U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2006-1091

In cooperation with the Kentucky Department of Agriculture

Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended 

Sediment in the Karst Terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, 

Kentucky, 2004
Cover Photograph. Karst window at Big Spring, Kentucky. (Photograph by A.S. Crain, U.S. Geological 

Survey, October 2004). 
Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended 

Sediment in the Karst Terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, 

Kentucky, 2004

By Angela S. Crain

In cooperation with the Kentucky Department of Agriculture

Open-File Report 2006–1091

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Gale A. Norton, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

P. Patrick Leahy, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2006

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Suggested citation:

Crain, Angela S., 2006, Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended Sediment in the Karst Terrane of the 

Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006-1091, 15 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Description of the Karst Terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky ..............................................2

Streamflow.............................................................................................................................................2

Land Use.................................................................................................................................................2

Study Design and Methods..........................................................................................................................2

Sampling Methods................................................................................................................................5

Analytical Methods...............................................................................................................................5

Pesticide Results............................................................................................................................................6

Nutrient Results............................................................................................................................................11

Suspended Sediment Results....................................................................................................................11

Summary........................................................................................................................................................14

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................14

Figures

terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, study area ....................................................3

2. Map showing land cover in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 

study area, 2001 ............................................................................................................................4

3-6. Graphs showing:

3. Pesticides most frequently detected in all samples collected at seven sites in the karst 

terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004 ......................................................9

4. Concentrations of atrazine, metolachlor, and simazine at the seven sampling sites in 

the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, study area, 2004 ..............10

5. Concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate, total phosphorus, and orthophosphorus at the 

seven sampling sites in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, 

Kentucky, study area, 2004...............................................................................................12

6. Concentrations of suspended sediment at the seven sampling sites in the karst 

terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, study area, 2004 ...............................13

Tables

1. Surface- and ground-water sites sampled in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek 

Basin, Kentucky, 2004...................................................................................................................5

2. Statistical summary of the detected herbicides and insecticides in samples collected 

in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, April-November 2004, 

laboratory reporting limits, drinking-water standards, and aquatic-life criteria. ..............7

3. Statistical summary of concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment in the 

karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, April-November 2004. ......................8

1. Map showing the location of the surface- and ground-water sampling sites in the karst 
iv

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2)

acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2)

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2)

Mass

pound, avoirdupois (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or micrograms per liter (μg/L).

Abbreviations

DO – dissolved oxygen

EWI – equal width increment

GC/MS – gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

KWSC – Kentucky Water Science Center

mL – milliliter

MCL – maximum contaminant level

MDL – method detection limit

MRL – method reporting limit

NPS – nonpoint-source pollution

NWQL – National Water Quality Laboratory

μm – micrometer
Abstract

Water samples were collected in streams and springs in 

the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin in 2004 as part of 

study in cooperation with the Kentucky Department of Agriculture. A total of 48 water samples were collected at 7 sites 

(4 springs, 2 streams, and 1 karst window) from April through 

November 2004. The karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin 

(also known as Boiling Spring Basin) encompasses about 

125 square miles in Breckinridge County and portions of 

Meade and Hardin Counties in Kentucky. 

Fourteen pesticides were detected of the 52 pesticides 

analyzed in the stream and spring samples. Of the 14 detected 

pesticides, 12 were herbicides and 2 were insecticides. The 

most commonly detected pesticides—atrazine, simazine, 

metolachlor, and acetochlor—were those most heavily used on 

crops during the study. Atrazine was detected in 100 percent 

of all samples; simazine, metolachlor, and acetochlor were 

detected in more than 35 percent of all samples. The pesticidetransformation compound, deethylatrazine, was detected in 

98 percent of the samples. Only one nonagricultural herbicide, prometon, was detected in more than 30 percent of the 

samples. Malathion, the most commonly detected insecticide, 

was found in 4 percent of the samples, which was followed by 

carbofuran (2 percent). 

Most of the pesticides were present in low concentrations; however, atrazine was found in springs exceeding the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA) standards 

for drinking water. Atrazine exceeded the USEPA’s maximum 

contaminant level 2 times in 48 detections.

Concentrations of nitrate greater than 10 milligrams per 

liter (mg/L) were not found in water samples from any of the 

sites. Concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate ranged from 0.21 

to 3.9 mg/L at the seven sites. The median concentration of 

nitrite plus nitrate for all sites sampled was 1.5 mg/L. Concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate generally were higher in the 

springs than in the main stem of Sinking Creek.

Forty-two percent of the concentrations of total phosphorus at all seven sites exceeded the USEPA’s recommended 

maximum concentration of 0.1 mg/L. The median concentration of total phosphorus for all sites sampled was 0.09 mg/L. 

The highest median concentrations of total phosphorus were 

found in the springs. Median concentrations of orthophosphate 

followed the same pattern as concentrations of total phosphorus in the springs. Concentrations of orthophosphate ranged 

from <0.006 to 0.192 mg/L. 

Concentrations of suspended sediment generally were 

low throughout the basin; the median concentration of 

suspended sediment for all sites sampled was 23 mg/L. The 

highest concentration of suspended sediment (1,486 mg/L) 

was measured following a storm event at Sinking Creek near 

Lodiburg, Ky. 

Introduction

Nearly 1 billion pounds of pesticides are used annually in the United States (Barbash and Resek, 1997). About 

80 percent of pesticides are used for agricultural purposes, but 

pesticides also are used for industrial, commercial, and household purposes. Although the use of pesticides has resulted 

in increased crop production and other benefits, it has raised 

concerns about potential adverse effects on the environment 

and human health. Nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, occur naturally, but also are applied to land 

in the form of commercial fertilizers and manure to enhance 

the production of plant growth. Concentrations of suspended 

sediment are affected by natural conditions (soil erosion and 

streambed resuspension) and by human activities (construction, logging, and certain agricultural practices). Suspended 

sediment plays a major role in the transport and fate of 

contaminants because contaminants may sorb onto the surface 

of the suspended sediments and be transported and deposited 

into other areas downstream. Excess pesticides, nutrients, and 

suspended sediment in the environment can cause a variety of 

adverse ecological and human-health effects. 

Despite advances in our knowledge and understanding of 

the sources of agriculturally derived nonpoint-source polluConcentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended 

Sediment in the Karst Terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, 

Kentucky, 2004

By Angela S. Crain
tion (NPS) and the development of best-management practices 

intended to reduce NPS pollution, both surface and ground 

water continue to receive increased loadings of pesticides, 

nutrients, and sediment (Becher and others, 2000; Goolsby 

and Battaglin, 1997; and Schilling and Thompson, 2000). The 

effect on water quality by agricultural activities, habitat modification, and urbanization in areas of karst terrane are important considerations for resource management in Kentucky. 

Pesticides, nutrients, and sediment are frequently detected 

in shallow ground water and are a threat to contribute to the 

degradation of drinking water because of erosion and leaching. Resource managers often are faced with difficult decisions 

concerning development of land and the protection of ground 

water from these contaminants. Understanding the role of 

best-management practices in protecting shallow ground water 

from human-induced activities (construction, logging, and certain agricultural activities) is fundamental to developing and 

implementing sound land-use policies. This is the case faced 

by resource managers in the karst terrane area of the Sinking 

Creek Basin, as well as other karst regions of Kentucky. 

The purpose of this report is to describe the methods and 

procedures used during sample collection and analysis and 

present the concentrations of select pesticides, nutrients, and 

suspended sediment in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek 

Basin from the first of 3 years of sample collection. A final 

report presenting all 3 years of water-quality-data collection 

should be available in late 2007. Samples were collected from 

two Sinking Creek stream sites, four springs, and one karst 

window in the study area. 

Description of the Karst Terrane of the 

Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky

The karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin (also known 

as the Boiling Spring Basin) encompasses about 125 mi2

(fig. 1). Water quality throughout the basin is directly affected 

by natural (geology, climate, and soils) and human (population 

and land use) factors. The karst terrane of the Sinking Creek 

Basin has a high hydrogeologic sensitivity rating indicating 

it is highly vulnerable to effects from runoff because much of 

the area is underlain by karst. The hydrogeologic sensitivity 

rating of an area is defined as the potential ease and speed with 

which a contaminant can move into and within a ground-water 

system (Ray and others, 1994). Ground water from the subsurface channels comes out at several natural springs and karst 

windows and flows directly into Sinking Creek within the 

karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin. The Sinking Creek 

Basin is listed as a target priority watershed by the Kentucky 

Division of Water because of impairments to water resources 

in the basin. These impairments include siltation, nutrients, 

pathogens, organic enrichment (low dissolved oxygen (DO)), 

and habitat modifications. (Kentucky Division of Water, 

2005).

Streamflow

Overland flow (direct surface runoff) and ground-water 

discharge are the major sources of streamflow in the Sinking 

Creek Basin. Another source of flow to streams in the Sinking 

Creek Basin is interflow. Interflow is that part of the subsurface flow that moves at shallow depths and reaches the surface 

channels in a short period of time. During a storm, interflow 

slowly increases until the end of the storm, then gradually 

decreases (Viessman and others, 1989, p. 171). 

Mean annual precipitation for Irvington, Ky., is about 

45 in. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

1999). Spring and summer tend to receive the greatest monthly 

precipitation amounts, which are usually associated with 

thunderstorms. 

Land Use

Streams, sinkholes, and springs in the karst terrane of 

the Sinking Creek Basin drain a diverse landscape of forest, agricultural areas, and developed areas around Irvington. 

Agricultural land uses represent about 48 percent of the study 

area (fig. 2). Most of the agricultural land (37 percent) is 

pasture; the remaining 11 percent is used for corn, soybeans, 

wheat, hay, and tobacco production. Soybeans are the principal row crop harvested in the basin followed by corn. In 2003, 

about 53,500 acres of soybeans were harvested, and about 

45,300 acres of corn were harvested for seed, grain, silage, or 

sweet corn (Kentucky Agricultural Statistics Service, 2004). 

Forested land represents about 47 percent of the karst 

terrane in the Sinking Creek Basin; urban areas account for 

about 4 percent of the karst terrane in the basin. Irvington, 

with a population of approximately 1,300, is the most heavily 

populated community in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek 

Basin (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001).

Study Design and Methods

Sampling sites in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek 

Basin were selected to assess the spatial and seasonal variability of nutrients, pesticides, and suspended sediment in areas 

of mixed land use and different types of agricultural land. 

Samples were collected on two Sinking Creek main stem sites 

(Sinking Creek at Rosetta and Sinking Creek near Lodiburg); 

four springs (Big Spring, Flat Rock Spring, Fiddle Spring, and 

Boiling Spring); and one karst window (Ross Karst Window) 

(table 1). Water-quality and suspended-sediment samples were 

collected monthly from April through November 2004 at all 

sites. Water-quality and suspended-sediment samples also 

were collected at each of these sites during high-flow events 

on two occasions. A total of 48 samples were collected for 

nutrient, suspended sediment, and pesticide analysis at the 

sites. 

   Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended Sediment in the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004
#

#

0 5 10 Miles

0 6 12 Kilometers

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 2004, NAD83, Lambert Conformal Conic

EXPLANATION

#

Ground-water sampling site

Surface-water sampling site

Sinking Creek karst boundary

Sinking Creek Basin

Irvington

Big Spring

Hardinsburg

86° 32' 86° 2'

38° 8'

37° 40'

MEADE COUNTY

BRECKINRIDGE COUNTY

HARDIN COUNTY

MEADE COUNTY

BRECKINRIDGE COUNTY

HARDIN COUNTY

Sinking Creek

near Lodiburg

03303205

Boiling Spring

F14CS002

Ross Karst Window

F14DS003

Sinking Creek at Rosetta

03303195

Flat Rock

Spring

F14DS005

Fiddle Spring

F14DS007

Big Spring

F15CS004

Ohio River

S ni king Creek

Study area

Kentucky

Figure 1. Location of the surface- and ground-water sampling sites in the karst terrane of the Sinking 

Creek Basin, Kentucky, study area.

Study Design and Methods   
#

#

Irvington

Big Spring

Hardinsburg

86° 32' 86° 2'

38° 8'

37° 40'

MEADE COUNTY

BRECKINRIDGE COUNTY

HARDIN COUNTY

MEADE COUNTY

BRECKINRIDGE COUNTY

HARDIN COUNTY

Sinking Creek

near Lodiburg

03303205

Boiling Spring

F14CS002

Ross Karst Window

F14DS003

Sinking Creek at Rosetta

03303195 Flat Rock

Spring

F14DS005

Fiddle Spring

F14DS007

Big Spring

F15CS004

Ohio River

S ni king Creek

EXPLANATION

Land cover

Urban

Forest

Agriculture

Pasture

Cultivated

#

Ground-water sampling site

Surface-water sampling site

Sinking Creek karst boundary

Landcover source: Kentucky Land Cover Data Set 2001, Kentucky Commonwealth Office of Technology, February 9, 2005.

Sinking Creek Basin

0 5 10 Miles

0 6 12 Kilometers

Figure 2. Land cover in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, study area, 2001.

  Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended Sediment in the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004
Sampling Methods

Representative water-quality and suspended-sediment 

samples from the Sinking Creek at Rosetta and Sinking Creek 

near Lodiburg sites were collected by means of the equalwidth-increment (EWI) method, in which depth-integrated 

samples were collected at equal distances across the entire 

stream width and composited (Edwards and Glysson, 1998). 

Dip samples were collected from the springs for water-quality and suspended-sediment analyses. All sampling material 

was constructed of Teflon or fluorinated plastic to minimize 

contamination. Equipment used to collect and process nutrient 

and pesticide samples was precleaned with a 0.1-percent nonphosphate detergent, triple rinsed with tap water, acid rinsed 

with 5-percent hydrochloric acid for 30 minutes (nonmetal 

equipment only), triple rinsed with deionized water, rinsed 

with certified pesticide-free methanol, air dried, and stored in 

a dust-free environment prior to sample collection (Webb and 

others, 1999). 

Water samples for dissolved nutrients were filtered using 

a 0.45-micrometer (μm) pore-size filter that was pre-rinsed 

with deionized water and filtered native stream water and 

collected in the appropriate bottle types. Whole-water (unfiltered) nutrient samples were preserved using 1 milliliter (mL) 

of 4.5N sulfuric acid. Samples for pesticides were pumped 

through Teflon tubing and filtered through a 142-millimeter 

(mm) diameter, 0.7-μm pore size, borosilicate glass-fiber filter 

placed in a stainless-steel filter unit (Sandstrom, 1995). The 

filtered water was collected in amber-colored glass bottles and 

chilled for later analysis of pesticides. Both the glass-fiber filters and the glass bottles had been baked at 450°C in a muffle 

furnace for a minimum of 2 hours. All nutrient and pesticide 

samples were chilled and shipped on ice to the USGS National 

Water Quality Laboratory (NWQL) in Lakewood, Colorado, 

for analysis. Suspended-sediment samples were analyzed by 

the USGS Kentucky Water Science Center (KWSC) Sediment 

Laboratory in Louisville, Kentucky.

Field measurements of stream discharge, air temperature, 

barometric pressure, water temperature, specific conductance, 

pH, concentrations of DO, and turbidity were measured at the 

time of sampling. Alkalinity and bicarbonate were determined 

by titrating filtered sample water with 0.16N sulfuric acid 

using a digital titrator. Discharge was measured according to 

standard USGS guidelines as described by Rantz and others 

(1982). 

A continuously recording water-quality monitor with a 

15-minute-record interval was installed at the USGS streamflow-gaging station on Sinking Creek near Lodiburg (station 

number 03303205) on May 25, 2004. Water-quality properties 

measured with the monitor from May through November 2004 

included water temperature, specific conductance, pH, and 

DO. Measurements were transmitted every 4 hours via satellite to the USGS KWSC in Louisville, Kentucky, and were 

made available in near-real time on the World Wide Web at 

URL http//ky.water.usgs.gov/. The water-quality monitor was 

inspected onsite by USGS personnel approximately every 

3 to 4 weeks to maintain calibration. Guidelines and standard 

operating procedures for maintaining the site and reporting the 

data are described in Wagner and others (2000). 

Analytical Methods

The USGS NWQL analyzed the water-quality samples 

for nutrients and pesticides. Water-quality samples for dissolved (filtered) and suspended (unfiltered) species of nitrogen 

and phosphorus, listed in laboratory schedule 1682, were 

analyzed by colorimetric methods (Fishman, 1993; Patton and 

Truitt, 1992; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993). 

These analyses quantified sample concentrations of dissolved 

nitrite plus nitrate, dissolved ammonia (ammonia plus ammonium), dissolved orthophosphate, and total phosphorus. Concentrations of nutrients discussed in this report represent their 

concentrations expressed as either nitrogen or phosphorus. For 

Table 1. Surface- and ground-water sites sampled in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, 

Kentucky, 2004. 

[USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; DMS, degrees, minutes, seconds; mi2, square miles; GW, ground water; --, not 

available; Ky., Kentucky; SW, surface water]

USGS station

number USGS site name

Type

of

site

Latitude

(DMS)

Longitude

(DMS)

Drainage

area

(mi2)

374755086090401 Big Spring - F15CS004 GW 37°47’55” 86°09’04” --

374846086154101 Ross Karst Window - F14DS003 GW 37°48’46” 86°15’41” --

374813086171501 Flat Rock Spring - F14DS005 GW 37°48’13” 86°17’15” --

374847086172901 Fiddle Spring - F14DS007 GW 37°48’47” 86°17’29” --

375209086224001 Boiling Spring - F14CS002 GW 37°52’09” 86°22’40” --

03303195 Sinking Creek at Rosetta, Ky. SW 37°47’47” 86°16’25” 36

03303205 Sinking Creek near Lodiburg, Ky. SW 37°52’06” 86°23’16” 125

Study Design and Methods 
example, a concentration of nitrate expressed as 10 milligrams 

per liter (mg/L) refers to a concentration of nitrate of 10 mg/L 

as nitrogen. 

Pesticide samples (laboratory schedule 2001) were 

analyzed using capillary-column gas chromatography/mass 

spectrometry (GC/MS) with selected-ion monitoring (Zaugg 

and others, 1995). Concentrations of pesticides were reported 

by the NWQL with appropriate qualifiers to indicate analytical 

limitations. Analytical data from the NWQL were reported as 

“less than” when a pesticide was not detected or not present at 

the method detection limit (MDL). The MDL is defined as the 

minimum concentration of a substance that can be identified, 

measured, and reported with 99-percent confidence that the 

compound concentration is greater than zero (Wershaw and 

others, 1987). When the presence of a pesticide was detected 

and quantified in the sample, but the reported value was below 

the MDL, the concentration was identified as an estimated 

value and footnoted in tables 2 and 3.

The USGS KWSC in Louisville, Kentucky, analyzed the 

suspended-sediment samples by filtering samples through a 

pretared 0.45-μm membrane filter. The filtrate was rinsed with 

deionized water to remove salts, and the insoluble material and 

filter were dried at 103°C and weighed (Fishman and Friedman, 1989).

Pesticide Results

Detections and concentrations of pesticides in streams are 

affected by many factors, including the amount of pesticide 

used, the environmental persistence of the pesticide, and the 

analytical methods used. The most commonly detected pesticides (atrazine, simazine, and metolachlor) were among the 

most heavily applied in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek 

Basin. A total of approximately 48,500 lb of atrazine, 9,600 lb 

of metolachlor, and 9,500 lb of simazine were applied to corn 

in Breckinridge, Hardin, and Meade Counties based on estimated-use data from 2002 applications. These estimates were 

calculated from agricultural inputs obtained by multiplying the 

pesticide application rates, the percentage of crop receiving 

pesticide application, and the county-level, crop-acreage data 

from the 2002 Census of Agriculture (National Agricultural 

Statistics Service, 2003). Pesticide application rates and treatment percentages were obtained from a 2003-04 survey by 

the Kentucky Agricultural Statistics Service (2004). Pesticide 

detections occurred most frequently in the spring to early summer months (April-June) when agricultural pesticides typically are applied. A common method reporting limit (MRL) 

of 0.01 micrograms per liter (μg/L) was used to compare the 

detection frequencies of pesticides having different MRLs. 

The use of a common reporting limit allows the comparison 

among pesticide compounds by bringing the data to a common reference point. Of the 52 pesticides analyzed, 14 were 

detected above the adjusted MRL of 0.01 μg/L. Samples from 

all seven sites had detectable concentrations of at least one 

pesticide.

Herbicides were detected more frequently than insecticides. Eleven of the 14 pesticides detected in water were 

herbicides. The commonly applied herbicides—atrazine, 

simazine, metolachlor, acetochlor, and prometon—were found 

throughout the basin. Atrazine, one of the most commonly 

used herbicides in Sinking Creek for row-crop agriculture, 

was detected in all samples (fig. 3). Almost 88 percent of the 

atrazine samples were in the 0.1 to 1.0 μg/L range. The pesticide-transformation compound, deethylatrazine, was detected 

in 98 percent of the samples. Pesticide-transformation compounds are more water soluble than their parent compounds. 

For example, Mills and Thurman (1994) found that one of the 

transformation compounds of the parent compound atrazine—deethylatrazine—sorbs less strongly to soils than does 

its parent compound. The toxicity of pesticide-transformation compounds is unknown (U.S. Geological Survey, 1999). 

Simazine, metolachlor, and acetochlor were detected in more 

than 35 percent of the samples. Atrazine and simazine (rowcrop herbicides) had the highest detected concentrations in the 

basin at 4.92 and 2.28 μg/L, respectively (table 2 and fig. 4). 

The highest concentrations of pesticides occurred in the spring 

during storm runoff. Less frequently detected herbicides were 

alachlor, metribuzin, napropamide, pendimethalin, propachlor, 

and propanil. 

The insecticides carbofuran and malathion were the only 

insecticides detected at any of the sites; they were detected 

infrequently. Malathion was detected in 4 percent of the 

samples and was detected most frequently in August; the 

maximum concentration was 0.21 μg/L. Malathion is used in 

agriculture, residential gardens, and in public-health pestcontrol programs to control mosquito populations. Carbofuran was detected in only one sample in May. The lower use 

relative to herbicides and the application during periods of 

reduced runoff probably account for lower detection rates and 

low concentrations of insecticides in the basin. 

Concentrations of most of the pesticides analyzed were 

less than detection limits (table 2). Median concentrations of 

the most frequently detected pesticides (acetochlor, atrazine, 

metolachlor, prometon, and simazine) ranged from 0.008 μg/L 

for acetochlor to 0.114 μg/L for atrazine for all samples collected during this study (table 2). The median concentrations 

of the two insecticides detected were less than their detection 

limits. 

   Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended Sediment in the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004
Table 2. Statistical summary of the detected herbicides and insecticides in samples collected in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, April-November 

2004, laboratory reporting limits, drinking-water standards, and aquatic-life criteria.[Concentrations in micrograms per liter (μg/L); MCL. maximum contaminant level; HA, health advisory; --, no regulation or guideline; CIAT, 2-chloro-4-isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine; LD, less than laboratory reporting level; drinking water standards from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2004b), unless otherwise noted]

Compound Trade name(s)

Method

detection

limit

(μg/L)

Median

concentration

of all

samples

(μg/L)

90th

percentile

of all

samples

Maximum 

concentration

detected

(μg/L)

Site of

maximum

concentration

Drinking

water

standard or

guideline

(MCL or

HA)

(μg/L)

Aquatic

Life

Criterion

(μg/L)

Herbicides

Acetochlor Harness 0.003 0.008 0.085 0.227 Sinking Creek near Lodiburg -- --Alachlor Lasso .002 .005 .010 .186 Big Spring 2 --Atrazine Aatrex .004 .114 1.639 4.920 Big Spring 3 11.8CIAT Degradate of atrazine .003 .075 .196 .342 Flat Rock Spring -- --

DCPA Dacthal .002 LD LD 3.003 Fiddle Spring 270 --Metoalchlor Dual .006 LD .108 .736 Big Spring 2100 17.8

Metribuzin Lexone, Sencor .003 LD .020 .089 Bid Spring 2200 1

1

Napropamide Devrinol .003 LD LD .013 Sinking Creek near Lodiburg -- --

Pendimethalin Prowl, Tillam .011 LD LD .028 Flat Rock Spring -- --

Prometon Pramitol .007 LD LD .020 Sinking Creek at Rosetta; 

Sinking Creek near Lodiburg

2100 --

Propachlor Ramrod .005 LD LD 3.021 Boiling Spring 290 --

Propanil Stampede .005 LD LD .011 Ross Karst Window -- --Simazine Princep, Aquazine .002 .013 .251 2.28 Flat Rock Spring 4 --

Trifluralin Teflan and others .005 LD LD 3.005 Sinking Creek near Lodiburg 35 --

Insecticides

Carbofuran Furadan .010 LD LD 3.015 Ross Karst Window 40 11.8Malathion Malathion and others .014 LD LD .211 Ross Karst Window 2100 .1

1Canadian water-quality guidelines for the protection of freshwater aquatic life (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2003).2U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lifetime-health advisory for a 155-pound adult (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2004a).3Estimated value. 

Pesticide Results 
Table 3. Statistical summary of concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment in the 

karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, April–November 2004.

[<, less than]

Constituent

Number

of

samples

Concentration, in milligrams per liter

Minimum Median Maximum

Big Spring – F15CS004

Ammonia, as nitrogen 7 <0.04 <0.04 0.14

Nitrite plus nitrate, as nitrogen 7 1.2 2.0 3.9

Total phosphorus, as phosphorus 6 .04 .09 .34

Orthophosphate, as phosphorus 7 .03 .04 .15

Suspended sediment 7 1 7 153

Ross Karst Window – F14DS003

Ammonia, as nitrogen 6 <.04 <.04 <.04

Nitrite plus nitrate, as nitrogen 6 .42 1.5 2.4

Total phosphorus, as phosphorus 6 .06 .11 .41

Orthophosphate, as phosphorus 6 .04 .05 .09

Suspended sediment 6 6 20 581

Flat Rock Spring – F14DS005

Ammonia, as nitrogen 7 <.04 <.04 <.04

Nitrite plus nitrate, as nitrogen 7 .76 1.6 2.5

Total phosphorus, as phosphorus 7 .06 .09 .3

Orthophosphate, as phosphorus 7 .03 .05 .12

Suspended sediment 7 3 20 138

Fiddle Spring – F14DS007

Ammonia, as nitrogen 6 <.04 <.04 <.04

Nitrite plus nitrate, as nitrogen 6 .4 1.3 2.1

Total phosphorus, as phosphorus 6 .06 .08 .31

Orthophosphate, as phosphorus 6 .03 .05 .19

Suspended sediment 6 6 15 253

Boiling Spring – F14CS002

Ammonia, as nitrogen 7 <.04 <.04 <.04

Nitrite plus nitrate, as nitrogen 7 .47 1.3 2.2

Total phosphorus, as phosphorus 7 .07 .11 .45

Orthophosphate, as phosphorus 7 .02 .06 .08

Suspended sediment 7 7 31 409

03303195 - Sinking Creek at Rosetta, Kentucky

Ammonia, as nitrogen 7 <.04 <.04 <.04

Nitrite plus nitrate, as nitrogen 7 .21 .81 1.2

Total phosphorus, as phosphorus 7 .023 .037 .25

Orthophosphate, as phosphorus 7 e.003 .01 .101

Suspended sediment 7 3 11 306

03303205 - Sinking Creek near Lodiburg, Kentucky

Ammonia, as nitrogen 8 <.04 <.04 <.04

Nitrite plus nitrate, as nitrogen 8 .35 1.3 2.2

Total phosphorus, as phosphorus 8 .07 .10 .42

Orthophosphate, as phosphorus 8 .01 .05 .07

Suspended sediment 10 5 87 1,490

e

Estimated value.

 Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended Sediment in the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004
Atrazine

Deethylatrazine

Simazine

Metolachlor

Acetochlor

Prometon

Metribuzin

Alachlor

Pendimethalin

Propachlor

Propanil

Napropamide

Malathion

Carbofuran

Herbicides

Insecticides

0 25 50 75 100

Detection rate, in percent

Figure 3. Pesticides most frequently detected in all samples collected at seven sites 

in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004.

Pesticide Results   
* Data outside

10th and 90th percentile

90 percent

75 percent

Median

25 percent

10 percent

EXPLANATION

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Atrazine

Metolachlor

Simazine

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

0

1

2

Big Spring

F15CS004

Ross Karst W ni dow

F14DS003

Flat Rock Spring

F14DS005

Fiddle Spring

F14DS007

Boiling Spring

F14CS002

Sinking Creek at Rosetta

03303195

Sinking Creek near

Lodiburg

03303205

3

C

o

n

c

e

ntratio

n, in

micro

gra

m

s

p

er liter Figure 4. Concentrations of atrazine, metolachlor, and simazine at the seven sampling sites in the 

karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, study area, 2004.

10 Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended Sediment in the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has 

developed water-quality standards and guidelines for some 

compounds that can have adverse effects on human health 

and aquatic organisms. The standards and guidelines (also 

known as maximum contaminant levels (MCLs)) established 

by the USEPA pertain to finished drinking water; however, the 

MCL values provide comparison with sampled concentrations 

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2004a). Aquaticlife criteria provide for the protection of aquatic organisms 

for short-term (acute) and long-term (chronic) exposures to 

chemical compounds. In certain instances, Canadian guidelines were used for comparisons when other criteria were 

unavailable (International Joint Commission Canada and 

United States, 1977; Canadian Council of Ministers of the 

Environment, 2003). Table 2 shows concentrations of detected 

pesticides and their relation to drinking-water criteria and 

aquatic-life criteria. No Federal drinking-water criteria have 

been established for many of the compounds detected including pesticide degradates. Concentrations of atrazine exceeded 

the USEPA’s MCL of 3 μg/L in 4 percent of the samples. 

Nutrient Results

Nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are necessary for plant and animal life; in excessive quantities they can 

accelerate the growth of aquatic plants and cause algal blooms. 

Excessive aquatic growth may result in unsuitable habitat conditions for aquatic animals and can interfere with recreational 

activities such as fishing, swimming, and boating. Decomposition of aquatic-plant growth can cause odor and taste problems 

in drinking-water supplies and can consume DO, which can 

adversely affect aquatic life.

Nitrogen in streams can originate from numerous point 

and nonpoint sources. The major sources of nitrogen into 

streams are wastewater-treatment plants, septic tanks, feed-lot 

discharges, and fertilizers from agricultural and residential 

areas. Concentrations of nitrate greater than 10 mg/L in drinking water can have adverse human-health effects. Concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate ranged from 0.21 to 3.9 mg/L at the 

7 sites (table 3 and fig. 5). The highest concentration of nitrite 

plus nitrate of 3.9 mg/L was observed at Big Spring. The 

lowest concentration of nitrite plus nitrate of 0.21 mg/L was 

observed at Sinking Creek at Rosetta. The median concentration of nitrite plus nitrate for all sites sampled was 1.5 mg/L. 

Big Spring had the highest median nitrogen concentration 

(2.0 mg/L). Ammonia was detected in only one sample (Big 

Spring). 

Phosphorus is a common element in rocks; other sources 

of phosphorus include sewage effluent, detergents, and 

leachates from septic tanks. Although there is no established 

aquatic-life criterion for total phosphorus, the USEPA recommends a maximum concentration of total phosphorus of 

0.1 mg/L to discourage excessive growth of aquatic plants and 

algae. Concentrations of total phosphorus in 42 percent of the 

samples were greater than 0.1 mg/L. The median concentration of total phosphorus for all sites sampled was 0.09 mg/L. 

Concentrations of orthophosphates ranged from <0.006 to 

0.192 mg/L (table 3). The highest concentration of orthophosphorus was observed at Fiddle Spring (0.192 mg/L). Sources 

of orthophosphorus include weathering of soils and wastewater-treatment-plant discharge. 

Suspended Sediment Results

Suspended sediment is all particulate matter suspended in 

the water column resulting from streambed resuspension, rock 

weathering, and soil erosion. Concentrations of suspended 

sediment are affected by natural conditions (streambank erosion, steep slopes, and forest fires) and anthropogenic activities (construction, mining, and certain agricultural practices).

High concentrations of suspended sediment can cause 

habitat destruction and limit light penetration throughout the 

water column. In addition, suspended sediment plays a major 

role in the transport and fate of contaminants. Contaminants 

may sorb onto the surface of the suspended sediments and be 

transported and deposited into other areas downstream. 

Concentrations of suspended sediment generally were 

low in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin (table 3 

and fig. 6); the median concentration of suspended sediment 

for all sites sampled was 23 mg/L. The highest concentration 

of suspended sediment (1,486 mg/L) was measured following 

a storm event at Sinking Creek near Lodiburg, Ky. 

Suspended Sediment Results 11
0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

C

o

n

c

e

ntratio

n, in

milligra

ms p

er liter

0

1

2

3

4

5

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.25

0.20

Nitrite plus nitrate

Total phosphorus

Orthophosphorus

* Data outside

10th and 90th percentile

90 percent

75 percent

Median

25 percent

10 percent

EXPLANATION

Big Spring

F15CS004

Ross Karst W ni dow

F14DS003

Flat Rock Spring

F14DS005

Fiddle Spring

F14DS007

Boiling Spring

F14CS002

Sinking Creek at Rosetta

03303195

Sinking Creek near

Lodiburg

03303205

Figure 5. Concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate, total phosphorus, and orthophosphorus at the 

seven sampling sites in the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, study area, 2004.

12 Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended Sediment in the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004
1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

C

o

n

c

e

n

tra

tio

n, in

milligra

m

s

p

er lit

er

* Data outside

10th and 90th percentile

90 percent

75 percent

Median

25 percent

10 percent

EXPLANATION

Big Spring

F15CS004

Ross Karst W ni d

o

w

F14

DS0

03

Flat Rock Spring

F14

DS005

Fid

dle Spring

F14

DS007

Boiling Spring

F14

CS002

Sinking

Creek at Rosetta

03303195

Sinking

Creek near

Lo

diburg

03303205

Figure 6. Concentrations of suspended sediment at the seven sampling sites in the karst terrane of the 

Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, study area, 2004.

Suspended Sediment Results 13
Summary

Pesticides, nutrients, and sediment are frequently detected 

in karst and are a threat to the degradation of drinking water 

because of erosion and leaching. Understanding the role bestmanagement practices play in protecting shallow ground water 

(karst) from human-induced activities (construction, logging, 

and certain agricultural activities) is fundamental to developing and implementing sound land-use policies. This is the case 

faced by resource managers in the karst terrane of the Sinking 

Creek Basin. In response to these issues, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Kentucky Department of 

Agriculture, began a study to investigate select pesticides, 

nutrients, and suspended sediment in the karst terrane of the 

Sinking Creek Basin (also known as Boiling Spring Basin). 

This is a 3-year study (2004-2006); however, only the 2004 

water-quality and suspended-sediment results are presented in 

this report. A final report presenting all 3 years of data collection should be available in late 2007. 

Water-quality and suspended-sediment samples were collected in streams and springs in the karst terrane of the Sinking 

Creek Basin, which is located in Breckinridge County and 

portions of Meade and Hardin Counties in Kentucky. Fortyeight water samples were collected at 7 sites (2 Sinking Creek 

main stem sites; 4 springs, and 1 karst window) from April to 

November 2004.

Most pesticides were present in low concentrations in 

2004. Herbicides were detected more frequently than insecticides. Fourteen pesticides were detected of the 52 pesticides 

analyzed in the water samples. Of the 14 detected pesticides, 

12 were herbicides and 2 were insecticides. The most commonly detected herbicides were those used on row crops. The 

herbicide, atrazine, was detected in 100 percent of the samples. Almost 88 percent of the atrazine samples were in the 0.1 

to 1.0 micrograms per liter (μg/L) range. Four percent of the 

samples exceeded the atrazine maximum contaminant level for 

drinking water, which is 3.0 μg/L. Deethylatrazine, a transformation compound of atrazine, was detected in 98 percent of 

the samples. Other herbicides including simazine, metolachlor, 

and acetochlor were detected in more than 35 percent of the 

samples. Only one nonagricultural herbicide, prometon, was 

detected in more than 30 percent of the samples. Malathion, 

the most commonly detected insecticide, was detected only in 

4 percent of the samples followed by carbofuran (in 2 percent 

of the samples).

Concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate ranged from 0.21 

to 3.9 milligrams per liter (mg/L) at the 7 sites. The median 

concentration of nitrite plus nitrate for all sites sampled was 

1.5 mg/L, which is below the USEPA’s nitrate drinking water 

standard of 10 mg/L. Concentrations of nitrite plus nitrate 

were higher in the springs than in the main stem of Sinking 

Creek.

The median concentration of total phosphorus for all sites 

sampled was 0.09 mg/L. The highest median concentration of 

total phosphorus was found in the springs. Forty-two percent 

of the concentrations of total phosphorus at all seven sites 

exceeded the USEPA’s recommended maximum concentration 

of 0.1 mg/L. Concentrations of orthophosphate ranged from 

<0.006 to 0.192 mg/L.

Concentrations of suspended sediment generally were 

low throughout the karst terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin; 

the median concentration of suspended sediment for all sites 

sampled was 23 mg/L. The highest concentration of suspended 

sediment (1,486 mg/L) was measured following a storm event 

at Sinking Creek near Lodiburg, Ky. 

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Crain, A.S.—Concentrations of Nutrients, Pesticides, and Suspended Sediment in the Karst Terrane of the Sinking Creek Basin, Kentucky, 2004—

Open-File Report 2006-1091