DOT/FAAiAM-94/12 

()J"fic~ of A via:: ion \.1cdicine 

\Vashmgton. OC 20591 

Human Factors in Aviation 

IVIaintenance - Phase Three, 

Volume 2 Progress Report 

AD-A283 287 ~'11:1" 'l'l!':lll1l'l"''lllij'' Ill'' "1' 'll' I : [lj : l ! l \ ::: .. , ! ! I ,.: [t :_I 

I I ' il lir II I ; h,;l !!,!, ii!ill!! : 

Galaxy Scientific Corporation 

Pieasantdle, "'l OS323 

Office of /h·iation :-..1ediciDe 

Federal A,.·iarion Adminisrrarion 

Washington. DC: 20S9l 

Juh- 1994 

Fi ~a f Repc:-t 

This. doct1n1en~ i5 available to the public 

rh:ough the Na:IOnai Technical Information 

Service, Stringfield. Virgin!~ 2216L 

U.S. Depa~\"i;ent 

of ; :ans~ortation 

Federal Aviati:::n 

Administration 

.· , 

·-

IfZ_C ,:;7 ,~_:. ·. -· · ---

J 
NOTICE 

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of 

the U.S. Department ofT ransportation in the interest of 

information exchange. The Cnited States Government 

assumes no liability for the contents or use thereof. 
Technical Reoort Documentation Page 

Hepon NO <:::. uoverrjmem ACCeSSIOn o. v. ~ec•v•ent s Latal_;g l'liO. 

OOT/FAA/AM-94/12 

q h e ana ;::.uuai e o. Hepon uate 

Human Factors in Aviation Maintcndiice- Phao;e III, Volume 2 July 1994 

Progress Report o. r-enormmg urgamzatiOn ~,.;cae 

· I AU1hOI(S) B. f->ertormmg organ!zat•on nepon No. 

Galaxy Scientific Corporation 

~- Yenonnmg urgan1zat•On Name ana Aaoress W. YVOn< UOf! NO. (I HA,,) 

Galaxy Scientific Corporation 

2500 English Creek A venue 

Suite 1100 

Pleasantville, NJ 08323 • 1 , • \....Ontra-.;; or urant 1'\ICDTF AO 1-92-Y -0 I 005 u. ;:,ponsonng Agency name ana Aoaress l;j. l~'Pe or Heport aoo f"'enoa ~,.;overeo 

Office of Aviation Medicine Interim 

Federal Aviation Administration February 1992-

800 Independence Avenue, S.W. Aprill993 

Washington, DC 20591 

14. ;:,ponsonr.g A!:iency vooe 

1 o ::;upplemenra• NOtes 

'b. AOSI'3C: I 

The third phase of research on human factors in aviation maintenance continued to look at th~ b'Jman'> role i 

I in the aviation maintenance system via investigations. demonstrations, and eYaluatbns of tboe re>earch 

program outputs. This report describes the Office of Aviation Medicine's Hypermedia Information System, 

relea-;ed -::m CD-ROM in early !993. The report also offers an extended discussion of compmer-based 

training (CBn for maintenance and provides guidelines for CBT decision making. One chapter of the report I 

' identifies the "barriers" that have hindered the acceptance an<1 Sl!ccess cf nontraditional participants in 

aviation maintenance careers and offers recommenchtions to ~nsv.re a barrier-free work cuvironment for ali 

workers. The report also includes a chapter on the p:an a11d pilot study to investigate relationships of a 

number of variables to nondestructive inspection pe:fonnance .. tul evaluation of Millmenance Crew I Resource Management is also reported on, as well as t.'le development and statu;; oft!:!" HwnGII Fac!ors 

Guide for Aviation Maintenance. I 

Human 

~:. ey oms 

factors, aviation maintenance, hypermedia, 

! ::'· u.stnouuon Statement ·~ I Dvcument is avaihhle to the pubEc through the 

CD-ROM. nontraditicnal pa..rticipants, NDI National Technical Information Service, Springfield, 

performance, computer -based instructicn, CRM I Virginia 2/.161. 

I 

I 'l::1 ~ecunty ~..-•assn. {O! 1n1s report) .::.v. -=-ecumy ...... ~ass1 . \.J• uoiS page} 2!. i'IO. OT .-ag-.:;;; I «. rr.ce 

i U:-JCLASSIFIED lJNCLASSiFIED 226 1 

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8· 72) Repmduclioo of completed page authonzed 

1 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The Aviation Maintenance Human Factors research team is dire<:t.ed by Dr. William T. Shepherd 

and Ms. Jean Watson of the Office of Aviation Medicine. 

G'tlaxy Scientific Corporation is the prime contractor. Galaxy Scientific is technically 

responsible for Chapters One through Three. Chapter Four was prepared by the Aviation 

Education Consultants. Dr. Richard 'fhack..'"'!y was responsible fm Chapter Five. Dr. James 

Taylor in conjunction with Continental Airlines was responsible for Chapter Six. Chapter Seven 

was prepared by BioTechnology, Inc. The total report was edited by Ms. Suzanne Morgan and 

Mr. Sheldon Kohn of Galaxy Scientific Corporatiou. 

The pragmatic nature of this research is attributable to the many FAA, airiine, manufacturer, 

and vendor personnel who provided advice to the research team. 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER ONE -PHASE III OVERVIEW 

1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

1.1 THE AAM HYPERMEDIA INFORL\1ATION SYSTEM (Chapter Two). . . . . . . 2 

1.2 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING COMPUTER-BASED 

TRAINING FOR AVIATiON MAINTENANCE (Chapter Three) . . . . . . . . . . 3 

1.3 IDENTIFICATION OF BARRIERS TO SUCCESS FOR NONTRADITIONAL 

PARTICIPANTS IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE CAREERS (Chapter Four) 4 

1.4 A PILOT STUDY TO MEASURE CORRELATES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 

IN NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION PERFORMANCE (Chapter Five) ...... 4 

1.5 EVALUATION OF MAINTENANCE CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (Chapter 

Six). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 

1.6 A GUIDE TO HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE (Chapter 

Seven) ......................................... 6 

1. 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY- FORMAL PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS (Chapter 

Eight). . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

1.8 CONTINUING RESEARCH . 7 

1.9 REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

CHAPTER TWO- HYPERMEDIA INFORMATION ON CD-ROM 

2.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 

2.1 ASPECTS OF HYPERMEDIA . . . . . . . .10 

2.1.1 Access to Technical Information . . . . . . . . 10 

2.1.2 New Terms for New Technologies . . . . . . .10 

2.2 THE CD-ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

2.2.1 The AAM HypeiTiiedia Information System . . 12 

2.2.2 Other CD-ROM Applications. . 18 

2.2.3 Production of the CD-ROM. . . 19 

2.3 THE FUTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 

2.3.1 Additional Media. . . . . . . .21 

2.3.2 Navigating Documents . . . . . 22 

2.3.3 Tools for Creating Hypermedia Documents . . 22 

2.3.4 Documentation Standards . .23 

2.4 CONCLUSIONSISUMMARY .23 

2.5 REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . .24 

CHAPTER THREE • GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENfiNG 

COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING FOR AVIATION MAINTENANCE 

3.0 ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 

3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 

3.1.1 Purpose of This Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

3.1.2 Overview of Part 147 Changes Related to CBT. .26 

3.2 OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING .26 

::.2.1 When to Use CBT . . . . . . . .26 

v 
3.3 CBT OPTIONS. . . . . . . . .29 

3.3.1 Instructional Approach .29 

3.3.2 Presentation Fonnats . .31 

3.3.3 Integrated Training and Job Aiding. .33 

3.4 HOW TO DESIGN AND iMPLEMENT COMPUTER-BASED TRA.JNING . .34 

3.4.1 Needs Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 

3.4.2 Job Ta3k Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 

3.4.3 Instructional Design and System Planning . .37 

3.4.4 Prototype System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 

3.4.5 Rapid Prototypmg Software Development .39 

3.4.6 Evaluation of CBT System. . 40 

3.4.7 Maintenance and Updates. .43 

3.5 ASSEMBLING A CBT TEAM .43 

3.5.1 Instructional Designer. . . .43 

3.5.2 Subject Matter Expert. . . .44 

3.5.3 Computer Programmer . . .45 

3.5.4 Computer Hardware Support . .45 

3.5.5 Human Factors Expert . . . . .45 

3.5.6 Graphic Artist . . . . . . . . . .46 

3.6 CBT HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, Al'11D SUPPORT .46 

3.6.1 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 

3.6.2 Examples of Standard Computer Configurations. .49 

3.6.3 Software. . . . . . . . . . .51 

3.6.4 CBT Computer Labs. . . . . . . . . . . .53 

3.6.5 Example CBT Applications . . . . . . . .54 

3.7. POTENTIAL PITFALLS IN CREATING CBT. .56 

3.7.1 Additional Training not Required . . . .57 

3.7.2 Poorlnstructional Design. . . . . . . .57 

3.7.3 Poor User Interface Design . . . . . . .57 

3.7.4 Poor Computer Programming ofCBT. .58 

3.7.5 Unplanned Organizational Impact . . .59 

3. 7.6 System not Integrated with Other Training . 59 

3.7.7 Oversell ofCBT . .59 

3.8 CONCLUSION. .60 

3.9 REFERENCES. . . . . .60 

CHAPTER FOUR· IDENTIFICATION OF BARRIERS TO SUCCESS FOR 

NONTRADmONAL PARTICIPANTS IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE CAREERS 

4.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . 

4.1 THE OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . 

4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS . 

4.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . 

4.2.2 Projected Demand and Supply of A .. \1Ts. 

4.3 BARRlERS A..'I1D :MOTIVATORS TO NONTRADITIO:-.:AL CAREER 

INVOLVEMENT . . . . . . . 

.63 

.63 

.64 

.64 

.65 

.67 
4.3.1 Review of Previous Research ..... 

4.3.2 Nontraditional Career Motivators. . . 

4.4 SPECIFIC AVIATION CAREER BARRIERS 

4.4.1 Career Selection Barriers . 

4.4.2 Technical School Bias . . . . . 

4.4.3 Work Place Barriers ...... . 

4.5 CHANGES IN REPR~SENTATION . 

4.6 SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . 

4.7 REFERENCES ............ . 

4.8 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES. . . . . 

.. 67 

. .77 

.81 

.81 

.90 

.98 

. 107 

. 110 

. 112 

. 119 

CHAPTER FOUR- APPENDIX- Projections of Future Need of Aviation Maintenance 

Technicians (AMTs) in Civilian Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 

CHAPTER FIVE ·A PILOT STUDY TO MEASURE COR."'tELATES OF INDIVIDUAL 

DIFFF.RENCES IN NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION PERFORMANCE 

!5.0 INTRODUCTION 

5.1 METHODOLOGY 

5.2 

5.3 

5.4 

5.1.1 Subjects . . 

5.1.2 Apparatus . 

5.1.3 Predictors and/or Task Correlates. 

5.1.4 Procedure . . . . . . . 

RESULTS ......... . 

1>.2.1 Criterion Performance. 

5. '2.2 Subjective Measures. 

5.2.3 Predictor Measures 

DISCUSSION . 

REFERENCES. . . . . . 

CHAPTER SIX· THE EFFECTS OF CREW RESOURCE MA...'IJAGEMENT (CRM) 

TRAINING IN AIRLINE MAINTENANCE: 

RESULTS FOLLOWING ONE YEAR'S EXPERIENCE 

. 145 

. 146 

. 146 

. 147 

. 148 

. 153 

. 154 

. 154 

. 157 

. 158 

. 158 

. 160 

6.0 SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 

6.1 BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . . . . . . 165 

6.2 THE PURPOSE OF THE PROGRA.ll<f AND OF THE COURSE . . 166 

6.2.1 Course Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 

6.2.2 The Course as Designed for the Objectives . . . . . . . . 167 

6.2.3 State of Training Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 

6.2.4 Maintenznce Work Units as the Focus ofthe Analyses . . 167 

6.3 TtiE "CREW RESOURCE MGTffECH OPS QL"ESTIONNAIRK' (C&~OQJ. . 167 

6.3.1 Prior Experience in Measurement of Attitudes Related to CR.l\1 Training . 167 

6.3.2 Measurement of Attitudes in the Present Study. . 168 

6.3.3 Sample Size and Response Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 

vii 
6.4 RESULTS SECTION 1: COMPARlSON OF POST-TRAINING ATTITUDES WlTH 

TWO-MONTH, SIX-MONTH, AND TWELVE MONTH FOLLOW-UP SURVEYS . 170 

6.4.1 Matched Questionnaires and Sample Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 

6.5 PERFORMANCE DATA DESCRIDED ....... _ ....... _ . _ ..... 172 

6.5.1 Performance Measures and Attitudes .................... 162 

6.5.2 The Sample Used for the Present "Lagged Attitude-Performance Analysis" 173 

6.6 RESULTS SECTION 2: TESTING RELATIONSHIPS OF POST-TRAINING 

ATTITUDES WITH PERF0&\1ANCE ........................ 175 

6.6.1 The Relationships Between the Post-Training Questionnaire Scales and 

Maintenance Unit Performance Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 

6. 7 RESULTS SECTION 3: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TIIZ TWO-MO:t-;'TH 

FOLLOW-UP QlJESTIONNAIRE SCALES AND MAINTENANCE lTh'lT 

PERFORMANCE MEASURES. . . . . . . . . . . 181 

6.7.1 "Overtime Paid to Total Wages". . . . . . 181 

6.7.2 "Number of Ground Damage Incidents" . . 182 

6.7.4 "Departures within Five Minutes". . . . . 183 

6.7.6 ''Departures within Sixty Minutes" . . . . 184 

6.7.7 "Flight departures not Canceled, but over Sixty Minutes Late". . 185 

6.7.8 ''Flights Delayed Due to Late from Maintenance". . . . . . . . . 186 

6.7.9 A Note on the Different Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 

6.8 RESULTS SECTION 4: TRENDS IN MAINTENA.J~;CE f'ERFORMANCE TWELVE 

MONTHS BEFORE A.J~;D TWELVE MONTHS AFTER THE ONSET OF CR.M: 

TRAINING . . . . . 187 

6.8. 1 Effidency . . . . 187 

6.8.2 Safety. . . . . . 188 

6.8.3 Dependability. . 189 

6.9 RESLL. TS SECTION 5: MANAGERS SELF-REPORTS OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE: 

WRITI'EN COMl\fENTS FROM THE POST-TRAINING AND FOLLOW-UP 

CRM!I'OQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . 191 

6.9.1 lnlf.!ndedUseofCRMTraining ............. _...... . 191 

6.9.2 How Training was Used on the Job _ . _ . . ... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 192 

6.9.3 Other E\-idence for Improved Behavior Patterns Following Training. . 192 

6.9.4 Specific React10ns to the Course Itself-- Suggestions for Its Improvement. 193 

6.10 CONCLUSIONS . . 196 

6.11 REFERENCES ..... _ . . . . 196 

CHAPTER SIX APPENDIX- Syllabus . 199 

CHAPTER SEVEN- A HUMAN FACTORS GUIDE FOR A VL<\TION MATh>"TENA.."JCE 

7.0 lNTRODUCTION ....... _ ... _ . . 203 

7.1 STATUS OF HUMAN FACTORS GUIDE . . . ................... 203 

CHAPTER EIGHT- BffiLIOGRAPHY - Formal Presentations and Publications for 

the FAA Office of A'l.iation Medicine Human t'actors in A\-iation Maintenance and 

Inspection Research Program, 1989-1993. . . . . . . . . . . ........... 209 

viii 
Figure 1.1 

Figure 1.2 

Figure 1.3 

Figure 2.1 

Figure2.2 

Figure2.3 

Figure 2.4 

Figu.re 2.5 

Figure2.6 

Figure 2.7 

Figure2.8 

Figure 3.1 

Figure3.2 

Figure3.3 

Figure 3.4 

Figure 4.1 

Figure4.2 

Figure4.3 

Figure 4.4 

Figure4.5 

Figure4.6 

Figure 4.7 

Figure 4.8 

Figure4.9 

F'igure 4.10 

Figure 4.11 

Figure4.12 

Figure 4.13 

Figure5.1 

Figure5.2 

Figure5.3 

Figure 6.1 

Figure 6.2 

Figure6.3 

Figure 6.4 

Figure6.5 

Figure6.6 

LIST OF FIGURES 

The Research Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Main Menu from FAA Hypermedia Information System 

NDI Task Simulation .................. . 

Human Factors Issues in Aircraft l\faintenance and Inspect!on CD-ROM 

Applications on the CD-ROM. 

The HIS Bookshelf . . . 

Table of Contents. . . . . . . 

The HIS Overview Map . . . 

The Document Viewing Area . 

Hot Link to a Graphics Viewer. 

Search Query Dialogue Box . . 

CBT goal to lower cost and increase performance . 

Comparison of development and delivery costs for CBT and traditional 

training. . ................... . 

Typical CBT development process with outputs . 

The CBT Team . . . . . 

AMT Supply & Demand 

Change in Active A&P Mechanics 

Career Preparation by Gender . . 

Career Preparation by Race . . . 

Schools with Recru.itment Programs (by type of program). 

Make-up of Student Body (in FAA-approved mechanic schools). 

Type of Student Retention Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Formal Edu-::ation Requirements for Instructional Staff at A&P &hools . 

Com9Qsition of A&P Faculty (at FAA app::-oved meehank schi){)ls) 

Response for Barrier Categories by Respondent's Race . . . . 

Response for Ba.'Tier Categories by Respondent's Gender. . . . . 

Percent Representation of Active Female Aircraft Mechanics. . . 

Change in Percent P.epresentation of Active Female Aircraft Mechanics . 

NDI Inspection Task Simulation (Drury et aL, 1992) . . . 

Mean Misses and False Alarms Across Training Sessions. 

Mean Misses and False Alarms Across Test Sessions . 

Attitude Indices Pre, Post, Two, Six, Twelve Mor.t.l,.s . 

Behavioral Indices Pre, Post, Two, Six, Twelve MonL'ls . 

Efficien<'y Overtime (Time Series) . . . . 

Safety Ground Damage (Time Series) . . . . . . . . 

Safety Occupational Injury (Time Series) . . . . . . 

Dependability Departure in 5 Minutes (Time Series) 

1 

3 

5 

9 

.11 

.14 

.14 

.15 

.16 

.16 

.17 

.28 

.28 

.35 

.44 

.65 

.66 

.83 

.84 

.91 

.91 

.93 

.96 

.96 

. 100 

. 101 

. 109 

. 110 

. 147 

. 154 

. 156 

. 171 

. 171 

. 188 

. 188 

. 188 

. c89 
Figo.ue 6. 7 

Figure 6.8 

Figure 6.9 

Figure 6.10 

Figure6.11 

Figure6.12 

Dependability Departure in 15 Minutes (Time Series) . 189 

Dependability Departure in 60 Minutes (Time Series) . 190 

Dependability Flights Not Cancelled (Time Series) . . . 190 

Dependability Late From Maintenance (Time Series) . . 190 

Percent Written Responses- How Training will be Used: Post, Two, Six, and 

Twelve Months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 

Percent Written Responses - How Training was Used: Two, Six, and Twelve 

Months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . 192 

X 
Table J.l 

Table 1.2 

Table 2.1 

Table2.2 

Table3.1 

Table3.2 

Table3.3 

Table3.4 

Table3.5 

Table3.6 

Table 3.7 

Tabie3.8 

Table4.1 

Table4.2 

Table4.3 

Table4.4 

Table4.5 

Table4.6 

Table 4.7 

Table4.8 

Table 4.9 

Table5.1 

Table5.2 

Table5.3 

Table5.4 

Table5.5 

Table5.6 

Table 6.1 

Table6.2 

Table6.3 

Table 6.4 

Table6.5 

Table6.6 

LIST OF TABLES 

AAM Human Factors in Maintenance Products - A Partial Listing . 

Outline for Human Factors Guide Sections 

CD-ROM Production Costs . . . . . . . . . 

Collapsed and Expanded Table of Contents . 

When CBT is generally appropriate . . 

When CBT is generally inappropriate . 

Instructional approaches . 

Presentation Formats . . . . . . . . . 

Evaluation Met..hods . . . . . . . . . . 

Minimal hardware requirements for standard computer .:onfigurations 

Advantages/Disadvantages of Programming Systems. 

CBT Pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Aircraft Mechanics and Technicians Career Preparatio!l by Gender 

Aircraft Mechanics and Technicians Career Preparation by Race. 

Average Response for Each Barrier Category by Race. 

Average Response fo;:- Each Category by Gender . . . . . . . . . 

Individual Item Response of Social Barriers b~· Race . . . . . . . 

Individual Item Response of Life Experience/Education Barriers by Race 

Individual Item Response ofWork-R2lated Barriers by Race . 

Individual Item response of Work Relate<! Barriers by Sex . 

Strategies to Help Eliminate Earners . 

Characteristics of Subje..--ts . . . . . . . 

Frequency of Missed Faults Over the Four Test Sessions . 

Frequency of False Alarms Over fr~ Four Test Sessi;;ns 

Mean Total Task Time and Mean Time per F.ivet . . . . . 

Mean Pre- and Post-Session Subjective R.atings . . . . . . 

Means and Standard Deviations oft.he Predictor Measures. 

1 

6 

.21 

.22 

.27 

.27 

.29 

.32 

.41 

.49 

.52 

.56 

.82 

.83 

.99 

. 100 

. 102 

. 103 

. 104 

. 105 

. 111 

. 146 

. 155 

. 155 

. 157 

. 158 

. 15~ 

Tecbnica: Operations Performance Measures Available by Work Unit . . 173 

Demographics of CP.M Managers At'"..endees (June-DecembPr, 1991) :\latched 

with Their Two Month Follow-up Survey(n=l81), Categorical Percentages . 174 

Demographics ofCIOf Managers Attendees \-June-December, 1991} Matched 

with Their Two Month Follow-up Survey (n=J81), Categorical Pe..'"Centages . 174 

Spearman-Rho Couelat!ons between Post-t.'"lrining CIUIJTOQ Results and 

:\faintenance Efficiency Performance for~ Overtime Paid to Total Wagetill. 176 

Sooarman-Rho Correlations between Post-training CRMtrOQ Results and 

Maintenance Safety Performance for Ground Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 

Spca..'"ffian·Rho Correlation:; between Pest-training CRM!I'OQ Results and 

~laintenance Safety performance for Occupational Inju.."Y Days Lost . . 177 

xi 
Table 6. 7 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-trclning CK\J:-TOQ Results a!:d 

Maintenance Dependability Performance for Departu.res wit.'oin Fi ,-e !-.ilnutesl78 

Table 6.8 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-:.raining CR.'\f!TOQ F.esults and 

Maintenance Dependability Performance fvr Departw-es within Fifteen ~linu~ 

Table 6.9 Spearman-Rho Correlatbns betv:een Post-training Cfu\.f/rOQ Results =.d 

Maintenance Dependabilitv Perfo:-ma.-.ce for Depsrtures wit.'rin Sixty Minute~ 79 

Table 6.1{) Speammn-Rho C.orrelations between Post-Uair>i.ng CRM/TOQ Results and 

Maim.e:mnce Dependability Performance for Sixty Mffi11tes, Not Canceled .. 180 

Table 6.11 S;x>acman-Rho (',orrehtions between Post-t.-aining CF ... WfOQ Results ;md 

Maintenance Dependability Performance for Delay Due to Late from 

Maintenance . . . . . . . . . _ . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . 181 

Table 6.12 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Two Mont.i} Follow-up Cfu..,!.'"f0Q P.esults 

a."1.d Maintenance Efficiency Performance % Gveri..L."Ile Paid to Total Wage . . 182 

Table 6.13 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Two Month Follow-up CID!/TOQ Results 

and Maintenance Safety Performance for Ground Damage . . . . . . . . . 182 

Table 6.14 Spearman-Rho Correlations between T>vo Month Follow-t:p CRl\!JTOQ Results 

and Maintennuce Safety Performance for IY...cupational Inju..""Y • • . . . . •. 183 

Table 6.15 Speannan-Rho Correlation~ between Two Mont:.'l Follow-up CR:.\f.ITOQ Results 

and Maintenance Dependability Performar.ce f.Jr Departures "ithin Five 

Minutes. . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 

Table 6.17 Spearnmn-Rho Correlations between Two Month Follow-up Cfu'rm'OQ Results 

and Maintenance Dependability Performance for Departures within Sixty 

Minutes ....... _____ . _ ........... _ ........... 185 

Table ~.18 Spearman-Rho Correlations bet.,..een Two Month Follow-up CR.'\.dTOQ Results 

and Maintenance Dependability Performance for Departu<•es within Sixty 

Minutes, Not Canceled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 

Table 6.19 Spearman-Rho Correlations !)et~-veen Two Month Fc.llow-up CRMtrOQ Results 

and Maintenance Dependability Perfo:rmance for Delays Due to Late from 

Haintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 

Table 6.20 Written-in Response& .:.Udicating Particularly Good As!>('cts of'fraicing for Posttraining, Two, Six and Twelv.'! Month ":<'ollow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 

Table 6..21 Percentage ofWritte:1-in Responses Indicating How Tr-.illring Might be Imp_mved 

Tabie7.1 

Tab!e7.2 

T&ble7.3 

for Post-l,~g, Two, Six znd '1 welve Month Follow-up . . 194 

Outline fo;- Hunum Factors Guide Section 

Primary Data Sources . . 

Pe.-mission Requirements . . . . . . . . . 

. 204 

-205 

-206 
I 

! 

AA.\1 .. 

AAUW. 

AJCC .. 

&wr .. i'...t"'OVA. 

A&P .. 

ATA .. 

ATCBI-4. 

BMP. 

BRP . 

CALS. 

CBT . 

CD-ROM. 

CMAQ .. 

CRM ... 

CR.'Wl'OQ 

DoD 

EAA 

ECS 

EIS. 

EPI. 

EPS. 

FAA 

FARs. 

FIMs. 

GIF. 

GSC 

HFL 

ms. 

HR. 

ICAO. 

ID ... 

I-E .. 

IETM. 

ITS .. 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

. Office of Aviation Medicine 

. ....... American A3sociation of University Woman 

. Aviation Industry Computer-basad Tra;.!'.ing Committee 

. Aviation Maintenance Technician 

.... Analysis of Variance 

. . . . . Airframe and l:'owe!'plant 

. . . . . Air TI-aDSport Association 

. Air Traffic Ccntrol Beacon Intenvgator 

. ...... bitmap 

. Blue Ribbon Panei 

Computer-aided Acquisition and Logistical Sup{A>rt 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . computer-based train:.ng 

. . . . . . . Compact Disc, Read-Only Memory 

. Cockpit Management Attitudes Questionnaire 

. . . . . . . . . . Crev: Resource Management 

Crew Resources l\1anagement!I'eclmica1 Operations Questionnaire 

Xlll 

. . . . . . Department of Defense 

.Experimental Aircraft. Association 

Environmental Control System 

. . . . electronic library system 

Eysenck Personality Inventory 

. . . . encapsulated postscript 

Federal Avia~on Administration 

Federal Aviation P.egulations 

. fault isolation manuals 

.graphics interchange file 

. Galaxy Scientific Co:.-poration 

. . Human Factors Laboratory 

Hypennedia Infonnation System 

. . . . . . . . . hu,.-nan resources 

.International Civil A>iation Organization 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . identification 

. . . . . . . . . . . . Intem.al - Externa:. 

Interactive Electronic Teclmi.cal Manual 

. . . . . . . intelligent tutoring system 
JPEG. 

JTA. 

kb . 

1\-fu . 

MELs 

MFFT 

NASA 

NDI. . 

NTIS. 

PC . -

PENS. 

PPSS. 

PRF 

RON 

SGML 

S};'ffi. 

SRS. . Sillli""Y 

TEL. 

TIFF. 

WAIS. 

WP .. 

Joint Photographic Experts Group 

J')b Task Analysis 

. .kilobyte 

.megabyte 

. minimum equipment lists 

. Maiching Familiar Figures Test 

Natio.eal Aeronautics and Space Administratinn 

. . . . . . . . Nondestra<'tive Inspection 

. National Technics! Information Servire 

. . . . . . . . . . . personal comput.G:r 

. . Performance Enhaneement System 

Portable Performance Support System 

. Personality Researc.l1 Form 

. remain in station overnight 

. Standard Generalized Markup Language 

. . . sul:!ject matter expert 

. . . . Subjective Rating Scale 

. State University of New York 

. Typical Experiences Inventory 

. . . targeted image file format 

. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 

. . . . . . . . . . . Working Paper 
1.0 INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER QJ.'j"E 

PHASE ill OVERVIEW 

Phase ill O<Jerview 

The Federal Aviation Administration {FAA) Office of Aviation Medicine (AA}.l) Human 

Factors in Aviation Maintenance research program has developed an industry reputation for 

maintaining an awareness for "where the rubber meets the road." The program combines 

sohd human factors principles with the knowledge and active involvement of industry and 

government personnel. T"nere have been extensive publications and presentations, as well 

as software distributed throughout the industry. Table 1.1 offers a partial listing of the 

research products and publications. A detailed bibliography of the publications is included 

as Chapter Eight in this report. 

Table 1.1 AA.l\f Human Factors in . Maintenance Products . • A Partial Listing 

• Seven wo:o:-kshops (nearly 1,000 total participants) 

• Environmental Control System Trainer (distributed to more than 100 Part 147 

I schools and most of the U.S. airlines) 

• CD-ROM (over 700 copies distributed) 

I • Publications {over 100 articles and scientific papers published) 

I • Performance E~llancement fustem Un Phase IV, a job aid will be fieided for FAA 

inspectors in all regions) 

I • Phase Reports (Four large technical reports like this one) 

Since 1989 this research program 

was designed and executed 

according to the diagram in Figure 

1.1. In the early stages of the 

research prograin the scientific team 

conducted extensive site surveys of 

airline maintenance organizations. 

That process not only prompted an 

enhanced understanding of the "real 

world"" of airline rroaintenance but 

also identified numerous 

manufacturer, airline, and FAA 

partners who wanted to cooperate in 

this pragmatic research program. 

An Ongoing Research & 

Development Program 

t 

jlndus!ry Adopti"" or 

t ReseZ"t:h Prod:.icts 

Figure 1.1 shows that the research 

proceeded from problem definition to Figure 1.1 The Research Program 

1 
Chapter One 

the development, implementation, and evaluation of a variety of human performance 

enha.'lcements in aviat!on mainteLance. Examples reported on in past reports and in this 

volume include an operational example of intelligent tutoring using a B-767 environmental 

control system; a CD-ROM containing all the publications of the research program and a 

variety of multimedia and other software demonstrations; seven conferences on human 

factors in maintenance and inspection with over 1,000 total attendees; and a variety of other 

:ceports and demonstrations. Figure 1-1 also shows that the industry adoption of research 

products provides feedback to all stages of the research. 

When the research program began, in the late eighties, the concept of huma'l factors in 

aviation maintenance was, for the most part, ignored. The National Plan for Aviation 

Human Factors recognized the importance of the aviation maintenance system by assigning 

maintenance human factors equal prominence with air traffic control and flight operations. 

The FAA AAJ.'\1 Human Factors in Aviation Maintenance research program has successfully 

demonstrated that attention to the human not only promotes safety but also a~ects 

maintenance efficiency, thus having a positive effect on maintenance costs. 

As with the other reports from this research program, this volume begins with a sincere 

thanks to and acknowledgement of the many government and industry personnel who 

continue to cooperate v.ith the research te&'"ll. As the work, continues the number of 

contributors (FAA entities, air carriers, and consortiums of industry groups) has grown 

beyond a reasonable size to individually list all those who have provided guidance and 

cooperation. 

The remainder of this overview chapter describes each chapter in this report. 

1.1 THE AAM HYPERMEDIA INFORMATION SYSTEM (Chapter Two) 

A prototype Hypermedia Information System <HIS) was developed in Phase II of the research 

program. This prototype demonstrated the tremendous potential of hypermedia technology 

for AAM research. Phase III work added eight documents to the framework provided by the 

prototype. The current HIS incorporates seven conference proceedings and two Phase 

Reports with over 1,700 pages of text and more than 500 graphics. It also includes two 

complete training simulations (ECS Tutor and ATCBI-4 Tutor), as well as a demonstration 

job aid for Aviation Safety Inspectors. Figure 1.2 shows the HIS main menu. 

In early 1993, the HIS was distributed on Compact Disc, Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM). The 

system was very well received in the research community and in the aviation industry as a 

whole. 

In addition, Chapter Two discusses the changes to the HIS such as more powerful search and 

display tools, print functions, and an authoring system to allow a "hypermedia author" to 

transform paper documents into hypermedia documents. The chapter also describes how the 

HIS was integrated into a maintenance training environment and a job aid for aviation safety 

inspectors. Future needs of the HIS are also addressed. 

2 
Ml Hypermedia 

laforftlatioa System 

HuMAN fACTORs Issue; 

iN AiR(;;I\,\h MAiNTENANCE 

ANd IN>(:£CTioN 

cr. tel st.w1.e:llapno .. \oot tr .. t~ae 

iiMk Sbe1f 'v dicbng em • Co11\ 1un 

Book Shelf 

Phase III Overview 

~ ............ .. 

Figure 1.2 Main Menu from FAA Hypermedia Information System 

1.2 GUIDEUNES FOR DESIGNING Allo'D IMPLEMENTING COMPUTER-BASED 

TRAINING FOR AVIATION MAI!'II'TENANCE (Chapter Three) 

The application of advanced technology to training has been an important portion of the 

research program since its beginning in 1989. Industry and government personnel haw 

looked to the AA.l\1 research for a glimpse of the cutting edge of instructional technology. The 

result has been demonstrations, development, and evaluation of simulation-baspd intellig.-nt 

tutoring systems. The B-767 environmental control system training software has been 

distributed to many FAA-approved technician schools and to most U.S. airlinE's. 

Chapter Three offers extensive discussion of computer-based trainbg <CBT) for maintenance. 

The discussion is based on the knowledge gained through the research program. literature 

reviews, and reviews of off-the-shelf training systems. Written for managers. instructors. 

aviation safpty investigations, and others associated with maintenance training. th.- chaptpr 

provides guidelines for CBT decision making. 

3 
Chapter One 

1.3 IDENTIFICATION OF BARRIERS ';'0 SUCCESS FOR NONTRADITIONAL 

PARTICIPANTS IN AVIATION MAINTENA."<CE CAREERS <Chapter Four) 

Due to the changing demographics of the work force, an increasing number of new workers 

in aviation maintenance will come from nontraditional populations. Nontraditional members 

of the work force include females, Afro Americans, Asian,;, and Hispanics. 

Chapter Four identifies the "barriers" that have hindered the acceptance and success of 

nontraditional participants in aviation maintenance <.:areer fields. Our char,ging society has 

removed many of the barriers; however, there is still opportunity for improvement. The 

chapter reports the results from a su,-vey of nontraditional participants that was developed 

and distributed by a major U.S. carrier to its aviation maintenance work force. The chapter 

concludes with recommendations to ensure that the aviation maintenance work environment 

is barrier-free for all workers. Appendix 4 includes a demographic projection of future 

aviation maintenance technician (AMT) supply and demand. 

1.4 A PILOT STUDY TO MEASURE CORRELATES OF INDIVIDUAL 

DIFFERENCES IN NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION PERFORMANCE 

(Chapter Five) 

An interim report (FANAAM & GSC, in press) reviewed previous research programs and 

studies in the area of nondestructive inspection (!'IlLli). A repeated concern in the literature 

was the existence of substantial differences between inspectors' NDI proficiency. The report 

identified a number of variables which would appear potentially relevant to r-."DI inspector 

seJ.ectiou and/or proficiency. Th<: variables can be gro~ped into the following categories: 

• boredom susceptibility 

• concentra tion/atten ti veness/distractibili ty 

• extraversion/ impulsivity 

• motivation/perseverance 

• decision making/judgement 

• mechanical/electronics aptitude 

• need for autonomy. 

Chapter Five reports on the plan and pilot study to investigate relationshi;:>s of thesP 

variables to NDI performance. The chapter discusses the tests and scales used to measure 

these variables, as well as the task employed in the study G\DI Task Simulation. Figure 

1.3). 

4 
Phase Ill Overview 

-- U. B. Airlines 

ooooooo 

Figure 1.3 NDI Task Simulation 

1.5 EVALUATION OF MAINTENANCE CREW RESOURCE MA."l"AGEMENT 

(Chapter Six) 

This project has co-developed and evaluated the effects of oi.~ airline's maintenancC' Crew 

P..esource Mar1agement <CR.l\1) training program (FAA/AAM & GSC,l993). This training and 

evaluation focuses on maintenance managers· attitudes. their r~ported behaYiors, and the 

maintenance performance of their units. The maintenance CR.\f program represents a longterm commitment to improving safe, dependable, and efficient performa."lce through effective 

communication at all levels in airline maintenance operation,;. Extensive post-t1 aining 

questionnaires and on-the-job performance measures reveal a strong positive effect of t.~e 

training. 

As discussed in Chapter Six, the research examined maintenance performance changes and 

attitude changes that occurred following training. Maintenance performance changes 

occurred in the following areas: safety from ground damage, safety from injury, maintenance 

costs in overtime paid, delays in RON (remain in station overnight) aircraft departures, as 

well as dependability of on-time departures for other scheduled flights. 

The analysis showed positive trends in a number of the company's over&!! maintena."lce 

performance measures for the 12 months after the onset of training compa:ed with the 

previous 12 months. Comparisons of managers' attitudes before and after their training 

showed a significant improvement in three of the four attitude indicators: "willingness to 

5 
Chapter One 

share command responsibility," "usefulness of communication & coordination," a.'ld 

"recognition that stressors affect management decision making" (FANAAM & GSC, 1993J. 

'fhe most important summary finding of the maintenance C&.'\1: training is that the concept 

works. As -with cockpit CRM, improved attitude and communications result in a more 

productive, iess error prone, and safer work environment. 

1.6 A GUIDE TO HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE (Chapter 

Seven) 

The operation of any system can only be optimized if every system element is working 

properly and if each element is carefully coordinated with every other element. The manager 

of a maintenance operation system should have all necessary information con~erning 

maintenance technicians and, in particular, those featu:es of the maintenance environment 

which serve either to enhance or to degrade technician performance. The manager or 

supervisor of a maintenance activity can be aided by the use of the Human Factors Guide, 

a handbook that provides this information in a form suitable for day-to-day reference. 

Chapter SeYen des:ribes the Human Factors Guide development in Phase III. The Human 

Factors Guide presents es!.ablished principles of job design and work tl--at, if v.-eli applied, can 

contribute greatly to the control of human error in aircraft maintenance and inspection. 

Issues of communications, equipment utilization, work s~heduling and load, work 

e,-n-:ironment, and management relations are all important in determining worker 

effectiYeness. The Human Factors Guide covers these and other human performance issues 

that can be applied in aviation maintenance. The Human Factors Guide is designed •o 

address aviation T!laintenance and inspection needs. Table 1.2 presents an outline of the 

Human Factc.rs Guide sections. 

Table 1.2 Outline for Human Factors Guide Sections 

• Importance of Topic in Industrial Operations 

• Industrial Experience 

• Related Research 

1 • Application in Aviation Maintenance 

1 • Industt-y Practices 

• Opinionnaire/Audi11Research Findings 

• Human Factors Guidelines 

• Brief Discussion 

• Specific Guidelines 

• Procedures fo:r Evaluating the Situation 

6 
Phase Ill Ovenoiew 

During Phase IV, the Human Factors Guide will undergo Beta te~ting with maintenance 

personnel in the United States. It is expected t.o be generally available in 1994 and will continue 

to be revised by the Office of Aviation Medicine. In addition to the hardcopy, a digital version 

of the Guide is planned. 

1.7 BffilJOGRAPHY ·FORMAL PRESENTATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS (Chapter 

Eight) 

Disseminating research results to the aviation industry is an important goal of the Human 

Factors in Aviation Maintenance research program. One effective way to do this is through 

presentations and publications for airlines, conferences, industry/government committees, 

schools, and magazines and journals. Chapter Eight provides a list of over 100 presentations 

and publications resulting from the rosearch program to date. 

1.8 CONTINUING RESEARCH 

Future research will continue to emphasize the measurable impact of the research program on 

increasing maintenance effectiveness and efficiency with resultant co~t control. In light of the 

serious financial trouble of the aviation industry, research dedkated to human-centered design 

and human resource development= have a wide-spread and immediate positive impact on the 

"bottom line." The research team will continue to interact with government personnel, airline 

management, and aircraft maintenance technicians to ensure the success and acceptance of 

research products by the aviation maintenance community. 

1.9 REFERENCES 

Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Aviation Medicine {FAA/AAM} & Galaxy Scientific 

Corporation (GSC). (In press). Human factors in aviation maintenance- Phase three, volume 

one progress report. 

Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Aviation Medicine (FAA/AAM} & Galaxy Scientific 

Corpo:-ation (GSC). (1993). Human factors in avintion maintenance -Phase two progress n.port. 

Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration. (Report No. DOT/FAA/A.\1-93/5). 

7 
Hypermedia Information on CD-ROM 

CHAPTER TWO 

HYPERMEDIA 11\'FOR.l\iATION ON CD-ROM 

2.0 INTRODUCTION 

Aviation technicians, managers, engineers, and support persor.nel spend endless hours 

searching for information every day, not to mention the hours they spend creating and 

revising this information. Improvements in the way aviation personnel access information 

will lead to more reliable and more cost-effective air transportation. 

Toward this end, the Federal 

Aviation Administration 

<FAAl Office of Aviation 

Medicine <AAMl Human 

Factors in Aviation 

Maintenance research 

program studied the 

challenges associated with 

creating, accessing, and 

maintaining digital 

documentation using a 

Hypermedia Information 

System <HISl. Hypermedia 

presents material m a 

fashion that encourages 

browsing and discovery by 

combining text, grapnrcs, 

audio. video. and animation. 

Tbs technology can be used 

solely as a tool to access 

information. or it can be 

mtt>grated with job aiding 

and trammg systems 

(Johnson and Norton, 19921. 

The AA.l\1 hypermedia 

research developed and 

distributed the Compact 

Disc, Read-Only Memory 

<CD-ROMJ, shown in Figure 

2.1, in early 1993. 

Hum~~n Factors Issues 

in Aircraft Mainten•nce 

and Inspection 

• Hypermecba Prxeechngs 

of the FAA Meettngs (1968-19921 

and Phase Reoon.s 

• Env1ronmental Control 

System Tutor 

• Portable Periorma!"ICe 

Support Systems for 

AVIatiOn Safety 

!nspectors Demo 

I 

I 

----·I! 

II .I 

I 

11 

Figure 2.1 Human Factors Issues in .AJrcraft :\lainten::mce 

and lnspedion CD-ROM 

This chapter focuses on designing and developing of a Hypermedia Information Systt>m fm· 

the AA.t\1, and the CD-ROM on which the HIS was distributee. It describes tht> current and 

future technical challenges associated with the uevelopment of such a system. 

9 
Chapter Tu:o 

2.1 ASPECTS OF HYPEIL'"EDIA 

Before delving into the specifics of the AA.'\1 HIS and the CD-R0!\.:1, it is flrst necessary to 

pro,·ide some background information aoout hypermed'a and digital documentation. 

2.1.1 Access to Technical Information 

Technici'IIls, depending on their experience and maintenance role, estimate that they spend 

as much as forty percent of their workday accessing technical inforrr,ation. This information 

usually spans many volumes. For example, the maintenance documentation for the Boeing 

727 consists of multiple volumes with more than 33,000 pages e:3.ch (Cruickshank, 1993J. 

Trying to locate all references to a particular component or procedure within such a large 

collection of data is a daunting and time-consuming task. It requires hours of effort, with no 

guarantee oflocating all the references. 

New automated technical systems are referred to by many names, including electronic library 

systems (ELS), hypermedia, digital documentation, and electronic documents. They attempt 

to reduce the amount oftime required to access information. Initial studies have found that 

time required to search a maintenance manual is reduced by as much as forty percEnt when 

the manual is on a CD-ROM rather than on paper or microfiche (Cruickshank, 1993). With 

such technc!Og'j, technicians spend less time accessing information, which allows for more 

~orne directed toward maintenance. Thus, aircraft will be available to produce revenue more 

-2uickly. 

New aircraft such as the Boeing 777 are incorporating ELSs at design time. Since EISs are 

only available for thE newer aircraft, older aircraft do not offer t!lis advantage. Therefore, 

the A:\M research program has been exploring issues involved in creating digital 

documentation to support older aircraft, as well as the other documentation needs in the 

aviation maintenance system. The Hypermedia Information System applies hypermedia 

technology to these needs. The HIS and other results of the AAM progra."!l are containea on 

the Human Factors Issues in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection CD-R0~1-

2.1.2 New Terms for New Technologies 

New technology leads to the need for a new vocabulary. Creating a hypermedia document 

is more than scannin~; hard-copy into digital format. That process would be similar to the 

creation of microfiche, searchable only by an index. The reader would have to refer to the 

index, then ma.'1ually go to the appropriate page. Hypern:edia documents are far mm·e 

powerful than that, and the additional power requires a new vocabulary. This section defines 

common terms used to describe electronic document;;: hypertext. hot u·ords, ar.d h:ypermcdic:.. 

A uc:?ful digital document capitalizes on Hypertext tech.:.J.ology. L .. sing a computer's assist:mce. 

hypertext make5 it possible to establish con~,f'ctions \called Links) within &"ld between 

documents. Hypertext links are ~sually denoted by Hot n,.ords, usiag different colors, fon:s. 

10 
li..vpermedia Information on CD-ROM 

or outlining to dH1erentiate them from the rest of the text. With hyper+ ...ext, fer example, a 

maintenance technician can link the Maintenance M=.ual to the Yillrimum Equipment List. 

Hypermedia extends a hypertext document to include such media as animation, video, and 

audio. For example, with hypermedia in a Maintenance Manual, the reader could clic..lt on a 

hot word to see a video clip that demonstrates a selected maintenance procedure. (For more 

on the basics ofh_y-pertext and hypennedia, see ll'>well, 1992.) 

2.2 THE CD-ROM 

Figure 2.2 shows the main scree:c on the CD-ROM. Each of the six programs shown in the 

figure is described in this chapter. One is an intelligent information retrieval system; two 

are intelligent tutoring systems; ot..e is a demonstratio:a; and two "'re kiosk programs_ The 

first one -- the HIS -- is the foc.zs of the chapter and is discussed first and in Hte most detaiL 

11 
Chapter Two 

2.2.1 The AAM Hypermedia Information System 

The goal of the AA.\1 Hypern:edia Information System \HISJ resea.-ch prog:-am is !0 

investigate hypenneGia technology and how it ~an heip the aviation commu::it.y. ThP 

research strives to create new tools and methods for information storage and retrit-,·al TC1thypermedia research w date has been conducted over a tw:l-yea.r period. 

During the first year of the research. a prototype hypermedia information systeno wa.s 

developed. This is reported in detail elsewhere (Fl:u\/A.-\;.'1 and GSC, 1993). For this syst<-:n. 

a selected subset of publications from the AAM research progra'n were pu! on-lire. Links 

to graphics were then added to the documents. The prototype HIS pro•ided a mech2...'--:.1Sn: for 

viev.ing and searching these documents. T},e product was distributed on floppy discs to ow•r 

liJO persons v:ith P.ither aviatio!l and/or human factors expertise An opinionnaire a.•1c 

informal interviews elicited user feedback on t..he HIS interface. The feedback was positoYe 

and supported further development of the HIS. 

With user feedback from the prototype, as well as on-going use:- evaluatio" of the so:tware. 

the prototype was enhanced during the second ye,- of the research and is described herei::1. 

The enhancements to the HIS made it a turn-key system. It has been used i::1 a rese;-,-d: 

setting, as well as in aviation maintenance and inspection tasks. These applica:oon~ a:·e 

described below, followed by an il::-depth discussion of the HIS. 

2.2.1.1 The ms Supports t!te A"iation Maintenance System 

The HIS has proven its ability to benefit all facets of the Avmtion l\Iaintenance S:•5tem: air 

~:arriers, schools, aviation maintenance tec;-micians, researchers, etc. The version of the HIS 

presented on the CD-ROl\1 addressed ~he needs of aviation researchers. !t wa~ also 

successfully incorpor3ted 1nto botJ1 a mainttnance traiiling e::n."ironment. as \veH as :2 JO~ 3id 

for aviation safety inspectors. 

2.2.1.1.1 The Research Community 

The development of the first AAM CD-R0;\1 presented most of the challenges t:C::1: ::"' 

industry would face in production of digital data. J::JN:uments wer<' selt>cted for the HiS 

library based on the foilowing criteria: (1) documents that would have ,-alut> for the FA.-\. :he> 

aviation industry, and the research prograrn and \2J documents in the pubEc dom:1:n so :!o.:n 

the end product could bt- distributed at no charge_ \Vith these criteri3~ it bec:t."'llP ob;.-:o:.l~ ::':~l.t 

the CD-RO)l documer.t 1ib!"a..."':-..· shouJd induCe the product$ of th€ }\.vj::.t~or! :\leC.ici:;.~: !!:.2~:~!1: 

Factors in Aviation ~lair:.tena.liCe researd-: program. These produc:s inciude ,.,.,,,,·:~ ::::d 

conference proceedings which encompass OYer 1.700 p:1g£>~ oftex: and over 500 gY:1;11::t:=c: 

12 
Hypermedia Informatio" on CD-ROM 

2.2.1.1.2 Training for Aviation Maintenance Technicians 

Using hypennedia technology, a version of the Environmental. Control System (ECSJ Tutor 

(described in more detail below) provides links from the Tutor to the HIS. The library for 

this new Tutor us~s te"t and graphics directly from the cooperating airlme·s trailling 

manuals, allowing direct access to information in a format familiar to those using tile TutDr. 

This replaces the abridged formRt presented in earlier versions. With the data in the HIS. 

the student can browse t''·; infonnation or search -:>r specific topics while troubleshoocing 

with the Tutor. 

2.2.1.1.3 A Job Aid for Aviation Safety Inspectors 

The HIS also supports a Job Aid for Aviation Safety !nspe..--tors. The Job Aid (described in 

F AA/A.AJ.f & GSC, 1993) supports the Aviation Safety Inspector in a variety of regulatory 

activities. The Inspector accesses various manuals and guidelines throughout the wo,-k day. 

A version of the HIS modified the interface to :neet inspectors" special requests. 

To demonstrate the power of the HIS for job aiding, several key FARs were incorporated into 

a new library. The HIS allows the Inspector to browse and sea.1·ch 6" FAR iibrary for 

specific information related to the particular irrspect;_on task. 

2.2.1.2 ms Features 

The protot}'-pe HIS, developed in the first year of resea.:·ch, demonstrated the tremendous 

pote!:!tial ofh)--permedia tec:P..nology for AA..VI research. but it was just a prototype. Over ±e 

last year, the functionality of the ms has been increased to give readers more power to 

browse and search through the hypermedia documents. Tne ms· features that suppo:t th<.> 

reader in naY'ieating the s:.ystem, vie\\ing and searching a documen:.~ ~d pri:1:ing !ex: and 

graphics are described below. 

2.2.1.2.1 Navigation 

The HIS provides the reader with multiple ways to navigate through a co:lec:!on {,f 

<:locuments, .o::- :- ~'brary: the Bockshelf. t.'le Table of Co::lten:.s. and t1:e (};er;i{•W :>lap The 

Bookshelf, s:-,ov.-n in Figure 2.3. is the first display the reader .,_ es in :he HIS. The rt':l.Gt'l" 

chcoses a library to vie~~ from the Bookshelf. The nu:r..bert''ri i( ,;_ ~s ii! th? bot:om >~:: of the 

screen represent :nine different libraries i4 this example. 

13 
Chapter Two 

Once the reader selects a library, the Tahle of Contents for that library appears, as shown 

in Figure 2.4. When the reader selects one of the displayed chupters, that chapter's text 

then appears. 

I ~out ! 

i

1

· FAA Hvpcrmeclle 

lnfoi'IHtloa S.,stan 

I 

~ 

HuMA." fACJORS ISSUB 

iN AiRCAAfr MAi"W<ANC£ 

.. ...0 1'15pECtio• 

, ... ~.llrtri..,...loMCtr-tae 

:J..a: SMI!lo., del-. ... \MJ:: ic-. 

3ooi(.~:i 

~;(o~llllallllllll ~~-

Figure 2.3 The HIS Bookshelf 

A> out 

I

I ~=;AV~e~or. A..~l!".;~e":X J.!eet::;g c:;, 

Human Fa.ctors Issues 

in Aircraft Maintenance 

and~~~~ 

! 

II I~- Manta.. • · 6 AogusU5!12 

Geotgia 

.. -~---· 

I• 

I :,· ~' 

,,~3:@.~1 I 

I H II 

Figure 2.4 Table of Contents 

14 
Hypermedia Information on CD-ROM 

A->1other way to choose a chapter is to use the Overview Map, as shown in Figu...-e 2.5. The 

Overview Map provides a more detailed list of a library's contents than the Table of Contents. 

When the reader selects a rectangular document icon, that document's text then app 'ars. 

:>e><ch 

OverView 

! 

11-. I! 

~;~~-· 

Fi gu re 2.5 The HIS Overview Man 

The system also maintains internal book.1narks to aid na>igation. An internal bookmark 

remembers the reader's place in a document in the same way that a paper bookmark keeps 

the reader's place in a paper book. For exam. pie, if the reader is vie\'\ing the "Foreword," goes 

to the Overview Map, and then wants to return to the "Foreword," the HIS returns to the last 

location in the "Foreword," instead ofretu..'lling to the first line of the "Foreword." 

2.2.1.2.2 Viewing Area 

The document viewing area shown in Figure 2.6 allows a reader to scroll through and read 

a hype:media docume:n. Text formatting such as boldface, italics, and underlining enables 

the on-line documem to resemble the original. 

\\.hile vie,;..ing a docu:nent. a reader may come across a !1ot word. i:1dicating a li;;.k_ Tl:e hot 

won! is enclos<>d in a rectanglE'. When selected by the reader. some hot words will link w a 

graphic. A Graphics \'iewPr will display the figure, as show:> in Figure 2.7. 

15 
Chapter Two 

2.2.1.2.3 

Searcl'l ~iew frint Addendum 

J'""r:, Scienco, Technology, and 

~ Manaqement 

Jo:-.nson/NortonfUtsman- New Technology 

for the Schoolhouse and Righthne 

Masntanance Environments 

2 0 INTEGRATED INFORMATION 

There~ s;::ecflc knowledge. skll!s. ett:tudes o..,d other ctu~reoensttcr 

necessSJylor e. hume.r1 to perform ~Jobtesk 'WhUe ::::erteJn hum!!!': 

dlerl!ldensbc:s neces:.etryfcr JOb performance ere mnate. most ere dew loped 

lhrough-n:penence. or marety by the worker osklng ~nwto do the 

JOb • k integrcted •nformot~on sy5t3m {!IS) {Johnsen. 81: oL 1992) con 

prOVIde tram.ngtexpenence. recJ·bme Job-eldmg. end also after e menuol so 

that the worker c:&"' "look"1Jp"1he mformallo!'l e.; appropnete 

Integrated •rl!orme:bon systems shou!d meke the wolker ob:r.,ous to the 

differences bei'N8en tralnmg end the worlo:. el'l'lllfOflmant To ec:::omphsh ltus. 

!ISs rnus! share 1he se.'Tle sources ol k::~owiedge tor tr01n1ng !Yid klrworklng 

Thlil vworker must cons.der llSs as "ml'ormebon•. not as eaner-ert~mm13 or Job 

e.Jd•ng 

llSs must be developed bye mulll-dlsopbnerytaem c:;. "pnsed of reseerd'ler& 

With expenence m tremmg. JOt. a;dmg_ and .:nlormetJon retneval Therelore 

Figure 2.6 The Document Viewing Area 

Saence. Technology_ and 

Manaqement 

JohnsonJNortonJUtsman- New Technology 

for the Schoolhouse and Aightline 

Mamtenance EnVIronments 

completed the system Wl!! contam e complete set ottechno~ m~Y~uf''s >IOllh a 

hypermed•a •nterlece 

<4 2 AVIATION HUWAN FACTORS PUBLICATION 

T!:e Federol AVIOtlor. A::lmmlsb"c~•on. Office of AVlotJcn MeC1one 

dE!\Ie-!opmg e r:ypem~edu~! '":::•~;;;~~F'l~~~~~~~~~;,;~• three-year Ius tory of the lc 

tn!ormet11:Jr> system 

phol::~gr®"'S MC othe1 

been ltiSitumen:~ '" 

be1r:g deveto;:;-ed e! 

thiS : 

proJeC'I hes resulted'" 

.nlol'fl'lebor: enci tr.e ceet;Ofl of tt->e 

Searching 

~ 

n 

! 

I 

ll 

u 

·-

One of thP most powerful featu!E'S of a hypt>:--~~t->d!a system is its abihty to qu1ckiy !oc:!tt: 

spec"ific ·~·ords in large amoun:.s of text without the reader ha• .. ·ing to scan each lin'"' o: tE..,x: 

16 
Hypermedia Information on CD-ROM 

A reader perfonns a search by typing in a query, as shown in Figure 2.8. The HIS then 

rapidly searches all documents in the library and highlights the document icons on the 

Overview Map which satisfy the query. From that point, the reader can select a document 

for viewing that contains the "search hits." Once the selected document is loaded, the reader 

can use menu items to find the exact locations oftr.e search hits. Search hits are highlighted 

to provide the context, as shown in Figure 2.6. 

· Text Search · · 

~pute1 and tJaining 

(!) What text are JOU searching for? 

OK 

Cancel 

Figure 2.8 Search Query Dialogue Box 

The HIS supports four types of searching: tenn, wildcard, phrase, and Boolean. "Term" 

search, the simplest, is a search for one specific term, such as comvuter. Every document 

which contains this term will be highlightr. on the Overview Map. 

The "wildcard" search allows the reader to look for variations of a term, e.g., computer, 

computers. computing. For example, compute* would highlight all documents containing any 

variation of"compute". A document with "compute" (or "computer", or "computer-based'', etc.J 

would match the search, but a document with "computing" would not. 

"Phrase" searching enables the reader to specify the order and adjacency of multiple term~. 

For example, phrase searching for "computer training" will only display places whc·re th:1t 

exact phrase appears. The reader specifies a phrase search by placing quotes :1round thcphrase. 

The "Boolean" search combines any of the above types with Boolean operators (A.'\'D, OR. 

NOT). For instance, computers or "computer train.ing" will identify documents which con win 

either the word "computers" or the phrase "computer training". 

2.2.1.2.4 Printing 

The second year HIS also provides several ways to print information. Two nwnu itt•nb. 

"Print Selected Text" and "Print Document", are available from the document viewin~ ~CI't'l'll 

"Print Selected Text" allows the reader to highlight text as small as a single word u~ing tlw 

mouse and to send that portion of the document to the printer. "Print Document" prinb the 

entire current document. 

17 
Chapter Two 

As text might not provide the only pertinent information in a hypermedia system, a printing 

capability exists in the Graphics Viewer as welL This allows the reader to print any graphic 

that is referenced by a document. 

2.2.1.2.5 On-line Help 

An extensive, on-line help program exists in the HIS. It describes the features of the HIS 

a11d assists a reader in navigating through the HIS. 

2.2.2 Other CD-ROM Applications 

The CD-ROM showcases software developed in support of the Federal Aviation 

Administration. In addition to the HIS, the applications include two intelligent tutoring 

systems, two video kiosk programs, and one demonstration of a job aid currently under 

development. 

2.2.2.1 The Environmental Control System <ECS) Tutor 

This software was sponsored by the FAA AA.M. as part of the Human Factors in Aviation 

Maintenan~e research program and is described in Phase II <FANA!u"\f & GSC, 1993) and 

Phase III Volume 1 <FANAAM & GSC, 1993). The ECS Tutor investigates the use of 

advanced technology in maintenance training. This intelligent simulation compares models 

of the student, the instructor, and the ECS expert to rrovide remediation to the student and 

uses the student's previous performance to decide when the student requires assistance in 

troubleshooting a malfunction. 

The ECS Tutor software simulates the operation of the Air Conditioning portion of the 

Environmental Control System (ECSl for the P-767-300 and assumes some background 

knowledge of this system. The system can operate in two modes: normal operating mode and 

malfunction mode. Normal operating mode lets the students manipulate the switch lights 

and control knobs as needed to observe normal ECS operation. The ECS will respond as 

demanded, just like in the '"real" world. Mal!unction mode presents component malfunctions 

to the student. The ECS displays data values corresponding to the current malfunction. 

2.2.2.2 Portable Performance Support System Demo 

This software demonstration was sponsored by the FAA Office of Aviation Medicine. The 

Portable Perfor.narce Support System (PPSS) demo provides an overview of the FA.-\'s efforts 

to apply pen computer and hypermedia technology to provide real-time job aiding <ind 

information retrieval for Flight Standards Activities. The PPSS has since been renamed the 

Performance Enhancement System <PENS). The initial target users are Aviation Safety 

Inspectors. 

18 
Hypermedia Information on CD-ROM 

Aviation Safety Inspecrors perform a variety of tasks, including accident and incident 

investigation, certificate ma.J.agement, and aircraft inspection. Aviation Safety Inspecrors 

must document their activities on forms. The FAA would like the inspecrors ro recoi"d their 

data in a format that can be directly srored in the database. 

Not only must inspzcrors maintain theii" records, but they must have access ro the large 

amounts of information relevant ro their jobs. Such information includes Federal Aviation 

Regulations, Airwort.'i}iness Di.rectives, Advisory Circula..""S, and other documents. PENS will 

use the HIS to provide ready access to such information. (J...n in-depth description of this 

system is found in FANAAM & GSC, 1S93.} 

2.2.2.3 Office of Aviation Medicine Video Brochure 

This software was sponsored by the FAA Office of Aviation Medicine. It describes the goals, 

organization, and work of the FAA AA.l\1 by allowing the user ro browse through a series of 

short video clips. 

2.2.2.4 The Air Traffic Control Beacon Interrogator Tutor 

This software was sponsored by the FAA Technical Center, Advanced System Technology 

Branch <ACD-350). This proof-of-concept turor investigates the use of advanced technology 

in Airways Facilities maintenance training. The goal of the training system is ro help 

experienced technicians maintain proficiency. 

This tutor contains a simulation of the Air Traffic Control Beacon Interrogator (ATCBI-4) and 

references information about the ATCBI-4, including part/output descriptions, 

testladjustment/replacement explanations, preventive maintena:·1ce procedures, standard and 

tolerance values, and functionai block schematics. 

2.2.2.5 The FAA Human Factors Laboratory Video Overview 

This softv--are was sponsored by the FAA Technical Center. It introduces the goals and 

facilitiE's of the Human Factors Laboratory <HFi,) at the FAll. Technical Center in New Jersey 

through a series of short video clips and still images. The mission of the HFL is to ensure 

optimum safety as greater demands are placed upon the National Airspace System. As a 

facility feat, iring state-of-the-art technology and an innovative structural configuration, the 

HFL ,..,jJJ have a great impact on the movement of aviation inro tile next century. 

2.2.3 Production of the CD-ROM 

The HIS and other applications were distributed on CD-ROM for two reasons: a CD-ROM 

holds large amounts of data and it is a cost effective means of distribution. This section 

19 
Chapter Two 

describes how much data a CD-ROM holds, how one is produced, and how much production 

costs. 

2.2.3.1 Hmr1 Much a CD-ROM Holds 

A CD-ROM disc contains approximately 650 Megabytes of storage, the rough equivalent of 

325,000 pages of text. The HIS and ihe library together used 40 Megabytes of storage, 

ieaving ample disc space for other applications. 

Because of the volume of data, any other means of distribution would be costly and 

cumbersome. The potential of a CD-ROM disc to store vast amounts of information ensures 

its continued use for distributing the HIS and any application libraries. Even if a CD-ROM 

disc eventually reaches capacity, the system can be distributed over multip!e CD-ROM discs. 

2.2.3.2 How One is Produced 

A CD-ROM is a storage medium simiiar to floppy and hard discs. It holds digital data like 

floppy and hard disks, with one important distinction: once the CD-ROM is produced, a user 

can only read from it. Therefore, the creator of a CD-ROM must take special care in its 

preparation. 

In order to produce the CD-ROM, Galaxy contracted with a disc manufacturing company. 

The first step in the process was to gather all of the data files for the CD-ROM and to send 

tbem to the disc manufacturer for premastering. During this process. the manufacturer put 

the liles into a special format along with error detection and correction codes to produce a 

proof disc that was returned to Galaxy. 

Galaxy thoroughly tested the proof to ensure that neither the disc manufacturer nor Galaxy 

had inadvertently left data files off the disc. From the proof, a me.ster disc was produced. 

The master disc was duplicated, producing the CD-ROM discs that were distributed to the 

aviation maintenance community. 

2.2.3.3 How Much a CD-ROM Costs to Produce 

Table 2.1 shows ihe production costs for the AAM CD-ROM. The CD-ROM package 

contained the disc, an 8-page booklet describing each application, and an inlay card for the 

CD-ROM jewel case. The CD-ROM discs, holding 650 Megabytes of data, cost approximately 

$1.75 each in lots of 1000. These 1992 prices are expected to drop in the future. The 

accompanying 9 pages of paper documentation cost as much as the CD-ROM disc' '!'his 

clearly illustrates the cost advantage of digital documents over paper documents. 

20 
Hypermedia Information on CD-ROM 

Table 2.1 CD-ROM Production Costs 

PRODUCT QUANTITY COST 

Premastering Disc 1 $ 500.00 

Proof Discs 2 $ 400.00 

Master Disc 1 $ 500.00 

CD-ROM Replicas 950 (+50 free) $ 1710.00 

Total $ 3110.00 

8 Page Booklet 1000 $ 1512.00 

Inlay Card 1000 $ 265.00 

Total $ 1777.00 

2.3 THE FUTURE 

The HIS shows great promise in all areas of the Aviation Maintenance System and will 

continue to evolve. The HIS developers look to the following goals for guidance with future 

enhancements: 

• To support a wider variety of media. 

• To support a wider range of users by offering more methods for na,·igating 

documents. 

• To provide tools for the creators of hypermedia documents. 

• To support existing and emerging documentation standards. 

The following sections describe plans to enhance the HIS in support of these goals. 

2.3.1 Additional Media 

The HIS Graphics Viewer allows the reader to view a PCX-formatted picture - enlarging. 

reducing, or printing the picture as needed. A PCX-formatted picture is the only medium 

other than text which the HIS supports. Because a computer-based document can 

incorporate many different types of media, future HIS enhancements will support new media 

and graphics formats. 

Possible graphics formats include, among others, bitmap (BMPl. encapsulated postscript 

(EPS), graphics interchange file <GIFl, targeted image file format (TIFF). and Joint 

Photographic Experts Group (JPEGl. Additionally, more innovative types of medi~ for 

computer presentation, e.g., sound, video, animation, etc., will be supported. A 1\lultimPdi:J. 

Viewer will be added to play audio, video, animation, CD, etc. A reader will be ablE' to accpss 

the media through a hot word in the manner currently used for static graphics. 

21 
Chapter Two 

2.3.2 Navigating Documents 

A traditional paper book provides several methods for navigating its contents: a Table of 

Contents, an Index, and simple page turning. Likewise, a hypermedia information system 

must provide multiple methods for navigating a hypermedia document. This is important 

be.::ause different readers access information in different ways. As mentioned earlier, the HIS 

currently provides a Bookshelf, a Table of Contents, E:Il Overview Map, and Internal 

Bookmarks. Future enhancements to the HIS will add a more flexible Table of Contents and 

user,definable Bookmarks. 

The improved Table of Contents will act as a textual representation of the library, similar 

to its graphical counterpart, the Overview Map. A reader will be able to view the sections 

as a "collapsed" Table of Contents, as is done 12ow, or to expand a section to see what 

subsections fall within it, as shown in Table 2.2. 

Table 2.2 Collapsed and Expanded Table of Contents 

Collapsed Table of Contents 

1.0 Introduction 

2.0 Continued Growth of the HIS 

3.0 The HIS Supports the Autation 

Maintenance System 

4.0 A Plan to Support the Human 

Factors Guide 

5.0 The Future 

Expanded Table of Contents 

1.0 Introduction 

2.0 Contin~ed Growth of the HIS 

3.0 The HIS Supports the lwiation 

Maintenance System 

3.1 Training for Aviation 

Maintenance Technicians 

3.2 A Job Aid for Aviation 

Safety Inspectors 

4.0 A Plan to Support the Huma..'l. 

Factors Guide 

5.0 The Future 

The current HIS provides system-defined internal bookmarks. However, it is sometimes 

desirable for a reader to mark a place in a document. A bookmarking capability will be 

added to the HIS to create multiple bookmarks for a document. 

2.3.3 Tools for Creating Hypermedia Documents 

As mentioned earlier, a hypermedia document is more than just a digital version of a p~per 

document. It may contain links to other documents, graphics, animation, and even other 

software programs. Before a digital document can be called a hypermedia document, 

someone must transform it from its original form into a form by the HIS can use. Just as 

a "reader" views, or reads, the hypermedia document, a..'l. "author" creates the hypermedia 

document. The author's job is similar to that of an editor, i.e., to gather source material into 

a cohesive form. A hypermedia author does the same, but also defines the re:ationships 

among the different source3 (text, graphics, audio, video, and animation). 

22 
Example: 

Hypermedia Information on CD-ROM 

An author wants to transform a maintenance manual (already in digital 

format) into a hypermedia document. The manual has wiring diagrams and 

pictures of components. Also, the manual describes certain removal and 

installation procedures for which the manufacturer has supplied video. 

Using this example, the author would first access three different source 

materials: the text of the maintenance manual, the graphics files containing 

the pictures and diagrams, and the video files of the procedures. The author 

must bring these three types of information to a common destination -- the 

hypermedia library. By adding references in the text to link information with 

other source materials, the author transforms the digital document into a 

hypermedia document. 

In order to faditate the creation of hypermedia documents, future work will provide support 

tools for the author. The research will investigate ways to make the conversion from existing 

source documents to their hypermedia counterparts less time-consuming. One solution will 

be to provide filters for existing word processing packages. The filters will translate the 

source documents into hypermedia documents, preserving all previously formatted text. 

Additionally, the authoring process will be streamlined, integrating all such authoring tools 

into one seamless authoring environment. 

2.3.4 Documentation Standards 

The HIS prov ~d that hypermedia technology is useful to the aviation community. For the 

HIS to continue to succeed, it must adhere to aviation documentation standards, such as Air 

Transport Association Specification 100 (ATA Spec 100) and Standard Generalized Markup 

Language (SGML) (Goldfarb, 1990). 

Also, because commercial and military aviation have many similarities, the HIS must 

consider Department of Defense (DoD) standards as well. The DoD mandates th.at the 

Federal Computer-aided Acquisition and Logistical Support (CALS) program adhere to 

SGML. Also, new weapons systems are using Interactive Electronic Technical Manual 

OETM) Specifications. The HIS will consider these and other emerging standards in future 

versions. 

2.4 CONCLUSIONS/SUMMARY 

Tough economic times in the aviation industry have forced air carriers to find ways to reduce 

costs without sacrificing safety. Hypermedia technology provides such a way. Advanced 

technology information systems such as the HIS showcased on the AAM CD-ROM save time 

and money (Johnson, in press). In addition, by providing a complete search of the 

information, these systems support safer maintenance. The HIS is an important part of 

safer, more cost-effective maintenance. Continued, enthusiastic cooperation from the aviation 

industry will make further progress with hypermedia technology possible. 

23 
C terTwo 

2.5 REFERENCES 

Cruickshank, D. (Spring, 1993). Moving mountains at Boeing. IRIS Universe, pp. 12-17. 

Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Aviation Medicine & Galaxy Scientific Corporation. 

(1993). Human factors in aviation maintenance· Phase two progress report. Washington, DC: 

Federal Aviation Administration. (Report No .. DOT/F.AA/AM-93/5). 

Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Aviation Medicine & Galaxy Scientific Corporation. 

(1993). Human factors in aviaticn maintenance - Phase three, volume one progress report. 

(Report No. DOT/FAA/AM-93/15). 

Goldfarb, C.F. (1990). The SGML Handbook. New York: The Oxford University Press. 

Howell, G.T. (1992). Building Hypermedia Applications: A Software Development Guide. 

McGraw Hill, Inc. 

Johnson, W.B. (in press). Human factors research: Can it have an impact on a financially 

troubled avi.ation industry? Proceedings of the 37th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and 

Ergonomics Society. Seattle, Washirgton: The Human Factor> and Ergonomics Society. 

Johnson, W.B. & Norton J.E. (1992). Integrated information for maintenance training, aiding, 

and on-line documentation. Proceedings 36th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Society. 

Atlanta, GA: The Human Factors Society. 

24 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for A!Jiation Maintenance 

CHAPTER THREE 

GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING 

COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING FOR AVIATION l\lAil'.'TENA.l\iCE 

3.0 ABSTRACT 

This report is an overview of computer-based training (CBTl hardware, software, a.'ld 

instructional design. It will assist aviation maintenance training and FAA inspection 

personnel in making informed decisions about CBT. A central part of this report is the 

description of a process for analyzing the instructional requirements for a specific task and 

then selecting a CBT program or designing and implementing a program from scratch. The 

intended audience for this report includes FAA managers, aviation training managers and 

instructors, and others interested in CBT design and implementation. After reading t;1is 

report, the reader will have a better understanding of the managerial, instruct!onal. and 

technological issues involved in selecting or implementing CBT programs. 

3.1 INTRODUCTION 

Broadly defined. a computer-based training (CBTl system is a combination of computers and 

special software for training and education. Within this broad definition, there are ma.ny 

different approaches, systems, and technologies. Their common goal is to transfer skills and 

knowledge from an expert to the student via a computer system in such a way that the 

knowledge will develop and/or improve performance on a set of tasks. This goal is the same 

as that of instructional systems in general, including instructional aids, text book;<, and 

instructors. What differentiates a CBT system from traditional teaching me>thods is :hcl CBT 

can be interactive, dynamic, and individualized. CBT does not require one-on-one i:ott>r·actio:J 

v:ith an instructor. The computer program can be designed to simulate a piece of equipmem. 

tc react to user actions, and to provide useful feedback when the user makes m:stak<·~­

Sections 3.2 and 3.3 of this report describe CBT in detail. 

3.1.1 Purpose of This Report 

This report is for 

• FAA managers 

• Aviation training managers 

• Aviation training instructors 

• Those who are interested in designing and implementing CBT systems. 

This report 

• Prov:ides an overview ofCBT hardware, software, and instructional design 

• Helps aviation maintena...-·1ce training and F A.A,. inspection personnel to ma.l;.e ir..forn:.-d 

CBT decisions 

25 
Chapter Three 

• Presents a process for designing and implementing CBT systems 

• Describes the issues that instructional design teams sh&uld consider in designing and 

implementing CBT systems. 

The reader does not need to be familiar with CBT design and imple!Ilentation to understand 

and apply this report but should be familiar with a•iation training issues. The author 

assumes that the reader's organization does not currei!tly have CBT capability. Additional 

infonnation relevant to the topics covered in this report can be found in Section 3.9, 

"P.eferences ... 

3.1.2 Overview of Part 147 Changes Related to CBT 

Appendix A of FAR 147 describes curriculum requirements. Recent revisions to that section 

under "(c) Teaching material and equipment," state the following: 

The curriculum may be presented utilizing currently accepted educational 

materials and equipment, including, but not limited to: calculators, computers, 

and audio-visual equipment. 

While this revision is loosely worded, it is interpreted to mean t.'lat CBT can be a reasonable 

part of the approved Part 147 school curriculum. Explicit guidelines for FAA inspectors have 

not yet been issued. However, it is generally expected that student hours spent with CBT 

will become an approved portion of school curriculum. This report w1l1 contribute toward 

malring CBT an approved part of the school curriculu.'ll. 

3.2 OVERVIEW OF COMPul'ER-BASED TRATh!NG 

Before an orga."lization attempts to p:-oduce or use a CBT system, it needs to examine its need 

fer training a..'1d rmderstand the issues involved in CBT design, production, and use. This 

includes knowledge of what makes CBT successful or U."lsuccessful. This section describes 

t.~e issues involved in deciding whether CBT should be applied to aviation maintena11ce 

training tasks. 

3.2.1 When to Use CBT 

There are no strict rules for deciding when CBT shollid and should not be app!ied. The 

abili:y to judge the appropriateness of fu"lY training technology comes from k."l<'wledge of the 

technology, experience with previous applications of the technology, and k.'lowledge of the 

training task. Each training tedmology has its ovm peculiarities that ma..,_e it approp~·iate 

for certain types of tasks and domains, and inappropriate for others. In the case of CBT .. 

these peculiarities include t..l:te interactivity oi training, the ability to include s<.>veral 

26 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

infonnati<:>n types, and the individuali~tion ofinstmction. Table S.llists situations when 

CBT is genera!ly appropriate. 

On the other hand, CBT does not currently provide support for all types oftrainh:lg. The lack 

of realism in current computer interfaces and the difficulty of providing intelligent hum~'lcomputer dialog means t.h.at some treining is better accomplished with other methods. Table 

3.2 lists situations when CBT is usually inappropriate. 

Table 3.1 When CBT is generally appropriate 

Textbook teaching methods are used in cu.-rrent course curriculum ~ 

Task requires strong problem-solving skills 11 

I • 

r : 

I • 

Students need to understand dynamic behavior of equipment ~ 

Real equipment is too expensive for training !I 

Task is dangerous 1! 

There are not enough human instructors available ~~~- • 

• 

j • Flexibility of training schedule is desirable 

!

!l .· Training needs to be delivered to multiple, decentralized sites 

I

I • Students need extensive practice and review to accomplish task nl· 

Students have wide range of experience and back~unds II 

~==C==o=n=s=is=t=e=n=c=y==of==tr=aln=i==i=n=g=~=·=,=·xn= .. =p=o=rtan====t==========================~ jj 

Table 3.2 Wnen CBT is generally inappropriate 

r-l • Significant psychomotor or sensory skills are required fer task 

i • Training requires significant instructor/student interaction 

11 • Aesthetic judgement is required for task evaluation 

11 • E:ll.-tensive team skills need development 

!1 • Few students require training 

jl • Training needs to be implemented quickly 

ll 

~ !I 

ll 

~~ ]f 

~I 

As shov.-n in Figure 3.1, t.he:re are two reasons for applying CBT to a particular- task: reduced 

cost and improved performa.·u:e \Kearsley, 1982). In the case of reduced cost, the goal is to 

pro\ide training more cost effectively than the current method wiule maintaining the quality 

of training. Cost savi11gs can come from reduced v:ork force requirements, decreased travel 

cost, lower trairJng equip!!'.ent costs, and a decrease in the time required to attain knowledge 

or skill proficiency. For example, a CBT program that teaches a new Imrintenance prvcedure 

could be more cost-effective than teacrung the procedure "ith an instructor because of money 

saved in travel and per diems. Imp;"c\·ed performance. the second reason for applying CBT. 

results from the high-ievel ofinteracth•ity possible v.ith grapbca! computer simulations. For 

example, a CBT program could improve technicians' troubleshooting abilities by allowing 

ther:1 to practice and improve their diagnostic skills. A CBT pro~-n can provide realistic 

27 
Chapter Three 

sin:mlation that rivals that of on-the-job experience, without the danger, equipment, and :in:e 

required for on-the-job training. 

There are financial tradeoffs to consider when comparing CBT to t:-aditional training. 

Figure 3.2 shows a generic trend compar'.ng the development and delive::y costs be:ween the 

two methods. The initial development cost for CBT is often higher than fur traditional 

instruction. However, over time the CBT deliver}· cost is likely to be less than tha: of 

traditional instruction. Financial considerations are also discussed ir: Section 3.4.1.3. 

~ p 

E 

I 

R 

c f 

0 0 

s R 

T M 

A 

II 

N 

c 

I E 

CST TRAOlT!ONAL CST 

Figure 3.1 CBT goal to lower cost and increase ::.,:,rformance 

CBT TRADITIONAL 

n 

E 

L 

I 

v 

E 

R 

y 

c 

0 

s 

T 

CST 

1RADI110NAL 

TRADITIONAL 

Figure 3.2 Comparison of development and delivery costs for CBT and traditional 

training. 

28 

II 

.j 

II 

' I 

II 

., 

l! II " 

ll 

II ·I 

II I 

' lj 

II 

!I ,, 

II 

,, 

ii .. 

!j 

lj 

,. :I 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

3.3 CBT OPTIONS 

There are many decisions to make in designing and implementing a CBT system. The 

selection of approaches and technologies should be based on the organization's instructional 

needs and budget. This section describes factors that must be considered when creating CBT 

programs. 

3.3.1 Instructional Approach 

Depending on the type of information and knowledge being taught to the student, there are 

usually several appropriate instructional approaches. For example, to ieach the rules of the 

road, a standard present-and-test approach is appropriate. Actual driving (or a si:nulationi 

is appropriate for teaching the physical and coordination skills necessary for safe dri,·ing. 

This report lists several common approaches to instruction and gives examples of when each 

is appropriate. l\otf' that a CBT program may combine several of these elements. For 

exa1nple. a "simulation-bas<"d" CBT could include a..'l "intelligent training" component. Table 

3.3 lists four instructional approaches. 

Table 3.3 Instructional approaches 

What is it? When to use it? li 

! Linf'ar Resembles book reading Teaching facis and p:rocedu,.,., !J 1_ 

3.3.1.1 Linear Training 

The linear training method of CBT present<; the matf'rial in much the same way 25 a book. 

Users can "step" forward aad backward through the material. and possibly j:.::r::p to ot!wr 

topics aad subjects. Typically, the instructional design is taken from a book or lesson pbn 

:hat has been used to t-each th~ course in the past. Linear t.!'aining diffe!'s frorn a book in 

that the program can use multiple types of presentation methods. includir::g graphics. nudio. 

and video. Multiple types of media (multi~edia1 can ::nake such a CBT system more 

interesting and instructive than a book or lecture. 

Linear training is most appropriate v..·hen the mate-rial being taught co:1sists of procedul't•s. 

lists of items, or regulations that the student must memorize. One example ofhn~ar traiJling 

is a CBT system that teaches the procedures for starting up a...'"1 aircraft's engines. This :ype 

29 
Chapter Three 

of task requires that the technician follow procedures in a specifk order, so linear 

p:-esentation of the material is appropriate. The testing unit of the CBT could then ask the 

user to order the procedures in the correct sequence. Linear training is usually the easiest 

to use, and it is also the least complex to design and implement. CBT that uses linear 

training has to be carefully designed to hold the user's attention, since linear presentations 

can quickly become monotonous. 

3.3.1.2 Simulation-based Training 

A simulation-based CBT system differs from a linear training system in that the former 

attempts to simulate some type of task through dynamic graphics. The software provides a 

realistic imitation of the necessary equipment and activities and behaves like the "real" 

world. For example, the CBT may require the student to troubleshoot a piece of equipment 

by inspecting, testing, and replacing its components. By simulating only the important 

features of a task, simulation-based CBT can provide cheaper, faster, and safer training than 

a real system, while requiring limited supervision from an instructor. 

Simulation-based training should be used when the training task involves the manipulation 

of complicated equipment or when the equipment itself is too expensive to use for training. 

Exam pies of such training systems are a CBT that trains for avionics troubleshooting skills 

or a CBT that teaches the operation of NDI equipment. The way that a student uses a 

simu:ation-based system is much less constrained than the way a linear CBT works, since 

the student can perform the actions in any order. 

3.3.1.3 Intelligent Tutoring 

An intelligent tutoring system <ITSJ mimics the instructional strategies of an instructor or 

dom"'n expert. An ITS can give advice, provide feedback, and explain mistakes. The levels 

of intelligence in ITSs vary from "canned" text feedback to expert systems that understand 

the domain being taught. By automating some of the assistance that ins!ructors usually have 

to repeat several times. ITS can provide consistent training to a large number of studo>nts. 

An ITS cannot replace the role of the instructor because computer programs currently lack 

the jntelligt>nce and flexibility of huma.11 trainers. Computer intelligence in training should 

be spen as an instructio:1al aid. An ITS can provide help for the simple, commonly asked 

questions. while the instrucwr pr;::wides the ans\vers for the harder questions. These systeT:ls 

can perform some of the simple training and help tasks of the instructor, but the tasks 

rpquirir.g large amounts of interactivity and inte11ige::~ce shoc.ld be left to the inst~uctor. By 

au!omnting these tasks, the instructor has more time to answer the difficult questions a.'ld 

pwvide individualized instruction to students who need more help. 

30 
Guidelines for Designing ami Implenu!nting CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

3.3.1.4 Microworld Training 

Instead of simulating a piece of equipment or a particular task as a simulation-based trainer 

does, a microworld trainer models an entire job for a particular worker. The microworld 

trainer attempts to give a realistic context for problem solving, thus increasing the chance 

that the user will remember what he or she learned in the training while on the job. An 

aviation technician microworld CBT, for example, would simulate the cognitive tasks of 

troubleshooting, and allow the technician to replace parts and test the equipment. 

Microworld training is most appropriate when the goal is to teach cognitive s:tills. Most textbased trainin; systems attempt to teach the user a set of facts; a microworld trainer imbeds 

these facts in real-world problem solving. Microworld training provides the user with a 

context for problem solving_ making it easier to remember when a similar situation occurs 

on the job. 

Another advantage of microworld training is that it can be extremely engaging when designed 

correctly, thus motivating the student to use the CBT. Microworld computer games have 

high entertainment value, in compa.r:ison with other computer games, because the player has 

full control over the course of the game. 

Remember: The instructional approaches described above are not mutually 

exclusive. C:>mbine them to meet the students' instructional needs. 

3.3.2 Presentation Formats 

The training and instructional analysis provides a functional description of what informatioa 

the CBT must provide to the user. Presentation media affects a CBT's cost so the media 

should be selected based on instructional criteria, rather than any aE-sthetic judgements or 

preferences. Common presentation formats are summarized in Table 3.4. 

3.3.2.1 Text 

Text is the most common CBT presentation format, since all computers support text. Text 

can be used to identify and describe processes, objects, and procedures. 'Nhile audio 

narration has a fixed rate of playback, text allows the reader to absorb information at his or 

her own pace. One drawback of text is that the low resolution of most computer monitors 

makes it difficult to read long text passages. CBT designers should take this into account 

by shortening the length of text and deleting unnecessary words and sentences. 

31 
Chapter Thne 

Table 3.4 Presentation Formats 

When to Use Guidelines for Use 

Text Identify and describe processes. objects, • lim~ word use, be clear 

and procedures • Use large fonts and readable colors 

Graphics Show what equipment looks like or how • Make as simple as possible and do 

a system is organized not show unnecessary objects 

• Consider display resolution of 

computers 

Animation Explain a process or demonstrate the • Makes the program more engaging 

steps of a procedure • Do not make longer than necessary 

• Give :..ser control over playback I 

Audio Add realism. increase entertainment • Do not overuse; have a reason for 

factor. or communicate long text using it I passages • Allow user to control volume. turn off 

Video Describe procedures or increase • Give user control over playback 

entertainment factor • Match purpose w~h video quality 

3.3.2.2 Graphics 

When a CBT program needs to show what a piece of equipment looks like, or how a sys:em 

is organized, a graphic is the best presentation method. Graphics can be pictures or line 

drawings of equipment or schematics she wing connectivity and functionality of components. 

The CBT team must consider the resolution of graphics required for effective instruction. a~ 

this partially determines the type of computer display necessary to support the prog:·am. The 

required resolution is a function of the purpose of the graphics: teaching for recognition 

requires high resolution, while simple schematic drawings can be displayed in lower 

resolution. In cases where aesthetics or entertainment value is important, higher re,-olution 

may be desirable. 

3.3.2.3 Animation 

Motion is an effective method of drawing attention to a particular itPnL Th,. sir:lplt"st "·;;y 

of displaying motion is through animation. which is the movPment of si:nple graphical ob_wcts 

along simple paths. Animations differ from video in that they capture the genp,·al conl<"nl <>f 

an event while discarding some information, thus making it easier for the uspr to undt.>r~t=u~d 

the relevant issues. An animation can be used to explain a process or to demons!ratt· tlw 

steps of a procedure. Examples indude animations of flows in electrical and hydraulic 

systems and animations of the installation procedure for an avionics compont>nt. 

32 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Auiation Maintenance 

3.3.2.4 Audio 

Audio in CBTcan add ancther level of realism to the training system, give more entertaining 

feedback, or make the communication of long text passages much simpler. CBT audio can 

be divided into three classes: narration, equipment sounds, and musical accompaniment. 

Narration allows the user to listen to a description while watching an animation or video; 

this is not possible with text annotations. Machine sounds such as jet engines are usually 

not needed for instruction but may increase the entertainment value of the program. Musical 

accompaniment makes the program more interesting or adds emphasis to a point. Before 

adding audio to a CBT program, remember that an audio sound board is required to play 

audio on PCs, and audio files can greatly increase the program's total size. 

3.3.2.5 Video 

Like animation, video can be used to describe a process or to show a procedure. Video differs 

from animation in that it is a more accurate representaiior. of the "real world" and usually 

has an accompanying soundtrack. Since video is more realistic than animation, it is usually 

better for describing procedures such as test or installation steps that a technician will 

perform on the job. The viewer more easily understands the context of actions shown in a 

video than in an animation. There are several methods for displaying video on computers. 

with varying degrees of resolution and cost (Pearce, 1993). All current desktop full-motion 

video technologies require some type of high-end hardware and large amounts of data 

storage. 

Remember: It is important to decide early in the design process which data types 

the CBT will use, since this partially determines the training application's 

hardware and software requirements. 

3.3.3 Integrated Training and Job Aiding 

Another important issue to consid.-r before designing a CBT system is whether technicians 

could also benefit from a computer-based job aid. A job aid differs from a training 5ystem in 

that a job aid helps the technician when the task is performed, not befo~e it is perfor;,wd. 

This approach to training can also be called "just in time," borrowing from curren: "just i" 

time" inventory and production management techniques. Some training is still nt.•ct>~~~u·y 

with a job aiding system, since workers need some background ;.;,nowledge before starting to 

perform a task. 

Because the knowledge and software required for training systems and job aids are usually 

very similar, it is more cost-effective to design a system that serves dual purpost>s thaE to 

design two separate systems independently. Integrated training and job aiding also impliei' 

33 
Chapter Three 

active learning and on-the-job training. The chance of the user remembering an important 

fact or lessor. is greater when the user is actually performing the job than when he or she is 

sitting in the training room. A job aid also decreases the need for "up- front" training, siDce 

the worker learns how to perform a task immediately be!"ore doing it. 

3-4 HOW TO DESIGN A..Jiffi IMPLEMENT COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING 

ThP following section describes a process for designing and implementing CBT. The authors 

have used this process successfully. It maximizes the likelihood of producing successful CBT 

systems. Figure 3.3 is a flow chart of the steps in and outputs of this CBT production 

approach. 

3-4.1 Needs Analysis 

The first step in designing a CBT system is to decide whether the system is really needed for 

a specific task, and to describe the expected benefits of implementing a CBT system. Note 

that this step is not specific to CBT; a needs analysis is necessary for all training systems 

and job aids. If a need is incorrectly identified or the nature o! the problem is not 

understood, t..'len the tina] product probably will not be useful. The needs analysis consists 

of three main steps: problem identification, current training methods analysis, and 

costlbenefit analysis. Each step is described below. 

3-4.1.1 Problem Identification 

The first step in needs analysis io. to identify a task that needs improved performance or 

lower training costs. This can be done informally through interviews with technicians and 

managers. A more fonnal evaluation would include a description of the technicians' tasks, 

how long it takes technicians to perform these tasks, and any "bottlenecks" that delay 

completion. The final product of this step should be a list of technicians' tasks that may 

benefit from improved training methods. 

Remember: The two reasons for using CBT are to increase efficiency for a task 

and t<> increase effectiveness of training_ 

34 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

DTEPS O'JTPUT ~--------------------------~------------------------------------·----------------------------------------·--·-· 

Needs 

Analysis 

~ 

Cost/Benefit 

Analysis 

' 

Is 

CBT 

Suitable? 

• Problem Identification 

• Task Analysis 

• Training Analysis 

• Costs of CBT vs other 

tra1nmg methods 

• Benefits of Improved 

traming pelformance 

N Use other 

approaches 

,------~----, ·What Will be taught 

, Instructional and how? 

joesign & Plan ·Plan for producmg , CBT 

Ready 

for 

Dei-•oyment? 

y 

Deploy CBT 

N 

Task& 

Instructional Design 

Implementation Plan 

Prototype 

System 

j 

Final CBT 

System 

Figure 3.3 Typical CBT development process with outputs 

35 
Chapter Three 

3.4.1.2 Current Methods of Teaching the Task 

The second step in needs analysis is to perform a training analysis to determine how the 

training for the task is currently conducted. This step helps determine if an improvement 

in the current method is possible and to identify strengths and weaknesses of present 

training methods. Once the current process is described explicitly, it is much easier to 

critique it and find its weak and strong points. Such a description should include what is 

taught, who teaches it, how long it takes, how it is taught, what resources are needed, and 

the students' performance before and after training. 

The training analysis identifies one of the following possibilities: no formal training exists, 

training exists but could be improved, or current training is sufficient. Typically. workers 

learn many of their tasks on the job. When there is an existing training program, there are 

two more possibilities: the training could be made more effective (thus increasing technicians' 

p;rformance and productivity), or efficiency could be increased (which decreases the training 

wstl. 

3.4.1.3 Pre-Production Cost/Benefit Analysis 

The final step in needs analysis is to determine if t!'aining for the specified task will givP an 

adequate return on investment. This is one of the hardest tasks in CBT production. becausP 

it is difficult to: 

• Measure benefits of intangibles, such as safety and customer satisfaction 

• Predict the actual performance improvement for a system that has not yet been built 

• Predict the cost of building CBTsystems (and computer programs in general!. 

Given all these unknovms, it is still possible to generate a rough estimate of a training 

system's effectiveness before it is produced. It is important to remember that the~e are roul'h 

estimates, so take this into consideration when planning resourcPs and deadlines. 

In deciding if CBT is appropriate for a specific task, look at other training methods and 

compare their costs and benefits. There are several methods for doing this. but this report 

will only mention them in passing, as most of the methods involvt> complex economic and 

mathematical analysis. One method is to compare the total "life cycle" costs of tht· CBT to 

that of other systems (Kearsley, 1982). Typically the costs are broken down into thrPP 

categories: 

• Research & developmE'ntlstart up costs- associated with planning and dE'signing CRT 

• Transition costs - om·-tinw costs of imp!Pmenting CBT hardware and software 

• Steady stat€' costs- continuing costs (such as mainwnance) of using CBT. 

36 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

The result of this step should be a description of the CBT system's goals and an estimate of 

its benefits (either improved efficiency and/or decreased cost). The goals provide a high-level 

summary of what the CBT system will do for the users. 

3-4.2 Job Task Analysis 

Job analysis is a process used to break a job into tasks and rate the tasks for further 

analysis. Task analysis is a process to determine how a t~l: is performed and the factors 

that affect performance. Consequently, job task analysis (JTA) is a method used to identify 

what tasks are included in a particular job and how these tasks are supposed to be done. 

JTA identifies the knowledge, skill, and activity requirement.; necessary for job performance. 

The goal of the JTA is to explicitly describe the job so that the workers' efficiency, 

effectiveness, and error rates can be improved. There are many different methods for 

performing JTAs, ranging from detailed formats for describing each step in performing a task 

to more informal observational methods (Woods, 1993). 

Formal JTA methods are used during system design or when there appears to be serious 

problems with the design of a system or the procedures used to operate it. In most cases. 

JTA need not be formal. JTA for instructional design can be as simple as a one-page 

description of what the workers do to perform the task. Particular attention should be paid 

to errors that repeatedly happen on the job and to inefficiencies that could possibly be 

eliminated through improved training. 

Remember: Each organization will have to detennine its acceptable level of JTA. 

JTA is merely a "means" to the "end" of developing CBT. The JTA process must 

not become the product. 

3.4.3 Instructional Design and System Planning 

Once the JTA is finished, the instructional design of the system must be created. 

Instructional design is concerned with understanding, improving, and applying instructional 

methods to specific problems (Reigeluth, 1983); it describes how certain material wi:J be 

taught. This differs from curriculum design, which describes what ·will be taught. The goal 

of instructional design is to choose the best methods to achieve specific improvement in 

knowledge and skills for a given group of students. The description should summarizE> th .. 

training process to be implemented in the CBT program. including 

• What the CBT will teach (its instructional goals) 

• Knowledge students are assumed to know before using the system 

• The instructional approach 

• Structure of lessons, exercises, tests, etc. 

37 
Chapter Three 

• Types and number of questions 

• How the information will be presented (text, graphics, video, etc.) 

• How the CBT will be used with other instructional methods (instructor, books, etc.) 

• How to evaluate the students' knowledge. 

There are several common approaches to instructional desigu. Which approach is appropriate 

for a particular project depends on the training task. See Section 3.3.1 for more information 

on the various approaches to instructional design. 

Once a particular instructional approach is chosen, the CBT team has a better idea of the 

time, skills, and resources necessary to complete the project. For example, simple training 

systems with text instruction do not require much effort to program and test; a large training 

project with complex equipment simulations and a multimedia presentation demands much 

more effort. The CBT team manager should apply standard planning methods, including 

• Developing a program time line and Gantt chart 

• Planning resource allocation, including people, computers, software, training, etc. 

• Setting milestones for the development cycle. 

Remember: The instructional design is one of the most important components 

of a successful CBT system. Poor instructional design will lead to poor training 

and possibly poor job performance. 

3.4.4 Prototype System 

Once the instructional design is finished, system implementation can begin. This is done by 

producing one or more prototypes of the CBT program. A prototype is a tool for criiiquing 

the design of the system. The demo system can be evaluated by the designers. content 

experts, managers, users, and programmers to ensure that they all agree on the system's 

design before full-scale implementation begins. If there is not agreement that the prototype 

design is good, then it is unlikely that the organization will accept the final system. 

The prototype demonstration is best done on a computer since this provides the interactiv:ity 

that other methods Jack. The demonstration program should include the "main" features 

described in the instructional design, with the secondary features (for example, student 

logging and multimedia) omitted. Also, some of the prototype computer program code can 

be used in the production version of the CBT program. 

Although computer-based prototyp:ing methods require more up-front effort than other 

approaches, they are often more efficient in the end. One advantage of computer-based 

prototyping is the ease with which the users can part1cipate in program design. A user can 

suggest changes to the program, and the changes can be made while the user watches. 

38 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

Another Rdvantage is that the effort which goes into building t.'le prototype can be applied 

to the actual CBT programming by using the prototype as the basis for the CBT program. 

The use of authoring systems in building CBT {covered in Section 3.6.3.2) makes the 

transition from prototyping to programming more manageable. 

There are ~everal prototyping approaches that do not require computers, and some find these 

methods easier to use. One method of producing a quick demonstration without computers 

is to produce a paper "storyboard" of how the screens will look. Each "frame" of the 

storyboard includes a rough sketch of what the screen will look like with a caption that 

describes the screen's purpose. Storyboarding can also be done on an erasable board, so that 

many CBT team members can participate in the design. A storyboard created before the 

computer prototype can act as a guide for the programmer. 

3.4.5 Rapid Prototyping Software Development 

The rapid prototyping approach to software production grew out of the observation that many 

computer programs do not meet the needs of the intended users. This often is the result of 

a divergence between what users need and what programmers tl:link the users need. Often, 

users do not know what they want or do not want until they see it. Rapid prototyping helps 

solve this problem by including users in the software design process and by using their 

feedback to drive changes and improvements to the program (Sewell & Johnson, 1990). 

The last two steps described in this CBT production process {prototype system creation and 

evaluation) are used as the basis for rapid prototyping. The instructional design is a 

definition of what requirements the designers want the software to meet and a high level 

description of how the program will meet the requirements. From this analysis, the 

programmers create a prototype program that can be critiqued by instructors, students, and 

administrators. The programmers then make changes to the software based on the users' 

feedback during the evaluation. The evaluation should include checks for 

• Correctness of the information 

• Ease of use of the program 

• Spelling and grmnmar mistakes 

• Graphical layout, user of color, and other aelO'thetic issues 

• "Bugs" (programming errors) in the CBT program. 

To ensure that the reported problems are addressed, it is best to· have a formal reporting 

scheme. Such a scheme can be as simple as a written log of each problem found, the person 

who found it, the solution to the problem, and the person(s) who fixed it. Once all of the bugs 

have been fixed in the current version of the CBT, it should be tested again to ensure that 

previous problems were solved and that no new problems were introduced. This iterative 

process continues until the orga."1ization is satisfied that the software is suitable for its 

intended purpose. Because this step in CBT production is so unpredictable, set aside enough 

time to address both large and small problems that come up during the evaluations. 

39 
Chapter Three 

3.4.6 Evaluation of CBT System 

Evaluate the CBT system to determine if any changes are needed to fulfill the goals of the 

CBT system and to provide data for future CBT systems. In the flrst case, the evaluation 

examines the instructional features of the CBT system and how the students use the system. 

Usually, any problems found may not have been !u10wn at the time the program was v.Titt<':O 

and may arise from design decisions. For example, students without much com;mter 

experience may not understand how to use a control on the CBT program's interface that is 

familiar to experienced computer users. The other purpose of an evaluation, to hel? in 

developing future CBT systems, has the goal of using what was learned during fr~ design 

and iwplementation of one CBT systerr, to assist in the creation of other CBT systems. The 

data for this evaluation may include formal experiments or informal surveys of users' 

experiences with the training system. 

One drawback of evaluations is t.~at they can be very expensive. 'Wnile one or two people can 

build a CBT system in several months, it takes !1umerous experimental CBT users to provide 

statistically sig!1ificant data. Depending on what type of data are being collected. evah.:ati0,., 

can require anywhere from several hours to several weeks of a CBT user's tiree. Also. it is 

difficult to collect "on-the-job" data, so written tests that may not measure act:!al lea!'Ilong 

and jot performance improvements are often used as substitutes. Because of the expense of 

some types of evaluations, the CBT team should formulate specific issues that they want the 

evaluaiion to examine. \vnen producing <>n evaluation, the CBT tea.e> should 

• Develop a hypothesis about the training system(s) 

• Collect data relevant to the hypothesis 

• Analyze the data with respect to the hypothesis 

• Apply the outcome of the evaluation to current and future training systems. 

There are several common models for evaluating training. Models ,-ary in the types of dnt:J 

needed for the a."1alysis and the types of information that they produce. The a;Jpropria<<" 

method also depends on whether the CBT system was built to san• money. to improw 

performance, or both. Sometimes a combination of models is appr-opriate to gener:<H' tl:<> 

information needed to make future decisions. Table 3.5 summm-izes the types of e\'aluations 

ccmmonlJ used on CBT systems. 

3.4.6.1 Questionnaires &nd Interviews 

Cost and learning evaluations only tE:"ll part of the s~ory_ To Judge usp:rs' opin:vns concen:ing 

a CBT system, the most appropriatE> tools are qu2stionnaires and int€-r\~iews. A ques:.ionn:!in: 

attempts to determine what users like and do not like about a CBT syste:r.. ::\bk<• tlw 

questionnaire short (two pag<>s or ~essJ and simpl<:>. so that it can be filled out in a ft'w 

minutes. The data can then be analyzed statistically to determint:> the system's stn?i1gths ar:d 

weaknesses. 

40 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

Table 3.5 Evaluation Methods 

fl Purpose When to Use J I Questionnaires and 

~ Collect information about users' opinions After cs·l !S finished 

II l 

I interviews ,! 

Cvr.\en\ 'lletilication Ensu1 e tha\ inicrma\ion is conec\ During de\le;opmer.~ \\ I 

Cost/benefit analysis 0e!Prtnine !he CB·;·•s overall COS! After CBT is finished lj 

ij --l effectiveness ! I 

Usability tesling ! Evaluate the quality of the interface During development I 

' 

Interviews also attempt to collect data abom users' opinions of a CBT system, but they aTP 

less formal than '''ritten questionnaires. An interview usually consists of a set of questions 

for the users and instructors, and they can also allow the subject to discuss una."lticipated 

issues. Although interviews require preparation, data evaluation is often more difficult and 

subjective because the answers and comments tend to be more open-ended. Consequently. 

interviews are better for identifying specific problems '~>ith a CBT system than for 

detennining general trends in acceptance and satisfaction. 

3.4.6.2 Content VerificatiOl' 

The most important component of a CBT system is i1:s content, since it is content knowledge 

that is being taught to the users. If the content is incorre(!t, then the students v.-ill ::~mlea= 

the correct information. This may lead to poor and/or :msafe job performa.'lce. A conten: 

validation verifies that the information contained in the CBT is correct. 

Content evaluation is commonly accomplished by shov.ing the CBT to expe:-.s a..'lc irrs:::<.:cto:-s 

and having them check for omissions and errors. Ide all~·. the people doing th<" cont<:>:1: 

evaluation should not be the subject matter experts who provided t.'i)e lmowledge for !he CB1 

program. It is possible that the Sl:bject matter experts have misconcep-:io:1s abo-c:t the 

domain_ Ifmu.lti¥le experts 3re to eva1uate the content. it is likely tha: the:-e 'viH be co:1fhc:s 

and contradictions in the advice and suggestions they offer. Therefore, when analyzing ::he 

results of the content evaluation, differentiate between differe:n styles of proble!:'l ;:ohing ?-'lti 

trai..'ling and significant errors in the domain knowledge. 

3.4.6.3 Cost/Benefit Analysis 

Costlbenefit analysis ~ombines two separate rr..easu:re-me-nts to detPr:niDe th-2 re-tu:-n on 

investment for the CBT. The cost analysis measures thP total cost of des:gni:1g. produt'i:lg. 

and distributing the CBT. Thls data can be gathered from reco:-d;.': of ti::1e anC mo:nfly stw~~: 

on development. The benefit portion of ~he analysis focuses on. changes i!l "-';ork~r·~ 
Chapter Three 

performance. Benefits are measured from changes, or estimates of changes in on-the job 

performance. 

If ihe benefits analysis concludes that the training is not effective, then other types of 

evaluations are necessary to pinpoint the source of the problem. This is because a benefits 

a!1alysis "lumps" the good a!1d bad features of a CBT into one measurement. Some con:mon 

n:easures of success of CBT systems (and training systems in general) are: 

• Higher achievPment and productivity level 

• Improved quality of work 

• Decreased student training completion time 

• Increased motivation level 

• Increased safety and a lower accident rate. 

ThE- more abstract t!:e measure of training success, the harder it is to correlate it with actual 

CBT featUres. For example. if there is an. increase in producti,ity after the introduction of 

a CBT system, the increase may or may not be a result of the CBT. It is usually easier to 

ehmina~e other explanations such as the use of new equipment or new accounting methods 

than to prove that changes in performance are a result of the i11troduction ofCBT. 

3.4.6.4 Usability Testing 

A usa:C,ility test is conducted to ensure that students can operate and understand the system. 

This 1s necessary beca:.!se the usability of a CBT system is a.'1 importa.'1t factor in dcter.mir.ing 

whe!.her or not the users 1earn. Even if the inforrn.ation in the program is correci, users '.vill 

not focus their attention on the lessons if the interface is poorly designed. For exa-nple, 

noYice computer users may not unde!"Stand conventions k.now:1 to more adva!1ced com~u!.er 

users. CBT designers need to keep this in n:ind when designing the interface. h is adYisa\)le 

to I'!lak~ the in!.-erface as simple as possible ar:ri to avoid cluttering it ~vith un:-.~.ecessary tex: 

ar-d grap~:ics. 

F:-e-q:.1e~tly. usability testing is done by obser.:ing a few pote!"ltial use:-s wb.ile they operate 

tl-:.€> p:-ograrr~. lt is best to have users who have not used the program before a.11.d who do not 

have ::! 1.1ch computer experience. These users ,~till repor: p::-oblems such as not tu1de:-sta:1ding 

what :o do !1€x:. ~-\11 users shou!C be encouraged to report a:1y difficulties before they s:a~ 

t!-le usab:l1:y testi!lg. To ider:.tify oti:e-r ty;>es of probJe:ns. it is bes: tv watch the users ar:d 

s~e what t}-pes of mistakes they ::nake, kee;>ing int.e-rr .. r!)tions to a n;.ini:-rn:rr~. The prob~ems 

ir: :1:€" interfacf? shou!d :hen be listed so tha: the CBT designe:-s ca..'1 discuss :hem. One~ the - • 1 ' b ~ d ' CBT h ld . . . . ., . 1r..:c-:-:are p:-o.tJ~e:ns nave eer. 11xe . tne tear:: S.o~Ol..:. CO!lO!..!c: ano:ner usa:J:Ety 1es! 10 

f:'ns::r-e tha: :1:e p;ob!e:ns haYe beea adequa:e}y fixed a:1d that nev~: problems ha·,·e ::01 bee:1 

in:rod:.:ced. 

42 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

Remember: Evaluation is part of the rapid prototyping software development 

method. The evaluations should be done frequently during CBT design and 

development. Ongoing evaluation eliminates surprises at the end. 

3.4" 7 Maintenan1:e and Updates 

A CBT system is not fmished after the programming and evaluations have been done. The 

system neej" to be kept up-to-date with changing technology, equipment, and procedures. 

For example, the maintenance procedures may change for a particular piece of equipment. 

If an existing training system refers to the old maintenance procedure, ii v.·ill have to be 

updated to the current meth0d. Also, students using a CBT program in the classroom usually 

uncover bugs that were not found during prcgram testing. Instructors commonly request that 

new features such as automatic grade reporting be added to CBTs after they begin using 

them. These costs are called "steady state" costs because they remain somewhat constant 

after the CBT program has been flnished and is being used. 

Other "incidental" costs are rarely planned for, but commonly arise. Computer hardware 

maintenance costs vary widely, depending on the computers' quality and the amount of use. 

Public-access computers have higher levels of wear than computers used by individuals; so 

the budget should account for cleaning, maintenance, and repair. If the lab is to remain open 

for extended hours, security and lab personnel have to be budgeted. Also, such costs as those 

for printing paper and \vriti.'1g documentation are necessary for some types ofCBT. 

3.5 ASSEMBLING A CBT TEA.l\1 

OnP of the most important considerations in producing a successful CBT system is choos'tilg 

the team members. Designing a CBT system requires skills in diverse a..."'eas such as training. 

graphics, computer software and hardware, and usability. The CBT team needs all the skills 

above. since the lack of_e,·en one skill can lead to significant problems with the CBT prograin. 

If the team does not have these skills, it should seek training in the JlLk."lovm areas or hire 

consultants to fill the gaps. Sor.1etimes one person may possess two or more of the skills, so 

the team does not always haw to be large. Figure 3.4 shows :he ma-lteup of a CBT team. 

3.5.1 instructional Designer 

The instructional designer applies kno·wledg€' of training, leaming~ psychology~ and ot.l}er 

training systems to the design of the CBT system. ~!ost instructional designers have 

advanced degrees in education or psychology and have the ability to apply their k..'lowledge 

w the design of :raining systems. This person should also understand the training domain. 

:he jobs and tasks of the workers. and how training principles and past experience apply to 

43 
Chapter Three 

the current training system. Because instructional design is the most important 

consideration in CBT design, the instructional designer is often the team leader. 

Instructional 

Designer 

.. 

Computer 

Hardware 

Support 

Figure 3.4 The CBT Team 

3.5.2 Subject Matter Expert 

Computer 

Programmer 

+ 

i 

l 

IJ 

Subject Matter 1 

Expert 

Graphic 

Artist 

Human Factors 

Expert 

The subject ma~ter expect (SME) is key to the success of a CBT project because hP or shE' is 

the source of the knowledge and information that the CBT system will teach to the students. 

If the S~IE does not understand the domain well enough to explain it to thP instructional 

designer, the::t the chances of building a successful CBT system arp siim TrwrE'forP. tlw S:\lE 

is often an instructor or someone with much on-the-job experience. Johnson 1 1988' says that 

ir,stn.:cto:cs are the best SMEs because they understand ihe subject and i::tstructional 

principles and also know how to best explain the domain to programmers and 0th"r C'BT 

developers. 

A common problem in building CBT systems is difficulty in finding and retai:1ing n 

knowledgeable SME. In aviation, as in most other domains. experts are scarce and an' oft<'n 

44 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

committed to other projects. Experts may be pulled from a CBT project for more pressing 

tasks, leaving the CBT team with the difficult task of trying to bring a new SME up to speed 

on the project. In this case, there is a familiarization period before the new SME can 

contribute to the project, thus delaying any new work on the CBT. This problem can be 

avoided by having two or more experts working on the project, even if one or more of the 

additional experts are only secondary contributors. This approach has the advantage of 

allowing more than on person to verify the domain representation. 

3.5.3 Computer Programmer 

The programmer implements the instructional designer's training plan. An important part 

of a programmer's job is the ability to design a program that meets the constraints of time, 

money, performance, and computer hardware. The programmer should have some 

understanding of instructional design and software usability. The programmer must also bE' 

able to take users' feedback and convert it into changes making the softwarE' easier to usE' 

and more understandable. 

Programming usualiy takes the largest portion oftime in implementing a CBT system. and 

large projects require more than one programmer. Programmers' work load can be reduced 

by ensuring that they have adequate software tools, computer hardware, and design feedback 

from the rest of the team. Experience is the most important factor in determining a 

programmer's productivity; an experienced programmer can produce considerably more 

software than an equally intelligent but inexperienced programmer. 

3.5.4 Computer Hardware Support 

The computer hardware support person ensures all the computer hardware a'ld software is 

working properly. If something is not working properly, the hardware support person should 

know how to test it and how to resolve hardware malfunctions. Another large part of the job 

is maintaining software configurations, making sure that the computers haYc> the latest 

version of the CBT software. This person should be able to help the students use tlw 

software and to answer basic questions about the training program. 

3.5.5 Human Factors Expert 

When students cannot easily use a CBT system, chances are that they wiil not leam much. 

V.'hen students' attention is dravm away from content, they concentrat<> on trying w oper:ne 

the software. The human factors expert ensures that the system is und<erstandable ancl easy 

to use. The human factors expert can also proYide design guidelines pertaining to prog:·am 

behavior, screen layout, colors, and fonts. It is importaPt thai the human factors expert be 

involved early in the design process so that he or slw can critique the overpJ] C'BT appro:;ch 

A human factors expert should have experience in the psychological issues of imerfuce des:g1: 

and have practical experience in computer program design. 

45 
Chapter Three 

3.5.6 Graphic Artist 

A good graphic artist is often vital to the timely completion of a CBT project. Graphics 

production is time-consuming. If the graphics are on paper, they must be scanned into the 

computer ar1d then cleaned up with a paint program. If the graphics need to be drawn from 

scratch, the instructional designer or subject matter expert should sketch them so that the 

graphic artist does not have to guess at what is needed. The graplric ertist should be familiar 

with issues of color selection, screen layout, design for readability. and usability, and should 

have some previous experience :in designing graphics for the computer. When designing the 

screen layout and graphics, it is important to keep in mind the graphic limitations of the 

targ<>t computer configuration. For example, when graphics designed to be displayed on 

systems with :<:56 or more colors are displayed on computers that can only show 16 colors, the 

resulting graphics are not understandable or attracti,·e. 

Remember: The CBT team does not need one individual for each of the described 

tasks, but all of the skills should be included on the team. 

3.6 CBT HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, AND SUPPORT 

This section covers a variety oitopics related to the budgetary and commercial issues in CBT. 

The material is not technical and presents enough information to allow managers to make 

informed decisions. 

3.6.1 Hardware 

Sincp they first becar.J.e widely availablE>. there has been a constant increase in :he power of 

personal computers (PCJ. This increase in power has been followed by a cons:ant increase 

in thE> computing power requirements of PC software. There is now much personal compute:r 

software that will not work (or works too slowly) on computers that are more than a few 

years old. Because of the high cost of installing and maintaining new computers. many oldE'r 

(and less powerful) computers are still in use. 

When designing a CBT system, the CBT team must consider the type of computer that will 

be usN! for running the CBT program. If the hardware does not support the CBT software. 

thPn the students wiil not be able to make full use of the t:-aining. Computer hardwarE' can 

vary along several dimensions, so the CBT team must co::~sider all these dimensions when 

they design the CBT system. This section describes the va:rious dimer.sions and also explains 

wh<>n s;wcial hardware may be m·E>d<>d. and what the hardware will add to the instruction 

46 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Jfaintenance 

3.6.1.1 Processor Type and Speed 

A PC's processor detennines how "powerful" the computer is and how quickly it can do its 

computations. Because of improvements in processor technology, modern desktop computers 

are roughly 100 times more powerful than PCs often years ago. Processor speed is analogous 

to the thrust of an aircraft's engines, which determines the power of the aircraft. Som,, text· 

based applications can be used on an Intel 8088 computer, the fi.rst generation PC procpssor, 

although few of these are currently manufactured. The next step up is the Intel 80286 and 

80386 processors which usually have clock speeds between 15MHz and 331\lliz. For the mcst 

computer-intensive programs, the Intel 80486 wit.~ a 33MHz or higher clock speed is 

required. 

3.6.1.2 Computer Memory 

A PC's memory determines how much data it can work on at a single time. For text-based 

computer programs, 640 kilobytes (kb, or about 1,000 "wcrds" of computer memory) is an 

acceptable amount of memory. For more complex progra.'"IlS, between 2 and 8 megabytes <Mb, 

or about 1,000,000 "words" of computer memory) is standard. With older computer operating 

systems (such as MS-DOSJ, extra memory does not make the computer significa.'ltly faster 

and is only a "minimum standard" that determines which programs the computer can run. 

With more modern computer environments (such as MS Windows), the speed of certain 

operations is affected by the amount of memory. Commercial CBT programs should be tested 

on one of the computers to be used for training to ensure that there is enough memory for 

the program. If software is being produced in-house, then programmers need to consider the 

amount of memory in the organization's computers. 

3.6.1.3 Bard Disk Size 

The hard disk is used to store data on the PC when the data is not being used. Most modern 

software programs are too large to store on floppy disks. The data stored on the hard disk 

can be either programs, which control what the computer does, or data which the programs 

process. For text-based applications, a 40Mb hard disk is usually adequate. If multimedia 

data such as graphics, animation, and sound is part of the CBT program, then a larger hard 

disk should be considered. The size of hard disk required depends on the number of 

programs and the type and amount of data being stored on the computer. To store large 

amounts of data that does not change frequently, a compact disc read-only memory (CDROM) drive is preferred. Note that new data cannot be stored on a CD-R0~1 after it is 

manufactured, so another data storage mechanism is necessary for updates and student data. 

3.6.1.4 Computer Display Quality 

The computer monitor and the video adapter card work together to display the text, graphics. 

and video that ihe PC generates. The signals from the computer go through the "video 

47 
Chapter Three 

adapter·· which converts digital data to the signal the monitor displays. T'nere are several 

dimensions along which the adapter/monitor combination can vary: 

• 

• 

• 

Resolution of video adapter - number of vertical and horizontal '"p1cturP 

elements" (pixels) that can be displayed; usually ranges from 320 x 140 to 1024 

X 768 

Size of the monitor- measure of diagonal size of the screen: between 12"" and 2T 

Number of colors- how many colors can be displayed on the screen at once; from 

monochrome (black and white) to 16 million colors. 

The appropriate combination depends on the type of data the CBT displays. For programs 

that display only text, the lower resolutions are appropriate. If a program displays graphics, 

video, and animation, then higher-end equipment is necessary. Use the prototype CBT 

program to evaluate resolution requirements. 

3.6.1.5 Input Devices 

An input device is a computer peripheral that allows the user to enter data into the PC. Th<> 

most widely known input device is the keyboard which allows the user to enter text. 

However, most training approaches and tasks do not require the user to enter large amounts 

of text. Keyboards are not widely used in the newer CBT systems since it is easier to int.Pract 

with the computer through a "selection" device such as a mouse, touchscreen. or light pen. 

These devices allow users to interact v:ith the graphical elements on the display through 

gestures such as clicking/pressing, dragging and dropping, etc. 

While the mouse is the device of choice for controlling most graphical env:ironm<>nts. 

touchscreens and light pens are easier for novices to use. A tm.:chse:-een is sensitin• to 

pressure, and the coordination of computer graphics and the user's actions allow !or realist it· 

simulation of equipment and tasks. A lightpen works in much the same way. but thP US('r 

touches the screen with a special pen. Although touchscreens and lightpens are Pasi•.·r· to u~P 

than mice, they cause arm fatigue when the user is required to perform a larg<> r.u:nl>Pr of 

selections. 

3.6.1.6 Multimedia Accessories 

Multimedia can be defined as the integration of several data types in a comput<:>r p;ogram. 

These data types i:1clude text, pictures, animation, sound. and vidro. l'sually, ""Ilti;n<d;u 

assumes some level of sound ar>d video, although both do not need to tH' presP!H. ln t lw ca~" 

of a PC, the presentation of sound or fuil-motion video requires somP hard warP accP~~oriPS. 

including a sound at'apter with speakers and a motion vid<;o adaptPr board. Curn·ntly. tlw 

most widely used method for deliw·ring 1."ideo on a computer 1s through a vidt'od.:~c pbyt>r. 

but digital video technology is quick:y becoming widespread. A CD-ROM dz-iw lS oft•·n u,,,.,! 

to store the largP amounts of data associatPd with multir:wdia. Simp!<' text-bast'ti t~aining 

48 
Guidelines for Deoigning and Implementing CBT for At•iation Maintenance 

programs usually do not require taese accessories. However, if multimedia is needed for 

training, the CBT team should plan for this when choosing the computer configuration. CDROM players are becoming increasingly common, and several software companies are 

delivering programs on this mt:>dia. 

3.6.1.7 Network Capability 

A network connection enables a PC to transfer data to other computers. This allows for data 

sharing between isolated computers without having to transport a diskette or CD-ROM. Data 

can be transferred in either direction between the students' computers and the instructor's 

computer. Two applications for CBT are message sending and file sharing. Two examples 

of message sending are for the instructor to send a note to the students or for the students· 

grades from a CBT program to be sent to the instructor's corr.puter. File sharing allows for 

more efficient use of computer resources such as keeping a single copy of the CBT program 

or multimedia data on the network server instead of maintaining a copy on each PC's hard 

disk. 

3.6.2 Examples of Standard Computer Configurations 

This section describes three broad dasses of ?Cs and is designed to assist in selecting the 

correct computer configuration for a specific training application. The PC classes are derived 

from the various levels of processing power and hardware support required to ma.'lipulat~C 

diff~Crent types of information. One thing to remember when choosing a computer 

configuration is changing training needs. Ali hough the first CBT programs produced by an 

organization may be text-based, future training systems may require more computing power. 

It is possible to run text-based computer programs on multimedia computers, but not '-ice 

versa, so you should plan for future needs. Table 3.6 summarizes the minimal hard war<> 

requirements for the three standard computer configurations described in this section. 

Table 3.6 Minimal hardware requirements for standard com outer configurations -

Text and simple Partial Full Multimedia I 

graphics Multimedia ,I 

I Processor I Intel 80286l'rocessor Intel 80386 orocessor Intel 80486 ~rocessor i 15 MHz clocK speed 25 MHz clock speed 33 l\!Hz cloc.· >peed 

Men1ory 640 kb memory 1 :Mb memcry 4 1fu :nenwry 

Storage 40 Mb hard drive 80Mb hard dTive 150 l\Jb hard driYP I 

I 

I 

Display monorh rome/ VGA 256 coloc VG.'\ 256 color monitor jJ 

EGA monitor n10nitor 

Peripherals so and board II I mouse: mou:'e: ~ound board and spe[:kt"r::::: 1 

I and S!Wakers digi~a~ vi.deo or ov;,r~ay · v1dendl~~- l! 

hom d. CD-ROM d .. \e 1 

49 
Chapter Three 

3.6.2.1 Text and Simple Graphics 

A text and simple graphics program has the lowest computing power requirements and can 

run on all first-generation IBM-PC compatible computers. Information the computer displays 

consists of blocks of text with some small graphics. Because such programs do not use many 

graphics, smaller displays with 2 or 16 colors are adeqaate. Also, very little computer 

memory or hard disk space is required because of the low storage space requirements for text 

and simple graphics. Multimedia peripherals are not needed. The standard configuration 

for this computer is 

• Ir.tel 80286 processor /15 MHz clock speed 

• 640 kb memory 

• 40Mb hard drive 

• monochrome I EGA monitor. 

3.6.2.2 Partial Multimedia 

A partial multimedia machine adds the ability to display high-quality graphics, animation, 

and sound. Since this type of training applies emulations of equipment and job tasks, this 

level of computer hardware is required for simulation-based and microworld training. The 

higher data storage requirements of large graphics and sound make it necessary for the 

computer to have more memory and a larger hard disk. When the CBT program has 

significant data, it may be more cost effective to store the data on CD-ROM. Tbe standard 

configuration for this computer is 

• Intel 80386 processor /25 MHz clock speed 

• 1 Mbmemory 

' 80Mb hard drive 

• VGA 256 color monitor 

• mouse or touchsc~een 

• sound card and speakers. 

3.6.2.3 Full Multimedia 

A full multimedia machine inciudes all the capabilities of the partial multimedia class and 

adrls full motion video. Full multimedia is useful for showing technicians how a procedure 

should be carried out or for providing greater interactivity ¥.ith the training. Special 

hardware is needed for the computer to process and display some types of multimedia data: 

sound cards to play sound and video cards to display full motion video. There are several 

computer programs that can display video without speci?J h?.rdware, but the video display 

is lower quality than that of hardware-assisted technologies. The standard configuration for 

this computer is 

50 
I 

I 

I 

Guidelines for Designing and lmplementi"!! CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

• Intel 80486 processor I 33 MHz clock speed 

• 4 Mbmemory 

• 150Mb hard drive 

• VGA 256 color monitor 

• mouse or touchscreen 

• sound board and speakers 

• digital video or overlay/videodisc board 

• CD-ROM drive. 

3.6.3 Software 

Computer programs, collectively known as software, are sets of computer instructions that 

tell the computer hardware what to do. Without software, the computer would be useless. 

Software performs different functions. For example, one piece of software may control how 

keystrokes are interpreted, while another piece may control graphic display on the computer 

screen. Software is a central part of a CBT system, for it acts as a translation between the 

onstructional designer's goals and the way the computer "acts." 

There are several approaches to programming CBT; they vary in ease of use and flexibility. 

In most cases, the easier a program is to use, the less flexible it is. On the other hand, the 

more functions contained in the program, the more flexible it is. More effort is required for 

the user to learn to use a flexible program. Using the analog-i of a car and a helicopter, it 

is easier to drive a car than it is to fly a helicopter, but the helicopter is more flexible with 

regard to the pilot's amount of control. Which one is appropriate depends on the needs, 

knowledge, and constraints of the traveller. Table 3.7 outiines the advantages and 

disadvantages of programming systems. 

Table 3.7 Advantages/Disadvantages of Programming Systems 

Advantages Disadvantages 

Programming languages • Flexible; can make the • More time needed to I 

program do what is needed. implement programs. 

• Fastest programs. • Experienced programmers 

needed. I 

Authoring tools • Both flexible and easy to • Not as flexible as 

use. pTogramming languages; 

some things not possible. 

• Slower than programming I 

languages. 

Off. the-shelf programs • Program is ready to rilll; no • Doesn't always match need 

need to hire development of users. 

team. 

51 
Chapter Three 

3.6.3.1. Programming Languages 

A programming language is a set of conventions for specifying a sequence of operations a 

computer perlbrms. The operations may include displaying graphics and text on the screen, 

monitoring the input devices, or computing a numerical value from a formula. Like the 

recipe that a cook follows to transform ingredients into a meal, a comp'-lter program tells the 

computer hardware how to transform input (from a keyboard, mouse, or data file) into 

meaningful output (text display, graphics, sound, or video). 

Programming languages provide the most flexibility in producing CBT systems. It is possible 

to produce CBT systems with programming languages that cannot be produced with 

authoring tools. The cost for the flexibility of programming languages is the extra effort 

required to produce the program. This trade-off shows up in the experience required to 

become an expert programmer and the high cost of hiring experienced programmers. 

There are several popular programming languages, including Pascal, FORTR.fu'\', BASIC, and 

COBOL. The language of choice for most programmers a.11d most commercial programs (word 

processors, spread sheets, etc.) for PCs is "C." The language expertise of the programmers. 

the existence of any previously v.Titten software, and company rules and preferences 

determine which language is most appropriate for a particular project. 

3.6.3.2 Authoring Tools 

Like a programming language, an authoring tool is a set of conventions for specifying a 

sequence of operations a computer performs. The form of a.TJ authoring tool's language is 

different from that of a programming language. In most cases, authoring tools are much 

easier to use than programming languages. Ma.ny authoring tools do not require extensi,·e 

experience in computer programming and require little training for users to produce working 

systems. Sometimes the programming is ccne through "direct manipulation." i.e .. drawing 

icons or objects that control how the program will act directly on the screen. Csually. th<· 

programming language for an authoring tool {called a "scriptir..g languagt·"! is ea~it>r to 

understand and use than a true programming language. 

The disadvantage is that authoring tools are not as flexible as programming langu<1gt>s. For 

example, coP.sider writing a computer program that simulates a piece of equipment. It m<1y 

not be possible to do this with some authoring systems because the authoring languages placP 

constraints on the way that the program behaves. 

There are different types of authoring tools. At one end of the spectrum are genPral pu,·posc· 

systems not designed for any particular domain. These systems combine tlw flc>x1bility of 

programming languages with the flexibility of authoring tools. 

At the other end of the authoring system spectrurn th{•rp are :J.uthoring tools d(•signt>d ft.n· a 

specific domain or for a spPcific instructional ::;>proach ThP pn•mise is that by inc!uding 

domain·specific information and structun-· in th(· <:uthoring system, it is easier to produn· nr-w 

52 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

training systems. These systems often support standard CBT operations such as student 

login, test score gathering, ancl grade reporting. The biggest drawback is that flexibility is 

lost when more structure is added. Occasionally, it is not possible to make the CBT program 

do what is desired. 

3.6.3.3 Off-the-Shelf Programs 

The simplest way to apply CBT is to find an off-the-shelf program that meets the 

organization's training needs. This approach requires no computer programming or 

instructional design since the system has been designed and implemented by another 

company. The cost of pre-configured training systems is often lower than that of in-house 

CBT since the cost is distributed across several groups. Therefore, the break-even cost for 

off-the-shelf CBT as compared to instructor-led training is usually in the tens of students. 

Comparatively, the average break-even point for self-developed CBT is considerably higher. 

See Sec~ion 3.5 for a list of aviation-specific off-the-shelf CBT programs. Another source of 

information on off-the-shelf aviation training software is the "CBT Courseware/Hardware 

Matrix" report from the Aviation Industry Computer Based Training Committee (AICC, 

1992). 

The biggest problem with off-the-shelf programs for aviation maintenance is the small 

number of systems on the market. If training is needed for a specific system, chances are 

that CBT does not exist for that system. On the other hand, it is not necessary that training 

be provided for all possible systems because of similarities between systems and equipme:lt 

in the aviation industry. Some off-the-shelfCBT programs for aviation maintenance trai!'jng 

are listed in Section 3.6.5, "Example CBT Applications." 

Remember: The main tradeoff between these three programming approaches is 

ease of use vs. flexibility. The type of CBT being created and the programmers' 

experience determines which one is most appropriate. 

3.6.4 CBT Computer Labs 

There are two basic configurations for computer trammg rooms. ir.dividual ca:-rels and 

classroom. In the individual training configuration, workstations are ar:-anged so that there 

are partitions between the individual carrels. This prevents students from disturbmg each 

other while using the computers. A problem with this configuration is that it is difficult f0r 

students to help one another with problems. In the classroom configuration, the computer> 

are arranged on tables that face the front of the room, and there a:re no barriers be~ ween 

workstations. This allows for instructor-led CB'!' a.'ld for easy collaboration amor.g studerot>. 

53 
Chapter Three 

The CBT laboratory should be large enough to hold the computers and computer fumiture. 

The com pater furniture should be large enough for students to place their inst..--uctional and 

reference manuals while using the CBT. Lighting and window shades need to be designed 

so that there is not excessive glare on the computer displays. Computers produce large 

amounts of heat, so the CBT lab should have adequate cooling. 

Before designing a CBT lab and ordering equipment, the CBT tea..m should understand the 

students" training needs, budget (both for installation and maintenance) for the CBT lab, and 

the technology issues of maintaining and upgrading computer hardware. Such issues include 

• Existing computer hardware and software versions 

• Compatibility of hardware and software 

• Special hardware requii'ements to simulate equipment 

• Access times, lab security, lab assistants, fee collection, etc. 

• Projection equipment for instructor-led ::-aining 

• Networked vs. stand-alone computers, printer access. 

3.6.5 Example CBT Applications 

This section descri~s several currently available CBT programs for aviation tech."licians. 

These programs are either des:gned to teach procedures for specific aircraft models or w 

teach general troubleshooting skills. 

3.6.5.1 General Troubleshooting Skills & Specific System Troubleshooting 

These two programs produced by an aviation training CBT company ty·pify the two maic 

types of tech."lical training. The general troubleshooting system program is &""1 instructor-led 

CBT system that provides a simulation-based training prograrr. to teach general 

troubleshooting sldls. This three-day course covers electrical circuits, tools. and test 

equipment. The goal of CBT sys:.ems that teach general troubleshooting skills is to :each 

knowledge and skills that are applicable tu many different types of systems. For exa.oon;Jle, 

the troubleshooting skills app1ied to a general a""iatio:1 aircra!'t 1.re the same as those for- a 

commercial aviation aircraft. but the systems are more complex on tra'1sport cavego:-y 

aircraft. 

The secoml CBT is specific to a single aircraft and was developed \\ith a Canadian air cmTie:-. 

The goal of this system is to teach the user to diagnose faul:s in the Challer..ger ai!"craft. 

~.:\I though the learning in system-specific t~aining systems may transfer to other sys:~ms. such 

programs usually focus on the coniig'uration and procedures specific to that syste:n. 

54 
Guidelines for Designing and Imple1r.enting CBT for Aviatbn Mair.tenance 

3.6.5.2 Aviation Training with Video 

Courseware from another aviation training company nmges from the "Principles of 

Troubleshooting" course that teaches general troubleshooting skills to aircraft-specific CBT 

for the Gulfstream II, III, and IV, Falcon 50, King Air 200, and the Citation 500 and IE. 

Although this company has begun taking advantage of digital video in their newer systems, 

many of its older CBT programs are videodisc-bl!Sed. 

3.6.5.3 Large Aire-.-aft Training 

Another CBT company has produced "off-the-shelf' maintenance CBT for the 747, 767, MD11, and various other aircraft. The 767 training course includes 90 hours of CBT and covers 

most of the major aircraft systems. These tr<Jning systems include multimedia, making the 

system much more interesting to t.l;.e user. The videodisc system includes high-quality video, 

still pictures, and audio. 

3.6.5.4 Fundamental Troubleshooting Skills Training 

A large American CBT developer is working with a German air carrier to develop courseware 

teaching the fundamentals of jet aircraft. Material covered in this course such as avionics, 

hydraulics, and mecha."lics is common to most aircraft and is covered in each of the type 

ratings. The goal is to save time by teaching this material once, i~tead of having to teach 

it for each type rating. The whole CBT program, which is 100 ho=s of training, is scheduled 

for release in July 1995. 

3.6.5.5 737 and 777 Training 

One commercial airline has developed ihree courses coverirg several dilTerent systems a.'ld 

procedures related to ihe 737. These courses L'lclude the A.Pl.7s, taggi!lg procedl!>eS, a.'ld 

fueling regulations. The~e are mostly one-hour courses t.'f;at CZ...'l be used on low-end personal 

computers. The airline is also working with the manufacturer on developing an instructo:--led 

course for the 777. 

3.6.5.6 ECS Intelligent Tutoring System 

The Envircnmema! Control System (E('S) Tutor was p:-oduced for the FA.-\ Office 0i Avia:ion 

Medicine. This is an in~el!igent tutoring system (ITS) that teaches general troubleshooting 

s:tiEs in the context oi diagnosing a.'ld repairing malfunctions of 6e Boeing 767's ECS. The 

tutor contains a deep model of the ECS which allows the user to see the consequences oihis 

or her actions on the systen down to the sensor leveL The :uwr is also highly grap!J.ical, 

ali owing for direct :na.'li;:miation of ECS components and realistic pictures and ani:r.:ation of 

system components and s<.hematics. 

55 
Chapter Three 

3.6.5.7 Part 147 Training 

Two companies have produced jointly several mallimedia tra;ning moddes fo~ A&P 

mechanics. Course material consists of integrated manual ar:d CBT software. Existing 

courses cover eddy current inspections, electro:1ic co:-:--,:nunication and navigation system~. and 

instrumentation systems. The course material is not spec::1c to any particulc.:-- equlpmt·n~ m· 

system, but teaches general principles and methods of operation for the giH·n task TiH· 

software runs on a "partial multimedia" computer and includes the abihy to track stm!<:nt 

performa••ce. 

3.7. POTE:II.'TIAL PITFALLS II'\ CREATING CBT 

In designing and produci::.g CBT, the CBT team needs to be aware of several potPnt:al 

problems that are commo:1iy encountered. These problems may be technic?.!. instruct!ond. 

planning. ergonomic, or organizational (Table 3.8 summarizes these problc·r-:o.s •. Th<· C!>T 

process described if! Section 3.4 mini!T!izes :he chance o: the-se p.:oblE>ms 2..risi:1g 

Table 3.8 CBT Pitfalls 

~ d ,, Problem Prevention!Solution 11 

!i Sy~:-r"rr:. nvt :~:H·:;:-a:ec' \'- n.h utht·~ ~ t:-a1:•:ng ; 

I' I' 

Apply .:--tar..Card ~oft wan· engirH>·er-::lg a!:d 

managt?ment tE-::-hniG_ut?::< l:St· z.ht" righ! ~"";~ a.:d 

progra:nm~r~. 

C:l::=t-:-:-Ot~::G !ht.· s.f:]~-t li: :7-1~· I:<:'t:"""'..lr~·-l!'·::. n,:e: ::::3t•:::.:g;: 

.a:u! ?vn\:D.t~ ~=- pT"u!o~y~t· ('('UT~(· bt .. f~l=-~· :-:.L~l.!'":i:~g 

- ' .. ~{-!';:eO>\'>-lG~ <:~::-. 

Yt-r:f} the wh: .. ;t. in:O!:"~~~t:u:::~d jt-~1~:~: ~-::::--:.1~t- :h:!i 

t~t- :-:::~dt·::t::- h:c:t' a~! p~~--:"t""ZJl!;:'~!.t- h:!r;wlt·::.;..:,·. 

t>\'2-:ua!t· t~t· CBT:- ~:l:t-'g-:-~~;~1:1 with -~~h;.·r- z-m:::~(·:-

S~.-t r2:1:1:--t:.~ g.:a}~ ·rvs: f':Tt·:t'lYt·nt>~~ th~>.: t~t- ~'BT 

~h~·uld r.::{""t>:. 

56 

1! 

1i 

.. 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

3.7.1 Additional Training not Required 

Sometimes training systems are built when there is no need for them. This usually happens 

when a needs analysis is not conducted. Some tasks do not require formal tmining becausE' 

they are easy to learn, and on·ihe-job training is the appropriate instructional method. In 

otter cases, instructor-led training or self-study instruction are adequate for the material 

being covered. 

To detennine if additional training is required, the instructional designer needs to perform 

a thorough needs analysis, including an analysis of the current training methods. The task 

analysis will determine if there is an opportunity for improving on·the-job perforr.1ance. A 

needs analysis may identify ways of restructuring the task for improved performance and 

efficiency. If a CBT is proposed to lower training costs, then a cost.ibenefi t analysis needs to 

be performed to determir.e ii the CBT system wili actually result in lower training cost. 

3.7.2 Poor Instructional Design 

Another pitfall in creating CBT systems is poor instructional design resulting from a 

mismatch between the target users' instructional needs and the training system's desigr .. 

Occasionally, such a mismatch can hinder users' job performance if they are trained to 

perform the task incorrectly. 

An important pari of instructional design is making the CBT software interesting to the 

users. Many failed CBT progra.-ns are "page turners·· that are little more than books the.: 

have been transcribed to the computer: these systems do not hold most users' at~entio.n. A 

progra.'ll cannot be made engaging simply by tacking on pretty pictures and a.'1imation; user 

interest must be designed into the system from the projecfs beginning. 

The best defense against poor instructional design is, again, a thorough job tas~ analysis and 

instructional design based on this analysis. Instructional design is the bridge between the 

students' instructional needs and the CBT progi·an1's design_ \Vithout a thorough job task 

a.'1.a!ysis. it is unlikely that the CBT program \vill be usefuL If the prog:am is bei:1g cion~ inhouse. iterative revie""~s help ensure that it will meet its instructioca1 goais A thvro:.1gh 

analysis of the system ·s inst!"Uctional design is necessary for progra.T1s b~ilt by a contractm· 

or bought off-the·shelf. 

3.7.3 Poor User Interface Design 

A CBT system should be designed so that it is easy to use. The text should b~ read3.L:e. t~1~ 

con~rols should be intuitive. and the user shot.:ld be ab:e to dete=.ine what the p:-og:-a:11 i~ 

doing and Vv~hat he or she can do 'with the progra~. If' this is r..ot :rue. ust:rs bt•co~1e 

frustrated \\"lth t~e system a.r1d avmd using it. If stude:1ts ?..re forcPd to use a poo:-ly dr·si~nt>d 

program. they us:1ally do not ?2.Y attenuon to wha: the p!·og:a:r~ is ::-yi;:g to ~~::h·::. .!!.... 

progrv.m can also be unusable and frustrating if the cor:-!puter is not ?owe:f:.ll e11o:.:gh fl)!' :::e 
Chapter Three 

software or does not have all of the features (such as multimedia accessories} the software 

requires. The net effect of poor user interface design may be a decrease in training and work 

motivation, so this type of failure requires spe~ial consideration. 

User interface design problems can be avoided by performing frequent user acceptance 

evaluations during CBT development. The best way to do this is to have i.11.tended users 

operate the program and report a.''Y problems they have understanding its content or usage. 

Someone uninvolved in the CBT's programming should observe the users to record reported 

problems and to look for problems that users do not report. Data gathered from these 

evaluations should drive CBT design changes. 

The CBT team should understand the target users. The team should know the users' level 

of computer experience, background knowledge, and learning styles. For example, if the CBT 

program requires a mouse and the students are urSamiliar with using a mouse, t..l,.e instructor 

should give 2 short lesson on its use (possibly by letting the users play a computer game). 

With knowledge of user backgrounds, CBT software and hardware can be evaluated for "fit" 

with the students, and changes can be made, if necessary. Users have a variety of experience 

and knowledge, and CBT systems should be designed to be usable by the largest number of 

students. There is always a number of students who need extra help with any system. 

3. 7.4 Poor Computer Programming of CBT 

A needed and properly designed CBT system v;jJl not be successful if it is poorly programmed. 

If the computer program does not do what it was intended to do, then it is unlikely that it 

v-till meet its instructional goals. Poor programming can result in incorrect or missing data, 

or programs that mysteriously "lock up" the computer. A program v.ith too many errors is 

not instructiona1ly effective because the user pays too much attention to trying to make the 

program work. Poor computer programming can result from several planning or management 

prob!Pms: 

• Poor plar~ning or resource allocation 

• Wrong choice of programming tools for the task 

o Insufficient training in the use of the programming tools 

• I!1sufficient management of programming tasks, testing, or deadlines 

• Personality confEcts between CBT team members. 

Tht>st· problPms ca:-1 be a\·oidE.·d by applying standard software engineer!ng a:.'1d management 

techniqut-s to admir..ist{'ring the programmii"!g project. Although tearn manage:nent is not 

a concern for organizations buying off-the-shelf CBT, 1t is still important to ensure that the 

tr?.Jnin& software being bought is en·or-free. This can be done by conducting a p2lot program 

with a small group of students before buying ihe CBT program. 

Be(_· a us<· comp:1ter programming i~ still more of a..Tl art than a science, it is often difTicu.l: to 

predict how much timE' it will t~kl· to completE.· a program. On the average, it takes bf'tv-;een 

58 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

200 and 500 hours of development to produce one hour of CBT. The time for any particular 

project depends upon many factors, including the system's complexity, the CBT team's 

experience, and the amount of cooperation v;ith management and instructors. It is important 

to allocate time for evaluation and testing to ensure that the CBT program is useful and 

usable. 

3.7.5 Unplanned Organizational Impact 

When applying any technology to a task, it is important to consider the impact that the 

technology will have on the organization. This is not often done v.ith computer technology 

since it is usually assumed that the "new" method will imp!"Ove efficiency and producti,ity. 

Sometimes lack of planning for the introduction of new technology results in a refusal to use 

the new technology. Organizational rejection of technology may be caused by poor training, 

confusion about the purpose of the technology, or users' feelings that the technology is being 

imposed on them. 

'When using CBT in an organization for the first time, it is important to understand a..>ctd 

account for the shift of the instructor's role from a presenter of information to that of a 

student assistant. This can best be done by conducting a trial CBT course. This trial course 

should explicitly describe the roles of instructors, students, administrators, and support 

personnel. Testing a prototype in a classroom also provides useful information before the 

CBT course is implemented school-wide. The students should be familiar with the beha·,ior 

and operation of computers and the reason for using computers in training. 

3. 7.6 System not Integrated with Other Training 

Just as there is no single tool for all tasks, there is no single technology appropriate for all 

training. A CBT system should be applied to meet specific training goals for which it is 

appropriate. Since there are other training methods to teach other knowledge, an 

instructional designer must consider how to integrate CBT with other types of training. For 

example, a CBT system that teaches non-destructive inspection may be integrated with 

classroom lectures that explain the theory behind magnetic and ultrasonic NDI and textbook 

material that describes different NDI systems. When dividing a training course among 

several instructional techniques, the instructional design must be well-planned to ensure that 

students have all the prerequisite knowledge before proceeding to new lessons. 

3.7.7 Oversell ofCBT 

A CBT program is an asset to technical training because it enhances traditional classroom 

trammg. CBT systems have sometimes failed because they were oversold to school 

management, instructors, and/or students. CBT is not the "end" in training technology; it is 

rather a "means" in the effort to meet the overall goal of effective and efficient tecimical 

59 
Cha fer Three 

training. The broad category of oversell includes optimistic predictions of cost effectiveness, 

performance improvements, development time, or user acceptance. 

A good CBT system requires time, money, and other developmental resources. If sufficient 

resources are not al!Ot:ated to building the system, it will be inadequate and will probably fail 

t..<:o meet its goals. If the finished CBT is ineffectively utilized, it is unlikely to be cost-effective. 

Another common misconception is that CBT solves all of an organization's training problems. 

As with any training approach, some students will have problems learning from CBT. This may 

result from poor CBT design or from some students' insufficient background knowledge or poor 

learning habits. Inst..-uctors should prepare for this eventuality. 

To avoid this problem, set realistic goals for CBT. The goals should describe expected changes 

in training costs and effectiveness. Remember that both of these do not have to improve; in 

some cases, a CBT that increases effectiveness may cost more than the current training method. 

Finally, make sure that others in the organization understand the goals for the CBT system. 

3.8 CONCLUSION 

The design and implementation of CBT systems present many options to aviation training 

managers. While the decisions may seem complicated, they can be greatly simplified by using 

a proven systems approach to manage CBT selection, development, and implementation. 

3.9 REFERENCES 

Air Transport Association. (1991, October). Specification 104 - Guidelines for aircraft 

maintenance training. Washington, DC: Air Transport Association. 

Eberts, R. E. & Brock, J. F. (1987). Computer-assisted and computer-managed instruction. In 

G. Salvendy <Ed.), Handbook of Human Factors (pp. 963-975). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 

Flexman, R E. & Stark, E. (1987). Design of selection and training systems. In G. Salvendy 

(Ed.) Handbook of Human Factors (pp. 1012-1038). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 

Federal Aviation Regulation, §147. 14 CFR 147 (1993). Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office. 

Forth, K D. (1993, March). CBT applications increasing. Aviation Equipment Maintenance, pp. 

40-45. 

Aviation Industry Computer Based Training Committee. (1992, draft). CBT 

courseware/hardware matrix. 

60 
Guidelines for Designing and Implementing CBT for Aviation Maintenance 

Kearsley, G. ( 1982). Costs, benefits, and productivity in training systems. Reading, MA: 

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 

Pearce. M. (in press). How much is enough? Choosing a computer-based video techno!Og'J. 

Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference on Multimedia in Education and Industry. 

Reigeluth, C. (1983). Instructional design: What is it and why is it? In C. Reigeluth <Ed. l. 

Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Oueruiew of their Current Status. Hillsdale. 

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Electric Power Research Institute. (1987, June) Guidelines for the application of computerbased instruction (Research Project 2294-2 Interim Report). 

Woods, D. D. (1993). Process-tracing methods for the study of cognition outside of the 

experimental psychology laboratory. In G. A Klein, J. Orasanu, R. Calderwood, & C. E. 

Zsambok (Eds.), Decision 17Ulking in action: Models and m.etlwds (pp. 228-251). Norwood, NJ: 

Ablex Publishing Corporation. 

61 
Identification of Ban-iers 

CHAPTER FOUR 

IDENTIFICATION OF BARRIERS TO SUCCESS FOR NONTRADITIONAL 

PARTICIPANTS IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE CAREERS 

4.0 INTRODUCTION 

The challenge to improve air safety through employment and retention of an appropriate 

maintenance work force is extremely diverse. Many factors determine the composition of any 

air carrier's maintenance team. These factors include Federal Aviation Administration CF AA) 

regulations, area demographics, pay scales, union rules, and availability of personnel, to 

name a few. The FAA Office of Aviation Medicine, in conjunction with Aviation Education 

Consultants, has compiled the infonnatioL in this report in an effort to ensure that a 

plentiful supply of appropriately qualified persons wi!i be available to m<oet anticipated 

Aviation Maintena11ce Technician CAMT) needs into the 21st century. For the j)Urpose of this 

investigation, an Aviation Maintenance Technician (AMT) is any person directly involved 

V>ith the repair or restorat:on of aircraft. A.1\1T personnel includes Airframe and Pcwerplant 

CA&Pl technicians, A'ionics tech.'licians, non-certified technicians employed bv repair stations 

and does not include supervisory, educational, or administrative personnel. 

It is anticipated that highly skilled blue collar workers will become incre,,singly in demand 

by various trades; therefore, the aviation industry may find it difficult tc employ those 

persons needed for many specialized maintenance operations such as non-.~estructive testing, 

composite refabrication, and electronics troubleshooting and repcir. Tbe changing role of the 

U.S. military may also have a dramatic impact on the availability of A\ITs. Current data 

from research studies suggests that the su~ply of white male workers, who have traditwnally 

populated this field, will prove inadequate to meet future work force needs. It will be 

important, therefore, not only from an equity perspective, but also because of employment 

demands, to cnphasize recruitment, training, and placement of nontraditional populations 

for AMT careers. 

4.1 THE OBJECTIVES 

The primary oojective of tJ,is study was to delineate effective strategies for meeting thE' 

emerging AMT work force needs through ,·ecruitment, training, placement, and retention of 

nontradi:iome.: workers. Research has shown tlnt historically u!1der rej)resented populations 

such as femiL.ss, blacks, Hispanics, displaced horr.en'akers. a11d reeducated aider workers, 

while representing the greatest hope for metting work force shortfalls, present unique 

employment challenges. In most cas•,s. indi.vidua!s in these populatio• .s lack ad<>quate 

trair.ing and/cr FAA certification to allow them to enter an A.\IT career. 

In order to prepare effective straiegies for meeting the emerging needs of the aviation 

industry, demographic data was collected to determine the populations most in need of 

assistance. This portion of the study was also used to predict future supply and demand for 

A.IVlT employees. The methodology was an extens1ve demographic review of currently 

63 
Chapter Four 

employed Ai\1Ts, Bureau of Labor Statistics, FAA and census data, as well as various 

industrial sources. The historic demog>aphic composition of the A.\1T work force can also 

have a profound effect on future employees. Historically, A.\1T career fields have been 

dominated by white males, but, by what perce!ltage 2-nd are those percentage£ changing? 

The demographic portion of this study examines both the composition of the A..~fTwork force, 

now and in the future, as well as the predicted number of .<\MTs available to fill the emerging 

positions in the aviation maintenance industry. 

In ord<>r to identify effective strategies to •:om bat the lack of employment diversity in the 

avia<ion maintenance fields, one must first identify the barriers which inhibit nontraditional 

populations from choosing aviation maintenance as a career. During this study, the research 

team conducted a thorough iiterature review and site visitations to AMT schools and work 

faciliti<es. Barriers to nontraditional employment a."ld existing recruitment and retention 

strategies in airline, general aviation institutions. tra~ning, and other related environments 

were identified and cataloged. With assistance from a c:>mmercial airline, the International 

Association of Machinists, and the Aviation Technical Education Council, information was 

gathered to identii:,V other delimiters to A.\1T career selection, retention, a.ml post-training 

articulation into A.\1T career fields. The research team was able tc identify several strategies 

which are potentially helpful in encouraging nontraditional individuals to choose A..\'iT 

careers, succeed in training, and then to entice them to remain in the field. 

4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 

This section of the report re-examines the results of the 1991 Working Paper \FA..\, in press) 

on Aviation Maintenance Technicia.'l (AMTl shortages prepared by the Federal Aviation 

Administration. The 1991 paper produced projections of pilot and AMT work force needs in 

Civilian Aviation for 1992-2003. This section of the report addresses only the projections of 

future A.;'\IT work force needs. A re-examination of dvilian commercial pilot work force 

projections is beyond the scope of this project. A summary of the complete demographic study 

is in Appendix 4. 

4.2.1 Background 

The re-examination of future AJ\IT work force needs was called fo:- in response to questions 

from aviation officials. union leaders. and others about the large shortages of A..'\1Ts that were 

projE'cted in the 1991 worki!lg paper. The 1991 working paper states that "numerous sources 

predict that then• will be a need for 100,000·120.000 A..\1Ts by the year 2000. This number 

is bas<>d on the current number of technicians combined with new positions related to new 

aircraft and ''1creased atter.tion to continuing airworthiness of older aircraft." The 1991 

r<>purt projectc< the shortage of lL'\lTs to be betweer. 65.000 and 85,000 !lew A..\1Ts by the year 

2000 Many fdt that the shortfalls wene too largE'; ot~ers. that the projected shortfalls were 

too CfJilSt>:r\·(!tiYt:. 

64 
Identi{ieation of Barriers 

The shortages projected were accompanied by supporting information ar1d arguments that 

seemed to provide a rationale for the expected hrrge shortfalls. In the report, the projected 

decline oft.'-le population in the 16-24 and 25-34 age groups by the year 2000, a declining pool 

of potential AN!Ts coming from the military, a low retention rate of A.l\fTs in the aviation 

industry (only 45'7r of A.".1T school graduates remain in aviation after 2 years), and othH 

reasons are offered to explain why the supp!y of AMTs is not expected to keep up ·with 

demand. All of these reasons and ratior:ales focus on the supply of A.".1T work force into the 

aviation industry. However, the FAA report does not offer specific yearly projections of A.\1T 

work force supply to accompany their detailed yearly projections of A.l\fT work force demand. 

P.s a result, precise yeariy shortages remain unclear. 

This study exa.'llines the report's projection of AMT work force need. The projections are recalculated using much of the original study's methodology but with some variation where the 

assumptions of the original projections have been questioned. These variations in 

assumptions and methodology are described in Appendix 4. This study also offers yearly 

projections of work force supply using data that was not used in the working paper study. 

This study projects supply by using FAA data on estimated active AMTs reported in the FAA 

Statistical Yearbooks. The yearly projections of AMT work force supply and demand ca.'1 be 

compared to produce projected yearly .;hortages or surpluses. 

4.2.2 Projected Demand and Supply of AMTs 

The projections of A.l\fT demand from Tables 4A-4 throu~h 4A-6 (Appendix 4) are combmed 

with projectiOns of A.l\iT supply from Tables 4A-8 and 4A-9 (Appendix 4). Projectwns of A .. \1T 

shortages can be caic~lated by comparing the sup:.ly and demand prc~ections. QpJy where 

40'fr of a<:tive AMTs are 

employed in aviati0n and 

where it is assumed lhat 

14 AMTs/transpart 

category aircraft, 4.2 

A.'\fTs/commuwr a.ircraft 

a.'1d .15 AMTs/general 

aviation aircraft are 

::eeded do we find that 

there will be suusW.Iltial 

A.l\fT shortages (see 

Figure 4.1 ). However, 

for cir"Cumstances where 

greater thau 40'7, of active 

AMTs remain employed 

in aviati.on and w:1ere 

fewer A.'\1Ts are needed to 

maintain each class of 

aircraft, we do not project Figure 4.1 A.'\1T Supply & Demand 

65 
Chapter Four 

shortages (Figure 4.1 ). In general, the supply of A.MTs will meet the aviation industry's 

demand. 

Another factor to bc> considered whc>n projc>cting future shortages is thP large pool of AN!Ts 

who are certifi<>d but who are not employed in aviation. These A.'v1Ts could return to aviation 

employm.ent at some JX)int if C"ircumstances warrant it. l-lowpver. it is to thl' aviation 

industry's advantage not to draw upon this supply of A..l\1Ts. It is much more cost-efff.>ctin· 

to continup to fill positions with entry-level AMTs, rather than to pny highpr wagE's to morE' 

senior people. The C'lmparatively low wages, nighttime work schedules, aml uncPrtain job 

security in the aviation industry create ret,pntion problems within th<" industry, especiolly for 

more experienced anc! senior workers. 

There may be shm·t-teim 

shortages of entry-level 

A..'\iTs in the aviation 

industry, given the 

cyclical nature of increase 

m the number of 

annually certified AMTs 

who remain active m 

aviation maintenance 

ea~h year (see Figure 

4.2). Short-term 

shortages in the industry 

may indeed be the stimuli 

that A..'\IT schools a..-1d 

prospective students react 

to, at least until it 

becomes difficult for 

4, 

2~ 

........... H 

···········)\· 

\1 0~~~~~~~.~- 1959 1964 "t9'3ld 1974 ~~~~~~ 1979 i 984 1989 ; 99-! 

~~ Actuai 

newly trained A..'\1Ts to 

find jobs. The schools Figure 4.2 Change in Active A&P :vh•chnnics 

then react by reducing 

the scope of their programs. Individuals then may also beconw les~ inten·~t<>d in A:'\\T 

training due to a perceived ot real lack of job~ in the ~nd!J.~try. Givt.•n ·Lht· natun· of tht.> 

aviation industry, it seems to be q11ite difficult to creah· any long-tt·rm balancP lw:w,.,·n tht· 

training of new A.\1Ts and the availal:Jility of jobs. Assuming that thP aviaum: industry Is 

tied to the overall economy, in the long-cerm (mor<' than a fpw y<·ars :, the numlJpr of A:'\lT~ 

needed will continue to shov.· cyclical changes as the economy goes th!'ough n~ typical uptur.1~ 

and downturns. 

Another trend that may substantially reduce demand for .>\.:\!Ts in thP L'.S. a·:;:!lhm mdu~:,·y 

is the movement of aviation maintpnancE' facilitiPs to foreign count!·ip~· As n1m·._. of tbP~t· 

facilities become realitiPs, the growth 111 the number ofjulJ:-; aYailablt· t_o ~\1TZ' traHwd l!l tht· 

Cnited States will slow. 

66 
Identification of Barriers 

The overall conclusion of these analyses is that A.\1Ts are available to meet today's demand 

and that future shortages seem unlikely. There may be short-term shortages of entry-level 

A ... l\1Ts as the aviation industry fluctuates with the economy. However, the massive shortages 

suggested by the working paper seem unlikely. For a more detailed look at the demographic 

portion of this study. see Appendix 4. 

4.3 BARRIERS AND MOTIVATORS TO NONTRADITIONAL CAREER 

INVOLVEMENT 

In order to prepare effective strategies for meeting the emerging employment needs of the 

aviatic a industry, barriers which inhibit the recruitment and retention of nontraditional 

populations into the AMT work force must be identified and cataloged. Successful motivators 

which e!lcourage diversity in aviation work force populatiolls must also be exarnined. 

Ultimately, the federal government and the aviation L'ldustry must strive to ease the barriers 

and increase the motivators which will stimulate the involvement of nontraditional 

populations in A.l\1T careers. 

4.3.1 Review of Previous Research 

The research literature and previous studies of nontraditional employees in aviation suggest 

that there are many reasons that women and minorities fail to select aviation careers. From 

an expansive view, these delimiting factors ca.'l be grouped into several general categories: 

societal and cultural indoctrinations and expectations; disparity of treatment; individual 

development; vocational awareness; and real or perceived discrimination and bias. The 

summative effect of these variables is central to an individual"s predisposition to select and 

his or her ability to survive and prosper in nontraditional careers. 

The literature suggests that minorities and women with an interest in nontraditional careers 

place as much emphasis on career goals as do white males (Bianchi, 1990; Goldberg & 

Shiflett, 1981). What, then, discourages women a.'ld minorities from entering white male 

dominated career field preparation and pursuits? The literature suggests that there are 

many barriers limiting or discouraging these individuals from selecting nontraditiona! 

activities. Factors such as the individual's socioeconomic status, the amount and type of 

parental encouragement the individual received, the aspirations of peers, and the 

employment status of their close friends and family members are a few contributing variables 

rcarr & Mednick, 1988; Ott et al., 1979). The literature groups delimiters limiting the entry 

of women and minorities into traditional white male occupations into three distinct barrie:-

types: institutional, situational, and dispositional (De:tbroeder & Thomas, 1980; Thomas et 

a! .. 1979). 

67 
Chapter Four 

4.3.1.1 Institutional Barriers 

Institutional barriers are those delimiters which are intrinsic to white male dominated 

educational or industrial organizations into which female or minority integration is desired. 

Examples of institutional barriers are admission policies, financial aid policies, institutional 

regulations and policies, and staff attitudes <Bianchi, 1990; Denbroeder & Thomas, 1980; 

Thomas et al., 1979J. Many educational, industrial, and societal factors influence and limit 

career aspirations and success for minorities and women in white male dominat'"d training 

or career fields. 

4.3.1.1.1 Industrial Bias 

Legislative mandate has substa..'ltially reduced institutional ~arriers for women and 

minont1es. Federal laws such as the Equal Pay Act, the Civil Rights Act, the Equal 

Employment Opportunity Act, a.'ld the Equal Rights Amendment establish industrial 

guideiines aimed at integrating minorities and women into historically under represented 

career fields (Aburdene & Naisbitt, 1992; Biles & Pryatel, 1978). Thus, many instit>;tional 

bar1iers associated with educational and industrial policies have been removed for females 

and minorities interested in nontraditional pursuits. 

The imposition of Congressional ma.rtda~e does not assure equal treatment in the work place. 

The literature suggests that women and minorities in supervisory position~ are viewed by 

their subordinates less favorably tha.'l white males in those positions, despite the 

subordinates' race or gt>nder (Faludi, 1991: Haccoun, Haccoun, & Sallay, 1978). Research also 

indicates that minorities and women generally perceive that they are disc1iminated agains~ 

as a population. However, when these sa:ne ir.dividuals were asked if they :hemse!ve;. were 

discriminated against. they generally indicated that they were not {Crosby, 1984~ Eiff, 1989i. 

:\!any institution;;] barriers can a.:od have> been S'-lccessfully addressed ami controlled :hrough 

li~gish· .. tion in orde-r to equalize vocational opportunities for men and women of all races 

\Thomas et al .. l979J. In the current study, workers of both gendHs and various races 

n·portt·d that many industrial barriers. bias?s. and discri:ninato:y acti\ities ha\Te been 

controllt->d or neutrallzPd by legislation 0r by fenr of legal actio:1 precipitated by judicial 

prf'cPdent. 

4.3.1.1.2 Educatur Bias 

Institutional barrit~rs as:::ociated \vith eriucatio~al orga.'1iz~ .. tions ha\.·'? pro,·en fo!"!!lidn~le to 

the procpss of intt>grating equitable numbers of minorities and women into white malt? 

dumin.:ned can't'T fields. \\.hi1P the Civil Rights Ac1. and Title IX of tht- Education 

i\J1H~nJments propose tv ensure the Plin1i:nation of !Ji:-::..s a.'1d race- a..'ld sex-role st£->reot,:.1Jing 

in both employmt•nt r:.:ld c3:eer preparatio:1. bc,:h over!. and covert bias remain er::trenthPd 

in o:.1: pducational in~litutions {:\.Al ~\\~. 1992: !l0nb.·oeder & Tho:nas, 1980!. l·nfnsora.b!e 

comnH·n!~ and bt>b~n-:or~ by te:1rhers, to;JI"i=--~-Io~. and peers have been shown to be 

di~courabrir::g l::ii.ut·nct-~ :~n \\·omen and mn1u:· ty siulient.._.::; \Vith noniraditional i:1terests 

68 
Identification of Barriers 

(Bianchi, 1990; Eko & Brown, 1981). Legislative mandate has neutralized most overt fonns 

of discrimination in educational institutional admissions, financial aid, and regulations 

policies (Orr, 1983). However, successful remediation of biases associated wit!:: staff 

attitudes and actions has not been realized. The influences of teacher, cou..-,selor. and 

textbook biases on minority and female students still pervade our educational institutions 

(AAUW, 1992; Cronenweti, 1983). 

Teachers and counselors consciously and/or unconsciously convey bias to students by "sending 

ve,-bal and non-verbal messages to students" discouraging the selection of a nontraditional 

career field (Cronenwett, 1983; Stitt, 1988). Since counseling experiences seem to influem:e 

~:areer decision-making in young people, counselors must question the quality and equity of 

the service they provide (Sauter, Siedl, & Karbon, 1980). The iiterature shows that 

counselors hold sex-and race-stereotypical attitudes and often show disapproval t0ward 

students wit:, an interest in nontraditional or. as they perceive it, "deviant" program or 

career interests (Bianchi, 1990; Ott et al., 1979l. :\1ost agree that counselor bias and 

awareness level are important variables in the pursuit of an equitable counseling experience 

(Sauter et al., 1980). Most also agree that counselors need to reduce their open and sub;,le 

biases in an effort to facilitate equity in educational programs and career pursuits (Lewis et 

al., 1976; Stitt & Stitt, 1990). 

The literature implies that counselors are "agents of conformity, rather than vehicles of 

change" (Hawley, 1972; Stitt, 1988). Research indi;:ates t.'1at counselors tend to stogges: only 

traditional options to undecided students and discourage nontraditional interests_ Teachers 

in areas like technology are somewhat reluctant to include nontraditional studer:ts ir: "heir 

courses. \\'nile these influences may be presented :nost subtly, they ca-'1 effectively discourage 

nontraditional choice among under represented populations \Harrison, l9SQ;_ .-\::tnudes 

among educators to~..vard the suitability of vocat~onal courses for various individua:s \\.·ere 

demonstrated to be associated with the educator's sex and educational level. bu: not their 

race or teaching longe·vity {Handley & \Valker~ 1978). !\!ale teachers were more i!1fluentia1 

than female teachers in female students' decisions to select nontraditional courses and 

careers. Female teachers tended to encourage female students to maintain a t:-adi:io::1al 

educational and career interests. \'Vnite educators, both male and female, are more biased 

regarding nor.traditional work preferences of men and wome::1 tha:1 ar:> black educ::nors 

(AAUW. 1992; Handley & Walker. 1978). 

Educational institutional barriers must be changE"d from with:n. The key to impleme:1ting 

such changes is the teacher <Farris, 1980J. Rt:search i~dica!E-5 t~J.: teu:--heY"s ex~i!J:t 

differential treatment of s:.udents accorciing to :ht: student's race a.td gendt-r ,,_.'\..-\t \\~. 199:2. 

Ott et al .. 1979 j_ It is suggested that this treatment disp3!"'ity occurs because teacher~ ascribe 

different characteristlcs to gender and race and prefer :ertain :ypes o:"beh2.vi0r in ~1t'!!ll>t·r~ 

of certain populations tOtt et aL. 1979~ Stitt, 19SSJ. \\:-h.i1e teaching facuhy h3ve :1...:1t bt·t"':: 

implicated as directly ini1uenci:1g traditional choict?-s. in stude:1ts' majo~. they seer.1 to :-:·n·i' 

an indirect influence thr-ough classrcom experieHce-s {Bia.Tlchi, 1990: Carr & :.1f'd;1ick. 19SS: 

O'Donnell & Andersen, 197SJ. Teachers and counselors disclose that they do not e:-Jcc>umg<> 

or discourage students" consiDeration of nontraditional t~a:-E-e-r i!1terests. They do i::-n.hcalt'. 

how-evE"r, that whf'!1 a student indicates a nontradit:or:a} 1nter-est the;: ··probe·· to insur·t'' ::1a: 

69 
Chapter Four 

the student's interest is genuine_ This "probing" could discourage many students from 

pursuing nontraditional interests (Lewis et aL, 1976; Stitt, 1988L 

4.3.1.1.3 Educat!onal Material Bias 

While teachers and counselors may covertly convey bias, there are many overt forms o:b:as 

in the educational environment. Chief a;nong these influences are instructional language 

and textbook bial'. Subtle fonns of racist or sexist language significa.'lt!y aJTect studi!nts 

social perceptions_ <Briere & Lanktree, 1983; Stitt, 1988). The use of guidance materials 

(Eiff, 1989; Rohfe!d, 1977) and textbooks which project overt or covert sex- or racestereotyping or utilize racist or sexist language can greatly deter students' conside::-ation of 

nontraditional interests (Lewis et al., 1976; Stitt & Stitt, 1990)_ 

Research suggests that a student's perception of career attractiveness and his or her 

willingness to move into specific career fields follows sex- and race-stereotypical directions 

as a function of the degree of exposure to mc:st and sexist language. Thes~-> fi::1c'ings support 

recent demands :for non-sexist and non-racist language in guidance material ~'10 textbooks. 

<Briere & Lanktree, 1983; Faludi, 199ll. In addition w language bias, textbooks h.ave also 

been found w project stereotypical race and gender attributes_ Textbooks often present 

females as passive. fearful. or incompetent. Males are often portrayed as active, brave. and 

resourceful (Ott et aL. 1979)_ 11inorities ar<: often projected to be crininal. lazy. or offensiw• 

In order to remove biases generated by educational materials, it is i...TTiperative tha! teachE>rs 

and counselors guard against the use of sex- or race-typed :naterial \Lewis et al .. 1976!_ 

4.3.1.2 Situational Barriers 

\\.1-lile legislation and programmatic changes have aEe'.-iated ma.~y inst!t\ltior:a! ~arrit:>:--s. 

neutr-alizing institutional barriers "'ill not. in a;.J.d of itself. :esult 1n greater rep:E-se::t3.:ior!. 

of "'~omen and minorities in \vhite male dowina~ed career fie~ds. Th.?re :-er!1.ain~:; :::.. s:z~~'~e 

array ofpersor..a1-soc.!a1 barriers which create cGnf:icls for m.i:1orities a:1d \\·o:nen wl"lo \\'Ot:1t: 

like to enter nontraditional careers <Tho:nas et al.. 1979}. Amo:1g these b~:ie:·s 9:·einfluences related to the indiv-idual's envirc:1:nenta: and Efe co:1tex:ual En1ita::v~:: 

Situat:io:1al barriers are those constraints expe:ie::ced by the incEY:d~:J.l d:..lt" :o l~P 

circur:1stances in v.·hich they flnd them~e>.:es. Sit'...la::onal b2rriers incl~Cf' f:u-:-::~y 

respo!lsibili~ies, :in2.ncial :;eeds. ar:.d societal p!"e.ss;_:res ~De!lb:-oecier & Thomas. :9S.O: Le~} .. .-;; 

& Robe!"ts 1988: Thorr.as et aL. 1979L A..:.! ir!di"·iC:..:.3.l's soci3.l 2.!"!d :".?_"T:i:y cor:text .::.:J.~ ~"! 

signi!ica..""lt i:npact on his or he:- career aspiratic::s. 

4.3.1.2.1 Career Training Costs 

Principle ar.;ong sit:Iatio:r:al deli~:u-.-rs 1s :~e co~: c:- :.:·2~:-::~ng r.ecess.J.::-y fo:· c:1rt't'~· 

participation. ~!any mi:1orities and \\·o;;;.er:. req:::re r:1oY'e c2.rt-.:..~!" p;t-p2Ya:ic:r: i:-1 r·rdt""":- h1.£>:1:t"';· 

ma:1y ~ .• vhi:e male domi::a:ed fields :han do -.."·h::>? ::~ales \\\-2-.k pr•?req::isi:t"' ~k:ll~ ::1 
Identification of Barriers 

mnthf'matics at1d science often dictate additional training in these disciplines before entering 

care<'r tratmng Marly womPn ar1d minorities fail to consider nontraditional career fields 

because of thE-ir need for career preparation and the cost of that training (Drake, 1990; 

Rodriguez. 1986). In aviation career fields, career preparation training costs are a barrier 

which must be surmounted before minorities and women can enter these nontraditional 

careers. Socioeconomic background may predispose low aspirations among these individuals 

if they perceive :;arental reluctance of inability to support career-preparation costs (Carr & 

Mednick, 1988; Dat1ziger, 1983). Despite a desire to pursue such training, these individuals 

may also find it difficult to secure ioans for training and often lack information on how to 

ootain money for career training (Bianchi, 1990; Thomas et al., 1979). In order for 

individuals from iow-income backgrounds to have an opportunity to enter nontraditional 

careers, it is necessary for them to identify sources of money for training costs (Bianchi, 1990; 

Fralick, 1984). These individuals often find it difficult to secure financial aid due to their 

special needs (Thomas eta!., 1979). 

4.3.1.3 Dispositional Barriers 

Legislative removal of institutional barriers has not changed pervading attitudinal barriers 

pre,·enting students from choosing nontraditional career pursuits (Albrecht, 1976; Duo & 

Yuen, 1985; Leach & Roberts, 1988). Dispositional barriers are those attitudinal attributes 

of art individual which preclude his or her involvement in nontrc.ditional careers. Individual 

dispositions may create dispositional barriers such as the fear of failure, fear of success, 

attitudes toward intellectual acti\ities, role preference, level of aspiration, dependence, and 

feelings of inferiority <Denbroeder & Thomas, 1980; Thomas et al., 1979J. For many 

minorities and women, race- and sex-role stereotyping, occupational race- and sex-typing, and 

self-concept have a significant impact on their occupational aspirations (Eiff, 1991; Ruble et 

al.. 1984 l. Attitudinal barriers effectually elininate serious consideration of nontraditional 

career pursuit. It has been shown that all individual's level of education affects the impact 

cf such barriers en career aspirations. Lower levels of education in combination with 

socializntion presents an ominous barrier for nontraditional career aspirations. The "lack of 

an adequate education which would prepare one for certain occupatious combines v.'ith 

attitudes developed during socialization that, in effect. define these occupations as 

inappqpriate choices atlyway" <Albrecht, 1976). 

4_3.L3.1 Self-Esteem 

Rese-arch has indicated that then' appears to be a significant relationship between an 

indivtdual's self-estPem and whether or not the individual's attitudes are nontraditional or 

lraditional (Harrison et aL. 1981). The literature reports that matly women and minorities 

haw a lower sf>lf-cuncept th= wh!te males in the realm of occupational performance. This 

may lead to lowPr self-confidence anJ an expectan~y of failure <Sleeter, 1991; Soldwedel. 

1989; Thomas et al., 1979). Women ar<:> more self-conscious and, therefore, more vulnerable 

to criticism than males, especially in occupationally related terms (Faludi, 1991; Rosenberg 

& Stmmons. 1975). Women faciEg the realtty of pursuing male-dominated careers agree that 

71 
Chapter Four 

they are discouraged by their lack of self-confidence (Eko & Brown, 1981). Women with 

higher self-esteem are more likely to pursue nontrl'.ditional occupations (Harrison et al., 

1981). 

4.3.1.3.2 Fear of Success 

Females and minorities who gain success in environments where their employment is 

considered traditional or where there is an equality of representation elicit favorable white 

male reaction. When the success is associated with careers or actions considered ''deviant" 

for minorities or females, these same males react punitively. Successful nontraditional 

workers may manifest a "motive to avoid success" in an effort to avoid disfavor among white 

male peers (Lockheed, 1975). Thus, women and minorities may become underachievers when 

competing v.ith white males, especially in environments where white males dominate, in 

order to avoid a perceived compromise in their relationship v.ith these men (Carr & Mednick, 

1988; Dole, 1989; Thomas eta!., 1979). 

4.3.1.4 Socialization 

The effects of social expectations are most appareut in the career and life aspirations of 

women. Women are socialized into diverting their attention away from themselves as 

workers and toward seeking identity from their spc-use or potential spouse (Thomas et al ... 

1979J. Socializing forces not only inhibit the development of women but also impede the 

national interest to maximize human resom-ces (Aburdene & Naisbitt, 1992; O'Donnell & 

Andersen, 1978). Socialization is a process "whereby implicit standards of social conduct are 

conveyed to and acquired by ~hildren" (Bearison, 1979). As an example, parents, teachers. 

and media socialize women from infancy to seek their fulfillment in the wife/mother role and 

at the same time motivate men toward occupational success (Orr, 1983). Social scientists 

assert that this differential in socialization patterns exists throughout an individual's life. 

guiding males and females in different directions (Carr & Mednick, 1988; Rosenberg & 

Simmons, 1975). Traditional societal sex-role socialization promotes achievement motivation 

in men but is antagonistic to the development of such motives in women <Carr & Mednick. 

19881 

Members of minority populations are simiiarly affected by cultural and social expectations 

dictated by their backgrounds. These influences give stark evidence that paramount among 

socializmg forces is the family. The family is the first a.'ld foremost influence in our lives 

tAus!<'r & Auster. 1981; EitT eta!.. 1986). Reseurch indicates t'lat the socialization process 

within the family was the greatest factor aHecting the occupational choices of women and 

minorities tEko & Brown, 198ll. As the pri:nary agept of socialization, the family's influence 

on career choice is a result of a complex interplay of active and passive, for.nal and informal. 

social. psychological. and economic factors. Career choice an,ong women is influenced by such 

family socioeconomic f:lctur.s as parental educa~ion levels and occupational status, income. 

and number, birthing order. a.'ld sex of siblings \Auster & Auster, 1981) as well as parents' 

attitudes toward traditional roles (Leach & Rob~rts. 1988; Thomas eta!., 1979). 
Identification of Barriers 

The literature indicates that despite their racial or ethnic background, parents differentially 

socialize sons and daughters (Bearison, 1979; Carr & Mednick, 1988). Seemingly benign 

behaviors by parents can translate intD covert sex-role stereotyping. Factors such as the type 

and frequency of handling in infancy, the numbers and kinds of toys, and the encouragE"'"''"~ 

of dependence or independence can have dramatic implications on children's sex-role 

perceptions (Schlossberg & Goodman, 1972). The classic "Baby X" research demonstrated the 

pervasive and inadvertent nature of parental sex-role socialization. By using the same baby 

and r0presenti.ng it as male or female, researchers were able to demonstrate that adults 

interact different with the same infant in accordance with the child's perceived sex (Seavey. 

Katz, & Zalk, 1975). Thus, the literature suggests that women from all backgrounds are 

adversely affected by fa..-nilial socializations. 

Many fa.ntily attributes and constraints also affect the career aspirations of minorities and 

women. The educational levels of parents, especially that of the mother in the case of women 

aspirants, and the work history of parents have been strongly implicated as factors in an 

individual's nontraditional career pursuit (Crawford, 1978; Danziger, 1983; Drake. 1990; 

O'Donnell & Andersen, 197 8; Sauter et al., 1980 ). Both boys and girls appear to be 

influenced by the occupation of the opposite sex parent (Kane & Frazee, 1989; Nelson, 1978!. 

The fina11Cial resources of the family are also linked to parental expectations and individuals· 

aspirations. Families with limited financial resources may be more sensitive to the cost and 

duration of career preparation and the uncertainty of occupational returns <Bianchi, 1990; 

Danziger, 1983). 

Other prominent socializing forces are the influences of race- and sex-typing in the media and 

advertising. Television abounds with sex- and race-typed information concerning role 

appropriateness in its program and advertising content. The media, including magazinps, 

songs, newspapers, and radio, reinforce traditional sex and race roles (Schwartz & l\farkham. 

1985!. Children learn about jobs and work settings from television, but such programming 

strongly promotes the "appropriate" race and sex of the worker (Q'Bryant & Corder-Bolz. 

1978; Stitt & Stitt, 1990l. 

The race- and sex-typing of toys has also contributed to role socialization. Such soc•alization>' 

are strongest for females. Toys "for girls" are strongly oriented toward domestic pursuits and 

do not encourage construction and manipulation like "boys' toys" do (Schwartz & Markham. 

1985). Toy advertisements project the toy's appropriate sex, thus promoting sex-role 

socialization. Research has demonstrated that toy advertisers portray their toys with 

"appropriatP" sex children in the pictures (Schwartz & Markham, 19851. In toy ust' 

expcrments, !:•.wever, researchers have found that there is no significant rf:'lationship 

between a chilo s sex and the use of boys' or girls' toys (Karpoe & Olney. 1983!. Chddn•n. 

instead, universally used the toys by toy-defined criteria. rather than by ;wrceived sc•x-typmg 

Another example of sex-typed expectations are those predicting that wonwn are not 

mechanically inclined and lack the ability, strength, dexterity, and aptitude to perform many 

maintenance-related tasks. Research studies of mPchanical skills demonstrate thnt this 

perception is contrary to demonstrated abilities. When tested for technical aptitudP>' and 

abilities, women were found to excel in SIX aptitudes: finger dexterity, graphorrlwa. 

73 
Chapter Four 

idea phoria, observation, silograms, and abstract visualization. Men excelled owr women in 

only two areas, grip and structural visualization. (Orr, 1983). Thus, commonly held beliefs 

that women are not adept or capable of perfonning mechanical tasks as well as men have 

been demonstrated to be erroneous. 

4.3.1.4.1 Role Stereotyping 

Role stereotyping is one of the most frequently cited sources of bias in the literature (Falu<ll. 

1991; Ruble et al., 1984). Role stereotypes are oversimplified judgments about pPople's 

capabilities and interests based on their race, ethnic background, or sex (Farris, 1980, p. 19!. 

Role stereotyping is a deeply rooted and pervasive aspect of our culture which affects career, 

educational, and occupational choices (Aburdene & Naisbitt, 1992; Faiudi, 1991; Alden & 

Seiferth, 1980). Sex- and race-role identification is a central aspect of the social learning 

process and has profound effects on a child's expPctations, self-image, and behavior <Schwartz 

& Markham, 1985). 

Traditionally, masculinity and femininity have been viewed as dichotomous (Yanico, Hardin, 

& Mel aughlin, 1978). It has been a cultural precept that if an individual endorses a position 

which projects masculinity, there is simultaneous non-endorsement of femminity <Faludi, 

1991; Urbonas-Bendikas, 1981). The analysis of sex-roles brings with it a perception of 

threat since it asks us to question our own personal sense of identity. This is becaus(• our 

identities have been based upon socialization as males or females through constant and 

frequent overt and covert remforcements of SE'x-stereotyped characteristics (i· arris, 1980 I. 

Sex-role socializations are problematic in that they block human understandmg. 

communication, and potential (Alden & Seiferth, 1980). 

The acquisition of sex- and race-,-ole identities are usually attributed to one of thr<><· facturs 

innate biological differences, cognitive-development<ll !Jarameters. or social influenc<·s 

(Bardwell, Cochran, & Walker, 1986!. The third factor is derived from social learning theory 

and, thus, is central tc; the current study. The process of stereotyping mvolves classifying or 

categorizing groups or individuals according to dispositionn.l traits, attitudes, or intpntions 

(Carr & Mednick, 1988; Ruble et al., 1984). In thP current context, a stereotyp<' c<·nt<·rs 

around normativE' role expt"ctations. Relative to gender, for mE'n, thesP normative 

expectations are that they will be economically independent, that tht>y will work :l!l th<·ir 

adult lives, and that they will be the principle breadwiPner and achit>\'er. WomPn, on tlw 

other hand, are expected to be successful in marriage, to assign their priontH·s to child 

rearing and homemaking, and are less exposed to social pressure to achiew. Can·er pursuJts 

and economic indE'pE'ndencP are conceivE'd of as secondary considc·ratiom; for wor.H·n 

(Danziger, 19831. Socialization of womf'n turns them toward being plPasing to otlwrs: 

socialization of men turns thf'm to ac.omplishrr.Pnt and achif'VE'ment <.Stitt & Stitt. 19,0, 

Rosenberg & Simmons, 19751. 

Society identifies certain traits as representative of male and female attributes. Tht· maJ.. 

is considered to be independent, active, objectiv<·. confident, ambitious, assertive, kgical. and 

aggressive (Ruble et a!., 1984; Shirwr, 197f>l Female attributes include g<>ntl<'ness. 

74 
Identification of Barrier• 

------------------------------------~-~= 

emotionality, interpersonal sensitivity, tactfulness, neatness, and q:>.iet (Ruble et al., 1984; 

Shinar, 1975). When compared to men, women are considered less competent, less 

independent, less objective, less logical, and less organized (Braverman, Vogel, Broverman, 

Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972; Rosenberg & Simmons, 1975). 

Individuals acquire role stereotyping from a variety of social forces: parents, school&, peers, 

and the media (Schwartz & Markham, 1985). Since stereotyping begins at infancy, it is set 

by the age of three and defined by the age of six. Parents are the first and primary source 

of role-bias (Duo & Yuen, 1985). The role stereotypes imposed by parents during early 

childhood become a formidable barrier during iater years (Thomas et al., 1979). Parents 

subconsciously pass sex- and race-role traditions on to their children through both overt and 

covert actions and language. Parents teach children to play with race- and sex-appropriate 

toys, assign them sex-appropriate household tasks, and treat them differently (Ott ei al., 

1979). Many times, differential treatment is conscious and deliberate (Seavey et al., 1975). 

During adolescence, parental expectations that daughters will marry and have children is an 

important barrier to career pursuit (Carr & Mednick, 1988; Thomas eta!., 1979). 

Many other social forces contribute to role expectation reinforcement. Schools nurture 

stereotypical behavior through their expectations of different behaviors for boys and girls, and 

for members of different races. Girls are expected to be obedien', docile, and dependent; boys, 

to be aggressive, active, achieving, and independent (Carr & Mednick, 1988; Faludi, 1991). 

Another influence on role identification is the bias imparted by television (O'Bryant & 

Corder-Bolz, 1978!. In general, women are portrayeri in less liber·al, more sex-role 

differentiated roles in television commercials than is the case in real life. Television 

commercials general!y depict women in mater .. al, housekeeping, and aesthetic roles (Mamay 

& Simpson, 1981). 

4-3-1.4.2 Occupational Stereotyping 

Occupations and professions are highly segregated by race and gender (Bielby, 1978). 

Occupational race- and sex-stereotypes are developed in much the same way as individual 

stereotypes (Ruble et a!., 1984) and are extensions of the general!zed segregation which 

characterizes all aspects of Western society (Lipman-Blumen. 1976). These stereotypes are 

but one reflection of a pervasive society-wide system of sex and race differentiation which 

manifests itself in differing roles, temperaments, and opportunities (Faludi, 1991; Mason, 

1976; Schlossberg & Goodman, 1972). As with other Western cultures, occupational 

segregation has been a constant feature of the work place in the United States throughout 

its entire history (Deaux, 1984; Duo & Yuen, 1985). 

Two methods of occupational sex- and race-typing are apparent in the literature: 1) the use 

of the race or gender ratio of workers in an occupation and, 2) by a classification of the nature 

of the work <Standley & Soule, 1974). Research suggests that the most commonly held 

perceptions of occupational stereotyping relate to the majority sex or race working in a 

career oeing perceived as the occupation's appropriate sex/race <Krefting, Berger, & Wallace, 

1978; Ruble et al., 1984; Thomas et al., 1979). Often, minorities and women are discouraged 

75 
Chapter Four 

irom seeking employment in white male dominated careers because of such occupational 

stereotyping <Drake, 1990; Kane & Frazee, 1989; Thomas, 1981). 

Historically, there has been a tendency to channel women and minorities into a few socially 

acceptable, low-status, traditional occupations (Leach & Roberts, 1988). Segregation by raceand sex-typed occupation constitutes a major waste of natural talent (Aburdene & Nf!isbitt, 

1992). Despite pl.-ported efforts to infuse greater numbers of women into nontraditional 

occupations, research indicates that occupational segregation by sex is nearly as prevalent 

today as it was almost one-hu:1dred yea,-s ago (Alden & Seiferth, 1979). An individual's 

perception of occupe~ional sex- anc! race-appropriateness has been found in early childhood 

(Rosenthal & Chapman, 1982) Studies suggest that students in elementary grades limit 

their career interests to race- and sex-typed career fields (Alden & Seiferth, 1980; Papalia & 

Tennent, 1975; Tremaine, S~hau, & Busch, 1982). Career aspiration gains in liberality 

through pre-adolescent (Tremaine eta!., 1982) Females express more varied, nontraditional, 

and sopksticated vocational preferences during pre-adolescence than they do when entering 

college (Eiff, 1989). By the time women enter college, they exhibit clearly defined perceptions 

of sex-typed occupations (Sbnar, 1975). These perceptions of race- and sex-appropriate 

career fields prevent many minorities and women from considering white male dominated 

occupations. 

4.3.1.5 Informational Barriers 

Informational barriers have proven to be a major force working to !imi~ the involvement of 

women and minorities in white male dominated aviation career fields. Research has 

~epeatedly demonstrated that a generalized lack of awareness and the unavailability of career 

information and career guidance with regards to atypical careers are significant factors in the 

discouraging the nontraditional participant from entering white male dominated career fields. 

4.3.1.5.1 Lack of Awareness 

Many minorities and women fail to perceive the myriad of nontraditional career opportunities 

as viable career options simply because they are unaware of them. A campaign of general 

publicity and efforts to inform high school counselors has been listed as the most important 

strategy to improve the representation of nontraditional workers in white male dominated 

occupations CDeaux, 1984; Leach & Roberts, 1988; Occupational Competencies. 1991). 

Race and socioeconomic status are important factors in career awareness. Occupational 

knc,wledge is associated with an individual's socioeconomic status, family size, and race. 

Race. in particular, has been demonstratPd consistently to have a dramatic impact on an 

indi,·idual's occupational knowledg<' I Howell, 1978). Blacks are less familiar with job titles 

than other populations and han' a more restrictive view of occupational possibihties. They 

also baH' a lower inclination to explore can•er possibilitie,; I Alden & Seiferth, 1980l. 

76 
Identification of Barriers 

Women are gentrally less aware than men of both the availability of nontraditional careers 

and of information about employment openings (Drake, 1990; Leach & Roberts, 1988; Stitt. 

1988l. In aviation career fields, specifically, the general lack of awareness among women and 

rn:;1orities concerning the diversity of aviation career opportunities was cited as the singlf' 

most important reason for the low levels of representation by these populations in aviation 

career fields (Eiff, 1989; Occupational Competencies, 1991). It has been suggested that 

making these individuals aware of atypical career opportunities and encouraging them to 

explore those opportunities will have a dramatic impact on the integration of women and 

minorities into white male dominated cnreers (Drake, 1990; Harrison, 1980; Leach & Roberts 

1988). 

4.3.1.5.2 Lack of Career Information 

Many women and minorities to select traditiona! careers be~ause they do not have access to 

information concerning atypical occupational opportunities (Kane & Frazee, 1989; Stitt & 

Stitt, 1990). Individuals and counselors lack important inform;:,tion about nontraditional 

careers which would enable minorities and women to make intelligent choices with regards 

to occupational selection and preparation (Eko & Brown, 1981; Stitt, 1985). Information 

concerning career preparation, potential salaries, job opportunities, working conditions, and 

promotional opportunities is critically lacking (Lewis et al., 1976). 

4.3.1.5.3 Lack of Career Guidance 

The literature indicates that thEre is a dramatic need for greater career counseling for women 

and minorities (Alden & Seiferth, 1980; Leach & Roberts 19881. When workers wert- askpd 

if career counseling was influential in their nontraditional career decision, many indicat<ed 

that it was of little or no heir (Eiff et al., 1986; Rohfeld, 1977 ). It has been suggestPd that 

this may indicate that counselors either do not have adequate information about. indoviduals 

in nontraditional occupations or that their own biases regarding race- and sex-roles directiy 

limit the information they offer wonwn and minorities. In either case. it is important th:lt 

counselors increase the,ir knowledge about career opportunities for women and minorities. a'' 

well as their awareness of and sensitivity to bias (Drake, 1990; Occupational Compeu-ncies. 

1991 ). 

4.3.2 Nontraditional Career Motivators 

The literature also gives insight as to what factors influence or motivate minoritiPS and 

women to consider nontraditional careers. Motivation is a function of two elements: 

expectancy and value. Expectancy is "the individual's st:.bjt>ctive sei1SE' of probability that a 

certain event will occur" (Laws, 1976). Value can be viewed, from the cognitive perspt>ctive. 

as the "positive or negative incentive value a particular event has for the individual" or. from 

a behavioral perspective, "in terms of an organism's tenclency to approach or avoid a given 

state of affairs" (Lewis et a!., 1976J. Together, expectancy and values are the framework of 

77 
Chapter Four 

aa individual's asptrations and career motivations. Asp1r<1tion. from a psychological. or social 

learning treory 1wrspective, is "an integral part of a dynrunic cycle invoiving goal-s,.ttmg. 

cffortful striving, events that provide feedback about success or failure, and the adjustm<'nt 

of aspirations" (Lewis et al., 1976). Some of the more important motivating influpnc<-s 

encouraging women and minorities to choose norctraditiona! careers includP thE' promist· of 

economic gaia, the presence of role models, interactions with career professionals, visiL~ H• 

job sites, experiential career experiences, and appropriate carPer information. 

4.3.2.1 Economic Gain 

In career selection and pursuit, several factors influenc<" the decision pr'->CE'SS. s~Jary, social 

prestigE', naturE' of the work, ;ndividual charackristics of the job seeker, a..-1d educatwnal and 

skill levels are concomitants of occupational pn•fprpncPs tAburd<•ne & :--;ausbitt, 1992. Dul•·-

1989; Ruble et al .. 1984)_ Earning potential is a major influence in career decision mtLltmg 

(Cron<>nwett, 1983) Women :md minorities in traditional careers haw consistently maclt·l<·~s 

money than men in traditional white malP career fields. This persistent 60'; ratio in fpmtlit· 

to male earnings exerts pressure 0:1 many women to pursuP h1gher-paying can:P!. 

opportunities \Deaux, 1984 )_ Often, nontraditional career consideration is directly rdated tu 

an individual's perception of better earning potential (Walshok. 19761. A motivation to 

ma..xirr~ize earning potenti?J causes many minonties and wompn to a\·oiC or lea\·e tr<!dit1or~al 

carePIS -i_n favor of nontraditional carPer opportunities \Scott, 1980;. 

4.3.:!.2 Role Models 

The influence of "significant others" has been attributed a paramvur..t importance in can·t:r 

decisic-n malting (Eiff et a!. 1986; Eko & Brown. 1981; Handley & WllikPr, 1916' Sig-nificam 

others include par<>nts. teachers, and influential role models fHand!ey & Walk<·r. 1971'; The 

shortage of femalP and minority role models ir~ nontraditional c~n:·t.·r fiplds. :t i:.:ts lx·t·n 

suggested, results in nontraditional v.:ork£·rs bt•1ng af:·a.jd to pntt·r whitt· n1al(· do;ni~1:Itt·d 

fields <Orr. 1983; Thomas pt aL. 1979!. 

R::-secrch indicatE's thnt material wfuch purtray~ m~noritH.·:-; and '\•,;or:H·n 1n '\\'~',Xtt· m~:.~t' 

dominated jobs reduces ff:male and minonty n..·luctaact> to t<rHt. r· thost: fit..·!d:-: 'o·P!·y~l.nt & 

Corder-Bolz, 1978; Orr, 1S83; Stitt & Stitt, 1~90, luenti(ving ro!t· modt·!~ a,·tin·~y emp1uyc-d 

in under represented fi~ld.s can help overcurnP their !-labitual ft>~'hngs of st>lf-do~..:b: ara: ~el:'. 

defPat \FletcheT, 1£80:. \Yomt>n and minorit i\:S ;>..:-t> l\:>ss likely to ('..~t}i!'~ tv ~'..n oc<.·t:.pa~ :m1 wh>.:l~ 

the re!Jresentatinn of sanH· race ar;.d same g('nt!t·r workt>r::: in th:r:. fiE--ld :s loY·:. E\·:dt>:Kt: t)f 

few role models in a care-t->r field gives the irnpn·:-;sion t~:n the ra.r-t>t'2' i:-; "'off-hn:it~· l Dt•:!ux. 

1984 J. Career information fu"1d activitiPs in,·u!vi.:lg !'OlP moJPls ·v.:hu ~:.:-t: ~=-ct :...:.ally d;_1:::g :: ·· C!:: 

be an effective tool in nf:"l..!tralizing barriPT~ tt~ a~tt·r:l~tH·· tan•t·rs. \:\..ldt.::J. & St·~i'-t.·!-·.::.. Hihd. 

Burg<-. 1983: Dubn. 1980: Eko & Brown. l~iiL Lt·wi~ et :ll .. 1976. 0:; "' aL l97~;_ :-i;,n &: 

Andnson, 1980!. 

78 
Id<mti{ication of Barr-iers 

Can·<·r infonnatioa and posters ohodd display nontraditional role models (Carney & Morgan, 

1981 ·.eliminate race·· and sex-restrictive labels, and drop sex-biased semantic markers for 

traditional, ster<>otyped occupations (Rosenthal & Chapman, 1982). Many researchers have 

sugg<"sted that, as the number of minorities and women in a career field grows, the numbers 

ofnontruditional workers who aspire to that career will increase (Jackson, 1978; Ruble et al., 

19il4 ). One researcher has even speculated that the entry of more women and minorities into 

white male dominated career fieids will have a "snowballing effect," resulting in greater 

numbers of these populations aspiring to that field (Thomas et al., 1979). The more 

frequently females :J.nd minorities can be portwyed as incumbents in jobs previously held 

primarily by white males, the more likely the sex- and race-type assessment of the occupation 

is to change (Kreiling et al., 1978; SolGwedel, 1989). 

4.3.2.3 Meeting Care-=r Professionals 

Many studies have indicatc,d the importance of personal contact with role models (Eko & 

Brown, 1981 ). Programs which al!ow for a free and unstructured information exchange 

betwPe!l women and minorities in nontraditional careers and individuals aspiring to those 

car<·ers will provide for successft.<l neutralization of barriers to career involvement (Brunner, 

l::J81i. Men realize early in life that they will spend thE majority of their adult lives in paid 

employm<>nt. Mton, therefore, consciously or unconsciously bLild informal mentoring 

relationships which help them to develop rec:uisite skills for success (Lynch, 19801. Women. 

on thE' oth2r hand. limit their involvement in such networks. 

:\1Peting and discussing career concerns '''ith prof.-ssionals from m·iation career fields would 

aliow minorities and women interested in nontraditional a;-iation careers with a quasi· 

mentoring environment. Such a mentoring environment should provide knowledge about the 

specific conditions encountered in thP field, provide the op;>artunity t0 meet people who might 

be ablt> to provide carper and occupational prPparation information. and to provide sup;>art 

in mat::ers relative to career decision making (Lynch. 1980). These mentoring activities give 

interestE-d individu3ls the opportunity to develop an indi,idual. personal perception of what 

it is like to be in that particular career (Eiff, 1989; Eiffet al., 1986). Panicipa.11ts find it wry 

helpful to discus3 career opportunities with someone who can "tell it like it is." Some 

participants, after a candid and close- examination of the career, may decide the OCC:l}Jation 

is not for thc·:M ( Fowit>r, 1981). An optimal mentoring pwgram maintains the age difference 

between thE> mPntor and the participants ai a half-gc>r.erBt!on. roughly 8 to 15 years \L.ynch, 

1980!. 

4.3.2.4 Job Site Visitatwn 

A...Tlother technique suggested by previous research as motivating nontradi~ional care-er 

sei£·ct!on is for individuals to vlsitjob sites not ~raditio:JaHy occupied by minorities or womP!1. 

Vis!t:Jtion of carE>f~r facilities which allow students to meet and obs.Prve workers was ra:.t>d 

\·~ry hPlpful" by high school students lEiff et aL. 1986; l.Rach & Roberts. 1988; Rohfeld, 

19771. l{p;-;t--arch in(llf::H.Ps that m:norities a!;d worn en with traditional interests participate 
Chapter Four 

in job site visits more than those with nontraditional career interests (Orr, 1983). Such visits 

promote a dearer understanding of what the career entails and a more realistic picture of the 

working environment (Harrison, 1980). During such visits, nontraditional employPes should 

be evident in order to promote role models whi.:!: are associated to the specific occupation 

(Lewis et al., 1976). Examples of involvement of women and minorities in nontraditional 

~areers wil! project the career field's movement toward a more balanced race and sex ratio 

within the fielc. This perception will encourage greater numbers of nontraditional persons 

tr consider the exhibited career field (Heilman, 1979). 

4.3.2.5 Experiential ''Hands-on" Experiences 

Career exploration utilizing experiential work simulation has proven to be very effective. 

Stta.!ies have demonstrated the effectiveness of having individuals learn about career 

opportur.ities through experiential activities related to actual career tasks or in actual career 

ennronments. Students seldom have the opportunity to engage in realistic, hands-on 

experiences. Performing realistic work tasks using real tools pro,·ides an environment in 

which work-related skills and interests may be tried and explored (Fifield & Petersen, 1978). 

Viewed as a learning experience, hands-on training activities optimize knowledge acquisition: 

"According to the A.rnerican Audio-Visual Society, people remember only llo/r of what they 

hear. 30'/r of what they see, 50·2' of what they see and he2r. and 70'/£ of what they do" 

(Bradley & Friedenberg, 1986 I. Hands-on experiences emphasize the application of skills. 

rather than a vicarious skill experience. The experiential aspects of the experience are 

uniquely effective at capturing the interest of participants and motivating them to learn 

<FifiPld & PetersPn. 1978 '· Cogmtive learning. participants" attitudes about tlw JOb. 

participants· inte-rest. and participants' v?Juation of work all increase signific&..rltly \Fifield 

& Pt-tersPn. 1978J. This success appears to be linked to the fart that stuCents tend to 

perceive themselves as actually invoh·ed in autheP.tic work problems. This perception results 

in n highPr degrt>E' of moti\·ation and faci1itatf-s a realistic explorc.tion of the par:.icipant"s 

interests. aptitudes. and spec!al ~,bilities \Eiff et al.. 1986; Fifield & Petersen. 1978 1 

ThP use of experif>ntial "hands-on" activities generates ir..tense occupa~io!la1 intf?rest. 

Participants 1n hands-on activitit-s report th3t they felt par~icul?..rly posit!Ye about the 

acti\·ity. Educato!""s !·Pport th:::.t st.:ch experiential activities result in a high degree ofst-:Jrient 

moti\'ation. Thi~ ffilJtiY~tion cnusPs t~e studt>IH to seek additwnai 1nformatwr: abo~: tht> 

can·{·r. Educator·s : :ase found thr!.t hands-on expe~-~t>nce~ a!"e extrP:nely interesting and 

efft.·<:ti\"{: \\.·ays i'or stu<:t·n~~ to lP3.rn about occuyatior:s and to incre:1se their interes: i!1 the 

wodd of work in ger:eral ~i!1d :ht> c:1.rpe; explon·d i:;. particular {Fifield & Petersen. 1978). 

4.3.2.6 Career Education and Information 

ThE.' Iitf'rature is emphntic about the need to rE--examinE> career w.1idance a.'l'"ld eCucat.ion if 

t:uuitabie numbers ofwomer: n.nd minoritit'S are to bf' ::1tegratE>d into v.·hite male dominated 

can:t·r field~. Th(? quah!.y 3:1d aY3ib.bility of c2.reer i:!formation is critical to netitra~izing 

barrwrs ag;.;inst in\·o1vemer:t of wonw·n and minorit.ie::; i:;. n')::.trr:.d:itional occupations. One 

80 
Identification of Barriers 

of the most important influences on students is information about carE>ers; career litera tun• 

is a major influence in perceived career attainability and in occupational selection i.Sc.utH 

et al., 1980; Stitt. 1988)_ Unfortunately, much of the career information currently a\·ailablt> 

contains racialiy and sexual\:-- biased information \Yanico, 1978i and categorizes occupat,ons 

as race- and sex-role appropriate <Ott et al., 1979)_ Great care must be taken to select or 

generate career guidance information which is not sex-stereotyped (Lewis et aL, 1976L 

Studies indicate a need for an intensive effort to pro-.-ide career information addressing career 

issues and to make that information available to parents, students, teachers, and counselors 

(Alden & Seiferth, 1980; Occupational Competencies, 1991). To be effective, such information 

should include trends in the world of work, realistic information on working conditions_ 

potential for employment, a.'ld earnings potential <Cronenwett, 1983). Mat<eria! must bE' 

developed to increase the 'isibility of white male dominated occupations and awareness 

among minorities and women of nontraditional opportunities \Orr, 1983). This material 

should provide a more egalitarian perspective on the role ofworcen and minorities and should 

pro, ide a non-stereotyped representation of career opportu"-ities {Sauter et aL. 1980 '-

4.4 SPECIFIC AVIATION CAREER BARRIERS 

\Vhile the research literature identifies many generalizable ba.--riers for women and minorities 

seeking to pursue nontraditional careers, central to the concerns ')f this study 3-re thost: 

specific to aviation career pursuits. Also, the last decade has seen aggress:ve >?fforts by thE' 

aerospace industry to encourage the participation of greater nurr.ber-s of nontraditional 

workers in various aviation careers. Recent research studies inthcatc th~t rhese effor~s han! 

begun to result in increased numbers of \lv·omen and minorities selecting a..""ld pursuing 

nontraditional aviation professions. Therefore, a.."'l important facet of the s:udy '""as to reYiew 

efforts currently used by aviation industries, schools, and orga.'lizations in orde~ to de:ermi:ov 

what programs a."ld methodologiPs are best at causing women and minorities to co:1sider 

aviation career pursuits. 

4.4.1 Career Selection Barriers 

The research literature indicates that the gPneraHzed lack of av·:arPne~s aiT!ong wonH.-'!~ a:Hi 

mi:J.oriti(•S concerning nontraditional ~areer oppurtuntties is 2. n:ajor reasu:l that tf.w of thes._' 

individuals select those c::reers. Earlit'r research den:onstrat€-d th<H mos: young f.>PO;J!e :!!H~ 

high school career counselors ar~ unaware of the diYersity of aviation c2.reer opp<-nl~:H!!t"~ 

avaiiabJe to po~.P::ttial employees. The same study IrHiicated that thP~f' ~ndivid:l~-d:-; do not 

understand the reqt!isite knowledgE.- and skills necess;Jry fu!· ent!·y into sc.ch <.:an"Pr~ \l:· know 

how or where to obtain career trai:oing (Eiffet aL. 1986•. 

The generalized lack of familiarity of aviation career opportunitl{'S remair..s the sing1t> n1ost 

prominent ~arrier to diversifyicg the aviatio~ work tOrct'. ~utle-rous :research effor~s havt: 

demonstrated that individuals from all age gro~ps ha\·e almost no understand~tig of thP 

wo:-kings of R\-ic.tion commerce and t.h~· va:ri12-ty of cu.n .. •ers it re;lrt>st>ets \Eiff €t ~!: .. l9S5L 

81 
Chapter Four 

This has ken proven to be especia!ly true among young people. \\nen questioned about 

aviation careers, few young people exhibited a k,.-,owledge of career opportunities other than 

those of pilot and air t~affic controller ( Occupatior:al Cc:npetencies, 1 !:191 J_ This leaves little 

doubt as to why thesP particular careers han• realized the greatest gains in non:raditional 

workers ove-r re..:-ent years. 

From discussions held with v2rious administrators withrn the aYiat:on !ndust~·. n 3.IJpt:·:~!-~ 

that then~ have been signi:icant gains in th<' r<>presentation of minority popuiations. other 

tha..r1 women, in aviation maintenance caree-:-s. This improved II!inority hiring apppar~ 

espe-cially true within major industrial settings. P...n evaluatlo:l of this trend suggt'st~ th:1t 

the dramatic increase in numbers of minority \vorkers in aviation maintenance proft>ssior:s 

is most attributable to aggressive education and recruitment efforts by the mili!.fli')·. major 

air1ines. gove:!nment agencies, and other a\'i.ation and educatio!lal org::.nizations. 

4.4.1.1 'fhe Military Influence 

One of the most significant factors influenc1:1g the current tre;J.d :oward mon-.. eqt:2l 

representation ofnontradi~iona1 aerospace .:nain!e!12..:.lCE' professio:-!als has been :2-":t> rel2.:ivt<Y 

successful diversification of the Inilitary. The drfu'"Tiatic success by ali bra:J.c!-IE:s oft}:p miht~~­

in recruiting. training. and placing large numbers of women a.'!d ;nir:.orities i!: aP!"o~p;:,ct~ 

C!ITPE>r f1eids has had a dramatic re::;idua1 e-fft>"ct vn ci"i.ti311 i~th1striE's. \\-t!~n a"!a::o:1 

maintenance technicians currently working i:E the industry \~·ere asked where t!-ley rPcen·t->t! 

"t.h.ei!" training, milit? ..ry training and experience consrituted the grea~est source of caree!' 

preparation for Blacks. Hispanics. and womer: (s;;P Tables 4.1 and 4.2 :Jr.d Figure 4.3 n::c! 

4.41. 

Table 4.1 Aircr-3ft :-...1echanics and Tech;.!c!a!~~ C3..ree-!· Pr-t-p:l.;atlPl: !Jy c .... _.:.,,~t·!· 

'I " li Population Military FAA. 147 Work Othl'r :-.; I' 

Exp H 

" " II II 

Females 6 5 5 • :20 ,. ~ ,, 

r (Aggregate) 30r:; z-,- 25(~ 20'": l! 

II 

::>< !• 

Maies 73 23 J.O 19~ :I 92 ;j ,I (Aggregate\ 37~ II r>t . 12~': -c- ~o' ;, ' :! I' 
Identificction of Barrkrs 

Table 4.2 Aircraft Mechanics a."ld Technicians Career Preparation by Race 

Fulation I I f 

Military FAA 147 Work Other NU 

I Exp !l 

li Asian 2 8 1 1 12 l' I 17'11- 67% 8%. 8% I ·I 

Black 12 9 5 0 l 26 I 

I I 

46% 35% 19% ! 

Hispanic 6 1 I l 1 9 ~ 67% llo/i 11 ?;- 11% •! I ' 

ll Caucasian I 57 76 l 19 11 163 

35'11- 47% 12'11- 6!ft 

Figure 4.3 Career Preparation by Gender 

The military has a lo!:g his!ory 0f st:.cces.s;'ul o1.::reach p!'ogra;us. _-\ctive recruit:nent i=:1 hig:t 

school~. technical schoois, and coEeges has ~er: a rr.ai!"lstay fo:- d!Ye:-si:.:; !n today·s mili:2ry. 

Youth :::.ct1Yi~je~ s'...!.ch as the Ci,-:l Air Patrol, Young As~~:-o::-~a"..lt~ Progrc..:::!.. St2.r Bas-c. a.."1d buy 

and Girl Scvu: g:-oups h;n·e been a keystone fv:· CiYe:-si:y rf'Cruit:men~ efforts. T!:e milita.r:· 

ha~ a!so piayed a!l i1:1poriant role i!l suppor~iPg aerospace education eifo:ts at :1urne::-ous 

g:-3de lE've-ls th:-ougho:.:t the cour:ti"?f- College !.uition prog:ran:s !lave also proven instru..:~e::tal 

:n draw::-.:g mi:1ority p.'::lpulr.tions into :nih:ary aerospace fielC..s. 

83 
Chapter Four 

i, 

Ca...Jcas:a-: 

'i !! 

·; 

.; 

il 

:; 

,

1

1 

': ;:;~;:;::;;:;::--v-·-.a-r_y __ -=,=::=. ::=::=;_'_4_7_Sc-,.,-.::::-o-.-;;=::--=:-x_;::>e_::_e~-~-e--:==.-:::-:~-,E-,----,.I, IJ 

t___; !i 

,, 

Figure 4.4 C3reer Preparatio:-2 by Race 

In aTl effort ill p:-ovidt> for ill."'! aH-Y ..'lun:eer miE:ary, aU bra:.:.cte.s of the 2.rr:1ed serTices ~3.\"€' 

t-ngaged in aggressive re-cr:Jitment a~d ad\·er:ising progra::1s. To a JargP ex:.e:it. arrr..ed 

Sf:'r"'. in~s· arh·er:is1ng projec1s an unbia~ed and gE-:].d.f'!'- a:1d r.a.ce--fai::- ~mage o!' aP:-osp.ace 

proft·='Sionals. Their exten.siY€' use of:-ace a:."":-.: g't'nde:r ru> rr:.oCe:s 1:: adse!'"tising fos~ers 1arge-rp:ntH .. ·lp3tion by un~ier repre~ented po;J:.:ia:ions. 

The moYe.me:1t iowarC g:-eater \Vorld peace w.~c tl:e dem.ise of 1.h2 SoYiet C:-1.:.or: h::-~ 

pn.~eipita:ed a feel:~g an:o!1g m2;}Y that ~!"!~ ~ili::uy :n ma~y areas: has beco:Y!E- obsD}e:e. 

l::.:;~·a:-:ing cc::1ce~~ vver i::~ ::::1!.i-o::al de:!c:t wi:l mcs: ass~.::-erily res~!t ir! C:-3.r:!a:.!C' =-~Cl.:c-::io~~ 

~:1 th~: dr~f-ense i.r.;.d_;Zt·! Ttw::;':;" r<?C:.:ct~ons in !:lili:3.ry s~t>:1d::1g ;1:-o::!ise to lir-1~:. 11' ~v: c~:r:a::2. 

:x:a::.y of:he ~r:-c-!lc:~i: .sp:r:-v:!s :-t..,:-=.~'f>C by civ:l:a~ ::.e!"as;:;are ir:dus:ri€"3. Rh::..:red buC~P:~ \v:ll 

r.:"lu~: ~ikely resuh ::: tiim::::~::~·L s:.:ppv:-: of e;:h.:~~nic·::::.:.: a..":d yo;;::: ~~ .. :tn:::i2s. T!:.e ;.)!'~C:c:~~ 

!'t:ducuon in :ec~nirai :-:tafTI::g in :he mi!n:!:-y v .. ·:E res::lt i:: :-ewp~ :r2i:!t>G ::~.i::.v:-::y 3.Y~:.l::t..m 

p!'oft:~::;io:Ja1s for a:-t:cuh::.t!{J~ !:1:0 ciY:~i:u: c?...ree:-.s. ~"los!. :~pvr!a.'l:ly. ;:31e ::1::i:.a~··s 2g~e:SSl\·~ 

gt~r:dt:r- and r~<:t·-fair ruivt"""rt:s::::g -o: <lC'rcsp2.ce cart?ers ;;.-:1~ rr:os: :ikeJy Oe reC:.:\,.·,d 

dr~tr:\a:1cally. 

! z: ~:g!1t of :he- !"act :n:n wv~·k.!ng aYiat.ior.. ma.i::tena:-:ce :e-chr:i;::ar;s i:1d.ica!.'.~ :!:a: the 1a~ges: 

Pt'1Yt·::t'3ge of ,,·on.::· ... n a::\.i :r.:!lo:-L:y wcr-kt·!'S rece>~·ed. the-:r cre-er int.eres: a,;.d :rai:J~:-~g 

:b!·o:.1gh tf!E> :nili:ar y. :~e :-t-><.L.Ktion of :r:.::ii2:"}· S?e~tLr:.g and :be do"\.·::1.s.!zi;1g c: o::r r:1ihta:-y 

f..\!·z:e=' \Vill most n::~t::-~:dly afft-ct tl'!e :-ep:-f'~~r:.t::::o:: of r..on:r2ditior:al wor~e:!-; ::1 2Y:2:iv:-! 

:h::::'!:i:"n.} ca:-eer:'. Accord:ag :o :~e- wc~kl::g AJ!Ts I.{Ues:iu::ed :n this study. 2:r:- of t::e 

fc~::~It·. 460 oft}:p B}a~·k. ::.nd 750 of:he H::::;p<:::}~~ !!:c.inte::a:1ct> pro~€ssionals ~n;•.- e-r:1p~oyed 

l!"! ..:-iY:~ a\-i~t~~:m ::1d!..::::!:-~t:-~ Wt>rt? trainE-d i:: t!:~ mi:i:ary. 1~ e:Jch case. :r..ls num!:>e:- :-ep:?::;e:-:ls 
Identification of Barriers 

the largest contributor to the representation of each population. As the military loses its 

much needed influence, it is incumbent upon the civil aviation industry and schools to renew 

tl:- eir efforts to recruit and retain women and minorities in aviation professions. 

4.4.1.2 Other Government Agency Efforts 

Several other governmental agencies havE: promoted aerospace career and education outreach 

programs as a part of their activities. Prominent among these agencies are the FAA and the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASAl. Both agencies have devoted 

significant resources to developing educational material and programs, as well as sponsoring 

educational grants and projects. Many of these efforts have proven quite successfuL 

The FAA has developed a wide variety of aviation career education materials. The most 

significant are documents which discuss va.'"ious aviation career opportunities, the education 

and training necessary to qualify for each career, and the need for such professionals in 

today's aerospace industry. The care and effort expended to make these documents race- and 

gender-fair has resulted in career brochures which, for the most part, are not only fair but 

project an atmosphere which encourages women and minorities. 

The FAA has also developed an extensive array of education materials, videos, and programs 

which promote aviation and aviation careers. Much of this material is designed to be 

integrated into educational environments as supplemental materials for normal educational 

activities from elementary to high school and college. In an effort to distribute these 

materials, each FAA region has an aviation education specialist who serves as a contact point 

for individuals seeking assistance "'ith aviation education materials. In addition, the F.-\.'\ 

has established a network of aviation education resource centers. Teachers and other 

individuals interested in obtaining educational materials or assistance in materials or 

program preparation can utilize the centers' vast array of materials. The FAA also promotes 

programs such as a"iation a.>'t contests, Aviation and Space Education Conferences, and state. 

regional, and national awards for aviation educators. 

While the FAA has expended considerable effort and resources in preparing and distributing 

aviation educational materials and in developing educational programs and av.-ards. these 

efforts have not attained their maximum effectiveness for several reasons. Firs\., regional 

aviation education specialists are normally collateral duty assignments. These indi,·iduals 

perform educational activities in addition to other duties. Often, their other responsibilities 

take precedence over educational matters, resulting in reduced effectiveness. Most prominent 

among the reasons that the FAA programs have not realized their potential is a lack of 

continuity and follow-through. Frequent changes in administration result in shifting focus<>s 

and changes in programmatic emphssis, as well as "'ide fluctuations in fundi11g for such 

programs. 

The FAA Administrator's Award for A"iation Education Excellence is a prime example of an 

exemplary concept developed by the FAA which has fallen by the wayside. For two years. 

the FAA awarded state, regional, and national "Excellence in Aviation Education" awards to 

85 
Chapter Four 

individuals who had made significant contributions to aviation education. This award caused 

a great deal of excitement among educators and aerospace education proponents, resulting 

in many individuals' renewed efforts to develop and promote aviation education projects. 

Unfortunately, just as the award was realizing significant results, the awards were 

discontinued. 

NASA has committed significant funds, personnel, and facility space to developing, producing. 

staring. and disseminating public educational materials. Unfortunately, NAEX.s narrow focus 

on math and science sub.iect material has limited the materials' effectiveness at generating 

greater awareness for aerospace career opportunities among nontraditional populatio11s This 

intense focus is also reflected in their educational grant programs. National Space Grant 

Consortium programs are generally aimed at high school a.'ld college math and science 

students who have already demonstrated an interest in and an aptitude for these subjects. 

4.4.1.3 Aviation Industry Out-Reach 

Due to the declining aviation industry economy, industry-sponsored programs have been 

scarce over the past troubled decade. In times past, major aviation and aerospace companies 

expended considerable effort aild resources in promoting aviation education and career 

awareness. Beech, Cessna. and Piper aircraft companies each had very active aviation 

education programs several decades ago, producing many t:y--pes of career a..--:1d general 

ejucation materials promoting aviation concepts. As aviation suffered from its rapid decline 

in the late 1970's. one of the first areas to receive significant cuts were the aviation education 

programs. As a res~1lt, much of this material is unavailable at the present time_ 

Currently, Beech Aircraft is the only manufacturer distributing aviation educational materi?J. 

The Aircraft Electronics ll.ssociatwn recently formed an Education Foundation to help 

promote aviation education. The General Aviation !\ianufacturers Association prepares and 

distributes material in behalf of aircraft manufacturers. One of the most Significant effo:-ts 

to be fronted by the aviation industry in recent years is the renewed efforts by the 

Experimental Aircraft Association and the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association. The 

Young Eagles program, for example, is a breath of fresh air in an oth-erwise mostly s:agnant 

aviation education environment. 

4.4.1.4 Aerospace Education Out-Reach 

As has been nctPd. gowrnmental agencies and a,·iatwn industry corporation~ and 

organizations have and continue to produce> quality aerospace> educational ma:erials for 

infusion in regular class subjects. Recent research. howe,·er. demonstrated that most 

educators are not aware of this material and are not using it in their education~J actiYities 

\Eiff et al.. 1986). Despite efforts by these agencies and the establishment of nE>tworks of 

resource centers, the materia! is just not getting to most educators. 

86 
Identification of Barriers 

In an effort to help alleviate this problem, aerospace educators have initiated a series of outreach programs to make educators aware of the abundant material available to them for 

aviation and space education and to provide aviation and space examples for regular class. 

Numerous packaged aviation and space programs, such as "Come Fly With Me," "Back to 

Basics Through Aviation," and "Fantastic Flight," have been developed in a "teacher-ready" 

format for use in public school classrooms. Teacher education classes have been offered 

throughout the nation in order to provide encouragement and guidance to teachers wishing 

to utilize aviation materials in their classrooms. Most of these programs have been highly 

successful. 

4.4.1.5 Early Aerospace Education 

Research literature suggests that most individuals make generalized career decisions by the 

time they leave elementary school. Therefore, one of the best long-term strategies for 

encouraging young people to consider aerospace careers is to use aviation and space examples 

in learning activities starting in kindergarten and continui:lg through all elementary grades. 

Iris Harris promoted this concept in the "Fantastic Flight"" program developed in Alabama 

and subsequently promoted by the FAA. 

A similar concept started in Illinois, known as the "Harvard Park School" project, has 

demonstrated that it can not only enhance the learning of regular subject material but also 

stimulate and motivate both teachers and students. The program includes a teacher 

education class that provides teachers with "instruction-ready" material and explores 

innovative instructional methodologies. A central element of the teacher education program 

is an in-depth exploration and demonstration of how aviation materials meet state mandated 

goals for learning and produce increased learning a."'ld student motivation. 

The adoption of the concept in a school-wice program offered an invaluable opportunity to 

me..sure the concepfs effectiveness. A -post-unit evaluation of the program showed significant 

increases !n student motivation and learning. An unforeseen benefit was the reported 

motivation of teachers who used the material. Additional benefits of the progra.rn included 

increased parental participation in learning activities and measurable increases in 

community, industrial, and school administrative support and involvement. In its fourth 

year, school officials report that the program is still producing measurable gains in 

motivation and learning. More importantly with regards to this study, students have 

demonstrated a pronounced increase in t.l:!eir understa.""lding of the aviation industry and 

aviation careers. 

4.4.1.6 Lack of Visible Role Models 

The literature strongly identifies the need for like-race and like-gender role models in 

encouraging nontraditional populations to select under represented career opportunities. 

Aviation acivertisement and literature significantly 'acks these types ofrol.e models. 

87 
Chapter Four 

Researchers reviewed aviation advertising in trade journals, popular publications, on travel 

posters, in career placement advertisements, and on television. The vast majority of the 

material projected strongly traditional role models. Notable exceptions included military 

advertisements and FAA public service announcements. Unfortunately, the beneficial impact 

of these exceptions was dramatically reduced by the fact that military advertisement is 

becoming less prevalent and that FAA public service announcements are often played during 

broadcast periods when few impressionable young people are watching. 

The importance of a significant other or role model is evidenced by the fact that almost 90% 

of the women maintenance professionals interviewed for this study had a family member or 

close friend active in aviation. Most minorities also identified same-race individuals in 

aviation as influential in their selection of an aviation career. While numerous informal 

race/gender role model strategies have been used to encourage nontraditional workers to 

enter under represented careers, little has been done to formalize role modeling or 

networking activities with one notable exception. 

In 1990, D>. Peggy Baty held the first of what has become an annual conference for women 

in aviation careers. The National Women in Aviation Conference has been held each year 

since 1990 and has enjoyed a dramatic increase in participation every year. The conference 

is a highly effective means of promoting female aviation role models and providing a network 

for women pursuing aviation careers. As such, it represents a vehicle which could prove very 

beneficial at encouraging women to enter nontraditional aviation careers. 

4.4.1.7 Changing Aviation Environment 

Dramatic cha."lges in the aviation environment ovet: the past several decades have contributed 

significantly to limiting the visibility of aerospace careers and access to information 

concerning career preparation. Much of the difficulty currently experienced in encouraging 

young people to consider aviation car~rs is directly attributable to barriers resulting from 

changes in the aviation environment. The reduction in thE' per capita pilot population. 

declining numbers of airports. rpduced access to airport facilities anJ workers. increased cost 

of career preparation, and increased exposure a1·1d sensitiv1ty to liability issues are among 

thE' most notable barr;ers delimiting the recruitment of nE'w aviation workers from diverse 

populations. 

Discussions with numerous aerospacE' workers who have beE'n working in a\"iation carPE'rs for 

more than 10 years re,·ealed that many becamE' intE'rE'stE'd in anation careers through early 

exposure to aircraft or aviation enthusiasts at !ocai airports. :\lany said that as youth they 

frequently visited local airports and freely wandti>rE'd nbout the fac1litiE's. Ttis open 

accessibility allowed them to meH and interact w1th many a\"iation profpssionals and 

hobbyists v."ith varied backgrounds and interests. Such encot.:nters provided these indi,iduals 

with much of thE' infm mation nE'cessary tJ stimulate their aerospace career intE'rE'sts and 

provide the necessary background information to chart thE' path of aviation career 

preparation. 

38 
Identification of Barrie•·s 

For many aviation professionals, their spark of aviation interest was ki.-u!led by observing 

activitied at local airports. Stories of walking ramp areas or airport hangars and talking to 

pilots or mechanics were common among these professionals. Many related how they were 

allowed to help "rib stitch" wings, wash and wax airPlanes, or participate in other aviation 

acti,I:ities. Today, young people have little opportunity to participate in such learning 

activities since airport security provisions have virtually "locked-out" all unauthorized 

individuals from airport facilities. Gone are the opportunities for young people with an 

aviation interest to visit airport facilities and cultivate their own aviation contacts. This 

"lock-out" has progressed to such a level that at most airports individuals with a sincere 

desire to observe airport operations are kept at such a distance that meaningful observation 

is impossible. Airport observation decks and areas have, for the most part, disappeared. 

Most individuals who attempt to gain access to airports for individual or group observation 

of aviation operation and career activities repo1-ted receiving "hostile" receptions and "extreme 

negativism" from airport managers and facilities operators. 

The initiation to aviation for many aviation enthusiasts and professionals often involved a 

chance encounter with an individual or a relationship with a friend who is a pilot. Such 

relationships often result in "first flight" opportunities and significant exposure to aviation 

operations, careers, and airport environments. Recent Experimental Aircraft Association 

(EAA) statistics suggest that the opportunity for such encounters may be declining. Thr 

shrinking fleet of general aviation aircraft coupled with the reduced population density of 

pilots will inexorably mean fewer opportunities for individuals to be introduced to aviation 

in this traditional fashion. According to a recent EAA publication. in 1953, there was one 

pilot for every 262 people in the United States. Today, there are now fewer than one p>lot 

for every 371 individuals. When this trend is viewed within the context of the drasLicaily 

reduced access to airport facilities precipitated by the airport security "lock-cut."' the fpw 

individuais fortunate enough to have such encounters or acquaintances will most likely not 

be from the diverse populations targeted by this study. Probability would imply that a;iation 

mentors would most 1ikely be white males and access would be limited to tradotional 

populations. The :result is a perpetuation of the same populations in aviation professions 

Compounding the effects of reduced access to existing airPorts and the dwindling numbPrs 

of pilots is the dramati~ reduction in the number of local airports anr: small aviation busines~ 

operations. Severe shifts in aviation commerce over thP past few decadPs have resultt>d m 

the disappearance of many smaller airports and operations. F ,~ examplt>. the Chicago :u-t>a 

boasted 52 airports immediately followmg the SecoTld World War. By the m1d-eighti~s. ocly 

26 of those airports remained .n operation. The economics of aviation com mere<> at many 

smaller airports make it impossible to support maint£-nanc~.> and flight operations. In lllmois 

alon£-, more than 40 of the 135 airports throughout the state haw no operator on thP field. 

Illinois is not alone in lhis dramatic reduction of" .:-port operations. A r<:'viPw of aviatwn 

business statistics imhcates that the number of ao•ports and av1atwn businesses throughnut 

the country are significantly lower than thos<> of two decades ago. As the cost of maintaining 

and operating aircraft increases Pxponential:y :md the numhPr of general aviation aircrait 

and pilots dwindles. small aviation operatwns c.re Ending 1t mcreasingly more difficult to 

remain in business. 

89 
Chapter Four 

Another factor limiting access to airport facilities, aviation professionals, and opportunities 

for flight experiences is thf' increased concern about liability. Discussions with individuals 

and organizations which attempt to provide aviation education and career experiences for 

young people, teachers, and potential aviation professionals indicate a pron<;unced relucwnce 

on the part of aviation industries, organizations, professionals, and hobbyists to provide such 

experiences. When approached to provide tours or opportunities to meet and observe aviation 

professionals in their work environment, many aviation businesses cite liability concerns as 

precluding their participation. Many youth, teacher education, and aviation education groups 

try to provide opportunities for program participants to fly in general aviation aircraft as a 

learning experience. Providing an opportunity to participate in a flight experience was once 

relatively easy to arrange. Most groups now report, however, that national organizational 

restrictions or concerns by potential pilots over liability issues make such opportunities 

nearly impossible to arrange. 

Another factor which limits the consideration of aviation careers by prospective professionals 

is thP. rapidly rising costs of career preparation. Most notable among aviation career costs 

are those for flight career preparation. It is not uncommon for individuals to spend upw<U"ds 

of $20,000 to obtain thE' nE'cessary flight ratings to obtain thE' minimum qualifications 

necessary to begin a professional flight carper. Even individuals aspiring to a,·ia:ion 

maintenance professions find career training and tool costs a formidable barrier to career 

considE'ration. Since many minority populatwns come from economically disadvantagPd 

backgrounds. th.,se car~:er preparation costs may se,·erely limit the involvement of th.-sttarget populations. In fact. ~ool and carPer training costs were identified by both males and 

females 0f all population!' as a barrier to aviation career selectwn in this study. 

4.4.2 Technical School Bias 

Central to the research study was an evaluation of the preparPdnt"ss of a\"Jation mamtPnanc'" 

and t€ehnical programs tu fost~r th~ recruitment. retention. and placement of v.:un, ..... a ar..d 

minorities in aviation maintenan-c.o proft>ss1un~ Also of conct·rn wa:: the aL1hty of tt-chn1r.:1l 

programs to promotP a learning environment wht-n'· bia~ and (hscnn11natwn aga~nst mt·mbt·r~ 

of thPse populations was m1mm1zed. 

4.4.2.1 Recruitment and Retention 

Several previous research studies have indicated an impPrative for infom1ational atH! 

recruitment strategies in ordE>:- to encouragP more women and minorit1es to pursut> av!atlun 

careers (Eiff et al.. 1986: Rodriguez. 1986: E1ff. 1991' FA.A C(·rtifit>d :Ikchamc~ ~cb.,l~ Wt·rt· 

quPstioned in an effort to determine thf:'ir lf'\"Pl of in\·olve-ment In n~(Tbltn1t'nt and n·tenthm 

efforts. A.s show in Figure 4.5. only about UJW·thlrd. 34 s•; . uf tht' ~chools <JUP~t: •• n •. ,: h;;d 

recruitment program~ of ~ny typt>. Of tht: srhO<.)!~ wnh ;·PlT~ltmPnt programs.. tht· Ci~t 

majority ~.65 4r; l oftht> prvgram~ con~I~tPd t~f :1 Oro~Hi· bast-d ~~tr;th·gy aimPd at enn,uraglng 

both wornen and minont.tf':' w pursuP avw.tlon n1~Ud!t'nancP c:tn·Prs Approxim~n.ely a qu3.rH·r 

90 
(26.9%) of the schools with 

recruitment programs had 

strategi~s structured primarily 

for recruiting women. Only 7.7% 

of the programs we•·e exclusively 

aimed at minority populations 

other than women. 

A principle concern of the 

research team was that many 

FAA certifi~d Mechanic Schools 

may present a hostile learning 

environment for female and/or 

minority students. Attitudinal 

concerns include perceptions of 

school administrators and 

faculty concerning the potential 

success of minority and female 

students. Environmental 

Identification ofBaniers 

M.nonty Oi11Y 

Wof'T'lQn & Minority 

No rJrogram 

Parcant 

Figure 4.5 Schools with Recruitment Programs {by 

type of program l 

concerns centered :,round possible race- and gender-bias of textbooks, instructional mas, 

institutional barriers, discriminatory materials and language, and the generalized lack of 

support to remediate skill, too! familiarity, and knowledge requisite expectations. 

School officials and faculty were 

qt•estioned to determine their 

perception of the likelihood for 

successful completion of aviation 

technical training programs by 

women and minority students. 

Seventy-six (76! FAA Part 147 

certified Mechanic Schools were 

questioned to determme the 

representation of women and 

minorities m their student 

population (Figure 4.6). Results 

indicated that minority students 

represented 24.9/ff of the 

aggregate student body, while 

women co::~stituted only 3.4'7r of 

the total numh-!r of students 

enrolled in aviation maintenance 

care.er preparation. 

Figure 4.6 Make-up of Student Bcdy (in FAAapproved mechanic schools) 

I 

·I 

'When asked to predict tbe average success rate for their women and minority students. 

school officials and faculty in ihese programs reported widely different completion rates. As 

an aggregate, the schools felt that women and minority students were about equally likely 

91 
Chapter Four 

to succeed in maintenance training programs. On the average, they felt that 77.3% of the 

minority students would complete their training. Women were thought to be successful 

78.6% of the time. 

These same schools were asked to report the number of students who graduated from their 

schools in 1992 and to project the number of 1993 graduates. Of the 5,783 students 

graduated from these schools in 1992, 570 (9.9%) were minority studeiits and 200 (3.4%) were 

female students. The predicted number of students to graduate in 1993 was 5,394. Of these, 

667 (1:2.4%) were minority students and 454 (8.4%) were women. On close examination, 

these figures constitute a paradox. While school officials and faculty predict that women and 

minority students possess an equal probability of success from their programs, in actuality, 

this equality is not evident in completion rates. 

If the reported population representations are compared with the 1992 graduation statistics, 

we Iiote some interesting relationships. In the case of minority students, only 40% of the 

students graduated. Women, on the other hand, graduated in the same proportion as their 

representation in the population. Predictions for the 1993 graduation of these populations 

suggest that school officials predict that women and minorities will have twice the 

representation in the graduating class as they did during the previous year. 

While these statistics could be attributable to specific class representation anomalies, they 

could also indicate subtle bias on the ;>art of school officials and faculty at aviation technical 

schools. The 1992 graduation statistics and predicted success for women in 1993 suggests 

that perhaps women are more successful than these school representatives perceive. This 

could indicate a subliminal belief by school officials and faculty that women will not be 

successful in aviation maintenance careers and training. A similar evaluation of the 

stattstics for minority populations suggests that perhaps these same officials are overly 

optimistic about their success rate. 

It is interesting to note that some of the schools stud>ed predicted completion rates as low as 

20'7C for female students. Th£> lowest predicted completion rate for other minority students 

was only 33':';. In 20. 7'7r of the reporting schools. the same school reported that the success 

rate for females was much lower than for minorities. In st'veral cases, the difference between 

completion rates for the two populations was predicted to be as great as 50'ff and iO%. On 

the average. these schools indicated that women were 28'7r less likely to complete the 

program than their minority male peers. These predictions do not seem to be supported by 

the graduation statistics. This difference may indicate bias against female students 

participating in thest> parttcular training program~ because school officials and faculty believe 

that women an· not succe~sful m av;ation maintenance traming. 

With the> perception that women anti minorities are less successful than white male students 

in aviation mruntenance training programs. one would think that the schools would establish 

strong programs designed to promote retention of these populations. To identify the level of 

support offered by certified mechanic schools for female and minority students, reporting 

schools were asked if they had special retention programs for students. Only one-third of the 

schools had any rt>tention program at alL Of those schools \lrith programs, 72% were generic 

92 
programs designed for all 

populations including, both 

female and minority students 

(see Figure 4.7). Oi the 

reported retention programs 22% 

were structured to address the 

specific needs of minority 

populations. Only 16'7r. of the 

scnools with programs (5% of the 

reporting school aggregate) had 

special retention programs 

designed especially fo:r female 

students' needs. Thus, the 

researchers conclude that littl~ is 

being done to meet the specific 

retention needs of women and 

minority students in aviation 

maintenance training. 

4.4.2.2 Learning Environment 

Identification of Barriers 

Figure 4.7 Type of Student Retention Programs (for 

those schools which have programs) 

School site visitations by researchers identified what appeared to be a genuine interest by 

school officials and most faculty in providing a bias- and discrimination-free environment for 

female and minority learners. However, v•'li!e many of the most blatant and overt forms of 

bias and discrimination were not evident in the vast majority of schools visit<.>d, th<.> 

researchers identified many subliminal and covert barriers to learning. 

A review of the most popular aviation maintenance textbooks demonstrated that little has 

been done to project a race- or gender-fair image of aviation maintenance professionals. 

Pictures almost always depict white male maintenance professionals. Even line drawings 

and "stick people" project a male persona. Much of the textbook material reflects mate:-ial 

used in older military ma."luals. Little has been done by current authors and publishPrs to 

remove the strong male engenderment of this material. 

The proliferation of male attributes throughout aviation literature, communications. and 

terminology has a dramatic impact on women aspiring to avmtion careers. These tenus are 

so entrenched in the aviation emironment th?t. it becomes difficult, if not impossible. to 

communicate without being bombarded by gender specific terms, including the use of genderspecific terminology by governmental agencies. Most significant among these influE>nces is 

the gender specific terminology used in the Federal Aviation Regulations \FARsi. Terms such 

as "repairman" project to ....-omen aspiring to these positions that they are outside1-s. 

anomalies, or aberrations. Th10 F .A.A i:> slowly rectifying these d.-ficiencJes which will l13xe 

a lasting effect on improving the equity in the .bu\;lT industry. We applaud these efforts. 

93 
Chapter Four 

Historically, aviation environments have been inundated with picturE's, posters, calendars. 

and cartoons with ethnic, racial, and sexual owrtones. This discriminatory and harassing 

material was offensive and detrimental to members of these populations who workt>d in such 

environments. The diversification of the aviation work force coupled with the enactmPnt of 

legislation and fear of litigation has precipitated the general elimination of much of thi>' 

material. Researchers engaged in school site visitations werE> <>SPE-cially vigilant in set>king 

mat<? rials which might be offensive to minority and f<?male students. \Vhilf? mat<?rial which 

might be perceived as demeaning or offensive to minority populations was not evidt>nt in any 

school v:is;ted, many had sexually suggestive or degrading materials. Most of these materials 

WE're tool or parts suppliers' advertising posters or calendars. Wnile these materials were not 

nearly as suggestive or offt>nsive as matPriai common throughout the environment a d<?cadP 

ago, the message was still very clear. 

Some specific examples include the following. A postcard with a woman sun bathing topless 

was taped to the wall above the desk of the faculty member responsible for the deve!opment 

and retention programs for female students in an aviation maintenance technology program. 

Another school's flight maintenance department had two posters mounted in the work area 

which depicted women clad in small bikini swimwear holding the advertiser's tools. At 

another school, a toolbox sported the large poster fo.- an aircraft parts distributor which 

showed a woman "mecha.r1ic" in front of what appears to be her toolbox holding a wrench. 

This could have been a positive image of a woman avia<ion professional except that th<' 

woman was \\·earing a smaa bikini nightgown Such portrayal of ~"orr~en undermines the 

perception of women as maintenance professionals and reinforces their perception as sexual 

objects. Objectionable material leaves many women wondering if they v.i!l be resJxcted a"d 

accepted should tC,ey select a\iation maintenance car<>ers. Each of these E'xar.1ples depicts 

a demeaning attibde toward females in aviation maintenance and is likely to have a 

negative effect on self perception and esteem offpmale students. 

ResE>archers were also cognizant of institutional barriers impeding the s:J.cce~s of minuritlt.."~ 

and women in maintenance career prepa!"at.ion. The facilities of mo~~ vis:tt-'d 'ch~)ol~ wo;:r~.· 

not adequate for fema1'.? students. Inequality of facilities. especially the k:.ck of adt·ql.!:1t•? 

restroom facilitie~. was evident at ail of the schools. ~ .. 1any schools were tr:,·i:lg to cnpt: wi:h 

their cha.~ging studer.t populations. but their aT_ tempts haYe. !:-l Ir..ost ca~es. faEen s~:..:n·:_ 

For example. one of the schools visited has been training ai:-cra:t mecha!lics for OYPr 25 ye:::.T~ 

and is a well-respected technical program associated "ith :J. majo:- uniYersity. A .. :1 e\·aLl:;:i,;n 

of the building's restroom facilities fo!' students found that the nai:1 "n1er:'s'' rt>~troo:n h:1<i 

2 shO\"·;ers. 35 lockers for students to store a cha!1ge of cloth€"s or tools in. 15 uri:J.~t.l:-:: a:"id 

stalls. and 5 sinks with hea\')··duty. mechanic's hand cleaner dispr:1~er~. T1:t:> wo::~ei:·~ 

restroom had one stall, one sink, ar:d no locke!"'s. shower. or !lJr:d dP3nf'r- dis;1t~~1~PT~. Thest· 

differences send the message that won1e::1 are not expected tu !Je at :h1s sd:oo1 a~ :~~:·;.::·aft 

maintenance p:=rsonnel who use tool~ OY' gf?: dir..y hands. 

94 
Identification of Barriers 

4.4.2.3 Classroom Interactions 

Du:ring site visitation, researchers observed classroom and laboratory instructional sessions 

whenever possible. The researchers sought to evaluate the content and presentation 

methodology for biases, discrimination, or clisparity in learning activities for affected 

populations. While the researchers found little in the form of open discrimination or bias, 

a strong subli!I'jnal bias and disparity of educational treatment was noted for both :c1inority 

and women students. 

Aviation educators may not realize that despite their best intentions, not all students a.-re 

receiving equal instruction in their classrooms. There is considerable research supporting 

the contention that teachers may unconsciously display behavior limiting the nontraditional 

students. This may be even more likely to occur where the instructor has generally worked 

with traditional (white male) students. When this trained cultural in...'luence colors teacher 

attitudes toward students, then teacher expectation begins to mold student behavior to fit the 

expectation (Sadker & Sadker, 1982). 

Gender bias manifests itself in unir.tentional differential treatment of stadents based on 

teacher expectation. It is important to note that differences in teacher interactions towlli"d 

students based on their gender was found by the Klein (1985) study to occur in both male and 

female teachers, regardless of their race, at alllev'els of education from kindergarten through 

college instr.>ct.ion. Site visits inoicated a strong, verbalized support from teachers to the 

researchers for the minority and female student, but closer observation proved t..l:tat the these 

students received little teacher attention. They were often found working alone, not 

interacting "lvith the teacher or other students. According to a recent report from the 

American Association of University Women (A..A.UW, 1992), researchers report that females 

receive significantly less attention from classroom teachers than do males, and lurican 

American females have fewer interactions with teachers t."ilan do white ferr..ales. Teachers 

also were reported to call on male students in cla..s eight times as often as on female 

stud<onts. And, according to Sadker (1985), when the males talk, teachers listen. Clearly, at 

'isited sites, the males were doing the talking both with the teacher and with each other. 

The kinds of tasks and groupings teachers assigned are often based on stereot:yped notions 

aoout appropriate female and male behavior. Therefore, males are asked to perform more 

strenuous or mech~u1ical tasks while females are asked ro do simpler ta<;ks invohing cleaning 

up or note taking. A study of science classes fou.'ld that when teachers needed assista.;:>ce in 

carrying out a demonstration, 79'7r of the demonstrations were carried out by male students 

(Tobin & Ga:meit, 1987). Similarly, at visited sites, the resea.'"Chers noted that the male 

students appeared to be completing teacher-requested tasks du..""ing open lab times. The 

female students, on the other hand, appeared to be relegated to obse:r-.a.tior., note ta.lting, or 

clean-up chores a.'ld not included in the r.:a.intenance-re!ated laboratory tasks u.'lde; 

consideration. 

A possible cause for disparity of educational treat..-nent among whi:.t>:, minority, and female 

students may be a. generalized lack of awareness on t::>e part of the inst-'"llctional staff that 

such differences are occ--.>rring. This could be due. ~ p::.rt, to the fact that few of the 

95 
Chapter Four 

instructors in aviation maintenance training programs have fonna! trnining in the 

educational process. Unfamiliarity with the precepts of educational psyci'1.0logy and 

instructional methodologies may leave well-intentioned instructors with the feeling that they 

are treating all students equally while, in fact, they are discriminating against some 

populations. 

Few of the schools examined 

require their instructors to be 

well-versed in the foundations of 

the learning process. IIi fact, 

36'/C uf the schools reported that 

they had no requirement for 

faculty to have any fonnal 

education or degree at all 

{Figure 4.8). A few schools (6%) 

required a local or s1ate 

vocational teaching certificate 

bet no college cclucatio.L About 

a quarter of the schools (26'/C) 

required prospective instru<.tors 

to have an Associate Degree in 

any discipline. An additional 

25'1:- of the schools indica.ted that 

t DoctoratG D92raa 

0 5 10 15 20 25 3.J 35 40 

P<?rcQnt 

Figure 4.8 Formal Education R..<>quirements for 

Instructional Staff at AlSiP Schools 

they require a Bachek•rs Degree. 

Only 7'/C of the schools requi.-re a Masters Degree. In each case, the degree could be in any 

discipline. None of the schools reported that they required training beyond a Masters Degree 

or that the d< ,..ees ~arned must iJe in an educational discipli;,e. 

The rt:search team was also 

interested in tl:;e level of 

n>presentation of minorities and 

women on school faculty. 

Research in re!a·~ed 1 

nontraditional career fields ' 

suggests that. gender and race 

··role models" arc very important 

for recruiting and re1air>ing II 

nontraditional students. The 

I r;----------~---------------,1 

Ll'_~_ss_. _,._,~_.,_~_...,_a_"_~ __ "'_·'_""'_'_''Y __ D __ F_ .._ma_"'_ _j 

schools in this study were asked 

how many of their A&P certified 

faculty wo>re women and 

minor-ties. The schools 

employed a total of 759 A&F 

ce11ified instructors. l\s shown 

in Figure 4.9. 66 were 

minorities (8.6%) and !4 were 

Figure 4.9 Composition of A&P Faculty (at FA>\ 

approved mech~.nic schools) 

96 
Identification of Barriers 

feoales (1.8'7<). Close examination of the data revealed that female facultv had bee!! un th<> 

job for an average of only 3.8 yea""S. Obviously, recruitment of women fo; facul~y positions 

is a relatively new concept. In fact, of ihe 14 female faculty reportt:J to be on the 

instructional staff of these schools, 12 had been on the job for 5 years or less. 

The research literature s-.xongly suggest;, that role models among the faculty of no:::ttraditio:>al 

programs greatly enhances both the recruitment and t..'fte retention of under represented 

students in such progra'!ls (Eliason, 1981). For this reason, schools should recruit as many 

minorities and women into fa~ulty positions as possible. .l'>,s a facet of the research project, 

214 active a"iatic.n mechrtnics working i...'"l a>iation maintenance fields were questioned to 

explore the availability of women with the educational a.>Jd work experience requirerr.ents 

necessary to qualify as instructional faculty in maintena.'lce trai...'"ling progra.'ll" Of the female 

mechanics who responded to the study, 68.8% responded t.lJ.at their highest level of 

educational preparation was a high school certificate. An additional 25'ff of the femaie 

respondents indicated that they had attained a college .l'>,ssociate Degree. Only 6.3'ff of the 

working female mechanics and supenisors i.:;dicated that they had achieved a Bachelors 

Degree in a college program. None of the respondents indicated education beyond a 

Bachelors DE:gree. 

The limited educational backgrounds of working minority and female mechanics has the 

potential to severely limit thei:- qualification to serve as facul!.y in many schools. When 

schools were 2-.sked if 'they were v;·illing to "waiYe ooc defer" some educational requiremen!s 

for otherY.ise qualified female or minority facuity cal'ldidates, 22.7'ff of the schools reported 

that they would consider such a waiver or defer::nent. 

Although the literature indicated that faculty and minority :-ole models increased 

nontraditional students' recruitment and reten~ion, the question remained as to whe:her or 

not this would be true of aviation maintenance nontra&tional students. T:'le representation 

of minorities in aviation maintenance training prog::-am:; see~ed little affec:ed by the 

presence -of minority far:ulty. The averJge number of :ninority students in a"-iat.ion 

maintena.'lce training for aJl oft.he schools sampled was 39.4 students per schooL Fo:- school~ 

with minority instructors, the average number of students was 39.8 per schooL This lack of 

correlation among student representation and the presence of an instructor rolf' model did 

not hold true for females, however. For the schools sa:nplE'd in this study. thf' p:-f'Sc>nce of 

a female instructor seemed to have a dramatic effect on the Participation ra~es o: fema;e 

students. Viewing the aggregate school sa.'llple. the average namber of female students 

;Jarticipating in aviation maintenance career preparation was 5.4 females pt>r schooL When 

compa:rerl to the average number of female students in schools with :emale fa\:u~t~, th~ 

contrast v;as d:amatic. Schools v;ith femal~ faculty averaged 13 fer.1ale stude:ns pe:- sd:ool. 

more than twice the average fo:- schools wi:h no female facul!y. Thm.:gh net conclt:siw. tb-'se 

figtrres strongly suggest. that the pr-esence of female faculty increases participa:ion by women 

interested in pursuing an aviation :nai:1ter..ance ca:-Ee:-. 

v.·ork place role models are also Y;:ry beneficial in encouraging nontraditional studems to 

pursue under· represented careers. Many schools haw promoted or establis~ed close working 

relationships v,.ith ir..dus"!.ry 'vilich rr.ay 1nd"..lde- wo:k experi€'nc~ or cooperativE.'" t>duc3tion 

57 
Chapter Four 

opportunities for students. The schools were asked if their students had an opportunity to 

participate in work experience or cooperative education programs as a part of their 

educational experience. About one third (34%) of the schools reported that students in their 

programs have opportunities to participate in work experience or cooperative educatim-, 

programs with aviation industries. Of those schools reporting such opportunities, only 19'k 

reported ma.l,;.ing any attempt to place the students in a work environment with appropriate 

race and gender role models. As a result, few nontraditional students have the opportunity 

to experience same-race Of' same- gender mentors as they prepare for iheir chosen care<:>,-

Finally, national research on educational environments has reported that incidents of males 

sexually harassing females in schools are increasing at a high rate. One study by Kane a.'ld 

Frazee (1989) found that 65 percent of female high school students in nontraditional courses 

reported harassment by male classmR•es and by some teachers. Researchers found no 

evidence of sexual harassment dmi"';:; site visits. However, candid discussions with female 

graduates of aviation maintenance programs disclosed several instances oi" peer and 

instructor harassment. It is important to remember that despite its frequency, sexual 

harassment is rarely reported, tallied, investigated, or systematic&Jly documented (A/l.GW 

Report, 1992). 

4.4.3 Work Place Barriers 

Key to retaining women and minont1es m the aviation maintenance work place is 

determining what barriers might deter these populations from completing training or 

remaining in an aviation career. A survey i..'l.strument was developed a'1d distributed by a 

U.S. air carrier ami the International Association of Machinists; the research tea.'Tl provided 

assistance in analyzing the results of the survey. The focus of thE' inst:::ument was to 

determine the perceptions of A..\1Ts concerning various possible barriers t;:> successful 

employment as aircraft technicians. 

The barriers were categorized as economic, physi<:al, soc1al, emo:ional. life 

experiE-nce/education, :md work-related. Respondents were asked to describe tl:E' degreE' to 

which the items listed in each category were perceived to be a barrier for women ~ ... d 

minorities seeking training or employment as A.MTs. Barriers •.vere assigned a vabe of 5 for 

··a high degree;" 4, "some degree;·· 3, ··undecided;" 2, "a small degree;" and l. .. not to any 

degree." In all, 65 barriers were listed for evaluation with a space for optional comments. 

The barriers were selected based on their identification by other research. rs conducting 

studies with nontraditional workers \No way out, 1989; Cho. 1983; Sti:t & Stitt, :990; Deaux 

et al.. 1984 ). 

A total of242 aircraft maintenance e:npioyees responded to thP Sil!''ey. A ... ll.alyses of:he dat3 

\vere done by race and by sex. Some of the- respondents did no: complete a!1 parts of thf> 

survey; therefore. there were :nissing data i!l the analyses. 

Of the total sample, listed in alphabetical order th<ere were 13 <5.4':<) Asian, 27 ( E.2':< l Black. 

165 \68.2'k) Caucasian, 10 (4.1':<) Hispanic, 11 (4.5'') Other. Sixteen (6.6'k) did no: identify 

98 
Identification of Barriers 

their race. Of the total sample, 20 (8.3%) respondents identified themseives B!l Female, 216 

(89.3'k.) as Male, and 6 (2.5%) did not identify their gender. The majority of the respondents 

were male Caucasians. Females constituted less than 10 percent of the total sample. 

Although the majority of respondents were Caucasian males, their responses were important 

because they were asked for their perceptions of possible barriers to women and 

minorities pursuing AMT training or employment. This permitted comparison of what 

Caucasia.'l males perceive to be barriers with what women and minorities p;=reeive as 

barriers. 

The factors used as dependent variables in the analyses were Economic Barriers, Physical 

Barriers, Social Barriers, Emotional Barriers, Life Experience/Education Barriers, and WorkRelated Barriers. Race and sex were the only independent variables analyzed. 

Table 4.3 and Figure 4.10 show the average responses by race for each of the six categories 

of barriers. The higher the score, the more often employees of that race identified the iterns 

in that category as significant barriers to training or employment as aircraft maintenance 

employees. 

Table 4.3 Average Response for Each Barrier Category by Race 

~egory Asian Black Caucasian Hispanic Other 

nomic 2.60 2.51 2.51 3.06 2.27 

Physical 2.08 1.82 2.18 I 2.42 2.07 ' 

Social 1.87 2.50 2.03 2.37 2.06 I 

I ~Emotional 1.89 2.36 2.19 2.46 2.28 I 

I 

1 LifeExpJ 1.65 2.45 2.40 2.77 2.11 

Education 

Work- ' 2.31 2.89 2.80 3.24 2.44 

Related 

It is important to note that respondents were asked to identify items that are possible 

barriers to minorities. Therefore, the Caucasian resp-:mses were reports of their perception 

of harriers for minorities, not for themselves. The Hispanic race scores were the highest in 

each category of barrier items. These respondents indicated that they perceive barriers in 

every category except Social more frequently than Asian, Black, or Caucasian races. The 

categories with the highest scores by the Black respondents were Economic, Social, and 

Work-Related Barriers. The Black race response to Social Barriers was the only score higher 

than tl:le Hispanic race response. The category with the highest score by the Asian 

respondents was Economic Barriers. Black, Caucasian and Hispanic respondents saw Life 

Ex?<'rienc.o!Education Barriers more frequently than Asian respondents. 

99 
Chapter Four 

3.5 

..,~ Ill 2.v J! , ..... ~ 

1.u· ...... 

1 r:!!U: ...... 

O.v ..... ...... 

~ 

Economic Social life Exp/Educ 

Physical Emotional Wor\ Related 

~Asian (:;:;:::j Black ~Caucasian 

H >I Hispanic ~Oiher 

. Figure 4.10 Response for Barner Categones by Respondents Race 

Similarly, Table 4.4 and Figure 4.11 give the response among male and female aircraft 

maintP>:ar:ce employees on the six categories of barriers. The scores displayed in the table 

i.,.,:::icates by category the frequency that items in that category were perceived as significant 

barriers. 

Table 4.4 Avera'{e Response for Each Category by Gender 

Category Females Males 

Economic 2.40 2.50 I 

Physical 1.90 2.15 

Social 2.40 2.07 I 

Emotional 2.20 2.18 I 

Life Experience/ 2.50 2.35 

Education 

Work· Related 2.28 'I 2.70 I! 

100 
2. 

0. 

Economic 

Physical Emotional 

I ~ Ferrale t:;:;:;:j Male 

Identification of Barriers 

l/lork ~elated 

Figure 4.11 Response for Barrier Categories by Respondent's Gender 

Work-Related Barriers were identified with the highest frequency by males as possible 

barriers to females. This category also had the greatest difference in frequency between male 

and female respondents. In other words, females disagree with males more frequently 

concerning this barrier. Economic Barriers were frequently identified by both males and 

females. Equally significant by females were Social Ba.--riers and Life Experience/Edu::ation 

Barriers. Physical Barriers were identified by females least frequently. 

Analysis ofVariance (ANOVA) were carried out to determine if there were differences by race 

and gender on the various factors (Economic Barriers, Physical Barriers, Social Barriers. 

Emotional Barriers, Life Experience/Education Barriers and Work Related Barriers). The 

results of the analysis showed significant differences by both race and gender at the .05 level 

of significance. However, there was only one ca.tegory of barriers identified as significa.'lt for 

race and one category for gender. The Life Experience/ Education category was identified as 

significantly different (.02) by race. In other words, t.~ere were sigrificantly di[f(·r~nt 

responses among races in their perceptions of Life Experience/Education Barriers for females 

pursuing an AMT career. This category of barriers included the follov.ing items among others: 

Know nontraditional employees 

Concern about level of verbal and writing skills 

Concern about level of math and technical skills 

Familiarity with tools 

Solid level of self-confidence 

Time and stress management skills. 

101 
Chapter Four 

Work-Related Barriers was the only category identified as significantly different (.02J by 

gender. Female respondents differed in their perceptions of work-related barriers from malt> 

respondents. This indicates that males perceive more barriers than females did for femalt>s 

pursuing A.\1T careers. This category of barriers included the following items among otht>rs: 

Concern about getting a job 

Concern about keeping a job 

Concern about moving up on the job 

Travel requirements 

Concern about working outside in inclement weather 

Dislike for late shift work schedule. 

The le,·el of significance was set at an Alpha of .10 for thE.' r!.'mainder of the analysis. An 

Alpha of .10 (rathl'r than .05) is commonly preferred when there is no control group in th!" 

study. It should be noted that at a significance level of .05 there were only minimal 

diffPrences by gender and race. 

The results of the analyses showed that there were differences among thE' races on Social 

Barriers. Life Experience/Education Barriers and Work Related Barriers. Table 4.5 shows 

the average response among the different races to the Individual items in the Social Barrit-rs 

categor_y. 

Table 4.5 Individual Item Response of Social Barriers by Race 

Caucasian Black Hispanic Asian Other 

Communicating with peers 2.1 2.3 2.5 1.5 ? -

I -" of the opposite sex or other 

race or culture. I 

I 

Cooperating "';th peers of 1.9 2.0 2.1 1.7 1.8 

the same sex, race or 

culture. 

Being ' the only person of 2.0 2.6 2.3 1.5 1.8 

your race or sex in a work 

team. I I 

Hazing or baing teased by 1.9 2.1 1.6 1.5 I ' 2.4 

peers. 

I ' 

Availability to socialize ffith 2.0 2.4 2.5 20 1 -

"·' I I 

peers and feeling accepted 

I socially by peErs. I 

3.0 l 

Being 1 - accepted by and 2.3 2.9 2.2 

I 

.. ' 

feeling a part of the work 

team. 

I • I I Sex or race discriminat1on I 2.1 ' 3.3 2.7 l 2.7 2.5 

in training or on the job. I I I 

102 
Iden<'i/fcaiWn of Barriers 

The barrier items listed in Table 4.5 were significant in the ANOVA analysis. The specific 

Social Barrier items that received the most frequent identification as possible barriers to 

training or employment were: 

Being the only person of your race or sex in a work tea."'l 

Being accepted by and feeling a part of the work team 

Sex or race discrimination in training or on the job. 

The Black and Hispanic races reported the highest number of responses in these items. The 

Asian race responded with a high frequency {2.7) on only the item involving disr.rimination. 

Table 4.6 shows the average response to individual items in the Life Experience/Education 

Barriers category. 

Table 4.6 Individual Item Response of Life Experience/Education Barriers by Race 

Caucasia!! Black Hispanic Asian Other 

Know v.eople J"ho are in 

nontradit10na jobs. 

1.9 2.3 3.3 1.7 1.8 

Concem about level of verbal 

and writing skills. 

2.4 2.4 2.4 1.9 2.0 

Concem about level of maLl, and technical skills. 2.6 2.5 2.8 1.8 2.3 

Familiarity with tools. 2.5 2.4 2.9 1.5 2.2 

Solid level of self-confidence. 2.6 2.3 3.1 2.0 2.0 

Played with kids of opposite 1.7 2.1 2.0 1.2 1.4 

sex as a child. 

"f'amiliarity with the aircraft 2.6 2.6 3.3 1.5 2.0 

maintenance occupation. 

Tin.e and stress management 2.5 2.7 3.4 1.8 2.8 

skills. 

Physical health. 2.8 2.3 3.2 1.7 2.7 

Personal contacts (important contacts in the field). 2.4 2.8 2.7 1.7 2.5 

I Knowledge of job openings and 2.9 2.9 3.0 2.0 2.4 

fringe benefits. 

i Family or friends employed in 2.1 2.2 I 2.2 1.4 1.6 

av1at10n mdustry. 

Jobs in aircraft maintenance 2.9 2.7 I 2.6 1.8 2.5 

require a good understanding of math and science. 

Had a same-sex or same-race 

role model. 

1.8 2.4 2.1 1.4 1.6 

103 
Chapter Four 

There was agreement among the Caucasian, Black, and Hispanic respondents that knowledge 

of job openings and fringe benefits was perceived as a possible barrier to minorities. The 

frequency of response was consistent (2.9, 2.9, 3.0). Asian respondents did not identify that 

item with as much frequency (2.0). Both Black and Hispanic respondents identified personal 

contacts as a possible bar-.-ier with scores of2.8 and 2.7. However, there were no other items 

where there was agreement among the respondents by race as to the level of significance of 

a barrier item. The most obvious information to d.~aw from this table is the high number of 

items that were identified as possible barriers by Hispanic respondents. These items were: 

Know people who are in nontraditional jobs (3.3) 

Concern about level of math and technical skills (2.8) 

Familiarity with tools (2.9) 

Solid level of self-confidence (3.1) 

Familiarity with the aircraft maintenance occupation (3.3) 

Time and stress management skills (3.4) 

Physic&!. health (3.2) 

Personal contacts (important contacts in the field) (2. 7) 

Knowledge of job openings and fringe benefits (3.0). 

Table 4.7 shows the average response to individual items in the category Work Related 

Barriers. 

Table 4 7 . Individual Item Response of Work-Related Barriers by Race 

Category Item Caucasian Black Hispanic Asian Other 

Concern about getting a job. 3.4 2.7 3.8 2.5 2.6 

Concern about keeping a 3.5 2.5 3.9 2.1 3.4 

job. 

Concern al.out moving up on 2.9 3.3 3.4 2.6 2.5 

the job. 

Travel requirements. 2.4 2.3 I 3.0 2.3 2.1 

Concern about effort 2.3 2.3 3.1 2.3 2.4 

required to succeed in a 

nontraditior '!I career. 

Concern that most new 2.3 2.1 3.1 1.7 2.3 

labor force entrants will be 

nontrnrlitional. 

Concern about working 2.4 2.7 I 2.9 1.9 2.0 

outside or in a hangar or in 

inclement weather. l 

ib..£!slike for late shift work. I 3.3 3.0 l 2.7 I 3.0 I 3.3 II 

104 
Identification of Barriers 

The Asian respondents identified the items less frequently than any other race including 

Caucasian. There was general agreement among the races as to a dislike for late shift work 

schedules and its potential as a possible barrier. Again, the noticeable information is the 

high level of frequency by the Hispanic respondents to many of the items. Those items were: 

Concern about getting a job (3.8) 

Concern about keeping a job (3.9) 

Concern about moving up on the job (3.4) 

Travel Requirements (3.0) 

Concern about more effort required to succeed in a nontraditional career (3.1) 

Concern that most new labor force entrants will be nontraditional (3.1) 

The results of the AN OVA indicated that there were significant differences among the sexes 

on Work Related Barriers only. Table 4.8 gives the average responses by sex to the 

individual items in the category Work Related Barriers. 

Table 4 . 8 Individual Item response of Work Related Barriers by Sex 

• 

Female Male 

Concern about gettmg a job. 2.6 3.3 

Concern about keeping a job. 2.6 3.3 

Concern about moving up on the job. 2.6 2.9 

Travel requirements. 2.6 2.9 

Concern about more effort required to succeed in 2.5 2.3 

a nontraditional career. 

Concern that most new labor force entrants will 1.7 2.3 II be nontraditional. 

Concern about working outside or in a hangar or 2.1 2.5 

in inclement weather. 

Dislike oflate shift work schedule. I 2.7 3.3 II 

Males and females in this study did not agree on the significance of Work-Related Barriers 

for females and minorities. In fact, males identified every Work-Related Barrier item as 

more likely to be a barrier than did females with the exception of one item: Concern about 

more effort required to succeed in a nontraditional career. 

It is important to note that males were not responding to items they found to be barriers for 

themselves. Rather, they were identifying items they thought to be barriers tor females. In 

other words, males find these items to be barriers for females, but females say they are not 

barriers. The only item agreed upon as a barrier was concern about more effort required to 

succeed in a nontraditional career. 

105 
Chapter Four 

There were some items that crossed severai barrier categories which women consistently 

identified as possible barriers that were not identified by men. These items are also 

consistently identified by females in other nontraditional careers as barriers. Those items 

are listed below: 

Expense of child care (2.85) 

Communicating with peers of the opposite sex (2.55) 

Being the only one like me on the work team (2.80) 

Sex and/or race discrimination (2.90) 

Need to prove self (3.0) 

Biased language, jokes, pictures (2.35) 

Concern about being accepted by management (2.50) 

Stress/time ma.11agement (3.05) 

Personal contacts in the field (3.15) 

Knowledge of job openings and fringe benefits (3.30). 

With the exception of the figures reported in these tables, aviation maintenance personnel 

do not differ significantly in how they perceive barriers to the training and employment of 

women and minorities as aviation maintenance technicians. However, the barrier categories 

and items that were reported in the tables provide information that can be helpful in 

removing these barriers. 

The aviation maintena!lce industry in its determination to more evenly balance the work 

force by race and gender has endeavored to seek out possible barriers to training and 

employment for women and minorities. This study has shO\\"Il that while women and 

minorities perceive some barriers, there exists no long list of barriers. Certainly, ba.rriers 

alone are not enough to be the total cause of the disparity in the numbers of women and 

minorities in the AMT work place. 

Hispanic and Black races perceived the greatest number of barriers to employrr,ent and 

training. Hispanics perceived barriers in all categories, and Blacks perceived Work-Related 

Barriers most significant for their race. There is also general agreement by CaucasiailS that 

these barriers may exist for these specified populations. Asians perceive few barriers as 

compared to the other races: however, Economic Barriers were most often identified as 

possible barriers for this population. 

Females identified Life Experience/Education Barriers most often as the most problematic 

category of barriers. Men identified Work-Related Barriers most often as barriers for females 

in aviation. It is important to note that contrary to stereotypical perceptions, v:omen do not 

perceive Physical Barriers as frequently as any of the other barrier ~ategories. 

The results of the A:.."\ OVA indicated there were significant differences among the races on 

Social Barriers, Life Experience/Education Barriers, and Work-Related Ba.rriC'rs. Biacks and 

Hispanics identified the most Social Barriers. Hispanics identified the most items in tht> 

Work-Related category. The results of the .A...."\0\'A indicated significant diffe,-enct>s by S<>X 

106 
Identification of Barrier:: 

on Work-Related Barriers only. In general, males perceive nearly all Work-Related Barrier 

items as possibie barriers for females. 

Of course, the aviation industry cannot be held responsible for ail the barriers perceived to 

be significant for women and minorities. Our society as a whole must bear some of the 

burden for the Social Barriers perceived by women and minorities. Our families and 

educational systems must assume responsibility for the entrenchment of many of the Life 

Experienoe!Education Barriers. 

The aviation industry is to be applauded for the steps it has already taken to encourage social 

and educational change to eliminate many of these barriers. Ii is also to be encouraged and 

supported in its continuing efforts to look into the possibility of reducing the remaining WorkRelated Barriers. 

Some specific recommendations for reducing barriers for women and minorities include: 

1. Conduct workshops or training seminars for all employees in team building, 

communication skills, time and stress management, and sexual harassment issues -

particularly language, jokes, pictures, and discrimination. 

2. Provide a more accessible or directed method for informing employees about in-house 

job openings and fringe benefits. 

3. Conduct workshops or trair1ing seminars in job-seeking and job-keeping skill 

development. 

4. Alert employees that there may be differenres in perceptions about barriers and 

encou.,.age open discussion of solutions to possible barriers. 

5. Provide ail supervisory personnel with the findings of this study and pro~ide the 

avenue for them to participate fully in workshops and training seminars on the above 

topics. 

The aviation industry is recognized for its determinatio:l to eliminate a:ny remaining barriers 

to increas€ the representation of women and minorities in aviation ca..-eers. 

4.5 CHANGES IN REPRESENTATION 

While parity of representa.tion has not been established in most career fields, significant 

gains in the representation of women ru1d minorities in many under represented aviation 

careers have been realized (Eiff et al., 1986). Most under represented minority populations 

have made dramatic gains in numbers from those of a decade ago. \\'rule no historical daU> 

exist on the levels of representation of minority populations, it is generally agreed t..~at few 

members of these populations were included in the aviation maintenance work force as 

107 
Chapter Four 

recently as two decades ago. By contrast, the F'AA has compiled data on the representation 

of women in the maintenance field for several decades. 

Although nc official data e:rist, either historic or current, on the representation of minorities 

in the aviation work place, it is generally agreed that their numbers were very low two 

decades ago, but th2 level of representation for all minority populations has gro;vn 

appreciably du:ing the intervening years. W'nile it is difficult to determine the exact 

representation of these populati,1· .:; in the current work place, the current study gives 

evidence that significant char:.,es have occurred and t.'lat representation levels are 

dramatically i."'!lproved. As nearly as can be determined, the current work force of mriation 

maintenance professionals in airline careers is comprised of approximately 11% Hispanic, 

12'/C Asian, and 20% Black workers. 

The representation of women, on the other hand, remains quite low. Current esti."Ilates place 

their representation at approximately 2'k of airline maintenance professionals. As mentioned 

before, historic data are available for women mechanics. Although cu..'Tent research i.'1dicates 

that women have made dramatic strides toward equal representation in a;,iation career fields 

such as air traffic control and as flight crew professionals, the number of women in aviation 

maintena.rtce technical fields has demonstrated little propensity for change and !"emains very 

low. 

A decade of proactive effort by the aviation industr.f, go·;ernmental agencies, and special 

interest groups has resulted in increasing representation of women in many malemonopolized aviation careers. Aviation maintenance, however, rernai.'lS the slowest career 

field in aviation to realize any trend toward greater representation. The most cU-TTent 

available FAA. statistics suggest that t.'le representation of women a.'!long the ranks of 

certified mechanics remains very low. Current estimates place the nu..mber of acti\·e female 

aircraft mecha11ics at 3,901. While this is a dramatic increase over t-!J.e number- of active 

female mechanics of a decade ago, this number represents only just over l'k of t.l:le nu.;nber 

of active mechanics (airlines and general aviation, combined) in the work force. 

\\rule the actual number of women in a>iation maintenance careers re1 •. ains quite low, there 

is reason for optimism about the future of women in th.is· male-dominated field. A complex 

model for predicting t.~e number of maintenance professionals needed in the yea..TS ahead was 

formulated for the demographic aspects of this .study. .!>,s a result of this ;nodel, the 

anticipated levels for women could be pr-edicted for t.!J.e next se..-eral years. The model's 

prediction for the representat)on of women i::l aviation main:enance careers in Figure 4.12 

is represented by the line extending to the year 2003. Statistical data from FA.:\ re-cords for 

the three most current years strongly suggest a marked deviation from the predicted levels 

of representation. 

108 
I -., 

~ 

> 

a: 

<: 

Q 

:s 

<: 

"' 

~ 0. 

"' a: 

c 

e 

0 

~ 

.. 

a. 

Identification of Barriers 

ll 

, .6, l ]' 

~~::_~-~--~:: : ::~-~- --: -~~~~~ I ~:t::::=~- ::::: ~====-~= -~= ::= = : =:.::::! . l i 

0.2+····--··-····················- ····-·-············-·-·-·········-·-·-··· .. ·······················J 

j 0 . ' , 960 , 965 1970 1975 1 900 , 965 , 990 1995 2CXXl 20051: 

1-- Actual -e--· Pred•c!Qd I ~ 

Figure 4.12 Percent Representation of Active Female Aircraft 

Mechanics 

\\'hen viewed from a "rate-of-change" in repre..entation prospective (Figure 4.13), the change 

in the level of representation of women in maintenance careers seems on the verge of 

dramatic growth. As suggested by the demographic model and as realized in actual data, the 

change in the representation of women in maintena11ce careers was relatively constan: for 

the years between 1960 and 1975. From 1975 to 19B8, an increase ir. the rate of change in 

this representation was noted. Instead of the pred:cted steady growth. this period 

demonstrated a yearly increase in the rate of change in representation of w?men mechanics 

in the work force. In the period from 1988 to that of the most current m·ailable data, there 

has been a very sharp increase in the rate at which women are selecting aviation can~ers. 

Thus, the data for the representation of women in aviation maintenance careers suggest that 

we may be on the verge of dramatic increase i.'l the number of women in a;iation 

maintenance career fields. 

109 
Chapter Four 

O.i5.---------------------------------------~ 

j 

., 

.......................... ! !! J ~ 

i I 

' ~ ... .I 

! ·, 

01 ~- ............... ····················· ······ 

0.05J······-···-··-············-·········-··--····-···----------·--· 

' ; ~ -0.05+. --~----,..-------,----.,.---,---__;· ~ 

1960 1965 1970 1975 1960 1005 1990 1995 ij 

Figure 4.13 Change in Percent Representation of Active Female 

Aircraft Mechanics 

4.6 SUMMARY 

The aviation maintenance professional will continue to be a valuable asset to air safety well 

into the 21st century. Modern aircraft promise to bring greater reliability a..'ld 

maintainability to the aviation industry; yet, the complexity of these craft w-ill bring new 

challenges to AMTs. The aviation industry mt,gt take a proactive approach if it expects to 

employ a competent work force which will meet equal opportunity standards while 

simultaneously maintaining the productiv1ty of aviation maintenance technicians. Through 

the efforts of many individuals. lea....-rung :institutions, and corporations. diversity in the .'\..'\lT 

work force has begun to emerge. Current legislation helps to promote these efforts; however. 

much is yet to be done if true equity for both gender a..""ld race is to be aecomplishPd 

Impro\ing diversity in the A."\1T work force and the relations between gL1ders and the 

various races currently employed as .'\.."\1Ts will build a strong foundation for imp:-on•d 

maintenance and future air safety. 

The data collected in this study suggests tha'. over the past several decades minorities have 

made dramatic progress in aspiring to .-\.'\lT careers. Females, howe>·er. are still extremely 

under represented in the a11iation maintenance iadus::-y. According to onE> major l"S air 

carrier, females currently make up approximately two percent of their A.\IT work force a:1d 

minorities constitute approximateiy 26 percen,_ The lack of female role models. inadf'quate 

physical facilities at AMT schools. s.:.blireinal bias by teachers counselors and supervi,-ors. 

ail.d a general lack of career av.~areness compri~e r::ajo:- barriers to fe-males e~tering a.'! .:\.\IT 

career. 

110 
Identification of Barriers 

This study points out that roday's youth are for the most part unaware of the exciting well 

paid careers which exist in the aviation maintenance industry. With the liability and 

security problems of today's aviation environment it is very unlikely that young people v.-ill 

have a cha..Dce to explore a career in civil aviation. The changing military environment wiH 

assuredly supply less publicity and training aimed toward aviation. These factors leave a 

void which must be filled and enhanced if we hope to have a plentiful, diverse supply of 

competent .A..:.\1Ts in the future. Industry, AMT schools, and governmental agencies must join 

together to promote aviation in a gender and race fair manner. 

Currently many programs exist which are helping to improve the diversity of the aviation 

maintenance industry. These programs must be amplified and used in conjunction with 

gender- and race-fair role models to help reach under represented populations. Table 4.9 

shows several strategies which can be used to help eli..,."'linate the barriers which limit the 

employment of nontraditional populations in .A..:.'Vl:T careers. The data collected in this study 

suggests that women must be a primary focus group if signi..,.'lcant change is to occur. T'nere 

are two simple strategies which continue to emerge as primary methods to achieve equity: 

( 1) prom0tion uf aviation maintenance as an exciting and rewarding career, and (2) improv'.ng 

the image of the aviation m'lintenal'lce professional. These strategies focused at the youth 

of America and enhanced for P.linorities and females will ensure a plentiful supply and 

diverse work force needed to meet the future challenges of the aviation maintenance industry. 

Table 4.9 Strategies to Help Eli.'11inate Barriers 

' ! IDE}o"TIFIED BARRIERS STRATEGY TO ELIMINATE BA .. lffiiERS 

!! Recruitment • Lack ofinfonnat.ion I' • Increase gender/race fair O<>treach !· (career concerning MIT careers programs 

JJ se1ection} • Lack of adequate role I Better promotion of PJ.:!T careers by major 

Ii models air carriers 

n

1

'1' • Increase awareness of .-\.;'.1T careers to 

elementary a.'ld high school stude.'lts 

!lf-E-d_u_c_a_o_· o_n_a_l--+-.-R-c--cr-u-it-m-. _e_n_t------+-.-Ic:..n..:cr.:.;.;..e:..:as'-e=th::.e_n_uro_ ber of female and 

i

l 1 • Retention min<•rity .. A..'¥1T instructors 

( • Learning envircnme..."1.t • Promote gender/race fair educational 

I ,. practices for faculty and staff 

j

• • Imp,-ove A.\IT school facilities to be more 

gender fair 

!! I • Improve texts and oilier educ- ;ional 1} I materla1s to be more gender.! race f'a:ir 

li I. • Increase a,-,d improve female and minorit}' I 

j! recruitment !I 

:rr-"-'-or_k_·_p-Ja_c_e ____ _,I,-.--E--co_n_o_m_.-ic---------------r-.--I,--p-r-o,-'e __ gr_an--.•-J1_o_a_n __ p_ro_gr __ a-~-•• -s_to __ h_e_lp--------~. 

il I • Emotional disadva.-:itaged individuals Vt'"ith cost of 

\l • Environmental educatkm and too1 purchaBes 

i 1 • Increase and improve worker and 

I'll" ',i a d . . m1n1s t ran-on • . awareness programs to 

promote gender/race fair internctions 

l• i • Improve facilities to be more gender fair 

111 
Chapter Four 

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126 
Introduction 

Chapter Four Appendix 

CHAPTER FOUR- APPENDIX 

Projections ofFutw:·e Need of Aviation Maintenance 

Technicians (AMTs) in Civilian Aviation 

This section of t.lte report re-examines the results of the 1991 FAA Blue Ribbon Panel 

(BRP) report on A•iation Maintenance Technician (A."\fT) Shortages prepared as a 

working paper (WP). The 1991 paper produced projections of pilot and A.\11' work force 

needs in Civilian Aviation for the 1991-2003 time period were produced. This section of 

the report addresses only the projections of AMT future work force needs. A reexamination of ci,ilian commercial pilot work force projections is beyond the scope of this 

project. 

The re-exa.nination of future A.\1T work force needs was called for in response to 

questions from aviation officials, union leaders, and others about the large shortages in 

A."\1Ts projected in the 1991 working paper. The 1991 working paper states "numerous 

sources predict that there will be a need for 100,000-120,000 A.'\fl's by the year 2000. This 

number is based on the current number of technicians combined with new positions related 

to new aircraft and increased attention to continuing airworthiness of older aircraJ't." The 

1991 report projects the shortage of A."\1Ts to be between 55,000 and 85,000 new AMTs by 

the year 2000. Many felt that the shortfalls were t,00 large; others, t.l:lat the projected 

shortfalls were too conservative. 

The shortages projected were accompanied by supporting information and a.""gUrnents t.\at 

seemed to provide a rationale for the expected large shortfalls. In the report, the projected 

decline of the population in the 16-24 and 25-34 age groups by t!J.e year 2000, a deciining pool 

of potential AMTs coming from the military, a low retention rate of A:\1Ts in the a>iation 

industry (only 45'7c of A.\IT school graduates remaining in aviation after 2 years), a.'ld other 

reasons are offered to explai:1 why the supply of AMTs is not expected to keep up with 

demand. All of these reasons and rationales focus on the supply of .6,.\fT work force into the 

aviation industry. However, the BRP report does not offer specific yearly projectio!ls of A.\iT 

work force supply to accompany their detailed yearly projections of A.l\1T work force demand. 

As a result, the precise yearly projected shortages remain unclear. 

This study exa.11ines the working paper's projection of A.1\1T work force !leed. The projections 

are recalculated using much of the original study ·s methodology but wiih some variation 

where the assumptions of the original projections ha.-e bee" questioned. This study also 

offers yearly projections of work force supply using data that was not used in the BRP study. 

This study projects supply by using FAA data on estimated active .6,.'\1Ts reported in the FA..4 

Statistical Yearbooks. The yearly projections of AMT work force supply a!ld demand ca."l be 

compared to produce projected yearly shortages or surpluses. 

127 
Chapter Four Appendix 

Projection of AMT Dem,and 

The projection of AMT demand by civilian aviation in this study follows the general 

assumptions and defmitions used in the BRP study, with sever&! exceptions. These 

exceptions are pointed out in the following discourse on how the working paper's projection 

methodology compares with this study's methodology. Using the definition of &\1Ts from 

page 6 of the working paper, an &1\1T in this study is defmed as ··any person who works to 

maintain an aircraft, aerospace vehicle, or component thereof in an airworthy condition." 

Thus, an Ac\fT performs daily maintena.."lce work to keep the ci,·iJian airfleet flying efficiently 

and safely. AMTs perform tasks from line maintenance to airframe modification. 

WP Projections of AMT Demand 

In the \\'P report, the projection of &'\iT demand revolves on several fundamental 

assumptions and pieces of information. Future AMT demand was argued to be closely tied 

to changes in the civilian airfleet, i.e. as the number of aircrru1 of various types increases or 

decreases, demand for AMTs would be affected. Projections of the number of aircrrut in three 

areas of civilia.."1 aviation (large jet-commercial, commuter and general m;iation) were ta..l;:en 

from the FA.\ Aviation Forecasts r.:port (Feb. 1992) which covered the years 1992-2003. The 

methodology for these projections is reported in the 1992 FAA report. The \VP study 

combined estimates of the number of aircraft with asst:mptions concerning how many AMTs 

are necessary to service each class of aircraft project of how ma.."1y AMTs are needed to sen-ice 

thE airfleet in a11y one year. The large jet-commercial class of aircraft (which is composed of 

commercial 2, 3, and 4 engine narrow body and wide body turbojets) was assumed to require 

an average of 14 A.,"\1T& per aircraft for maintenance. The commuter class (which includes 

2 and 4 engine turboprop; 2, 3, and 4 engine piston; and rotary v..ing turbine aircraft} was 

assur.:~ed to r-equire a.."1 average vf 4.2 A\ITs per aircraft fo,- maintenance. General aviatior. 

airc!'aft \which includes l engine, 2 engine, ;md other piswn; 2 engine and other turboprops; 

piston and turbine rotary wing; 2 engine and other turbojet; and all other aircraft) was 

assumed to require an average of .15 ..A...:.\ITs pey- aircraft for maintenance. ;..Iultiplying the 

m.:mber of aircraft projected by the number of A'\1Ts needed fo,- maintenance per aircraft 

produces yearly projections of the numberoL~'\1Ts needed to maintain the entire :fleet. 

A fourth category of &\ITs was also included in the \YP study's projection of A'\-1T need. b 

the \\'P projection table, the category "Other" was included. The "Other" category included 

A\1Ts employed outside of aviation maintena:>ce. but \\ithin a\iation. The other category 

included .. o\..\1Ts employed in ma."lufacturing, at :-epair stations, and as federal technicians. 

In 1988. the base year. it was deduced that a!xlut 43.000 A\lTs were employed in the "Other" 

ca:egory. The WP report asst:mes a 20< yearly growth in "Other" _'\_\1Temploymer.t. 

Of course, the .-\J.\1T workforce .is sc.bject to attrition due to a variety of causes, including 

retirement, death, tra.1sfers. a.'1d leaving aviation t::r!ployment. In the Vvr report, a 7 percent 

at:rition rate was assumed fo,- large jet, 20 percer.t fm· commuter, and 10 percent for general 

aviation A\1Ts. As jobs become available in large jet and commuter a>iation, a number of 

transfers between the classes of a\iat!on were anti~ipated. It was assu..'lled t.~at 60<;;- of 

128 
Chapter Four Appendix 

commuter attrition and 20% of general a-.-iation and "Other" attrition were tra.'lsfers to large 

jet aviation. It also assumed that 10% of general aviation and "Other" attrition were 

transfers to commuter aviation. 

A rough estimate of the number of net vaca'lt POsitions in each class of civilian aviation is 

calculated by subtraciing the number of trans:e:r=s into the type of aviation from the vacancies 

created due to attrition. For example, in the WP report, there were 2538 large jets in 1980 

which yielded 35,532 jobs (2538 X 14), Attrition, which was 7<;;- for the year, yielded 24E7 

vacant positions (35532 X .07). There were 1912 transfers into large jet maintenance from 

other aviation employment. Thus, aftar ta.lting transfers into account, there were 575 (2487-

1912) net vacant positions in large jet maintenance ;n 1980. 

The \'ilP rtport's procedure yielded projections of total A.'\,1T jobs in aviation maintenance for 

each year, as well as estimates of the total of net vaca'lt positions in each year. The read·=r 

is directed to the \VP report for a detailed summary of the findings. 

Projection of AMT Derr>..and in This Study 

As stated earlier, the projection of .1\.llvlT dema.'<d in this study follows the \v'P study's 

methodology, wit.~ some exceptions. On'O change is that this study does not use FA:\ 

projections of the number of aircraft reported in the February 1992 FA.4. Aciation Forecasts 

document. This study employs a different projection methodology than thm used in the FA4. 

At·iation Forecast. This was done to provide an independent confirmation of the projections 

of aircraft numbers. This is importa.'lt since projected A:\1T demand relies d:rec~ly on the 

aircraft projections. 

The projection of the number of each type and class of aircraft uses FAA data on year!y 

estimates of each type of aircraft_ In the F A..4 Stc.t~"tical Yearbooks, estimates of the numbe-r 

of2, 3, and 4 engine turbojets; 1, 2, 3, ami 4 engine pcstor.; 2 and 4 engine turboprops. and 

?iston and turbine rotary ·wing aircraJt are available fo:- each year back to 195S. L'sing the 

1958-1989 time series of data for each aircraft type, p:-ojections ,;.·ere m3de :l:ro!..lgh :he ye~: 

2003 using the Box-Jenkins tirr:e series analysis technique. This procedu,-e exa:ni:wd :1 

variety of iong-ten:1 tir.u: series modt-ls :.o iden~ify which pa!""ticular ti:ne series modPl b~st 

fits the 1958-1989 data. It then used tht> modei ,:-,at best fits tl:e data to produce tiw 

proje-ctions through 2003. Of course, a different time se!'"i?~ mode~ m3y fit each tin:p Sf' tiP~ 

of data. For exampli:', as wi!l be- st:>e:1 in the aDalyst*S. some a:r:raft types show sys:pn1~11ic 

ir!creases and some sJ1ow Cecrea;;t-~ across timE>. For ot!1er aircraft types, the change i~ 

cyc!icai. e.g., :ncrease. decrt":iSE', thPn :nc!"'ease. 

The results of the t.irr:.e series " .... ~a1yses ofF .. -\.-\ ai:-c~·3ft es:imates are reported in Tabk·s 4.:\.-1 

through 4.A-3. Table 4A-1 gi\"(->S estimates and projec!ions for large jets. Estir:-:3:t'~ :1nd 

projections for commuu-r- airc:ra!: are g~ven :::Table 4A-2. Table 4 . ..\.-3 gi\~es es~im:1:es ~nd 

projections of general av1n:ion a::cra::.. Th~se tables all give f:'sti!1~ates foy 1980 to 2003. Th:: 

numbers of aircraft E;!· the years 1980-1989 ar-t-> f's:!::}ates derivPd :rom the best fit:ing BosJer.:kins time series modt~l whJe the Lt:mE.lPrs of a.!:rcraft !'"or- the years 1990-2003 :u~{, 

129 
Chapter Four Appendix 

projections based on the best-fitting models. Again, it is important to emphasize that thesP 

numbers were generated by time series models which analyzed FAA data on aircraft numbers 

of each aircraft type from 1958-1989 to establish long-term trends in the increase or decrease 

of each aircraft type. These estimates and projections of aircraft numbers serve as thP basis 

for projecting AMT demand. 

Tab1e 4A-1 Estimated and Projected Number of Commercial, Large Jet Aircraft 1 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

! 

4-engine 3-engine 2-engine Total Large Jet 

80 437 1358 751 2538 

81 397 1386 847 2630 

82 364 1414 939 2717: 

83 346 1434 1061 2841 I 

84 338 1451 1204 2993 

85 337 1481 1362 3180 

86 360 1485 1538 3383 I 

87 376 1484 1715 3575 I 

88 389 1490 1864 3743 

89 412 1500 2005 3917 \ 

90 4271 1495 i 2110 4032 

91 437 1505 2295 4237 

92 452 1510 2342 4304 

93 462 1515 2359 4336 

94 467 1521 ' 2511 4499 i 

95 471 1529 2597 459711 

96 472 1537 27721 4781 1 

97 475 1552 2933 4960 

98 481 1562 1 3149 i 5192 

99 484 1574 ' 3311 l 5366 

00 1 48. 1582 i 3429 5494 

01 489 1 1597 3579 5665 

02 

03 

492 1609 

496 1622 ~~i~ i 

'Projections and estimates based on FAA Pstim:nes taken 

from the FA4 Statistical Yearbuuk.<. 

130 

5817 

5930! 
Chapter Four Appendb: 

Table 4A-2 Estimated and Projected Number of Commuter Aircraft' 

Plston Turbo-Prop Rotary Wing Total 

4-eng 3-eng 2-eng 4-eng 2-eng Turbine Commercial 

1980 58 0 419 93 521 3 1094 

1981 62 0 513 99 641 4 131~ 

1982 60 0 491 104 71. 5 1373 

1983 53 0 497 107 788 7 1423 

1984 44 2 436 106 880 7 1~75 

1985 42 4 410 103 966 6 1531 

1986 39 4 374 102 1068 8 1595 

1987 36 3 359 99 1174 9 1680 

1988 38 3 341 97 1271 7 1757 

1989 35 3 328 98 1315 8 1787 

1990 36 5 303 96 1367 8 1815 1 

1991 36 4 298 94 1439 7 18~" to n 

1992 34 4 289 96 1493 7 1923 

1993 30 5 281 97 1544 8 1965 

1994 29 5 273 98 1619 8 2032 

1995 27 4 267 99 1689 g 2095 

1996 23 4 261 101 1741 9 2139 

1997 21 3 259 102 1773 9 2167 

1998 20 3 254 103 !797 11 2188 

1999 17 3 251 105 1827 11 2214 

2000 17 3 247 107 1867 12 2253 

2001 15 2 243 109 1897 12 2278 

2002 13 2 231 108 0929 11 2294 

~=====1=ld'=======2;d'====~22=7~'====~10=7~'=====19=6=4~'==========1~1~,======~23=2~2~ 'Projections and estimates based on FAA estimates taken from FAA Statistical Yearbooks 

131 
--· -·-· 

Table 4A-3 Estimated and Projected Number of General Aviation Aircraft' 

- Piston Turbo-P1op Rotary Wing 

1 2 Other 2 Other Piston Turbine Other 

Year engine engine engine 

1980 166310 24481 163 4016 111 2881 3162 4805 

1981 167029 34873 167 4464 129 2825 3484 5184 

1902 167735 24954 174 4894 145 2788 3268 5485 

1983 166925 24813 161 5749 154 2804 3834 5749 

1984 167701 24486 160 5400 164 2739 3894 6141 

1985 169073 24171 163 5404 177 2817 3848 6451 

1906 168776 23729 154 5354 189 2826 3813 6638 

1987 167991 23101 121 5232 194 2758 3771 6763 

1988 168514 22778 114 5183 200 2683 3853 6000 

00 ·~ 1989 167959 22201 105 5062 200 2675 3668 6894 

t-.:J 1990 168142 21340 101 5049 190 2657 3899 6928 

1991 168146 21229 100 5051 199 2671 3902 6992 

1992 167563 21119 101 5047 193 2673 3911 7003 

1993 167762 21097 99 5092 191 2677 3921 7009 

1994 167928 21073 97 5089 189 2662 3943 7031 

1995 168820 21069 98 5083 167 2677 3957 7052 

1996 169527 21053 95 5081 183 2673 2964 7077 

1997 170328 21047 97 5073 184 2669 3962 7091 

1998 171572 21039 90 5069 181 2\l52 4001 7099 

1999 172503 21021 99 5081 173 2637 4027 8123 

2000 173609 21038 101 5079 177 2621 4052 8177 

2001 174834 21042 too 5083 179 2611 4073 8197 

2002 176221 21057 94 5129 193 2579 4138 83'11 

2003 177816 21059 79 5147 195 2538 4297 8419 

- 1

Projcctions and estimates arc based on FAA estimates reported in the FAA Statistical Yearbooks 

TurboJet 

2 Other 

engine 

2618 331 

2855 365 

3179 439 

3452 457 

3697 496 

3816 50\J 

3890 450 

3894 415 

3881 373 

3914 367 

3926 361 

3961 359 

3970 358 

3972 354 

3968 352 

3974 350 

3978 348 

3991 346 

4001 344 

4122 341 

4157 329 

4269 320 

4412 311 

4502 304 

Total 

General 

Aviation 

208918 

211375 

213061 

213498 

214886 

216420 

215819 

214240 

214479 . 

213245 

212601 

212610 

211938 

212174 

212352 

213267 

213979 

214800 

216056 

218127 

219340 

220708 

222505 

2243661 

-

g 

.§ 

~ .. 

;: 

~ 

.. 

~ ~ Q. 

ii' 
Chapter Four Appendix 

Two things are worth noting about the estimates a.'ld projections in Tables 4A-1 through 4A3. First, when one considers the projections for each of the three classes of aircraft, the 

projections of this study do not substantially differ from the FA4. Forecasts. This ca.'l be seen 

by comparing the numbers in Tables 4A-1 through 4A-3 with Tables 15, 20, and 21 in 

Chapter X of the FAA Aviation Forecasts (1992-2003) document. Second, there are 

substantial differences in the two sets of forecasts for some particular types of aircraft. For 

example, the projections of this study forecast more 3 engine turbojets and fewer 2 enginE> 

turbojets than does the FAA study. These particular differences in estimates and projections 

may be important in other contexts. However, since only the projections and estimates for 

three broad classes of aircraft are used to project A.l\fT demand, the differences in the 

projections for particular types of aircraft are relatively unimportant in the overali context 

of this study. 

A second major departure from the V-lP study's methodology is that assumptions concerning 

the number of AMTs necessary to maintain each class of aircraft are re-assessed in light of 

comments and criticism from a V3.Tiety of sources in civilian aviation. Most thought that the 

assumptions of 14 A.\l:Ts per large jet, 4.2 A.l\fTs p;;r commuter aircraft, and .15 A.\~Ts per 

general aviation aircraft were unrealistically high. The sources' estimates ranged from a 

high-end which reflected the l\TP assumptions to a low-end which was about half the level the 

WP assumed. 

In response to these questions, varying assumptions concerning the number of A.c\fTs needE>d 

per class of aircraft were employed to estimate and project AMT demand in civilian aviation 

One set of projections was made using the assumptions of the WP report, i.e. 14 A.l\fTs per 

large jet, 4.2 per commuter, and .15 per general aviation aircraft. Two additional sets of 

projections were generated. The first assumed 10.5 per large jet, 3.15 per commuter e.nd 

.1125 per general aviation. The second assumed 7 per large jet, 2.1 per commuter. and .075 

per general aviation aircraft. These three sets of projections and estimates are prf'SE'nted in 

Tables 4A-4 through 4A-6. Each table presents projections based on a different set of 

assumptions concerning the number of A.\1Ts needed per aircraft for maintenance. 

The projections in Tables 4A-4 through 4A-6 employ tee V-lP study's assumptions co:1cPrning 

attrition and transfer rates, as well as the size and growth of the "Other" category. The 

"Other" category -- AMTs employed outside of aviation maintemmce -- includE's -~'lc!Ts 

employed in manufacturing, at repair stations, and as fedt>ral technicians. Th(' WP"s 

assumptions in these areas are recognized to be somewhat arbitrary; but. in the absence of 

better or contradictory information, there are no compeliing reasons to cbange them. Tlw 

specific ~ssumptions are the following. ThP attrition r&te for all causes among largp jPt 

workers is 7%, 20% for commuter Al\!Ts, and 10'/f for gpnp,-a] aviation/" Other" work::>rs. Th<> 

transfer rates are that 60rlr of commuter attrition plus 20'7i general a•·iationf'Othpr" attrition 

are assumed to be caused by Al\1Ts transferring to !arge jet maintenance. Transft'r~ into 

commuter maintenance account for 10% of general aviationf'Oth.er" attrition. Finally. it was 

estimated that 43,000 AMTs were employed in the "Other" category in 1988 I base year) ;1nd 

that this number grpw by 2% each year. The 27r growth assumption is pegged to an assumed 

2% annual economic growt3. 

133 
Chapter Four Appendix 

Table 4A,4 Add'tional Aviation Technicians Needed by Year 

large Je!s 

Yo~ A"crall TeelmiCIO!Ins Allr~ron 

"80 2S38 35532 2467 

1081 1630 26820 2577 ,.., 2717 38038 2663 

1 .. 3 """ 39774 27&4 

10 .. 2993 4HKU 2933 

1oe5 3100 4<1520 3116 

1986 3383 <7362 33>5 

1987 3575 50050 350< 

1088 3743 52402 3668 

1089 ,., 54838 ,.,. 

"'"" 4032 ..... , 3051 1991 4237 59318 4152 

1992 4304 60256 4218 

1993 <336 60704 4249 

1 ... .... 62986 4409 

1995 4597 64358 45-05 

I >996 •781 6693.& <685 

1997 4060 69440 486> 

"" 5H~2 7268.9 5008 1999 .,... 75124 5259 

2000 .... 76916 5384 

2001 5665 79310 5552 

2002 5817 81438 5701 

2003 5930 63()20 "'" 

Net General Avraloon 

Yo~ Vacent Ancra~ T~~ehnoc.;ans 

I ~9S0 239 208918 31338 

198! .,, 2113~ 31699 

I 

19.32 452 213051 3tS59 

1983 ... 213A96 I 32025 

~984 520 2U.8S6 32233 

~985 556 216420 32463 

HJ86 603 215819 32373 

l HJ87 ... :C1424J 32136 

I 1988 72< 21«79 32172 

1989 m 213245 31967 

1090 759 212601 31890 

I >99' 803 212610 31892 

H92 802 21 133€' 31791 

I 1993 858 21217-t 31826 

199< 904 2123:.2' 31853 I 1995 .... 213267 31990 i • , ... {)72 213979 32'097 

i •gg; "' I 

2148{)El 37221 

I 1095 990 216C56 32408 

1999 ... ;?18127 32719 

2000 1019 219340 32901 

2001 1027 22C70E! 33106 

I 2002 1026 222:.0& 

2003 1035 224366 ;;;~ i ,141~nroans ~· a"crat1 

.~ cl commuler att.,hc" • 20". Gene•al Avl31•ooo0l,.,e< al!<~•on 

~ ~· year lor aU caus.es 

• 15 lec!'lthC'Iaos Pf'' aorer01.1! 

I N" I Transl'!'rs. Vl!l("anl 

1912 575 

2047 530 

- 569 

2136 .... 2182 

223> SB5 "' 2277 1038 

2332 1172 

<380 1279 

2<1.18 1421 

24<18 1503 

2A97 1655 ,,. 1682 

2577 1672 

2630 1779 

,... 1821 

2728 1957 

2764 2097 

2799 22&9 

2840 2419 

2 ... 2500 

2023 2629 

2958 2743 i 3000 2811 

Comt:.<><'d 

. wllh otheL 

O!.her Anrt!lon 

38670 660> 

3740ol 6910 

36152 7011 

38914 7094 

39693 7~93 

<0487 7295 

"~197 7367 

"21AO 7.(28 

43000 7517 

43860 75!!5 

1.4737 7663 

45631 7752 

465-£3 7633 

47.t73 793C 

LS422 8C75 

49390 

50377 ''"' 8.247 

5135-4 836~ 

5241 ~ s.A87 

53459 ... , :..4528 8743 

5561S. &6'2 I 56730 9<}11 

57864 9152 

.Base y~a' ~998 a5$Umes ~.annual grow'!/\ lncluC~s rrunufact ... ·.n~;. 1ep;w S'!31•r..t"S. teQe,J.Ile:::t·..-,,c•a,..s 

10"'. ~r year for a~ ca~;ses 

134 

Corr:mut•~ 

I I Ancratt Teehmc&ans 

"'"' 4505 

13HI 5540 

1373 5767 

14;>3 5077 

1475 I 6195 

1531 6430 

1505 .... 161!0 7056 

1757 7379 

t7S7 7505 

1815 I 7623 

1678 78SB 

1923 6077 

1065 8253 

2032 

2095 8799 ""' 

I 2139 8984 

2167 9101 

2188 0190 

221< 9299 

2253 ..., 2276 9568 

2294 9635 

=2 9752 

Total AddedlrQm 

T.:l'lnoc.ans Las: ve-l• 

1061:>:> 

111463 33?9 

113916 2453 

11&.90 2774 

~20022 3332 

~23900 3875 

127731 383< 

131382 365~ 

134953 357~ 

13819C 3237 

140695 2508 

144729 •oJt 

146667 19.36 

148.?:.6 1~Sl} 

1S'795 35:<8 

154537 271!2 

15839.? :M\5~ 

16214€. "" 

I 166697 45St 

17060' 3>J< 

173800 

17760'2 """' 3794 

18117£:1 3~77 ! 1~291 :<'12 I 

~ 7~a PI!'' yea• lor a:: cau~s 

.• 2 t~ci''""C1<'1"1S pe· ao<c<~'! 

I . Attrition 

.,. 

1108 

"53 

1195 

1239 

1286 

1340 

1•!.76 '"'' 

1501 

1252 

1578 

1615 

1651 

1707 

1797 ""' 

1820 

1838 

1860 

1893 

i914 

1927 

1050 

Total Net 

Vacant 

POSitoon-; 

76'5 

7657 I 82Sl 

822& I 

8663 

8910 I 

OOIJI; 

9200 

8520 

97A6 

9925 

1021l 

1c~· 

'046(' 

~C711 

'090~ 

111:'"b 

~1.&4.,? 

11619 

1103~ 

1226.? 

125.?€< 

1299' mscl 

10"'. ol C ~'le<3i A'VoiJl•o,..QI!'Ier ar."h::.n 

II Transfl'rs 

680 

... 

701 

709 

719 

I 730 

737 

743 

152 

759 I 766 I 775 

782 

793 I 

803 I 8" I 825 I 836 I I'" 

I 862 

67< 

667 

""' '" 

lola• 

Anr~o.:>n I 

10l(ii 

1059~ 

~082i 

•tOiJ 

~1365 I 11597 

~2'::122 

l234:: 

1266 1 

12925 

13139 

1348.' 

13666 

13.."--'~ 

1.:.t.:.:. 

1440:'- ' I 14;29 

1~;' I ':.4Ji' I 1573:" I 

160?-::' 

1&33€-

16639 

1691,:< 
Chapter Four Appendix 

Table 4A-5 Additior.al Aviation Technicians Needed by Year 

Ye~ 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1084 

1 """ ... 

1987 

1969 

19"' 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1093 

1994 

1995 

1096 

1997 

, .. , 1999 

2000 

2001 

2002 

2003 

Ye~ 

1sao I 19Bl I 1962 

1983 

1984 

1985 

'!986 

1987 

1988 

1983 

1990 

1991 

~992 

1993 

1994 

1995 

1996 

1997 

1998 

1999 I 2000 

2001 

2002 

2003 

An craft 

2538 

26JO 

2717 

, .. , 2993 

3180 

3383 

3575 

3743 

3917 

4032 

4237 

430< 

4336 

4499 

4597 

4781 

4960 

5192 

5366 

5494 

5<65 

"'" 5030 

Net 

V.cant 

87 

219 

244 

267 

290 

3H 

349 

306 

436 

447 

456 

.. , 

507 

525 

557 

586 

603 

610 

611 

515 

627 

630 

627 

632 

1.} 5 Techn.c•<l.'~S ~r a11cra't 

Large Jets 

Tec:hniCIClll$ 

26649 

27615 

2BS29 

29931 

3tC27 

33390 

35522 

37538 

39302 

41129 l 42336 

..... 

45192 

45528 

47240 

48269 

50201 

52080 

54516 

56343 

57587 

5~83 

61079 

52265 

18SS 

1933 

1997 

20B9 

2200 

2337 

2487 

2628 

2751 

2819 

2964 

3114 

3169 

3187 

3307 

3319 

3St4 

36<6 

3816 

3994 

4038 

.... 

4275 

43;9 

General Av1a!oon 

Am: rat! 

208918 

211325 

213061 

213496 

214886 

21~20 

2158~9 

214240 

214479 

2132t.S 

212601 

2125~0 

211938 

212174 

212:>52 

2•3267 

213979 

21lS::Je. 

216056 

218127 

219340 

220700 

222505 

224366 

Techmc111.ns 

23503 

23774 

23969 

240Hi 

27175 

24347 

24279 

24:C2 

24~29 

23990 

23918 

23919 

238<3 

23870 

23690 

2:;993 

24073 

2416€ 

243-06 I 24539 

24676 

24630 I 25032 . 25241 

.OC<Io ot COI"""', .. h..:ter a~ll\10'"> .. 20<'o Ge,..erai Av<ai•Oi"I/Ct'"l~r a::rr..:on 

.?O'!o pe• yea• tor a! t:a11ses 

I 5 lt!'chl'l•Cians per all" craft 

, Trart51'ers 

1617 

1'22 

1761 

, .. ,.,. 

i875 

1915 

1060 

2007 

2033 

2050 

2101 

2135 

2170 

2214 

2260 

2298 

2330 

2361 

2397 

2.(35 

2470 

2502 

2540 

O!her • 

38670 

~7404 

38152 

38914 

39693 

-40457 

4t297 

£2140 

43000 

43860 

U737 

4563, 

46543 

471.73 

46422 

49390 

50377 

s:~ 

52411 

53&59 

54528 

55619 

56730 

57664 

Vacant 

248 

211 

239 

292 

365 

061 

572 

66S 

846 744 I 005 

1013 

1028 

1017 

1093 

!119 

1216 

~3~6 

1455 

1507 

1603 

1694 

1773 

1819 

Combined 

Wl!h c~et 

A.''trdoon 

6017 

6t1S 

6212 

6293 

6JS7 

6785 

6665 

~~~ 6955 

7039 

7134 

7231 

736 

7445 

7555 

7672 

1aoo I 

~I :;~~ \ 

I 

.Base yea: ~gas ~mes ._,.. annu~l g•ollrf.h Includes !Tla."lu!acto.:"ng. rep.a•r S::a!tor"lS, ft!'"deltll te-m,•:;.a~s 

1~. ::>e' ,.ear tor a~ ca<.ises 

135 

1319 """ 

1373 

1422 

t475 

"" ~585 

1680 

1757 

1787 

1815 

1878 

11123 

1065 

= 

2005 

2139 

2167 

2166 

2214 

2253 

2278 

229< 

= 

Tct:a! 

Tecttr:oe1011ns ' 

90266 

02946 

94975 

97245 

102941 

105047 

106122 

109072 

111966 

114606 

1 t670S. 

'19955 

12~535 

123061 

126003 

,2S2St 

131389 

134856 

'138125 

14t3t5 

1439-Se 

t47otl7 

150067 

15~ 

c~· 

.... 

4155 

4325 

..... 

.... 

4823 

!;024 

5292 

5535 

5629 

57H 

5'116 

6057 

6190 

6401 

6599 

6738 

6826 

... , 6674 

7097 

7t76 

7226 

7314 

Added from 

2880 

2027 

2270 

5696 

21()6 

~I 1426 

2942 

2248 

:;-:38 

3467 

~g 

3190 

2673 

3099 

298::0 

zen 

-7~ pe: yell• ~or a~ I cau~s :J 15 !!!'d'I"'C>VIS per 811C<~ 

. Ant lien 

... 

831 

... 

... 

-

065 

1005 

1058 

1107 

!126 

1143 

1183 

1211 

12SB 

1J20 ,60 I 1:lo<S 

1365 

1378 

1395 

Total Net 

Vaeant 

PC$1ons 

.... , 6652 

7042 

7151 

1-'79 

7588 

7693 

8078 

.,. 

8455 

BS7A 

8676 

8881 

9043 

9264 

Q.IS~ 

0738 

l00•2 

10150 

1036ll 

10575 

~0752 

10'!'. o! Geroe<a: AVlaWr;Othe: aro.: !101"' 

. Tr~ers 

602 

., 

621 

629 

639 

648 

656 

662 

671 

670 

667 

... 

704 

713 

723 

73' 

745 

755 

767 

780 

"" 805 

816 

931 

~I 95'6 

9785 

10050 

~0310 

10571 

10790 

10972 

!~252 

n4t3 

11559 

1!8tS 

'203' 

~2307 

12SS6 

12!166 

131~ 

13378 

,,.... 

,3896 

,<4133 
Chapter Four Appendix 

Table 4A-6 Additional Aviation Technicians Needed by Year F~~~======~~~~~~~~~~==~ L.ar~Jets Ne• c~ 

I ' ' I ' ' v.~ Ano;ratt 

I 

I I 19S:J 2536 

199• 2S3C 

t982 2717 

1SB3 I 284t 

t984 2993 

t9es 3180 

1986 3383 

t967 3575 

19SS 3U3 

I 

~989 39H 

t99C 40>2 

1991 .4237 

1992 """' t993 4336 

I t994 4499 

I t095 4597 

t996 4781 I 1997 <860 I t995 5192 

t999 5366 

2000 ..... I 2001 5S65 

20C2 5817 

2003 593C 

No! 

Yea' V.;,;eant 

' 19SV .... 

I 1981 2' 

t982 36 

HIB3 .. II t984 62 

1985 75 

!I 1980 95 

195:" ,., t, ·- 147 

I 1989 "' t990 •55 .... 

t992 "' t84 

1993 ,.. t'>SA 209 

t!>9S 

I 

226 

'996 234 

... , 235 

""" 233 

1999 232 

200C I 236 

I =· I 235 

2002 :m 

• 2003 m 

_20~. per year to• a~ causes 

~ 075 lect'lno~•ans per all"crah 

' iechr:ociC!ns Altr(IOI'! 

17766 t244 

1e.t10 1289 

19019 133t 

19BB7 t$92 

2095~ 1467 

22250 t558 

2""..>68~ t658 

25025 t752 

26201 t93< 

Z7~~9 ~SI19 

28224 Hl76 

29659 2076 

30i26 2t00 

30352 2125 

31493 2205 

32179 2253 

33467 .,.., ,..720 2430 

36344 I 2544 

37562 I 2629 

,.. .. 2692 

39655 2776 

407~9 i 2SSC 

415!C 2906 

Geoeral A"'atoon 

A..•c·~ I Teel':mc.ans 

I 

208916 I ,5669 

21 ~325 . ~5&49 

213061 1 ~59SJ 

2134g(j t6012 

21~SS6 I t0116 

2'~2C I ~6232 

?15519 ! 16~86 

z;.ez.e::: I ,6069 

21U79 16086 

213245 15993 

2126C~ I 15945 

21261':) 1591.6 

21.935 tS89S 

212174 1591.3 

212352 15¥26 

213257 ,,.., 213979 t604S 

214B06 16~ ~ 1 

216056 ,6204 

218127 1&34C 

219340 1645~ 

2207CS 16553 

2225-..."5 t663S 

22'356 15827 

, Tro:1sl~ llete .. nl 

t= i -78 

1397 tee 

""" _,. 

1~57 -05 

1 ... -21 

1820 38 

1522 6 

15S8 .... 1625 

1648 """ 271 

1671 305 

1705 371 

""' 375 

1763 362 

t799 406 I "'"' •H 

I t867 <76 

I 1996 53< 

1924 621) 

..... 67S 

1967 70> ' ' 20~a I 2046 ~I 2079 i 827 i 

-

Con"Oneo 

. wnr. otr.e~ 

Ol"'e• Ar.rtoon 

,.., 523< 

374~ 5::.25 

3St52 ' E-4~3 

J.S!Il-4 I 5.&9.3 

~3 5581 

<0487 5672 

4~297 574S 

42140 ... , <3000 s;os 

43660 ... , U737 6068 

45S3t 6l58 

4.6543 62U 

47473 5339 

<8422 .. , 49Jg() 6539 

5J:377 ...., S13SA 5749 

S2411 6862 

53459 6952 

54528 7098 

55618 7<17 

56730 7342 

S7S6A 7469 

_BaSI!' ye-a• 1988. as~,....$~. a'll':l.lat GlOW:'", lncl..:des :'1"\aflulaC'!v•nw. repa., sa:·ons. !eQe,al :e...-+.no:.;&"s 

·~. pe• year !o: ah causes 

136 

A:<<;!lll~ T.ct>nc.ns 

t004 2207 

13~S mo 1373 2883 

t<23 20813 

1475 

1531 """" 3215 

1505 3350 

1630 3528 

1757 3500 

1787 3753 

1015 S812 

1878 

t023 -.oC3S 

t065 •!27 

= 4267 I 2005 

2039 ""' 4492 

2167 4551 

I 2t88 4S;s 

22~4 I -· 22531 

,,.,. 

~ 47&4 

4$~7 

=i 4876 

Tceat A.cceo. frOtr. 

: echr.r;.an-. u.s:Yu: 

72402 

74'~ 203~ 

'""' 1$C~ 

77SCt 1757 

79558 ~7 

6211M ,..,. sss~• <= 50761 247 

ssan 

I 2216 

91025 2046 

il2i'18 , .. , 

95,N 2462 ....,. I "2' 

li!i865 I 1251 

tOCH:S 2:243 

10190.& I 1856 

i\)43$4 2-'20 

106766 I 2382 

1095~ ! 2785 

1~21X I 2546 

! ~416E 1 2068 

..... o I 2<42 

H8054 2"" 

12~077 2,23 

:7' per yea' !cr aH causes 

,2 1 te-ct>n.;:.a.r.s per doter a!'! 

' 

I 

• ' 

I 

I 

' I 1~ c! Gen.r.il: A"'at>oniOt~er .. nn!oo" 

. . A!\rii>OI'I Transfe<s 

... 523 I 554 533 

577 Solt ,.. .... 620 558 

""' 670 "" 575 

706 682 

738 

75t ... '"'' 762 607 

, .. 616 

&o8 624 

825 534 

853 ... sec ... ... .... 910 675 

9t9 ... ;so ... I ... 710 I 957 722 

.., ,-_,. 075 74.1 

l~Net "reta: 

i I V..ca"~ A:trli:.O:" ' P~QI'l$ 

5<.'92 6337 

...... 1~5& 

535~ 732~ 

!.&77 I 7-t.ro 

I 

5S22 7668 i 5-:'86 7573 I 

.... I 8C76 

6~09 ' sz:s .... s.ts~ 

6'G8 5655 

II .... SS06 

57:!2 902> 

6&:.3 9161 

.... .... II 705C . .., ll 

7,82 ' .. , 

II I 7* 

I 

.... 7~!8 ~~ 

71~5 ~c;;zs 

7889 105-* ~ 

~3S i ~0736 

82~C I 100~ 

&375 l ~~,ss 

=· ~ ,3::.0 
Chapter Four Appendix 

Results of Demand Analysis 

Tables 4A-4 through 4A-6 give the resuits of the analyse:; of A.:'\1:T demand in ci>ilia."1 

aviation through the year 2003. To S:d the reader in understanding the infonna:im:; and 

calculations presented in the tal,les, it is useful to work th..'"Ough an exa..'!lple. ln Tab!e 4A-4, 

consider the row of information and calculat;ons f0r 1993. In column 1 is reponed the 

projected number of large je~s for 1993 (4336). -~suoing 14.2 technicia."ls are needed to 

se!Vice each lar:;e jet --yields column 2 -- the number of technicians needed to service large 

jet.s (4336 X 1·4 = 60704). In the third column is the estimated attrition for large jet 

te:hnicians {60704 X .G7 = 42-!9.28), i.e the number of jobs that will become available due 

to attrition. In tl:e fourth column is the estimated number of AMTs :tra..'ls!erring to large jet 

maintenance from other a~iation maintena!lce jobs. It is calculated as 60'« of commuter 

attrition plus 20'« of genera1/'cther" aviai.ion {.60 X 1651 plus .20 X 7930 = 2577J. The Net 

Vaca..'lt column is the difference betw~n available jobs and transiers \4249 - 2577 = 1672i. 

The same general procedure is followed for commuier and general aviationt"Other" 

calculations. Since it is assumed that general aviation/"other" jobs represent entry level 

positions C3R:.' assumption), no estimate of transfe1· into general aviationF'other .. is made. 

Rather, the attrition number represents ava!iable jobs in general aviation/'"other'" which are 

ultimately fllled by newly certified A.c"\1Ts. 

The final four columns of Table 4A-4 present some summa..ry measures .• >\gain, for 1993, the 

Total Technicians column represents the number of jobs available in the three classes cf 

civilian aviation !60704 (large jet) + 8253 (commuter)+ 31826 (general aviation)+ 47473 

(other)= 148256]. The next column is the number of jobs added dmillg the year (148256-

146667 = 1589). The Net Vaca."1t column is a summation of the net ,·aca!ltjobs in the three 

aviation classes (1672 + 858 + 7930 = 10460). The final column sums attri:ion across the 

aviation classes. 

Table 4A-4 gives projections using assumptions identical to the \"'P report. Tbe resulu:: are 

quite similar to those reported to the DOT"s Blue Ribbon Pa..'1el. (he di!Terences are due !0 

the different projections of the number of aircraft used in each study. The two cobmns of 

interest in Table 4A-4 are the Total Technician and L'oe Added from Last Year colum:J.s. The 

Total Techn~cian column is a projection of A..\1T der:1hl'..rl ir:. a';iation. The Added coluf:'l.!l is 

a projection of job increase in a\.-iation. The Vac~-n Posit:o!! column is not of partic~l~ 

interest since this report uses a direct measur~ of A.j,\!T st:ppl:,.·. In 2 la!.er section~ proje-c:ions 

of A."\fT demand (from Tables 4A-4 through 4A-6' are cmnpared to projections of A .. \1T 

supply. It is on the basis of a table similar w Tabie 4A-4 that tl:e WP report proJec:Pd a 

future shortage in AMTs. 

Tables 4A-5 and 4A-6 gin: projectio!ls computed similarly -..o those in Table 4 . ..\-4. Howpwr. 

Tables 4A-5 and 4A-6 are based on somewhat chffere:Jt assumptions t.'Jan Table 4A-4. b 

Table 4A ... 5, the average number of ~1Ts need~d to ser\'ice each class of aircraft \VPre 

assumed to be 10.5 per large jets, 3.15 ;Jer commuter. and .1125 per general aviation.~· other'" 

aircraft. In Table 4A·6. the asst~meci .. -\..\ITs pe.!- aircra.P.. \\~ere 7 per large jets, 2.1 pe:r 

commuter and .075 oer qene:-a} aYiatiorJ"Other"'. -~ -::an be SPET! by comparing th.t> Tot."l2 , . ~ 

137 
Chapter Four Appelldix 

Technician and Added Jobs columns across the three tables. it is obvious that L'><> differing 

assumptions produce significantly reduced prajection<> of A."\1T demand. 

Prqfcction of AMT Supply 

The FAA publishes estimates of the amnlx·r of 2ctiw A.\lTs in its Statisticai Yearbooks. 

Estimates of active A.\1Ts a:re available from 1958. St>parate estimates are availabie fur 

females. The FAA estima~es include all those who are employed in the various compon;cnts 

of avimion, plus those who hold certification but who are no long<.>r active in aviation. It is 

assumed that the FA.t\ estimate:; adjust yearly for newly certified A.'\1Ts, as w<.>ll as for 

retirements and deaths. This time series of data can be subj<.>cted w the sam<.> time series 

analysis used earlier to project active AMTs to the year 2003. 

Table 4A-7 gives the resul:s of such a tim<.> series analysis. Column 1 reports the FA.-\ 

Statistical Yearbook estimc.tes of .A...'>lTs for the 1958-1988 period. Column 2 estima:es am! 

projects figurEs for acti.,.e A.\1Ts generated by a Box-Jenkin;o timt> series model for t!w 195~-

2003 period. In colur:m 3 aT<' the yearly increases in -~\!Ts. Co:u:nn 3 dearly shows tbn 

the supply of • .<\..\ITs tends to foi!ow a 10 year cyclical pattern. Roughly every ter: years t!1c-n.· 

is a significa<'lc increase in .A...'\1T production. Morf.' will be said about this pattern in the 

discussion of Table 4A-8. Column 4 contains FA'\ estimates of active female A ... \1T~. In 

column 5 are estimated and ->rojected num!>ers of female ,\_'.!Ts which we!'e generated by a 

time series modeL The femde .4-.MT model is cle:rrly not as cyclical in nature as the total 

A).1TmodeL 

Since the concern. in this study is on1y with A..\lT d-err1and in civiEa..~ a.,;iation, the projectt:··d 

numlx-rs of A_'.lTs in Table 4A-7 will have to be adjusted to acco~nt for the fact th:-.t the 

majority of certified .-\.:.\1Ts a!·e not employed ir.. c.i\·iliar.. ?..Yi::ltion Tht> \YP re~'Or! p:-u\·idot'~ 

some information on w!"-jch to hase- an asst.:mpt!U:1 conc2r-n!ng t~e percer:::.agt• ofac~ive ~-\..\iT:-­

employeri !n avia!ion. On pagt- 7 oft:·w \\rp Yepo~·t. it 1s ~t3:ed t!"l::.t l2s:::; -:_3:.:1 4.50\J of :0.000 

graduating .-\1\'!Ts t::.J.n he fou:Hi in C.S. aviatiu:n 2 years l2.:e:- I:1 2,n Aug-J~t 1:. 1992. ~'P:-:no 

to thP Blue Ribbon Pane1 from Pha.:u·uf :\s.socl3:Ps lncm-:Jur2ted. it ~~vas estimat~t2 t!-~31 ~3 

pe;cer.t of entry le\·el .~\1Ts went d:rectiy to jobs in :1on-avia:ivn industries. Thu~. Gr!Y 

assumption concerning thP percent of ... ~\.1Ts emp!oyt-(l ir.. avia.tio:1 is sorne'\..,.hat sub.}Pc::....-f' . 

.. ~ a result, t\\.~o different assu.:n;;tions are us{·d in :l::s repo:-t t.o estir:1a:l~ A..\lTs ~H:tii.·t· i::'! 

aviation. These assumptions are gen~ra11y cons.~ste:n with :hos~ reponed :o :he BRP. Tht• 

two assumptions are that 40 a!:d 45 percent of .~\1Ts rer::a:n act1ve in :;.,·iatio::;. Ag3~1:. ~ht~~'t' 

assumptions are only loosely e:ntJZric~Uy bash:! Bt•::t:>r 1nforr.::tt1oi1 on ;e~rntior: iJ: ~:x::1:~"·~~ 

jobs would adjust ti:es~ . .-· ~:;.sum;r:.io:1s. If a~y~hl::g. ::1t: ;_H·:-n·::::lge reh::~tio:; ::1 3.Y:::::~):i~ Jt>b~ 

ls probably lower than ~0 perTf?'!1L Tb~·se !1:lmlx·rs rf'i1t--c: -.\·h:-1: rr:;:;;:1y 1:~ ::~t.· 3\-J~!!i,.J:: :::dt:~::·:­

point to as a signific<..I~t proUlE:'r::, l.t> • .\..\17s it·~!Ye ~:x:.atio:1 n:~in:t:naDct: JObs SPPk1:::~ r:H·~·~.­

convent.ional hours. better wo:-ki:;.g conCnt~ons. a."1:i kttt>r p::y. _jJso. given t~f' ~!!Z'Tt·~:~jng 

volatility oft.he commercial a\~iation ifldust:ry, jol> se,.:t:.:r::y of cYi3.U0:1 e:mployt:-es l:z.s s;_:ff:.·~vd. 

13~ 
Chapter Four AppendU:: 

Table 4A-7 FAA Estimates and clime Series Projections of Active Al'lfl's 

1958 

1959 

1960 

I 1ss1 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1956 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

;~~: 1. 

1975 

1sn 1

1 

1978 

1979 

t 1980 

I 

1981 

1982 ! 

1983 

1984 

1985 

'\986 

1987 

1988 l 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

\993 

11 1994 

!! 1996 

'i'' 1996 1997 

1990 

! 1999 

2000 

2001 

1: 2002 

1

, 2003 

Estmated 

Act!ve AM.Ts' 

107072 

113520 

115688 

118689 

122160 

124945 

130i3'l 

135351 

140799 

146572 

1582j'l 

170716 

184647 

193295 

2.)1700 

193337 

198863 

205436 

212303 I 

220768 

228743 

23761\ 

250157 

252705 

277436 

288335 

2S'l02S 

274100 

284241 

297176 II 

3":24~9 I 

: I 

: I 

?rojac<..ed 

Acttva AMTs: 

t07932 

112323 

·n5425 

119000 

122323 

126255 

130677 

135559 

142213 

150330 

~50,89 

·nooes 

'!81713 

188739 

194366 

198526 

202327 

213222 

220972 

263249 

278276 

28012~ 

284426 

288376 

2931S3 

297279 

310419 

323677 

334666 

344535 

353504 

3572C2 

3€2098 

365756 

36e-<!54 

373106 

381002 

389925 

399950 

411208 

42,055 

425353 

Est~~es a!e !aio:.en t:c~ 'FAA S:at:stJca) Yeartlooks 

Addedt=rom 

Last Year 

4391 I 

3102 I 

3575 

3323 

3932 

4422 

4882 

6654 

8117 

96SO 

104SS 1 

110251 7026 

5629 

4158 i 

3801 I 

3814 

7081 

nso 

8944 

Hl03:! 

11340 

119'!9 l 

15029 

!s~ i 

3948 

4817 

4086 

13140 I 

13258 

I 10S89 

9869 

8968 

3€98 

4S96 

3658 

2698 ! 

;:: I 

8923 

10025 

11258 

9847 

4298 

::T:me sen.es est:nates a:;c p:::>jo?Ctlo;.s based on ~AA eS::1ma!es 

139 

Estimated 

Active Female 

AMTs1 

t1S !' 

119 

110 

117 

137 

141 

106 

182 

197 

196 

229 

269 

302 

322 

349 

284 

3'!8 

360 

422 

505 

600 

sss 1 

890 

105'l 

1298 

1493 

1649 

1n5 

1964 i 

2237 I 

256~ 1 

I 

Prcj8CI8d 

Acfve FemalQ 

AMTs2 

,5 

116 

120 

125 

1'34 

148 

164 

176 

194 

204 

238 

263 

294 

305 

3't4 

326 

346 

377 ! "40 

~~! 907 l 

1085 I 

1276 

1455 I 

16.'6 

1824 I 

2038 I 

2218 l 

2545 

2769 

2927 

3139 

3427 

3728 

3922 

4107 

4203 

4469 

4672: 

4763 

4872 

5427 

f,f73 

5983 

AddadFrom 

t.ast Yea:-

1 

4 

5 

9 

14 

16 

18 

18 

10 

34 

2511 

3! I' 

1~ I 201 

31 

63 

76 

::!I 

•ss 1 

:~~ l 

~~~ 'II 188 

214 

180 

327 

224 

158 

~~ !i 3"1.1 

194 

185 II' 

98 

266 

203 

111 

89 

555 

346 

210 
Chapter Four Appendi:r 

Table 4A-8 gives the projected number of active aviation maintenance technicians (A.l\1Ts) 

for the 1980-2003 period. In column 1 are the estimated and projected :aumbers of active 

AMTs generated by a Box-Jenkins time series model. In column 2 are the numbers of A.\1Ts 

being added ea~h year. As was commented on earlier, there is clearly a cyclical pattern in 

the production and certification of new A.l\lfTs. Roughly every ten years, there is a two or 

three year period marked by significantly higher A>IT production. It also should be pointed 

out that tbs cyclical pattern occurs in the F.A,A data on active A\ITs (see Table 4A-7). \Vhy 

this cyclical pattern occurs is open to conjecture. There are any nu.'Tlber of possible 

explanations. The pattern codd represent variations in the production of A.l\1Ts by the 

sc:'lools. It could represent varying availability of potential A.MTs coming from the military. 

It could also represent some cyclical pattern of retirements within the industry. Vvnat is 

most likely is that aviation maintenance schools tend to react to thP volatility of the aviation 

industry, i.e. as aircraft orders increase with Fhort-term expansio.u in aviation, schools react 

to perceived increased demand, and so on. 

Table 4A-8 Projected Number of Active 

- - il.viation Maintenance Technicians (A .i\iTsJ l980-Z003 

Year Estimated I Added from I Estimated AMTs I 

I # I last year j in Aviation· 

I 

II 1980 251330 11340 1 113099 ' 

1981 263249 119H I 118462 

1982 278278 15029 ! 125225 

1983 280121 1843 1 126054 

1984 284428 4312 1 127993 

1985 288376 3948 I 1297691 

1986 293193 4817 131937 

1987 297279 4086 133i76 I 

I 1988 I 310419 13140 i 139689 

1989 I 323677 112ss 1 145655 1 

I 1990 I 334666 1o9s9 I 150599 

1991 344535 I 9869 155040 

1992 353504 I 8965 1§9077 

1993 3572021 3698 160741 I 

' !994 362098 4896 162944 l 36·--o 1 1995 164590 ' l ~; u ~ ' 3658 I 1996 368454 269S 165804 I 

19~7 3731!)6 4652! 167898 

1998 381002 7896 1 171450 

1999 l 3899251 8923 I 175466 I I 2000 399950 woz5 I 179978 

II 

2001 4112os 1 1125&1 185044 ' 2002 421055 1 9847 189475 

2003 1, 425353 1 4298 I 191409 

A~~umes ~5S of active .-\..\!Ts work in av]ntio:1 :nai:1te!1ance 

:.<Assun1es 40":.f ofacti\·e .-\..'\1T~ ,,·ork in av!ation n1alatenance 

140 

Estimated 

AMTs in 

Aviation2 

100532 

105300 

111311 

112048 

1137il 

115350 

117277 

118912 

124168 

129471 

133866 

137814 

141402 

142881 I 

144839 

146302 

147382 I 

149242 

152401 

155970 

159980 

164483 

168422 I 

170141 I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 
Chapter Four Appendix 

Columns 3 and 4 in Table 4A-8 report the estimated active AMTs in aviation assuming that 

45% of active AMTs are employed in aviation (Column 3) and that 40% of active AMTs are 

employed in aviation (Column 4). The estimates and projections in Columns 3 and 4 will be 

used as rough indicators of AMT supply in the next analysis which attempts to answer the 

question, "Will there be A.l\1T shortages in the future?" 

Projected Demand and Supply of AMTs 

To determine if there will be a future shortage of AMTs, the projections of A.MT demand from 

Tables 4A-4 through 4A-6 are combined with projections of AMT supply from Table 4A-8 

and Table 4A-9. Projections of AMT shortages can be calculated by comparing the supply 

and demand projections. Only the situation where 40'/r of active AMTs are employed in 

aviation (Column 2) and where it is assumed that 14, 4.2 and .l5 A.\IJ:Ts are needed to 

maintain each aircraft of each class of aircraft (Column 3) are there predicted to be 

substantial AMT shortages. However, for circumstances where greater than 40'/r of active 

A.l\1Ts remain employed in aviation and where fewer A.'\1Ts are needed to maintain each class 

of aircraft, shortages are not projected. In genera!, the supply of AMTs will meet the aviation 

industry's demand for them. 

Another factor that has to be considered in projecting future shortages is the large pool of 

A.'\1Ts who are certified but who are not employed in aviation and who conceivably could 

return to aviation employment at some point. The aviation industry could draw upon this 

relatively large pool of available AMTs if circumstances warrant it. However, it is to the 

aviation industry's advantage not to draw upon this supply of A.\1Ts. It is much more costeffective to continue to fill positions with entry-level.'\1'\l:Ts rather, than to pay higher wages 

to more senior people. The comparatively low wages, nighttime work schedules, and the 

uncertain job security in the aviation industry create retention problems \\~ithin the industry. 

especially for more experienced and senior workers. 

There may be short-term shortages of entry level AMTs in the aviation industry. given the 

cyclical nature of increase in the number of A.MTs certified each year (see Table 4A-7 and 

Table 4A-8!. Short-term shortages in the industry may indeed be the short-term stimuli that 

. AMT schools react to, at least until it becomes difficult for newly trained A.MTs to find jobs. 

The schools would then react by reducing the scope of their programs. lndi\iduals then may 

also become less interested in AMT training due to a perceived or real lack of jobs in thE' 

industr-y. Given the nature of the aviation industry, it seems to be quite difficult to create 

any !ong-tenn balance between the training of new AMTs and the availability of job,;. 

Assuming that the a,·iation indus~ry is tied to thP overall economy, in the !ong-wrm \mon· 

than a few years). the number of 1\ .. \·iTs needed will continue to show cyclical cha.ngps as the 

economy goes through its typical upturns and downturns. 

Another trend that may substantially reduce demand for A.;vlTs in the U.S. av1atio;-, industry 

is the movement of aviation maintenance facilit;es to foreign countries. As mon~ of these 

facilities become realities, the gro-:..;,.·th in the number of jobs available to .A.1\1:Ts trained in thf' 

United States wiil slow. 

141 
Chapter Four Appendix 

The overall conclusion of these analyses is that AcVITs are available to meet !Dday's dernaT~d 

and that future shortages seem unlikely. There may be short-term shortages of entry-level 

k\1Ts as the aviation industry fluctuates with tlw economy. However, the massive shortages 

the WP suggested seem unlikely. 

Table 4A-9 Projected Demand and Supply of AcVITs in Non-Militarv Aviation 1980-2003 - , -

Supply Demand 

Year Active A.\1:Ts in Aviation k'\1Ts needed in Aviation I 

1980 1130991 100532" 1081353 

1981 118462 105300 111436 

1982 125225 111311 113916 

1983 126054 1120481 116690 

1984 127993 113771 120022 

1985 129769 115350 123900 

1986 131937 117277 127731 

1987 133776 118912 131382 

1988 139689 124168 134953 

1989 145655 129471 138190 

1990 1505991 133866 140698 

1991 155040 137814 144729 

I 1992 159077 141402 146667 

1993 160741 142881 148256 

1994 162944 1448391 151795 I 

1995 164590 146302 . 154537 ' 1996 I 165804 1473821 158392 

1997 167898 149242 162146 

1998 171450 152401 166697 

1999 175466 155970 170601 

2000 179978 159980 173808 I 

I 2001 185044 164483 177602 I 

2002 189475 168422 181179 i 

2003 191409 170141 184291 I 1

Assumes 457t- A..\.fTs remain in aviation. See Table 4A-8. 2

Assurnes 40'71 &"\1Ts remain in aviation. See Tablt 4.-\-8. 

902684 72502" I 

92948 74433 ' I 

94978 I 76034 ' I 97245 77801 ' 

102941 79858 I I 

405047 82494 ~ 106122 86514 . 

109072 86761 i 

111966 88977 

1

1 

114608 91025 I 

116708 92718 II 

119955 95180 1 

121635 96604 1 

123061 97865 

126003 100108 1 

128251 101964 1 

131389 104384 ! 

1348561 106766 lj 138125 109554 

141315 1 112100 11 

143988 ' 11416811 

147087 I 116610 'i 

150067 118954 J 

152684 121077 1 

:.Assumes 14 A...\fTs per large jet, 4.2 per commercial and .15 per general aviation aircraft Set' Tablt' 

4A-4. 4

Assumes 10.5 A..:."ITs per brge jet. 3.15 per commercial and .1125 per general aviation aircraft. SeE' 

Table 4A-5. 5

Assumes 7 A.."\fTs per large jet, 2.1 per commercial, and .075 per general aviatio:-t aircraft. St-P Tablt> 

4A-6. 

142 
Chapter Four Appendix 

Description of Time Series Models 

The Box-Jenkins procedure (described in Box and Jenkins, Time Series Analysis: Forecasting 

and Control, Holden-Day, 1976) is used to fit and project time series data by means of a 

general class of statistical models. An observation at a given point in time is modelled as a 

function of its past values and/or current and past values of random shock, both at seasonal 

and nonseasonal time logs. The Box-Jenkins technique will model a single va1iable with 

observations equally spaced in time with no missing values. Many times it is necessary 

before modelling the time series to transform the data (usually by taking the log or power 

transformation of the series) or by differencing the series on a seasonal or nonseasonal basis. 

The modelling of time series data is usually done in three steps. First, a tentative model is 

identified for the time series. Second, the parameters of the model are estimated and 

diagnostics statistics and plots are examined to determine the adequacy of the model. Third, 

if the model is deemed adequate, projections based on ·he model can be made. If one model 

is determined to be inadequate, then other models are examined till one is found witl1 an 

acceptable fit. Once the best-fitting model is formed, forecasts can be made. Fitting and 

forecasting a given time series of data usually requires multiple computer runs. 

Thus, the specific best-fitting model for each series of data projected in this study differs from 

each other model in terms of its parameters. Trc clearest example of these differences can 

be seen by comparing the projection of A.1\1T suppiy (clearly cyclica!l with the projection e.g,. 

of the number of large jet aircraft. The best-fitting model for each time series of data was 

used to make the projection for that time series, but the best-fitting model was different for 

each time series. 

Finally, the Box-Jenkins model allows for the calculation of three separate forecasts for each 

time series. The two additional sets of projections are based on the upper and lower 

confidence interval limits about t.~e estimated model parameters. These additional 

projections were generated, but are not reported in this report. The use of the alternate 

projections would not alter the major conclusions of this analysis. 

143 
Correlates of Individual Ditlerences in NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

CHAPTER FIVE 

A PILOT STUDY TO MEASURE CORRELATES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 

IN NO!\'DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION PERFORMANCE 

5.0 INTRODUCTION 

An interim report examined previous research programs and studies in the area of 

nondestructive inspection {:1\'DD conducted by the Air Force, by the nuclear power industry, 

and by various academic and industry investigators (FAN AAM & GSC, in press). A repeated 

fmding and concern in these studies was the existence of substantial differences among 

inspectors' NDI proficiency. Those few studies that have attempted to examine correlates of 

NDI proficiency have been generally unsuccessful in establishing significant relationships 

with performance. 

As noted in the interim report, however, there are a number of variables, measures of which 

appear potentially relevant to NDI selection and/or proficiency. This conclusion is based on 

the fmdings of studies of individual differences in the areas of inspection and vigilance, on 

the opinions of experts L'l L'1e NDI fieid, and on the results of interviews with NDI inspectors 

and training supervisors. These variables can be roughly separated into the following 

categories: 

• Boredom Susceptibility 

• Concentration/Attentiveness/Distractibility 

• Extraversion/Impulsivity 

• Motivation/Perseverance 

• Decision Making/Judgement 

• Mechanical/Electronics Aptitude 

• ~eed for Autonomy. 

Each of these categories and the measures used for them is discussed in greater detail under 

Section 5.1, Methodology. 

The -pilut study reported here represents the initial phase of an effort to investigate 

relationships of these variables to NDI performance. A second aspect of this effort is to 

investigate possible task-induced fatigue resulting from sustained performance a.'ld to 

ex<"'Tiine possible interactions between performar!Ce changes a.'ld the above subject variables. 

The task employed in this study was a computer-simulated l'<"DI eddy-current task developed 

bv Dr. Colin G. Drurv a.'ld his colleagues at the State University of New York (SUl\'Yl at 

Buffalo. The task h;;,s been described in studies by Drury, Prabhu, Gramopadhye, and 

Law:-dla 0991) a!H! Latorel!a. Gramopadhye, P:rabhu, Drury, Smith, and Shanahan. (1992). 

In essence. t!1e task utilized a SUN SPARC workstation a.'ld incorporated a standard 

keyboan! and optical three-button mouse as i:1;>ut devices. As Latorella et a!. (1992) have 

emphas!z<'d. the aim in d.,,-.,}oping :his task was neither to develop a simulator for training 

on actual !:\Dl tasks nor to develop a task to measure absolute values of the probability of 

145 
Chapter Five 

detecting particular types and sizes of faults. Rather. their aim was to devise a task that 

closely approximated the characteristics and requirements of eddy-current inspection tasks 

to enable laboratory investigation of factors that may influence NDI performance. 

Of the two previous studies that have used this task, ,-,either has extensively evaluated 

possible predictor measures or possible fatigue effects resulting from sustained performance 

over successive task sessions. As noted above, the primary intent ofthis research program. 

of which the pilot study repcrted here is only the initial phase, is to investigate both the 

relationship of individual difference variables to NDI performance and the possible effects of 

sustained task performance on NDI efficiency . 

The following sections more fully describe the criterion task, the tests and measures used, 

the procedures employed, and the results obtained. Preliminary observations and directions 

to be taken in the primary study are also discussed. 

5.1 METHODOLOGY 

5.1.1 Subjects 

A total of 6 subjects, 3 males and 3 females. participated in the pilot study. All were righthanded, had normal near visual acuity (as determined from an Orthorater screening testl, 

reported normal hearing, and were between 18 to 29 years of age. None had prior training 

or experience in aircraft maintenance or inspection. All had completed at least 12 years of 

school. Subjects were obtained through an existing Federal Aviation Administration (F AAl 

subject contract and were paid $10.00 an hour for their participation. Summary 

characteristics of the subjects are given in Table 5.1. 

Table 5.1 Characteristics of Subjects - I Subject Age Gender Occupation Education 

Number Level 

1 21 male roofer 12 years 

2 21 female medical aid 14 years 

3 18 mn!t- student I 13 years 

4 22 male janitor 13 years I 

I 5 22 female student 15 years 

6 29 female store managf'r 13 yt>ars. 

146 
Correlates of l>•dividual Differences in NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

5.1.2 Apparatus 

As indicated earlier. the basic 

apparatus consisted of a SUN 

SPARC Model 4/50GX-16-P43 

workstation, a 19 inch color 

monitor, and a 3-button optical 

mouse. Since the nature of the 

task and its physical 

characteristics have been 

described in detail previously 

(Drury et al., 1991; Latorella et 

a!., 1992), only characteristics 

relevant to the present study are 

reviewed here. 

The display itself consisted of 

four basic task elements 

(window!>). These are shown in 

Figure 5.1 and are described 

below. 

5.1.2.1 Inspection Window 

U. B. Airlines 

oooocoo 

Figure 5.1 NDllnspectwn Task Simulation (Drury et 

a!., 1992) 

The lower left portion of the screen displayed the inspection window a.<•d contained the actual 

rivets to be inspected. Although it was possible to present more than one six-rivet row of 

rivets to the subject, only a single row was u~ed in this study. An optical mouse was used 

to move a cursor around the circumference of each simulated rivet. The subject was free to 

examine the rivet until a decision was reached as to whether or not a crack was present. If 

it was decided that a rivet was defective, the right mouse button was pressed which caused 

a red cross to appear over the "defective" rivet and the words "rivet marked bad" appeared 

on the screen. If the rivet was judged to be nondefective, pressing the middle button caused 

the appearance of the words ··rivet marked good." If a subject realized that an incorrect 

response had been made, it could be corrected by pressing the appropriate button. 

When all six rivets had been inspected, the left mouse button was clicked on the directional 

block labeled "right." This caused a black marker ring to circle the last riwt inspected. and 

the next six rivets appeared in the inspection window. 

5.1.2.2 Macro-View and Directionals 

A macro-view in the upper left of the screen displayed a sid~ view of the aircraft fuselage and 

the row of rivets being inspected. Since only a small portion of this row was being inspect<>d 

at any given time during the task, the subject could move thE' cursor over the words "\\'here 

147 
Chapter Five 

am I?" in this area and a momentary circle would appear over that portion of the rivet row 

currently being examined. 

5.1.2.3 Eddy-Current Meter 

The upper right segment of the display contained a simulated analog meter that served as 

the eddy-current output indicator. Deflections beyond a set point on the meter produced an 

audible alarm as well as a red flash on an indicator light. Meter deflections could be caused 

by: 

• 

• 

touching a rivet edge with the cursor or moving the cursor onto the rivet 

the cursor passing over a crack (All cracks were invisible and of varying length.) 

the cursor passing over or near simulated corrosion, scratches, or paint chips 

(These were simulated by 2 mm jagged lines at random locations adjacent to a 

rivet. Not all rivets contained such "noise," and no rivet contained more than one 

such noise spot.) 

5.1.2.4 Lower Right Window 

The subject could use the lower right area of the display to exercise a number of options (e.g., 

"zoom" to take a closer look at a rivet being inspected, stop task in order to take a break, 

display elapsed time). Only one feature was used in the present study; this feature caused 

a number to appear on each rivet and was only used by the experimenter during training 

feedback sessions to enable subjects to locate and re-check rivets incorrectly classified. 

5.1.3 Predictors and/or Task Correlates 

As noted earlier, the interim report (FAAJAAM & GSC, in press) identified a number of 

variables, measures of which appear potentially relevant to NDI selection and/or proficiency. 

These variables can be roughly separated into the following categories: 

• Boredom Susceptibility 

• Concentration/Attentiveness/Distractibility 

• Extraversion/Impulsivity 

• Motivation/Perseverance 

• Decision Making/Judgement 

• Mechanical/Electronics Aptitude 

• Need for Autonomy. 

The following sections describe the tests and scales that were employed as measures of the 

above to identify possible correlates of performance on the NDI task. 

148 
Correlates of Individual Differences in NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

5.1.3.1 Subjective Rating Scale (SRS) 

The Subjective Rating Scale (SRS) is a simple self-rating scale that the a•1thor has used in 

several previous stud;es (e.g., Thackray, Bailey, & Touchstone, 1977; Thackray & Touchstone, 

1991) to assess the current disposition of the subject, with measures generally taken before 

and after periods of task perf<'rmance. The basic instrument consists of five 9-point scales 

measuring the dimensions of attentiveness, tiredness, strain, boredom, and annoyance. Two 

additional scales measuring perceived effort and perceived difficulty were used in the more 

recent study by Thackray and Touchstone (1991) and were included here as well. The SRS 

was studied most extensively in the early study by Thackray, Bailey, and Touchstone (1977). 

In that study, subjects falling at the extremes of rated boredom following performance of a 

simulated radar monitoring task were compared with respect to several performance and 

subjective variables. In general, those subjects who rated the task as quite boring showed 

the greatest decline in rated attentiveness and t'1e largest performance decrement. 

5.1.3.2 Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test 

One of the recommendations of a Southwest Research Institute study of ways to improve NDI 

technician proficiency was to select individuals who scored high on mechanical/electronics 

aptitude (Schroeder, Dunavant, and Godwin, 1988). This recommendation was also echoed 

in interviews with NDI instructors who expressed the belief that individuals who were above 

average in mechanical aptitude made better inspectors (Galaxy Scientific Corporation, in 

press). For these reasons, the Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test was included in the 

test battery. This test appears to be one of the better measures of mechanical aptitude, and 

its norms include those for aviation mechanical jobs and electrical inspector trainee jobs. 

Unfortunately, the norms for aviation mechanical jobs, although updated in 1980, still dl) not 

include separate normative data for women. 

5.1.3.3 Typical Experiences Inventory (TEl) 

The ability to resist distraction, if it can be measured, would appear to have at least face 

validity in selecting inspectors (Wiener, 19751. A scale developed for use in several previous 

studies <Pearson and Thackray, 1970; Thackray, Jones, and Touchstone, 1973) and titled 

"Typical Experiences Inventory" consists of a series of statements designed to measure ability 

to work under conditions of (21 time stress, (b) threat of failure, (c) distraction, (d) social 

stress, and (e) physical 3tress. In the study by Thackray et al. ( 1973), subjects were selected 

who scored high, as well as low, on the distractibility subscale of this inventory. The high 

scorers showed significantly greater lapses of attention during performance of a repetitive 

task than did those scoring low. Because of these findings, it was decided to examine the 

relationship of scores on this subscale to possible performance decrement on the NDI task. 

149 
Chapter Five 

5.1.3.4 Arithmetic, Digit Span, and Digit Symbol Tests of the Wechsler Adult 

Intelligence Scale (WAIS) 

Scores on these t:!:.ree sub tests of the W AIS have been shown in numerous factor analytic 

studies to measure a factor that has been variously named "Freedom from Distractibility," 

"Attention·Concentration," or "Concentration-Speed" (e.g., Goodenough and Karp, 1961; Karp, 

1963). Some or all of these W AIS tests have been fo:.~nd to relate significantly to inspection 

performance (Gallwey, 1982; Wang and Drury, 1989). Consequently, these tests were 

included as another measure of attention/concentration or, conversely, distractibility. 

5.1.3.5 Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) 

The Eysenck Personality Inventory is a short inventory that measures extraversion and 

neuroticism. The extraversion dimension has been studied extensively in t.he context of 

vigilance research because of the hypothesis, originally formulated by Eysenck (1967), that 

extraverts should have more frequent lapses of attention and hence more omission errors 

than would introverts. Reviews of the use of this personality dimension in vigilance research 

<Berch and Kantor, 1984; Wiener, 1975) have lent some support to the belief that extraverts 

generally do not perform as well on vigilance tasks as do introverts. Much less research has 

been conducted on personality variables in the area of inspection, and no studies of 

extraversion and inspection performance had been conducted at the time of Wiener's 1975 

review. Since then, the author is aware of only one inspection study that has incorporated 

a measure of extraversion. Usin~ a visual search task, Gallwey (1982) found that introverts, 

as measured by the EPI scale, had fewer search errors. 

A factor analysis of the EPI scale has shown that it is comprised of two factors: sociability 

and impulsivity (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1963). Several studies have shown that the impuisivity 

dimension of extraversion is most clearly related to performance changes (Rt>velle. 

Humphreys, Simon, & Gilliland, 1980; Thackray, Jones. & Touchstone, 1974J. In thP latter 

study, extraverts showed a greater increase in lapses of attention during performance of a 

monotonous, repetitive task than did mtroverts. Further, it was determint>d that it was 

impulsivity, rather than the soCiability dimension of extraversion, that was responsiblP for 

the obtained decrement. 

Although a recent meta-analysis of vigilance studies over a 30-year period has concluded that 

evidence for the superiority of introverts is considerably less than previously bt>liewd 

(Koelega, 1992), Koelega feels that there is enough consistency in the findings to warrant 

continued research. Because of this, it was decided to include extraversion as measured by 

the EPI and the subscales measuring impulsivity and sociability in tht> present study. 

150 
Correlates of Irodividual Differences iro NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

5.1.3.6 Boredom Proneness Scale (Life Experiences Scale) 

NDI inspection is typically a repetitive task and is frequently considered boring and 

monotonous (Schroeder, Dunavant, & Godwin, 1988). While the evidence relating 

experienced boredom to poor performance is tenuous at best, at least one study demonstrated 

a significant relationship of reported boredom and monotony to vigilance performance. As 

noted earlier, subjects falling at the extremes of rated boredom following performance of the 

simulated radar monitoring task showed the greatest decline in rated attentiveness and the 

largest performance decrement (Thackray et al., 19771. 

Boredom in the above study was measured following task performance and thus can be 

considered a "state" assessment of boredom. The only scale specifically developed io assess 

the general construct of boredom proneness (i.e. a "trait" measure of boredom susceptibility) 

was developed by Farmer and Sundberg (1986). To the author's knowledge, this scale has 

not been used in studies of inspection performance. For t."-is reason, it was induded in the 

present study. 

In order to somewhat disguise the intent of the scale, it was relabeled "Life Experiences 

Scale." Besides yielding a measure of boredom proneness, a recent factor analysis of the 

scale revealed that it was comprised of two factors, "apathy" and "inattentiveness" (Ahmed, 

1990). Scores on these two subscales were also obtaim•d. Ahmed's analysis revealed that the 

last item of the Farmer and Sundberg scale (item # 28) contributed to unreliability of the 

total test score, so this item was removed fron, the scale administered in this study. 

5.1.3.7 Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT) 

The MFIT is a test developed by Kagan and his associates (Kagarl, Rosman, Day, Albert and 

Phillips, 1964) and consists of a series of 12 "stimulus" pictures each associated wit..':! 8 

"response" pictures. Except for one picture in each set of the 8 response pictures, all differ 

from the stimulus in some minute detail. Subjects point to the picture they heliew to be the 

correct one in each set and continue to point until the correct one is identified. Both the timt> 

to first response and the number of errors are scored. According to the above authors. the 

test measures a cognitiw style known as reflection-impulsi\·ity. Those who make quick 

inaccurate decisions on the test are said to have an impulsive cognitive style; those who make 

slow accurate decisions are said to have a reflective cognitive style. 

This test has been considered to measure the tendency of subjects perfo!liling insrwctio!1s 

tasks to opt for speed or accuracy in their speed/accuracy tradeoff (Drury, Gramop2.dhyE'. 

Latorella, Patel, Prahhu, and Reynolds. 1992). Presumably. impulsin• subjt>cts would tend 

to opt for speed at the expense of accuracy; conversely. reflective subjects would opt for the 

opposite. In a recent study, scores on the :\!FFT were found to be significantly related to 

several measures of inspection perfcrmance (Latorelb et aL 1992!. Since the task us.-d in 

this latter study was the KD! simulation de\'eloped by Drury E't al. and used in the pres"nt 

study, it seemed desirable to investigate further the relationship of r..fFFT scor~s to 

performance on this task. 

151 
Chapter Five 

5.1.3.8 Internal-External Locus of Control Scale 

Rotter's (1966) Internal-External 0-E) Locus of Control Scale was developed to measure 

differences between individuals in the extent to which they believe either that rewards and 

reinforcements are contingent on or inde;Jendent of their own behavior. The internal person 

believes that rewards are contingent on his own effort, attributes, or capacities; the external 

person believes that rewards result larg'=lY from luck, chance, fate, or forces outside of his 

control. 

In a study of vigilance performance, Sanders, Halcomb, Fray, and Owen (1976) hy-pothesized 

thdt "internals," by constantly striving for maste!"y of a situation and by exhibiting a belief 

in their own ability to determine the outcome of their efforts, would perform betier on a 

vigilance task than would an "external" person. The results st:pported this hypothesis in that 

internals, relative to externals, missed significantly fewer signals. Also, the internal subjects 

continued to progress in the monitoring task ·Nith a very small decline in performance, while 

the externals showed a consistently increasing performance decrement. 

Because the Rotter scale has apparently not been used previously in inspection research, it 

seemed important to determine whether relationships similar to those found in vigilance 

would apply to inspection perform.mce. 

5.1.3.9 Jackson Personality Research Form (PRF) 

The PRF is a widely used test designed to yield a set of scores for personality traits broadly 

relevant to the functioning of individuals in a wide variety of situations. It is a personality 

test that focuses primarily upon areas of normal functioning, rather than psychopathology. 

The Form E (PRF J used in this study consists of sixteen scales, of which nine were actually 

employed. The included scales were (a) AchievemE:nt, (b) Endura.11Ce, (c) Understanding, (dl 

Cognitive Structure, (e) Autonomy, (f) Cha.\"lge, (g) Impulsivity, (h) Infrequency. and (i) 

Desirability. A brief dE>scription of each and the reaso.1(s) for its inclusion are as follows: 

• Achiel"ement. A measure of the willingness t-:> pet forth considerable effort to 

accomplish difficult tasks. This was inc:uded as a possible measure of intrinsic motivation 

or perseverancE> in task performance and was mentioned n the interim report as a desirable 

quality of NDI technicians <Galaxy Scientific Corporation, in press). 

• Endurance. A measure of the willingness to work long hours and to be patient and 

unrelenting in work habits. This trait appears somewhat related to the above measure, and, 

in fact, loads on the same factor in a facwr analysis of the test. It was included for the same 

reasons as the Achievement trait. 

152 
Correlates of" Individual Differences in NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

• Unde:-standing. A measure of intellectual curiosity and the desire to understand 

many areas of knowledge. This was included because it was felt that it might correlate 

negatively with performance on a task as constrained a.'ld repetitive as eddy-cu."Tent testing. 

• CognitiFe Structure. A measure of the need to make decisions based upon definite 

lmowledge with a dislike of ambiguity and uncertainty. Ii was felt that this trait might be 

pasitively related to decision time, i.e. Ll:te time spent searching each rivet for possible faults. 

• Autonomy. This is a measure of the need to be independent and not to be tied down, 

restrained, confmed, or restricted in any way. This was mentioned in the interin, report as 

a trait characterizing the most proficient inspectors (FA~AA.Vf & GSC, in press). Tl-...is trait 

was also men-.:ioned by some of the NDI i...'"l.structors interviewed by the present author. 

• Change. A like of new and different experiences, with a dislike and avoidance of 

routine activities. Inclusion of this trait is self-evident, since !>o'DI tasks are so after:. referred 

to as boring and monotonous. 

• Impulsit·ity. A measure of the tendency to act on the ··~;:;::.r of the moment" and 

v.ithout deliberation. This was included as a.11 additional measure of impulsivity to compare 

with similar measures obtained ::rom the EPI and from the MFIT described pre\'iously. 

• Infrequency and Desirability. These were two scales inch:ded as measures of 

carelessness a."ld response bias in taking the test. 

The various tests a.YJ.d measures described in the preceding sections were included because 

it was felt th:Jt each might serve to measure some aspect ofLl:te categories mentioned under 

Section 5.1.3 as predictors and/or correlates ofNDI performance. It should be apparent that 

a number of these tests and measures bear similarities to one <mother and may indeed be 

measures of the sa."lle trait, aptitude, or ability. However-~ one cannot alv..·ays tell from test 

titles a.?1d descriptors whether or not they meas<1re sim:.1r-r t..~ings, and some were included 

to determine empirically the exttont of their interreiatior...ships. or lack :hereof. 

5-1.4 Procedure 

Each subject v ..·as :ested over two successive days. The mo!lling of the flrst day \vas devoted 

to admi:r..is7:.ration of the ,.arious tests a..""ld measures~ during the afternoon, subjects pract1ceC 

usjng the mot:se a::1<! \vere r-equired to read a.~d be :ested on a document describ~ng eddycurrent tes"t.ing. They :her. p~·acticed the ?\DI s:m~..:Jation task. The aftemoon trai1:ing 

procedures v.-·ere essentiaHv t}1e sar:1e as those :.1sed and reoorted bv Dru:;v et aL \1991 ). 

Subjec.ive ra~ing scales ..,,.e;·e ad:n.inistered a~ ,-ario:...:s tilr!es d:...ring the col!~e of bot..~ days. 

Trai!ling in the use of tht> mouse was prcYided by a Cis;:; lay program consisting of a.."1 enlarged 

picture of a rivet head with a training c.irc:e surrour:.di~g it. Tbe subject practiced ~sing the 

mo:J.se and clir-so:- to circle t!"le rivet \vhile staying \vit~in the circle. A~er each p:-e-selec:ed 

!.53 
Chapter Five 

block of training trials, feedback was provided consisting of average times required to circie 

the rivet, and averages of the number of times the cursor head touched the rivet or went 

outside the circle. Training continued unci! the subject reached a consistent level of 

perfo:-mance. This usually requin•d approximately 30 minutes of practice. 

Training on the task beg:cn with a short (20-riveti derr.onstration session in which the basic 

elements of the XDI task ·.vere explained. This was foEowed by three training sessions each 

60 rivets long. Thirty percent of the rivets in each of the three training sessions comained 

faults (cracks). In addition, the second and thi,-d sessions also contained small. but visible 

(2 mm) "noise'' spots at various locations at or near a rivet. Frequency of "noisy ri,·ets" was 

also thirty percent. Locations of faults and noise were randor:>ly assigned for each task 

session (both training and subsequent test tasks). Per:'ormance feedback was automatically 

provided after each block of 10 rivets. In the first and second sessions, training circles we~cprovided around each rivet to assist the subject in keeping the cursor i!l the appropri21e 

region while circliP.g the rivecs; no training circles were used in :he third session. 

On the morning of the second day, st:bjects perforn:ed a short (20-rivet: ··refresher·· ve-rsion 

of the KDI task and then performed two lengthy (180-ri,·et> test sessions. Since these 

sessions ·.r..·tre self-paced. test duratio:1s for each subject varied f:-om 60 to 90 minutes. The:-e 

was a fixed 10-15 mi:1ute rest break bet wee:! tach session, although subjec:s were told that 

they could take short ( 10-20 second "stretch' oreaks as needed during ru"1Y session. Following 

a 60-minute lunch break, this sa"lle procedure (two 180-ri,·et sessions). minus the sho:-t 

practice session. v,.·as followed in the afternoo!!. !'\o feedb2ck was provided foEo'"ving test 

sessio:1s and the frecuencv of both fault~ and noise \vas held at 30 oe:-cent each. A: the end 

of the second day. subJec~ were debriefed and q:;.es:ioned abou: v~ious V.ttitudes a::,out a:1d 

approaches to the ;\'D! task. 

5.2 RESULTS 

5.2.1 Criterion Perfo.-mance 

Figure 5.2 s!->ows mean ;·alt.:es 

for- misses a;;.d false aJa~:ns 

across the three tr-ai.:1ing 

sessions. Yisua.l t-xa:!"li:Jation of 

this figure revt:aLs an appan~r:t 

.int:rf':ase in fa~S'2' o.:r:r~s duri~g 

the secund :r-ai:1i:1g S.PSSlon 

Howe\·er. sub:£.#ct~ typic3.2ly :n~::::.:(· 

no er:-ors ;- ffil.SS't'S ur fa2~e a}arr!-:~; 

d:J:-i:-~g tht-st-- training s~s.sic::s 

a..Jd the inc:-ea.s(" r.lc:~U above 

v;a:-:. causet! b:~· two st:bj~·::..~ 

making t \:;.·o fa~s~ alar::~s du:-E:g 

this seco:H~ session. Tf::e U!:~Y 

:>- d'l~•; ~---• .: 

,..,. -9 r :~gure ;) __ 
Correlates of Iudiuidua/ Differeuces in NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

important information to be gained from this figure is that miss rate remains level during 

thP last two training sessions and falsP alarm rate !"eiurns to its initial level. 

Raw data for misses and false alarms during the four test sessions are given in Tables ii.2 

and 5.3 respectively. Mean values obtained from thesP two tables are plotted as bar graphs 

in Figure 5.3. In addition. this figure also plots miss and false alarm data for the first anc 

second half of each test session shown in Tables 5.2 and 5.3. Notice the general increase in 

both misses and false alarms across sessions and the general increase in both types of errors 

within sessions. Analyses of variance revealed the differences between sessions to be 

significant for both misses (F(3/15l=4.90, p=.Ol4) and false alarms \F(3/15l=3.72, p=.035!, 

while differences between first and second halves of the sessions approached significance at 

the .05 !eve] for both misses (F(1}5)=5.79,p=.061) and false alarms (F(l/5l=4.65,p=.084J. The 

Interaction of Session Halves with Sessions was not significant for either misses or false 

alarms. 

Table 5.2 Frequency of Missed Faults Over the Four Test Sessions 

l\-1isses Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 Session 4 I 

I 

I Ge:-.de~· 2ndl I I 

i SubJect 1st 2nd }st lst 2nd 1st 2nd Tn:ai 11 

Number J/2 1/2 1/2 /2 :..12 J/2 ]!2 112 I 

I I 

01 Male 1 5 3 2 2 2 I 5 ]() 30 I 

02 Female 0 l 5 2 3 ! l l 0 13 

03 !\.1aiP 5 I 11 5 16 i 19 13 10 ll I 90 I 

Male I I i 04 3 6 6 7 , 5 5 6 8 46 l 

05 Female i 2 5 6 13 12 ! 9 2 I ,~ 62 

II li 

; , ·" 

06 I Female 3 4 1 1 I 4 4 I 7 18 42 
Chapter Five 

Table 5.3 Frequency of False Alarms Over the Four Test Sessions -

~ h~Ah=• Sess10n l Session 2 

ubject Gender lst 2nd 1st 2nd 

Number 1/2 1/2 l/2 1/2 

01 Male 0 0 0 l 

02 Female 0 0 0 l 

03 Male 3 4 6 I 14 

04 Male 0 l 1 1 

05 Female 0 0 0 1 

I 06 I Female 2 0 0 2 

'I 

I 

' 

Session 3 I Session 4 

1st I 

1/2 

4 

0 

6 

0 

1 

0 

2nd 1st I 2nd 

1/2 112 112 

8 6 7 

0 0 2 

16 19 15 

3 12 14 

0 0 l 

0 0 1 

I 

I 

I 

Fo_r:r, I 

::E2n:: -;a' Faise AJ2·--:s: ; ~~ 

Figure 5.3 :0.1ean :O.hssps and False Alarms Across Test Sessions 

Total 'I 

26 

'I 03 

83 

32 

03 

05 -.11 

Total task tin1e and mea:1 time pt:r rive~ a!"e shown in Table 5.4. ..A.s ca..Tl be seen 1n this 

table. then· was a general dt-creast' 1n both total task time a!1d mea.11 time per rivet during 

training as wE>ll as during the test sessions .. Analysis of variance revealed the decline in total 

task time to be nonsignificant both during traini:1g and test sessions (p>.lO l. ::\iean time per 

rin•t. howen·r, decreased significantly both dm·ing training iF\8/2J=4.27.p=.051 and during 

t<'~t sp~sions <F(3115 1=8.22, p=.002 <. The increast- in mean time pe,- riwt from the last 

training SPssion to thP first test session can probably be attributed to the fact that the larger 

number of riY<·!s in the test sessions caused the meter in the sin1ulation to be slightly more 

sluggish in its response. Th1s a~pPct was expl::1ined to subJeCts before the first test session. 

and ~ui>Jl'Ct~ charnctenstieally lJl•gan the ses.::;wn by circling the riYets with greate:r care and 

dPlilwration 

156 
Correlates of Individual Differences in NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

Table 5.4 Mean Total Task Time and Mean Time per Rivet 

I Task Mn Total Time (min) Mn Time Per Rivet (sec) I 

I I 

Training Session 1 29.7 23.4 

' Training Session 2 27.9 23.6 

II 

Training Session 3 26.3 20.3 

Test Session 1 92.7 28.8 ! 

Test Session 2 82.8 24.1 

Test Session 3 93.1 24.9 

I Test Session 4 78.6 19.4 

Estimates of task reliability were obtained by comparing the combined data of test sessions 

1 and 2 with the combined data of sessions 3 and 4. The correlation between combined 

sessions was r=.82 (p<.05J for false alarms and r=.81 (p<.05l for missed events. Total false 

alarms across sessions was also compared with total misses across sessions. The obtained 

correlation was r=. 73 (p=.10) which, although failing to reach the .05 level, suggests that the 

two measures might be significantly related, given a larger sample size. 

5.2.2 Subjective Measures 

As indicated earlier, subjective ratings of attentivene~s, tiredness, strain, boredom and 

annoyance were obtained at various times during the two-day period. Measurements of each 

were obtained at the beginning of each morning and afternoon of the two-day periods each 

subject was tested. These same measures were obtained at the end of the first day's training 

session and at the end of the morning and afternoon test sessions of the second day. In 

addition, items relatir:g to perceived task difficulty and to the amount of effort required to 

maintain alertness were also administered at the end of the above three sessions. Data for 

thP subjec~ive ratings are given in Table 5.5. 

Comparing the prP· and post-session data of Table 5.5, it is appa!'ent that attentiveness 

o<>creased. while tiredness, strain. boredom. and annoyance ali increased. Analyses of 

variance, however, revealed that only those changes associated with tiredness a.'ld strain 

were significant (F( 1!4)= 7.90, p=.048 and F(l/4 l=l 1.0, p=.029 respectively)_ The increases in 

percPived effo:·t and pt>rceived difficulty wen• nonsignificant (p>.lOl. 

157 
Chapter Five 

. . Table - 5 5 Mean Pre- and Post-Ses,ion Subjective Ratings 

Variable Mn Pre-Session Ratings l\tn Post-Session Ratings 

Attentiveness 7.0 5.7 

Tiredness 4.3 5.3 I 

Strain 3.5 4.3 

Boredom 3.2 I 3.9 

Annoyance 1.2 1.8 I 

I 

Effort 4.4 5.1 

Difficulty 2.7 3.9 

5.2.3 Predictor Measures 

Means and standard deviations for the various predictor tests and measures used are shown 

in Table 5.6. Because of the small sample size used in the pilot study, with the attendant 

risk of obtaining spurious correlations, no attempts were made to correlate or compare any 

of these measures with performance variables. Where normative data were available. most 

measures appeared to fall within one standard deviation of the reported mean values. 

Several deviations are worth mentioning, howen·r: The sample as a whole scored relatively 

low on impulsivity as measured by the PRF and EPI scales, on boredom susceptibility as 

measured by the Boredom Proneness Scale, and relatively high on endurance as measured 

by the PRF scale. 

5.3 DISCUSSION 

Discussion of the findings of this pilot study JS not extpnsive for two reasons. First. IhP 

essential purpose of this initial study was simply to test and evaluate the various tPsts. 

scales, procedures and task used in order to d(~tPrmine whetht>r change3 wen• nPce:;sary for 

the major study of which this was only thP Imtlai phasP. Second, the sm:>.ll S!ZP oftlw s3.mplP 

used increases the risk of obtaining spurious rpsults :1nd makes any conclusions dnnvn from 

the data risky at Lest. However, somt· comment on thl' findings is npcpssary and appropri3.te. 

The significant increase in missPs (fault.~) obt3.ined over the four test sessions suggests a 

boredom and/or fatigue effect resulting from the repeated testing, perhaps causing the 

subjects to become less can .. ful or attentiv<- i1; ex3.mining tht> rivets. This decline in 

performance efficiency was accompanied by an inueasP m ratings of both bon•dom and 

fatigue. However. on!y the increast.· in t!redru.>ss v .. ·as found to lw s1gruficant. There wns al~o 

15ti 
Correlates of Individual Di/ferences in NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

a significant increase in strain, suggesting that continued task performance over the four 

successive sessions was not only tiring, but emotionally demanding as welL 

Table 5.6 Means and Standard Deviations of the Predictor Measures 

Variable Mean Standard Deviation 

Typical Exper lnv 22.00 6.90 

Bennett Mech Comp 40.67 2.88 

LES Boredom Prone 5.33 4.03 

LES Inattentiveness 2.33 2.58 

LESApathy 3.83 2.32 

MFFT Mn Error I 1.23 0.37 

MFFTMn Time 59.80 23.40 

EPI Extraversion 12.50 1.52 

EPI Impulsivity 3.83 1.47 

EPI Sociability 7.33 1.37 

W I AIS Digit Symbol 56.17 I 14.18 

I ' 

WAIS Digit Span 13.00 2.83 

I 

WAIS Arithmetic 7.83 I 2.93 

PRF Achievement 12.50 2.59 

PRF Autonomy 6.83 2.48 

PRF Change 8.50 I 1.64 l I 

PRF Cog Stmcture 10.17 2.71 

I II I I PRF Endurance 13.33 1.97 

I I I PRF Impulsi,·ity 3.50 3.3~ 

PRF Understanding 7.00 i 4.34 I 

! 

'I I I-E Scale 8.33 3.61 I 

\Vnile an increast> in fa:.igue {tiredness) acrus~ sf.>~sion~ s:.."ems a plausible explanation for theincrease in missed fau1ts, it is sor.:ewhat puzzling to ='f'e how iw.:rt>n.sing tiredness cuuld al~o 

159 
Chapter Five 

result in an increase in false alarms as Figure 5.3 shows. The possible increase in 

carelessness and inattentiveness with fatigue could again be a contributing factor. Recall 

that Table 5.4 showed a significant decrease during the test sessions in mean time spent 

examining rivets. While this could merely be an indication of increased skill in the use of the 

mouse, it seems more likely that it indicates less careful examination of the individual rivets 

by at least some of the subjects, especially during the last session. Less careful examination 

would likely increase the number of times a rivet edge was touched or "noisy" area was 

crossed. The resulting meter deflections might then be erroneously interpreted as faults. 

One should also not overlook the possibility that the increase in false alarms might simply 

be a11 artifact of the particular sample used. Examination of Table 5.3 reveals that half of 

the subjects (subjects 2, 5, and 6) showed essentially zero false alarms across all four 

sessions. The increase in false alarms was essentially the result of subjects 1, 3, and 4. 

Thus, whether the larger, more representative sample to be used in the primary study to 

foilow this one will show an increase or no increase in false alarms across sessions cannot 

really be predicted from these data. Likewise, one should not attribute much significance to 

the fact that the three subjects of Table 5.3 showing no increase in this type of error were 

all females. vr;ether or not a gender difference exists in this respect again must await the 

findings of the subsequent study. 

Of the remaining data, there is little more that can be discussed. Reliability of the NDI task, 

in terms of both misses and false alarms, was shown to be acceptable, and one would hope 

that these reliability estimates will approximate those to be obtained in the primary study. 

As noted earlier, the particular sample used scored somewhat beloV<: average on measures of 

impulsivity, on measured boredom susceptibility, and above average on the PRF measure of 

task endurance. Also, the sample appeared to show a gender difference in frequency of false 

alarms on the :t\DI task. Whether any or all of the above characteristics of this sainple will 

be reflected in the larger sample of the primary study remains to be determined. The 

experiment protocol of the pilot 5tudy proved to be workable with testing and training 

occurring on the first day and with the second day devoted to successive test trials. !\o 

problems were encountered in administration of the various psychometric tests and measures 

and all will be used in the primary study. 

A_q indicated in the Introduction, the pilot study reported here represents the initial phase 

of a larger effort (the primary study) to investigate relationships of selected subject variables 

to :t\Dl perfonnance. A second aspect of this effort is to investigate possible task-induced 

fatigue resulting from sustained performance on the NDI task and to examine possible 

interactions between performance chang<·s and the various subject variables examined in the 

pilot study. Approximately 25-30 subjects w!ll be tested in the primary study. but the basic 

procedures and approach will remain essentially those incorporated in this pilot study. 

5.4 REFERENCES 

A.'lmed, S. M.S. (1990i. Psychometric properties of the boredom proneness scale. Perceptual 

and Motor Skills, 71, 963-966. 

160 
Correlates ofin.Jividual Differences in NDI Performance, Pilot Study 

Berch, D. B. & Kanter, D. R. (198-1). Individual differences. In J. S. Warm (Ed.). Sustained 

attention in human performance. \lew York: Wiley. 

Drury, C. G., Gramopadhye, A, Latorella, K., Patel, S., Prabhu, P., & Reynolds, K. (1992). 

Human reliability in aircraft inspection. Phase II Report on FAA Contract to Galaxy 

Scientific Corporation, Atlanta, Georgia. 

Drury, C. G., Prabhu, P., Gramopadhye, A, & Latorella, K. (Hl91). Nondestructive testing 

in aircraft inspection. Report of a pilot study prepared under subcontract 89-1014-SC-3 to 

Galaxy Scientific Corporation, Mays La..'lding, New Jersey. 

Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Springfield, Illinois: Thomas. 

Eysenck, S. B. G. & Eysenck, H. J. (1963). On the dual nature of extraversion. British 

Journal of Psychology, 2, 46-55. 

Farmer, R. & Sundberg, N.D. (1986). Boredom proneness- The development and correlates 

of a new scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50, 4-17. 

Gallwey, T. J. (1982). Selection of tests for visual inspection on a n;ultiple fault type task. 

Ergonomics, 25, 1077-1092. 

Goodenough, D. R. & Karp, S. A (1961l. Field dependence and intellectual functioning. 

Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 241-246. 

Kagan, J., Rosman, B., Day, D., Albert, J., & Phillips, W. (1964). Information processing in 

the child: Significance of analytic and reflective attitudes. Psychological Monographs, 78, 

(1, Whole No. 578). 

Karp, S. A (1963). Field dependence and overcoming embeddedness. Journal ofCr :suiting 

Psychology, 27, 294-302. 

Koelega, H. S. (1992). Extraversion and vigilance perforniance: 30 years of inconsistencies. 

Psychological Bulletin, 112, 239-258. 

Latorella, K. A, Gramopadhye, A. K., Prabhu, P. V., Drury, C. C., Smith, M. A, & Shanahan, 

D. E. (1992, October). Computer-simulated aircraft tasks for off-line experimentation. Paper 

presented at the P. .. nnual Meeting of the Human Factors Society, Atlanta, Georgia. 

Pearson, D. W. & Thackray, R.I. ( 1970l. Consistency of performance change and autonomic 

response as a function of expressed attitude toward a specific stress situation. 

Psychophysiology, 6, 561-568. 

Revelle, W., HumphrE'ys, M. S., Simon, L., & Gilliland, K. (1980). The interactive effect of 

perse>nality, time of day, and caffeine: A test of the arousal model. Journal of Experimental 

Psychology: General, 109, 1-31. 

161 
Chapter Five 

Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of 

reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80, (1, Whole No. 609). 

Sanders, M.G., Halcomb, C. G., Fray, J. M., & Owens, J_ M. 0976). Internal-external locus 

of control and perfonnance on a vigilance task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 42, 939-943. 

Schroeder, J. E., Dunavant, D. W., & Godwin, J. G. (1988J_ Recommendations for impro1·ing 

Air Force nondestructive inspection technician proficiency. SwRT Project No_ 17-7958-845, San 

lmtonio Air Logistics Center, Air Force Logistics Command, Keliy Air Force Base, Texas. 

Thackray, R. I., Bailey, J. P., & Touchstone, R. M. (1977). Physiological, subjeciive, and 

performance correlates of reported boredom and monotony while performing a simulated 

radar control task. In R. R. Mackie (Ed.). Vigilance: Theory, Operational Performance, and 

Physiological Correlates. New York: Plenum. 

Thackray. R. I., Jones, K. N., & Touchstone, R. M. ( 1973). Self-estimates of distractibility as 

related to ptrformance decrement on a task requiring sustained attention_ Ergonomics, 16, 

141-152. 

Thackray, R. I., Jones, K. N., & Touchstone, R. M_ <1974!. Personality and physiological 

correlates of perfonnance decrement on a monotonous task requiring sustained attention. 

British Journal of Psychology, 65,351-358. 

Thackray, R. I. & Touchstone, R M. ( 1991J. Effects of monitoring under high and low 

taskload on detection of flashing and coloured radar targets. Ergonomics, 34, 1065-1081 

Wang, M. J. & Drury, C. G. 0989!. A method of evaluating inspector's performance 

differences and job requirerr.ents. Applied Ergonomics, 20.3, 181-190. 

Wiener, E. L. (19751. Individual ancl group differences in inspPction. InC_ G. Drury & J_ G_ 

Fox (Eds.l. Human reliability and quality control_ New York: Taylor & Frar1cis. 

162 
The Effects afCRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

CHAPTER SIX 

THE EFFECTS OF CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) 

TRAINING IN AIRLINE MAiNTENANCE: 

RESULTS FOLLOWING ONE YEAR'S EXPERIENCE 

(Report of Work Completed through 6-30-92) 

6.0 SUMMARY 

This report describes the first full year's evaluation of the effects of one airline's Crew 

Resource Management <CRMl training program. This evaluation focuses on maintenance 

managers' attitudes, their reported behaviors, and the maintenance performance of their 

units. The results reveal a strong positive effect of the training. 

The overall program represents a long-tenn commitment to improving safe, dependable, and 

efficient performance through effective communication at all levels in airline maintenance 

operations (Appendix A contains the current syllabus). The initial findings described in a 

previous progress report <Galaxy Scientific Corporation, 1992) are reinforced and elaborated 

here. The current results benefit from a larger sample size. Additional months of 

performance data and results from six- and twelve-month follow-up questionnaires' also 

contribute to the value of this data set. 

In the present report, we examine maintenance performance changes following training. as 

well as the relationships noted between the post-training attitudes and performance. 

Maintenance performance reported here includes safety from ground damage, safety from 

injury, maintenance costs in overtime paid, delays in RON (remain in station overnight • 

aircraft departures, as well as dependabiiity of on-time departures for other scheduled flights. 

We further describe these measures in Table 6.1. 

The analyses reported here examine training eife~:.s on performance. on attitudes and on 

indicators of behavior. In particular, we compare m:mage!"s· immediate post-training 

attitudes with their follow-up attitudes about a variety of management and organizational 

factors. We also test the relationship of attitudes wi,i1 ncaintenance performance measures. 

Highlights of results from this training progra.n inclr-le mcreased safety and improved costs 

from management of stress, and improved on-time performance from the appl!cation of mane 

assertive communications. More specific results are as follows: 

1) \Ve noted positive trends in a number of the company's oYerall maintenance perform~<IOCP 

for the 12 months after the onset of training. ~om pared witL the 12 months before. The 

two performance categories of Efficiency (Figure 6.3) and Safety (Figures 6.4-6.5' 

improve after ~he training. In addition, most of the overall results of Dependnbi!it~ 

performance remain' ·able in the 12 months after th<C onset oftr:unmg \Figures 6.6-6.10· 

1

AH surveys and questionnaires were dis.tributt>d by tht' airlirw t~l a1rhne employt:-E'~. Tht· ~•In·t·.'­

instru.ments were not developed or distributed by the FA ... 4.. 

163 
Chapter Six 

2J Comparisons of managers' attitudes immediately after their training with their attitudes 

months later confirm that the effects of training on beliefs are stable. Comparison of 

managers' attitudes before and after their training showed a showed significant 

improvement in three of the four attitude indicators. Improvement took place in attitudes 

about "v:illingness to share command responsibility," "usefulness of communication & 

coordination," and "recognition that stressors affect ma:·1agement decision-making" (Galaxy 

SciPntific Corporation, 1992). The present report goes beyond that examination of pre-post 

test comparison of attitudes to look at the same attitudes shown by these managers 

months later. This test of the qt.estionnaire data shows that the favorable post-training 

attitudes remain at those high levels two months, six months, and twelve months after the 

training. The influence of the training on managers' attitudes is thus a stable and robust 

change and not merely a brief "honeymoon effect." We prPsent these comparisons 

graphically in Figures 6-1 and 6-2. 

3) Another analysis of the data looks at the relationships between the post-training attitudes 

and maintenance results over several months. In this "time-lagged" analysis, we test the 

effects for performance before the training, performance at the same time as the training. 

and performance months after the training. As we describe in the main body of this 

report, we found a pattern of significant relationships (in the expected direction) between 

the managers' immediate post-training attitudes and performance. Specifically, some 

attitudes are associated with concurrent performance of work units, as well as performance 

several months later. Effective performar1ce, as measured by the dependability measures, 

in the months before the training are associated with favorable post-training feelings about 

communication and coordination and the importance of work stresses in management 

decision-making (cf., Tables 6.7-6-11 ). Furthermore, these two attitude measures are also 

significantly related to on-time performance in the months following the training <Table 

6_7). 

4 J ThE' pattern of relatio!lships between attitudes assessed two months after training, 

and performance is somewhat different. These "follow-up attitudes" have more sustained 

relationships with performance over the several months examined thal"l attitudes 

immediately follo..,"ing the training. A low :ate of ground damage i:·1cidents before a11d 

during the period of the two-month follow-up survey is most related to three indices in the 

follow-up measure. Those three are the "recognition of stressor effects on decisionmaking," and the participant reports of "work goal sharing" within and between work 

groups (Table 6-13). Measures of assertiveness and of sharing command responsibility 

are consistently related to on-time performance (Table 6-15) a."1d to the other measures 

of dependability (Tables 6.16-6.181. 

5i ~12nagers· self-reports of their behavior for the six- an.J twelve-month follow-up surveys 

confirm change from more passivE' behaviors to more active and interactive beha\"iors. 

Passive behaviors can be accomplished by oneself and do not requirP the cooperation of 

others. It is for that reason that we find those self-reports consistent "'"ith our 

expectations. The passiw behaviors of "better !ister..ing" and "being more aware of others" 

are reported as most used two months after the training, but they do not increase 

appreciably in the six-month and twelve-month surveys. On the other hand, the actin: 

164 
The Effects o(CRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

behaviors of "communicating" and "dealing better with others" increase markedly in 

written descriptions by participants twelve months after the training (Figure 6.12}. This 

latter result offers powerful implications for the long·term effects of the training. It 

appears that during the CRM training these man~>gers learn some skills that they begin 

to use right away, and others that they apply only months afterward. 

Methods used in ~e study 

Maintenance managers' attitudes are measured based on a questionnaire deveioped a decade 

ago by NASA ar..d The University of Texas. The NASA!UT program has used that 

q1:estionnaire to evaluate the results ofCRM flight crew training in a large number of U.S. 

and foreign carriers (Hel.mreich, Foushee, Benson, & Russini, 1986). Questionnaire data for 

the present study were collected before, and immediately after, the training, 3S well as two 

months after, six months after, and twelve months after. The managers were requested to 

choose an identification number (known only to them} and to use that number on all 

questionnaires they completed. Using these numbers, it was possible to match the same 

managers' answers to the same questions over the various time intervals. 

All questionn.llres used here included 26 separate multiple choice questions, which we later 

collapsed into six composite index measures. Of these six composites, four are measures of 

attitudes which the CRM training should influence, and two are perceptions of goal 

attainment behavior that the training should not predictably change. The first four 

composites measure attitudes about "sharing command responsibility," "communicatmg & 

coordinating," "managing stressors," and "assertiveness." The other two composites measured 

managers' attitudes about sharing work goals v.ithin their own groups, and between work 

groups. 

In addition to the multiple choice questions, all questionnaires administered after the 

t,-aining included several open-ended questions. Those open-ended questions explore how the 

managers expected to use what they lea.;ned from the training, how they did use it, and what 

they thought would improve the training. This report describes the results, using the six 

questionnaire composite measures and the four open-ended items. 

6.1 BACKGROUND 

The CRM training reported here is first-time trammg in several team-rel<!ted concepts, 

including communication skills, self-knowledge, situationai awareness, and assertiveness 

skills for mainte:1ance management personnel in Oi1e large U.S. airline (hereafter called "the 

company"). Mairtenance in this company includes engineering, quality assurance, technical 

planning, systems & procedures, contracts administration and pu1~hasing, as well as the 

more direct main.tt·nance functions of lin~- and base-maintenance, inspection, shops. and 

material servic2s. It is th<> compar.y's intention to train all of its 1,800 maintenance 

directo;-s, managers, supervisors, and assistant supervisors. 

165 
Chapter Six 

CR.'vl training in airline maintenance operations is u..r1ique to the present organizatio!l. This 

exceptional exa'llple has been intensively studied during its first 18 months. The first reports 

(c.f. Taylor, 1991a, 1991b) were limited to a relatively small sample of participants and a 

small number of months of post-training maintenance performance data. A summary report 

of the first six months was published in the FA.-\ Office of Aviation l\ledicine's Second A.>1nual 

Human Factors Research and Development Progress Report (Galaxy Scientific Corj)oration. 

1992). The present report continues to document the company"s CR.\1 training efforts and 

particularly examines the effects of training-related attitudes on s.Jbsequent performance. as 

well as the stability of post-training attitude changes. 

The effectiveness of this training, as measured by its ongoing evaluation, can help direct the 

airline industry's maintenance human resources practices in the future and guide the 

development of future ATA and FAA training policies a"ld regulations. 

The analyses reported below assess the relationships among managers· post -training 

attitudes about a variety of management and organizatio.al factors and maintenance unit 

performance. 

6.2 THE PURPOSE OF THE PROGRAM AND OF THE COURSE 

The program's champion is the company's Senior Vice President for Maintenance. He has 

stated that his aim for the training and evaluation program is to improve human resource 

\HRl management. This HR progress, he believes. will be hastened by using scienct>-!:Jaspd 

tools and techniques for evaluating the training outcomes and using those results for 

continuously improving the program's effectiveness. 

This particular training progra!"1 originally began with help from the company's flight 

operations training group who had nearly a dt>cade's experience with thPi~ own C'R:\l 

program. ~ow, however, the training is a maintenance progra.'11 entin"iy. The- p!·.>g:·~:.nl 1::. 

managed and administered by maintenance pt-ople, and the trainf:'.rs \in conj11nctiLH': wnh 

professional human factors consultants 1 are maintenance people too. 

The purpose of the training, as stated by trainers on the first day of each training sessio:1. 

is "To equip all maintenance personnel (ma."'lagemeE: fir5t} with the skiU to use all :·t•sou·~yps 

io improve safety and efficiency." 

6.2.1 Course Objectives 

The objectives (the more spec! fie gor:.1s of the traln!ng 1 art> also ckarly sta~Pd durir!g U1t' 

trainers' introductory remarks. They are as fo1!ov.;s 

1. Diagnose organizn.tional "norn1s" a1H! their effect~ on safety 

2. Promote assertive b<>h~vior 

3. Understand individual leadership styles 

4. Understand and manage stres~ 

166 
The Effects ofCRi'rt Training in Airline Maintenance 

5. Enhance rational problem-solving and decision-making skills 

6. Enhance interpersonal skills 

6.2.2 The Course as Designed for the Objectives 

The aims and objectives of the •.raining are acrueved by following a course syllabus contairjng 

12 modules (Chapter Six Appendix contains the current syllabus). 

6.2.3 State of Training Completed 

At the time of tills writing more than 1000 maintenance Managers have attended the CR.'\f 

training course. Thus, the present analysis uses data from over half of the whole 

maintenance management staff who will eventually complete the training. By Sep:ember 

1992 all of senior management had attended the course. The people remaining to complete 

the course are maintenance management personnel, mainly maintenance supervisors =d 

assistant supervisors located in the company's three largest cities. 

6.2.4 Maintenance Work Vnits as the Focus of the Analyses 

The analyses described in tills report illustrate the effect of changes in management ani:udes 

upon the maintenance performa.c1ce of their work-units. In order to ach!eve tbs examina:ion 

of attitude correlations with performa.'l.ce, the individual manager's data are co:::nbined in:o 

averages for the units to which they belong. The maintenance pe!'fo=.ance da:a \classified 

into categories of"safety," "quality," "dependability," and "efficiefi!:y"") a.re also cons:r-ticted into 

measures for the same work units. 

6.3 THE "CREW RESOURCE MG'f/TECH OPS Qt:"ESTIONN_I\.IRE" (CR..V[.TOQl 

6.3.1 Prior Experience in Measurement of Attitudes Related to CR.1\! Training 

The Cockpit Ma.'1agement Attitudes Qaestionnaire \C?-.L-".Q' has long been a rC'·~vg::ized 

measure for assessing fl!ght crev.· attitudes. !t is 1.:se:1.!! as a training. e,;aJua:io:1 a...-:d 

research tool (Helmreich et al., 1986). The C:?\1..-\Q ques!ionnaire cor.tai:1s 25 it.e:m5 :neas~Y!g 

attitudes that are either co::..ceptually or err..pirically re}a:ed to CR..\1. Taggart., 1990! ;ev:.seJ 

the C~L-\Q for use in a maintenance depa:.-tment. and repoYted pos:tiYe i:1iti2.l :p.s:..:.:t$ 

following CR\f training conduc'2d fo~ maintenar:ce n:.anagers ir: la:e 1939. 

Tv:o recent studies invo!ved the dose anaiysis of the C~!AQ iT.:St!"":Imen: tbro-..:gh t~-? :l5e of 

Factor .. >\..:.1alysis. a techniqae to explore for a ccns:s:e:;.: .i::.:er~al structure ~Greg\1!ich. 

HelmrPich. & \

1

li1helm. 1990; Sherrr.:an. 1992:. In :!-lese s::1dies the autho:-s s:.Oow.,.:.d. :Or 

separate S2Jnples of flight crews and air traffic cor.::ro}:e:-s. tha: :!:e re:atio:1ships amz):1g :=-..~ 

25 C!\{A.Q iter:1s ·~vere ch.:stered into t!-:.e fclio"v:ng f..::a.:.:- coLs~eE:J.t.io!!s of a::.:::udes: 
Chapter Six 

Sharing Command Responsibility 

Value of Communication & Coordination 

Recognizing Stressor Effects 

Avoidance of Interpersonal Conflict. 

Those authors combined the individual CMAQ items into the four composite indices to obtain 

more stable indicators of each concept. Such index scales pennit a more detailed assessment 

of the separate but related attitudes than a single total score for the entire Questionnaire. 

They also provide mor-:J accurate and reliable results than are available from each of the 

individual questionnaire items alone. Although Gregorich, et al. (1990) eventually reduced 

the set from four to three compo:>ites by dropping '"Avoida.<ce of Interpersonal Conflict," 

Sherman found a much more robust fourth factor, which he tit'~:l "Advocacy and 

Assertiveness." 

S.3.2 Measurement of Attitudes in the Present Study 

The "Crew Resources MauagementJTechnica! Operations Questionnaire" (CRN!!I'OQJ used 

in the present study is a modified version ofTagga..rt's revised CMAQ. In obtaining a "good" 

measure of the complex concepts of CRM training, the present company's goa! was to start 

with a proven survey shown to be valid with CRM training in the airline industry. In 

following the lead of the CMAQ, the CR.MtrOQ is a short questionnaire with enough items 

to provide convergence to a smaller set of concepts. 

The CR!VVTOQ contains 26 multiple response items. The company's modif1cati.ons of the 

CMAQ involved removing five questions and adding six others. The five questions were 

removed because they either lacked predictive validity as reported by earlier flight crew 

studies (Helmreich, et al., 1986) or, in the company's opinion, lacked relevance to 

maintenance. 

A confirmatory Factor Analysis was undertaken for the data obtained with the CR.'\1/I'OQ in 

the present study (Taylor, 199 la)_ Results for the items drawn from the revised CMAQ were 

similar to those of Grego,-ich. et aL ( 1990) and Sherman (1992) As in the latter study. the 

CRl\1/TOQ's fourth composite was statistically strong_ and was therefore retained as t;,e 

reflected index "Willingness to Voice Disagreement." 

Attitude change from pre-training to post-training using the CRMtrOQ was examined in the 

previous progress report (Galaxy Scientific Corporation, 1992). "Sharing Command 

Responsibility," "Communication & Coordination," and "Recognizing Stressor Effects,' all 

increased significantly following training. "Willingness to Voice Disagreement" d~creased 

(non-significantly) for t:le whole sample following training, but it rose significantly for the 

superviso!'S (the largest single group in the sample to that date) when they were viewed 

separately from assistant supervisors and directors. 

Six questions were added to the CRM/TOQ, basPd on items intended to measure respondents· 

perceptions of behaviors dealing with attainment of work goals (Geirland & Cotter, 1990). 

168 
The Effects o[CRM Training in Airlille Maintenance 

ThesE> six items were considered important to ad <.I !Jecause the work of maintenance managers 

differs from that of flight crew officers (as managers) in the typically longer time required for 

technical operation's goal attainment and the relatively greater ambiguity of those goals. In 

addition, because goal setting and attainment were not covered in the CRM training they 

codd act as "control questions" which were not predicted to change in a consistent or positive 

way follov.ing the training. These items loaded onto two factors in the Factor Analysis: "Goal 

Attainment in Own Group" and "Goal Attainment with Other Groups." The goal attainment 

scales were not expected to change because goal attainment was not a topic covered in the 

training, and because there would not be time, during the training, to change the behaviors 

that were the focus of the measures. Similar to attitudes, these perceptions can be influenced 

by exposure to new information or by reconsidering initial assessments. These perceptions 

did change during the CRM training and they have proven to be also related to maintenance 

performance. 

There are four versions of the CRM!I'OQ questionnaire that have been used in various phases 

of this project. Although the first two versions are not part of the present analysis, they are 

described with the latter versions below. 

1. A "Baseline Questionnaire" was mailed to all 1,800 maintenance managers, supervisors, 

and assistant supervisors in the company in May 1991 before the training was 

announced. The results of this baseline assessment of management attitudes were factor 

analyzed and were also used to assess the reliability and validity of the CRM/TOQ 

(Taylor, 1991a). The Baseline version will not be further discussed. 

2. A "pre-training" questionnaire is completed by all participants in the first minutes of the 

workshop. Respondents place a confidential identification <I.D.) number or code on the 

questionnaire so that their responses can be compared with their responses on 

subsequent, follow up questionnaires. These pre-training attitudes have been compared 

with post-training attitudes to test the effects of the training <Galaxy Scientific 

Corporation, 1992). Further results using the pre-training questionnaire will not be 

discussed here. 

3 A "post-training" questionnaire is completed by all participants at the workshop's 

conclusion. Respondents write their I. D. code on the questionnaire, and are asked to note 

thl' number in their course workbook to help them remember it for later "follow-up" 

qut>stionnaires (see version 4 below). The training facilitators collect and mail the 

completed pre-training and post-training questionnaires to the University for processing. 

Data from this post-training version of the CRM/fOQ have been compared with the pretraining questionnaire data, as notPd above. The present report "ill discuss responses 

from the post· training questionnaire and will compare these matched responses with the 

participants matched responses to version !'lumber 4, the "follow-up" questionnaires. 

4 "Follow-up" questionnaires are individually mailed by the company to all past participants 

two, six, and twelve months following their CRM training. Respondents are asked to 

inciude their !.D. code so that these follow-up questionnaires can be matched "ith the 

earlier questionnaires and to return the questionnaires to the University for confidential 

169 
Chapter Six 

processing. Although the two. six, and twelve month follow-up surveyc c-~ ::.ll identical 

in form, they measure the respondents' thoughts, assessments, and att.itudes over 

increasingly remote periods from the training. 

6.3.3 Sample Size and Response Ratio 

The following is the ratio cfpost-trainir.g and follow-up CRM!TOQ q'-lestionnaires processed 

by July 1992, to those distributed: 

1,040 post-training questionnaires, (93%) 

365 two-month follow-up questionnaires, (44%) 

255 six-month follow-up questionnaires, (42%) 

76 twelve-month follow-up questionnaires, (40'7< ). 

6.4 RESULTS SECTION 1: COMPARISON OF POST-TRAINING ATTITUDES 

WITH TWO-MONTH, SIX-MONTH, Al'llJ TWELVE MONTH FOLLOW-UP 

SURVEYS 

Figures 6.1 and 6.2 present the corr.parisons for the four attitude scales and the two goalattainment scales respectively using all the responses available without regard for matched 

responses. No significant differences were found among the ;mst-training, two, six and tweh·o. 

month surveys. All four attitude scales and the two "Goal Attainment" measures rem a n 

high in the year following CRM training The tests shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2, in turn. 

have been compared with survey data which were directly matched. by individual respond"nt 

LD. number, among the several follow-up questionnaires, and the results are remc~rkahly 

similar. In this way, the potency of examining the responses from the same indi,·iduals 

matched over time, was combined with the power of the larger unmatched sampl<· of 

responses for comparison. 

6.4.1 Matched Quesiionnaires and Sample Size 

For the remainder of thP analyses in this rPport the results for the CRMtrOQ will bP 

reported in terms ofthPlargest numb<·r of matched indiv•dual responses available, i.P .. thos.· 

:hat can be matched by LD. code numbPr across thP various surv£·ys. The practical 

implication of this matching is that tlw total size of the matched samplt> is limited by tlw 

number of smallest wave of data. For exam pi£-, by July 1992 (13 months after thP unst>t of 

the training) there were 74 people whu returnPd the tweivt> month follow-up questionnam·. 

64 of whom included an LD. number that could be matclwd to their earlier questionnain·s. 

Any statistical tests of comparisons between post-training and twelve-month follow-up 

questionnaires would necessarily be bast>d on that limiting twelve-month sample sizP of 6·1. 

Using, instead, only the two-month follow-up qupstionnaires, thP number of respond<•nts 

whosP LD. numbers matcht-d to th£>ir post-training questionnain•s could rise much higher_ 

170 
M 

E 4 

A 

N 

s 

c 2 

0 

R 

E 1 

s 

D 

t= F= t= 

~ E 

(; t:: 

= ~ = 

:::::: 

= ~ I ~ IH 

~ :::::: I ::: :::::: 

l HE~;p 

§ PRE SEMINAR 

The Effects ofCRM Training in mrline Maintenance 

lm = 

E F= 

~·· t= ;s ·. 1::: 

;.;· 

:%. ~ :% = 

;;:; F 

ON VOl 

ATTITUDE INDICES 

SURVEY TIME 

liD POST SEMINAR 

c:: .. 

r 

:% (;. = ~ = ~···· ~ =I ~: ~ .... = ~.· I -<coS EFF oC s 

W 2 MONTH FOLLO'MJP 

E2J 6 MONTH FOLLOWUP [J 12 MONTH FOUO'MJP 

n...-50. Pl'e n"10~ post nco.J52 2 mo 

n .. :?61.Grno n"76 1]f'l:l 

P""' 

Figure 6.1 Attitude Indices Pre, Post, Two, Six, Twelve Months 

~ :r 

g 2 ~ R 

E 

s 

g PRE SEMINAR 

r:z:j c MONTH FOLLQV,'F 

r"P450. pre "~973 post n=3U.? mo 

n-234. 6 IT-C. n•72. 12 me: 

BEHA\f10RA.L INOtCES 

SURVEY TIME 

(ll] POST SEMINAR 

[J 'i 2 MON1H FCLLOW'-;p 

Figure 6.2 Behavioral Indices Pre, Post, Two, Six, Twelve Months 

171 
Chapter Six 

6.5 PERFORMANCE DATA DESCRIBED 

Maintenance managers in the company already collect performance data in abundance. 

Table 6.1 presents the eight measures used as end-result criteria in the present study. 

Three conditions were met in order to include these measures in the work-unit analysis 

reported here. First (and obviously), the performance measures need to be available by work 

unit (i.e., line station, shop, warehouse, etc.), and not just by department or function. Second, 

the measures must be ones that people in the work unit can affect by their actions, and not 

merely OP.es that are conveniently assigned to a unit, but for which it can do little. The third 

condition applied was that the measures not be directly related to (or completely determined 

by) other measures in the set. The eight performance measures used in the present analysis 

are included in the company's categories of "safety," "dependability," and "efficiency." The 

··quality" measures used by the company cannot at this time be applied to the specific 

maintenance units, so they are not included in this present analysis. 

The trainers and administrators of the CRM course evaluated the performance measures and 

predicted which of them would be more sensitive to effects of CRM training. The results of 

their evaluation are footnoted in Table 6.1. Their conclusions were that five measures were 

the most readily improved by the training. These five performan.ce measures included the 

two aircraft safety items ground damage and days lost to occupational injury, and 

dependability measures, based on departures within 5 and 15 minutes and delays due to 

maintenance error. Their second ranked performance measures likely to improve in response 

to training included the dependability of departures within 60 minutes and the efficiency of 

overtime paid. A performance indicator rated least likely to improve as a function of the 

training was departures later than 60 minutes. 

6.5.1 Performance Measures and Attitudes 

The present analysis examines the impact of pretraining performance on management 

attitudes, and those attitudes' lagged effects on the measures of concurrent and subsequent 

maintenance performance. We are focused mainly on the training's longer-term effects on 

attitudes, which are related to performance following the training as well as occurring 

at the same time. Therefore, the sample selected included as many matched responses to 

follow-up questionnaires as possible, yet left the months between January and July 1992, to 

permit a test of "lagged" performance effects. 

172 
The Effects ofCRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

Table 6.1 Technical Operations Performance Measures Available by Work Unit 

(maximum number of work units possible are in parentheses) 

I. MEASURES OF EFFICIENCY 

A. Cost 

1. % Overtime paid to total wage bill' ( 60) 

II. MEASURES OF SAFETY 

B. Safety of Aircraft 

2. Number of Ground Damage Incidents' (44) 

C. Personal Safety 

3. %Occupational Injury Days Lost' (60) 

III. Measures of Dependability 

D. Departure Performance (Line Station oata only, n=3ll 

4. % Departure within 5 minutes' 

5. %Departure within 15 minutes' 

6. % Departure within 60 rr,inutes' 

7. % Departure over 60 minutes, but not canceled' 

8. Number of Delays due to late from Maintenance' 

(n=35) 

a =Measures evaluated most sensitive to effects of CRM training 

b =Measures evaluated moderately sensitive to effects of CRM training 

c = Measmes evaluated lea•t sensitive to effects of CRM training 

6.5.2 The Sample Used for the Present 'Lagged Attitude-Performance Analysis" 

By January 1, 1992, 570 of the 573 managers attending one of the CRM workshops had 

completed an immediate post-training questionnaire. Four-hundred four of those 570 

managf.'rs were employed in one of the five maintenance-oriented departments in the 

Maintenance Division -- line maintenance, base mai1_1tenance, inspection, shops, and 

materials service. The data file containing the 404 maintenance managers was matched, by 

confidPntial idPntification number, to the file containing the 2-month follow-up 

questionnaires, 225 of which had been completed and returned. The total actually matched 

by !.D. number was 181. This sample represents the direct maintenance managers who 

attended the CRM workshop during June through December 1991 and who answered the two 

month follow-up questions. The sample provided the two-month time interval between 

measurements of attitudes and up to six months between measures of attitudes and 

performance. The demographic characteristics of this sample are presented in Tables 6.2 

and 6.3, below. The tables show that this sample inc!udes mainly line maintenance 

supPrvisors, who are in their 30's, male, many of whom have some ccllege education. 

173 
Chapter Six 

I 

-

I 

Table 6.2 Demographics ofCRM Managers Attendees (June-December, 1991! Matchf>d 

with Their Two Month Follow-up Survey (n=181J Categorical Percentages ' 

Job Title A"sistant SuJX·r- Manager Diret·tt,r En,?.;J.nt·er C.o- Qu:lllt} 

Supcn-1~r visur ordinatur A~ . ..;UJ"<.I!at· 

29'k 4 1'7c 1717c 29< Io/, I'l' :1'~ 

Dept. Lmt· llas1.' Quality Shvp Matt·nal ' 

5417. 1 (tti; l2o/r 11% I:-!•;; 

Total Ye:.A& :l-6 yrs 7-10 ll-17yl~ Zl-2~ yr ... ~h-4~ yr'-

Working at the y,-.... 

Cc.mpany I 

52'7, 20t;f 7'7, 8% t:ltt, 

Y~ars Workin&' in 0-5 yrt- 6-]1) ll-20 y:rs 2 1-:iO yrs :il45yr.-; 

Present Position yrs 

7~ lOo/r :~?C 6o/r 2~ 

Years Workini 0-5 yrs 6-10 ll-l5y~ 16-25 p;. 20-:~5 Y'';. 

with Other Airlines yr~-> 

68'/C n R'7, 13% 4<;. 

Table 6.3 Demographics of CRM Managers Attendees (June-December, 1991 J MatchHI 

with Their Two Month Follow-up Survey (n=181) Catf.'gorical PercPntagps ' 

As:• 20-2-:-t Y'' 3B-3':1 Y"' 40-4~ y1~ 50-t>O yn. fi 1-",',1 yr' 

6'fl 42'7, 23')C 21'/c H'' 

Sex Male Female 

~X' it 2';(-

Ye-::lT~ in I 0-5 yr ... fl. 10 yr" ll-2oyr-.. 2 }..10 yp.; 

Military 

~3'if 3'7, jo/, 3'7, 

Years in Trude (1-l .~yr ... 2-4 )'1"'- 5-lOyr'- 1 f1-~o yr:-

School 

55(1. 4lr7r 49c (l}fJ; 

Yearn in CollegP ll-15yr~ 2-3.!'1 yr~ 4-5 yr~ 0-7 yr~ 

52'1t 3l(k 17% .0 l'Jr 

Ccmpuny C<1mpany I ('(,mpany 2 

~~J'i' Io/, 

174 

I 

I 
The Effects o[CRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

6.6 RESULTS SECTION 2: TESTING RELATIONSHIPS OF POST-TRAINING 

ATTITUDES WITH PERFORMANCE 

The first associations examined here are among post-training attitudes measured at the end 

of each training session and maintenance performance for seven combined two-month 

intervals (Jun/Ju\'91; Aug/Sept'91; OctJNov'91; Dec'9l/Jan'92; Feb!Mar'92; Apr!May'92; 

Jun/Ju\'92). Performance measures are analyzed for the periods prior to and concurrent with 

the training (Jun-Dec'91), and two, four and six months following training (Jan-July '92) The 

individual months of performance are combined into tw<r-month increments to improve the 

distribution characteristics. 

The distributions of the performance measures require that non-parametric statistical tests 

be used for optimal analytic power (cf., Taylor, 1991b). Ther~fJre, the relationships between 

the attitude indices and the performance measures are indicated by the Spearman Rankorder Correlation ("Rho"), as presented in Tables 6.4-6.11. 

6.6.1 The Relationships Between the Post-Training Quest5onnaire Scales and 

Maintenance Unit Performance Measures 

The overtime performance measure desc1~bed here was rated by the trainers as ody 

moderately likely to improve as a result of the training. We will start ><ith that one, to 

explain the way these tables are set up and to provide a contrqst with the more interesting 

and/or consistent results in the remaining tables. 

6.6.1.1 ''Percent of Overtime to Total Wages" 

The six rows of Table 6.4 are comprised of the fuur attitude scales and the two goalattainment scales. The seven columns represent performance iE overtime costs fer seven 

different time periods. Jun/Jul, Aug/Sept, and OctJNov 1991 represent the ccncurrent 

performance. while Dec/Jan, Febl1\1ar, Apr/May, and Jun/Jul 1992 repre5ent performance 

following training. The cell entries in Tablt· 6.4 are Rho coeffi~ients testing the degree of 

relationship between the six questionnaire scales and the overtime measure at the seven 

different times. The calculations are derived from work-groups. Even a large company !Jk,· 

this one has only 60 work units in maintenance that report overtime used. Table 6.4 shows 

that 39 of those 60 work units were included in this analysis. The missing ones were 

dropped for a variety of reasons, including th2 fact that less than one third of a:I the 

managers had been through the training by January 1992 

There is only one statistically significant relationship and no consistent pattern of rPsults in 

Table 6.4, as there are negative relationships as WPll :~s positive ones. In fact, this effici,•m·:· 

measure of labor costs was rated by the trainers to lw l~ss influenced by the training than 

would be other performance measures. Thus. this t;-,ulP is essentially an ex:lmiJl<· of an 

absence of training effect. 

175 
Chapter Six 

' 

I 

Table 6.4 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-training CRM!I'OQ Results and 

Maintenance Efficiency Performance for% Overtime Paid to Total Wagebill' - Jun/Jul 

1991 Aug/ 

Sep 

Oct/ 

Nov 

Dec/ 

Jan 

Feb! 

Mar tf;! 

. y I J"'fJu 1 

l 1991 

I Sharing Command --12 .05 -.15 I -.Of I -.05 -.10 -.06 

Responsibility ' 

Communication -.OS -.08 -.03 l .19 -.16 -.07 I .04 I and Coordination ' i 

Recognition of .16 -.10 I .09 ! .08 -.24 -.03 I .02 

Stl'"essor Effects • 

Willingness to -.10 oc .04 .11 -.12 I -.12 I -..37"' 

Voice Disagreement - I Goal Attainment ' .11 .02 -.03 .16 -.Ol I .03 ! _(,5 

with Own G~oup I 

' I I Goal Attainment .03 ' -.02 -.22., .12 I -.12 .01 .14 

with Other Groups i I I 

n = 39 Shac;l.f'd arf'.a ar~ months roncurrent Wlth ~ht> trm:nn~ 1and th~ :t:.Pil.l!oUTt>:nf"nt• and un.,hadt'd ~.rt>a an· thl· mu."lth!- fo!lc.,.,·nF: !:ra::-n:-1~ 

-~ott>: '!'hest> ltf"!J"U< scor~ lown wbf"n ;x-rfu:rm~ncP v. pos:tt: VE>. thus t!lt> d.J:n•c!lon of~f' !>te.!lst!cs shudd boo nP;;::at!v .. 

•r<.05 ••p<.O! 

I 

! 

.I 

6.6.1.2 "Number of Ground Damage lnci.dents" 

In Table 6.5 the safety measure of Ground Damage incidents sho·.,~ one significa11t 

association, in the el<pected direction, between assertiveness ("Wilimgness to Voice 

Disaweement'') in one period follov..~ing trair:.jng. This result, taken with the others in the 

same row displaying the same direction of reiationship, suggests t.'l)_at people intervene and 

speak up more when aircraft may be damaged in those groups with higher scores for this 

attitude. There arE' two other signifkant relauor.ships in thf: eJ<pected direction be:we,·n th,. 

goal attainment scales and concurrent ground damage performance. 

II ir 

II 

!I 

~~ ! il 

:j 

II il 

' 

il 

l! • 

Table 6.5 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-training CR.\1/TOQ Results ar>d 

Maintenance Safetv Performance for Ground Damag(·' - ~ 

I I ' I I I Jun.'Jul Aug' Oct/ Jun'J~l !\ ' Dec' Feb.: Apr: 

1991 &p .Nov ! Jnn ~ar ~lay 

' 19:~ I! I l I Sharinl! Command .14 1 I .07 .13 -.:!! -.30 . !;; ! 1 Responsibility l i ; 

l l ' i I 

Communication -06 -.Vi -.{IQ l~ ii I - 14 j {;,;} I -.'.12 

and CoorCination l l I _, ! I ll Recoplition of .2b I .3V .:<6 i ]i I \l4 l .. I - ; ') I . " 

Stressor Effect& ! i ! " 

I ; I i I jl Willingness to - :!2 -.2~.1 --2•.) 

~ - :~ 1 -.ss• i - !4 - :~:. 

Voice Disa~ement il ' ! 

1 I j I I ,, Goal A .. taimnent v.ith -.22 " -.38" - 2:.! -0~ I -.l. l t••.l :1 ! l - ~ l ij O"''nGroup ! ' l I I • Goal Attainment with -.$ ~.42• i ~.22 I --~;) -21 - 16 - O'; jJ . ' I Otb£-"r Groups 

n =:;! Sh.!Ct-d ;:or,..a J?!"f' mont.~., COr;;("..:;-; .. :;:""'~~ :!w :.T<•:m:nJ.: ,;1;-;d t!'lf' ;n.-a_...,.._rt-;;wn: · 11.~0 u:-.u~ad~-rl nrt>a sr~ thr :r.nn:h-. fol:o .... ~:1~ t:-a:nm;.:: 

:-;ow Th~ ltl"m!!c ~C"UTf' ;.,,.,.,<r "'b·:-. po:·r!<>T:-<la:l<:"<" :-. po:-.-:.::w, ~hu.-. !h .. d:~t>c-:10n of :!":r ... ~tl~tlC"'o ,r..,,__;::J. l,.,. :l..P.jO:atvn• 

•p..:: (\5 ... ?< v: 

110 
The Effects ofCRM 'l'raining in Airline Maintenance 

6.6.1.3. "Occupational Injury Days Lost" 

"Occupational Injury Days Lost" is the second safety-related performance indicator to be 

examined. Table 6.6 shows the pattern of results indicating that the two goal attainment 

scales account for most of the significant differences in performance. Occupational injury 

rates are consistently lower, both concurrently with training and subsequent to it, in work 

units where managers and supervisors believe that team goals are shared within their units, 

and between them. P.Jthough goal attainment shows a strong association with this 

penormance, it is not a specific management value addressed by the CRM training. Of the 

attitude improvements intended to be affected by the training, Willingness to Voice 

Disagreement is again significantly related to later safety performance. Other post-training 

attitudes don't show much uniformity of pattern in relationships with this performance 

indicator. 

I 

r 

Table 6.6 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-training CRMITOQ Results and 

Maintenance Safety performance for Occupational Injury Days Lost' 

I Jun!Jul Aug/ Oct! Dec/ Feb/ Apr/ I Jun!Jul 

1991 Sep Nov Jan Mar May 1 1992 

Sharing Command -.09 -.14 .09 I ~.13 -.03 .03 I -.10 

Responsibility 

Communication -.24 -.25 ·.20 l .06 

\ 

-.13 -.09 -.13 l 

and Coorc!ination l ' I 

Recognition of -.02 ' .07 -.00 I .20 -.18 .05 -.17 

Stressor Effects l I I 

Willingness to -.03 -.02 -.25 i .04 -.10 -.10 I -.28* I Voice Disagreement I I 

I I I Goal Attainment .10 -.2() ·-32· l -.20 I ·.30* -.14 ·.41*~ 

with Own Group 

Goal Attainment .06 I -.14 -.so• I -.16 -.50** I -.20 I ·.34:U 

with Other Groups j 

n = 4Z ~!v>~t-d art".a an· mnnth-. amcunf>11t Wlth thr training ,and thf' rnra~u:-rrtH'nt; and U."'lsha.dC'd a!'f'a :erE> thf' rnont.l).._,. fo!iu'lo\"'ln~ tralm':l,!:: 

~ott>. Th~l" :t<·w..., SCO!"C' ]uwt"r wht·n po·rfoi"man<:i' 1~ pcsjti\"t'. the.~ thf' dlrection of thf' statlst:C!> should be- nf'gatlVI" 

• p< .us.•• p< u1 

6.6.1.4 ':Aircraft Departures Within Five Minutes of Schedule" 

l 

Jl 

I 

This dependability measure involves only the line maintena.IlCe stations. Table 6.7 contains 

27 data points. One relationship hE'tween concurrent, on-time performance and sharing 

command responsibility is significant. Several concurrent and subsequent measures of 

departures v.~thin 5 minutes are related to communication and to recognition of stressor 

efft~cts. This is not surp:-ising. as ma:1agers of large line stations,. during the busiest hours, 

mu~t relinquish moment-to-mornent decisions or they v.ill slow things dov.u. Like\vise. they 

must ~.,nsure commur;ication among everyone involved and recognize that the adverse 

consequences of stress are also related to dependable performance. \Vork in line sta:ions 
ChGpter Six 

creates some of the highest levels of work-related stress in maintenance. Relationships in 

Table 6.7 signify that there are differences in management attitudes toward sharing their 

power, communicating, and managing stress such that the more these attitudes improve, the 

more the on-time c:iepartures. 

With respect ·.o the pattern of results for all of Table 6.7, the proportion ofsignifica;'1t and 

directional relationships between six immediate post-training attitudes and the seven 

maintenance performance measures, to the total number of tests conducted, is substantially 

better than that expected by chance alone. Eight Spearman "Rhos" of the 42 tot:<l were 

significant p.05 (8/42 = 19'/'r > 5'1'<), and three of those were significant p<.Ol (3/42 = 7'1'< > 

1 'k ). 

Table 6.7 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-training CRMJTOQ Results nnd 

Maintenance Dependability Performance for Departures w;thin Five :11inutes 

Jun!Jul Aug/ Oct! I Dec! Feb/ I Apr/ I Jun!Jul 

1991 Sep Nov I Jan Mar !tf..ay i 1992 

Sharing Command .20 .17 .S6* ! .!9 I .00 I .28 ,24 

Responsibility I 

Communication .36* .24 -.05 I .35* .41*"' .26 .09 

and Coordination i 

Recognition of .S2* .25 .25 I .36* .41** I .23 15 

Stressor Effects i I 

Willingness to .28 .17 .17 l .15 .25 I .19 i3 

Voice Disagreement I 

I I 

Goal Attainment .25 .15 .06 I .28 I A5** .26 i .28 

'Oo"ith O«rn Group I i 

Goa) Attainment .21 .08 .01 l .13 ! .35 .23 I Ol 

I 

i 

I 

I 

I 

' 

II 

II 

!I II l\ith Other Groups ! i I I I I' I ' I _jl 

n"" 2'7 Shad!"d arf'a art> month.., concl..'T'r;-nt vorlth !lw tramm.J.! •.-md thf' mt>a~u::-t-mrr.t and U.P"! ... l->.<11:h•d art·:• a~>' !!':w r:J.~,r::!1 ... : .. :; .• .,;r.;: ~r.:::-:1:-,;.:: 

•p<:05.•'"p<lll 

Tables 6.8 through 6.11 present relationships between the six questionnai;e items a.."ld 

further measures of dependability. 

6.6.1.5 ''Departures Within Fifteen Minutes" 

Table 6.8 shows that command responsibility, communication & coordination. and 

assertiveness are all signi5cantly and positiveLy related to :ieparte;es \vi thin 15 min·Jtf'S of 

schedule during the period concurrent with the t=-aining. The n-.·o goal attainment ~~v.lt>~ arP 

related to this performance measure subsequent to the> t~aining. 

l7S 
The Effects o[CRM Training in .4irline Maintenance 

Table 6.8 .Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-training CRMfi'OQ Results and 

Maintenance Dependability Performance f'Jr Departures wiLllln Fifteen Minutes 

..--

Jun!Jul Aug/ Oct! Dec! Feb/ ~~ Jun!Jul 

1&91 Sep Nov Jan Mar 1992 

S:haring Command ,23 .20 .42~ .29 .18 .06 .29 

Responsibility ! 

Communication J16* .21 -.05 .18 .23 .19 .03 

and Coordination 

Recognition of 

Stressor Effects 

,.2{ .16 .. 18 l .29 .29 .15 .16 

Willingness to ' JIG* .09 .08 .17 .23 .08 1" 

. .I 

Voice Disagreement 

Goal Attainment .21 .10 .OS .36* .48** .07 .31 

with Own Group 

Goal Atl.ainment .31 .11 i I .17 I .06 .19 I .36* ' .04 

with Other Groups I 

n = 26 Sh~>df"d a;"".a an· month!. a:mcurrt"nt with tht> trammg 1and tht> m£a.">&Tl'mt>nt ·and U."'lshadl:'d an•a a•P H:e mont.~s foT!oV>l'l~ tra~.1tng 

• P< .05. up< .01 

6.6.1.6 Departures Within Sixty Minutes" 

I 

'I 

I 

I 

:1 ] 

Table 6.9 displays only two significant relationships to departures within 60 minutes. This 

performance measure was one of those the trainers felt would be o!"!!y morierately sensitiYe 

to training effects. In fact the two significant relationships represe!!t a proportion we codd 

expect by chance alone (2/42 = 5%). 

I 

I 

I 

I 

' I 

' I 

l 

I 

;, 

Table 6.9 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-t!·aining CRl\1-TOQ Resuh.s and 

Maintenance Dependability Performance for Departures within Six~v :Minutes . . 

Jun!Jul Aug/ i Oct! l Dec/ i i Feb/ ! ~r/ Jur.!Jul 

Sharing Comm<snd 

Responsibility 

Communication 

and Coordination 

Recognition of 

Stressor Effects 

Willingness to 

Voice Disagreement 

Goal Attainment 

"'ith Own Group 

Goal A + .. tainrn£>nt 

with Other Groups 

1991 

.17 

.33• 

A5** 

~, 

.... 

.06 

' ' •• 9 

Sep Nov 

I .22 ! .30 ! 

.07 I ·.02 

l .22 ' .17 

I 

I l .l3 .05 l 

I 

' i .08 -.14 i 

I 

l . 0 .06 •.0~ 

Jan Mar ' • y 

r .16 I .11 -.14 I ! ! ! ' l .25 I 09 I .06 : 

' ' i ! ~ ! I I 

I I ' ' .07 .. o: .11 

' ' l I I -.\)~ .0:2 -.05 ; l i I I 

' I I I ' .. .c:; I ·.OS i • .i."::: ' ' I I ! ' 

l i .- ' ·) - l .2t> .09 

r, ~. S:-...:.i.-,j _,.,.., _,;.,. , ... ,-~, .. n ~.:..:~.-,, "''::. '~'"" ·;~.n~~~ ~"· ,._., ,,.,_,~...;;._,.,...,.,. ,_ .. ~'-~:_,...:~.· ..:-.,._, _.,..,. ;~,~ <n...•::l:~ : •• ;,,,...,,=i- :::-::>'::' -~ 

• ;- < : <, .... 1' ,;: 

179 

1992 

.?.4 

2l 

.06 

.09 

02 

- .c. ! ' 

\1 

I 

I 

i 

II 

I 

i 

I 

,: 

I! ., 

!! 

li 
Chapter Six 

6.6.1.7 "Departures Over Sixty Minutes, Not Canceled" 

The measure, "departures over 60 minutes, but not canceled," (Table 6.10) is one that the 

trainers felt would be least sensitive to training efferts. Although Table 6.10 shows t.hree 

significant positive correlations (only slightly above a chance expectation for the table 

overall), it also contains one significant negative relationship (opposite ro that expected). 

Given the absence of 8-TIY pattern to the relationships in Table 6.10, we may conclude that 

post-training attitudes and perceptior>..s do not have an effect on this performance. 

I 

I 

I , 

I I 

I 

l 

Table 6.10 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Post-training CR!W/TOQ Resulis &"">d 

Maintenance Dependahilitv Performa.>J.ce for Sixty Minutes, Not Canceled -

I Jun!Jul Aug/ OctJ Dec/ Feb/ Apr/ I Jun!Jul 

1991 Sep Nov Jan Ma~ May 1992 

Sharing Command .03 -.04 -.20 .05 I .00 -.19 I .36 I I 

Responsibi1ity I , 

' I I I Communication {·.44**) •.11 .39" .00 .00 .24 ! .16 

and Coordination 

Recognition of -.25 -.21 AO~ I -.19 I .00 -.25 I .39 

Stressor Effects ! l ' ' I I I I Willingness to .06 .0~ -.SO -.03 -.30 ' -.20 ' .30 

I 

I 

Voice Disagreement I i I 

Goal Attainment i I I I -.19 -.03 .'03 .19 -.20 I .08 .25 

with Own Group i j 

' j I i I 

Goal Attainment 29 I -. .17 .13 .04 -.27 .47*::: ! .28 

with Other Groups ! I I ' I ' n = 27 ~haded area art" month!- roncurrt>nt W':th. thf' tra;mn;;: 1and th<' m~as..::::-f'I:l~nt) and ~shR~t·d <1.~1·;:; a:-.. the :no.-::..."l..., fo~k .... -:nt: tr.a-:~;;-,,.: 

•p<.05.••p<Ol 

6.6.1.8 "Delay Due to Late from Maintenance" 

" I 

I 

II I 

" 

II l· II 

'I l· 

il 

II ll 

Table 6.11 presents relations!>jps between post-training questionnaire responses a..-,d delays 

due to late from maintenance. This is a measure of the number of 2.1rcraft, either scheduled 

to remain in statio:J overnight (RON) or on the ground \AOGl for repai:-. which are not :-e3.dy 

for morning fligh:s. "Communication & Coordination·· is significarnly correlated and ir: ilie 

expected direction \vith this performa."'lce measure concurrently \\~th training c.nd s1;~seque:::t 

to it. These results indicate tnat as more n'anagers communicate and coordinate among 

themseh·es and \vith mechanics, the lvv:er tr..e nu:nber c:f delays d-ue w the aircraft :.ting late 

from mainte:::tance. 

180 
II 

The Effects of CRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

Table 6.11 Spearnu~n-Rho Correlations between Post-training CRM!TOQ Results and 

Maintenance 9ependability Performance for Delay Due to Late from Maintenance' 

I Jun/Jul I Aug/ I Oct/ I Dec/ Feb/ Apr/ Jun/Jul 

1991 Sep Nov Jan Mar May 1992 

Sharing Command .-.15 . ..• -.3'1· -.27 -.12 33* -.17 I -. -.28 

Responsibility 

Communication ..ss• "All**. .. ·~.52** .... 40* ·-'"r1$" --~7* -.24 

and Coordination i 

Recognition of -.09 : .•. -.23 -.20 -.30 -.2! -.14 • ... 40* 

Stressor Effects 

Willingness to -.16 -.22 -.20 -.18 -.16 -.11 -.ZO 

Voice Disagreement 

' 

Goal Attainment •.16 --22 ' : -.20 -.18 -.16 -.11 -.20 

with Own Group ' 

Goal Attainment .os --22 i -.12 -.39' -.27 -.09 -.13 

v..-ith Other Groups 

n = lR Sha~f'd area a:-r- months roncmT!!'nt with Uw tralning {and tht- mt'a... -urPment: anrl unshadt'rl area are the rnocths foTlcw;,ng tralning. 

Nok>: Tht'SP itf'rns !-.ron•1owf1' whe-n pt>rformarK:f' i'i positlw thus thf' d:il"f'Ction ofthf' s~tstics should bE- nt'gatiw. 

• p< .05.,... p< .01 

I 

6.7 RESULTS SECTION 3: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE T\VO-MOlli'TH 

FOLLOW-UP QUESTIO!I.'NAIRE SCALES AA'D MAINTEN.Ai~CE Ul'lo'IT 

PERFORMANCE~URES 

The same eight performance measures are examined again, using the matched group of 

maintenance managers' two month follow-up questionnaires. Although Tables 6.12 th::-ough 

6.19 are arranged in the same manner as Tables 6.4 through 6.11 above, they diffel' in the 

performance periods preceding, concurrent with, and S!lbsequeni to the survey. Because the 

follow-up surveys !for the present sample) took place between October 1991 and Feb~ary 

1992, the first two performance periods (Jun!Jul, Aug/Sepf91) are "pre-survey;· Oct'91-!lfar'92 

are "concurrent" v.ith the survey, and Apr-Jul'92 are subsequent to the training. As in the 

preceding section the performance measures will be examined for "Efficiency," "Safety" and 

"Dependability," respectively. 

6.7.1 "Overtime Paid to Total Wages" 

Table 6.12 shows a similar absence of results for two-month follow-up attitudes as those 

presented ahove for post-training attil:.!des and O\'ertime performance. Only one significant 

relationship is noted in Table 6.12, between recognition of stressor effects and June/July 

1992 o,·er.ime. In fact, the trainers had rated overtime as only moderately sensitive to the 

tramin.g effects. A more powerful impact 0:1 overtime may originate from upper management 

policy and dictum. Using the data from boL11 Tables 6.4 and 6.12. th2.t assurnption seems 

substantiated. 

181 
ChapterSU: 

Table 6.12 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Two Month Follow-up CRM!l'OQ Results 

and Maintenance Effici-ency Perlormance % Overtime Paid to Total Wage1 

Sharing Command 

Responsibility 

Communication 

and Coordination 

Recognition of 

Stressor Effects 

Willingness to 

Voice. DiSagreement 

Goal Attainment 

with Own Group 

Goal Attainment 

with Other Groups 

Jun/Ju! 

1991 

.00 

-.09 

.09 

-.15 

-.03 

·.11 

Aug/ 

Sep 

.00 

-.16 

.21 

-.09 

-.07 

-.14 

Oct! 

Nov 

Dec/ 

Jan 

-.19 

Feb/ 

Mat-

···.·.~ .. 

-.07 

-.11 

-.12 

-.18 

.03 

-.21 

Jun/Jul 

1992 

-.12 

.07 

• .ss• 

-.15 

.30 

.20 

n = 32. f:haded &rea ft.Tf' troonlh.c;. ¢0neut'r€1lt with U\t' \WO month foikM'~up SUTV!'Y [m: tlw samp\~ ,_..·training participants ~ined. 

'Note: These itrms score- lcWf'r wht>n prrfcnnanc:P is positive. thus the direction of the statistia~should be negstive. 

•p<.05.-p..:::.Ol 

6. 7.2 "Number of Ground Damage Incidents" 

This safety measure in Table 6.13 shows ten sigaificant associations, in the expected direction, 

between "Recognition of Stressor Effects," "Sharing Command Responsibility," and goal 

attainment, after the CRM training, but concurrent with the two month follow-up survey. 

Recognition of the effect of stressors on decision ma..lting is also related to the performance prior 

to the two month follow-up questionnaire, as are the two goal attainment scales. 

l 

~ 

Table 6.13 Spea..""Illan-Rho Correlations between Two Month Follow-up CRM/TOQ F.esults 

and Maintenance Safety Performance for Ground Damage' 

I I I I I ! 

Jun/Jul Aug! Oct/ Dec/ I Feb/ tf:' Jun/Jul 

1991 Sep Nov Jan Mat- • y 1992 

Sharing Command -.22 -.25 •• oo ·.1() •.«• -.19 -.16 

Responsibility 

Communication -.37 -.21 -.:16 .09 -:21 -.3i -.26 

and Coordination 

Recognition of .13 ·~47*" .. us -.49* ·.43• -.26 -.11 

Stressor Effects 

Willingness to .05 -.04 .19 -.05 -.18 -.30 -.00 

Voice Disagreement 

Goal Attainment -.10 -.53** -.28 •.46* ·-45· -:22 -.37 

with Own Group 

Goal Attainment -.23 I •e62** I •.13 i .48• I ·M* I -.01 I -0.4 

with Other Groups l n = !8. Shaded area arE" months concurrt"nt with tht> two month f~1ow-up su~PY fo; the' sa.mplp oftrn.ining participants ~amml'd. 1

Notr: ThHf' litrms ac:ore- JowM" whm pt-rfurmanCf" is p:»>~tivt". thus lhP d1rt'Ct10n of tht> stat:stic:s shocld be neg£twP 

"P< .05. •• P< .OI 

182 

I 

II 
The Effects ofCRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

6. 7.3 "'ccupational Injury Days Lost" 

Only three significant relationsJ.Jps are seen in Table 6.14, which is only barely above chance 

probability. "Willingness to Voice Disagreement" is correlated with this performance, both 

bafore and after the survey period. One of the goal attainment scales is also significantly 

correlated with this safety-related performance indicator. 

Table 6.14 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Twc, ~,b:uth Follow-up CRM!I'OQ 

Results and M!rintenance Safety Performance for Occupational Injury' 

Jun/Jul Aug! Oct/ Dec/ Feb/ tl.~ Jun/Jul 

1991 Sep Nov Jan Mar 1992 

Sharing Command .06 .()8 .. :11 . • .29 < ~lS .07 .03 

Responsibility 

Communication -.04 ·.15 ·.21 

and Coordination 

.16 .• 17 .05 -.Z2 

R..cognition of .03 .02 .01 .29 •• }8 -.08 -.19 

Stressor Effects 

Willingness to -.38* 

Voice Disagreement 

·.12 . •.13 · ..• 09 -.14 ... 42** J -.17 

Goal Attainment -.06 -.20 -S? .. 00 .· .no -.07 .04 

witb Own Group 

Goal Attair ment -.10 -.15 •.38* •• ()4 -.18 -.09 .01 

with Other G.·oups 

n = 28. 1Shaded areh :ue month!. con:::UlTf>nt with thf' two month follow-up sarvey for the samplf. ot'trainmg partio.pa..P!ts uaminf"d 

Note: Theu h '"'tns lK'Cte lowt>r wbrn pt>rfonnanct> ts poslt'ivf'. tnus th"' chrtoetion ofthP statistics shoald M negath-e. 

•p< .05.•*p< .01 

6.7.4 ''Departures within Five Minutes" 

This pattern of results for departures within 5 minutes in Table 6.15 differs from that shown 

for the inlmediate post-training survey. This two-month follow-up shows "Sharing Cnmmand 

Responsibility" is still positively related to 5 minute departures. The relationship between 

departures within 5 minutes and both asse;-tiveness a1·1d goal attainment within ones" own 

group, though, is much more sustained over time. There is very clearly an effect of 

assertiveness ("'Willingness to Voice Disagreement") a11.d goal attainment within work units, 

upon on-time departures. 

6.7.5 "Departures within Fifteen Minutes" 

Table 6.16 Departures within 15 minutes shows the same pattern of results as departures 

within 5 minutes. That is, command respor.sibility, assertiveness, and shared goals wiL'lln 

the group are positively and significa.'ltly related to ihis "dependability." 

183 
Chapter Si:;: 

Table 6.15 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Two Month Follow-up CRM!I'OQ 

Results and Maintenance Dependability Performance for Departures within Five Minutes - JW11Jul Aug/ Oct! Dec/ Feb/ i 

1991 Sep N<>v Jan Mar • tt:; JWIIJul~ 1992 

I . ·: .. : .. :::::.::·.:._ .. .:.·· 

Sharing Command .54$0 !2.1 )30 ..• ;28·· . :·::.· . ;1~ .49* .40 

Responsibility t 

Communication -.06 -.18 -~16 .1ll .·.·~. ·-.® ·.Zl -.02 ·-.:>.:· 

and Coordination .:.= .. :;~::::· 

Recognition Gf .33 .17 .11 

Stressor Effects 

.·."19. ! ·c·~ .27 .26 

~-:.··. 

Willingness to .64*~ .&9** ! .· .. .. Al9*• ' :W• .;5'1** .69** .55** 

Voice Disagreement .. :l· .. 

Goal Attainment .43* .53 .1>1* .ss·~ .. .114- .32 .49* 

with Own Group 

+ Goal Attainment -.03 

~__L .20 .25 .21 .04 .24 

"'ith Other Groups I n = 17 Shaded area at£" months concUJTE"nt with r.hf' two rnonth roB')Yto·UP survE"y for tht> sample oflr<!Jning p&rcicipan:.:: ex.am'int>d 

~ P< .05. U·;; < .(Jl 

Table 6.16 Spearman-R.t\o Correlations between 1\vo Month Follow-up CF..MJTOQ Resclts 

and Maintenance Dependability Perform:mce for Deoartm-es within Fifteen Minutes 

I 

Jun!Jul ! Aug! Oct/ D0rl Feb/ 

tla~ Jan/J~l 1991 Sep Nov Jar. Ma:t- 1992 

Sharing Command .42* I .21 .34 .23 .05 l .45• .34 

Responsibility 1 

Communication .31 ·.23 •.17 I .00 -10 -.30 .11 

and Coordination 

Recognition of .31 .13 .21 .!9 i _-.07 .10 .33 

Stressor Effects 

• .5'1** I Willingness to .62** .65** .74*"-" .'16* .70** .47* 

Voice Disagreement 

-· 

Goal Attainment .42* .52* .51* .52** ;57** l .31 .48° 

with Own Group ' 

G<>al Attainment .01 .12 .19 .24 .26 .()7 .32 

...ith Other Groups l 

n = 17. b"hadl"d arf'a arr month!> cm:.currf"nt witt. thf' two month roUow-up ~~,~·t>y for thl.' sarnplt> of training p?~tiripant."' f"X,<iPnn<'d 

• P< .u~. ·u ?< .01 

6.7.6 ''Departures within Sixty Minutes" 

' I 

! 

I 

I 

I 

I 

Similar to the other dependability m~asures, departures ,;:ithin 60 minute!> continues to show 

significant positive correlations with command responsibil.iiy and assertiveness as shown in 

Table 6.17. Shared goals, however, is no longer strongly associated with G~pendabiliiy 

184 
The Effect" ofCRM Trcinmg in Airline Maintencn..--e 

performance. In addition, the communication & coordination scale shows a significant 

negative relationship with 60 minute departures following the survey, that ia, favorable 

attitudes toward communication and coordination two-months after training, are co:-related 

with poor 60 minute departure performance. 

Table 6.1 '1 Spearn>.an-Rho Correlations between Two Month Follow-up CRM!TOQ 

Results and ll,1aintenance Performance for within Sixt Minutes 

JUD!Jul Aug/ Oct/ Decl Fsbl Apr/ JUD!Jul 

lll91 Sep Nov J .... Mar May 

Sharing Command .46* .23 lfllf("''c ··••·:~j~1······· .'!il** 

Responsibility . . .... ••••• 

Communication -.25 -.16 

••... · •. iJ ·~ r. 

•• •••••••••••••••••••••••••• . .ss• 

and Coordination ••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 

Re<>ognltion of I )~··.·· •..... 

.···········~· ... ····•·· 

.35 .22 .11 .03 

Stressor Effects . . . 

Willingn<>ss to .56•* i'o7o** .... •.4lF · .... .. .53* ;26 .. .SS*$ 

Voice 

Goal At'"..ainment .38 .37 .'23 .40 .4.3 -.13 

with Own"' 

Goal Attainment -.10 .07 .02 .10 .41 -.36 

with Other 

n = 17. Shsded art-a .UP months concmTent with the t....-'.l month foliow-up survey for thf" samP.. ol training p!lrticipants eu.minl!d. 

•p<.O.'l.••p<.Ol 

6. 7. 7 "Flight departures not Canceled, but over Sixty Minutes Late" 

1992 

.36 

.16 

.39 

.31 

.25 

.28 

The pattern is cor..sistent and negative for shari."lg command responsibility depicted in Table 

6.18. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the maintenance control department often directs line 

maintenance to hold an aircraft and its passengers and to require periodic updates of 

departure ti•·nes, resulting in delays of over an hour. This protracted and indirect 

<L-rangement for holding a fligilt causes bcal maintenance employees and managers to feel 

impotent, and probably obliged to provide unrealistic departure time estimates regardless of 

their ability to do so. The negative, largely concurrent, relationships in Table 6.18 suggest 

that as more ?ircraft are i1eld over one hour in an attempt to repair them, line station 

n,anagement feel that command responsibility is not shared; rath.er, it is usurped by others. 

185 
ChapterSU: 

Table 6.18 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Two Month Follow-up CRM/I'OQ 

Results and Maintenance Dependability Performance for Departures within Sixty 

Minutes, Not Canceled 

Sharing Command 

Responsibility 

Com.Jnunicat!on 

and Coordination 

Recognition of 

Stressor Effects 

Willingness w 

Voice Disagreement 

Goal Attainment 

with Own Group 

Goal Attainment 

with Other Group< 

Jun!Jul 

1991 

(-.64**) 

.24 

-.31 

-.14 

.C7 

.23 

Aug/ 

Sep 

-.21 

-.06 

.09 

-.30 

-.18 

-.10 

OcV De~ Fe~ 

Nov Jan Mar 

. 

i ... ~;os ... · ..· ... ····~ .• ·•·········· .31 ,. : \'~·::_. 

;12 .;SS -.30 

-.31 

-.01 

.04 

Apr/ 

May 

(-.57**) 

.29 

-.32 

-.40 

-.09 

.37 

Jun!Jul 

1992 

.36 

.16 

.39 

.31 

.25 

.28 

n = 17. Shaded area are months conClDTent .. ;th the.- two month ronow.up survey fa- thr samplt> ortrllinmg pa~ticipants ezamiTM'd 

• p< .05. •• P< 01 

6.7.8 "Flights Delayed Due to Late from Maintenance" 

Like its counterpart (Table 6.11) for the immediate post-training questionnaire data. Table 

6.19 shows a pattern of significant correlations in the expected directions. Differences 

between the two, however, are revealed in an increase in effect of "Recognition of Stressors·· 

for this follow-up measure, and the disappearance of any effect of follow-up "Communication 

& Coordination" With this dependability indicator. "Goal Attainment with Own Group" 

measured two months after training is also significantly correlated with this performance 

index. 

6.7.9 A Note on the Different Patterns 

The patter:.cS of relationships with maintenance performance between the post-training 

surveys and the two-month follow-up questionnaires for this same sample are differt-nt. 

These differences have been noted, but they require some explanation. Whereas the posttraining survey represents virtually all the CR.l\1 training participants in 1991, the two-month 

survey was returned by approximately 55'/r of participants, and I.D. codes could be matched 

with the post-training set for about 80'k of those. Although this is a very good return for 

such surveys, it is nonetheless limited. Examination of the demographic characU>rist1cs of 

the two-month follow-up sample reported here shows that some station (city) locations are 

over-represented, and some occupations and hierarchical levels are under-represented 

whereas others are over-represented. In particular the proportion of assistant maintenance 

186 
The Effects ofCRM Training in Airline Mcdntenance 

supervisors for several large cities is lower for the two-month follow-up than for the posttraining questionnaire. These proportions, in turn, contribute to the differences in the work 

unit mean scores on the "assertiveness" and "command responsibility" scales between the two 

surveys. 

Table 6.19 Spearman-Rho Correlations between Two Month Follow-up CR!.fJTOQ 

Results and Maintenance Dependability Perf-:'rmance for Delays Due to Late from 

Maintenance' 

JuntJul Aug! Octl Dec/ Feb! tr:; Jun!Jul 

1991 Sep Nov Jan Mar 1992 

···,, . ·i.>i8. Sharing Command -.61** -.25 t ~-58 -.22 ·.· .. · -.47 -.44* 

Responsibility 

Communication .. ... <llS .. -.05 -.01 . -.09 -.39 .00 -.30 

and Coordination ··~·: .. 

·:~·:, :;:·.· ).·;jjt,> Recognition of .. .sg•• -.31! -.39 ... -.65** -.45* 

Stressor Effects 

Willingness to -.33 -.40. ·.23 l .OS -.20 --~ -.13 

Voice Diaacreement 

Goal Att.a!nment -.57** -.59** ·.62" -.40 -.55 -.27 ... 45* 

with Own Group 

Goal Attainment -.19 -.31 ....ca• -.24 -.40 -.20 -.30 

with Other Groups 

n::. 18. Shaci~ an-11 RTP months t"Oncurnnt Wlth lh!' two month (oDmw·up !!Iurvey far t.hfo umplt- oftnnnuw ~lll a&IDllV'd 

'sou. Th•:~~ prrforru.IIOC!' 1\rm ~low" •hrn Pf'l'fonnaner ts p:»~ltiv~. t.hu. thP c!lr.-ction ofthfo statisbcs should bP JM!88tiYf' 

• P< .05. •• p< .Oi 

6.8 RESULTS SECTION 4: TRENDS IN MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE 

TWELVE MONTHS BEFORE AND TWELVE MONTHS AF"i'ER THE ONSET OF 

CRM TRAINING 

To study the trends in the eight maintenance performance indicators 12 months before and 

12 months after the commencement of the CRM training. comparisons are presented here. 

There are two trend lines in each of the Figures 6.3 through 6.10. Each figure presents one 

of the eight performance indicators. One line in each figure estimates the trend for the 12 

months preceding CRM training and the other line shows the trend after the onset of 

training. The discussion below will focus on the post-training trends for the performance 

categories of efficiency, safety and dependability. 

6.8.1 Efficiency 

6.8.1.1 Overtime Wages Paid 

One trend analysis was conducted for efficiency concerning the performan;:e measure of 

overtime. Figure 6.3 shows that the trend of overtime expenses for the 12 months following 

187 
Chapter Six 

June 1991 (the onset of the CRM 

training) improves at a faster 

rate than it had in the 12 

months preceding. Improved 

cost performance appears ~ coincident with the training, and ~ 

may be affected by it. 

6.8.2 Safety 

Two trend analyses were 

performed for the safety 

performance measure consisting 

of ground damage and 

occupational injury. These are 

shown in Figures 6.4 and 6.5. 

6.8.2.1 Number of Ground 

Damage Incidents 

Figure 6.4 shows a clear 

reversal of trends for the ntL"nber 

of ground damage incidents, in 

the year before and the year afl.er 

June 1991. Reduced ground 

damage incidents is clearly 

related in time to the CRM 

training. 

6.8.2.2 Occupational Injury 

Rates 

Occupational injury rates, shown 

in Figure 6.5, already show a 

sharp decline in the year 

preceding the training, but the 

injury rates remain low during 

the following year. The training 

may have some effect on keeping 

thest> rates low. 

oo,r--r~~t--r-;--t--r~--~-r~r-t--r~ 8 10 12 10 12 2 .. 8 10 

1990 1991 ! 

DATE 

1992 

-& PRE TFWNING T POST TRAINING 

Figure 6.3 Efficiency Overtime {Time Series) 

02445946 

0 19oll5946 [' I .,.., .. 

i 004~9./116 '-' -+-r-+--+-+-r-+--+--+-r-'F-+-+=-1 

6 I! 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 s 8 10 

1m 1 t99l 1 13s2 

DATE 

POST TRAINING 

Figure 6.4 Safety Ground Damage (Time Series) 

Figure 6.5 Safety Occupational Injury (Time Series l 

188 
The Effects ofCRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

6.8.3 Dependability 

Five trend analyses were conducted for the depenLability performance measures regarding 

departure times and delays due to maintenance. These are shown in Figures 6.6-6.10. 

6.8.3.1 ''Departures within 

Five Minutes of Schedule" 

Figure 6.6 shC>ws a slightly 

higher level of performance, 

overall, in the post-training year, 

but the performance was trending 

up in the year preceding the 

training. The apparent effect of 

the CRM training on 5 minute 

performance overall is to maintain 

pretraining performance levels. 

6.8.3.2 ''Departures within 

Fifteen Minutes of Schedule" 

The pattern in Figure 6. 7 shows 

a similar trend to departures 

within 5 mil:outes. That is, 

performance improves (the trend 

is up) in the year preceding the 

onset of CRM training. and that 

performance remains high and 

stable in the year following. Like 

departures within 5 minutes, the 

overall effect of the CRM trrumng 

on 15 minute performance is 

cloudy. although results from the 

follow-up survey d;>monstrates the 

relationship between assertiveness 

and dependability (cf.. Tables 

6.15-6.16). 

8 10 12 2 • 6 8 10 12 2 "' 6 

1m 1ss1 1 1ss2 

DATE 

Figure 6.6 Dependability Departure in 5 Minutes 

('l'ime Series l 

Figu.--e 6.7 Dependability Departure in 15 Minutes 

\Time Serle:;) 

189 
Chapter Six 

6.8.3.3 ''Departures within 

Sixty Minutes of Schedule" 

In Figure 6.8, the perlormance 

remains the same (quite 

undifferentiated) between the 

year pre.:eding anrl the year 

following the onset of CRM 

training. The training appears to 

have no impact on this 

perlormance. 

6.8.3.4 ''Flights Delayed over 

Sixty Minutes, but not 

Canceled" 

The trend Jines in Figure 6.9 

show a very similar slope 

between the before- and aftertraining time periods. Here also 

the training appears to have 

neither positive nor negative 

impact on this performance 

indicator. 

6.8.3.5 "Frequency of Late 

Flights due to Maintenance." 

No appreciable impr-oven ent in 

"Late from Maintenance" is noted 

in Figure 6.10 fer the year 

following the onset of CRM 

training, although the trend is 

toward improved perlonnance 

during both years. 

101 

I 

100 

985 l 

l\=====·=·:~~·~~:10~~:12~~,:~~·~_:·~~·:~:1·~~~12~~:2~:·~~:·~~=·~~~- Ill 

1990 1 1991 1 ·~ss;; 

DATE 

ePRETAAINtNG fPOSTTRAlNING 

Figure 6.8 Dependability Departure in 60 Minutes 

(Time Series) 

r==,. ~~~~~~l 

10 12 4 

19srl l 

e PRE TRA!N:NG 

• 8 

1991 

DATE 

10 12 2 

1992 ' s 

Figure 6.9 Dependability Flights Not Cancelled (Time 

Series) 

Figure 6.10 Dependability L'lte From l\laintenance 

(Time Series) 

190 

I 

II 

I 
The Effects ofCRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

6.9 RESULTS SECTION 5: MANAGERS SELF-REPORTS OF BEHAVIOR 

CHANGE: WRITIEN COMMENTS FROM THE POST-TRAINING At'llD 

FOLLOW-UP CRM!fOQ 

Two open-ended questions were ask•d of the maintenance managers concerning the intended 

use of the CRM training and its app. ;cation to the job. What follows are the results of these 

two questions. The full sample availa 'lie by July 1992 is employed in the following analysis. 

6.9.1 Intended Use of CRM Training 

On the post-training, two, six, and twelve month follow-up questionnaires, participants were 

asked to write their responses to a question concerning how they expected to use the CRM 

training on the job. Content coding of the answers to this question resulted in four categories 

of response: "Better listening;" "More awareness of others;" "Dealing better with others;" and 

"Better communication." These categories represent two types of self-perception of potential 

behavior change: the first two categories show a "passive" improvement made within the 

person, while the last two categories show an "active" transfer of information by d1rect 

interpersonal approaches. 

6.9.1.1 "How wi!l You Use the 

CRM Training'' 

Figure 6.11 presents the results 

of the question, coded into the 

categories, for all four 

measurement waves. As the 

figure shows, expectations for all 

four categories are low in 

approbation as measured by 

frequency of response (none of 

the four categories accounts for 

as much as 25'7r of those 

answering) immediately 

following the training. In the 

subsequent waves of 

measurement in the months 

following, the two passive 

categories show a lbt and low 

pattern, whiie two "active" 

p 

E 

" c 

N 

T 

~r------------------------------------, I 

35 r 

30~ 

25~ ' 

SU~'FY 71'-f!: 

"""T' Eette: Col"":-r-:,;<rHc -+- Set:.e: :...:s:e~ 

--"'t- More A---e ----"+- Se!!.e• ..... ' 0:-~<s 

Figure 6.11 Percent Written Responses- How 

Training will be Csed: Post. Two. Six. and Tv>eiv<> 

Months 

categories (dealirg better with others and better commumcationl ir:c:-ease. "Dealing bet:e:-

v.ith others" induces statements such as more "problerr. soh-mg act: vi ties:· "tea!:: work:· and 

"group consensual decision making." The shifting pattern from passive and reactiw 

involvement. to more active information transfer and working with others is clearly shown 

in Figure 6.11. 

191 
Chapter Six 

6.9.2 How Training was Used on the Job 

For the sample of participants who returned the two, six and twelve month follow-up 

questionnaires, responses to the question of how they actually used the CRM training on the 

job were content coded. The trainees· self-perception of behavior responses were coded in the 

same four categories as the other open ended question regarding the intended use of th.e CI<M 

training. 

6.9.2.1 'How did ;you Use the 

CIL'" training?'' 

T : r 

Figure 6.12 presents the 

graphed percentages of how the 

training was used on the job for 

the survey periods of two, six and 

twelve months. Better listening 

tended to decrease in reported 

percentage from 20% for two 

mont.l,s to 17% for six months 

and 13% for twelv~ months. The 

other passive category, "be ma.te 

aware of others," showed a stabie 

pattern over time for the two and 

six month survey periods and 

·~~-~.~.0~----------~~~------------~~ , ~v- 50<"0 ~eVE "OI, SL'F:\.:Y-nME 

--:lr Better Com.··~·~u··~::: -+awe~ Usten 

-+- Motw ~ -3*E-Bee&r w/ ~:"$ 

' 

increased to 23'7c for the twelve Figure 6.12 Per.cent Written Responses -How 

month survey period. The active Training was Used: Two, Six, and Twelve Months 

category of "deal better with 

others" displayed high percentages for both two and six months (25'7c and 21% respectively) 

and rose substantially for twelve months with 40%. Better communication also showed a 

high percentage of use, for all three follow-up questionnaires. These open-ended responses 

appear to confirm that improved interpersonal behaviors have resulted from the positive 

attitudes that followed the training. Furthennore, the preferred behaviors tend to haw 

shifted from those people could do by themselves (e.g., "be a better listener" and "being more 

aware of others"), to behaviors that involve others, sue.~ as "commun\cating better" a..."1.d 

"dealing better with others." 

6.9.3 Other Evi~ence for Improved Eeha"\<ior Patterns Following 'I'r&inin,; 

6.9.3.1 Anecdote Conc'i!rning Beha"\<ior Change 

The use of anecdotal data for reporting trainees' behavio:r change on the job a.""ld the 

appiication ofL'le knowledge learned from the training is recommended by Blakeslee \19821 

and Ford ( 1989). One such anecdotal case involves a long-term employee who was planning 

to quit due to the supervisor's rna.'lagement sty! e. After attending the CRM tr.ill>ing course 

152 
The Effects ofCR.M Training in Airline Maintenanc<o 

a.'1d returning to work, the boss's style changed considerably. The supervisor was apparently 

actively applying i.he concepts of the CR.'VI training to the work em ironment. Only aJter this 

supen-isor had actively committed to this new management style, did the employee decide 

not to quit the company. After this ivcident occurred, and the employee's turn to at~end the 

CRl\1 came, the change in the supervisor's behavior was described to the training facilitators. 

The employee commented that what had happened t.o t}w supervi3or must be attributable to 

the CR\1 training. The employee stated that the boss's behavior had obviously changed after 

the t.-aining and now reflected many of the CR.l\A pz-;..nciples and concepts in daily work. 

6.9.4 Specific Reactions to the Course !t_.-...,lf -· Suggestions for Its Improvement 

6.9.4.1 Good Aspects of the Training 

On the post-training and two, six !l.l""ld twelve month follow-up C~i-TOQ, there was an oren 

ended question consisting of "what aspects of the tr-aining were particularly good?'" The 

participants written-in responses were content coded and the categories of commems with 

the highest frequencies were selected and pe,-centages calculated. The five resulting 

categories indude specific CRM course topics and they are shown in Table 6.20 . . Jill four 

survey periods including post-training, two, six and twelve month part:cipants responses are 

presented in Table 6.20. Results for these four survey periods it"l.dic;ated that the Strength 

Deve1opment Inventory or personality ;behavioral) style self-analysis exercise had the highest 

reported enthusiasm for all four survey periods. 

Table 6.20 \\'ritten-in Responses Indicating Pa."ticularly Good Aspects ofTraini..'lg for 

Post-training, Two, Six and Twelve Month Follow-up 

II SURVEY PERIOD ~ I II ' Post· Two !\!onth ' Six ~!onth Tweh·e ~lonth ·l i 

training Follow-up I Follow·up Follow-up iJ 

II 

I " 

Response tl 

fi !I Strent;-th Deve!o;m1Pn: ·-~ dK 11g l8'l- 1~ ! I' lnven:o:ry 

II Cnmmunicatlnn. 9'K 3'< , ·~ 16~ !i "' d 

I 

i 

i· • 

Li5t€"r:ing 

.1..s.:-.ert~veness. 

SklHs 

. 

"~ 

8'K 

,;. .,. 

s~ 

4"~ 

5Y 

2'7r 5~ 

StK 

~ •I 

'I 

~ .. St!·<.>:;;s. !\1~T'!agen. --::t 1 O":r 7t;; lO'n 8':< " ,. 

For th<> post-trai:1ing sur.-ey period. the ?..ssertiveness module was rated as the second 

highe~t. (particularly good} aspect of the CR.\1 trai:1.i:1g. ~-\..lso. for the post-training sun·ey 

regults. th~ stress management training mod-ule was :a.ted nearly the sa.."11e by the . . fi ]' db h . ,. d ,. . kil" d ' parucrpants. o 10\\-·e . :· t e commun1cad.on ar! l1Sten1:n.g g_~ IS :no u1es. 
Chapter Six 

6.9.4.2 Training Improvements 

The open-ended question "what do you thin..lt could be done to improve the training?" was 

asked in order to gain information to ma..lre the CR..\1: training cou..-se better. All of the 

participants' written-in ,.,sponses were content coded and +>,e categories of comments with 

the highest frequencies were selected and percentages c;;k-1lated. Results of the content 

coding indicating how the training might be improved for the three survey periods of posttraining, two, six and twelve monih are shown in Table 6.21. For the post-train\ng sun·ey 

period, the largest category of responses was that the training does not need any 

improvements; "do notjting" or "it's fme ru: it is." Second in order was the comment that the 

participants would li'-e more training similar to this or "bring us back for follow-up training." 

As Tabie 6.21 s."!Jows, the other four categories for the post-training survey were all similar 

in freq·~ency. 

Table 6.21 Percentage of Written-in Responses Indicating How Training Might be 

Improved for Post-training . , , Two Six and Twelve . Month Follow-up I 

SURVEY PERiOD I 

Post· I Two Month I SU.l\lonth l Twelve Month I 

training Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up 

! I Re..-p<>nse j 

Needs Nothing 35% 16~ I 12'.< 14<;(- I 

l I 

More Training & 11c~- 27% 28lff 29" 

Foilow-up I I I I 

I ) ! .More Role Pi~.ying 7';;. ~ 1'h 4g ?t; 

I l ! Add Ti:r:e to Traini:>g ?"K 5".T 4<;f I 5<ff ll 

I More Case Studies 6% 7~ ! 7~ 81< 

l Better 1\.iix of 6'1< 5'if. l 7.r:t I 61< ! Par.ic.ipants I 

' I 

Results of the participants' responses for the two, six and twe!ve months follow-up survey 

period showed that the largest single category of comments was for recurrent training a1"1d 

("bring us back for follow-up training" 1. The next largest response category for all three 

sun;eys was the "needs nothing" responses. These comments seem to indicate that most 

respondents showed approval of the program and perhaps more importa11t, wanted more 

training like it. Participants in rough!y similar p:roponions to their post-training responses. 

suggested more role pla)ing and case studies, adding more time to the training a.':!d ha,ing 

a better mix of participants. 

194 
The Effects ofCRM Training in Airline Maintenance 

6.9.4.3 General Analysis of Open Ended Responses 

Analysis of the open ended question pertaining to the pa.--ticularly good aspects of the CRl\1 

training seminar, indicates that for ali four survey time periods the partic!p&nts found the 

st!-ength development inventory or analysis of ones' behavioral style to be particularly good. 

In this training module, the participants were given information concerning their behavioral 

style with the implications of thai style for human interactions and management practices. 

Furthermore, it appeared that learning ones' behavioral style under v&ious workloads and 

con .llict situations heightens the awareness and appreciation of how people will react and 

manage. Many maintenance managers wrote that having understood ones' behavioral style 

brought a sense of clarity of how ot~er people were responding to them under various 

leadership and working situations. Also, understanding one's boss·s behavioral style alerted 

them of why the boss was managing the work units in a particularly way. The stress 

management, assertoveness and communication trai.ning modules were all mentioned as 

particularly good aspects of the CRM training. It follows from this that after tile trainees 

understood their own behavioral style and their boss's behavioral style, learning how to 

become more assertive, manage stress better and communicate more effectively under 

stressful conditions was deemed important. Active listening skills assisted the technical 

manager in better communicating and understanding the working situation. 

Over time, the design of the CRM training progran1 was still considered as "fine" and it 

"needs nothing." What was clearly being stated by the participants was the need for more 

training and follow-up courses that incorporated more role playing exercises, along \vith more 

case studies. It appears, oy what they report to practice over time, thai the tech:lical 

managers have attempted to apply as much as they can to their work environment; now they 

want some more constructive practice and study on how to further improve their resource 

management skills. A refresher course on crew coordination concepts skills seems to be 

important to these maintenance managers. Many of them indicated that they would like to 

work more with the professionals i:1 this area of CRM and in~eract with other technical 

managers in practicing and applying these skills. These data are consistent with 

developments in the company to produce a follow-up CRM course for these managers. 

including a broader mix of participa11ts, more "real life'' case studies and more role-playing 

exercises. 

Other written-in comments reinforce the §;enerally positive :response to the training. Several 

of the participants wrote that bec2use this course was well designed and delivered. it was the 

first time they did not fall asleep in the training seminar! The authors obsen·ed several of 

the training sessions, and noted a high level of actiYity and involvement of the participants 

We obserred that ~veryone was actively participating a:-:d i:-:teracting with others d\... -ing the 

course exercises. !viany of the manage!'"S wer-e taking notes in the. trcjning manua: and 

studying t.~e material during breaks. Several of the panicipants stated the.t they we:-:t home 

and discussed the material with their family members and commented on how thP cour~P 

material could be reasonably easy in appl,ying it to thei:- home situation as well a~ a: work_ 

195 
Chapter Six 

6.10 CONCLUSIONS 

The combined results of the five major analyses reported here reveal a strong and positive 

effect of the maintenance management CRM training after its first full year of 

implementation. Although all maintenance management personr.el have not yet been 

trained, a sizable portion of them have. Additionally, a full 12 months of post-training 

performance data provide a good sample of performance effects following the onset of 

training. 

The stability of the follow-up measures for individual respondents is established, although 

there appears to be some sampling effect in the follow-up data caused by a variable return 

rate by station and hierarchical level. 

Many individuals report changing their behavior to take advantage of what they learned in 

the CRM training. Most measures of maintenance performance improve in the year following 

the onset of the training when compared with the same period before the training. 

Furthermore (despite the sampling effect noted above), the improved attitudes toward sharing 

responsibility, coordinating, speaking up, and recognizing stressor effects are significantly 

related to concurrent and subsequent maintenance performance. 

Additional survey data have been, and continue to be, collected in the months following 

training. Larger sample sizes and longer time periods will become available for analysis in 

the coming months and we expect some of the variability in longitudinal group data to 

decrease. Based on the time-lagged results shown in the present report we can expect to see 

even stronger evidence for the power of the CRl\1 training in improving safety in the future. 

6.11 REFERENCES 

Blakeslee, G. S. ( 1982). Evaluating a communications training program. Training and 

development Journal, 36(11), 84-89. 

Ford, W.Z. (1989). Evaluating communication skills training in organizations. Paper 

presented at the annual meeting of the Speeeh communi«:ation • .<\ssociation, San Francisco, 

CA. 

Geirland, J.G. & J.J. Cotter (1990). Social Analysis Questionnaire, No. Hollywood, CA: John 

J. Cotter & Associates, Inc. 

Gregorich, S.E.; Helmreich, R.L. & Wilhelm, J.A. (1990). The structure of cockpit 

management attitudes. Journ.al of Applied Psychology, 75, 682-690. 

Helmreich, R.L.; Foushee, H.C.; Benson, R. & Russini, R. (1986). Cockpit management 

attitudes: exploring the attitude-performance linkage. Aviation, Space and Environmental 

Medicine, 57, 1198-1200. 

196 
The Effects ofCRM Training in Airline Maintenanc,; 

Sherman, P.J. (1992). "New Directions of CRM Training." Proceedings of the Human F~tors 

Society 36 Annual Meeting, p.896. 

Taggart, W. (1990). "Introducing CRM into Maintenan(;e Training." Proceedings of the Third 

International Symposium on Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection. Federal 

Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C. 

Taylor, J.C., <199la) "Crew Resource Management {CRM) Training tbr Maintenance: Some 

measurement characteristics of the CRM!!'OQ questionnaire." FAA, Office of Aviation 

Medicine, Biomedical and Behavioral Sciences Branch. Task 2 Report. 

Taylor, J.C., (1991bl "Crew Resource Management (CRM) Training for Maintenance: 

Assessment of performance measures, and a demonstration of analysis plan." FAA, Office 

of Aviation Medicine, Biomedical and Behavioral Sciences Branch. Task 3 Report. 

Taylor, J.C., B.A Bettencourt and M.M. Robertson (1992). The Effects of Crew Resource 

Management {CRMl Training in Maintenance: An Early Demoustra~10n of Training Effects 

on Attitudes and Performance (Report of Work Completed Througil 12-31-91). In Human 

Factors in Aviation Maintenance Phase 2: Progress R>Jport. Federal Aviation Administration, 

Office of Aviation Medicine. Washington, D.C., (in press). 

197 
,_. 

<0 

<C 

Mod•Jic 

Day I 

Introduction 

Portland Video 

Expectations 

Break 

Testing Assumptions/ 

DC-10 Video GUM 

Lunch 

Technical Operations Division 

Crew Coordination Concepts Syllabus 

Time Facilitator Method 

8:15am 

(30 min) 

8:45am 

(45 min) 

9:30am 

OS min) 

TO 

HF 

HF 

9:45am ( 15 min) 

IO:OOam TO 

(120 min) 

I 2:00pm 

(60 min) 

Introduce self. 

Cover facilities, restrooms, telephones, 

breaks, lunches, closing lime. 

What have you heard about course? 

Review I'URI'OSE, OBJECfiVES, 

WORKING AGREEMENTS. 

Collect Pre-seminar questionnaln:. 

Explain purpose & importance of 10 #. 

Group introduces themselves. 

Show video; idenlify resource mgt. 

problems; relate l'onlrmd problems 

to work place. l'repare Oipchan 

Develop expectations of individuals in 

course. Write on chan. Compare to 

course objectives. 

Introduce concept of Perception vs. 

Reality. 

Show DC-10 Video GUM. 

Tahlework: What were "Chain of Events" 

that led to the accident'/ 

Discuss" ASSIJMI'riONS" that led or 

contributed to accident. 

How can we test our assumptions? 

What could each person have done 

diffcrcruly? 

Objective 

!'osition program as helpful in dev. mgt. 

skills. 

Get group talking and energized. 

Set the tone of the workshop. 

Clarify expectations, yours/theirs. 

Remove teacher-student relalionship. 

Anention gcller. Identify mgt. problems 

faced: problems become course 

focus/overview. 

Get expectalions from group, compare to 

course, illustrate liifferrnccs if any. 

Test Assumplions by: 

Advocacy - "Speaking Out" 

Inquiry - "Ask Queslions" 

Aclive Listening - "Listening" 

~ {; 

~ r:n r;-

~ 

l 

11' 
Module 

Behaviors 

Break 

Behaviors 

Cont'll 

Break 

1:5 

o Stress 

Management 

Time 

1:00pm 

(75 min) 

2:15pm 

(15 min) 

2:30pm 

(1\0 min) 

3:30pm 

(15 min) 

3:4~pm 

(60 min) 

Technical Operations Division 

Crew Coordination Concepts Syllabus 

Facilitator Method 

Ill' 

Ill' 

TO/Ill' 

Discuss use of instruments; admin. 

SDI; develop Dehav Dim Model; 

discuss concept of" Assertive Behavior." 

Score SDI; lnierpret SDI; draw arrr3ws; 

discuss/apply" Assertiveness" 

TO · Introduce/understand stress 

What are sources of stress in our jobs? 

Develop list of Strcssors. 

HI'· Identify body's reaction to stress. 

Ways to deal with stress. 

TO • Work on how to deal wl01 2 

examples. 

ETR'S MANPOWER, PARTS 

AVAILADILITY 

Objective 

Understand behavior differences; understand 

strengths and weaknesses of beh&vior styles; 

assertlvenes5 using a variety of styles 

(positively), 

People are different; behaviors inOuence 

communication, values, perceptions of others, 

decision making & conOict resolution 

methods. Behavior modificati.on approp. for 

effective supervision, 

Stress is normal; stress can be managed; 

Recognize signs of excess stress, 

Effe.:ts of safety & efficiency. 

Application or CCC to reduce stress. 

~ 

.@ 

~ f1l li' 

~ 

l li' 
Technical Operations Division 

Crew Coordination Concepts Syllall"s 

Modu!e Time Facilitator Method Objective 

Day2 

Opening 8:15am TO Show GIJM 041 video with breakfast. Transition and clarification; group at ease 

DC-10 Video (30 min) Address loose ends from Day I ; willl where llley've been and are heading; 

GUM 041 Oulline schedule for Day 2. NOT A REVIEW! 

Review lessons learned in <"Onlext of 

video ({111M 041). 

Sub Arctic 8:45am TO Purpose of simulation. Tie into Day I; position as a competition 

Survival (60 min) Make individu;d decisions (step I). This is fun! 

Make group decisions (step 2). 

Dreak 9:45am 

(15 min) 

;,:) 

0 SAS II I O:OOam IIF Define/develop mlional decision process; Problem solving involves a mtional process~ ,_. (60 min) apply process Ill simulation; comple!e SAS: concensus decisions are better than imlividual 

critique team eff~cl; develop lessons decisions. 

leamcd/appllo joh. lnlerperSOIIal skills impact decision-making. 

Drcak li:OOam 

(15 min) 

Nonns/ I 1:15am TO Identify role of norms in Tech Ops. Norms play powerful role In organizations. 

EAL 855 (45 min) lnuoduce concept, give examples. Ilave a direct impact on safely & erficiency. 

Allow lime 10 review EAL 855. Assumptions must be tested. 

Assign each table a role. Norms are unwrilletl •ules enforccll by the 

~ What were norms thai led to accident? group. 

Groups develop lists of good/bad CO Mgt & FAA are powerless to change norms. \7 

nonns. Discuss how 10 manage nonns and 

prevent accidents. ~ 

~ 

Lunch I 2:00pm 

(60min) li l 

r;· 
Module Time Facilitator Method Objective ~ 

Listening & 1:00pm IIF Tic into SAS; Sleep cxcercise. Listening is a learned skill. Poor listening {J 

Communicating (60 min) Communication model; listening barriers; l!miL~ quality decision making. ~ CIJ listening lips. li' 

Break 

(15 

2:00pm 

min) ~ " 

Supponing/ 2:15pm TO/IIF Use interactive dilemas. Application of behavioral skills/style. l 

li' 

Confronting (60 min) Conduct I sl dilema. Undersl8lld !he variety of approaches; 

Critique/lessons learned from lsi. language is imporl8lll. Use role play lo 

Conduct 2nd dilema. demonstrate skills/lack of ami need of 

I low wa~ second different from first? practice. 

Break 3:151lffi 

(15 min) 

Wrap· up 3:30pm 1'0/IIF Take home concepts? Pledge 10 do something differenubeuer. 

Evaluations/ (45 min) I ISC/CAL Questionnaire explanation Feedback for program enhance11oen1; 

I>:) Quc•tionaairc I.[). #s on qucslio~naires participants reel good about experience. 0 

"" 
A Human Facton Guide for Aviation Maintenance 

CHAPTER SEVEN 

A HUMAN FACTORS GUIDE FOR AVIATION MAINTENANCE 

7.0 INTRODUCTION 

Maintenance for air carriers is conducted under a myriad of pressures caused by strict 

flight schedules, new aircraft technologies, aging aircraft issues, personnel working 

conditions, and economic factors. Irrespective of these pressures, the quality of 

maintenance must be high if industry safety standards are to be achieved. Also, the 

efficiency of maintenance must be high if the airline industry is to remain economically 

viable. These industrial imperatives can only be met with a maintenance workforce that 

is both productive and rigorous. Maintenance tasks must be accomplished expeditiously 

and accurately. A Human Factors Guide can be valuable in supporting and enhancing the 

performance of aviation maintenance personnel and thereby aid in meeting the industry's 

goals. 

The Federal Aviation Administration <FAAl program on Human Factors in Aviation 

Maintenance is developing, as one end product, a guidebook presentiP-g human factors 

in:":>rmation to support the work activities of maintenance technicians. The philosophy of 

the guide is that a maintenance technician represents one operating element in a 

··maintenance system," with other elements being the aircraft, the maintenance facility, 

supervisory forces, and maintenance equipment. In this context, we need to know the 

··operating characteristics" of the technician just as we would those of any other operating 

element. Information is necessary concerning the capabilities and limits of humans, the 

effect of envimnmental factors, and the way in which humans operate most effectively in 

a human-machine relationship. In short, we need to understand the "human factors" of 

aviation maintenance. 

The Human Factors Guide was prepared on the basis of stated preferences of 

maintenance personnel. This was done to ensure that the guide is usable and that its 

potential for helping maintenance is not degraded by problems of acceptance or by its 

physical characteristics. Selection of topics and the presen·ation of materials was guided 

by information obtained through a series of FAA-sponsored human fac•.ors meetings as 

well as input gained from a participatory panel of maintenance personnel. 

7.1 STATUS OF HUMAN FACTORS GUIDE 

During the past twelve months, the Human Factors Guide for Aviation Maintenance has 

progressed through the following stages: (1) Concept Definition; {2) Methodology 

Development; {3) Data Collection and Analysis, Data Synthesis and Abstraction, and 

Draft Section Authoring; {4) Advanced Technical Data Solicitation; and (51 

Preliminary Draft Re\>;ew. Copyright and Permission Approvals are being obtaint>d as 

required. 

203 
Chapter Seven 

Concapt Definition was addressed through two means that involved key members of the 

air carrier maintenance community: (1) A topic selection meeting and (2) a data gathering 

phase. 

The topic selection meeting was held in January 1992 prior to the convening of the Sixth FAA 

Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection. Attendees 

included invited individuals representing the interests of experienced Air Transport 

Association Inspection Panel Membe~. manufacturers, carriers, unions, universities, the 

FAA. and FAA support contractors. The topic selection meeting resulted in preliminary 

recommendations relative to the Guide's scope and purpose, primary target audience, v<:riting 

style and tone, and suggested topical sections. 

During June-July 1992, a concept definition for the guide was sought from 60 key 

members of the air carrier maintenance community. Information solicited was designed to 

ensure that the real needs of aviation maintenance personnel would be met and that the 

Guide would be authored and constructed consistent with likely end-cser needs. The 

information obtained addressed issues of target audience identification, as well as Guide 

content, size, and style. 

A detailed analysis of information obtained from the air carrier representatives was 

presented in August 1992 at the Seventh FAA Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Aircraft 

Maintenance and Inspection: "Science, Technology and Management, A Program Review." 

Also included as part of the presentation was a methodology development strategy, along 

with a prototype topical section on Area a:nd Task Lighting. Subsequently, draft Guide 

sections have been developed using the outline shown in Table 7.1. 

Table 7.1 Outline for Human Factors Guide Sections 

• Importance of Topic in Industrial Operations 

• Industrial Experience 

• Related Research 

• Application in Aviation Maintenance 

• Industry Practices 

• OpinionnaireiAuditJRcsearch Findings 

• Human Factors Guidelines 

• Brief Discussion 

• Specific Guidelines 

• Procedures for Evaluating the Situation 

204 
A Human Ftu!klrts Guide for Aviation Maintenance 

Also, as part of methodology development, a broad outline for the entL-re Guide was 

established, including the following: 

Part I: 

Part II: 

Part III: 

Part IV: 

PartV: 

Introduction 

Maintenance and Inspection 

Workplace Design 

The Human Operator 

Workplace Issues. 

Data Collection and Analysis, Data 8!'Ilthesis and Abstraction, and Draft Section 

Authoring has progressed sequentially for all sections of the Guide. Primary data sources 

are shown in Table 7.2. 

Table 7.2 Primary Data Sources 

• Proceedings from the FAA Meetings on Human Factors Issues in Aircraft 

Maintenance and Inspection 

• Aviation maintenance manufacturers and carriers 

• Professional journals and publications 

• Copyrighted human factors and performance enhancement textbooks and 

publications 

• Profe~onal society and/or association conference proceedings 

• Government and Professional guidelines and standards 

• National Research Council, Committee on Human Factors 

• University human factors and behavioral technology research laboratories and 

aviation maintenance programs 

Information was 3bstracted and synthesized, with concepts and ideas condensed to present 

key information concisely. Relevant information is presented in either a bullet format or in 

short listings and statements. Illustrations are used to support textual material, as 

appropriate. 

Advanced Technical Data. Because of the technical nature of some Guide sections, data 

were solicited from organizations such as the Industrial Engineering Laboratory, State 

University of New York at Buffalo; ATA Committees on Standardized/Simplified Language 

205 
Chapter Seven 

and Maintenance Manual Data/Format; the Equal Employment Opportunity Com...""lission; 

and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 

A preliminary review of draft Guide sections was held at BioTechnology on 9 March 1993. 

The meeting's purposes were to (1) review the draft Guide and (2) to discuss efforts needed 

to bring the Guide to completion. Issues addressed at this review meeting included a final 

discussion of target audience to ensure thai sponsor and contracto:r personnel were in f.ill 

agreement; illustrations and photographic support; Guide size, cross referencing, and format; 

copyrights and approvals; air carrier and air manufacturer aviation maintenance technical 

review comments; and publication, printing, and distribution issues. 

Many, but not all, copyright and permission requirements have been identified (e.g., for 

scanned images, photographs and quoting/abst:racting more than 500 words of ccpyrighted 

textual material). A complete audit of each Guide section relative to copyright obligations 

continues. To date, letters have been sent tc 35 publishers. Fourteen have responded 

positively. 

Not ali copyright and permission !etters have been prepar• d. Of those copyright and 

approval letters for which responses have been :received, Table 7.3 is a composite summary 

of permission requirements established by publishers: 

Table 7.3 Permission Requirements 

• Publishers require copyright credit lines. 

• Permissions typicaHy: 

• Are restricted to print reproduction only and do not include electronic 

media or any type of electronic format 

• Are limited to the English language distribution (some publishers 

restrict distribution to the U.S., its terr-itories and dependencies, the 

Phil1ppines, and Canada; other publishers allow distribution in the 

English language world-wide) 

• Do not extend to any copyrighted matenals credited to other sources 

• Are non-exclusive and are not transfarabl~ 

• Require one copy of the final work tc be ?rovided to the publisher 

• Require that any cha11ges to the draft ~ubmission be appro·•ed 

• Require a signed agreement. 

206 
A Human Fac:ors Guide for At'iation Maintenance --------------------------~~------

The Human Factors Gei:d.e for Aviation Maintenance will undergo final review by the Federal 

Aviation Administration during 1994. The Guide will ~ availabie to the air carrier 

maintenance mdustry upon completion of the review cycle a.'ld subsequent publication. 

Distribution of the Guide will be controlled through the Office of Aviation Medicine, Federal 

Aviation Administration. 

207 
Formal Presentations and Publications 

CIIAPTER EIGHT 

Bibliography - Formal Presentations and Publications for the 

FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Human Factors in Aviation Maintenance 

and Inspection Research Program, 1989-1993 

The following is a listing of over 100 p~entations and publications resulting from the FAA 

Office of Aviation Medicine Human Factors in Aviation Maintenance and Inspection Research 

Program, 1989 through July 1993. 

Dr. WilHam T. Shepherd 

Shepherd, W. T. Committee Member. National Plcn for Aviation Human Factors. 

Throughout 1990. 

Shepherd, W. T. ( 1991 ). Demographics of aviation maintenance technicians for the nineties 

and beyond. In Challenges in Aviation Human Factors: The National Plan. 

Shepherd, W. T. (1991). Human factors in aircraft maintenance and inspection. In 

Proceedings of the 1991 International Conference o: Aging AircrafT. and Structural 

Ainoorthiness. NASA Conference Publication 3160. 

Shepherd, W. T. (1992). (title). In Proceedings of the FAA! .'\:4SA Con.ference on Ar:ifi-:ia! 

Intelligence ar.d Human Factors in Air Traffic Control and .4.1·iation Maintenance. Daycona 

Beach. FL.: Embry Riddle Aeronautical University. 

Shepherd,\\'. T. (1992). Integrated infonnatio:J. systems for antiJde-icing work t>:ni:ro:::~ments. 

In Report of the FA4. Intemationa! Conference on Airplane Ground De-Icir:g FA-\ Flight 

Standards Service. 

Shepherd, \V. T. (1992). Issues in a>iation mai:~te::m.>"lce numan factors. In Rc;;cr: o;' the 

Flight Safety and Human Factors Regional Seminar. ICAO: Cairo, Egypt. 

Shepherd, \',. 7. (1992). Aircraft rr.aintenanc<> challenges ar.d ln:1:1:m facwrs so::.:tions. 1n 

Report of the Flight Safety and Human Factors Regionc/ Semina!". ICAO: ::\1Px:co C::y. 

Shepherd. W. T. (in press). Human factors in airc::-aft l"!lai:n<-nance a'"ld ins?<'c:ion. IC'.40 

Digest. 

Shepherd, W.T. & Johnson. W.B.Il991). Aircraft mai:1tena'"1Ce d1allenges and hu:-::2-n fac:or>' 

:::;o - l u t" 10ns. P rocee d; .ng:-- o {th .. e IC'O .'"1 F~,.~;,· d " .r '· -"~ u. ~· r ;:; r'nr· s~ •·'•·nr B~ .. -·- '-

6 •• ~ .... .r~ t.} ~-··" n.t.~ .• c .. .: C~ .. v-~ _l .. t~--~- .. -~•:e-.!'\.VK. 

Thailand. 

209 
Formcl Presentations and Publications 

Johnson, W.B. & Shepherd, W.T. (1991}. Human factors in aviation maintenance: research 

and development in the USA Proceedings of the ICAO Flight Safety and Human Factors 

Seminar. Douala, Cameroon. 

Johnson, W.B. (1991). The national plan for aviation hu.'llan factors: maintenance research 

issues. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Society. San Francisco, 

CA: The Human Factors Society. 

Johnson, W. B. Speaker. "Advanced Technology Training." Civil Aeromedical Institute. 

October, 1991. 

Johnson, W.B. (1992). Enhancing human performance in maintenance with automated 

information and training. Proceedings of the FAA/ NASA Conference on Artificial Intelligence 

and Human Factors in Air Traffic Control and Aviation Maintenance. Daytona Beach, FL: 

Embry Riddle Aeronautical University. 

Johnson, W. B. Speaker."Portable Job Aids: A Concept." Flight Standards Training & 

Automation Committee. July, 1992. 

Johnson, W. B. Spea.l,:er. "Advanced Technology Training Trends." FAA Administrator's 

Blue Ribbon Panel on AMT/Pilot Shortage. August, 1992. 

Johnson, W. B. Speaker. "Training Evaluation at Delta Air Lines." ATA Maintenance 

Training Committee. October, 1992. 

Johnson, W. B. (March/April, 1993). Ongoing research: The hu.'llan factors that affect 

maintenance. Aircraft Technician. p.42. 

Johnson, W. B. (in press). Computer-based approaches for enhancing human performance in 

aviation maintenance. In Proceedings of the ICAO Flight Safety and Human Factors 

Symposium. April 11-15, 1993. 

Johnson, \V. B. (in press). Human factors research: Can it have an impact on a fimmcially 

troubled U.S. aviation !'ldustry? 1993 Human Factors Society Meeting. 

Johnson, W. B., Layton, C. F., & Norton, J. E. Speakers. "Information Systems." ATA 

Portable MaintenancE' Access Terminal Standards Working Group. October, 1992. 

Johnsor., W.B. & Norton, J.E. (199ll. Using intelligent simulation to enhance human 

performance in aircraft mamtenance. Proceedings of the 1991lr..ternational Conference on 

Aging Aircraft and Structural Airworthiness (NASA Conference Publication 3160). 

Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration and National Aeronautics and Space 

Admini;;tration. 

211 
Chapter Eight 

Johnson, W.B. & Norton, J.E. (1992). Integrated systems for trammg, aiding, and 

infonnation retriFal. Proceedings of the East-West Confere.'1ce on Emerging Technology in 

Education. Moscow, Rur,sia. 

Johnson, W.B. & Norton J.E. 11992). Integ;ated information for maintenance trammg. 

aiding, and on-line documentation. In Proceedings oft he 36th Annual Meeting of the Human 

Factors Society. Atlanta, GA: The Human Factors Society. 

Johnson, W.B., NortoC"l J.E., and Utsman !,_G_ (1992). New technology for the schoolhouse and 

flightline maintenance environments. In Proceedings of the 7th FAA Conference on Human 

Factors in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection. Washington, DC: FA.4. Office of Aviation 

Medicine . 

. Johnson, W. B. & Shepherd, W. T. (1993). Distance learning and human perfonnance 

enhancement: Advanced technologies can be transierred from current FAA research and 

development. CAMI Distance Learning Meeting. April 5-6, 1993. 

Johnson, W. B. & Shepherd, W. T. (1993). The impact of human factors research on 

co:wmercial aircraft maintenance and inspection. Proceedings from the Flight Safety 

Foundation 46th Annual International Air Safety Seminar. November 8-11, Kuala Lumpur_ 

Layton, C. F. (1992). Emerging technologies for maintenance job aids. In Proceedings of the 

7th FAA Conference on Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance and lMpection. Washington. 

DC: FAA Office of Aviation Medicine. 

Layton, C. F. (in press). Pen computer technology and electronic performance support 

systems: An application. 1993 SALT Conference. 

Layton, C.F., Smith, P.J., McCoy, C. E., & Bihari, T.E. (1992). An empirical evaluation of 

tools to aid in enroute flight planning. In Proceedings of the 36th Annual Meeting of th<' 

Human Factors Society. Atlanta, GA: The Human Factors Society. 

Layton, C.F., Smith, P.J., McCoy, C.E., & Bihari, 'I'.E. <1992). An empirical evaluation of 

computer-based tools to aid in enroute flight planning. In Proceedings of the Institute of 

Electrical and Electronics Engineers 1992 Conference on SystemB, Man and Cybernetics. 

Layton. C. F. & Joh."lson, W. B. 11993). Job p<>rformanee aids for the flight standards servic<'. 

1993 Human Factors Society Meetmg. 

Layton, C. F., Shepherd, W. T .. Johnson, W. B .. & Norton. J. E. 0993)_ Enhancing human 

reliability with integrated information systems for aviation maintenance. In Proceeding:: of 

the Annual Reliability and Maintainability Symposium. 

Norton, J_ E. (1992). Intelligent simulation for maintenancP training. In Proceedings of the 

7th FAA Conference on Human Factors inliircraf't Jfaintenance and Inspection. Washington. 

DC: FAA Office uf Aviation Medicine. 

212 
Fonnal Presentations and Publications 

Norton, J. E. (1993). Environmental control system tutor: Combining simulation-based 

training with intelligent tutoring. 1993 SALT Conference. 

Norton, J. E., Pearce, M., & Thompson, D. Speakers. Presentation on ECS Tutor. John 

Moore, Director of School of Aviation Maintenance, Clayton State College. April, 1992. 

Pearce, M. (1993). How much is enough: Choosing a computer-based video technology. In 

Proceedings of the 1993 Association for Applied Interactive Multimedia Conference. 

Pearce, M. (1993). The system is the expert: Architecture for a model-based tutor. In 

Proceedings of the 1993 Human-Computer 1nteraction International Conference. 

BioTechnology, Inc. 

Parker, J.F. {1989). Aviation maintenance parameters. In Human Factors Issues in Aircraft 

Maintenance and Inspection. Washington, DC: FAA Office of Aviation Medicine. 

Parker, J.F. (1992). A human factors guide for aviation maintenance. In Proceedings of the 

7th FAA Conference on Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection. Washington, 

DC: FAA Office of Aviation Medicine. 

Parker, J.F. & Shepherd, W.T. <In press). The management of human resources in air 

transport operations. In R. L. Dehard (Ed.), Fundamentals of aerospace medicine (2nd ed.). 

Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 

Aviation Education Consultants 

Eiff, G.M. & Eismin, T.K. (1992). Recruitment. selection, training and placement of nontraditional workers in aviation maintenance. Paper presented to the FAA Blue Ribbon Panel 

on Shortage of Pilots and Aviation Maintenance Technicians. 

Taylor 

Taylor, J.T. (1990>. Facilitation of information exchange among organizationai units within 

industry. In 2nd FAA Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Aircraft Jfaintenance and 

Inspection Final Report. Washington, DC: FA.>\ Office of A,·iation l\ledicine. 

Taylor, J.T. (1990l. Organizational context in a''iation maintenance: Some preliminary 

findings and training implications. In 3rd FAA Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Aircra/t 

Maintenance and Inspection Final Report. Washington, DC: FAA Office of .'hiation l\ledicine. 

Taylor, J. T. Speaker. "Managing People.·· ATA Engineering & Maintenance Forum. 

October, 1991. 

213 
Chapter Eight 

Taylor, J. T. & Goglia, J. Speaker. "Human Factors." ATA Engineering, Maintenance, & 

Material Forum. October, 1992. 

Taylor, J.T. & Robertson, M.M. (1992). New directions of "CRM" training. In Proceedings of 

the 36th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Society. Atlc>.nta, GA: The Human Factors 

Society. 

Stelly, J. & Taylor, J.T. (1992). Crew coordination concepts for maintenance teams. In 

Proceedings of the 7th FAA I AAM Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Aircraft Maintenance 

and Inspection. Washington, DC: FAA Office of Aviation Medicine. 

Thackray, R. 

Thackray, R Speaker. FAA Human Factors Program in Aging Aircraft Maintenauce & 

Inspection. International Conference on Aging Commuter Aircraft. April, 1989. 

Drury, C. G. Committee Member. National Plan for Aviation Human Factors. Throughout 

1990. 

Drury, C.G. (1990l. Design for inspectability. In Proceedings of the lEA Human Factors in 

Design for Manufacturability and Process Planning. Honolulu, HI. 

Drury, C. G. (1990). Expl01ing search strategies in aircraft inspection. In Proceedings of the 

Second Internation..tl Conference on Visual Search. England: University of Durham. 

Drury, C. G. 0990). The information environment in aircraft inspection. In Final Report -

Second Federal Aviation Administration Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Aircraft 

Mainter.-:mce and Inspection. Washington, DC: FAA Office of A>iation Medicine. 

Drury, C.G. (1990l. Designing ergonomic studies and experiments. In J.R Wilson and E.N. 

Corlett <Eds.), Evt.luation of Human Work. London: Taylor and Francis. 

Drury, e.G. U990). The ergonomics audit. In E.J. Lovesey, (Ed.), Contemporary Ergonomics. 

London: Taylor and Francis. 

Drury, C. G. ( 1991 l. Errors in aviation maintenance: Taxonomy and controL In Proceedings 

of the 35th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Society. San Francisco, CA: The Human 

Factors Society. 

Drury, e.G. (1991). Product design forinspectability: A systematic procedure. In G. Salvendy 

fEd.), Handbook for lnd.>tstrial Engineering, 13. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 

214 
Formal Presentations and Publications 

Drury, C.G. {1992). Performance: lY.> speed and accuracy trade off? In Proceedings for the 

Ergonomics Society of Australia Conference. December, 1992. 

Drury, C.G. (1992). Inspection performance. In G. Salvendy (Ed.l, Handbook of Industrial 

Engineering, 88. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 

Drury C. G. {1993). Exploring search strategies in aircraft inspeciton. Visual Sea;-ch 2. 

London: Taylor & Francis, 101-112. 

Drury, C.G. & Goonetilleke, R.S. (1992). Stress, performance and automation: Afield study. 

In Proceedings for the Ergonomics Society of Australia Conference. December, 1992. 

Drury, C. G. & Gramopadhye. A (1990). Training for visual inspection. In Final Report· 

Third Federal Aviation Administration Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Aircraft 

Maintenance and Inspection. Washington, DC: FAA Office of Aviation Medicine. 

Drury, C.G. & Gra.-nopadhye, A (1991, draft). Speed and accuracy in aircraft inspection. 

Drury, C.G. & Gramopadhye, A. < 1992l. Training for visual inspection: Controlled studies and 

field implications. In Proceedings of the Seventh Federal Aviation Administration Meeting on 

Human Factors Issues in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection. Atlanta, GA: FAA Office of 

Aviation Medicine. 

Drury, C.G. & Kleiner, B.M. U990l. Training in industrial environments. In Proceedings of 

the Human Factors Association of Canada Meeting. Ottawa, Canada. 

Drury, C.G. & Latorella, K. (1991, draft). Errors in aviation inspection and maintenance: A 

system modeling approach to error management. 

Drury, C.G. & Lock, M.W.B. (1992) Ergonomics in civil aircraft inspection. In Contemporary 

Ergonomics. London: Taylor & Francis. 

Drury, C.G. & Lock, M.W.B. (1992) draft. Reliability in aircraft inspeetion: U.K. and U.S.A. 

perspectives. Civil Aeronautics Authority. (to be published jointly by FAA/CAAl 

Drury, C.G. & Prabhu, P. 0991, draftl. Feedforward and feedback in aircraft inspection. 

Drury, C. G. & Prabhu, P. <19S2l. Human factors in test and inspection. In G. Salvendy and 

W. Karwowski (Eds.l, Handbook of Human Factors in Advanced Manufacturing. New York: 

John Wiley and Sons. 

Drury, C.G., Prabhu, P. & Gramopadhye, A (1990). Task analysis of aircraft inspection 

activities: Methods and findings. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual 

Conference. Santa Monica, CA: The Human Factors Society. 

215 
Chapter Eight 

Gramopadhye, A. (1992). Training for visual inspection. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, State 

University of New York at Buffalo. 

Gramopadhye, A, Drury, C.G. Sharit, J. & Sudet, A (1992). A framework for functional 

allocation in inspection. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Human 

Aspects of Advanced Manufacturing and Hybrid Automation. Helsenkirchen, Germany. 

Gramopadhye, A and Drury, C. G. (1993). Training for decision making in aircraft 

inspection. 1993 Human Factors Society. 

Latorei!a, K. & Drury, C. G. (1992). Errors in aviation inspection and maintenan<.e: A system 

modeling approach to error management. Technical report for FAA Office of Aviation 

Medicine. 

Latore!la, K.A. & Drury, C.G. (1992). A framework for human reliability in aircraft 

inspection. In Meeting Proceedings of the Seventh Federal Aviation Administration Meeting 

on Human Factors Issues in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection. Atlanta, GA: FAA, Office 

of Aviation Medicine. 

Latorella, K.A, Gramopadhye, A, Prabhu, P.V., Drury, C.G., Smith, M.A. & Shanahan, D.E. 

(1992). Computer-simulated aircraft inspection tasks for off-iine experimentation. In 

Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting. Atlanta, GA: The Human 

Factors Society. 

Patel, S. Drury, C. G. & Lofgren, J. (1993). Design ofworkcards for aircraft inspection. 1993 

Human Factors Society. 

Patel, 8., Prabhu, P. & Drury, C.G. (1992). Design of work control cards. In Meeting 

Proceedings of the Seventh Federal Aviation Administration Meeting on Human Factors Issues 

in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection. Atlanta, GA: FAA, Office of Aviation Medicine. 

Patel, S., Prabhu, P. & Drury, C.G. (1992). Design of work control cards. Final Technical 

Report for the Galaxy Scientific Corporation Contract No. DTFAOl-92-Y-01005, Subtask No. 

2.1. 

Prabhu, P. & Drury, C.G. 0992). A framework for the design of the aircraft inspection 

infonnation environment. In Meeting Proceedings of the Se1·enth Federal Ariation 

Administration Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Maintenance and Inspection. Atlanta. 

GA: FAA, Office of Aviation Medicine. 

Reynolds, J. and Drury, C. G. (1993J. An evaluation of thE> visual environment in aircraft 

inspection. 1993 Human Factors Society. 

216 
Fonnal Presentations and Publications 

Reynolds, J.L., Gramopadhye, A. & Drury, e.G. 0992). Design of the aircraft 

inspection/maintenance visual environment. In Meeting Proceedings of the Seventh Federal 

Aviation Administration Meeting on Human Factors Issues in Maintenance and Inspection. 

Atlanta, GA: FAA, Office of Aviation Medicine. 

Reynolds, J.L.. Gramopadhye, A. & Drury, e.G. 0992). Design of aircraft 

inspection/maintenance visual environment. Final Technical Report for the Galaxy Scientific 

Corporation Sontract No. DTFAOl-92-Y-01005, Subtask No. 2.1. 

Meeting Proceedin!js for the FAA/AAM Meetings on Human Factors Issues in 

Aircraft Maintenance & Inspection 

1st "Human Factors Issues in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection" 

2nd "Information Exchange and Communication" 

3rd "Training Issues" 

4th "The Aviation Maintenlli.ce Technician" 

5th "The Work Environment in Aviation Maintenance·· 

6th "Maintenance 2000'' 

7th "Science, Te<:hnology, ar1d Managemi!nt: A Program Review" 

Progress Reports 

October 1989 

Dec. 13-14. 1989 

June 12-13, 1990 

Dec. 12-13, 1990 

June 1~20.1991 

Jan. 22-23, 1992 

Aug. 5-6, 1992 

Human Factors in Aviation Maintenance Phase I: Progress Report 001'/FAA/k\f-91116 

Human Factors in Aviation Maintenance Phase II: Progress Report DOT/FAA/AM-93/5 

Human Factors in Aviation Maintenance Phase III, Volume 1: Progress Report In press 

217 

{!U.S. GOVERfrt'o!ENT ;>;m~TING CFF!CE: 19~- 568-985