inistrator

ort Safety 

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ncy 

s Research 

ng & 

esearch

pace 

 Research

& Energy 

Our VisionThe FAA’s Research and Development (R&D) programstands committed to improve the safety of the flying publicthrough collaboration with and support of the entire aviationcommunity.This program, in partnership with the aviation community,helps the Agency meet its goals by providing world leadership in the conduct of high-priority research and the development of innovative technologies. The FAA’s leadership will assure and enhance the continued success of a safe,efficient, and environmentally compatible global aviationsystem.The R&D program responds to the needs of FAA activities,such as aircraft and airmen regulation and certification, airport operations, air traffic services and commercial spacetransportation regulation, licensing and operations. It isthrough these activities, and the impact of R&D on the aerospace community, that the FAA’s goals are achieved.To ensure both short-and long-term R&D, continuous investment in a strong, multi-faceted R&D program is vitalto meeting the Agency’s mission in an efficient and timelymanner.
ebrated the 100th anniversary of Orville and Wilbur Wright’s first flight. These

io-this country’s first aviation researchers-used experimentation, exacting science,

chieve their historic breakthrough. FAA researchers continue this legacy as they

eering and development to ensure U.S. global leadership in aviation. In 1903,

 was the ability to master powered flight. In 2003, our achievements span the

his opportunity to express my appreciation to our research partners, both interna

or their outstanding support and collaborative efforts. Their support, in coopera

 committed service of FAA researchers and scientists has generated tools and

inue to improve and enhance a safe, secure, efficient, and environmentally sound

em. Their work directly supports the FAA’s Flight Plan 2004-2008. This strate

ical goals to increase safety, provide greater capacity, maintain our international

 a world-class organization. Through cutting-edge research and development

ady reducing commercial accident rates and building an air traffic control system

meeting future demand. 

echnological advancements that we made in 2003 and invite you to share in our

Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 3 

An important element in maintaining thepublic's confidence in America's aviationsystem is the outstanding safety recordof this country's air carriers. Through our R&D activities, we develop the technologies and proceduresthat will maintain and improve safety inan evolving and demanding aviationenvironment.Such improvements reduce fatalities,injuries, aircraft losses, help create better aircraft designs, and improvemaintenance and inspection procedures.

hat in many survivable accidents loose seat

erhead bins and ceiling panels can seriously

e understanding the behavior of the cabin

ant survival, the FAA’s crashworthiness

ishing cabin interior standards that will pro

n the unlikely event of an accident. Before

however, the Agency needs to obtain com

ut structural safety issues and continuing

ll types of aircraft. 

AA conducted a vertical impact test of a

uter airplane. The test, the last in a planned

ne tests, simulated a severe, but survivable,

mpact response of the fuselage, floor, seats,

dummies. 

TR-42, a 42 passenger twin engine turbo

rom a height of 14 feet above the ground. It

 velocity of 30 feet per second. The air

81 feet, weighed approximately 35,000

proximately 9,000 pounds of simulated fuel

of luggage. Researchers configured the

engines, seven instrumented, anthropomor

ifferent types of seats, and 16 mannequins.

t transducers, accelerometers, and onboard

ded data from the drop. 

stantial structural damage, especially at the

 of the cabin. This test revealed the impact

f things such as overhead bins and auxiliary

cted will enable researchers to assess the

rds and develop new regulatory require

ds Monitoring System

Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 5

To ensure the appropriatenessof the certification process forstructural strength and fatiguelife and to identify changes inservice usage trends,researchers in FAA’sOperational Loads Monitoringprogram are collecting flightloads data for major airplaneconfigurations and landingloads data, such as touchdownvertical velocity, for a widevariety of airports and airplanemodel types. By takingadvantage of newer technologies and improving data acquisition and analysis process, researchers are proactively assessing the validity ofcurrent landing loads airworthiness certification standards.During FY 2003, researchers provided specialized operational loads data andanalysis for the certification criteria for the Airbus A380 airplane; worked withthe University of Dayton Research Institute to improve methods and criteria forprocessing and presenting commercial transport airplane flight and groundloads usage data; published statistical data concerning a regional jet airplane’susage, flight, and ground loads data, and systems operations; for the U.S.Forest Service, quantified the operational loads spectra experienced by aircraftinvolved in firebombing operations; and hosted a workshop to review and document the Statistical Discrete Gust (SDG) Method for use as an alternative procedure of estimating severe gust and turbulence loads. To view information onthis critical research program please visit, http://aar400.tc.faa.gov/Programs/AgingAircraft/airbornedata/index.htm.

Operational Loads Monitoring
Quality Assurance Methods for Fiber Reinforced Composites

The general aviation industry is now manufacturing new composite aircraft and using compositematerial applications in primary structures. Unlikemetallic materials used in the structural part manufacturing processes, the material properties ofcomposite materials are dependent on the fabrication process. Therefore, it is essential that thosemanufacturing and acquiring composite materialhave sufficient information to ensure that criticalparameters in the material manufacture and structural fabrication process are controlled and that thecomposite materials meet requirements. To ensure safety of the materials being used, FAAresearchers identified the criteria for both materialprocurement specifications and fabrication specifications. As a result, the FAA issued two technicalreports outlining specification requirements. Thefirst report, Guidelines and Recommended Criteriafor the Development of a Material Specificationfor Carbon Fiber/Epoxy Unidirectional Prepregs(DOT/FAA/AR-02/109, http://research.faa.gov/aar/tech/docs/techreport/ FY 2003/DOTFAAAR02109.pdf), recommends guidance andcriteria for the development of material specifications for carbon fiber-epoxy unidirectional prepreg

tape materials used on aircraft structures and proposes the development of a shared compositematerial database. Guidelines for the Development of ProcessSpecifications, Instructions and Controls for theFabrication of Fiber Reinforced PolymerComposites (DOT/FAA/AR-02/110,http://research.faa.gov/aar/tech/docs/techreport/FY2003/ DOTFAAAR02109.pdf) provides a set ofguidelines for the development of process information for the fabrication of continuous fiber reinforced polymer composite laminate test panelsused in the generation of mechanical propertiesand an approach for the validation of compositefabrication processes used during the certificationof composite aircraft structure. This work provides the first level baseline for theestablishment of material procurement and processing control to meet FAA requirements. Theultimate goal is to provide a catalyst to initiateindustry standardization. 

Photo This Page: 

Composite Aircraft 
Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 7

eneration System 

xplosions

A Model for the Transport of Heat, Smoke, and GasesDuring a Cargo Compartment FireFAA regulations requirethat aircraft cargo compartment smoke detectors alarm within oneminute of the start of afire, to alert the crewbefore the fire can substantially damage thestructural integrity ofthe airplane.Manufacturers demonstrate compliance withthe regulations through the use of costly and time consuming in-flightand ground tests. To decrease the time and cost of the certification,researchers at Sandia National Laboratories developed a physics-basedcomputational fluid dynamics tool, which couples heat, mass, andmomentum transfer. FAA researchers are currently performing validation experiments onthe tool in actual aircraft cargo compartments that are extensivelyinstrumented to record smoke, temperature, heat flux, and gas levelsduring the tests. They are preparing a report describing the computational approach used in the code, the graphical user interface, and theinitial validation test results. If approved for use, the tool mayenhance the certification process by determining worst case locationsfor fires, optimum placement of fire-detector sensors within the cargocompartment, and sensor alarm levels needed to achieve detectionwithin the required certification time. 

compartment

 FAA to

g system

sions that

mercial air

ral years. 

searchers

 practical

pe system.

hat with this system the fuel tank continues to remain

n the ground, negating the need for labor-intensive

ons. The FAA system reduces the concentration of

el mixture to a level that will not support combustion

r through an air separation module, a device that sep

 of nitrogen-enriched air and oxygen-enriched air.

e fuel tank by injecting the nitrogen-enriched air gen

n module and discharges the oxygen-enriched air. 

e FAA and Airbus conducted flight tests of the FAA’s

0 aircraft in Toulouse, France. Data from these tests

he inerting system’s design. Also, in July 2003,

program to certify an onboard inert gas generating

design. FAA supported these tests with instrumenta

scription and Analysis of the FAA Onboard Oxygen

A/AR-TN03/52. Boeing announced its intent to

ems on its 747 aircraft in FY 2005. 

go to http://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/pdf/TN03-52.pdf.

 on the FAA’s fire safety research program visit,

index.html.

Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 9

As a result of FAA flammability tests ofaircraft thermal acoustic insulation, theFAA adopted new flammability standards for the thermal and acoustic insulation materials used in transport airplanes.These standards include new flammability tests and criteria that address flamepropagation and entry of an external fireinto the airplane. The new standards willimprove aircraft safety by reducing theincidence and severity of cabin fires bydelaying the entry of postcrash fires intothe cabin, allowing passengers more timefor evacuation. Previous regulations did not address the test method for postcrash fire burnthrough resistance. To establish the new flammability test method, FAAresearchers first created a new test apparatus, comprised of two main components: a large burner that simulates a jet fuel fire and a sample holder representative of the fuselage structural framing. Researchers set the burner flameconditions so that the melting time of aluminum sheeting would coincide withfull-scale test results. By analyzing past accidents, they set the requiredpass/fail criteria for the insulation specimen at 4 minutes, because there wouldbe very limited benefit beyond this period (i.e., approximately 5 minutes, factoring in the skin melting time). The FAA has tested numerous samples submitted by industry and many have passed the required criteria. Compliantspecimens fall into three broad categories: advanced fibrous material (fiberglass replacement); fire barrier with existing fiberglass, and hardened filmmaterial.The FAA’s new test method, called the radiant panel test, uses a small-scaleinstrument to measure combustibility and flame propagation of materials subjected to a high heat flux. The pass/fail criteria require that any flaming notextend beyond a 2-inch length from the point of flame application or continueflaming after removal of the pilot flame. 

FAA Adopts Final Rule Requiring Improved Fire Tests for Thermal Acoustic Insulation

he most effective means for complying with FAA fire

However, a ban on the production of Halon 1301,

fects to the ozone layer, requires new fire suppression

, in FY 2003 the FAA published Minimum

r Aircraft Cargo Compartment Halon Replacement

 DOT/FAA/ARN03/6, which establishes the minimum

t a Halon 1301 replacement aircraft cargo comparttem must meet. It also describes the tests that must

rate that the replacement agent and suppression sys

el of safety as Halon 1301. The tests are one part of

viation Authority certification process for cargo com

 systems. 

at new cargo compartment fire suppression systems

minimum performance standard fire test scenarios:

 fire); containerized fire (Class A/C fire); flammable

and an aerosol can explosion. To be considered for

pression agents must be tested 5 times under each of

e standard test scenarios.

 go to http://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/pdf/TN03-6.pdf. 

 Standard for Halon Replacement Agents 

nt Fires

rosol Can Explosion Test

Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 11

elopment are ignition and growth. If a fire

in an aircraft cabin, there may not be

s to escape. The FAA has determined that

rning plastics is the best indicator of how

raft compartments. Currently none of flame

dwide each year is tested for heat release

y tested for ignition resistance by measuring

e to go out by itself after the material is

urner flame. 

ing the relationship between flame test per

to understand the fire hazard of plastics.

that, in the absence of external heating, a

f the rate at which heat is released by the

ple is insufficient to continue the burning

thesis, they measured the heat release rate of

ny external heating and compared these

Bunsen burner tests of ignition resistance. 

 will go out when removed from a Bunsen

lease rate is below a critical value of about

of fire development, ignition and growth,

 rate, a quantity that is easily measured in

alorimeter or in smaller quantities in the

tion calorimeter. Ultimately, heat release

rotection engineers and FAA regulators to

he fire hazard of plastics.

An International Civil AviationOrganization agreement requiresnew security considerations for thetype certification of new aircraft.Specifically, aircraft must have special design features to preventsmoke and gases from entering theflight deck following the activationof an explosive or incendiarydevice anywhere in the aircraft outside the flight deck. To help the FAA meet these new requirements, researchers conducted tests inthe FAA’s Boeing 747SP and 727 aircraft. Using a plastic sheet and theatricalsmoke generators, they conducted aircraft ground tests to measure and demonstrate the amount of positive pressure differential needed between the flightdeck and surrounding areas to prevent smoke penetration into the flight deck.As a result, in April 2003, the FAA published, Ground Tests of Aircraft FlightDeck Smoke Penetration Resistance (DOT/FAA/AAR/TN03/36). The technique of using a plastic sheet to demonstrate the existence of a positivepressure differential and theatrical smoke generators to demonstrate the effectiveness of that pressure differential will be described in a new AdvisoryCircular as an acceptable method for complying with new regulations. To view the report, please go to, http://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/pdf/TN03-36.pdf.

Ground Tests of Aircraft Flight Deck Smoke Penetration Resistance 
With FAA funding, researchers at Wichita State

University’s National Institute for Aviation Research, incollaboration with small airplane manufacturers, aredeveloping a structural life evaluation methodology forsmall airplanes. The purpose of this research is to support revision of FAA Advisory Circular 23-13, “Fatigueand Fail-Safe Evaluation of Flight Structure andPressurized Cabin for Part 23 Airplanes.” The current fatigue-life evaluation methodology, whichuses S-N (Stress levels - Number of cycles to failure)curves from full-scale test results of surplus military airplanes, often produces unrealistic estimates for fatiguelife. Researchers are developing a fatigue life methodology that accounts for structural details, full-scale structural complexities, and

loading spectrum. The end result will be a method that uses conventionalstress concentration factors (that are functions of the structural detail) andempirical factors to determine the effective stress concentration factor for thestructural detail. Researchers have also initiated experimental work to generate appropriateempirical factors. This research will ultimately result in a database with credible S-N curves and statistical exceedance spectra, technical data to developguidance material to support rule making, and a structural-life evaluationmethodology for small airplanes.

By 2010,approximately180,000 smallairplanes willapproach anaverage age of40 years.Little is known

f the aging process on small airplanes, but

nspections can provide critical information

 of high-time operational aircraft. 

ed both the inspection phase and teardown

402A. During the inspection phase,

r 100 visual inspections, as well as supple

cal structural areas using nondestructive

h as visual, dye penetrant, magnetic particle,

so reviewed aircraft maintenance records,

orthiness directives. The teardown phase

he aircraft, inspection of aircraft systems’

 of advanced nondestructive investigation

 optic imaging, laboratory testing of aircraft

 of aircraft sections, and microscopic exami

 areas in the airframe. 

ing the knowledge and insight required to

ory circular preparation, and findings of

aft. 

 of Aging Small Airplanes Data and Methodologies for Structural Life Evaluation 

of Small Airplanes

Photo Top Left: 

Disassembly of the Cessna Model 402A

Photo Top Right:

Test Specimen with Strain Gages and Antibuckling Fixture
 Infrared Imaging 

ion for Aircraft Structures

ed a

tech

d

mag

oped

ging

rom

ses

es

ng

in

d

red

h

oth

inspection capability and high sensitivity to

surface breaking and near-surface cracks,

ds. 

Bonded Repair of Composite Sandwich Structures

Fiber-reinforced compositesandwich structures are beingused in a wide variety of aircraft components because oftheir improved stability andweight savings over other structural materials. However, asthese become damaged or wornover time and use, it is necessary to develop repair methodsthat will restore the component’s original design strengthwithout compromising its structural integrity. One area ofconcern is whether large repairsare always necessary to restorestrength or whether smaller,less-intrusive repairs can be implemented instead. Cure temperature can alsobecome an issue if the repair patch requires curing at 350degrees fahrenheit, becausebonding of the patch to the parent structure may induce further damage to the component. With these concerns in mind, in FY 2003, researchers evaluated the effectiveness of scarf repairs applied to sandwich structures given several bonding repairvariables.Researchers investigated the performance of different airline depots in repairing picture frame shear elements using two different repair methods: the Society ofAutomotive Engineers (SAE) Commercial Aircraft Composite Repair Committee(CACRC) developed wet lay-up procedure and an original equipment manufacturer(OEM) prepreg procedure. Each method had different cure temperatures and useddifferent materials. They also examined the effect of different repair variables onrepair performance. The variables considered included three different scarf overlaps,two different core-cell sizes (1/8-inch and 3/8-inch), and impact damage inflicted onthe repair.From the test results, it is apparent that the optimum overlap length is 0.25 inch irrespective of core cell size. Researchers also found that the 1/8-inch core beams havehigher failure strains than the 3/8-inch core coupons for both the undamaged anddamaged states. This research validates the use of the SAE Commercial AircraftComposite Repair Committee repair procedures that are documented in numerousSAE publications and establishes the optimumscarf length for the repair of facesheets of composite sandwich structures.

 inspect turbine disk 

cture

Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 13
ction of Composite Repairs

Because repairs made on the aircraft use avariety of procedures, the FAA is workingto ensure these composite repair components are mechanically sound through avariety of nondestructive inspection methods and tools. Funded as part of the FAA’sAirworthiness Assurance Center of

niversity researchers investigated the use and imple

mentary nondestructive inspection methods for compos

ded Tap Testing (CATT) and Air-Coupled Ultrasonic

ATT, semi-automated and quantitative technique, is

onditions of a repaired part. Tap tests need only one

mited probing depth. 

relate the interior conditions of a repair with the image

uctive inspection using both the CATT and AC-UT

with the CATT and AC-UT instruments, researchers

nder optical microscope the repair panel slated for

 correlated their observations with the nondestructive

hey then rebuilt the skin over the re-cored region in a

ded it outward to a diameter of about 8 to 9 inches, dis

mination just outside the core splice circle. On the cut

appeared to be about 1” wide. Once they sectioned the

ged the CATT image and the AC-UT image to actual

ed it to the sectioned surface. 

t both the computer aided tap test and the air-coupled

sed to image the internal features and conditions of a

g the re-cored area, the scarfed skin repair, and the

ed skin. Overall, they discovered that the features in

e and the AC-UT scan image corresponded quite well

ns of the repair.

ted in the potential use of these nondestructive inspec

d tested both systems. At this time the air-coupled

et capable of generating scan images in the field; how

r achieving a scan-mode air-coupled ultrasonic system

s.

The effect of repairs on aircraft structural integrity isone of the critical issues thatmust be addressed to assurethe continuing airworthinessand operational safety of aircraft. Recognizing that fact,

in late 2002 the FAA published the Aging Airplane Safety Interim FinalRule, which requires the use of damage tolerance-based inspection programson airplanes with multiple engines and ten or more passengers used in scheduled operations. To assist the small airplane industry in complying with thisrule, FAA researchers developed an integrated design assessment tool, RepairAssessment Procedure and Integrated Design for Commuters (RAPIDC). RAPIDC is an automated static strength and damage tolerance analysis toolfor skin repairs and antenna installations. It automatically generates adetailed repair assessment report that includes all the design parameters andconfigurations, analysis methodologies, and results from damage toleranceanalysis. It is a PC Windows-based software with user friendly, point-andclick graphical user interface features. A built-in advisory database providesrepair guidelines. The FAA released RAPIDC, Version 2.0, on January 31,2003, on the Internet at: http://aar400.tc.faa.gov/Programs/AgingAircraft/Commuter/RAPID.This latest version includes a built-in finite element module, an automaticfinite element module mesh generator, a load spectrum generator, and staticand damage tolerance analysis modules for fuselage skin repairs and antennainstallations. The built-in finite element module helps determine fastenerload transfer of mechanically-fastened multiple layers and the automaticmesh generator eases users’ efforts for model preparation. FAA’s researchers also designed a new capability for irregular fastener pattern into the RAPIDC design process. This capability allows users to placefasteners, as found in an operational environment, rather than the straightline previously required by the program. This feature is especially criticalfor the design of elliptical, sausage, and teardrop repair doublers (patches).

Damage Tolerance-Based Skin Repair Software

Photo Top Left: 

Composite Repair Sites

Photo Top Right:

Aircraft Skin Repairs 
nt for Nickel Billet

um

ed

ell,

rated

n

sed

aterial anomalies that can reduce the durabil

ponents.

hers inspected Waspaloy and Iconel 718,

alloys used for high temperature rotating

howed improved detection ability over the

ion method. In fact, it had a six-fold

ventional system. Improved production

he occurrence of melt related defects in final

in fewer engine failures and improved flight

Material Testing Research and Indenter Development forDetermining Aging of Wires in Aircraft

The FAA is committed to theresearch and development ofadvanced technologies for nondestructive inspection and nondestructive testing of aircraftelectrical wiring interconnectsystems. As wires age theybecome brittle and crack, whichmay result in significant electrical malfunctions and dangerousconditions, such as electricalarcing. Researchers are currently working to determine if changes in the hardness of a wire insulationsystem correlates with other accepted, though destructive test methods.As part of this effort, they developed an indentor tool, a portable, simpleto-use instrument for performing these measurements. Typically researchers evaluate changes in mechanical properties usingelongation-at-break testing. This type of testing is destructive andrequires relatively large specimens, making it undesirable for analyzinginstalled cables. As an alternative to elongation-at-break tests, indentertests provide a systematic indication of material aging. Periodic indentermeasurements of an installed aircraft wire can be compared to elongationat-break, indenter correlation graphs to monitor the progression of cabledegradation. In Fiscal Year 2003, researchers redesigned the indenter for compatibilitywith small gauge aircraft wires and for portability of the system for usewithin confined aircraft spaces; developed standardized test processes forusing the modified indenter; accelerated thermal aging of various aircraftwire types currently used in aircraft; and evaluated the effects of accelerated aging on the insulation systems by performing indenter examinations,elongation-at-break tests, and wire insulation deterioration analysis systemtests, and evaluating the correlations between these various test methods.Researchers found that the accuracy of the data obtained by indenter isoperator independent and previous indenter experience is not necessaryfor obtaining accurate measurements. They also found the new indentersuitable for testing small wires installed in aircraft and produces reliabledata. 

Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 15
Since aircraft wheels aresubject to excessive stressesduring landing and takingoff, the FAA requires a periodic inspection of wheels toensure their continuedintegrity. Eddy currentinspection is a widely usedinspection technique for aircraft wheels, since it is faster

elative to other inspection techniques. 

current signals generally depends on the

ator, the FAA, working with industry and

utomated signal analysis system for aircraft

es the process fast and efficient. Under a

 Airlines is currently testing this new system

versity, in collaboration with Northwest

Toronto, Canada. 

heel is manually mounted on a rotating table

rmation about the type of wheel into a soft

e the scan plan, such as positioning of the

ance covered by the probe. The eddy cur

ward while the wheel is kept rotating,

0 percent of the wheel is scanned. The data

d in time base digital strip chart form,

d C-scan image form. 

lysis System 

ection

High-Strength Fabrics for Ballistic Protection of Flight-CriticalComponents from Uncontained Engine Failures

Fiscal year 2003 marks amajor milestone in FAA’sresearch to develop andapply advanced technologiesfor mitigating the effects ofuncontained engine bursts.Uncontained engine burstsoccur when inflight enginefailures damage critical aircraft components. 

To reduce the probability of such incidents, FAA and SRI Internationalresearchers are evaluating the ballistic effectiveness of fabric structures madefrom advanced polymers and developing a computational ability to design fragment barriers. The research focuses on three commercially available highstrength polymer materials—PBO (Zylon), aramid (Kevlar), and polyethylene(Spectra). To date, researchers have found Zylon to have the most promise as a fragmentbarrier. The University of California at Berkeley completed small-scale ballistic testing of Zylon to verify the FAA/SRI modeling techniques. Prior to theballistic tests, SRI and University researchers conducted modeling to predict thenumber of fabric layers necessary to stop the fragment. This modeling effortproved successful and resulted in a reduction in the number of tests necessaryto characterize the barrier protection. SRI also completed large-scale (actualblade fragment sizes) ballistic tests on Zylon, and The Boeing Company conducted independent material development tests to verify strength and to assessenvironmental effects.

Photo Top Left: 

Aircraft Wheel Inspection

Photo Top Right:

Armor Fabric Installation Schematic 
Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 17

d rotat

with

oduce

it can

Fast

e disk

 air

 crack

o devel

dentify a

lure. 

earchers, in collaboration with their counter

ems Command, U.S. Air Force, and NASA

onducted a full-scale engine test of new

 tests at the Naval Air Warfare Center China

urvivability Laboratory on an instrumented

through 4,474 cycles to propagate an

disk. Seven technology developers partici

etection technologies being investigated

 crack wire-mesh indicators, vibration, and

 detect changes in the disk as the crack

rack Detection Uncontained Engine Debris Damage Assessment Model

ReleasedOver the years, severalcivil aircraft accidentshave occurred whenfragments from in-flightengine failures damagedcritical aircraft components. A single fragment from the failedpart can cause the restof the engine to be torninto sharp metal debris.The debris can then slice thought the engine casing and endangerother critical aircraft systems, crew, and passengers.An FAA-sponsored research program is working to develop certification tools that minimize the probability of hazard to the aircraft andits occupants from uncontained engine debris. As part of that effort,researchers continued to update the uncontained engine debris damage assessment model. The tool analyzes the potential hazard to theairplane in accordance with the rotor burst guidance. The analysiscan randomly simulate fragment scattering like a real event and repeatthe analysis many times to develop the probability of hazard.In February 2003, a training session took place for the FAA’s AviationRulemaking Advisory Committee to familiarize airframe and enginemanufacturers with version 2.0.2 of the tool, developed by the NavalAir Warfare Center Weapons Division China Lake and ServiceEngineering Company.In addition to upgrades and training on the vulnerability assessmenttool, researchers also published several research reports in support ofdeveloping revisions to AC 20-128, Design Precautions forMinimizing Hazards to Aircraft from Uncontained Turbine Engineand Auxiliary Power Unit Rotor Failure. 
or Surface Damage Tolerance

Aircraft turbine rotors can suffer rare, critical events (e.g., uncontained engine failures)caused by the presence of metallurgical(e.g., hard alpha) and manufacturing (e.g.,surface damage) defects that occurred duringthe manufacturing process. Under a grantfrom the FAA, and in collaboration withmajor engine manufacturers, researchers atthe Southwest Research Institute developedthe software tool Design Assessment ofReliability With Inspection (DARWIN®) to

predict the risk of fracture associated withaircraft jet engine rotors and disks subjectedto surface damage. This tool computes theprobability of fracture as a function of thenumber of flight cycles, considering random

ation, random inspection schedules, and sev

s. 

WIN® focused on the risk assessment of tita

disks with potential inherent hard alpha

 damage, developers recently introduced

s in the DARWIN® 4.x releases. The user

profile and crack geometry for each surface

ed in the mission profile definition are the

ress gradient values at discrete time steps. 

s a number of enhancements, including PC

pability to execute the analysis code directly

nterface, and improved deterministic crack

ualization. A capability for modeling sur

e-dimensional finite element geometry is

ent for the 5.0 release.

FAA Unleaded Avgas Testing

For more than a decade the FAA has workedclosely with aircraft manufacturers, enginemanufacturers, petroleum producers, otherregulatory agencies, and that Aircraft Ownerand Pilot Association to facilitate the development of a safe, alternative unleaded fuel. Traditionally, engines and airframes havebeen certified on leaded fuels that meet theAmerican Society for Testing and MaterialsStandard Specification D-910. Since theoctane requirement for unleaded fuels has notyet been established, FAA researchers are

evaluating the performance of unleaded fuels in aircraft piston engines. In 2003, the FAA, under a cooperative research and development agreementwith the ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company, performed a fullscale engine test on three candidate fuels supplied by Exxon Mobile and BASF.Researchers tested a continental IO 550D, 6-cylinder, naturally aspirated 300horsepower engine for 150 hours under severe and controlled conditions toinvestigate issues of wear, performance, materials compatibility, deposit formation, startability, hot fuel operation, and a host of other issues. The FAA alsoknock-tested one prototype fuel in a Lycoming IO 540K, 6-cylinder, naturallyaspirated, 300 horsepower engine for comparison to the knock behavior of a100LL fuel in the same engine.The results of these full-scale engine tests are very promising. ExxonMobil isconsidering taking the next steps necessary to validate the performance of itsunleaded gasoline through engine certification and flight testing with a fleet ofgeneral aviation aircraft.

Photos This Page: 

Modeling surface damage based on three-dimensional finite element geometry

Photo Top Right:

Plane landing
Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 19

program, the FAA is conducting an ambitious

gram in conjunction with the Cargo Airlines

e Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association

l enhancements areas selected by RTCA, are

alidated, in real-world environments, to under

dvanced surveillance systems and air traffic pro

 is providing the Federal Aviation

 industry with valuable information needed to

lementing applications that have potential for

cy, and capacity benefits. The enabling tech

 automatic dependent surveillance broadcast

on services broadcast (TIS-B), flight informa

S-B) and surface moving maps are providing

fety and efficiency benefits in the National

t 21 program continued to operate test beds in

 KY and Fredrick, MD. 

affic Information (CDTI) Enhanced Flight

was simulated to evaluate the concept using the

rnational Airport, KY (SDF) air traffic control

meteorological conditions and to evaluate pilot

ors and procedural issues.

fication (STC) for enhanced situational aware

767 aircraft was approved. Based on approval,

raft with ADS-B avionics. This was a major

uisville airport ADS-B test bed that will now

frastructure, automation systems and aircraft. A

cs suites are being installed.

made in the ADS-B standards development

proval of the 1090 MHz ADS-B Minimum

tandard (MOPS), Rev A, and the Traffic

dcast (TIS-B) Minimum Aviation System

MASPS). The 1090 MHz ADS-B MOPS, Rev A,

certification for 1090 MHz ADS-B avionics and

shes standards for use in ADS-B airborne applications in a mixed equipage environment. Human factors evalua- tion and automation sys- tem upgrades continued for ADS-B integration with the Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System (STARS) and Common Automated Radar Terminal System (ARTS) automation sys- tems. A demonstration was conducted in Memphis, TN to assess ADS-B/STARS integra- tion efforts and the application for Final Monitor Aid (FMA). To support surface safety applications, digital surface maps for over 80 airports with the greatest risk of runway incursions have been produced along with maintenance procedure assessments. Evaluation of the various platforms used to display the moving maps are underway and depending on the capability desired, aircraft and vehicle display platforms might range from permanent, certified displays to portable displays, such as Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs) or handheld Global Positioning Systems (GPS) units. These platforms will require varying degrees of certification before they are implemented in the NAS. Agreements were reached with Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University (ERAU) for the Prescott, AZ and Daytona Beach, FL campuses and the North Carolina State Department of Transportation, Division of Aviation to implement ADS-B service pockets to enable general aviation broadcast service (traffic/weather) and flight following applications.
The Capstone program is a joint FAA and industry effort to reduce the

high rate of aviation accidents in Alaska by implementing new communications, navigation, and surveillance technologies. The program’s primary focus is to improve aviation safety through the introduction of technology to improve the pilot’s situational awarenessabout traffic, terrain, and weather. Based on successes in the Bethel, Alaska area, the next phase of theprogram, initiated in the Juneau area, is enhancing avionics by addingadvanced, real time, three-dimensional terrain and a vector-basedmoving map integrated into the primary flight display. During FY2003, the FAA selected vendors to produce enhanced avionics thatinclude displays featuring instrument flight rules (IFR) and 3-D multifunction displays. The FAA approved a Technical Standards Order(TSO) for the Universal Access Transceiver-Automatic DependentSurveillance Broadcast (UAT-ADS-B).The FAA Administrator also approved Special Federal AviationRegulation (SFAR) 97. This special “Alaska” rule authorizes properlytrained pilots, using TSO C145/C146 Global Positioning System(GPS) and Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) navigation systems to fly air traffic routes at lower than usual altitudes using onlyspecified GPS/WAAS avionics for navigation. Initial application ofSFAR 97 in Southeast Alaska has created 41,000 feet of usable airspace spread over 1,521 nautical miles of existing routes.

Capstone

Photo This Page: 

Capstone Avionics
Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 21

y, and adapts to changes in aircraft behavior

or structural damage. 

at Wichita State University and the

o develop a generic computer-aided flight

an provide simplified controls with

 number of general aviation aircraft types. 

tigated automatic flight control systems to

esigning a system with inherent capability to

m failure conditions and abrupt changes in

cteristics. A preliminary concept was devel

were obtained. 

ol Systems

Supercooled water droplets canexist as liquid below 0 degreesCelsius, but turn to ice as thetemperature rises. FAA regulations currently include recommendations on the size and location of ice protection systems onaircraft; however, to date, thesestandards do not take intoaccount the development ofsupercooled large droplet icingconditions. Using the GlennResearch Center Icing ResearchTunnel, researchers from WichitaState University, funded through an FAA grant, obtained experimentaldata to develop and validate droplet trajectory and impingement computer software programs. Researchers used a dye tracer technique that had been used in the pastfor measuring local impingement efficiency on aircraft aerodynamicsurfaces. The researchers injected water containing a small amountof water-soluble dye in the form of droplets into the air stream bymeans of spray nozzles. They covered the surface of the body withblotter material to absorb the dyed water and indicate the amount ofimpingement. At the point of impact and droplet absorption, a permanent dye deposit (dye trace) was obtained. They conducted droplet trajectory and impingement computationswith the computer program LEWICE (LEWis ICE accretion program). A comparison of the experimental data to the computer resultsindicate that this program over predicts droplet impingement conditions, especially in the tails of the impingement distribution. Thissuggests that modifications to LEWICE, and probably other such programs, will be necessary if they are to be sufficiently accurate to usefor design and certification purposes.

Experimental Study of Supercooled Large DropletImpingement on Aircraft Surfaces

ces super cooled water droplets
Photos This Page: 

Top Left, Downlinking of Icing Data

Top Right, View of Aircraft Icing

Photos Opposite Page:

Top Left, Airport Pavement Test

Top Right, Runway Status Lights

Bottom Right, Turkey hit aircraft

An ice detector warnsthe pilot when the aircraft encounters icingconditions. If information concerning an icingencounter on one aircraft could be providedin near real time toweather forecasters andto other aircraft, thepilots of other aircraftmight be able to avoidpotentially hazardousicing conditions. Also,archived data from icing

n the evaluation and the modification of cur

 

 with Goodrich Aerospace, is evaluating the

cing data from ice detectors mounted on com

stations. Delta Airlines agreed to participate in

and is currently downlinking icing data from

ire fleet of Boeing 777 aircraft. The demon

ng the 2002-2003 winter icing season and will

od. The resulting data is being provided to the

pheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, for use

ncement of icing forecasting models. 

of providing such information in near real

also be assessed. Research results look prom

currently assessing the technical and economic

icing data from commercial aircraft.

arriers, which spend quite a bit of time in icing

cularly valuable. In addition, broad participa

rs would lead to the improvement of icing fore

 and improvement of icing information avail

ata from Commercial Aircraft

Most atmospheric aircrafticing is a result of supercooled liquid droplets freezingon aircraft surfaces. Manyclouds, however, contain bothsuper cooled droplets and iceparticles. The NationalTransportation Safety Boardhas recommended that FAAexamine whether or not aircraft icing certificationrequirements should beexpanded to include mixedphase icing conditions. Sincethere is only limited scientificinformation available onmixed phase icing conditions,FAA researchers are undertaking the necessary work to assess if certification requirements should

be changed. In recent tests using a wing section equipped with a thermal ice protection system, FAA researchers, in collaboration with Wichita StateUniversity, Cox & Company, and NASA Glenn Research Center scientists, found that in mixed-phase icing conditions, super cooled waterdroplets present in the mixed-phase cloud cause ice accretion. Forglaze ice, which occurs at temperatures close to 32 degrees fahrenheit,the ice particles in the mixed-phase clouds actually reduce the overallsize of the ice accretion. This may be due to shedding or splashing ofwater from a surface water film resulting from ice particles bouncingin the film, and less likely to erosion of accreted ice by the incomingparticles.

Effects of Mixed-Phase Icing Conditions on Aircraft Surfacesand Aircraft Thermal Ice Protection Systems
Aircraft and Airport Safety Research 23

FAA researchers explore and evaluatecurrent and emerging technologies forpotential application toward increasingrunway safety in the National AirspaceSystem. Runway status lights, groundmarker beacons, enhanced lighting configurations, ultra violet sensors, andaddressable boards are some of the FY2003 technology evaluation efforts. The technical and operational suitability

of a runway status lights (RWSL) system is being evaluated at Dallas- Ft.Worth (DFW) International Airport. The RWSL concept provides a surveillance-driven automated system of in-pavement lights to provide pilots and vehicle operators a real-time visual indication that it is unsafe to enter a runway.FY 2003 efforts focused on developing, optimizing, and installing the RWSLsafety software at DFW for shadow operations evaluation by facility air trafficpersonnel. Successful completion of shadow operations at DFW will lead tothe installation and integration of the RWSL airfield lighting for a full systemoperational evaluation during FY 2004. 

port Surface Markings Runway Status Lights

Paint markings on runways,taxiways, and ramps play animportant role in preventingrunway incursions. The visibility of paint markings, however,deteriorates over time and paintmust be replaced. The FAA isdeveloping methods and equipment to help determine theeffectiveness of airport surfacemarkings, and to establish stan

 to reapply or restore airport surface markings.

ermined by visual inspections of segments of

lidity of these inspections cannot always be

eveloped a method for using three measure

 accurate evaluation of paint markings. This

 subjectivity in the current assessment method.

flectometer to determine the retroreflectivity

tometer to determine whether or not the paint

transparent grid to determine paint coverage.

ests failed, the pavement marking failed.

ated an automated method to evaluate larger

van-mounted Laserlux or similar mobile unit to

 size. This technique works well for large air

unway centerlines and threshold markings.

reshold pass/fail limit for white and yellow

threshold limit for yellow paint is 70

aint 100 mcd/m2/lx. The coverage threshold

ed in Development of Methods for

ment Marking Effectiveness DOT/FAA/

port please visit, http://research.faa.gov/

Y2003/DOTFAAARTNo322.pdf.

The presence of wildlife on and near airports createsa very serious hazard to operating aircraft. In 2003,over 6,000 bird strikes were reported to the FAANational Wildlife Strike Database. Some of thesewere quite severe and resulted in a few fatalities.Over the last few years, the FAA has undertaken acomprehensive research program to mitigate bird

strikes at and near airports. In 2003, the FAA continued the development and preliminary testing of a prototype radar to detect dangerous birds. Performance testingof the radar are planned for Fall of 2003 and Spring of 2004 and will take place attwo major commercial airportsWildlife Mitigation

Aviation Weather Research 25

The Aviation Weather Research Programfocuses on applied research to provideweather observations, warnings, andforecasts that are more accurate, accessible, and efficient than existing services.Resulting upgrades enhance flight safety,reduce air traffic controller and pilotworkload, improve flight planning,increase productivity, and enhance situational awareness. Our weather researchefforts are also providing critical efficiency and capacity benefits.

Commercial and general aviation aircraft continue to encounter unexpected turbulence that ranges in intensity from crew and passenger

discomfort to hazardous conditions that threaten the aircraft, passengers and crew. Atmospheric turbulence is a significant safety issue.In FY 2003, the FAA's Aviation Weather Research Program respondedto the need for more accurate turbulence forecasts by completing theinitial development of the Graphical Turbulence Guidance product andtransitioning it to the National Weather Service for operational implementation. The Graphical Turbulence Guidance (GTG) Product automaticallyprovides a graphical depiction of turbulence intensity at 0, 3, 6, 9, and12 hours and provides forecasts for 20,000 feet and above for clear airturbulence. Current research is focused on enhancing this product toprovide forecasts for all sources of turbulence at all levels of theatmosphere.Meteorologists at the National Weather Service's Aviation WeatherCenter in Kansas City and other forecasters are the primary users ofthis product. The GTG is available via the Aviation Digital DataService (ADDS) web site at: http://adds.aviationweather.gov.

Aviation Weather Research 27

Atmospheric Turbulence Product Helps Smooth a BumpyRide

g the

ence

-friendly forecasts of icing, turbulence, thun

required to support safe and efficient flight

ty of weather data on the Internet has made

weather information from sophisticated

available to users. 

iation Digital Data Service (ADDS) became

y the FAA's Aviation Weather Research

bles a wide variety of users, such as private

line dispatchers, flight planning systems,

asily access critically needed weather infor

mats: (graphical, text, and gridded) includ

rbulence, convection and icing. 

vice's Aviation Weather Center in Kansas

nd maintains the Aviation Digital Data

rrent and forecast information on key weath

needs of airlines, aviation product vendors,

Aviation Digital Data Service enhances avia

lays. Its access via the internet has ensured

ailable to users quickly, and in a cost-effec

 be obtained through the web site at:

r.gov. 

ervice

Aviation Weather Research 29

-engine Cessnas to those flying jumbo jets for the

e most feared and respected weather hazards among

 airline passenger who has experienced long delays

craft to be deiced knows that airlines take the deic

 at the expense of late takeoffs and revised sched

ce on a wing surface can increase drag and reduce

 This type of ice accumulation was a cause or fac

aft takeoff accidents between 1978 and 1997. The

esearch Program, in an effort to fully understand

rting ground deicing research in 1991. The

opment of an integrated display system that depicts

inations of snowfall rate, temperature, humidity,

called the Weather Support to Deicing Decision

m. WSDDM is a system that directly enhances avi

 by providing deicing decision makers and airport

plowing crews with up-to-the-minute information on potentially hazardousfreezing precipitation. The sources of weather data used by WSDDM include Doppler radars, surface weather stations, and snow gauges located near the airport, which accurately measure the amount of water in the snow. This system, which is sponsored by the FAA, has been used at the three major New York airports and atDenver International Airport. An independent assessment estimated theannual benefit of an operational WSDDM system at the New York airports tobe $12.7M. In FY 2003, enhancements to WSDDM included a "Hotplate" snow gaugeand the implementation of wireless communications to provide weather datato users. The advantages of the Hotplate snow gauge include: lower cost;smaller footprint; and reduced maintenance requirements. The combinationof the Hotplate snow gauge and the modern communications suite hasreduced the cost of the system and increased its reliability. 

aft Ground Deicing Decisions

n

pment of the Current Icing Potential prod

t for avoiding in-flight icing. This product

s and plots, updated hourly, to identify areas

n the continental United States.

A, researchers at the National Center for

veloped new methods and software for

cing potential in the atmosphere. They then

produce the Current Icing Potential product. 

vice operates the product from the Aviation

 City, Missouri. This product will most ben

other propeller-driven aircraft. Smaller air

to icing hazards because they cruise at

 

cing Potential - Alaska product became a

mental product. The software graphically

er-selected flight levels in Alaska. 

Aviation Weather Research 31

New Product Predicts Icing

Predicting in-flight icing justgot a little easier thanks to aproduct developed by theFAA. Using the web-basedForecast Icing Potential product, aviation meteorologistsand airline dispatchers canwarn pilots about icing hazards up to 12 hours in the future. With information provided by this

automated product, pilots flying aircraft under 18,000 feet, can makecritical flight decisions.Those aircraft may not have sophisticated wing-deicing equipmentused by larger commercial aircraft. The Forecast Icing Potential product helps determine safe routes for travel. It provides a high-techcolor weather map and/or a flight route display of icing potential atflight levels from 3,000 to 18,000 feet. The user can select forecasttimes from three-, six-, nine-, and twelve-hour intervals.The Forecast Icing Potential Product, developed by the NationalCenter for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, for the FAA'sAviation Weather Research Program, joins the growing FAA-developed suite of weather products, such as the Current Icing Potentialproduct. This product becomes operational in FY 2004. The NationalWeather Service operates these products for the FAA. They are publicly available on-line http://adds.aviationweather.gov.

Airports often experience takeoff and

landing delaysbecause of their geographic location. Forexample, SanFranciscoInternational Airport(SFO) is unable touse independent parallel approaches to itsclosely-spaced parallel runways when

marine stratus is present in the approach zone. The inability to accurately forecast the onset and dissipation of stratus in the approachpaths results in delays, airborne holding and diversions, and loss ofcapacity. The Aviation Weather Research Program developed a 1-6 hour forecast for the time when the marine stratus will dissipate at SanFrancisco International Airport. This enables air traffic controllers toallow resumption of simultaneous parallel approaches. During thesummer of FY 2003, researchers conducted a successful evaluation ofthis product as a precursor to the transfer of this technology to theNational Weather Service for operational implementation in FY 2004.

Aviation Weather Research 33

San Francisco Marine Stratus

ast (2-hour)

Weather Forecast

e National Convective Weather Forecast 2-

This product automatically provides current

hour extrapolation forecasts of thunderstorm

oduct is an upgrade to the 1-hour forecast

he web-based product, developed by scien

r for Atmospheric Research, with funding

eather Research Program, provides graphical

 current detection and forecast locations of

ally and regionally. 

 human factors demonstration of the

ther Forecast, which assessed its usability,

mputer interface aspects. Researchers also

 to the airline dispatcher community.

ted in the study provided data via the use of

gs, and individual structured interviews.

The FAA strives to provide an aerospace transportation system that

meets the needs of the users and isefficient in the applications of FAAand aerospace initiatives. To accomplish this goal, FAAresearchers are continually developing technologies and procedures thatwill provide air traffic services to awider range of aircraft, apply satellite-based navigation and positioningtechnology, and increase system flexibility and adaptability.

System Efficiency Research 35

avement Test Facility

ew aircraft types, such as the Airbus A380

ed to have a major impact on the nation’s

hers at a unique test facility, the National

cility, are collecting full-scale traffic data

onditions. This facility, fully enclosed in a

y 100 feet wide, uses a test vehicle to simu

 75,000 pounds per wheel on two landing

at speeds of up to 15 mph, with lateral wan

matic operations. 

sed this facility to test four new asphalt

ructed on low-strength subgrade soil. They

vement structure in these items to provide a

nt fatigue lives for 4- and 6-wheel aircraft

trafficking to failure, researchers opened a

asure and observe the mode of failure. They

ee concrete pavement test items to be tested

sign standards, based on data from NAPTF

tial cost savings for airports by better pre

reducing costly premature failures. To date,

r 63 gigabytes of data at the NAPTF. This

e web at,

faa.gov/naptf/.

System Efficiency Research 37

ity

Advanced Pavement Design Software

In March 2003, the FAA released an upgrade to its LEDFAA (Layered ElasticDesign – FAA) airport pavement thickness design software. Among the significantimprovements, the new version adds the Airbus A380 and A340-500/600 aircraftfamilies to the design aircraft library. A change to all 32-bit programming improvesspeed and makes the software compatible with all current Windows® operating systems. The new software can be used to design airport pavements for traffic mixes

that include the new generation of super-heavy aircraft. LEDFAA version 1.3 canbe downloaded from the FAA’s web site athttp://www2.faa.gov/arp/engineering/software.cfm.
A ground marker

system is beingevaluated as analternative methodof improving pilotsituational awareness on the airportsurface. This system uses a lowpower 75 MHzradio to transmitlocation advisoriesto aircraft or vehicles equipped withan instrument land

eacon 75 MHz receiver. 

 in the taxiway sense the presence of an air

pecified zone and trigger the transmission of

voice message (for example – “Taxiway

. A dipole antenna – also embedded in the

dio-frequency source of the signal that is

raft within a specified coverage volume.

ers selected Buchanan Airfield in Concord,

ground marker system evaluation. The

nstalled at six locations on the airport sur

ion that began in October 2003.

m

Within the next few years, the AirbusA380 will begin flying into U.S. airports. This airplane, categorized as aDesign Group VI airplane, is thelargest commercial airplane expectedto serve the United States. The FAArecommends that the straight sectionof the taxiway be at least 100 feetwide to accommodate this type of aircraft. However, most airports currently have 75-foot wide taxiways, whichmeets current requirements.In an effort to mitigate the potential

impact of this large aircraft, FAA researchers are conducting field data collectionefforts focused on the width of taxiway straight sections. During this multi-yeareffort, researchers are measuring the extent to which Boeing 747 aircraft laterallydeviate from the taxiway centerline of 75-foot taxiways to determine the possibility of reducing the 100-foot taxiway width standard for all airplanes. Data isbeing collected at New York’s John F. Kennedy International Airport andAnchorage, Alaska’s Ted Stevens International Airport. Based on preliminaryanalysis of the data, in August 2003, the FAA issued Engineering Brief No. 63(http://www1.faa.gov/arp/engineering/briefs/eb63.doc), allowing the A380 to usethe existing 75-foot wide taxiways on an interim basis. The introduction of the A380 is expected to have a similar impact on other designstandards in addition to taxiway widths, including separation of taxiway and taxilane from runways and clearances from fixed and movable objects. The FAA isconducting similar data collection efforts in the field to support the mitigation ofthese impacts.

Taxiway Deviation Study

Photo Top Left:

Airport Ground Marker System

Photo Top Right

Taxiway Deviation Study Testing Equipment
ns Navigation Surveillance System

role of satellite technology can play in pro

avigation, and surveillance to improve the

, and security of the National Airspace

h air- and ground-based personnel with

onal awareness of the entire flying environ

oeing’s Air Traffic Management business

gency to conduct several proof-of-concept

hnologies that could be used by the FAA to

 air transportation system. 

oeing’s Connexion 737-400 demonstration

 up- and down-linked weather awareness, an

system, ground display of aircraft flight data

onboard wireless local area network, and an

k.

developing the demonstration plan for the

This next phase of the program will evalu

etwork and common information network

s will include extensive studies, scenario

nd simulations, and an architecture review

System Efficiency Research 39
Photo This Page: 

Free Flight Technologies

URET=User Request Evaluation Tool

SMA=Surface Movement Advisor

CDM=Collaborative Decision Making

CTAS=Center Tracon Automation System

TMA=Traffic Management Advisor
roducing new tools, technologies and proce

viation community’s ability to share data and to

f flight - from planning and surface operations

yed systems are being integrated into the traf

perational procedures and training to minimize

atisfaction. In FY 2003, in collaboration with

nter for Advanced Aviation System

s researchers continued Free Flight research

fic flow management. 

tion and Ranking (PARR) tool, developed by

 Free Flight Phase 1 User Request Evaluation

RR Assisted Resolution Tool (ART), being

ht Phase 2, will provide the radar associate con

ols to support the development of strategic res

craft-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-airspace prob

A conducted controller-in-the-loop simulations

 the operational concept of use for ART. 

nagement Advisor-Multi-Center (TMA-MC)

ment coordinators in planning and managing

airspace, as well as into selected Terminal

CON) facilities that receive traffic from two or

enter metering will enable controllers and traf

erating within different centers to establish

ss center boundaries. Research focused on the

al of improving the arrival flows into

ort. During FY 2003, the FAA conducted

cipants from the New York, Cleveland, Boston,

he Philadelphia TRACON. These efforts pro

h an understanding of the multi-center collabo

rs successfully integrated the lessons learned

-MC Concept of Operations. TMA-MC opera

xt critical milestone and is currently scheduled

em (SMS) decision support tool is targeted to

controllers with enhanced surface management

with the collaborative decision-making infor

es should make terminal air traffic operations

2003, researchers completed demonstrations,

d field trials at the Memphis Tower, Memphis

wer. OEP's SMS operational field evaluation

milestone was met upon completion of the SMS operational trial inSeptember 2004. The results from the field trial were used to quantify SMSbenefits on surface flow management and tower operations. SMS was successfully transitioned from the Free Flight Program Office to the TerminalBusiness Unit for integration into ASDE-X.The En Route Descent Advisor (EDA) is an automated decision support toolintended for use by the en route controller to handle traffic in transition airspace. EDA builds on NASA Ames’ Center-TRACON Automation System(CTAS) to provide controllers with maneuver advisories to enable arrival aircraft to cross TRACON metering fixes in accordance with scheduled time-ofarrival and sequence constraints derived from CTAS, while guaranteeing separation assurance and maximizing fuel efficiency. In FY 2003, the FAA andNASA conducted initial operational demonstrations of EDA in the NASAAmes development laboratory to refine further the EDA operational concept.Direct-To is a decision support tool for the radar controller (R-side) that willprovide advisories for traffic conflicts and direct routes. It includes an interactive trial planning function that allows the controller to quickly visualize,evaluate and enter route and altitude changes. In FY 2003, the FAA andNASA further refined the FAA’s operational concept of use for Direct-To byconducting operational evaluations in the FAA’s Integration andInteroperability Facility. The Integrated Aircraft Data Collection and Reporting (iADCR) project is aprototyping effort to evaluate the benefits and advisability of collecting anddown linking operating data to a ground station for real-time or near real-timemonitoring and post-flight analysis. Technology assessments, feasibilitystudies, and a series of prototype systems led to refinements in the concept ofoperations. In FY 2003, the FAA demonstrated a prototype iADCR.Research on the Equitable Allocation of Limited Resources (EALR) focusedon the equitable distribution of resources, such as arrival slot assignmentsduring a ground delay program or flow constrained re-routes, to ensure noone customer is disproportionately impacted by these decisions. During FY03, a survey of the current and future ground delay program efforts were conducted. Researchers were able to identify metrics that could be used to assessequity. This work resulted in recommendations for the establishment of policies to govern the implementation of equity based rules into the acquisitiondevelopment process. EALR research will eventually be integrated into thefuture development of a system wide traffic flow management problem predictor and resource allocation capability. 

Flight Program

System Efficiency Research 41

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 43

ugmentation System (WAAS) researchers focused

ion of integrity solutions developed over the last

ation effort supported the final sell-off indicating

s were achieved.

m Stanford University, Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL),

Associates were working to improve on current lev

 by developing new and/or improved system algo

provide safe use of WAAS in areas where

vity (Mexico) is present. The FAA is supporting

S technology through research cooperation with

mentation Service (SBAS) providers.

The FAA research community is participating in the development of newminimum operations performance standards and recommended practices thatwill take full advantage of the new civil GPS signals (L5). This has includedprototyping and validating WAAS receivers and antennas that will supportreception of the GPS L5 signal. With the WAAS commissioned in the NAS, it becomes increasingly important that continuity performance is improved. FAA research efforts havebeen involved with assessing both system and environmental sources of errorwith the intention of developing the means to mitigate these error sources(signal interference, signal multipath, ionosphere), thus providing improvedoperational performance of WAAS. 

on-System

ap

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 45

Aviation safety improvements aredependent on developing a nationalaviation system that is not only technically sophisticated, but also humanperformance-based and human-centered.The FAA requires that human factorsbe systematically integrated at eachcritical step in the design, development, and testing of advanced technologies introduced into the NationalAirspace System. 

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 47

is and Classification System

fined the Human Factors Analysis and

ACS), a tool for investigating and analyzing

th aviation accidents and incidents.

 has shown that this system can be reliably

ying human factors causes of both commer

ccidents. Furthermore, these analyses have

nds in the types of human factors issues and

ontributed to civil aviation accidents. 

sed HFACS to determine the global human

 with aviation accidents. They developed:

f the different error forms, decisions, viola

eptual errors to determine the exact nature

e importance in the causal sequence of

dies using HFACS analysis, researchers

rs are consistently the most common error

on accident and in most cases is the precipi

Furthermore, when violations are associated

cident, they are more likely to result in a

thy that efforts to inform pilots of the haz

on and visual illusions appear to be success

 are the least common among all four cate

Assessment of Personal Computer Aviation Training Devices(PCATD) 

CurrentFAA policyallowspilots tocomplete10 hours ofinstrumenttrainingusing anapprovedpersonalcomputertrainingdevice.FAAresearchers are comparing the effectiveness of a Personal Computer AviationTraining Device (PCATD) against training and performance in an aircraft. InFY 2003, human factors specialists used an incremental transfer of trainingresearch design to measure the effectiveness of a Flight Training Device (FTD)and a PCATD to determine the point at which additional training in a FTD orPCATD was no longer effective. The collected data will enable certificationpersonnel to determine what credit to award for different classes of flight training devices within an instrument training curriculum. Preliminary results suggest that flight training devices and personal computer aviation training devicesare effective; however definitive statements cannot be made until the samplehas been completed.

gement Model

are investigating the relationships among

nal complexity, and crew performance in

The knowledge gained will help support

y identification of incident and accident pre

e consequential. Researchers are currently

nt and refinement of two data collection

tions Safety Audit (LOSA) and the Aviation

SAP). 

et of on-line tools to help carriers categorize

 reports. This set of tools enables pilots to

g threat and error management taxonomies

mmittee members in making data driven

m to assign risk level assessments and

to each event. Human factors specialists

ested the first set of threat and error man

ental Airlines. Based on initial findings,

user-friendly tools.

Platform Motion RequirementsFlight simulator qualification standards,which may soonbecome regulatory,need to be sufficientand effective, yetaffordable. Currentresearch is examiningthe requirement forplatform motion inthe context of continuing qualification ofairline pilots, whichcould greatly impactsimulator acquisitionand maintenance costs. In FY 2003, researchers from the Volpe NationalTransportation Systems Center worked with the FAA and NASA toreconfigure the FAA-NASA Boeing 747-400 Level D simulator to examine the effect of enhanced motion on pilot performance and behavior.They evaluated and trained 20 current airline pilots in the simulator withand without motion, calculated and analyzed pilot-vehicle performanceand pilot control inputs in all axes from simulator variables. The pilotsalso compared the simulator to the airplane or their company simulatoron extensive questionnaires, covering control feel, handling qualities,general cues, progress achieved, and acceptability. Researchers discovered many effects of roll, pitch, and bank motions thathave never been shown in an airline pilot context. Specifically, theyfound that enhanced hexapod platform motion does affect the accuracyof recurrent evaluation on continuing qualification of airline pilots, provided that it is configured for the specific tasks based on the guidelinesin the literature. The reaction-time advantage of the motion group duringevaluation and training for an engine failure with continued takeoff, forexample, confirmed that motion cues alert to disturbances faster thanvisual cues. This research is providing the scientific data necessary forthe FAA's effort to develop motion requirements that will allow costeffective equipment solutions for pilot continuing qualification.

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 49

 to Support Inspection Training in the

try

n and maintenance system is vital in provid

nuing safe, reliable air transportation sys

general as well as commercial aviation.

inate errors altogether, continuing emphasis

ping interventions to make the inspec

more reliable and error tolerant. Training is

ategy to improve the quality and reliability

reduce errors. 

nstrating how advanced technology and

tions can be used for inspection training and

within the general aviation industry. This is

 been made to extend computer-based tech

or performance and standardize the inspec

e general aviation environment. 

eveloped a tool that uses a multi-media pre

interaction opportunities between the user

y designed for training maintenance techni

his tool will systematize and standardize the

s in the general aviation industry. The litera

http://www.hf.faa.gov.

FAA Aircraft Certification Job Aid for Flight Deck Human FactorsAircraft certification requires judgments about whether new aircraft designs aresafe to fly in the global airspace by current and future pilots. Although experience has shown that design-induced human performance errors have contributed to many aviation incidents and accidents, there is a lack of guidancedescribing what human performance areas should be evaluated, and, until now,there have been only a few methods available to help certification personnelpredict the future occurrence of such errors based on analysis of the aircraftdesign. To aid certification experts and aircraft designers, FAA's human factorsspecialists developed a certification job aid for flight deck human factors. Thisdecision support tool is assisting certification and design personnel in identifying, assessing, and resolving potential design-induced human performanceerrors that could contribute to aviation incidents and accidents. In addition toenhancing the speed, accuracy, and repeatability with which certification engineers can access relevant regulatory and human factors information to maketheir decisions, this tool also helps designers identify possible design changesto alleviate human performance issues and will help researchers identify gapsin current human factors knowledge. In FY 2003, researchers incorporatedindustry standards into the tool. In the current version, the information in thedatabases is focused on flight deck displays and flight controls for transportcategory airplanes. 

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 51

ctronic information management devices used

ght tasks, present many human factors chal

d, prioritized, and recorded these challengesors and operators, to help designers and eval

ices. Because of its breadth and depth, the

search proved difficult to use, so researchers

sting a tool based on the report that can be

uctured assessments of electronic flight bag

pectors. 

an-factors experts evaluated Electronic Flight

h document. In a second test, researchers

ssessment tools, a checklist based on the full

h-level list of usability topics, to conduct

valuations. Initial tests of a prototype elec

assessment tool uncovered areas for improve

 more intuitive terminology. Once it is

be a useful aid, helping inspectors to conduct

 and predictable regulatory evaluations. For

l will allow them to anticipate and resolve

re going through a formal regulatory evalua

The Office ofRunwaySafety classifies the severity of runwayincursionsinto four categories: A, B,C, and D. An“A” represents an accident or anaccident thatwas narrowlyaverted. A“D” represents an incident that meets the definition of a runway incursion, but where no potential for collision existed. Currently, these categorizations are made by a group of subject matter experts. Researchersare developing a model that provides a more structured and objectivemethod for determining the severity rating. The DOT InspectorGeneral issued a report in 2003 assessing the runway incursion severityindex.Researchers detailed scenarios that could result in runway incursionsand their relevant factors (visibility, pilot response time, and aircraftperformance characteristics). They collected data on pilot responsetime and other factors relevant to runway incursions.Initial research is complete, and development of the model is nowunderway. Based on their scenario development work, researchersworked with the FAA’s Office of Runway Safety to review the needsfor the runway incursion severity model. At a preliminary meeting, theOffice of Runway Safety reviewed fundamentals of the presentedmodel and discussed the preliminary results of the analysis of severalincursions. 

A Model to Assess the Severity of Runway Incursions

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 53
Initially released in 1996, the Human

Factors Design Guide is a primaryhuman factors reference guide in theacquisition and development of systems for the FAA. Although used bythe FAA and its contractors, as well asother federal agencies and industry, theGuide needed to be updated to includenew research and procedures. In FY2003, the FAA released its new HumanFactors Design Standard. This comprehensive human factors referenceincorporates best practices and information from a broad range of humanfactors sources, including government,industry, and academia. The Standard

replaces and expands upon the Guide. It includes both air traffic andairway facilities systems, providing a common source of FAA-specificdesign requirements. The resulting set of standards can be tailored tomeet the needs of any system or program.With over 100 new rules and guidelines and a reorganization of material based on information from users, the Human Factors DesignStandard presents information in the form of "should" and "shall"statements. These statements can be easily converted into system-specific requirements documents or checklists. The Standard is now

available for download through the internet at (http://hf.tc.faa.gov/hfds/) or in CD ROM format.

oordination Lessons Learned in Operations The Human Factors Design Standard

Recently, the FAA consolidated its AirwaysFacilities communication and coordinationoperations such that they will now be performed in three newly created OperationsControl Centers (OCCs). While streamliningmuch of the duplicative work, anecdotalreports indicate that communication andcoordination within these centers needsimprovement. Through comparison withprior communication and coordination

d problematic issues with these newly formed centers to

t practices. This study compares and contrasts current

nation at the OCCs with studies from Maintenance

d prior to the OCCs and human factors best practices.

ee OCCs to collect observational data and conduct

 structured interview consisted of a series of statements

sked to indicate their level of agreement with a state

se in a range from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

r the specialist to provide comments or further explain

d interview also contained open-ended questions that

ddress issues not covered in earlier questions. 

 report written in September provided a quick look at

he site visits. Researchers found that OCCs did not

d they followed staffing levels and procedures outlined

nts. In addition, researchers found differences between

as as training, workload, communication between

perceived relationships with external customers, and

l roles and responsibilities. They also recommended

used to communicate information to the specialists,

m and the large screen displays. 

 in progress, researchers have already collected critical

sult in improved operations.

Photo Top Left: 

Depiction of Control Center

Photo Top Right:

Human Factors Design Guide
Optimizing Human Performance to Reduce Air Traffic Control

Operational Errors 

In April of 2003, the Department ofTransportation, Office of the Inspector Generalconducted an audit of the FAA’s air traffic controloperational error reduction plan and reported tothe FAA Administrator that while research in thisarea is resulting in the reduction of operationalerrors, more can and should be done. As a result,researchers developed and tested a new humanfactors technique, called JANUS, to identifycausal factors related to operational errors. Through a series of activities, researchers harmonized and tested two existing humanerror taxonomies (U.S. and EUROCONTROL) originally developed for retrospectiveanalysis of aviation accident/incident data. They compared the models’ similaritiesand differences and evaluated their strengths and weaknesses. As a result, they developed JANUS, a new incident investigation technique incorporating the best of bothmodels. Air traffic control subject matter experts in both Europe and the U.S. participated in testing the tool and adapting it to meet each user group’s distinct investigation needs. For the FAA model, specific to the U.S. air traffic environment, researchers conducted 215 interviews of 79 operational errors. Results showed that initial analysis ofboth objective data from interviews and subjective data from the feedback and expertforums support using this approach. Taken together, the EUROCONTROL and FAAresults provided converging evidence that the new technique appears to be more sensitive, useful, comprehensive, and practical than the current processes to identifyoperational error causal factors. Some scientific issues remain to be more fullyanswered through further research before operational implementation. These include(a) identifying improvements to increase agreement and reliability between users, (b)using this information to develop appropriate training for users, (c) refining the taxonomy, (d) further standardizing the methodology, (e) making design changes to thecomputer-based interface, (f) relating causal factors to objective temporal markers inincidents, and (g) linking outputs with ATC error mitigation strategies.Through work jointly conducted by EUROCONTROL and the FAA, researchersquickly developed and tested the FAA JANUS technique for operational error causalfactors identification. Crucial to the success of this project was the joint work andcollaborative participation of FAA air traffic control management and facility managers, controllers, and European incident investigators with researchers.

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 55

quest Evaluation Tool, Traffic Management

r Pilot Data Link Communication

 automation

fic control

Flight

eloped the

ool

ent Advisor

ot Data

one tools,

ogram's

nefits for

nologies.

ay result in

actors issues

alists. By

applying

researchers

ollocation

gineering research psychologists conducted a

ion study of collocating the three systems.

ET and six TMA qualified, from six air traf

ated in the two-week protocol. The

rimary areas: availability of the information;

oles and responsibilities; teamwork and com

d situational awareness; information interac

 other important interoperability issues that

ate that with moderate traffic, workload was

wever, the experimental design for colloca

 on the radar associate display caused exces

nhibited timely access to information. This

stematic human factors evaluation of collo

d identified issues about the collocated use of

ch would have not otherwise been identified.
derations in Future Oceanic Air

s Architectures 

As air traffic increasesthere is a greaterdemand for reducedseparation and moreefficient routing overthe ocean. Therefore,oceanic air traffic control systems andprocesses are quicklyevolving to meet theseobjectives with theintegration of newtechnologies, integrat

nd procedures. This new environment will

sks of the controller and the pilot. To pro

rt to modernization efforts, collaborative

undertaken by the FAA, Massachusetts

niversity of Iceland, and Iceland's Civil

w York and Reykjavik Centers, researchers

ues faced by air traffic controllers in the cur

trol system. Future research will further cat

sues so strategies can be formulated for the

 air traffic control system. 

Photo Top Left: 

Aircraft at Takeoff

Photo Top Right:

Weather Capabilities

Weather Information Needs in the TRACON Environment

In the National Airspace System(NAS), weather reportedly causesover 70% of all delays. For several years, researchers and airtraffic control personnel havedebated how to best use weatherrepresentations on operational airtraffic control displays to optimize traffic flow around andthrough weather. This researchprogram addresses controller

weather information needs to determine how the information should be usedand displayed. Researchers completed a literature review and task analysis designed to definethe information needs of terminal radar approach controllers, and studied howto best display that information as well as what procedures will be required tointegrate the new information into the air traffic controller workstations. Theresearchers are working to upgrade the FAA’s simulation platform to accommodate a future human-in-the-loop study. In addition, they are developing metricsto assess the benefits of the weather displays. The literature review revealed that very little research has been conducted onthe weather information needs of terminal radar approach control (TRACON)controllers or how the information should be displayed and used. Applicationof human factors principles suggests that the display of information shouldminimize the requirement for a controller’s mental integration and provide theuser with meaningful, effortless information pick-up comprehension.Researchers are now examining weather information needs, important issuesrelated to weather phenomena for pilots and controller operations, and currentdeficiencies in the display and dissemination of weather information to pilotsand controllers.A literature review leading to the derivation of human factors principles wasreviewed by a controller-pilot work group and submitted for publication by theAir Traffic Control Association.
Prevalence of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SSRIs)—fluoxetine (Prozac®), sertraline

(Zoloft®), paroxetine (Paxil®), and citalopram

(Celexa®)—are effective medications for the

treatment of depression. These drugs are prescribed because of low incidences of untowardadverse effects associated with their use, allowing SSRIs to remain in the top 200 most dispensed prescriptions in the United States. While some aviators need to use SSRIs, theUnited States aeromedical regulatory authorities have not approved these psychotropic medications for use. Since patients with depressionare frequently treated with multiple drugs, inhibition of the metabolism of these drugs bySSRIs can lead to drug-interactions, toxicity,and even death. Little is known about the postmortem aviation forensic toxicology of SSRIs. Findings on the prevalence of SSRIs in aviation accidentpilot fatalities with the concentrations of SSRIs in the associated postmortembiosamples will be useful in the investigations of SSRI-associated aviationaccidents. Such information will also be important to aeromedical regulatoryauthorities for making a possible future decision on the use of SSRIs by aviators.In FY 2003, researchers found that out of 4,184 fatal civil aviation accidentsfrom which the FAA’s Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI) received samples, there were 61 accidents in which pilot fatalities had SSRIs in their system.Of these accidents, 56 were of the general aviation category, two were of theair taxi and commuter category, two were of the agricultural category, and onewas of the ultra light category. In 39 of the 61 pilots, other drugs such as analgesics, antihistaminics, benzodiazepines, narcotic analgesics, and/or sympathomimetics, and/or ethanol were also present. As determined by the NationalTransportation Safety Board, the use of an SSRI [with or without other drug(s)and/or ethanol] was a contributory factor in at least nine of the 61 accidents.Numbers of SSRI-involved accidents were low, and blood SSRI concentrationsin the associated pilot fatalities ranged from subtherapeutic to toxic levels.However, the interactive effects of other drug(s), ethanol, and/or even altitudehypoxia in producing adverse effects in the fatal-pilots cannot be ruled out. 

am con

with the

e safety

icien

ds that

ety.

ts air

s air

vision

ted edu

s.

udied the vision requirements for persons

g aircraft to develop a uniform vision stan

n collaboration with the Ohio State

ometry and NASA Ames Research Center,

 visits to 9 aircraft maintenance facilities.

urvey phase of the Nondestructive

 Testing Vision Standards Study, developed

demographic profile of aircraft inspection

ision screen for the inspection workers

cts will include documentation of the rec

ds for aircraft maintenance personnel based

cific and demographic data collected during

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 57
The FAA’s

BiodynamicResearchers evaluate the injurypotential of newmaterials andstructures byusing advancedcomputational andimpact test techniques under simulated crash environments and support other FAAelements in conducting dynamictests. They aredeveloping new

equipment for evaluating injury potential

oducts to support FAA aircraft certification

ons.

itiated a program to develop improved/sim

t aircraft seat certification testing. As part of

ng program, the FAA funded the National

arch at Wichita State University to develop

ead-Impact-Criteria Component Tester, that

 and forces that result from occupant head

ture or seat. To support this effort,

ester to develop design enhancements and

of the device. They conducted a series of

ng the tester to full-scale impact sled tests

ummies. The test program identified a num

ts for the tester. Analysis of the data is

minary review indicates that the tester may

sting in some areas. This could significant

and time required by the manufacturing

seats, thereby streamlining the certification

h Toxicology Analysis

Specimens from fatal aviation accident victims are submitted to the

FAA’s Civil Aerospace MedicalInstitute for toxicological analysis.Until recently, toxicologists had difficulty determining if the ethanol present in the body was the result of alcoholic beverages (ethanol is the maincomponent of all alcoholic drinks), orthe result of normal postmortemethanol formation in the body as anatural fermentation process. FAA

researchers have now discovered the key to determining more accurately theorigin of ethanol and can now predict pre-death alcohol consumption.The consumption of alcoholic beverages alters the concentration of two majorserotonin metabolites, 5-hydroxytryptophol (5-HTOL) and 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA). While the 5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratio is normally very low,previous studies using live subjects have demonstrated that the urinary5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratio is significantly elevated for 11-19 hours after acutealcohol ingestion. The 5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratio is not affected by the postmortem microbial formation of ethanol or the consumption of serotonin richfoods. In FY 2003, researchers investigated the 5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratio as a potentialindicator of ethanol origin in postmortem urine specimens. They developedand subsequently validated a novel method for the simultaneous determinationof 5-HTOL and 5-HIAA in forensic urine specimens using a simple liquid/liquid extraction in combination with liquid chromatographic with mass detection(LC/MS) method. Using the LC/MS method, researchers examined the 5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratio in21 ethanol-negative and 23 true ethanol-positive postmortem urine specimens.They found that all ethanol-negative specimens had 5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratiossignificantly below 15 pmol/nmol, a previously established antemortem urinecutoff for recent ethanol ingestion. All ethanol-positive urine samples had5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratios above 15 pmol/nmol. The data obtained statisticallyvalidated the 15 pmol/nmol antemortem cutoff for use with postmortem urinespecimens. This method is currently being used to examine cases that containethanol from an unknown origin, but are suspected of containing ethanolformed postmortem.
Research

d bioinformatics for ensuring aerospace

 by the researchers are assisting the FAA, as

portation Safety Board, in post-crash acci

cing the FAA’s drug abatement objectives,

e base for various human conditions of par

tification. 

n collaboration with the University of Utah

r Human Toxicology, worked to define

at are indicative of alcohol induced function

hase of this project identified alcohol

cellular element for further investigations.

hysiological stress due to circadian desyn

tigue, since fatigue is an invariable conse

condition that leads to performance deficits

 from this study will provide insight for

r of accidents whether fatigue is the conse

shifts, working overtime, or other stress

g the molecular basis of fatigue is important

interventions to overcome the effects of

in its efforts to maintain safe and effective

One of the potential hazards ofair travel is accumulated exposure to ionizing radiation overthe course of a flying career.Damage from the radiation leadsto an increased risk of cancer inthe individual and an increasedrisk of genetic defects in future generations. Flight personnel are generallyunaware of these risks.In FY 2003, FAA’s Radiobiology Research Team, in collaboration with theSpace Environment Center of the National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA), developed a Solar Radiation Alert system to predictsolar radiation events. The Solar Radiation Alert system uses solar protonmeasurements, made by instruments aboard satellites, to estimate radiation levels at specified high-latitude locations at altitudes from 20,000 feet to 80,000feet in 10,000 feet intervals. If the radiation level at any of these altitudesequals or exceeds 20 microsieverts per hour, an alert is transmitted worldwideto subscribers of NOAA’s Weather Wire Service. The entire process, frommeasurements by satellite instruments to issuance of a Solar Radiation Alert (ifappropriate) takes 5-10 minutes. For air-carrier aircraft, the recommendedresponse to an alert is to minimize flight time at altitudes where the radiationlevel equals or exceeds 20 microsieverts per hour. A “recommended maximumflight altitude” in the alert message is the maximum altitude, at the specifiedhigh-latitude locations, where the radiation level is below 20 microsieverts perhour. To help frequent flyers determine their exposure to ionizing radiation,researchers developed computer programs to estimate radiation dosage onflights. These user-friendly programs are available free at,http://www.cami.jccbi.gov/radiation.html. The programs calculate the effectivedosage rate of galactic radiation received on an aircraft flying a great circleroute or on a user-defined route. In addition to these computer programs,researchers have developed educational materials for the flying public explaining the potential risks of frequently flying at high altitudes. In FY 2003, FAAresearchers wrote an informational brochure, What Aircrews Should KnowAbout Their Occupational Exposure to Ionizing Radiation(http://www.cami.jccbi.gov/AAM-600/Radiation/trainingquestions.htm) andpublished “Perspectives: Ionizing Radiation Safety” in Avionics Magazine. 

Radiation Exposure

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 59

ponent

em

monitor aircraft cabin safety problems and conduct

pertaining to the emergency evacuation of aircraft

tuations. In FY 2003, researchers obtained ques

ts participating in a study of emergency egress

exits to support a replication of a 1979 FAA study

ness. Analysis of the data will reveal the degree to

engers make themselves aware of the safety infor

commercial transport airplanes, revealing the extent

are in need of additional information and alternate

ation methods. The results will be presented ini

Scientific Meeting of the Aerospace Medical

or new transport category aircraft require manufac

can meet certification criteria for passengers evac

on criteria for ditching scenarios, in which passen

fe rafts or into the water, are not included in those

tification requirements for ditching have generally

 use of a flotation-time analysis for each new air

es in the proposed design and operation of new

nes, e.g., the Airbus 380, which will conduct many

tions, raises questions regarding some of the

n-time analyses. 

 ditching, the height above water level for emer

cted to range from just a few inches to about 6

feet. This may create significant deviations from the historically assumedpassenger flow rates into the water. During the fiscal year, researchers conducted a series of tests to evaluate water evacuation flow rates with test subjects entering the water from Type A (42” wide) and Type 1 (24” wide) exits.The tests evaluated exit heights of 6”, 2’, 4’ and 6’ above water level with thesubjects using 3 different types of flotation equipment (seat cushions, lifepreserver inflated prior to water entry and life preserver inflated after waterentry). Findings indicate that the exit flow rate decreased with higher overwater exit heights and that evacuation rates for subjects using seat cushionsfor flotation was slower than evacuations with subjects wearing life vests. FAA researchers also worked with NASA to undertake a live subject study todetermine the time required for an air crew to secure an aircraft cabin inpreparation for clear air turbulence. This NASA-led and funded experimentused the CAMI Boeing 747 Aircraft Environmental Research Facility as awide body test facility. The research team for the study consisted of personnel from six airlines, two flight attendant labor unions, NASA, and the FAA.CAMI provided subject, logistic, and data analysis support for the study. Thestudy placed subjects in test start positions that might be expected from threedifferent cabin scenarios (after movies, after snack service, and during fullmeal service) and evaluated the time required to secure the cabin using standard and expedited passenger handling/clean-up procedures. The experimentwas conducted in October, at the FAA’s Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center,Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Results indicate that subject seating times wereconsistent through out all trial conditions. 

Human Factors Research and Engineering & Aeromedical Research 61

Commercial Space Transportation Research 63

The Commercial SpaceTransportation Research programsupports the FAA mission to ensureprotection of the public health andsafety and the safety of property,during a commercial launch or re-entry activity. The program supports the protectionof national security and foreign policy interests and it encourages, facilitates, and promotes the U.S. commercial space transportation industry. 

mize the threat to public safety and property

ng launch vehicle. Non-traditional versions of

y autonomous systems and semi-autonomous

h pilots and/or ground controllers. Integrated

nt systems detect, report, and isolate malfunc

ems of a vehicle to ensure safety and mission

h of these safety systems may be crucial to the

 launch vehicle capable of maintaining a consis

riety of ranges and spaceports. 

ers completed a report on non-traditional flight

ted vehicle health management systems. The

and existing designs for these systems based on

al launch industry and government research

s and describes enabling technologies and veri

assist in their regulation. The results of this

ate the efficacy of a reusable launch vehicle

tem to provide an adequate level of safety to

blic from vehicle failures. 

d and are currently calibrating an acceptable

hicle’s breakup and survivability process. The

mate the risk posed by debris to the public, and

will allow the commercial space transportation industry to reduce risk tothe public during the launch and/or reentry of their licensed operations.The results of this research may be used to define space vehicle flight corridors that adequately protect the public from commercial space transportation operations. In addition, researchers completed a draft documentfor use by the FAA and industry to perform a first-hand estimation of theexpected casualty for a given mission. In early 2003, FAA’s Civil Aerospace Medical Institute worked with theNational Academy of Sciences National Research Council to establish apost-doctoral research associate program in support of FAA commercialspace research activities. FAA’s first post-doctoral scholar is studying the“Minimum Requirements for Environmental Control and Life SupportSystem (ECLSS) on Manned Commercial RLVs.” This research effortwill provide the FAA with critical information on the limits of reusablelaunch vehicle equipment to provide a proper environment that will ensurethe survivability of the flight crew as part of the flight safety system. The FAA also began a project to document the capabilities and limitationsof current and potential non-destructive evaluation methods used toinspect components beneath thermal protection systems of reusable launchvehicles. This effort will ensure that reusable launch vehicles are safe tore-fly by providing means to verify the integrity of the vehicle’s structure. 

Commercial Space Transportation Research 65

The FAA's Environment and Energy

Research Program develops superior decision support tools, and ensuresresponsive strategies that allow aviation to grow in an environmentallyresponsible manner.This program addresses public concerns about the environmental affectsof aircraft and airport operations.By targeting the adverse environmental by-products of aviation, primarilynoise and emissions, the Environmentand Energy Research Programenhances public mobility and ensuresthe continued growth of aviation. 

Environment & Energy Research 67

In FY 2003,

LouisvilleInternationalAirport hostedtests of aContinuousDescentApproach (CDA)flight procedure.CDA offers hopefor a reduction inaircraft noise forresidents living about 10–30 miles off the end of airport runways. The test, conducted by a team from the FAA, Boeing, the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, NASA, UPS, and the Regional Airport Authority,included eight fly-over noise measurements over a two-week period.During the tests, 14 highly sensitive NASA and Boeing microphones at sevenlocations in southern Indiana recorded two UPS 767s equipped with special onboard Flight Management Systems. One aircraft flew a standard approach,which involves flying closer to the ground for as many as 30 miles before landing, while the other flew a never-before tested flight pattern that requires theaircraft to stay at higher altitudes longer than is presently done when preparingfor landing. Previously, the procedure had been modeled on computer simulations only. Results show that the average noise reduction during the CDA procedure isbetween three and six decibels. A three-decibel difference is noticeably different to the average human ear, while a reduction of 10 decibels, for example,would be a 50 percent reduction in noise. Additionally, the CDA procedure ismore fuel-efficient. Now that the anticipated and significant reduction in noise has been demonstrated, the next step is for airports, airlines, and air traffic controllers nationwide to incorporate the procedure into practical applications and flight patterns.Implementing the procedure at Louisville International Airport could provide asignificant reduction in aircraft noise to residents living 10 to 30 miles off theends of the runways, such as Clark and Floyd counties in southern Indiana andBullitt County in Kentucky.

New Flight Procedures Reduce Aircraft Noise

SA signed a new memorandum of agree

ely on noise reduction technologies, with a

ng objectionable aircraft noise within airport

panded joint research efforts, focusing on

ologies to increase the confidence in project

e FAA- NASA “Quiet Aircraft Technology”

ngine systems noise reduction technologies,

duction concepts, and community noise

y efforts include demonstrating the noise

us fan blade and vane concepts and variable

ew liner materials and an active noise con

et noise through advanced chevrons, air

ry chevrons, active control technologies, and

ring high-lift systems and novel landing

epts. Community noise efforts include

proach profiles and ways to implement them

ent system using new and modified air traf

Some preliminary airframe systems compo

ductions from 5-10 decibels. Fabrication of

chnologies is underway and critical tests

.

ce Readiness 

chnologies

Environment & Energy Research 69

 6.1 of the Integrated Noise Model (INM) in

 engineering firms and government authori

ernational, use this computer tool to assess

rts. Agencies, companies, and institutions

 world have purchased over 700 copies of

purpose of evaluating aircraft noise expo

ng it the de facto world standard in noise

includes six new noise and performance

aboration with NASA and EUROCON

military aircraft, and new capabilities for

information systems. INM 6.1 includes up

n from the National Airspace System

ta System and contains an expanded set of

ensus data from the Department of

ments changes to noise propagation based

ernationally in support of updates to Society

best practice documents for noise modeling.

oping a new flight dynamics model for

edures and an internationally accepted heli

 has a track record of flexibility across a

s successfully being used as either a stand

a broader research planning system. The

ol that is succeeding in ensuring a desirable

and the local communities on a number of

 quality of the local environment, economic

 to transportation.

ted Noise Model (INM)

New Tool for Assessing Global Aircraft Emissions

In FY 2003, the FAA, incollaboration with theVolpe NationalTransportation SystemsCenter, theMassachusetts Instituteof Technology, and theLogistics ManagementInstitute developed aunique capability to estimate aircraft emissions ranging from a single flight to regional and worldwidescales. While aircraft are not a primary source of emissions resulting from fossil fuel combustion, they are the only anthropogenic contributor to deposit pollutants in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. Aviation is a globalenterprise, and System for Assessing Aviation’s Global Emissions (SAGE)offers the unprecedented capability to vary base year inputs and operational,policy, and technology-related scenarios to assess aviation global emissions. SAGE is a computer tool to estimate and assess aircraft emissions on a technological, operational, and geographical basis, considering emissions levelsthrough all phases of flight. At the heart of the model are technical modules,including aircraft performance, aircraft movements, capacity and delay, forecasting, fuel burn, and emissions. One typical application allows users todevelop emissions inventories based upon fleet forecasts. However, the modelalso has the capability to estimate emissions, taking into account aircraft routing and flight trajectories, and outputting emissions levels by geographic location. The model, currently limited in use to research applications, signifies amajor achievement in capturing the logistical complexities of global aviationoperations. The FAA plans future enhancements of the model.

Environment & Energy Research 71

nternational Airport

nts

 are a growing concern for the FAA, airport

ies surrounding airports. In particular, there

e potential effects of hazardous air pollu

nvironmental Protection Agency, 14 of the

red hazardous are present in the exhaust of

 support equipment. 

 quality-monitoring studies have focused on

d airport operations, and their effect on local

Both proponents and opponents of airport

 and local environmental agencies, have

with conflicting or mixed results. 

r quality, the FAA reviewed publicly avail

mine the state of the science on assessing

om aircraft and airport-related activities and

port includes a bibliography of over 100

 readers in locating articles on specific top

ants. Ultimately, this review will assist the

delines and methodologies for assessing and

ollutants in a consistent and uniform man

tified significant knowledge gaps. Filling

w test data and information, the development

and the application of sound judgment.

mplex undertaking, the FAA is actively work

ntific, regulatory, and environmental com

rns posed by hazardous air pollutants.

py of the report, Selected Resource

Bibliography on the Topic of Hazardous Air

 Aircraft, Airports, and Aviation, please go

ions/airindex.htm. 

The FAA enhanced the Model for AssessingGlobal Exposure from Noise of TransportAirplanes (MAGENTA) to include satellitegeographic information system capability toidentify imagery derived land use classifications. This update provides an enhanced capability to assess the impact of development projects on numbers of people exposed to noise. Developed by the FAA and Wyle Laboratories,MAGENTA provides the capability for globalassessments of aircraft noise and the impact ofmitigation measures. The MAGENTA software and its database estimatesglobal noise exposure caused by civil aircraft operations. Computing noiseexposure contours around a large number of civil airports and counting thenumber of people residing within them. The model includes information onmore than 1,700 civil airports that handle jet traffic and offers a landmark capability to assess global benefits of noise mitigation policy options. Future plans include expanding MAGENTA’s capabilities to assess the effectiveness of land-use mitigation measures and incorporating the EnhancedTraffic Management System to provide more accurate modeling of airportflight operations. The FAA currently uses the Enhanced Traffic ManagementSystem to predict, on national and local scales, traffic surges, gaps, and volumebased on current and anticipated airborne aircraft. It captures every aircraftthat flies within coverage of the FAA’s radars, including unscheduled, cargo,military, charter, and scheduled flights.

Modeling System for Assessing Global Noise Exposure (MAGENTA)Updated

Environment & Energy Research 73

uipment

lassification