aviation noise, local 

air quality, and climate effects. 

Together, these modules produce a 

comprehensive cost-benefit analy-

sis of policy alternatives. 

The Environmental Design Space 

tool estimates source noise, ex-

haust emissions, performance, and 

economic parameters for aircraft 

designs under different technologi-

cal, policy, and market scenarios. 

In 2006, a research team led by the 

Georgia Institute of Technology 

and the Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology, completed EDS Ver-

sion 2.0. This version incorporates 

improved emissions calculations 

and flight performance modeling. 

The development team, in collabo-

ration with industry, is conduct-

ing a thorough assessment of 

the EDS tool. This will enable 

better understanding of the tool’s 

accuracy, and will highlight any 

components needing improvement. 

The first phase of the assessment, 

conducted collaboratively with 

General Electric Aircraft Engines, 

and Pratt & Whitney, focuses on an 

engine-level tradeoff for systems 

offered on Boeing B777-200 and 

-300 aircraft. In addition to this 

development work, several capa-

bility demonstration assessments 

(i.e., sample problems) are ongoing 

(one completed in 2006) that will 

demonstrate to the international 

community the capability of the 

tool suite.

Environment & Energy
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 51

In 2006, a researcher team led by 

the Volpe National Transportation Systems Center with members from ATAC Corporation, 

CSSI Inc., and Wyle Laboratories, completed AEDT Version 

1.0. This version includes most 

of the system’s computational 

and database components.

Although the research that 

is anticipated to develop this 

analytical tool suite will last a 

decade, initial capabilities will 

come online between 2006 and 

2009 – in time to influence the 

seventh and eighth meetings of 

the International Civil Aviation 

Organization’s Committee on 

Aviation Environmental Protection (ICAO/CAEP). The FAA 

expects that when the EDS/

AEDT/APMT tool suite is fully 

operational, it will help with 

regulatory decisions, and provide 

significant cost savings and other 

user benefits.

Demonstrating AEDT 

During 2006, PARTNER used 

AEDT when conducting the 

NOx Demonstration Study for 

the FAA. Researchers integrated 

common databases, calculation methodologies, and performance-based modules that 

are currently in use as a part of 

aircraft noise calculations, to 

support the simultaneous calculation of aircraft emissions. The 

harmonization of noise and emissions assessment methodologies 

proved complex, but it yielded a 

landmark new capability. With 

these changes AEDT can now 

compute and identify critical 

interrelationships between noise 

and various emissions generated 

by generations at local, regional, 

and global levels.

The FAA benchmarked this new 

capability against a 2004 study 

by the ICAO/CAEP. The study 

had examined global emissions 

below 3,000 feet. The modeling demonstration included an 

airport queuing model so that 

the effects of the flight schedule 

could be captured in capacityhindered airports. 

Researchers extended the global 

coverage of aircraft activity 

by demonstrating the ability to 

incorporate radar data to assess 

emissions from scheduled as 

well as unscheduled aircraft and 

from certified and non-certified 

engines. The NOx demonstration 

also quantified emissions at and 

below 3,000 feet, below 10,000 

feet, and over entire flights. It 

further refined the analysis process by allowing emissions value 

adjustment based on required 

aircraft thrust and meteorological 

conditions. FAA’s NOx demonstration reproduced CAEP’s 

global assessment of NOx stringency options in a fraction of the 

time it took CAEP to complete 

its original analysis. 

Researching Aviation-Related 

Health Affects

Previously concluded airport assessment studies indicate that the 

health impacts of aviation emissions are not well characterized. 

There are uncertainties primarily 

due to poor characterization of 

aircraft engine emissions for 

hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) 

and particulate matter (PM), 

lack of comprehensive and reliable ambient measurement data 

within the airport vicinity, lack 

of suitable air quality modeling to determine atmospheric 

distributions of these pollutants, 

and lack of agreed methodology 

to conduct health impact risk 

assessment.

The FAA has taken research and 

procedural initiatives that will 

lead to fewer uncertainties and 

better assessment of aviation 

emissions-related health impacts. 

The Office of Environment and 

Energy (AEE) has prepared 

draft guidelines that will lead to 

nationally uniform methodology to inventory airport-related 

HAPs emissions. These guidelines will be based upon directly 

collected limited aircraft engine 

emission data, including measurement data obtained through 

the Aircraft Particle Emissions 

eXperiment in partnership with 

NASA and the EPA. AEE has 

also developed methodology for 

aircraft PM emission estimation. 

These two initiatives will lead to 

better characterization and estimation of aircraft emissions. In 

addition, through PARTNER collaborative research with NASA 

and the EPA, AEE is collecting 

data on ambient concentrations 

of aviation-released pollutants 

within airport boundaries.

Recently, AEE broadened 

PARTNER’s scope of studies by 

tasking the Harvard School of 

Public Health to research health 

impacts of aviation-related air 

pollutants and the University of 

North Carolina-Chapel Hill to 

look into aviation emissions air 

quality impacts. These research 
page 

52

initiatives will provide substantive 

data with which the FAA can as-

sess, with greater certainty, aviation 

emission health impacts.

The AEE has successfully in-

cluded two major projects on 

aviation emitted PM and HAPs in 

the environment research section 

of FAA funded Airport Coopera-

tive Research Program (ACRP), 

an ongoing effort managed by the 

Transportation Research Board of 

the National Academy of Sciences. 

Initially, these projects will focus 

on the identification and priori-

tization of critical needs in their 

respective areas, concerns which 

will subsequently be included in 

new calls for research proposals.

The AEE and PARTNER will fully 

coordinate their activities with 

ACRP funded research to avoid any 

overlap while gaining from each 

other towards meeting the com-

mon objective. There are a number 

of similarities between the health 

effects due to pollutants released by 

aviation and non-aviation activi-

ties. Therefore, every effort will 

be made to benefit from similar re-

search being performed elsewhere.

Remodeling the Emissions 

Dispersion Modeling System

The FAA’s legacy air quality 

model, the Emissions Dispersion 

Modeling System (EDMS), under-

went a redesign in preparation for 

its incorporation into the Aviation 

Environmental Design Tool. The 

most significant improvement in 

EDMS 5.0 is the ability to model 

multiple scenarios and analysis 

years and to assess airports within 

an integrated context. Users can 

now open multiple studies simulta-

neously, providing local, regional, 

and global capabilities.

A higher level of sophistication has 

also been added to factor details 

of schedules, existing and future 

airport layouts, and hour-by-hour 

weather data analysis, into changes 

in airport emissions and the contri-

bution to the air quality within the 

vicinity of the airport. The EDMS 

5.0 uses the World Wide LMI NETwork to estimate how the capacity 

constraints of specific airports and 

en route congestion impact the 

block-time of flights. The ability to 

depict increased airport operational 

fidelity down to 15-minute inter-

vals (as opposed to hourly) means 

that airport delays can be more 

accurately quantified. The dynamic 

flight profile generator allows more 

specific takeoff and landing weight 

values to be entered, takeoff thrusts 

to be specified, and approach glide 

slopes to be defined. The emissions 

module is updated to use the Boe-

ing Fuel Flow Method 2 to scale 

emissions according to thrust level.

The EDMS 5.0 has been harmo-

nized with the aircraft, airport, and 

meteorology databases - as well as 

with the same aircraft performance 

methodologies used in the Inte-

grated Noise Model. The resulting 

structure lays the foundation for as-

sessing interdependencies between 

aircraft noise and emissions.

Measuring Emissions

In FY 2006, the Measurement 

of Emissions Project undertaken 

by PARTNER and its member 

universities, NASA, and Transport 

Canada made great progress in 

characterizing engine emissions. 

Emissions data taken downstream 

Environment & Energy
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 53

behind aircraft engines in the 

open field differ from those 

taken at the exit plane during 

engine emissions certification 

testing. Under true operating 

conditions, an exhaust plume can 

age and chemically react with 

the ambient air. Valid health risk 

assessments depend on an accurate understanding of how the 

plume emitted by a stationary or 

taxiing aircraft is transformed after it exits the engine into a fairly 

stable collection of pollutants 

downstream. Recent field measurement activities have shed 

much light into this process.

Researchers collected substantial emissions data from large, 

medium, and small commercial, 

cargo, and government aircraft based at four airports and 

airfields across the country. This 

geographical spread aims to account for the effects of ambient 

conditions, such as temperature, 

pressure, and relative humidity on emissions. Measurement 

activities are complete and data 

validation is almost complete for 

all field measurement activities. 

A preliminary look at the data 

reveals significant new information on the behavior of pollutants 

– especially particulate matter 

(PM). The data also seem to 

confirm scientific theories on 

the relationship among pollutants, the emissions levels, and 

characteristics at different engine 

power settings.

The Society of Automotive Engineers is using this research to develop important new Aerospace 

Recommended Practices. These 

recommendations will help in 

selecting the proper instruments 

and measurement methodologies 

for quantifying levels of particulate matter emitted from military 

as well as commercial aircraft. 

In addition, the findings will 

support stakeholders, including 

both regulators and those they 

regulate, to progress under the 

FAA-sponsored PM Roadmap. 

The PM Roadmap serves as a 

foundation for promoting research coordination and collaboration to understand PM emissions from aviation. It defines 

work plans to conduct needed 

research resulting in information 

that can inform policy decisions.

FAA is also helping the Transportation Research Board to 

develop findings that can support 

existing and future requirements 

applicable to airports. This 

research organization has funded 

two proposals in FY 2006 that 

will supplement the PARTNER 

research.

Understanding Aviation Fuel 

Conservation and Emissions

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 

required the Environmental Protection Agency and the FAA to 

initiate a joint study to identify:

• The impact of aircraft emissions on air quality in nonattainment areas,

• Ways to promote measures that 

allow aviation to enhance fuel 

efficiency and to reduce emissions, and

• Opportunities to reduce air 

traffic inefficiencies that both 

waste fuel and increase emissions.

In response to this congressional 

mandate, EPA and FAA have 

agreed on an approach that will 

draw upon a variety of databases 

and computer models to: 

• Quantify aircraft emissions for 

149 airports located in nonattainment areas, 

• Estimate health impacts from 

aircraft emissions, 

• Establish the relationship 

between congestion and delays 

– and their combined effect on 

emissions and local air quality, 

• Estimate the potential of current FAA initiatives to relieve 

congestion and delays, reduce 

emissions, and improve local 

air quality in nonattainment 

areas, and

• Determine the potential benefits associated with improving 

ground and terminal operations. 

The Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology, through PARTNER, 

is supporting the FAA and the 

EPA in conducting this study. As 

some deliverables from this effort overlap tasks already being 

fulfilled by CSSI, Inc., and Metron Aviation under pre-existing 

FAA agreements, these firms are 

also assisting within the study. 

The final report is scheduled for 

release in late 2007. 

Assessing Aviation’s Global 

Emissions

As the aviation industry continues its rapid growth, its potential 

effects on global air quality and 

climate change could increase. 

This concern is exacerbated by 

the fact that aircraft emit air 

pollutants directly into the higher 
page 54

troposphere and lower stratosphere. 

The FAA Office of Environment 

and Energy has developed the System for assessing Aviations Global 

Emissions (SAGE) to predict aircraft fuel burn and emissions and 

assess various measures that could 

help mitigate emissions. SAGE 

dynamically models aircraft performance, fuel burn and emissions, 

capacity and delay at airports, and 

forecasts of future scenarios. The 

scope of the system’s predictive 

data can range from all commercial 

(civil) flights globally in a given 

year to scenarios from a single 

flight, to airport, country, regional, 

and global levels. 

In its 2006 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, the Intergovernmental Panel 

on Climate Change cited SAGE 

as a tool that provides the highest fidelity method of estimating 

aviation emissions. Also in 2006, 

researchers used SAGE Version 1.5 

to generate global inventories of 

fuel burn and emissions for years 

2000 through 2005. They developed these historical inventories by 

modeling high-resolution gateto-gate movements of all global 

commercial flights in each year. 

Files from the inventory report 

present the data in various forms, 

and provide derivative metrics and 

comparative assessments. In addition, the FAA published a series of 

SAGE documents with information on the model’s methods and 

assumptions, revision history, and 

validation. Both the inventories 

and the information documents are 

available to all on the FAA Web 

site at http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/aep/

models/SAGE/. 

Understanding Low Frequency 

Noise

While the level of aviation-associated noise that individuals can 

tolerate seems variable and personally determined, researchers need a 

generic, scientifically-based metric 

to assess the effects that aircraft 

noise impose on most humans. In 

its search for such a metric, the 

FAA funded PARTNER to study 

low frequency noise. The resulting 

study encompasses factors such as 

noise source level and spectrum, 

atmospheric propagation, and 

the impact on homes in the form 

of noise, vibration, and rattle. It 

includes subjective evaluations to 

determine the numbers and types 

of sound characteristics that are 

important, how they factor into 

noise annoyance, and the ability 

of metric calculations to predict 

their actual physical, as distinguished from perceived, impact. 

The researchers are exploring ways 

to measure and predict annoyance 

when people are faced with low 

frequency noise. 

Over the past year, the team conducted psycho-acoustic testing of 

human subjects using noise data 

obtained from two houses inside 

Washington Dulles International 

Airport flight boundaries. These 

aircraft noise signature recordings, 

and recordings of aircraft noise 

from two airports in Florida, form 

part of a database that is being used 

in further psychoacoustic testing. 

This database contains sounds with 

and without strong low frequency 

components. In this study, groups 

of human subjects respond to the 

noise recordings. A crucial element 

of the research design focuses on 

Environment & Energy
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 55

how their perceptions are affected by the presence of low frequency noise. The goal is to gain 

insight into how the perception 

of aircraft noise results in annoyance, and to identify metrics that 

correlate best with the subjective 

responses.

FAA-funded researchers also 

conducted a subjective study 

using sound signatures with and 

without an element they call 

“rattle” to see how much this element does to further annoy people. Acceleration levels measured 

inside houses at test airports 

compared well against previously 

used criteria at other airports. The 

results of this research will help 

to refine the metrics that may be 

used to quantify the impact of 

low frequency aircraft noise on 

communities. These metrics can 

then be used to influence noisemitigating improvements in, and 

regulation of, technology, airport 

and aircraft operation, land-usage, and aircraft design.

Releasing Integrated Noise 

Model Version 6.2

With the recent release of the 

Integrated Noise Model Version 

6.2, the FAA’s standard tool for 

predicting noise impact in the 

vicinity of airports, many aircraft 

listings are new or updated. New 

airplane models include: Piper 

PA28-161 Warrior (PA28), Piper 

PA30 Twin Comanche (PA30), 

Piper PA31-350 Navajo Chieftain (PA31), Maule M-7-235C 

(M7235C), and Raytheon Beech 

1900D (1900D). New helicopter 

models include the Eurocopter 

EC-130 (EC130), Robinson R-22 

(R22), and MD600N (MD600). 

In addition, the new version 

included updated information for 

the following aircraft: Boeing 737-300 with CFM56-3B1 engines (737300), Boeing 

737-300 with CFM56-3B-2 

engines (7373B2), Boeing 737-

400 with CFM56-3C-1 engines 

(737400), Boeing 737-500 with 

CFM56-3B-1 engines (737500), 

Boeing 737-700 with CFM56-

7B engines (737700), Boeing 

747-400 with PW4056 engines 

(747400), Boeing 757-200 with 

PW2037 engines (757PW), Boeing 757-200 with RB211-535E4 

engines (757RR), and Boeing 

777-200 with GE90-90B engines 

(777200).

Statutory requirements for using 

the Integrated Noise Model are 

defined in FAA Order 1050.1E, 

Policies and Procedures for 

Considering Environmental Impacts, Order 5050.4A, the Airport 

Environmental Handbook, and 

“Airport Noise Compatibility 

Planning“ of Federal Aviation 

Regulations (FAR) Part 150. The 

new model has many analytical 

uses, including assessing changes 

in noise impact resulting from 

new or extended runways or 

runway configurations, assessing 

new traffic demand and fleet mix, 

and evaluating other operational 

procedures. 

Mitigating Sonic Boom

In April 2005, the FAA and 

NASA started the Sonic Boom 

Mitigation research project, 

through PARTNER, to understand sonic boom impacts. Pennsylvania State University and 

Purdue University are leading the 

project team. Research objectives are to assess applicability 

of existing noise metrics to sonic 

booms, determine annoyance 

associated with supersonic jets, 

assist in developing an acceptability metric, and provide 

guidance for supersonic jet 

design that minimize sonic boom 

impact. The team has surveyed 

existing sonic boom simulators, 

comparing their abilities to reproduce sonic boom sounds, and has 

begun to assess human opinions 

of the simulated sounds. 

During this past year, the team 

compared three simulators. 

The team is using a mobile 

Gulfstream simulator, recently 

upgraded with a 24-bit system 

for reproducing low booms. 

Comparisons of the Gulfstream 

with NASA Langley and Lockheed Martin simulators and 

real booms were conducted at 

NASA Langley Research Center, 

Hampton, Virginia; Lockheed 

Martin Aeronautics, Palmdale, 

California; and NASA Dryden 

Flight Research Center, Edwards, 

California. The researchers found 

the three simulators compared 

well, and all can be used for 

subjective testing. 

The researchers are also incorporating atmospheric turbulence 

in models for propagation from 

the aircraft to the ground. Data 

is recorded using a glider, and 

ground waveforms taken from 

the shaped sonic boom demonstrator field measurements. The 

team is analyzing documentation for atmospheric turbulence 

derived from a January 2004 

Shaped Sonic Boom Experiment conducted to determine if 

a shaped sonic boom can persist 

to the ground through a realistic 

atmosphere. These data would 
page 

56

provide a better understanding 

of generation, propagation, and 

impact of a shaped sonic boom. 

Another collection of data for 

atmospheric turbulence was 

taken this past June at Edwards 

Air Force Base, California. The 

project’s industrial partners will 

collaborate in a detailed analysis of 

the waveforms collected in these 

studies to create waveforms of 

a shaped boom design that have 

been propagated through realistic 

atmospheric effects. This will help 

designers consider realistic sonic 

boom impact in their work. 

Working Toward Noise 

Certification Advancement

The FAA’s Transport Airplane 

Directorate, in conjunction with the 

Office of Environment and Energy 

and the U.S. Department of Trans-

portation Volpe Transportation 

System Center, conducted a threeday Noise Certification Workshop 

in Cambridge, Massachusetts, from 

August 29-31, 2006. The workshop 

provided updates of Aircraft Noise 

Certification regulatory processes 

and technical procedures. This is 

recurrent training for the noise 

certification focal points in each 

Aircraft Certification Office and 

for the assigned Noise Certification 

specialists. International certifica-

tion authorities representing the 

European Aviation Safety Agency 

also attended. 

 

Arriving in a Continuous Descent 

(CDA) Procedure

A PARTNER research team, led 

by representatives of the Georgia 

Institute of Technology – with 

collaborating FAA, NASA, and 

aviation industry members – is ad-

vancing the design, demonstration, 

and provisional use of Continu-

ous Descent Arrival aircraft flight 

procedures within the national 

airspace system. A Continuous De-

scent approach provides advantag-

es over current arrival patterns by 

reducing ground noise along much 

of the flight path, as well as saving 

time and fuel. The research team 

is currently developing operational 

procedures where environmental 

benefits can be effectively incorpo-

rated. They initially demonstrated 

the concept at Louisville Interna-

tional airport. There, a series of 

night-landing east-bound and par-

cel flights operated by UPS showed 

promising fuel and time savings, 

along with community noise and 

engine emission reductions. Given 

the positive environmental and per-

formance findings, UPS has filed 

for approval with FAA to institute 

this procedure to capitalize on 

these CDA capability and benefits 

at Louisville International airport.

PARTNER researchers are also 

classifying the technical criteria to 

match moderate to higher traffic 

conditions at airports with the most 

efficient CDA implementation. 

This ongoing assessment is looking 

at the major 35 U.S. airports rec-

ognized in the Operational Evolu-

tion Partnership plan and known 

as the “OEP airports.” Identifying 

optimal candidate airports that 

could best adapt CDA procedures 

to reduce noise and emission as 

well as decrease fuel use will help 

us optimize our investments. 

Demonstrations applying CDA 

procedures to more extensive 

traffic conditions are planned for 

Environment & Energy
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 57

Atlanta Hartsfield airport and the 

Los Angeles airport, the latter 

under the direction of the FAA 

Southern California Redesign 

development team. A technical 

challenge in the Atlanta project 

is adapting CDA for the significant use of downwind-based and 

final-leg traffic patterns. For the 

Los Angeles project, a better 

optimized, more comprehensive aircraft separation rule was 

developed to accommodate the 

broader mix of fleet traffic types.

Finding Alternative Fuels for 

Aviation

Soaring oil prices, energy supply 

security concerns, and the environmental impacts of aviation are 

motivating examination of alternative aviation fuels. The rise in 

fuel prices in the last year caused 

intense concern in the aviation 

industry. Fuel price volatility has 

strained the airlines, and, with oil 

more than $60 per barrel, some 

are concerned that jet fuel prices 

may escalate further. 

In the fall 2005, the FAA Research and Engineering Development Advisory Committee 

advised the Agency to explore 

alternative fuels, and the FAA 

contracted with the RAND 

Corporation and the PARTNER 

Center of Excellence to look into 

the matter. The FAA also held 

two workshops with industry, 

government, and potential international collaborators to develop 

a national alternative aviation 

fuels roadmap. Participants 

explored the potential of using 

alternative fuels to ensure fuel 

supply, to improve operations, 

and to explore the potential to 

reduce environmental impacts.

Jet fuel kerosene is well suited 

to aviation because of its high 

energy density and thermal 

properties that allow it to remain 

liquid at high altitudes where 

temperatures are extremely low. 

The specific requirements of 

aviation, however, mean that 

substituting alternative fuels for 

kerosene must be done prudently. 

Given current airframes and engines, synthetic fuels converted 

from coal, gas, and biomass are 

promising replacements for kerosene. Some of these alternatives 

are in limited use today. Bio-fuels and hydrogen may provide 

long-term options, and will also 

be explored.

The aviation industry may be 

able to use alternative fuels to 

address certain local air quality issues, a problem near many 

urban airports likely to get worse 

as traffic increases. Synthetic 

fuels may have lower sulfur, particulate matter, and may enable 

design changes that reduce NOx 

emissions. 

Lessons from the 1980s suggest 

caution. Researchers realize that 

much of the interest in alternative fuels is driven by the current 

high price of oil. Despite this, the 

potential for additional secure 

fuel supply and environmental benefit is justified. As the 

FAA seeks balanced and robust 

strategies to mitigate aviation’s 

environmental impact while 

enabling future growth, alternative fuels may offer significant 

opportunities.

Understanding Aviation’s 

Effects on Climate Change

From June 7-9, 2006, the interagency Next Generation Air 

Transportation System/Joint 

Planning and Development 

Office (JPDO) Environmental 

Integrated Product Team and 

PARTNER convened the “Workshop on the Impacts of Aviation 

on Climate Change,” in Cambridge, MA. At the workshop, 

international experts explored 

aviation’s impact on climate. 

Attendees assessed and documented the current state of 

knowledge of climatic impacts of 

aviation, identified key underlying uncertainties and gaps in 

scientific knowledge, identified 

ongoing and further research 

needed to prioritize new funding 

to take advantage of on-going 

research programs, explored 

the development of metrics for 

aviation climate-related tradeoff issues, and helped to focus 

the scientific community on 

aviation-climate change research 

needs.

PARTNER has released a report 

and executive summary of the 

workshop findings and recommendations. Key findings are 

detailed in the areas of emissions 

in the upper troposphere and 

lower stratosphere and resulting 

chemistry effects. The findings 

also cover contrails and cirrus, 

climate impacts and climate 

metrics, and studies for tradeoffs among aviation emissions 

impacting climate. Attendees 

recommended coordinating the 

ongoing atmospheric and climate 

research activities funded by 
page 58

various federal research agencies 

to address the key research needs 

that are identified in the report. 

This coordination might entail 

expansion of existing research 

programs or even add a new focused research program. According to Dr. Mohan Gupta, the FAA 

host of the workshop, this report 

will serve as a cornerstone document to garner federal research 

support for such an initiative. 

The report and summary may be 

downloaded from the PARTNER 

Web site at http://www.partner.

aero/. 

Another PARTNER report, 

Aviation and the Environment - 

Report to the United States Congress, 2004, (also available for 

download) suggests that the effects of aircraft emissions on the 

earth’s climate may be the most 

serious long-term environmental 

issue facing the aviation industry. 

There are large uncertainties in 

our current understanding of the 

magnitude of aviation-related 

climate impact. Extensive growth 

in the demands upon aviation is 

expected over the next few decades. It is imperative that timely 

action be taken to understand and 

quantify the potential impacts of 

aviation emissions so policymakers may realistically address climate and other potential aviation 

environmental impacts.

To ensure they understand tradeoffs when implementing engine 

and fuel technological advances, 

new airspace operational management practices, and policy 

actions imposed by national and 

international bodies, policymakers must be provided with metrics 

that correctly capture aviation 

emission climate impacts. The 

workshop was one of a number 

of PARTNER and FAA activities 

addressing these issues.

Managing Airport Land Use 

A PARTNER research team, led 

by Purdue and Florida International universities, examined 

how community land use, on and 

adjacent to airports, can cause 

or reduce noise concerns and 

complaints. Researchers conducting this three-year project studied 

development around Denver, Fort 

Lauderdale, and Orlando-Sanford 

international airports. The team 

worked with airport administrators, civic leaders, and aviation 

organizations to collect data on 

the most prominent land use 

issues. Researchers used census 

and image analyses between 1970 

to 2000 to evaluate demographic 

trends and socioeconomic factors 

in areas adjacent to the airports. 

In early FY 2007, the team 

will present a final report of 

its findings and recommendations to inform future policy. 

As the findings are expected to 

substantially impact important 

public policies and private sector 

decisions of high public interest, 

the Office of Management and 

Budget designated this research 

as “influential.” 

The study’s findings have generated new research questions. 

Purdue University is undertaking 

a follow-on study to explore these 

issues in depth. Research scope 

will expand to include three nonhub airports, thus representing a 

different sector of the industry. In 

addition, the Transportation Research Board’s Airport Cooperative Research Project is funding 

a project to develop means of 

protecting airports from incompatible land uses that impair 

airport and aircraft operations and 

safety, and constrain airport development. The FAA issued a call 

for proposals in May and selected 

the grant awardees in August. The 

project will begin in FY 2007.

Environment & Energy
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 59

Human Factors

“Our mission is to generate and 

apply new knowledge about human 

capabilities for effective performance.”

Terry Allard, Ph.D.

Human Factors Research and Engineering Program Director

Air Traffic Organization Operations Planning
page 60

Developing a Handbook for 

Technically Advanced Aircraft

The FAA provides students, pilots, 

flight instructors, and pilot evaluators 

a technical handbook for almost any 

topic important to aeronautical profi-

ciency. The Pilot’s Handbook of Aero-

nautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) 

is an example of such a publication 

and serves as the official source for 

knowledge and skills defining aero-

nautical proficiency. Handbooks are 

used as learning and teaching resourc-

es, but they also help to evaluate appli-

cants for FAA certificates and ratings. 

With the advent of technically ad-

vanced general aviation aircraft, pilots, 

instructors and evaluators must master 

a wide variety of new concepts and 

skills. During FY 2006, FAA research-

ers provided technical input to a draft 

handbook describing the knowledge 

and skills important for those who op-

erate, teach, and test in technically ad-

vanced aircraft. The handbook was re-

viewed by industry stakeholders such 

as manufacturers, pilot organizations, 

and training schools. Accompanied by 

108 color illustrations, the handbook 

covers technical aspects of using ad-

vanced cockpit systems and the human 

factors implications of those systems. 

Throughout the publication, human 

factors principles are introduced by a 

series of sidebars, each of which high-

lights a single human factors issue in 

the context of a typical flying scenario. 

All of the human factors principles 

are based on findings drawn from 

FAA- and NASA-funded research on 

pilot-system interaction done over the 

past 20 years.

Certifying Electronic Flight Bags

Human factors researchers are devel-

oping aircraft certification, operational 

approval, and training guidance to 

mitigate risks associated with integrat-

ing electronic flight bags (EFBs) on 

the flight deck. The main goal of this 

work is to identify, understand, and 

help the FAA address human factors 

issues related to EFB technology. 

Current research focuses on standard-

izing and streamlining FAA evalu-

ations through the development of 

practical EFB assessment tools. In FY 

2006, researchers published a report of 

existing EFB tools to help users select, 

customize, and incorporate the most 

appropriate of these resources into 

emerging EFB technology at relatively 

low incremental cost. 

The researchers continued to support 

the development of the draft EFB 

certification standards. Researchers 

incorporated industry comments into 

a December 2005 revision which, 

after review, they published online. 

The team disseminated information 

about the tools and the EFB project 

to a wide audience through talks and 

a conference paper. The researchers 

made several presentations to FAA 

management and field staff, as well as 

at industry meetings and international 

conferences. They also incorporated 

human factors considerations into a 

working paper on EFB guidance for 

the International Civil Aviation Orga-

nization.

Studying the Effects of Electronic 

Flight Bag Technology on Crew 

Performance

The transition from paper to electronic 

flight operating documents has sub-

stantially changed crew procedures. 

As a result, the FAA is examining a 

need to develop new procedures and 

training that redirect and enhance crew 

performance. Certification and opera-

Human Factors
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 61

tional approvals currently ensure 

that human factors considerations 

are designed into EFB technologies. Ultimately, however, the 

effective implementation of these 

systems will require the accurate 

measurement of crew performance. 

The FAA and NASA researchers have partnered with FedEx 

and United Airlines to evaluate 

how EFBs affect flight deck 

performance in full flight simulation. They are comparing pilot 

performance in crews working 

with paper documents to crews 

working with the EFB. To date, 

the team has recommended the 

use of an improved in-flight 

cross-check of the flight management system, the resolution of 

certain abnormal in-flight situations, and the enhancement of 

situational awareness during taxi 

and runway navigation. The results of this study are also being 

used to develop better training 

for instructors and evaluators on 

pilot use of EFB systems.

Implementing an Aviation 

Safety Action Program (ASAP) 

for Aircraft Maintenance 

Organizations

An Aviation Safety Action Program (ASAP) identifies and corrects adverse safety events that 

are otherwise not likely to come 

to the attention of the FAA or industry management. Prior to this 

research, 28 air carriers had flight 

ASAP programs and only six 

organizations had maintenance 

ASAP programs. By September 

2006, in part, as a result of this 

research, 27 airlines had maintenance ASAP programs. 

The investigation process for 

a typical maintenance ASAP 

program (or “case”) is best 

represented by a network whose 

central component, the Event 

Review Committee, works with 

various other organizational units 

to validate the program’s original 

ASAP report. ASAP cases are 

usually rich in qualitative data, 

such as photographs, copies of 

logbook pages, and actual aircraft 

parts. A virtual walkthrough of 50 

ASAP cases across ten organizations revealed variation in the 

data classification schemes used 

by various operators. Despite the 

differences, however, most operators use a customized version 

of Boeing’s Maintenance Error 

Decision Aid to classify causal 

data. 

In most cases, the researchers 

discovered ASAP networks classify corrective actions at a procedural or task level, an organizational level, and a policy level. 

Together with team partners from 

industry, the researchers developed a data classification scheme 

and a generic ASAP reporting 

form. This form is expected to 

facilitate mapping of ASAP data 

across multiple programs, both 

within the same company and 

across multiple companies. 

The researchers are completing 

field visits to partner companies 

to collect detailed ASAP case 

data. They are using the case data 

to determine: (a) the data collection tools used by each organization; (b) the data classification 

scheme used to classify ASAP 

case data; (c) the data classification scheme used to classify corrective action data; and, (d) best 

practices for disseminating the 

lessons learned or success stories 

resulting from the ASAP reports. 

In addition, the research team 

is developing an industry-level 

data classification scheme for 

maintenance data and surveying 

the status of maintenance ASAP 

programs. 

Enhancing the Aircraft 

Certification Job Aid

Before the FAA can certify an 

aircraft for use in the national 

airspace system, human factors experts in the Agency must 

judge flight deck designs safe for 

use by current and future pilots. 

These judgments are not always 

easy to make, nor are they trivial. 

Experience has shown that design-induced human performance 

errors have contributed to many 

aviation incidents and accidents. 

The FAA Aircraft Certification 

Job Aid is a computerized decision-support tool designed to 

help aircraft certification personnel ensure aircraft flight deck 

technologies are user friendly. 

This PC-based software has three 

major databases that address regulatory information, flight deck 

components, and human factors 

considerations. The Job Aid has 

been used by FAA certification 

team members for several years, 

and the content and functionality 

are updated annually.

In 2006, researchers continued 

development of the softwarebased decision-support tool and 

supported the deployment, instal-
page 62

lation, evaluation, and training on 

use of the tool within the FAA. 

They placed summaries of the Part 

25 Transport Category Aircraft 

Advisory Circulars, Technical 

Standard Orders, and non-regula-

tory human factors research infor-

mation related to design of flight 

deck equipment, tasks, procedures, 

and testing assumptions in the new 

Job Aid Version 7.0. Additionally, 

the FAA recently highlighted the 

Job Aid in a video-based training 

course and, as a result, the Agency 

has noted increased commercial 

interest in its use. 

Improving Pilot Performance in 

Operating Automated Aircraft

Training pilots to safely and efficiently operate automated flight 

deck systems remains a challenge 

for regional as well as the major 

airlines. Collaborative FAA re-

search is underway at the Univer-

sity of Central Florida, George 

Mason University, and Research 

Integrations, Inc. to provide 

airlines and FAA oversight offices 

improved training methods to 

address current flight deck automa-

tion problems and potential safety 

vulnerabilities. During 2006, 

researchers investigated various 

components of pilot performance 

related to automated systems. They 

evaluated pilot knowledge and un-

derstanding of system operation to 

determine the types of knowledge 

that facilitate a pilot’s understand-

ing of, and the subsequent per-

formance of, flight deck automa-

tion. Information they collected 

provided the framework for design 

guidelines for training programs to 

improve human-automation inter-

action. These guidelines have been 

presented to industry for review. 

The researchers also examined 

current flight deck automationrelated procedures to determine 

their effectiveness. They used the 

results of this work to design im-

proved procedures, which regional 

airline pilots are now testing. In 

addition, they partnered with Boe-

ing Aircraft to evaluate the impact 

of a proposed auto-flight panel on 

pilot performance. Researchers 

are currently gathering and analyz-

ing industry safety data related to 

automation design, operational 

policies, flight crew procedures, 

and flight crew qualification and 

training. A report will be pub-

lished in 2007.

Advancing Aviation Safety: 

Threats, Errors and their 

Management in Normal 

Operations

FAA-funded researchers at the 

University of Texas have devel-

oped the Line Operations Safety 

Audit (LOSA) methodology for 

monitoring and diagnosing normal 

airline flight operations. During a 

LOSA, a highly trained flight deck 

observer logs all threats and errors 

encountered by the flight crew. 

The observer notes how the crew 

detected the error, the crew’s re-

sponse, and the resulting outcome. 

Data collected include phase of 

flight narratives, threat and error 

management descriptions, threat 

and error coding, behavioral mark-

er ratings, and pilot interviews. 

This information is then presented 

to airline management, providing 

a realistic view of their flight op-

erations. Data is also archived for 

future analyses at the University 

of Texas. Several thousand line 

Human Factors
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 63

observations across 25 airlines 

are currently stored in the LOSA 

archive. Additionally, the LOSA 

methodology provides for a common framework across different 

airline safety departments and 

can be used for analyzing ground 

operations and pilot self report 

safety data. 

FAA researchers continue to 

develop and promote the use of 

a threat and error management 

framework, including LOSAs, 

throughout the aviation industry. 

These are considered essential 

components of an effective proactive safety management system, and their use is encouraged 

by the Agency through the release of educational information. 

The FAA published an advisory 

circular on LOSA (AC 120-90) 

in 2006. Researchers presented 

the methodology to airline conferences, and conducted a formal 

workshop on threat and error 

management and LOSA at the 

FAA Shared Vision of Aviation 

Safety Conference in April 2006. 

Six hundred airline representatives attended this meeting. The 

research team is partnering with 

Boeing and Airbus to use LOSA 

data to study aircraft design, 

training, and procedural issues. 

Designing the Future Air Traffic 

Control Workstation

The FAA Air Traffic Organization will face significant challenges in future years as the 

demand for air traffic services 

increases not only at the major 

metropolitan airports, but also at 

satellite and outlying airports that 

are convenient to concentrations 

of population and business. The 

mix of aircraft and the variable 

traffic patterns in the future may 

increase national aviation system 

complexity. Researchers are analyzing how tasks are performed 

today and how proposed changes 

to controller interface and introduction of automated functions 

might affect the use of controller resources. In FY 2006, the 

research team investigated the 

ability of controllers to perform 

air traffic control functions at 

100, 133, and 166 percent of the 

2004 traffic load. 

The results of this work identifies limitations in applying the 

current mode to future higher 

demand levels. Research indicates that the current workstation 

in the en route domain will not 

support the processing of air 

traffic at the 133 percent level. 

The main barrier to achieving 

that level of traffic is the verbal 

communication workload of the 

controller. Increasing the use of 

data link together with an improved workstation design offers 

promise to alleviate a significant 

portion of this workload. But, 

this relief will handle only the 

anticipated 133 percent traffic 

level, not the future 166 percent 

level. 

Future research plans include the 

search for other technologies and 

procedures that can reduce the 

communications and cognitive 

workload, both for the near-term 

and into the future, to provide 

the next increment in capacity. 

Research will determine limitations in the current concept of 

one controller providing service 

to individual aircraft as discrete 

units, and it will also determine 

the utility of grouping aircraft in 

a stream to increase controller 

productivity.

Testing Two Prototype 

Electronic Flight Data 

Interfaces

Electronic Flight Data Interfaces 

(EFDI) provide the potential for 

controllers to acquire, record, 

and track flight data more efficiently. EFDIs may also improve 

communication and information 

sharing with other controllers 

and enhance controller decision 

making. Efforts are underway to 

determine what it takes for a new 

user to learn the basics of the 

system, how the learner’s level 

of performance may be assessed 

and enhanced, and how the 

trained user’s performance may 

improve over time. 

Combining electronic flight data 

with the airport surface detection 

equipment, researchers designed 

two EFDIs for use by local and 

ground controllers in airport 

traffic control towers. An airport 

surface map served as a perceptual-spatial anchor for the information. Both EFDIs provided a 

potential means to support the 

virtual tower concept. Researchers completed a simulation with 

four air traffic control tower 

supervisors to make an initial determination of the EFDI usability. Participants spent 1.5 hours 

learning to use each EFDI, and 

then monitored two thirty-minute airport traffic scenarios, one 

at the local controller position 

and one at the ground controller 

position. In both instances, the 

supervisors had responsibility for 

all flight data management. The 

research team observed usability 
page 6

4

problems, counted the number of 

actions performed, and calculated 

error rates for each action. The 

participants provided feedback on 

questionnaires and during inter-

views.

Overall, the participants rated the 

EFDIs favorably. For the Inte-

grated EFDI, the error rate was 

16 percent during practice and 12 

percent during the test. For the 

Perceptual-Spatial EFDI, the error 

rate was 7 percent during practice 

and 8 percent during the test. For 

both EFDIs, researchers identi-

fied several actions that made the 

largest contribution to the overall 

error rate. Afterwards, they rede-

signed those actions to decrease 

error rates. While the participants 

learned the EFDI functionality 

very quickly, longer training times 

are needed for users to become 

accustomed to the touch-sensitive 

interface hardware. The research 

team has submitted the EFDI 

designs for FAA consideration of a 

provisional patent application. 

Developing Color Vision Tests 

for Air Traffic Control Specialist 

Applicants

People who have trouble distin-

guishing between colors are said 

to have a color-vision deficiency. 

Because of the increase in use of 

color in air traffic control displays, 

the FAA has undertaken research 

to update the 1980s-vintage color 

vision screening process it requires 

of those who apply to air traffic 

control specialists (ATCS). 

The existing practical (job-related) 

color vision tests were based on air 

traffic control (ATC) criteria for 

routine tasks performed two de-

cades ago. At that time, the primary 

color-related tasks of controllers 

involved identifying red and black 

text on paper flight progress strips, 

and red, green, and white signal 

lights used at airports. During the 

past decade, however, there has 

been a significant increase in the 

use of color in computer displays. 

Moreover, paper strips are be-

ing replaced as the User Request 

Evaluation Tool is introduced in en 

route facilities. One study indi-

cated that the extent of color use 

in current facilities has moved far 

beyond that used in the current jobrelated color vision tests. Hence, 

it is necessary to re-examine color 

vision standards and develop new 

job-related tests adequate for 

today’s air traffic control tasks.

Researchers developed a set of 

computational algorithms to com-

pare the ATC task performance of 

individuals who have color vision 

deficiencies with that of person-

nel who have normal color vision. 

They identified a number of cir-

cumstances involving existing air 

traffic control displays where color 

use could be a potential problem 

for color-deficient controllers. The 

computational algorithms also fac-

tored the availability of redundant 

cues into the demands of color-re-

lated ATC tasks. 

The results indicated that in 43 per-

cent of occasions where redundant 

cues were available, they did not 

effectively draw users’ attention. 

Thirteen percent of the color appli-

cations used to identify information 

categories did not have redundant 

cues, and the redundant cues for 

34 percent of the color application 

proved ineffective in helping users 

identify information of a given 

category. Thirty-five percent of 

the color application used in text 

Human Factors
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 65

resulted in text readability lower 

than the threshold for error-free 

reading. Also, nine percent of 

the tasks offered no redundant 

cues at all. The research team 

concluded that having redundant cues is a necessary, but not 

sufficient, solution for ensuring 

task performance by color vision 

deficient operators.

Compiling Best Practices for 

Improved Air Traffic Safety

Operations supervisors are a key 

component to a safe and efficient 

air traffic system. These supervisors regularly provide leadership 

and oversight that positively influences the controllers’ ability to 

manage air traffic safely and effectively. The FAA believes that 

there is a relationship between 

the use of operations supervisor 

best practices and the prevention of operational errors. In FY 

2006, FAA-funded researchers 

studied the roles, responsibilities, resources, and tasks of these 

supervisors to identify the best 

practices related to prevention of 

operational errors. 

The research team used a human 

performance analysis model in a 

front-end analysis that considered 

supervisor accomplishments in 

combination with instances of 

exemplary performance. At six 

Air Route Traffic Control Centers, the team interviewed and 

observed operations supervisors 

that facility managers perceived 

as being exemplary performers. They identified the major 

accomplishments and key tasks 

of the subject supervisors and 

documented the critical performance details for these tasks. In 

addition, they identified the barriers that prevented and facilitators that helped the supervisors 

achieve exemplary performance 

in each task. 

The researchers organized their 

findings and recommendations 

into four categories: 

• Selection and Assignment 

– Ensuring safety through the 

selection of appropriate staff 

and placing them in the best 

position for success; 

• Skills and Knowledge – Training programs that equip 

supervisors with an ability to 

achieve safety objectives; 

• Motivation and Incentives 

– Mechanisms that positively 

influence exemplary supervisor 

performance; and,

• Environmental – The policies, 

procedures, tools, and organizational climate that facilitate a 

supervisor in achieving safety 

objectives. 

The research team developed and 

distributed to the participating 

Centers for feedback an operations supervisor Quick Reference 

Guide for managing controller 

performance. The team also completed a technical report detailing their analysis, findings, and 

recommendations. 

Examining Human Error in 

General Aviation Accidents

The Human Factors Analysis and 

Classification System (HFACS) 

is a theoretically based tool for 

investigating and analyzing 

human error associated with 

accidents. Previous research 

has shown that HFACS can be 

reliably used to identify general 

trends in the human factors associated with commercial and 

general aviation accidents. In FY 

2006, human factors researchers 

began a study to examine aircrew 

error in general aviation accidents that involved Visual Flight 

Rules (VFR) flight into Instrument Meteorological Conditions 

(IMC).

Researchers examined general aviation accident data from 

1990-2004. The final dataset 

included 609 accidents where 

VFR into IMC was a factor, and 

18,528 accidents labeled as the 

rest of general aviation. Researchers found that, similar to 

previous accident studies, the 

injury severity for VFR into IMC 

accidents graver than for the rest 

of general aviation and fatalities 

more prevalent in VFR into IMC 

(80 percent vs. 19 percent). More 

telling of the catastrophic nature 

of a VFR into IMC accident is 

the fact that for the 609 accidents there were a total of 954 

fatalities. For the 18,525 rest of 

general aviation accidents there 

were 6,193 fatalities. Researchers also examined the human 

error causal factors that played a 

role within the accidents, both at 

the level of the unsafe acts of the 

operator as well as the conditions 

of the operator. Unsafe acts of 

the operator included: skill-based 

errors, decision errors, perceptual 

errors, and violations. 

Study results point to the 

continuing need for pilots to be 

educated on the consequences of 

taking risks, the costs of overestimating their abilities in weather, 

and the importance of gaining 

a clear understanding of the 

weather within their flight path.
page 66

Information 

Technology

“Our goal is to provide IT policy 

to ensure effective information 

management, and security”

Dave Bowen

Chief Information Officer
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 67

Modeling Trust

FAA researchers are continuing to develop a new IT model 

that can assess multiple levels of 

trust in accordance with FAA and 

Department of Defense requirements. Until recently, only two 

types of trust assessment models 

were readily available: the binary 

models and the non-binary models. Binary models assign a trust 

value of either 0 (no trust) or 1 

(complete trust). The non-binary 

models assign quantitative values 

in the range 0 to 1 or qualitative values like high, medium, 

or low. In either case, the values 

assigned tend to be subjective 

estimates. Both kinds of models 

have significant shortcomings that 

render them inadequate to guide 

short-turnaround decision-making 

processes that rely heavily on currently available information. 

Neither model type specifies how 

trust values are to be determined, 

measured, compared, or revised 

over time. In contrast, the Vector Model of Trust now being 

developed at the FAA provides an 

objective decision support system, 

determines trust values, facilitates 

comparing trust values of two 

systems, negotiates and manages 

trust values, and computes the 

trust value of composed systems 

(given the trust values of the component subsystems). The model 

also provides a gap analysis tool 

to facilitate the development of 

more trustworthy systems.

The project has also refined the 

Trust QL language, completed a 

formal framework for expressing 

and reasoning about trust context 

and trust chains, verified and validated the model in different environments, developed security and 

privacy trust values in real-time, 

and completed a prototype of a 

user-friendly software application 

for this new model of trust. 

Preventing Unintended 

Information Revelation 

Documents generated by different 

individuals at different times can 

be combined to reveal information that is inconsistent with the 

overall goals and objectives of an 

organization and may inadvertently reveal sensitive information. A 

set of automated tools is needed, 

if not to reveal such links outright, at least to generate what IT 

specialists call plausible concept 

links or chains. The intersections of these “chains” then can 

be graphed to illustrate common links between the contents 

of what had seemed to be two 

unconnected documents. The specialists will sift through extensive 

collections of Agency documents 

first to find such chains and then 

to detect common scenarios that, 

by accessing or posting to these 

collections in their work and correspondence, might reveal sensitive information. 

FAA funded researchers at the 

State University of New York at 

Buffalo have developed a prototype, using actual data, sets that 

can and automatically generate 

a semantic graph consisting of important concepts and associations. 

The prototype will permit users to 

discover concepts chains (including potentially hidden links) that 

span multiple documents. 
page 68

Collaborating to Improve 

Information System Security

FAA and Air Force Research 

Laboratory specialists are collaborating on a project that will provide 

correlation and aggregation of 

Air Force Enterprise Defense 

(AFED) data with the FAA Computer Security Incident Response 

Center (SCIRC) database. AFED 

is a security management system 

that combines data from multiple 

types of sensors. Its aggregation 

capabilities allow analysts to view 

significantly reduced quantities of 

data from a single console. AFED 

components are configurable and 

flexible to allow them to be quickly 

modified to accept, aggregate, and 

display information from new data 

sources. Using AFED to correlate 

data resources at the FAA’s central 

CSIRC site will optimize sensor 

signatures in the field and will 

reduce human workloads. The 

FAA goal is to reduce the number 

of alarm records by an order of 

magnitude. 

This work is a follow on to an 

AFED/CSIRC proof-of-concept 

task funded by the FAA in Fiscal Year 2003. In this initial task, 

AFED analyzed recorded sensor 

data from SNORT, an open source 

network intrusion detection system. The results proved that AFED 

would be a valuable tool to apply 

in a real-time scenario to reduce instances of false alarms and lighten 

workloads for analysts. 

Researchers have installed and 

tested AFED at the FAA William J. 

Hughes Technical Center. Current test results are encouraging 

researchers to update the installation to the latest version, which 

includes a more user friendly 

interface. 

Preventing Cyber Attack

The FAA initiated the Adaptive 

Quarantine research project to 

ensure that the Agency is prepared to prevent and pre-empt 

active, passive, novel, insider, and 

outsider cyber security attacks 

against safety-critical and mission 

support networks and systems 

enterprise-wide. Researchers are 

working to develop an integrated 

solution that combines proactive 

behavior-based tools with reactive rules-based tools that cover 

the entire attack timeline and all 

layers of the protocol stack. This is 

the only such quarantine research 

project currently underway in the 

federal government, but because 

this technology relies on Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) 

products, it is transferable to other 

federal agencies.

Researchers plan a sequence of 

laboratory evaluations, proof 

of concept demonstrations, and 

field-testing in three-phase evaluation approach and will provide 

well-defined objective measures 

of success for each testing phase. 

Thus far, they have completed security test and evaluation of pattern 

recognition, anomaly detection, 

and behavior modeling proactive 

security appliances and submitted 

results and recommendations to the 

sponsoring Advanced Research and 

Development Agency. While these 

technologies offer novel approaches to intrusion prevention, they are 

still research prototypes. Usability, 

Information Technology
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 69

manageability, scalability, and 

product maturity issues remain 

to be resolved before they can 

be considered for use in the FAA 

environment. 

Accelerating Deployment of 

Critical Technologies

FAA researchers continue to 

participate in the Federal Agency 

Administration of Science and 

Technology Education and Research (FASTER). A Community 

of Practice for federal officials 

involved with the administration of science and technology 

education and research programs, FASTER is organized 

under the Interagency National 

Science and Technology Council 

Subcommittee on Networking. 

This “community” was specifically created to support the use 

of advanced information technology systems. Participants collaborate to speed deployment of 

promising research technology, 

share information on protocols, 

standards, best practices, and coordinate technology assessments 

and testbed development. 

Identifying New Biometric 

Technologies

The Center for Identification 

Technology Research (CITeR) is 

a National Science Foundation/

Industry/University Cooperative 

Research Center focusing on 

Biometric Identification Technologies. Applications of these 

technologies reveal vulnerabilities and perform socio-legal and 

business studies. 

These technologies encompass, 

but are not limited to, working with multimodal systems, 

biometric modalities, biometric image coding and quality, 

performance frameworks, and 

system modeling. Participation allows the FAA to leverage 

R&D in the area of identification 

technologies that are funded by 

the National Science Foundation, industry and other federal government sponsors. FAA 

representatives met with CITeR 

members twice during the fiscal 

year to finalize and approve new 

projects and to receive updates 

on the status of the ongoing 

research of the Center. 

Assessing Network 

Vulnerabilities

The FAA is working with the 

Air Force Research Laboratory 

and George Mason to develop an 

automated system to identify and 

mitigate potential attack paths to 

mission critical resources. Called 

Combinatorial Analysis Utilizing 

Logical Dependencies Residing 

on Networks (CAULDRON), 

this system will assess network 

vulnerabilities and then project 

the types of attacks that could 

occur because of them – down 

to the level of naming specific 

attack paths and specific mission-critical resources. The use 

of this application will speed 

detection and resolution of 

security events and will increase 

productivity levels of security 

personnel by:

• Providing context for total 

network security,

• Analyzing network modifications,

• Displaying prioritized lists of 

potential security incidents,

• Addressing insider and outsider 

threats, and

• Reporting only those vulnerabilities associated with possible 

attack paths.

FAA researchers are working 

with MITRE to provide network 

scans and complete an evaluation 

of CAULDRON. MITRE has 

made several recommendations 

on the user interface improvements, intrusion detection system 

integration, and network scan 

correlation mapping. This project 

will continue through Fiscal 

Year 2007 with enhancements to 

support recommendations and 

assessment. 

Costing Secure Software 

Systems

FAA researchers are working 

with colleagues at the University 

of Southern California to add 

new information security extensions to the Constructive Cost 

Estimation Model (COCOMO) 

developed at that institution. The 

COCOMO II model will help 

to estimate the cost, effort, and 

schedule involved in planning a 

new software development activity. Determining these details has 

always been particularly difficult 

for the developers of emerging 

software–intensive systems that 

require a significant degree of 

security. A small number of pilot 

security projects are underway 

to assess the benefits of applying 

COCOMO II security extensions to refine traditional “rule of 

thumb” cost estimates of security 

cost–drivers. 
page 70

Developing a Business 

Capability Model

Researchers are developing 

a view of the FAA to help 

its executives develop new 

investment priorities for 

portfolio management based 

on the analysis of competencies, assets, and resources 

that cut across organizational boundaries. In FY 

2006, researchers completed 

a prototype capability model 

for FAA regulatory and 

administrative processes. 

The model will be used in 

strategic planning and portfolio management.

Assuring Real-Time 

Operating Systems 

(ARTOS)

The FAA participates in 

a National Coordination 

Office for Networking and 

Information Technology 

Research and Development 

program to define federal 

research goals in the area 

of certifiable systems. The 

program facilitates industry/

government collaboration 

to define needs in the areas 

of aviation safety, medical 

devices, and power distribution networks. FAA researchers have participated 

in workshops in all three 

of these areas and, in the 

coming fiscal year, they will 

help to draft a “roadmap” 

needed for the federal government to meet its research 

needs in safe and secure 

systems. The results of this 

effort will help the National 

Science Foundation determine which projects to fund.

Creating Service Oriented 

Architectures

To be properly called 

“service oriented,” a design 

philosophy must view individual applications as part 

of a collaborated approach 

to providing basic core 

services. A Service Oriented 

Architecture (SOA) is an 

ensemble of such services. 

Like many Fortune 500 

companies, the FAA plans to 

migrate to a SOA to achieve 

platform-independent connectivity for a number of 

web services. In FY 2005-

2006, the FAA held three 

Web Service workshops 

to get industry input and 

determine needs within the 

aviation community. 

During FY 2007, planners 

will continue to focus on 

determining needed services 

and developing a responsive, enterprise-wide data 

exchange.

Moving Toward Internet 

Protocol version 6 (IPv6)

The FAA is committed to 

meet the OMB Guidance 

for the IPv6 backbone 

transition by June 30, 2008. 

During the past fiscal year, 

the FAA continued the 

planning and coordination 

necessary to transition the 

FAA’s Backbone Infrastructure to an IPv6 compatible 

configuration and to ensure 

that the Agency’s networks 

interface with this infrastructure. FAA planners also 

integrated IPv6 objectives 

into the Agency’s Information Resources Management 

strategic plan and modified 

its Acquisition Management 

System policy to include 

language requiring IPv6 

compatibility in future networking procurements. 

In addition, the FAA IPv6 

Steering Committee developed an IPv6 Transition 

Plan that includes an IPv6 

transition strategy, impact 

analysis, and asset inventory. The Steering Committee 

is currently working to:

• Define the IPv6 address 

allocation/management 

process,

• Define security strategy 

for IPv6 Internet Access 

Points,

• Establish IPv6 test beds at 

major centers, 

• Test IPv6 hardware/software products,

• Develop configuration 

guidelines,

• Demonstrate 4 to 6 tunneling between IPv6 

“clouds,” and

• Develop detail transition 

plan and schedule thru June 

2008.

Information Technology
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 71

Research, Engineering 

and Development 

Advisory Committee 

(REDAC)

“We advise the Administrator on R&D 

matters and activities, and coordinate research 

and development efforts with industry and 

other government agencies”

Barry Scott, acting Director, 

FAA Air Traffic Organization 

Office of Operations Planning Research & Development 

and REDAC Executive Director
page 

72

Research, Engineering 

and Development Advisory 

Committee (REDAC)

FAA’s Research, Engineering and 

Development Advisory Commit-

tee, established in 1989, advises 

the Administrator on research 

and development issues and 

coordinates the FAA’s research, 

engineering and development 

activities with industry and other 

government agencies. The com-

mittee considers aviation research 

needs in air traffic services, 

airport technology, aircraft safety, 

human factors, and environment 

and energy.

Supporting Controller Workforce 

Transition 

Over the next ten years, the FAA 

projects that a significant portion 

of the controller workforce will 

retire. Anticipating the need to 

fill many vacated positions, FAA 

Administrator Marion Blakey 

asked the REDAC Human Factors 

Subcommittee, chaired by San 

Jose State University Professor 

Kevin Corker, Ph.D., to assess 

and provide recommendations 

related to the skills, training, and 

needs of the next generation of 

controllers. Many FAA employees 

supported the Subcommittee ac-

tivity by providing briefings and 

materials regarding recruitment, 

selection, screening, training at 

the FAA Mike Monroney Aero-

nautical Center Academy, and 

on the job training in the field. 

Additionally, some Subcommittee 

members visited the Academy’s 

training facility as well as several 

field facilities. The discussions 

with the subject matter experts, 

managers, and controllers, as well 

as the visit to the Academy to 

see the training laboratories and 

simulators proved instrumental in 

providing the Subcommittee criti-

cal information on which to base 

their recommendations.

In a letter outlining their work, 

the Subcommittee members 

recommended improvements in 

seven areas: leadership; train-

ing processes; controller per-

formance measures and training 

effectiveness; use of simulation; 

standardization of procedures; 

Collegiate Training Initiative 

school alignment; and the use 

of team training. In response to 

recognized needs and capitalizing 

on the Subcommittee recommen-

dations, the FAA developed the 

“Controller Workforce Integrated 

Action Plan” to address controller 

workforce transition. In addition 

to the REDAC recommendations, 

the plan integrates inputs from the 

“Plan for the Future: the Federal 

Aviation Administration’s 10-

Year Strategy for the Air Traffic 

Control Workforce,” with others 

drawn from MITRE and the Office of the Inspector General.

Transitioning ATM Research to 

Operations

The FAA also recently embraced 

many of the REDAC Air Traffic 

Services Subcommittee Transition 

Working Group recommenda-

tions. In its twelve month study, 

this working group, led by Ray 

LaFrey, identified and analyzed 

barriers to transitioning technol-

ogy from research to operations. 

REDAC
R&D Annual Review 2006

page 73

Group members gathered information from relevant literature 

and over thirty briefings from 

industry, academia, government, national research centers, 

and aviation organizations. The 

Working Group subsequently 

developed a set of findings and 

recommendations that it presented to the FAA Administrator. 

In her response to the REDAC, 

the Administrator agreed to a 

number of recommendations 

that would facilitate technology 

transition. The Administrator has 

created a Development Liaison 

Team to provide recommendations to the Vice President of 

Operations Planning on research technologies that should 

be pursued. The FAA is also 

working closely with industry to 

evolve toward a performancebased national airspace system 

concept that will allow operators 

to leverage existing aircraft equipage capabilities, while showing 

increased performance value 

as aircraft equipage capabilities are increased. In addition, 

the FAA is already working to 

establish guidelines for transitioning knowledge and data to 

industry. The Agency continually 

uses best practices from government and industry to improve 

its policies and guidance. New 

guidance is incorporated in the 

FAA’s Acquisition Management 

System. The working group’s 

full report can be found online at 

http://research.faa.gov/redac/reports/reports.aspx.

Financing the Next Generation 

Air Transportation System 

(NGATS)

To help the FAA determine 

financing options for the Next 

Generation Air Transportation System, a REDAC working group, chaired by Jerry 

Thompson of Jerry Thompson 

Associates, identified the level 

of resources required as well as 

available options for funding and 

financing research and development, capital projects, and the 

operations cost of NGATS. The 

effort focused on the FY 2006 

- 2025 timeframe. The working group compared a reference 

status quo scenario to a NGATS 

scenario. For each scenario, they 

identified the best, worst, and 

baseline cases to determine a 

range of operating costs. Group 

members also considered opportunities to reduce costs through 

introduction of advanced 

technologies and techniques or 

outsourcing, but did not consider 

issues such as labor contracts, 

privatization, or major structural 

changes in the FAA organization. FAA Administrator Marion 

Blakey and Dr. John Hansman 

(REDAC, Chair) used this data 

to discuss NGATS funding with 

Congress.

Reducing Separation 

Standards 

The REDAC’s National Airspace 

System Operations Subcommittee established a Separation 

Standards Working Group, led 

by Sarah Dalton from Alaska 

Airlines, to examine what types 

of R&D activities would facilitate a reduction in separation 

standards without jeopardizing 

safety. The working group first 

examined the basis for current separation standards and 

reviewed past and ongoing studies of separation requirements. 

The members then considered 

improved methodologies for establishing separation standards, 

as well as changes that new technology may bring. The process 

resulted in recommendations that 

include the need to:

• Establish data needs early in 

NGATS development so all 

data collection opportunities 

are used,

• Develop consistent approaches 

for development of standards,

• Conduct research on human 

and automation roles in failure 

response and impact on required separation standards,

• Re-examine parallel and 

converging approaches, arrival/departure, and separation 

standards based on appropriate 

probability distribution using 

RNP-based navigation

The report is being transmitted 

to the Administrator, who will 

review the recommendations and 

provide a response.
Federal Aviation Administration

Operations Planning Research 

& Development Office

800 Independence Avenue, SW

Washington, DC 20591

http://research.faa.gov