NASA Conference Publication 3330 

National Educators' Workshop: Update 95 

Standard Experiments in Engineering Materials Science and 

Technology 

Compiled by 

James E. Gardner, James A. Jacobs, and Michael A. Karnitz 

Proceedings of a workshop sponsored jointly by the 

United States Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, 

Tennessee, the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, Washington, D.C., the Norfolk State 

University, Norfolk, Virginia, and the National Institute 

of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 

and held in Oak Ridge, Tennessee 

November 5-8,1995 

May 1996 
NASA Conference Pubfica~oxa 3330 

National Educators' Workshop: Update 95 

Standard Experiments in Engineering Materials Science and 

Technology 

Compiled by 

James E. Gardner 

Langley Research Center Hsmpton, Virginia 

James A. Jacobs 

Norfolk State University Nmfoak, Virginia 

Michael A. Karnitz 

Oak Ridge National Labmato y Oak Ridge, Tmnessee 

Proceedings of a workshop sponsored jointly by the 

United States Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, 

Tennessee, the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, Washington, D.C., the Norfolk State 

University, Norfolk, Virginia, and the National Institute 

of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 

and held in Oak Ridge, Tennessee 

November 5-8,1995 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Langley Research Center Hampton, Virginia 23681 -0001 

May 1996 
The opinions expressed in this document are not necessarily approved or endorsed by the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

This publication is available from the following sources: 

NASA Center for Aerospace Information National Technical Information Service (NTIS) 

800 Elluidge Landing Road 5285 Port Royal Road 

Linthicum Heights, MD 2 1090-2934 Springfield, VA 22161-2171 

(30 1)62 1-0390 (703)487-4650 
PREFACE 

NEW:Ugdate 95 marked a milestone, 10th annual workshop, Hosted by Oak Ridge National 

Laboratow (ORNL) in Oak Zdge, Temessee, on November 5-8, 1995, the event was a fitting 

milestone in terms of interaction and qualiv presenbtions. Building on past workshops and extensive 

workshop evaluations, the 10th annual NEVC7:Update continued to follow the theme of 

strengthening materials education. About 80 participants witnessed demonstrations of experiments, 

discussed issues of materials science and engineering (MS&E) with people from education, industry, 

government, and technical societies, heard about new MS&E developments, and participated in 

eleven 3-hour mini workshops in state-of-the-art ORNL laboratories. Faculty in attendance 

represented high schools, community colleges, smaller colleges, and major universities. Undergraduate 

and graduate students also attended and presented papers. 

Professor Xavier Spiegel, representing the American Society for Engineering Education's (ASEE) 

Materials Division, presented a special 10 Year commemorative plaque to ORNL personnel Edward 

Aebischer, Douglas Craig, Linda Horton, Michael Karnitz, Joy Lee, Shirley North, and Richard 

Lowden for their valuable contributions to MS&E education through their ten years of support to 

NEW:Updates and other materials education efforts. The overwhelming success of NEW:Updates 

results, in a large measure, from the considerable work and sacrifices of the host agencies: Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory (ORNL), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Langley Research Center, and Norfolk State 

University (NSU). 

NEW:Update 95 participants aided in evaluating over thirty-two experiments that were presented 

before the group. Additional updating information relating to materials science, engineering and 

technology was also presented as mini plenary sessions that focused on technology from ORNL's 

CFCC (Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites ) program, processing and the total materials cycle, 

multimedia in materials science and engineering, NIST's Advanced Technology's collaborative 

programs among industry and universities, designing with brittle matrix composites, and diamond 

research overview. You will find transparency masters for the mini plenary sessions included in this 

publication. A panel of materials educators provided updates on various curricula and pedagogical 

innovations. 

The experiments in this publication can serve as a valuable guide to faculty who are interested in 

useful activities for their students. The material was the result of years of research aimed at better 

methods of teaching materials science, engineering and technology. The experiments were 

developed by faculty, scientists, and engineers throughout the United States. There is a blend of 

experiments on new materials and traditional materials. Uses of computers in MS&E, experimental 

design, and a variety of low cost experimeilts were among the demonstrations presented. 

Transparency masters of technical presentations are also included. 

Experiments underwent an extensive peer review process. After submission of abstracts, selected 

authors were notified of their acceptance and given the format for submission of experiments. 

Experiments were reviewed by a panel of specialists through the cooperation of the Materials 

Education Council. Authors received comments from the panel prior to NEW:Update 95, allowing 

them to make necessary adjustments prior to demonstrating their experiments. Comments from 

iii 
workshop participants provided additional feedback which authors used to make final revisions which 

were submitted for the NASA editorial group for this publication. 

The Materials Education Council of the United States publishes selected experiments in the Journal 

of Materials Education (JME ). The JME offers materials educators valuable teaching and 

curriculum aids including instructional modules on emerging materials technology, experiments, book 

reviews, and editorials. 

Videotapes were made of the workshop by ORNL. As with previous NEW:Updates, critiques were 

made of the workshop to provide continuing improvement of this activity. The evaluations and 

recommendations made by participants provide valuable feedback for planning of subsequent 

NEW:Updates. 

NEW:Update 95 and the series of workshops that go back to 1986 are, to our knowledge, the only 

national workshops or gatherings for materials educators that have a focus on the full range of issues 

on strategies for better teaching about the full complement of materials. Recognizing the problem 

of motivating young people to pursue careers in MSE, we have included exemplary pre-university 

activities such as Adventures in Science, ASM International Education Foundation's Career Outreach 

Program, ~n~ineers for Education, National Teachers Institute for Materials Science and Technology, 

and several programs run through high schools. 

NEW:Update 95, with its diversity of faculty, industry, and government MSE participants, served 

as a forum for both formal and informal issues facing MSE education that ranged from the challenges 

of keeping faculty and students abreast of new technology to ideas to ensure that materials scientists, 

engineers, and technicians maintain the proper respect for the environment in the pursuit of their 

objectives. 

We hope that the experiments presented in this publication will assist you in teaching about materials 

science, engineering and technology. We would like to have your comments on their value and 

means of improving them. Please send comments to James A. Jacobs, School of Technology, Norfolk 

State University, Norfolk, Virginia 23504. 

We express our appreciation to all those who helped to keep this series of workshops viable. 

The use of trademarks or manufacturers' names in this publication does not constitute 

endorsement, either expressed or implied, by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 
Workshop Co-Directors 

MANAGEMENT TEAM 

NASA LaRC Coordinator 

Michael A. Karnitz 

Workshop Cochairperson 

Oak Ridge National Laboratories 

James A. Jacobs 

Professor of Engineering Technology 

Norfolk State University 

Edward Aebischer, Manager 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

James E. Gardner 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Langley Research Center 

Director's Assistant 

Diana P. LaClaire 

Norfolk State University 

Committee Members 

Thomas F. Kilduff 

Thomas Nelson Community College 

Drew Azzara Joy S. Lee 

American Society for Testing and Materials Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Robert Berrettini 

Materials Education Council 

Richard A. Lowden 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

L. Roy Bunnell James V. Masi 

Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories Western New England College 

James A. Clum Alfred E. McKemey 

State University of New York at Binghamton IBM Corporation, Retired 

Douglas F. Craig 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Claudia Ford 

ASM International 

Curtis R. Nettles 

Battelle, Pacific Northwest Labs 

Heidi Ries 

Norfolk State University 

Anna C. Fraker Harry L. Rook 

National Institute of Standards & Technology National Institute of Standards & Technology 

Laurie A. George 

American Dental Association 

Linda L. Horton 

Oak Ridge National Laboratories 

, Robert D. Shull 

National Institute of Standards & Technology 

F. Xavier Spiegel 

Loyola College 

Norman J. Johnston David Werstler 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration American Society for Engineering Education 
Page intentionally left blank 
CONTENTS 

PREFACE ................................................................. iii 

MANAGEMENTTEAM ...................................................... v 

REVIEWERS OF EXPERIMENTS ............................................ xi 

ORNLMINIWORKSHOPS .................................................... 

LISTING OF EXPERIMENTS FROM NEW:UPDATES ......................... xvii 

ORDERING INFORMATION FOR ADDITIONAL RESOURCES .............. xxviii 

PARTICIPANTS .......................................................... xxxii 

THE ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM: 

OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDUSTRYIUNTVERSITY COLLABORATION ............ 1 

Brian C. Belanger - National Institute of Standards and Technology 

THE VTLA SYSTEM OF COURSE DELIVERY AND FACULTY 

DEVELOPMENT IN MATERIALS EDUCATION ................................ 5 

Robert Berrettini and Rustum Roy - The Pennsylvania State University 

CRYSTALLINE HORS D'OEUVRES .......................................... 11 

Scott R. Brown - Ocean Lakes High School 

AN INNOVATIVE MULTIMEDIA APPROACH TO LABORATORY SAFETY.. .... 17 

M. B. Anderson and K. P. Constant - Iowa State University 

PROCESSING OVERVIEW: THE ROLE OF PROCESSING IN THE 

TOTAL MATERIALS CYCLE ............................................... 23 

Douglas F. Craig - Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE MICROWAVE DIELECTRIC 

BEHAVIOR OF SELECTED MATERIALS ..................................... 39 

Jai N. Dahiya - Southeast Missouri State University 

MICROSTRUCTURAL PREPARATION AND, EXAMINATION OF POLYMERMATRIX COMPOSITES .................................................... 55 

Wayne L. Elban, Maddy M. Rutzebeck, Ryan A. Small, and Adam M. Walsh - 

Loyola College 

vii 
VISUALIZING INFRARED (IR) SPECTROSCOPY WITH COMPUTER 

TION .......................0.....................e..e 69 

Charles B. Abrams - McGill University and Leonard W. Fine - 

Columbia University in the City of New York 

POLYBUTADIENE (JUMPING RUBBER) ..................................... 73 

Leonard W. Fine - Columbia University in the City of New York 

EFFECTS OF CORE THICKNESS AND FIBER ORIENTATION ON 

COMPOSITE BEAM STIFFNESS ............................................. 79 

Vernon S. Hillsman and Patricia J. Olesak - Purdue University 

MATERIALS ALL AROUND US ............................................. 85 

James A. Jacobs - Norfolk State University 

CRAFT STICK BEAMS ..................................................... 93 

Alan K. Karplus - Western New England College 

AN EXERCISE IN ION BEAM ANALYSIS .................................... 103 

Kristen T. Kern - Norfolk State University, Stephen W. Russell - Arizona 

State University, Joseph R. Tesmer and Carl J. Maggiore - Los Alarnos 

National Laboratory 

COMPUTER-BASED MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTIONS FOR 

ENGINEERINGSTUDENTS ................................................ 115 

Mustaq A. Khan and Curtiss E. Wall - Norfolk State University 

AN AUTOGRADING (STUDENT) PROBLEM MANAGEMENT 

SYSTEM FOR THE COMPEUWTIR ILITTURS ............................... 125 

Glenn S. Kohne - Loyola College 

FACTORIAL DESIGN: AN EIGHT FACTOR EXPERIMENT 

USINGPAPERHELICOPTERS ............................................. 131 

Michael Kozma - Loyola College in Maryland 

PLASTIC RECYCLING EXPERIMENTS IN MATERIALS EDUCATION ......... 149 

Ping Liu and Tommy L. Waskom - Eastern Illinois University 

COMPRESSION MOLDING OF COMPOSITE OF RECYCLED HDPE 

AND RECYCLED TIRE PARTICLES ........................................ 157 

Ping Liu, Tommy L. Waskom, Zhengyu Chen, Yanze Li, and Linda Peng - 

Eastern Illinois University 

viii 
TWTING AND CHAIQACTERIZING OF CONTINUOUS FIBER 

CERAMICCOMPOSITES .................................................... 865 

Richard M. Lowden, Karren L. Moore, Pete F. Tortorelli, and 

Edgar Lara-Curzio - Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

INSTRUMENTED MATERIALS TESTING ..................................... I97 

Thomas J. Mackin - The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 

APPLICATION ADVANCEMENTS USING ELECTRORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDS ... .217 

John A. Marshall - East Carolina University 

EXPERIMENTS IN NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC DENTAL MATERIALS: 

A MOUTHFUL OF EXPERIMENTS .......................................... .225 

James V. Masi - Western New England College 

EVALUATION OF STUDENT OUTCOMES IN MATERIALS SCIENCE 

AND TECHNOLOGY ....................................................... .239 

Steven Piippo - Richland High School 

DESIGNING WITH BRITTLE MATRIX COMPOSITES ......................... .247 

Kenneth L. Reifsnider - Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO LASER CRYSTAL DEVELOPMENT ......... .271 

Heidi R. Ries - Norfolk State University 

DIAMOND RESEARCH OVERVIEW AND A MODEL FOR LAB 

EXPERIMENTS USING OXYACETYLENE TORCH ............................ .277 

Rustum Roy - The Pennsylvania State University 

IMPACT OF MULTIMEDIA AND NETWORK SERVICES ON 

ANINTRODUCTORYLEVELCOURSE ....................................... 289 

John C. Russ - North Carolina State University 

VIRTUAL REALITY LAB ASSISTANT ....................................... .299 

Hrishikesh Saha - Alabama A&M University, and Timothy A. Palmer - 

CG2, Inc. 

SOME EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS IN THE ROLLING OF Ni3AI ALLOY ......... .387 

Hui-Ru Shih - Jackson State University and Vinod K. Sikka - Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory 

THERE ARE GOOD VIBRATIONS AND NOT SO GOOD VIBRATIONS .......... .317 

F. Xavier Spiegel - Loyola College 
A NOVEL APPROACH TO HARDNESS TESTING ............................ 323 

F. Xavier Spiegel - Loyola College and Harvey A. West - Materials Analytical 

Services 

COST EFFECTWE PROTOTYPING ......................................... 329 

Jerry L. Wickman - Ball State University and Nikhil K. Kundu - Purdue University 

COMPUTERIZED TESTING OF WOVEN COMPOSITE F'IBERS ................ 337 

Amy Laurie Wilkerson - Norfolk State University 
WRS FOR mW:Update 95 

Scott Atkinson 

Research Assistant 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Renatta S. Engel 

Assistant Professor 

Engineering Science and Mechanics 

The Pennsylvania State University 

John E. Baglin 

Research Staff Member 

IBM Almaden Research Center 

Michael Grutzeck 

Associate Professor 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Else Breval 

Senior Research Associate 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

David H. Jonassen 

Professor of Instructional Systems 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Witold Brostow 

Professor of Materials Science 

Center for Materials Characterization 

University of North Texas 

Susan Quick 

Research Associate 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Wenwu Cao 

Senior Research Associate 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Edward S. Smith 

Assistant Professor of Engineering Science 

and Mechanics 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Nandika Anne D'Souza 

Postdoctoral Fellow 

Polymer and Composites Lab 

University of North Texas 

Janusz Walasek 

Center for Materials Characterization 

University of North Texas and 

Technical University of Radom 

Richard Devon 

Associate Professor of Engineering Graphics 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Technical notebooks and announcements of the workshop were provided by 

NASA LANGLEV RESEARCH CENTlEIR 
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY 

MINI WORKSHOPS 

+ Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites 

Rick Lowden, Metals and Ceramics 

The focus will be on thermomechanical behavior and failure mechanisms of CFCCs. Testing and 

characterization will be combined with the effects of exposure to service environments. 

Techniques and analyses used to qualify and understand these materials for applications will be 

demonstrated. 

+ Gelcasting for Ceramics Processing 

Mark Janney, Metals and Ceramics 

This workshop will survey ceramic processing technologies from powder processing to sintering, 

with emphasis on gelcasting technologies. Gelcasting will be compared to traditional processing 

techniques, including pottery ceramics, a common foundation for most students. 

+ Friction, Lubrication, and Wear 

Peter Blau, Metals and Ceramics 

Experiments will demonstrate test methods and standards for friction, the different functions and 

types of lubricants, and methods to measure and control wear behavior--all part of the 

multidisciplinary field called tribology to which courses in physics and mechanics often provide 

only very limited exposure. 

+ Properties and Applications of Superconductors 

Rich Kerchner, Solid State 

The current/voltage characteristics of superconductive bismuth-strontium-calcium-copper-oxide 

(BSCCO) tape will be measured, including the effects of applying magnetic fields and varying 

temperatures. A simple electric motor that uses such tape will be demonstrated and its critical 

features discussed. 

+ Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 

John Wendelken, Solid State 

STMs, with the power to resolve individual atoms, find ready application in surface science. 

Among current examples: diagnostics for the growth of thin films, nanofabrication processes to 

create special surface structures and compositions, and analysis of the electronic structures of 

materials. 

+ Direct Images of Atoms in Materials 

Steve Pennycook, Solid State 

This is accomplished with a 300-kilovolt scanning transmission electronic microscope that applies 

"Z-contrast imaging". The technique provides the sharpest direct images yet of atoms in a solid-- 

allowing researchers to better observe interfaces where different crystalline grains of materials 

come together. 

xii 
4 Small-Angle NeutronJX-Ray Scattering 

George Wignall, Solid State 

The basic physics and current experiments will be followed by "hands-on" calculation exercises 

based on a data from small-angle scattering runs, e.g., determining the structure of a two-phase 

polymer-polymer composite via contrast variation or the size and volume fraction of voids in 

aluminum. 

4 Ion Beam Processing of Materials 

Wayne Holland, Solid State 

In a unique particle-accelerator facility, near-surfaced properties are altered and characterized 

using ion beams. Ion-implantation doping and ion beam mixing, deposition, and annealing are 

employed to alter physical, chemical, or electrical properties and create "non-equilibrium" 

materials. 

4 Optical Materials 

Mike Cates, Engineering Technology 

Research in advanced photonics finds applications ranging from energy generation to detection 

to communications and information processing. This session will focus on work with lasers, fiber 

optics, and other optical tools for sensing things that cannot be measured by conventional 

methods. 

4 Polymer Processing 

George Wrenn, Engineering Technology 

This session will feature prototype development in partnership with industry that applies state-ofthe-art equipment and 30 years of experience in developing and producing polymer matrix 

composite structures. Topics will include resin synthesis, adhesive joints, and forming a 

composite. 

4 Application-Specific Integrated Circuits 

Nance Ericson, Instrum. & Controls 

Steps in the customized design and fabrication of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) chips for 

specific applications will be demonstrated. The process will be detailed from design of the 

integrated circuit to prototype production, including microscopic examination and diagnostic 

techniques. 

xiii 
xiv 
Mini Workslirops (corrlinaed) 
Mini Workshops (concluded) 

xvi 
LISTING OF EXPERIMENTS FROM NEW:UPDATES 

EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN STRUCTURES, TESTING, AND EVALUATION 

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060 

Sastri, Sankar. "Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection" 

Sastri, Sankar. "Magnetic Particle Inspection" 

Sastri, Sankar. "Radiographic Inspection" 

NEW:Update 83 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Chowdhury, Mostafiz R. and Chowdhury, Farida. "Experimental Determination of Material Danlping 

Using Vibration Analyzer" 

Chung, Wenchiang R. "The Assessment of Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites" 

Stibolt, Kenneth A. "Tensile and Shear Strength of Adhesives" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Azzara, Drew C. "ASTM: The Development and Application of Standards" 

Bates, Seth P. "Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing of Hot Rolled 1020 Steel to Explore Temperature Impact 

Strength Relationships" 

Chowdhury, Mostafiz R. "A Nondestructive Testing Method to Detect Defects in Structural Members" 

Cornwell, L. R., Griffin, R. B., and Massanveh, W. A. "Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile Properties of 

Plastics" 

Gray, Stephanie L., Kern, Kristen T., Harries, Wynford L., and Long, Sheila Ann T. 

"Improved Technique for Measuring Coefficients of Thermal Extension for Polymer Films" 

Halperin, Kopl. "Design Project for the Materials Course: To Pick the Best Material for a Cooking Pot" 

Kundu, Nikhil. "Environmental Stress Cracking of Recycled Thermoplastics" 

Panchula, Larry and Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of a Simple Screening Strategy for Multifactor 

Experiments in Engineering" 

Taylor, Jcnifer A. T. "How Does Change in Temperature Affect Resistance?" 

Wickman, Jeny L. and Corbin, Scott M. "Determining the Impact of Adjusting Temperature Profiles on 

Photodegradability of LDPEIStarch Blown Film" 

Widener, Edward L. "It's Hard to Test Hardness" 

Widener, Edward L. "Unconventional Impact-Toughness Experiments" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Tempered Glass and Thermal Shock of Ceramic Materials" 

Lundeen, Calvin D. "Impact Testing of Welded Samples" 

Gorman, Thomas M. "Designing, Engineering, and Testing Wood Structures" 

Strehlow, Richard R. "ASTM - Terminology for Experiments and Testing" 

Karplus, Alan K. "Determining Significant Material properties, A Discovery Approach" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier and Weigman, Bernard J. "An Automated System for Creep Testing" 

Denton, Nancy L. and Hillsman, Vernon S. "Isotropic Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel Experiment" 

Allen, David J. "Stress-Strain Characteristics of Rubber-Like Materials: Experiment and Analysis" 

Dahl, Charles C. "Computer Integrated Lab Testing" 

Cornwell, L. R. "Mechanical Properties of Brittle Material" 
NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Temperature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass and Construction 

and Testing of Simple Airfoils to Demonstrate Structural Design, Materials Choice, and Composite 

Concepts" 

Marpet, Mark I. "Walkway Friction: Experiment and Analysis" 

Martin, Donald H. "Application of Hardness Testing in Foundry Processing Operations: A University and 

Industry Partnership" 

Masi, James V. "Experiments in Corrosion for Younger Students By and For Older Students" 

Needharn, David. "Micropiyet Manipulation of Lipid Membranes: Direct Measurement of the Material 

Properties of a Cohesive Structure That is Only Two Molecules Thick" 

Perkins, Steven W. "Direct Tension Experiments on Compacted Granular Materials" 

Shih, Hui-Ru. "Development of an Experimental Method to Determine the Axial Rigidity of a 

Strut-Node Joint" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier. "An Automated Data Collection System For a Charpy Impact Teste?' 

Tipton, Steven M. "A Miniature Fatigue Test Machine" 

Widener. Edward L. "Tool Grinding and Spark Testing" 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Borst, Mark A. "Design and Construction of a Tensile Tester for the Testing of Simple Composites" 

Clum, James A. "Developing Modules on Experimental Design and Process Characterization for 

ManufacturingIMaterials Processes Laboratories" 

Diller, T. E. and A. L. Wicks, "Measurement of Surface Heat Flux and Temperature" 

Denton, Nancy and Vernon S. Hillsman, "An Introduction to Strength of Materials for Middle School and 

Beyond" 

Fisher, Jonathan H. "Bridgman Solidification and Experiment to Assess Boundaries and Interface Shape" 

Gray, Jennifer "Symmetry and Structure Through Optical Diffraction" 

Karplus, Alan K. "Knotty Knots" 

Kohne. Glenn S. "An Automated Digital Data Collection and Analysis System for the Charpy Impact 

Tester" 

Olesak. Patricia J. "Scleroscope Hardness Testing" 

Speigel. F. Xavier, "Imnexpensive Materials Science Demonstrations" 

Wickman. J. L. "Plastic Part Design Analysis Using Polarized Filters and Birefringence" 

Widener, Edward L. "Testing Rigidity by Torque Wrench" 
NEW:Update 94 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Bruzan, Raymond and Baker, Douglas, "Density by Titration" 

Dahiya, Jai N., "Precision Measurements of the Microwave Dielectric Constants of Polyvinyl Stearate and 

Polyvinylidene Fluiride as a Function of Fmquency and Temperature" 

Daufenbach, JoDee and Griffin, Alair, "Impact of Flaws" 

Fine, Leonard W., "Concrete Repair Applications and Polymerization of Butadiene by an "Alfin" Catalyst" 

Hillsman, Vernon S., "Stress Concentration: Computer Finite Element Analysis vs. Photoelasticity" 

Hutchinson, Ben, Giglio, Kim, Bowling, John, and Green, David, "Photocatalytic Destruction of an 

Organic Dyd Using TiO," 

Jenkins, Thomas J., Comtois, John H., and Bright, Victor M., "Micromachining of Suspended Structures 

in Silicon and Bulk Etching of Silicon for Micromachining" 

Jacobs, James A. and Jenkins, Thomas J., "Mathematics for Engineering Materials Technology 

Experiments and Problem Solving" 

Karplus, Alan K., "Paper Clip Fatigue Bend Test" 

Kohne, Glenn S., "Fluids With Magnetic Personalities" 

Liu, Ping and Waskom, Tommy L., "Ultrasonic Welding of Recycled High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)" 

Martin, Donald H., Schwan, Hermann, Diehrn, Michael, "Testing Sand Quality in the Foundry (A Basic 

University-Industry Partnership" 

Shull, Robert D., "Nanostructured Materials" 

Werstler. David E., "Introduction to Nondestructive Testing" 

White, Charles V., "Glass Fracture Experiment for Failure Analysis" 

Wickman, Jeny L. and Kundu, Nikhil K., "Failure Analysis of Injection Molded Plastic Engineered Parts" 

Widener, Edward L., "Domensionless Fun With Foam" 

NEW:Update 95 NASA Conference Publication 3330 

Brown, Scott, "Crystalline Hors D'Oeuvres" 

Karplus, Alan K., "Craft Stick Beams" 

Kern, Kristen, "ION Beam Analysis of Materials" 

Kozrna, Michael, "A Revisit to the Helicopter Factorial Design Experiment" 

Pond, Robert B., Sr., "Recrystallization Art Sketching" 

Roy, Rustwn, "CVD Diamond Synthesis and Characterization: A Video Walk-Through" 

Saha, Hrishikesh, "Virtual Reality Lab Assistant" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "A Novel Approach to Hardness Testing" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "There are Good Vibrations and Not So Good Vibrations" 

Tognarelli. David, "Computerized Materials Testing" 

Wickman. Jerry L., "Cost Effective Prototyping" 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN METALS 

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060 

Nagy, James P. "Sensitization of Stainless Steel" 

Neville, J. P. "Crystal Growing" 

Pond, Robert B. "A Demonstration of Chill Block Melt Spinning of Metal" 

Shull, Robert D. "Low Carbon Steel: Metallurgical Structure vs. Mechanical Properties" 

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Balsamel, Richard. "The Magnetization Process - Hysteresis" 

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution or Revolution" 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Hands-On Thermal Conductivity and Work-Hardening and Annealing in Metals" 

Kazem, Sayyed M. "Thermal Conductivity of Metals" 

Nagy, James P. "Austempering" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Bates, Seth P. "Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing of Hot Rolled 1020 Steel to Explore Temperature Impact 

Strength Relationships" 

Chung, Wenchiang R. and Morse, Margery L. "Effect of Heat Treatment on a Metal Alloy" 

Rastani, Mansur. "Post Heat Treatment in Liquid Phase Sintered Tungsten-Nickel-Iron Alloys" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier. "Crystal Models for the Beginning Student" 

Yang, Y. Y. and Stang, R. G. "Measurement of Strain Rate Sensitivity in Metals" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Cowan, Richard L. "Be-Cu Precipitation Hardening Experiment" 

Kazem, Sayyed M. "Elementaq Metallography" 

Krepski. Richard P. "Experiments with the Low Melting Indium-Bismuth Alloy System" 

Lundeen, Calvin D. "Impact Testing of Welded Samples" 

McCoy. Robert A. "Cu-Zn Binary Phase Diagram and Diffusion Couples" 

Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of Magnetic Domain Boundary Movement Using an Easily 

Assembled Videocam-Microscope System" 

Widener. Edward L. "Heat-Treating of Materials" 

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Dahiya Jai N. "Phase Transition Studies in Barium and Strontium Titanates at Microwave 

Frequenciesv' 

Rastani, Mansur. "Improved Measurement of Thermal Effects on Microstructure" 

Walsh, Daniel W. "Visualizing Weld Metal Solidification Using Organic Analogs" 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Guichelaar, Philip J. "The Anisotrophy of Toughness in Hot-Rolled Mild Steel" 

Martin, Donald H. "From Sand Casting TO Fished Product (A Basic University-Industry Partnership)" 

Petit, Jocelyn I. "New Developments in Aluminum ,for Aircraft and Automobiles" 

Smith, R. Carlisle "Crater Cracking in Aluminum Welds" 

NEW:Update 94 

Gabrykewicz, Ted, "Water Drop Test for Silver Migration" 

Kavikondala, Kishen and Gambrell, S. C., Jr., "Studying Macroscopic Yielding in Welded Aluminum 

Joints Using Photostress" 

Krepski, Richard P., "Exploring the Crystal Structure of Metals" 

McClelland, H. Thomas, "Effect of Risers on Cast Aluminum Plates" 

Weigman, Bernard J. and Courpas, Stamos, "Measuring Energy Loss Between Colliding Metal Objects" 
NEW:Update 95 

Callister, William, "Unknown Determination of a Steel Specimen" 

Elban, Wayne L., "Metallographic Preparation and Examination of Polymer-Matrix Composites" 

Shih, Hui-Ru, "Some Experimental Results in the Rolling of Ni,Al Alloy" 
EXPERIMENTS & DIEMONSTMTIggNS IN POLYMEW 

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Chung. Wenchiang R. "The Asscssn~cnt of Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites" 

Greet, Richard and Cobaugh. Robert. "Rubberlike Elasticity Experiment" 

Kern. Kristen T., Harries, Wynford L., and Long. Sheila Ann T. "Dynamic Mechanical Analysis of 

Polymeric Materials" 

Kundu, Nikhil K. and Kundu, Malay. "Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric Effects of a Crystalline Polymer" 

Kundu, Nikhil K. "The Effect of Thermal Damage on the Mechanical Properties of Polymer Regrinds" 

Stibolt, Kenneth A. "Tensile and Shear Strength of Adhesives" 

Widener, Edward L. "Industrial Plastics Waste: Identification and Segregation" 

Widener, Edward L. "Recycling Waste-Paper" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Brostow, Witold and Kozak, Michael R. "Instruction in Processing as a Part of a Course in Polymer 

Science and Engineering" 

Comwell, L. R., Griffin, R. B., and Massanveh, W. A. "Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile Properties of 

Plastics" 

Gray. Stephanie L., Kern, Kristen T., Harries, Wynford L., and Long, Sheila Ann T. "Improved Technique 

for Measuring Coefficients of Thermal Extension for Polymer Films" 

Humble, Jeffrey S. "Biodegradable Plastics: An Informative Laboratory Approach" 

Kundu. Nikhil. "Environmental Stress Cracking of Recycled Thermoplastics" 

Wickman, Jerry L. and Corbin, Scott M. "Determining the Impact of Adjusting Temperature Profiles on 

Photodegradability of LDPEIStarch Blown Film" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Allen, David J. "Stress-Strain Characteristics of Rubber-Like Materials: Experiment and Analysis" 

Chowdhury, Mostafiz R. "An Experiment on the Use of Disposable Plastics as a Reinforcement in 

Concrete Beams" 

Gorman, Thomas M. "Designing, Engineering, and Testing Wood Structures" 

Lloyd, Isabel K., Kolos, Kimberly R., Menegaux, Edrnond C., Luo, Huy, McCuen, Richard H., and 

Regan, Thomas M. "Structure. Processing and Properties of Potatoes" 

McClelland, H. T. "Laboratory Experiments from the Toy Store" 

Sorensen, Carl D. "Measuring the Surface Tension of Soap Bubbles" 

Wickman, Jerry L. and Plocinski, David. "A Senior Manufacturing Laboratory for Determining Injection 

Molding Process Capability" 

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Kundu, Nikhil K. "Performance of Thermal Adhesives in Forced Convection" 

Liu, Ping. "Solving Product Safety Problem on Recycled High Density Polyethylene Container" 

Wickman, Jeny L. "Thermoforming From a Systems Viewpoint" 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Csernica, Jefiey "Mechanical Properties of ~rossli'hked Polymer Coatings" 

Edblom, Elizabeth "Testing Adhesive Strength" & "Adhesives The State of the Industry" 

Elban, Wayne L. "Three-Point Bend Testing of Poly (Methyl Methacrylate) and Balsa Wood" 

Labana, S. S. "Recycling of Automobiles an Overview" 

Liu, Ping and Tommy L. Waskom, "Application of Materials Database (MAT.DB>) to Materials 

Education and Laminated Thermoplastic Comp~site Material" 

Marshall, John A. "Liquids That Take Only Milliseconds to Turn into Solids" 

Quaal, Karen S. "Incorporating Polymeric Materials Topics into the Undergraduate Chemistry Cor 

Curriculum: NSF-Polyed Scholars Project: Microscale Synthesis and Characterization 

of Polystyrene" 

&i 
NEW:Update 94 

Fine, Leonard W., "Concrete Repair Applications and Polymerization of Butqdiene by an "Alfin" Catalyst" 

Halperin, Kopl, Eccles, Charles, and Latimer, Brett, "Inexpensive Experiments in Creep and Relaxation 

of Polymers" 

Kern, Kristen and Ries, Heidi R., "Dielectric Analysis of Polymer Processing 

Kundu, Mukul and Kundu, Nikhil K., "Optimizing Wing Design by Using a Piezoelectric Polymer" 

Kundu, Nikhil K. and Wickman, Jerry L., "An Affordable Materials Testing Device" 

Stienstra, David, "In-Class Experiments: Piano Wire & Polymers" 

NEW:Update 95 

Fine, Leonard W., "Polybutadiene (Jumping Rubber)" 

Liu, Ping, and Waskom, Tommy L., "Plastic Recycling Experiments in Materials Education" 

Liu, Ping, and Waskom, Tommy L., "Compression Molding of Composite of Recycled HDPE and 

Recycled Tire Chips" 

Masi, James V.. "Experiments in Natural and Synthetic Dental Materials: A Mouthkl of Experiments" 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN CERAMICS 

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060 

Nelson, James A. "Glasses and Ceramics: Making and Testing Superconductors" 

Schull, Robert D. "High T, Superconductors: Are They Magnetic?" 

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution or Revolution" 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Hands-On Thermal Conductivity and Work-Hardening and healing in Metals" 

Link, Bruce. "Ceramic Fibers" 

Nagy, James P. "Austempering" 

Ries, Heidi R. "Dielectric Determination of the Glass Transition Temperature" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Dahiya, J. N. "Dielectric Behavior of Superconductors at Microwave Frequencies" 

Jordan. Gail W. "Adapting Archimedes' Method for Determining Densities and Porosities of Small 

Ceramic Samples" 

Snail, Keith A., Hanssen, Leonard M., Oakes, David B., and Butler, James E. "Diamond Synthesis with 

a Commercial Oxygen-Acetylene Torch" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Tempered Glass and Thermal Shock of Ceramic Materials" 

Craig, Douglas F. "Structural Ceramics" 

Dahiya, J. N. "Dielectric Behavior of Semiconductors at Microwave Frequencies" 

Weiser, Martin W.. Lauben, David N., and Madrid, Philip. "Ceramic Processing: Experimental 

Design and Optimization" 

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Temperature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass" 

Henshaw, John M. "Fracture of Glass" 

Stephan, Patrick M. "High Thermal Conductivity of Diamond" 

Vanasupa, Linda S. "A $.69 Look at Thermoplastic Softening" 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Bunnell, L. Roy and Stephen Piippo, "Property Changes During Firing of a Typical Porcelain Ceramic" 

Burchell, Timothy D. "Developments in Carbon Materials" 

Dahiya, J.N., "Dieletrie Measurements of Selected Ceramics at Microwave Frequencies" 

Ketron, L.A. "Preparation of Simple Plaster Mold for SLip Casting and Slip Casting" 

Masi, James V. "Experiments in Diamond Film Fabrication in Table Top Plasma Apparatus" 

Werstler, David E. "Microwave Sintering of Machining Inserts" 

NEW:Update 94 

Bunnell, L. Roy and Piippo, Steven, "The ~evelojhent of Mechanical Strength in a Ceramic Material 

During Firing" 

Long. William G., "Introduction to Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites" 

Reifsnider, Kenneth L., "Designing with Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites" 

West, Harvey A. & Spiegel, F. Xavier, "Crystal Models for the Beginning Student: An Extension to 

Diamond Cubic 

NEW:Update 95 

Louden, Richard A., "Testing and Characterizing of Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites" 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN COMPOSITES 

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060 

Nelson, James A. "Composites: Fiberglass Hand Laminating Process" 

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution or Revolution" 

Chung, Wenchiang R. "The Assessment of Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites" 

Coleman, J. Mario. "Using Template/Hotwire Cutting to Demonstrate Moldless Composite Fabrication" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Bunnell, L. R. "Simple Stressed-Skin Composites Using Paper Reinforcement" 

Schmenk, Myron J. "Fabrication and Evaluation of a Simple Composite Structural Beam" 

West, Harvey A. and Sprecher, A. F. "Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Greet, Richard J. "Composite Column of Common Materials" 

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Thornton, H. Richard. "Mechanical Properties of Composite Materials" 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Masters, John "ASTM Methods for Composite Characterization and Evaluation" 

webbe;, M. D. and Harvey A. West. "Continuous Unidirectional Fiber Reinforced Composites: 

Fabrication and Testing" 

NEW:Update 95 

Craig, Douglas F., "Role of Processing in Total Materials" 

Wilkerson, Amy Laurie, "Computerized Testing of Woven Composite Materials" 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN ELECTRONIC MATERIALS 

NEW:Update 88 

Sastri, Sankar. "Magnetic Particle Inspection" 

NASA Conference Publication 3060 

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Kundu, Nikhil K. and Kundu, Malay. "Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric Effects of a Crystalline Polymer" 

Molton, Peter M. and Clarke, Clayton. "Anode Materials for Electrochemical Waste Destruction" 

Ries, Heidi R. "Dielectric Determination of the Glass Transition Temperature" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Dahiya, J. N. "Dielectric Behavior of Superconductors at Microwave Frequencies" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conferenc* Publication 3151 

Dahiya, J. N. "Dielectric Behavior of Semiconductors at Microwave Frequencies" 

Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of Magnetic Domain Boundary Movement Using an Easily Assembled 

Videocam-Microscope System" 

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Tempcrature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass 

Dahiya, Jai N. "Phase Transition Studies in Barium and Strontium Titanates at Microwave Frequencies" 

NEW:Update 94 

Elban, Wayne L., "Stereographic Pro.jection Analysis of Fracture Plane Traces in Polished Silicon Wafers 

for Integrated Circuits" 

Parmar, Devendra S. and Singh, J. J., "Measurement of the Electro-Optic Switching Response in 

Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals" 

NEW:Update 95 

Dahiya, Jai N., "Temperature Dependence of the Microwave Dielectric Behavior of Selected Materials" 

Marshall, John, "Application Advancements Using Electrorheological Fluids" 

Ono, Kanji. "Piezoelectric Sensing and Acoustic Emission" 

Ries, Heidi R., "An Integrated Approach to Laser Crystal Development" 
EXPERIMENTS & TOPICS IN MATERIALS CURRICULUM 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Bright, Victor M. "Simulation of Materials Processing: Fantasy or Reality?" 

Diwan, Ravinder M. "Manufacturing Processes Laboratory Projects in Mechanical Engineering 

Cuniculum" 

Kundu, Nikhil K. "Graphing Techniques for Materials Laboratory Using Excel" 

McClelland, H. T. "Process Capability Determination of New and Existing Equipment and Introduction 

to Usable Statistical Methods" 

Passek, Thomas "University Outreach Focused Discussion: What Do Educators Want From ASM 

International" 

NEW:Update 94 

Brimacombe, J. K., "Transferring Knowledge to the Shop Floor" 

Burte, Harris M., "Emerging Materials Technology" 

Constant, Kristen P. and Vedula, Krishna, "Development of Course Modules for Materials Experiments" 

Coyne, Paul J., Jr., Kohne, Glenn S., Elban, and Wayne L., "PC Laser Printer-Generated Cubic 

Stereographic Projections with Accompanying Student Exercise" 

Masi, James V., "Bubble Rafts, Crystal Structures, and Computer Animation" 

McKenney, Alfred E., Evelyn D., and Berrettini, Robert, "CDROM Technology to Strengthen Materials 

Education" 

Olesak, Patricia J., "Understanding Phase Diagrams" 

Scheer, Robert J., "Incorporating "Intelligent" Materials into Science Education" 

Schwartz, Lyle H., "Technology Transfer of NIST Research" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "Demonstrations in Materials Science From the Candy Shop" 

Uhl. Robert, "ASM Educational Tools Now and Into the Future" 

NEW:Update 95 

Belanger, Brian C.. "NIST Advanced Technology Programs" 

Berrettini, Robert, "The VTLA System of Course Delivery and Faculty in Materials Education" 

Kohne, Glenn S., "An Autograding (Student) Problem Management System for the Compeuwtir Ilittur8" 

Russ, John, "Self-paced Interactive CD-ROMs" 
ORDERING INFORMATION FOR ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 

Twenty copies of the NATIONAL EDUCATORS' WORKSHOP PUBLICATIONS 

(NASA-CPs from 1988 - 1994) are available on a first come, first served basis fiom 

Dr. James A. Jacobs 

Department of Technology 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

NASA publications may be ordered from 

National Technical Information Center (NTIS) 

Attention: Document Sales 

5285 Port Royal Road 

Springfield, VA 22161 

National Center for Aerospace Information (CASI) 

P. 0. Box 8757 

Baltimore, MD 2 1240-0757 

BOB POND'S "FUN IN METALS" TAPE - AVAILABLE FROM 

Johns Hopkins University 

Maryland Hall 2 10 

3400 N. Charles Street 

Baltimore, MD 21218 

Cost = $30.00 
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS EDUCATION SUBSCRIPTIONS: 

JME has two categories of subscription: Institutional and Secondary. The institutional 

subscription -- for university departments, libraries, government laboratories, industrial, or other 

multiple-reader agencies is $269.00 (US$) per year. Institutional two-year subscriptions are 

$438.00 (US$). When the institution is already a subscriber, secondary subscriptions for 

individuals and subdivisions are $45.00 (US$). (Secondary subscriptions may be advantageous 

where it is the desire to preserve one copy for reference and cut up the second copy for ease of 

duplication.) Two-year subscriptions for secondary for individual or subdivision are $75.00 

(US$). Back issues of JME are $30 (US$). 

Other Materials Education Council Publications available : 

Classic Crystals: A Book of Models - Hands-on Morphology. Twenty-Four Common Crystal 

models to assemble and study. Aids in learning symmetry and Miller indices. $19.00. 

A Set of Four Hardbound Volumes of Wood Modules - The Clark C. Heritage Memorial 

Series. Published by MEC in cooperation with the U.S.Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, 

Wisconsin. A compilation of nine modules entitled Wood: Its Structure and Properties (I), 

edited by Frederick F. Wangaard. A compilation of eight modules especially developed for 

architects and civil engineers entitled Wood As A Structural Material (11). Also, Adhesive 

Bonding of Wood and Other Structural Materials I11 and Wood: Engineering Design Concepts 

(IV). Each of the first three wood volumes costs $3 1.00; the fourth volume costs $41.00. The 

entire four-volume set is only $ 126.00 plus $4.50 shipping ($7.00 overseas). 

The Crystallography Course - MEC's popular nine-unit course on crystallography. $39.00. 

Instructional Modules in Cement Science - Five units prepared for civil engineering and 

ceramic materials science students and professionals. $19.00. 

Laboratory Experiments in Polymer Synthesis and Characterization - A collection of fifteen 

peer-reviewed, student-tested, competency-based modules. $25.00. Topics include: bulk 

polycondensation and end-group analysis, interfacial polycondensation, gel permeation 

chromatography, x-ray diffraction and others. 

Metallographic Atlas - Royal Swedish Institute of Technology. $33.00. A brief introduction 

to the microstructures of metallic materials - how they appear and how they can be modified. 

Please add $3.00 per book shipping charge. 

Checks payable to The Pennsylvania State University 

Managing Editor, JME 

1 10 Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

University Park, PA 16802 
Workshop Location 

XXX 
Row 1 (L to R): H. Saha, T. Mackin, D. Henry, F. Delk, L. Jones, C. Harris, H. Ries. 

Row 2 (L to R): R. Lowden, D. Moore, 0. Bolden, S. Frazier, A. Mitchell. P. Wilson, L. Holrnes. M.Donelson, D. Laclaire. 

Row 3 (L to R): J. Seidensticker, M. Yakubu, X. Spiegel. R. Green, J. McDuffie. C. Chess. L. Joyner, G. Sarnpson. Y. Essix. 

Row 4 (L to R): 6. Cook, H. Haas, R. Berrettini. A. Khan. R. Roy, C. Alderman. J. Dahiya. P. Olesak. W. Elban. 

G. Kohne, A. Wilkerson. 

Row 5 (L to R): K. Kern. J. Gardner, V. Birrell, C. Schlaefer. E. Filer. A. Karplus. M. Khan. L. F~ne. K. H~cks. E. Aebischer, 

J. Jacobs, P. Liu. S. Yap, S. Helba. 

Row 6 (L to R): S. Piippo. G. Holt. T. Jarreli. C. Lundeen, J. Stith, G. Henderson, S. Chaudhury. M. Anderson. T. Kilduff. 

C. Wall. W. Spint. M. DeVore. J. Nagy. 
NATIONAL EDUCATORS' WORKSHOP 1995 

PARTICIPANTS 

Edward Aebischer 

Manager University & Educational Programs 

Martin Marietta Energy System, Inc. 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

P. 0. Box 2008 

Oak Ridge, TN 3783 1 

615-574-771 7 

Cheryl S. Alderman 

NCSU Engineering Programs at UNCA 

UNCA 3.03 RBH 

One University Heights 

Ashville, NC 28804 

704-25 1 -6640 

Mary Anderson 

MSE Department 

Iowa State University 

3053 Gilman Hall 

Ames, IA 5001 1 

5 I 5-294-2049 

Robert Berrettini 

Materials Education Council 

106 Materials Research Laboratory 

Pennsylvania State University 

1 10 Materials Research Laboratory 

University Park, PA 16802 

8 14-865- 1643 

Victoria T. Birrell 

California State Polytechnic 

University-Pomona 

3801 W. Temple Avenue 

Pomona, CA 9 1 768 

909-869-2636 

Olu Bolden 

Norfolk State University 

827 Palmer Street 

Portsmouth, VA 23704 

804-397-7930 

Scott Brown 

Ocean Lakes High School 

886 Schumann Drive 

Virginia Beach, VA 23454 

804-496-278 5 

Shiladitya Raj Chaudhury 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-224 1 

Chahn Chess 

Center for Materials and Research 

1221 Hoover Apt. C 

Chesapeake, VA 23324 

804-545-3488 

William M. Cook 

University of Michigan 

M.S. & E. Dept. 

3062 H. H. Dow Building 

2300 Hayward Street 

Ann Arbor, MI 43 104-21 36 

3 13-763-7893 

Douglas F. Craig 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc. 

P. 0. Box 2008 

Oak Ridge, TN 3783 1 

6 1 5-574-4065 

Jai N. Dahiya 

Professor of Physics 

Southeast Missouri State University 

One University Plaza, MS 6600 

Cape Girardeau, MO 63701 

3 14-65 1-2390 
Felicia Ann Delk 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Va 23504 

804-626-2432 

Mike DeVore 

Cincinnati State Tech. & Community 

College 

3 520 Central Parkway 

Cincinnati, OH 95223 

5 13-569-1746 

Misty L. Donelson 

1221 Cove1 

Norfolk, VA 23523 

804-545-8266 

Wayne L. Elban 

Loyola College 

4501 N. Charles Street 

Baltimore, MD 21210 

4 1 0-6 1 7-285 3 

Yusuf Essix 

Norfolk State University 

240 1 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-626-2426 

Elizabeth Filer 

Norfolk State University 

Center for Materials Research 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-2096 

Leonard W. Fine 

Department of Chemistry 

Columbia Univ. in the City of New York 

Havemeyer Hall 

New York, NY 10027 

212-854-201 7 

Shanee S. Frazier 

Center for Materials Research 

4617 Magnolia Drive 

Suffolk, VA 23435 

804-934- 1962 

James E. Gardner 

Technical Staff Assistant 

NASA-Langley Research Center 

Building 121 9, Room 216 

MS 118 

Hampton, VA 23665-0001 

804-864-6002 

Ronald Green 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-8369 

Helmut J. Haas 

San Joaquin Delta College 

5 15 1 Pacific Avenue 

Stockton, CA 95209 

209-474-5248 

Steve Helba 

Prentice Hall 

445 Hutchinson Avenue 

Columbus, OH 43235 

6 14-84 1-3623 

Charmagne D. Harris 

Norfolk State University 

Phyllis Wheatley Hall 

240 1 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-626-2546 

George W. Henderson 

Physics Department 

Virginia State University 

Ettrick, VA 23806 

804-524-59 12 
Devon Maurice Henry 

Center for Materials Research 

630 New York Avenue, Apt. 1 

Norfolk, VA 23508 

804-627-2 163 

Kenneth W. Hicks 

Norfolk State University 

Department of Chemistry 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-2285 

LaTonya Holmes 

Center for Materials Research 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23 504 

805-626-2432 

Gregory Hoft 

Concurrent Technologies Corp. 

1450 Scalp Avenue 

Johnstown, PA 15904 

8 14-269-2560 

James A. Jacobs 

Norfolk State University 

School of Technology 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-8 109 

Ted Jarrell 

Central Piedmont Community College 

P. 0. Box 35009 

Charlotte, NC 28235-5009 

Laneace R. Jones 

Norfolk State University 

Phyllis Wheatley Hall 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-626-2757 

LaShonda Joyner 

Center for Materials Research 

Norfolk State University 

Phyllis Wheatley Hall 

240 1 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-626-2546 

Michael Karnitz 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

P. 0. Box 2008 

Bldg. 45 15, MS 6065 

Oak Ridge, TN 3783 1-6065 

615-574-5150 

Alan K. Karplus 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Western New England College 

121 5 Wilbraham Road 

Springfield, MS 0 1 1 19-2684 

4 13-782- 1220 

Richard Kerchner 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

P. 0. Box 2008 

Oak Ridge, TN 3783 1 

61 5-574-6270 

Kristen Kern 

Los Alamos National Laboratory 

Center for Materials Science 

Mail Stop K765 

Los Alamos, NM 87545 

505-665-3289 

Ali A. Khan 

Elizabeth City State University 

1704 Weeksville Road 

' Elizabeth City, NC 27909 

919-335-3242 

Mushtaq A. Khan 

Department of Mathematics 

Norfolk State University 

240 1 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-9569 
Thomas F. Kilduff 

Thomas Nelson Community College 

504 Brafferton Circle 

Hampton, VA 23663- 1 92 1 

804-85 1-0272 

David S. King 

National Institute of Standards & 

Technology 

Advanced Technology Program 

Bldg. 101, Room A-625 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

301-975-2369 

Glenn S. Kohne 

Department of Electrical Engineering and 

Engineering Science 

Loyola College in Maryland 

Baltimore, MD 21210 

4 10-6 1 7-2249 

Diana P. LaClaire 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683 -9072 

Joy S. Lee 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Ping Liu 

Eastern Illinois University 

101 Klehm Hall 

Charleston, IL 6 1920 

2 17-58 1-6267 

Richard A. Lowden 

Technical Program Manager 

CFCC 

MS 6087, Bldg. 4508 

Oak Ridge, TN 37831 

6 15-576-2769 

Calvin Lundeen 

Ohio Northern University 

Ada, OH 458 10 

4 19-772-23 82 

Tom Mackin 

Department of Mechanidal and 

Industrial Engineering 

University of Illinois 

1206 West Green Street 

Urbana, IL 6 1 80 1 

217-244-1016 

James V. Masi 

Western New England College 

Department of E.E., M/S 2168 

Springfield, MA 0 1 1 19 

413-782-1344 

Lany Mattix 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-25 1 1 

Joseph L. McDuffie 

Center for Material Research 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-484- 1628 

Ashanti Mitchell 

CMR 

Norfolk State University 

Phyllis Wheatley Hall #011 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-626-2498 

Daron A. Moore 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-487-2593 

James P. Wagy, Jr. 

Erie Community College 

4580 Lake Shore Road 

Hamburg, NY 14075 

7 16-627-3930 
Shirley A. North 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Patricia J. Olesak 

School of Technology 

Purdue University 

Knoy Hall, Room 115 

West Lafayette, IN 47907 

3 1 7-494-7532 

Steven Piippo 

Richland High School 

930 Long Avenue 

Richland, WA 99352 

509-946-5 12 1 

Kenneth L. Reifsnider 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and 

State University 

Virginia Institute of Materials System 

120 Patton Hall 

Blacksburg, VA 2406 1-02 19 

703-23 1-53 16 

Heidi R. Ries 

Materials Research Laboratory 

Norfolk, State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-8020 

William A. Ross 

Muskegon Community College 

221 S. Quarterline Road 

Muskegon, MI 49442 

61 6-777-0367 

Rustum Roy 

102 M.R.L. 

The Pennsylvania State University 

University Park, PA 16802 

814-865-995 1 

Hrishikesh Saha 

Alabama A&M University 

P. 0. Box 88 

Normal, AL 35762 

205-85 1-5570 

Brichael G. Sampson 

Center for Materials Research 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23 504 

804-683-2489 

Connie Schlaefer 

HQ USAFADSEM 

2345 Fairchild Drive 

Suite 6H2 

U. S. Air Force Academy 

Colorado 80840-6240 

7 1 9-472-2429 

Hu-Ru Shih 

Jackson State University 

Depart. of Technology and Industrial Arts 

1400 J. R. Lynch Street 

P. 0. Box 18480 

Jackson, MI 392 17-0880 

60 1-968-2466 

John Seidensticker 

Pennsylvania State University 

Materials Science and Engineering 

Room 9, Steidle Bldg. 

University Park, PA 16802 

F. Xavier Spiegel 

Engineering Department 

Loyola College 

4501 N. Charles Street 

Baltimore, MD 2 12 10-2699 

41 0-61 7-25 15 

Will Spint 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 
John J. Stith 

Virginia State University 

P. 0. Box 9042, 1 Hayden Drive 

Petersburg, VA 23 806 

804-524-591 3 

Curtiss E. Wall 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-9571 

Tommy L. Waskom 

Eastern Illinois University 

101 Klehm Hall 

Charleston, IL 6 1920 

21 7-58 1-6267 

Jerry L. Wickman 

College of Applied Sciences and Technology 

Department of Industry and Technology 

Ball State University 

Muncie, IN 47306-0255 

3 17-285-5641 

Amy Laurie Wilkerson 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-683-8 109 

Patrick Wilson 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

804-626-2447 

Sinmin Yap 

College of Engineering 

Mechanical Engineering Dept. 

Valparaiso University 

Valparaiso, IN 46383 

Mamudu Yakubu 

Elizabeth City State University 

1704 Weeksville Road 

Elizabeth City, NC 27909 

919-335-3676 

xxxix 
NATIONAL EDUCATORS' WORKSHOP 

Update 95: Standard Experiments 

in Engineering Materials Science 

and Technology 

November 5 - 8, 1995 - ORNL, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 

laminate 

subcritical 

/ critical element(s) 

failure modes 

element A A 

"damage" 

Sponsored by 

United States Department of National Aeronautics & Space Norfolk State University National Institute of Standards 

Energy Oak Ridge National Adtninistration Schools of Technology & & Technology Materials Science 

Laboratories Langley Research Center Science and Engineering Laboratories 

with the support of American Society for Engineering Education 

ASM International 

American Society for Testing & Materials 

Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratory 

Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc. 

Materials Education Council 
Welcome 

xli 
xlii 
Recognizing ( 'onf I-il~rllions 

(conclurlttP 1 
Rcgisl ral ion 

xliv 
xlv 
Ilisplays 

(concluded) 
A Lot of Work . . 
xlviii 
. . . A Little Play 

(concluded) 

xlix 
THE ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM: 

OPPORTUNITIES FOR 

INDUSTRYTUNIWRSITY COLLABORATION 

Brian C. Belanger 

Deputy Director, Advanced ~echnology Program 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

Telephone 30 1-975-3778 
Presented by 

David S. King 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 
THE ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM: 

OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDUSTRY/UNIVERSITY COLLABORATION 

Brian Belanger 

Deputy Director, Advanced Technology Program 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

The Advanced Technology Program (ATP) is an extramural program operated by the 

Department of Commerce's National Institute of Standards and Technology. The ATP 

stimulates economic growth in the United States by cost sharing high-risk, but potentially highpayoff industrial R&D--projects that are too risky for industry to undertake alone. 

Projects are selected on merit, based on published selection criteria. Both technical merit and 

business promise are considered. 

While all project proposals must be submitted by industrial firms or consortia of industrial 

firms, universities often do collaborate as subcontractors or joint venture partners. 

Approximately 70 percent of ongoing ATP projects involve one or more university or Federal 

laboratory participants. 

This talk will review the current status of the ATP and outline opportunities for 

universitylindustry collaboration. 
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THE VTLA SYSTEM OF COURSE DELIVERY 

AND FACULTY DEVELOPMEXI" IN 

MATERIALS EDUCATION 

Robert Berrettini 

and 

Rustum Roy 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

University Park, PA 16802 

8 14-865- 1643 and 995 1 
Robert Berrettini 

Rustum Roy 
The VTLA System of Course Delivery and Faculty Development in Materials Education* 

Robeft Berrettini and Rustum Roy 

Intercollege Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA 16802 

Introduction and Description 

The National Academy's Materials Science and Engineering (MSE) study1 made two observations long 

apparent to those knowledgeable about the field: (1) the decided weakness of the U.S. is in research on 

materials synthesis and processing; (2) the U.S. has relatively few faculty trained in this specialty. Thus, 

there is a clear and pressing national need for highquality, upper division courses that address critical 

topics in materials synthesis, particularly those beyond the present expertise of the typical 

faculty. 

In an era of declining enrollments, shrinking budgets and few new appointments, the question will arise 

over and over again: How does a department cost-effectively cover the newly emerging fields? A new 

project has been started to test a novel distance education and faculty development system, called Video 

Tape Live Audio (VTLA). This, if successful, would at once enlarge the national MSE student cohort 

studying material synthesis and develop faculty expertise at the receiving sites. The mechanics for the 

VTLA scheme are as follows: 

A course is designed in the field selected for emphasis and for which there is likely to be considerable 

demand, in this case "Ceramic Materials Synthesis: Theory and Case Studiesyy (Table 1). One of the very 

best researcherlteachers records lectures of gV studio quality with appropriate visuals. Universities and 

colleges which wish to offer the course agree to offer it at the same hour at least once a week. The 

videotaped lectures and accompanying text, readings and visuals are shipped to the professor in charge. 

This person, selected by the department, has an appropriate/related background. She/he asranges the 

classroom TV presentation equipment with our detailed suggestions and supervises the course. Video 

lectures are played during regular course hour(s) twice a week with time for discussion by the supervising 

professor. Typically the third weekly classroom period is scheduled by all sites at a common designated 

hour, during which the course authorlpresenter answers questions, provides greater depth, etc., on a live 

audio link on a multiplexed phone bridge to all of the course sites, Questions are submitted by individual 

course participants via fax and e-mail prior to the audio tutorial. Coordinating professors at various sites 

have separate audio teleconferences at the beginning and end of the course, dealing with the philosophical 

and pedagogical approach to the course, content and mechanics. Following service once or twice as an 

"apprentice" to the course, the coordinating professors may then offer it without the necessity of the live 

audio tutorial. The VTLA sequence of activities is outlined in Figure 1. 

Initial Offering 

Six sites were selected for participation in the first offering of Ceramic Materials Synthesis via the VTLA 

method. In addition to Penn State, departments at Clemson, Johns Hopkins, Nebraska, Stevens Institute 

and Georgia Tech participated in the spring semester of 1995. 

Preliminary indications are that all faculty and a large majority of the students were enthusiastic about both 

the VTLA delivery system and content of the course. After one or two times as an "apprentice" to the - -- 

* This work supported by NSF Award DUE9354440. 
course, these professors may then offer it without the necessity of the live audio tutorial. This was one of 

the goals of the project: faculty empowerment to offer such key courses in mainstream materials science, 

unaided, on a regular basis using the video segments as extensively as they choose. Both faculty and 

students offered suggestions in terms of refinement of certain presentations, but the 's crucial 

concept of sharing faculty expertise appears to have been validated in this initial offering. 

Table 1. 

Future Offerings 

With the cost and scheduling problems associated with satellite distance education, and the limited number 

of departments with compressed video capabilities, the methodology provides a low-tech, low-cost 

mute to boosting departmental treatment of critical and ng MSE fields. Further, we believe that 

faculty dl be attrac opportunity to developlextend teaching capability while immediately gaining 

credit for a xgular tal course offering. Of particular value to junior faculty will be a weekend 
orientation workshop help at Penn State in the summer- to acquaint them with the VTLA system. We 

envision the schedule as follows: 

Participants would take away sample course lesson tapes, a complete set of readings and other 

supplementary sources. Except in hardship cases, the departments of the faculty involved would be 

responsible for purchasing transportation, providing a measure of their commitment to the process. A 

modest per diem for room and food will be provided. All participants must agree to be a supervising 

faculty member for the next offering of the course they have selected. 

Supervising professor plays tapes, assigns readings twice 

Figure 1. VTLA Sequence of Activities. 

In anticipation of funuher external support, a series of additional VTLA courses in important ceramic 

materials synthesis and processing has been planned. The schedule is displayed in Table 2. 
Table 2. Course Development (Calendar Year) 

I Arizona) I I I 

Contribution to Distance Education 

We believe this system has great potential significance if the U.S. is to be able to move ahead in ceramic 

materials. It seeks to place in the hands of MSE teachers in a wide range of universities, most of whom do 

not have faculty trained in key ceramic materials topics, first-rate, re-usable video teaching tapes by 

outstanding teachers. But VTLA also has implications for the burgeoning area of distance education. The 

technique captures several valuable features of pedagogy and deals with the academic situation in the real 

world; further use of this method is a very important one since it will help us answer the question: Can 

universities learn to share faculty expertise? Of course V'ILA will be reflned in the future, but if the basic 

idea can be sold to colleges and universities, it would be a significant advance in cost-e$ective pedagogy. 

Indeed, if this notion catches on, it could well revolutionize distance learning. Using taped lectures from 

the very best lecturers (augmented with effective visuals) with local faculty serving as tutorial supervisor, 

could become a U.S. counterpart to the Oxbridge tutorial. In addition, of absolute benefit will be the 

permanent record of some of the world's best teachers of syntheses and prwessing in MSE (or ultimately 

any field) plying their craft. Future plans also include the development of a manual that will enable 

educators in other disciplines to successfully plan, develop, implement and evaluate courses using the 

VTLA system of distance education. 

References 

1. Materials and Man's Needs, Vol. 11, The Needs, Priorities and Opportunities for Materials Research, 

National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1995. 
CRYSTALLINE HORS D'OEUVRES 

Scott R. Brown 

Materials Science Technology 

Ocean Lakes High School 

885 Schuma~ Drive 

Virginia Beach, Virginia 23454 

Telephone 804-496-2785 
Page intentionally left blank 
Crystalline Hors D'oeuvres 

Scott R. Brown 

Materials Science Technology Teacher 

Ocean Lakes High School 

Virginia Beach, VA 

Key Words: Crystal lattice, body centered cubic, face centered cubic, body centered 

tetragonal, closest packed hexagonal 

Objective: To develop macroscopic models for several types of crystal lattices. 

Equipment: 

1. round toothpicks 

2. individually wrapped soft candies 

3. scissors 

4. ruler 

Introduction: 

Covalent bonding in solid state materials happens in two forms, amorphous and crystalline 

structures. The amorphous materials have atoms 

arranged in random patterns. Atoms of crystalline 

solids form together in three dimensional 

geometric patterns. 

Two of the basic geometric shapes are a cube and 

a tetragon. These basic geometric arrangements 

are called unit cells. The unit cells join together, 

repeating the geometric shape, forming a crystal 

lattice. 

The body centered cubic cell has equal length 

sides. Each of the six corners has an atom. 

Additionally, an atom is centered within the unit Figure 1 The body centered cubic 

cell (see figure 1 at right). unit cell diagram. 
The face centered cubic unit cell has equal length sides, 

similar to the bcc unit cell. An atom is located at each 

of the eight comers. Each of the eight faces will have 

an atom located in the center (see figure 2 at left). 

A second geometric shape for crystal unit cells is a 

tetragon. This unit cell will resemble a three 

dimensional rectangular box. Two dimensions of the 

box will be the same. ?'he third side will be different 

(see figure 3 below). 

Figure 2 The face centered cubic 

unit cell diagram. 

Other crystal systems that are found include 

hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, triclinic, and 

rhombehedral. 

Figure 3 The body centered 

tetragonal unit cell. 

Procedure: 

Identify the type of unit cell to be constructed. Collect enough of the atoms (candies) and 

toothpicks for assembly. Using the figures 1-3 as a guide, make one each body centered 

cubic (bcc), face centered cubic (fcc) and body centered tetragonal (bct) unit cell. The 

toothpicks will need to be custom fitted for attaching the atoms on the faces and in the body 

centers. Cut 112 inch from the toothpick length when making the short side of the tetragonal 

unit cell. When finished, join your unit cells with the unit cells of the other students. Make 

sure not to mix the different types of unit cells. Upon completion, three macroscopic crystal 

lattices will have been created. 
Instructor Notes: 

The lab described in this paper is designed to be used as an introductory activity in the high 

school MST classroom. The introduction of food items tends to spur interaction among 

students that may not know each other well. 

The lab has also been beneficial as an outreach activity to a local middle school. The high 

school students act as mentors to an 8th grade physical science class during the activity. 

References: 

Jacobs, James A. and Kilduff, Thomas: Engineering Materials Technologv, Second Edition, 

Prentice Hall Inc., 1994, pp. 77-84. 
Page intentionally left blank 
AN INNOVATIVE MULTIMEDIA APPROACH 

TO LABORATORY SAFETY 

M. B. Anderson 

and 

K. P. Constant 

Materials Science and Engineering 

Iowa State University 

3053 Gilman Hall 

Arnes, Iowa 5001 1 

Telephone 5 15-294-3337 
K. P. Constant 
AN INNOVATIVE MULTIMEDIA APPROACH TO 

LABORATORY SAFETY 

M. B. Anderson and KP. Constant 

Materials Science and Engineering 

Iowa State University 

3053 Gilman Hall, Ames, IA 50011 

Key Words: Computer Courseware, Laboratory Safety 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Elementary computer skills, freshman-level chemistry 

Objective: To improve awareness of safety issues in materials science laboratories. 

Equipment: This courseware is presently Macintosh compatible, although a PC 

version will be available in the near future. The minimum system configuration 

is system 7.0 or higher, 4 MB of RAM, and prefers 256 colors. 

Introduction: 

At Iowa State University, laboratory safety is largely the responsibility of the 

professors teaching a lab course. While each presents safety information 

relevant to a particular experiment or laboratory, there is no comprehensive 

safety training for the students in materials science and engineering. 

Furthermore, increasingly stringent requirements to provide documentation of 

standardized safety training have brought about a need to update the method of 

safety training. 

A new approach for teaching safe laboratory practices has been developed for 

materials science laboratories at Iowa State University. Students are required to 

complete a computerized safety tutorial and pass an exam before working in the 

laboratory. The safety tutorial includes sections on chemical, electrical, radiation 

and high temperature safety. The tutorial makes use of a variety of interactions, 

including "assembly" interactions where a student is asked to drag and drop 

items with the mouse (either labels or pictures) to an appropriate place on the 

screen (sometimes in a specific order). This is extremely useful for demonstrating 

safe lab practices and disaster scenarios. Built' into the software is a record 

tracking scheme so that a professor can access a file that records which students 

have completed the tutorial and their scores on the exam. This paper will 

describe the development and assessment of the safety tutorials. 
Approach: 

Development philosophv - 

Computer-based development was selected as a mode of delivery largely because 

of its flexibility. Animations, color photographs and images, and sounds are 

easily accommodated. Also, courseware allows interactive learning, where the 

student participates in the lesson. Development of the safety courseware did not 

require extensive training or expense since the Materials Science and 

Engineering Department at ISU already has the resources and a group of students 

who are developing other computerized courseware modules. 

The safety courseware provides standardized information and training, as well as 

documentation of the students test results. The courseware also relieves the 

professor of the obligation to spend extensive class time on safety training. 

Students enjoy the safety tutorials because they can learn the material at their 

own pace in an interactive environment before being tested on the safety 

material. 

Software description 

Authorware ProfessionalTM 2.0.0 courseware development software was selected 

as a vehicle for delivery of these modules for a number of reasons. This software 

is available for both the Apple Macintosh and IBM-PC compatible platforms, and 

can be translated from the Macintosh to the PC, utilizing a large fraction of 

educational computing equipment already in place. This software also allows the 

"packaging" of programs so that the end product is self-contained. The user does 

not need to own the software in order to use the product. This software also has a 

full range of multi-media capabilities. 

Navigating through the courseware is through pull-down menus and clicktouch areas similar to those familiar to most students who have worked either 

in the Macintosh or Windows-environments. Within each section, push-button 

forward and backward arrows allow the students to review material already 

presented. The program is linear, so that the student must cover each area of 

safety training before proceeding to the test. 

The effectiveness of this approach will be tested on materials science lab students 

next spring. Students will be required to complete the safety tutorial and pass the 

test before they are allowed to proceed with any laboratory experiments. 

Although the laboratory professor should out any specific hazards before 

experiments and answer any safety questions, the students are expected to be 

aware of all emergency procedures and safety hazards in the laboratory. 
Chemical Safity 

The chemical safety portion 

of this program includes 

information concerning: 

pre-laboratory preparation 

* Materials Safety Data Sheets 

safe laboratory practices 

chemical storage 

* "flammable/ combustible" 

chemicals 

"reactive" chemicals 

* "corrosive" chemicals 

* gas cylinders 

* emergency procedures 

* waste management 

* a;* :s\\**~$++.::t %?&*2;*< 

;*wmq< F~?wk&. W$@:*.+ ~n?.3.~: 

$pt,<k:.&$: .::a:*.<&&,;& :$&: *y 

.~<arn?t:,:+ :.%*+a 

s::. >v~..:>x::f? <:<Ev&;.$* &*>by *,* b* 

:%L< t??kt%<:s; <w,%%ty exs? %: I:x&@ 

f;@~g~y~T&-~-~@ 

&~>>:<::$::::.~~~~. -w.*s:; ,:,:: ?,,.,?+... :::.:...: ...................... : ..d ........... "\ ......... * ,...... - ................,. 

Figure in the chemical safety section where the 

students must identify bad laboratory 

procedures. 

Electrical Safety 

The electrical safety portion 

of this program includes 

information concerning: 

* conductors 

* shock injury 

* lockout/ tagout 

* overloaded circuits 

* extension cords 

" tools 

apparel 

emergencies 
The radiation safety portion 

of this program includes 

information concerning: 

what are x-rays? 

* x-ray production 

* x-ray health effects 

and precautions 

x-ray producing equipment 

* what are lasers? 

* laser production 

laser health effects 

and precautions 

* laser producing equipment 

High Temperature Safety 

The high temperature safety portion of this program includes information 

concerning: 

furnace operation 

* burn prevention1 treatment 

* high temperature equipment 

Future Work: 

Assessment of Effectiveness 

Although the modules have been completed, we anticipate making corrections 

and adjustments in response to comments collected from student testing. We 

also plan to test this material at other universities and solicit suggestions for 

improvement. 

This work is funded by Engineering Computing Support Services at Iowa State 

University. 
PROCESSING OVERVIEW: THE ROLE OF 

PROCESSING IN THE TOTAL 

MATERIALS CYCLE 

Douglas F. Craig 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc. 

P. 0. Box 2008 

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 3783 1 

Telephone 6 15-574-4065 

PROCESSING OVERVIEW: 

THE ROLE OF PROCESSING 

IN THE TOTAL MATERIALS CYCLE 

Douglas F. Craig 

Metals and Ceramics Division 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Oak Ridge, TN 37831 

OUTLINE 

Changing environment 

Cross cutting themes in materials science 

Applications to materials processing 

The future 
The Total Materials Cycle 

Synthesis 

and 

Processinca 

P 

-7 

griculture Construction 

Environmental Defense 

lnformatibn/Communications 

ansportation Energy Healt 

ExtractionlProduction 

THERE IS A CHANGE IN BASIC MATERIALS USE 

Substitution of one material for another has slowed 

the growth of demand for particular materials 

Desian chanaes have increased the efficiency of 

materials use 

Saturation of markets which were previously 

expanding has occurred 

Low materials content in products for new markets 

partly because of the cost of higher performance 

materials 
MARKET IS FOR LIGHTER, STRONGER, MORE 

DURABLE MATERIALS 

(Materials Science and Engineering for the 1990s) 

Desired Characteristic 

Light / strong 

-High temp resist. 

Corrosion resist. 

Efficient processing 

Near-net-shape 

Prediction of life 

Prediction of properties 

Materials data bases 

MATERIALS AND MACHINING DOMINATE 

COST OF ADVANCED CERAMICS 

Aero. Auto Bio Chem. Elec. Energy Metal Tele. 

d d d 

d d d d d 

d dddd d d 

d d d d d d d d 

d dddd d d d 

d ddd d d d 

d dddd d d d 

d ddd dd d 

Other 

Capital Charges 5% 

Energy Machining 2% - - 37% 

Estimated cost elements of silicon nitride roller followers 
THE CHANGING MATERIALS WORLD 

Technology explosion 

Organizational implosions 

International competition 

Increasing marketplace requirements 

Decreasing demand for basic materials 

Decreasing federal R&D funding 

Regulatory environment 

EVOLUTION OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 

AND ENGINEERING 

DATE 
DEMAND FOR BASIC MATERIALS HAS LEVELED 

OR IS DECREASING 

COMMODITY PLASTICS 

SUPERALLOYS 

SPECIALTY METALS 

STRUCTURAL : 

: 

: 

HEAVY RAPID GROWTH GROWTH 

R&D GROWTH =GDP c GDP 

PROCESSING EFFICIENCY 

Reduce cost of operations 

- Capital 

- Labor 

- Energy 

Improve process recovery 

- Net shape production 

- Material recovery rates - scrap losses 

- Recycle 

- 

Minimize defects and rejects 

- Process knowledge 

- Instrumentation and process control 

- TQM 
ELEMENTS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND 

ENGINEERING 

PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE DEPEND ON STRUCTURE AND 

COMPOSITION WHICH IN TURN DEPEND ON PROCESSING 

INSTRUMENTATION AND COMPUTING ARE 

BECOMING INCREASING IMPORTANT IN PROCESSING 

1 INSTRUMENTATION I 
ADVANCES IN INSTRUMENTATION 

Evolution of point-to-point resolution 

in transmission electron microscopes 

V 

1950 1960 1970 1980 199Q 2000 2010 

Year 

ATOM PROBE SHOWS BORON AT GRAIN 

BOUNDARIES IN NICKEL ALUMINIDES 

Atom Probe 
IMPROVEMENTS IN CREEP RESISTANCE 

WITH MINOR ALLOYING ADDITIONS 

Microstructure 

lmproved Creep Resistance 

Advanced-Modified 14Cr/16Ni SS 

1.25 cm length 

GGJ 

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 

Time (h) 

IMPROVED SILICON NITRIDES RESULT FROM 

UNDERSTANDING GRAIN BOUNDARY PHASES 

High resolution transmission electron micrograph and 

corresponding energy dispersive x-ray spectrum show 

yttrium present in amorphous grain boundary phase 
HIGH PERFORMANCE COMPUTING 

Sequential - 

GPU with memory 

Modestly parallel - 

multiple processors 

sharing one memory 

Scalable parallel - 

large number of 

processors with 

local memories and 

interprocessor 

communications 

Year 

Simulation of Suaer Plastic Formins sf Alklminurn 

U 

3 400 

9 300 Calculation of W 

200 Super-Plastic 

100 Forming 

n 

"0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 

i860 Nodes 
METALS JOINING 

Weld Metal 

Solidification 

Brazing of Metals and Ceramics 

Advanced Welding Processes 

Weld Solidification Structure 

Weld Modeling 

Neutron Residual 

Stress Measurement 

Computer Simulation Experimental Weld 

Micrsstrueture 

(ASM Handbook) 
Crash Simulation On The Intel Paragon 

CELLULAR AUTOMATA SIMULATION OF 

SOLIDIFICATION MICROSTRUCTURE 
FIRSFPRINCIPLES THEORETICAL INVESTIGATIONS 

PROVIDE INSIGHT ON THE ROLE OF BORON 

GELCASTING: NEAR NET SHAPE CERAMIC FORMING 

Gelcast silicon nitride Slip- and gelcast parts 

rotor: AlliedSignal exhibit similar strength 
ATOMISTIC PROCESSING 

Perovskite waveguide by MBE 

THE FUTURE 

Computational materials science will move from 

research to applications: process simulations, 

models, and control systems 

Advanced instrumentation will accelerate structure = 

processing - property correlations for microalloying 

elements for tailored materials and improved 

properties 

Environmental concerns, cast, and ultimately 

materials availability will drive up recycle /reuse 

and increased direct casting and powder metallurgy 

Atomic scale processing (MBE, CVD, LPCVD, ion 

beam deposition) for new kinds of devices 
Page intentionally left blank 
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE 

MICROWAVE DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 

OF SELECTED MATERIALS 

Jai N. Dahiya 

Physics Department 

Southeast Missouri State University 

One University Plaza, MS 6600 

Cape Girardeau, Missouri 63701 

Telephone 3 14-65 1-2390 

Temperature Dependence of the Microwave Dielectric 

Behavior of Selected Materials 

J. N. Dahiya 

Physics Department 

Southeast Missouri State University 

Cape Girardeau, MO 63701 

KEY WORDS 

Resonant cavity; dielectric relaxation; field perturbations; frequency shifts and Q-changes. 

OBJECTIVES 

1. To learn to tune a resonant cavity in a microwave spectrometer. 

2. To learn the technique of producing a marker signal on the oscilloscope. 

3. To learn to operate the microwave spectrometer in order to take data as a knction of 

frequency and temperature. 

4. To learn about the design of an efficient thermal bath. 

SUMMARY 

A very sensitive thermal bath is designed to study the effect of temperature on the microwave 

dielectric response of a sample of nickel oxide and cobalt oxide. The sample under study is 

placed in a microwave resonant cavity in the TE,,, mode. The perturbations of the electric 

field are recorded in terms of the frequency shifts and the width changes of the microwave 

resonant signal as seen on the oscilloscope. The real and imaginary parts of the dielectric 

constant are calculated by using the values of the frequency shifts and width changes in the 

Slater's perturbation equations. The dielectric behavior of nickel oxide and cobalt oxide and 

also their mixture is studied at a microwave frequency of 9.2 GHz as a fbnction of 

temperature. A computer program is written to analyze the dielectric constant values at 

different temperatures. The resonant cavity seems to be very sensitive in studying the 

dielectric relaxation mechanism in these materials. The dielectric behavior is also analyzed 
using Debye's equations and relaxation times for these materials are calculated at microwave 

frequencies. 

INTRODUCTION 

The investigation of the dielectric properties of matter has provided an important approach to 

understand the structure of matter, and without some understanding of the relation of these 

properties of matter, our extensive knowledge of dielectric behavior loses much of its 

significance. A number of investigators have studied the dielectric properties of different 

materials as a hnction of frequency and temperature (Refs. 1-8). Resonant circuit methods 

have been used up to 10' Hz, but these methods are not suitable beyond this frequency range 

because of energy loss into the space. A microwave resonant cavity technique has become 

very useful in studying the dielectric relaxation mechanism in different materials. The 

microwave resonant cavity displays the same resonant chafacteristics as a tuned circuit; the 

basic difference between the two is that the current and voltage of the tuned circuit are 

replaced by electromagnetic fields. Similar to a waveguide that forms the microwave analogy 

for the transmission line of ordinary circuit theory, so a hollow cavity forms the analogy for a 

circuit element. The quality factor Q which is defined as the ratio of the resonant center 

frequency to the half-power frequency width of the resonant curve is determined either in the 

resonant circuits or the resonant cavity from the shape of the resonant curye. Because of the 

low resistances in a resonant cavity, a large value for Q can be obtained as compared to a 

resonant circuit. 

As the material to be studied is placed in the cavity, it perturbs the electric or magnetic field 

in the cavity depending on what mode the cavity is in, and from this either electric 

permittivity or magnetic permeability can be determined. Slater's perturbation theory (Ref. 9) 

is used to explain the interaction of the materials properties and the electromagnetic fields. 

According to this theory, as the material to be studied is introduced into the cavity it causes 

the resonant frequency shift and the quality factor Q to change in accordance with the 

characteristic electric properties of the material loading the cavity. 
The relaxation rate is defined as the rate at which a system comes into equilibrium with its 

surroundings when various physical aspects of its surroundings such as temperature, electric 

and magnetic fields are charged. The nature of the dependence of the relaxation rates on 

temperature is very significant in understanding the physical nature of the process. In a 

process in which the relaxation rate depends on the temperature, it is certain that at some 

stage in the process a molecule or other unit involved is forced to wait until it has acquired a 

considerable amount of energy by thermal fluctuations, in excess of the average thermal 

energy in the medium. 

The electron transport properties of transition metal oxides are different than those of 

germanium and silicon. In case of these semi-conductors, most of the observed phenomena 

has been on the basis of energy bands. But in the case of transition metal oxides the electron 

is considered to be localized on a given lattice site and requiring an activation energy to move 

to an adjacent site. The behavior of electrical conductivity in Li-doped nickel oxide and other 

mixed systems of transition metal oxides has been studied (Ref. 10). It has been observed in 

these studies that if nickel oxide due to a deficiency of nickel or an addition of lithium 

deviates from stoichiometry, it becomes a semi-conductor and its conductivity varies from 

lo-' to 10-I (Q-cm)-l. In this experiment a microwave resonant cavity is used to study the 

dielectric behavior of nickel oxide, cobalt, oxide and their mixtures. The dielectric relaxation 

mechanism in these two materials is studied as a finction of temperature at a frequency of 

9.2 GHz. 

EQUIPMENT CONFIGURATIONS, THEORY AND RESULTS 

A microwave spectrometer in the x-bands of frequencies is used to study the dielectric 

behavior of nickel oxide, cobalt oxide and their mixtures. The details of the spectrometer 

have been discussed elsewhere (Ref. 1 1). The sample under study is placed in the resonant 

cavity and the perturbations of the microwave resonant signal are recorded in terms of its 

frequency shift and width change. This is achieved by placing the frequency markers on the 

left, center and right peaks of the microwave signal as the material under study goes through 
a phase change. This paper will include reasonable details of frequency multiplication. It is 

often desirable to take an ordinary radio frequency signal, and multiply it to the microwave 

range, so as to make absolute standardization of microwave frequencies in terms of known 

standards of lower frequencies. This multiplication can be done by conventional frequency 

multipliers, using ordinary devices, until we obtain frequencies in the microwave range. The 

other application would be to produce very high frequencies through harmonic generation 

from klystrons. Klystrons become more difficult to construct as the frequency becomes 

higher and higher, on account of the reduced size of the cavities and other parts of the 

resonant circuit. 

Systems which are rich in the generation of harmonics can be used as frequency multipliers. 

All the single tube amplifiers possess this characteristic due to the non-linearity existing in the 

plate current curve when the signal e.m.f.'s. are applied in the grid. Therefore, one more 

intermediate amplifier applied in r-f channel may act as a frequency multiplier. 

To produce microwave frequencies, a higher order of multipIication is needed, especially if 

one starts from an oscillator in the region of 100 kc. In some microwave-frequency standards 

conventional tubes are used up to a frequency of some hundreds of megacycles, and then 

followed by a silicon crystal harmonic generator. The crystal harmonic generators receive 

findamentd microwave power from klystron, and because of the nonlinear response of the 

semiconductor to the microwave field, they produce harmonics of the fundamental. Generally 

good harmonic generators involve efficient matching of the findamental microwave power 

into a crystal and appropriate nonlinear characteristics. They also require efficient radiation 

of the generated and desired harmonics into the waveguide region where frequency 

comparisons are to be made. 

In the present investigation, two different kinds of frequency multipliers were used. One kind 

was Model 900 B Sweep Signal Generator made by Jerrold Electronic Corporation which was 

calibrated to Model 11 12 A and 11 12 B General Radio Standards slowed to a 105 B quartz 

oscillator made by Hewlett-Packward. The frequency multiplication in both of these units is 
basically the same. The operation of the frequency standard can be followed from the block 

diagram shown in Figure 1. 

This 11 12 A, B frequency standard utilizes a chain of frequency multipliers and r-f amplifiers 

to produce the higher frequencies from a 5 MHz oscillator stabilized by a quartz crystal. The 

standard frequencies are 10 MHz, 100 MHz and 1000 MHz. The highest of these frequencies 

is applied to one electrode of the mixer crystal and the other two lower frequencies and the 

receiver are connected to the other electrode. To prevent loss of the higher frequency power 

into the low frequency circuits, a small capacitance and an inductance are provided at the 

lower frequency end of the crystal. Line stretchers vary the lengths of the coaxial cables, and 

a tuning stub shorted at the end adjusts the line impedance at the crystal. A meter monitors 

the crystal current and a variable resistor adjusts the bias on the crystal to optimize the nonlinearities for maximum harmonic production. A plunger in the mixer can be adjusted to give 

a maximum microwave field at the crystal. 

The crystal mixer rectifies the r-f signal and the rectified wave is known to be the resultant of 

components of a harmonic wave. Through the Fourier analysis of the non-sinusoidal periodic 

wave form, it can be seen that the rectified wave is made of sinusoidal components whose 

frequencies are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency of the non-sinusoidal periodic 

wave form. Through the multiplication process the initial frequency of 5 GHz in the crystal 

oscillator is increased to the required frequency. This process of multiplication is continued 

until finally a high order harmonic output is delivered into the mixer and the mixing process 

occurs. Since the arbitrary nth harmonic wave from the frequency multiplier can be matched 

to the modulated klystron frequency, the frequency difference can be received by the radio 

receiver. The radio receiver used for the interpolation method was a model 1330 A bridge 

oscillator made by General Radio Company. The radio receiver responds to only the 

frequency difference between the klystron resonant frequency and an nth harmonic from the 

frequency multiplier. This difference of frequency can be expressed mathematically by the 

following equation: 

fm = nfa k lfb * mfc k fr (1) 
where fm is the microwave frequency, fa, fb, and fc are the standard frequencies, fr is the 

frequency to which the interpolation receiver is tuned, and I, m, and n are integers. The plus or 

minus sign in the above equation shows that the local oscillator signal can mix from either a 

sum or difference with the center frequency of the klystron. The resulting frequency 

difference yields two frequency markers which are displayed on the oscilloscope. The 

appearance of the markers, displayed on one channel of a dual trace oscilloscope, depends 

strongly upon the wave form, frequency, and amplitude of the klystron modulation. 

A cylindrical resonating cavity in the TE,,, mode is used in this study. For such a cavity the 

solutions of Maxwell's frequency dependent field equations yield solutions for E and H fields 

which can be expressed as follows: 

E, = E, = 0 

I1 Ee = CDyJ, (yr) Sin(-Z) eiat b 

x2 Hz = W[oe - --- 1 J, (yr) sin ( Ez) ei(@t-x/2) 

pub2 b 

and 

where J, and J, are the Bessel knctions of the first kind, C and D are the constants, and y is 

given by 
p and e are the dielectric permeability and dielectric permittivity of the medium, respectively, 

and P is an integer. As shown in Figure 2 for the electric and magnetic fields configurations 

of a resonant cavity in TE,,, mode, the radius of the cavity is 'a' and Z is the vertical dimension 

of the cavity. It is also seen from this figure that the E field has a circular component in this 

mode. It does not have a Z or r component and is maximum at r = a12 and Z = bl2. 

Magnetic field has no 0 dependence. Just like E-field, it is also symmetric with respect to 0. 

Note that there is no tangential component of the electric field inside the cavity. It is because 

of the physics of electromagnetic waves inside a conductor, and not because of the existence 

of currents in the inside walls, and that is the reason we always have a finite Q of a cavity. 

In this experiment each sample studied is cooled below its freezing point by heat exchange 

mechanism. The samples are placed along the symmetry axis of the cavity. Temperature 

control of the sample is achieved by flushing cold air around the resonant cavity with the air 

passed through a heat exchanger mechanism. The rate of flow of air through the heat 

exchanger determines the rate of cooling. The details of the heat exchange mechanism are 

discussed elsewhere (Ref. 12). The cavity temperature is monitored using a themocouple that 

is in physical contact with the sample inside the capillary tube. 

As the sample to be studied is introduced into the cavity, it perturbs the electric and magnetic 

fields in the cavity and as a result of this quality factor Q of the cavity changes and there is a 

shift in the resonant frequency of the cavity. The cavity Q changes and the resonant 

frequency shifts are fbnctions of the dielectric properties of the sample producing the 

perturbation. These changes in Q and frequency shifts are related to the real and imaginary 

parts of the dielectric constant through Slater's perturbation equations (Ref. 11). The 

frequency shifts and the Q-changes were calculated at different temperatures for cobalt oxide; 

nickel oxide and their mixhres. Figures 3-6 sh& the behavior of frequency shifts and Qchanges for a sample of cobalt oxide and nickel oxide. From Slater's equations (Ref. 11), 

frequency shifts and Q-changes are related to the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric 

constant. The imaginary part of the dielectric constant is also the measure of dielectric loss 

in the sample studied at a given resonant frequency. As can be seen from these figures, the 
red part of the dielectric constant seems to be temperature dependent for nickel oxide and 

also for cobalt oxide. The dielectric constant basically remains constant up to 80°C and after 

that temperature seems to have a dramatic effect on it. There is also a temperature 

dependence on the dielectric loss term after the sample attains a temperature greater than O°C. 

This behavior in the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant changes abruptly in a 

sample that has mixed crystals of cobalt oxide and nickel oxide in the ratio of 5050. This 

behavior is shown in Figures 7 and 8. Two major changes are observed in the dielectric data 

for mixed crystals of nickel oxide and cobalt oxide as compared to their individual dielectric 

data. First of all, the transition temperature shifts dramatically in the mixed crystals to around 

160°C and the real and imaginary parts of dielectric constant show a strong discontinuity 

around that temperature. Secondly, the dielectric constant attains a much higher value and at 

the same time the dielectric loss term also changes significantly. 

Temperature certainly seems to have a strong effect on the dielectric constant 08 nickel oxide 

and cobalt oxide. The dielectric constant is a measure of the electronic and ionic 

polarizations that are able to follow the electric field orientations at a microwave frequency of 

9.2 GHz. As the temperature of the sample under study increases, it increases the atomic 

distance which in turn affects the ionic and electronic polarizations. More of these dipoles 

are able to follow the field at higher temperature as is indicated by the higher value of the 

dielectric constant. In other words, the number of atomic oscillations per unit volume for the 

sample under study seems to be going down. This behavior seems to be a bit complicated at 

this point and it will require this study to be extended for the dielectric relaxation of these 

crystals at a number of microwave frequencies. At each frequency data needs to be taken as 

a function of temperature and also different ratios of nickel and cobalt oxides. These results 

will be presented in a different paper that will hopefully simplie the temperature behavior of 

these transition metal oxides. 
REFERENCES 

1. Smakula, A., Skribanowitz, N., and Szorc, A.: Dielectric Properties of 

Semiconductors at Low Temperatures. J. Appl. Phys., 43(2). 1972, p. 508. 

2. Durny, R., Hautala, J., Duchame, S., Lee, B., Symko, O.G., Taylor, P.C., and Zheng, 

D.J.: Microwave Absorption in the Superconducting and Normal Phases of Y-Ba-Cu0. Phys. Rev. By% 1987, p. 2361. 

3. Gerson, Robert: Dielectric Properties of Lead Titanate Zirconate Ceramics at Very 

Low Frequencies. J. Appl. Phys., 31(9). 1960, p. 1615. 

4. Hong, K. H., and Roberts, J.A.: Microwave Properties of Liquids and Solids Using 

Resonant Microwave Cavity as a Probe. J. Appl. Phys, 45(6), 1974, p. 2452. 

5. Larrabee, R.D.: Measurement of Semiconductor Properties Through Microwave 

Absorption. RCA Rev., 2, 1960, p. 124. 

6. Nakarnura, E., and Furuichi, J.: Measurement of Microwave Dielectric Constants of 

Ferroelectrics. J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 15. 1960, p. 1955. 

7. Lurio, A., and Stem, E.: Measurements of the Dielectric Constant of B~T~O~ Single 

Crystals in the Paraelectric Region at X-band. J. Appl. Phys., 31. 1960, p. 1805. 

8. Arlt, G., Hennings, D., and de With, G.: Dielectric Properties of Fine-Grained Barium 

Titanate Ceramics. J. Appl. Phys., 58(4).. 15 August 1985, p. 1619. 

9. Slater, J.C.: Rev. Mod. Phys. 18, 1946, p. 441. 
10. Heikes, RR. and Johnston, W.D.: Mechanism of Conduction in 

Li-Substituted Transition Metal Oxides. J. Chem. Phys., a 1957, p. 582. 

11. Dahiya, J. N., Jani, S.K. and Roberts, J.A.: Phase Transition Studies in Polar and 

Non-Polar Liquids at Microwave Frequencies. J. Chem. Phys. 74(6), 1981, p. 3609. 

12. Dahiya, J.N.: Microwave Dielectric Response of Selected Polymers. J. Matr. Educ., 

17(1&2'). 1995 (In Press). 
Phase stabilized 

1000 MIIz signal 

for comparison 

105 B Quartz 

oscillator 

tlcwlett-Packard 

bration 

I 

l~econdary Standard Yodel \ I 

Rcvr . 

I. Block diagram of the frequency multiplication mechanism used in this experiment. 

(A) CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES 

FOR THE CAVITY. 

(8) ELECTRIC FIELD PATTERNS 

FOR E011 

(C) MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERNS 

FOR TE Otl MODE. 

SIDE VlEW 

ELECTRIC 

FIELD 

4 

E 

f 

4 

MAGNETIC 

H 

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW 

2. Electric and magnetic field patterns of a cylindrical cavity in TEOl 1 mode used in this 

experiment. 
AAAAAA 

I I 1 I 1 1 I I 1 I I I I I I 

-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 45 50 55 56 57 58 59 60 

TEMPERATURE ( C ) 

3. Q-change vs temperature for a sample of nickel oxide at a microwave frequency of 9.2 

GWz. 

O -80 -40 0 40 80 120 160 170 180 190 195 200 

TEMPERATURE ( C ) 

4. Frequency shift vs temperature for a sample of nickel oxide at a microwave frequency 

of 9.2 GHz. 

52 
FREQUENCY SHIFT ( MHz ) Q CHANGE ( M
-80 0 80 160 240 270 290 310 

TEMPERATURE ( C ) 

7. Q-change vs temperature for a sample of a mixture of nickel oxide and cobalt oxide 

(5050) at a microwave frequency of 9.2 GHz. 

111111 ll,llrrrl,rl,, 

-80 40 1 60 260 290 320 335 

TEMPERATURE ( C ) 

8. Frequency shift vs temperature for a sample of a mixture of nickel oxide and cobalt 

oxide (5050) at a microwave frequency of 9.2 GHz. 
MICROSTRUCTURAL PRIEPARATION AND 

EXAMINATION OF' POLYMER-MATRIX 

COMPOSITES 

Wayne L. Elban 

Maddy M. Rutzebeck 

Ryan A. Small 

and 

Adam M. Walsh 

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College 

4501 N. Charles Street 

Baltimore, Maryland 2 12 10 

Telephone 410-6 17-2853 
Wayne L. Elban 
MICROSTRUCTURAL PREPARATION AND EXAMINATION 

OF POLYMER-MATRIX COMPOSITES 

Wayne L. Elban, Maddy M. Rutzebeck, Ryan A. Small, 

and Adam M. Walsh 

Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College, Baltimore, Maryland 21210 

ABSTRACT: Adapting procedures widely used in the metallographic characterization of 

metals and alloys, the microstructural preparation and examination of three polymermatrix composites (PMC's) is described. The materials investigated contained either 

hollow ceramic filler particles or woven, continuous carbonlgraphite fibers. Since the 

two particulate composites were considered to be isotropic, only one sample orientation 

was prepared. For the fiber composite, both longitudinal and planar orientations were 

studied. Once prepared, the samples were examined using reflected light microscopy. A 

number of microstructural features were evaluated qualitatively, including porosity and 

cracks, filler-matrix interfacial bonding, filler particle characteristics (shape, size, size 

distribution, and loading variation) and fiber characteristics (orientation, packing 

variation, and discontinuities). 

KEY WORDS: microstructure, metallography, optical microscopy, polymer-matrix 

composite (PMC), particulate filler, carbonlgraphite fiber; cyanate ester resin, epoxy 

resin. 

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: sophomore-level undergraduate laboratory 

experiment requiring basic knowledge of microscopy, material microstructure, and 

composites as described in an introductory materials science course and accompanying 

laboratory course; also suitable for an upper-level undergraduate metallography course 

having an emphasis on metallic samples. (Instructor Note 1) 

OBJECTIVES: 

(a) Experimental Goals: 

1. to prepare PMC samples using adapted metallographic techniques and 

2. to examine microstructurally-prepared samples using reflected light 

microscopy to characterize their microstructures qualitatively. 
(b) Learning Goals: 

1. to become familiar with metallographic sample preparation techniques 

widely used for a variety of metallic and non-metallic materials; 

2. to become familiar with reflected light microscopy as a materials 

characterization tool; and 

3. to become familiar with particulate and continuous fiber composites and 

their microstructural characteristics. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: (1) Particulate PMC samples; (2) Carbon/graphite 

continuous fiber PMC sample; (3) Standard, metallographic sample mounting, grinding, 

and polishing equipment and consumables -- mdels/designations specified in Procedure 

or equivalent; (4) Reflected light microscope, preferably with capability to obtain 

photomicrographs -- model specified in Procedure or equivalent. 

PROCEDURE: 

Introduction 

Originally, metallography [I] was developed to examine and characterize the 

deformation-free microstructure in the interior of metals and alloys. A sample was 

sectioned, and the surface-damage layer that resulted was removed through a successive 

series of grinding and polishing steps using increasingly smaller particle size abrasives. 

With the emergence of new classes of materials, such as polymers, ceramics, and 

composites, sample preparation procedures were either adapted or created to allow their 

structures to be investigated as well (e.g., [2,3] specifically for composites). In addition, 

metallography is being used increasingly as a microstructural analysis tool for such 

diverse topics as failure analysis, weldment integrity, product quality control, and 

microelectronic packages and devices. Microstructural characterization of composites 

occupied a major portion of the 1994 Technical Meeting of the International 

Metallographic Society [4]. 

An engineered composite [5] is a materials system with at least two phases. There 

is a continuous phase, termed the matrix, which typically is reinforced with either 

discrete filler particles, discontinuous fibers (or whiskers), or continuous fibers. The 

variation possible with composites is enormous because both the matrix and reinforcement 
can be either metallic, ceramic, or polymeric 161. One technologically important material 

type has a polymer matrix. 

This work consists of microstructurally preparing three PMC samples for 

characterization using reflected light microscopy. Two composites having different 

particulate fillers and one with continuous fibers were used. The particles are hollow 

ceramic spheres of different sizes, size distributions, and surface finishes. The fibers are 

woven carbonlgraphite bundles (Figure 1 -- Instructor Note 2). The particulate 

composites have cyanate ester resin [7] matrices, while the fiber composite has an epoxy 

resin [8] matrix. Composites made with these thermosetting resins have widespread 

aerospace applications. Since the structure of the particulate composites is not expected 

to be orientation dependent, only one sample was prepared for each composite. Visual 

examination of the fiber composite revealed that it is laminated. Since this material is 

highly anisotropic (i.e., direction-dependent structure and properties), both longitudinal 

and planar sections were prepared based on the as-received composite beam geometry. 

These two sections provide orthogonal views, allowing the relative orientations of 

adjacent laminae (plies) to be determined. 

A. SAMPLE PREPARATION [9] (Instructor Note 3) 

1. Mount sample in Buehler EPO-KWICK epoxy using the processing procedure [lo] 

prescribed by the manufacturer (Instructor Note 4). 

2. Perform series of fine grinding steps (Instructor Notes 5 and 6) using silicon 

carbide papers, with successive 240, 320, 400, 600, and 2400 grit sizes, 

corresponding to 54, 29, 23, 17, and 10 pm, respectively. These papers are 

attached to separate platens of a Buehler Handimet grinder that provided a 

constant low velocity tap water wash. Before each grinding operation, the sample 

was first washed with deionized water followed by an ethanol rinse and drying 

with a commercial hair dryer (cool setting). 

3. Perform rough polishing (Instructor Note 6) using a Buehler low speed polisher 

and Textmet polishing cloth with 6.0'pm diamond paste and Metadi fluid 

extender. After polishing, rinse and dry the sample as before. 

4. Perform final polishing (Instructor Note 6) using a Buehler standard polisher and 

Microcloth with a 0.05 pm aluminum oxide/deionized water slurry. After 

polishing, rinse and dry the sample as before. 
Figure 1. Reflected Light Photomicrograph Showing Woven 

CarbonIGraphite Bundles. 
B. MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION 

1. Examine the resultant microstructure with a Zeiss model ICM 405 bench 

metallograph. Sample surface is as-polished and unetched. 

2. Obtain reflected light photomicrographs using brightfield illumination [ll] and 

Polaroid Type 57 film. 

Analvsis 

1. Studying the photomicrographs, qualitatively characterize the following structural 

features of the microstructurally-prepared composite as appropriate: 

particulate composite -- porosity and cracks; interfacial bonding; and particle shape, size, 

size distribution, and loading distribution; and 

fiber composite -- porosity and cracks; interfacial bonding; and fiber orientation, packing 

variation, and discontinuities. 

SAMPLE PHOTOMICROGRAPHS AND OBSERVATIONS: All of the experimental 

steps were performed on the three composite samples to verify that the sample 

preparation procedure was satisfactory. Figures 2 to 5 show representative 

photomicrographs of the samples prepared microstructurally. For each sample, the 

scratches were successfully removed from the polymer matrix with minimal surface relief 

resulting. 

Porosity and Cracks: Referring to Figures 2 to 5 reveals that all three samples were well 

made with a virtual absence of porosity or macrocracks (Instructor Note 7). Scanning the 

entire surface of the sample shown in Figure 2 revealed at least one pore on the scale of 

the filler particles. In Figure 2, some small cracks are present in the matrix and appear 

to emanate from particles near to the polished surface where the matrix is very thin. 

This suggests that the polymer matrix is brittle. A similar occurrence, however, was not 

observed in Figure 3 (Instructor Note 8). One possible explanation for at least part of the 

cracking is the dislodgement of filler particles during sample preparation. The difference 

in cracking behaviors would then be attributed to a dissimilarity in interfacial bond 

strengths, presumably associated with the different particle surface finishes. The absence 

of filler particle breakage reveals that sufficiently gentle mixing conditions were used 
Figure 2. Reflected Light Photomicrograph of Glass Bubble - 

Cyanate Ester Resin Composite. 

Figure 3. Reflected Light Photomicrograph of Reflective Coated 

Hollow Ceramic Sphere - Cyanate Ester Resin Composite. 
Figure 4. Reflected Light Photomicrograph of Longititdinal 

Section of CarbonJGsaphite Fiber - Epoxy Resin Composite 

Figure 5. Reflected Light Photomicrograph of Planar Section 

of CarbonJGraphite Fiber - Epoxy Resin Composite. 
before curing the matrix. Since the as-manufactured quality is quite good, it is probable 

that the particulate composites were cast under vacuum and that the fiber composite was 

prepared [12] under pressure (e.g., in an autoclave). 

Interfacial Bonding: The photomicrographs for all three samples reveal no disruption of 

the interface (where it exists) between matrix and reinforcing agent. Occasionally, 

particles were observed to touch such that they are not completely surrounded by matrix. 

This indicates that these particles were not completely wetted by the polymer binder 

during processing. Otherwise, the interfacial region appears to be uniform. However, 

the absence of vacuoles or interfacial tears around or near the various reinforcing agents 

does not necessarily mean that good adhesion exists in this region since the samples were 

not deformed prior to microstructural examination. 1131 

Filler Particle Characteristics: Both types of filler particles were spherically shaped 

except for a few oblong particles (Figure 3, in particular). The largest particles were 

determined to be 90 and 50 pm in Figures 2 and 3, respectively (Instructor Note 9). 

Although deceptive because certain particles are not observed at their diameters, it 

appears that both composites contain fillers having a wide range of sizes compared to the 

particles being unimodal. In both mateqals, there is no evidence that there is any 

preferred loading, but some particles were not completely wetted by the polymer as noted 

previously. 

I 

Fiber Characteristics: Figures 4 and 5 show longitudinal and planar sections, respectively, 

of the fiber composite. The as-photographed planar section was rotated 90° relative to 

the longitudinal section appearing in Figure 4. Similar to results reported by Nelson 131, 

the sample preparation procedure provided for good fiber retention. Figure 4 reveals 

portions of what appears to be four laminae (plies); the two in the center are oriented to 

allow the fiber cross-sections to be examined. These cross-sections are ellipsoidal 

indicating that the fiber axes are not orthogonal to the examined, polished surface. There 

are occasional binder-rich regions particularly at the laminae interfaces; otherwise, the 

fiber packing is reasonably uniform in the center two laminae. Assessment of 

discontinuities in the fibers is difficult at least in part because they are woven, but no 

splintered fibers were observed. Figure 5 shows portions of two laminae oriented 

approximately 45' to each other, also with no indication of splintering. Taken together, 

Figures 1, 4, and 5 reveal that the fiber composite consists of multidirectional fabric plies 

1141. 
INSTRUCTOR NOTES: 

1. This experiment relates to two previous National Educators' Workshop papers [15,16] 

in particular. 

2. This photomicrograph is partially out of focus because the weave within the lamina is 

slightly inclined to the as-viewed surface and because of the depth-of-field limitation of 

the light optics. 

3. Besides Reference [I], two comprehensive guides [17,18] have been published 

describing the theory of metallographic sample preparation with procedural 

recommendations for specific materials. 

4. Compression polymer mounts processed at elevated pressure and temperature, often 

used for metallic samples, are not suitable in the current work. A castable polymer 

mounting medium that cures at room temperature was selected to avoid sample damage 

(chemical decomposition of polymer matrix and breakage of filler particles). The choice 

of mounting materials has been discussed [19] in detail. 

5. Each composite sample was received with at least one surface already sectioned, 

probably with a diamond wheel saw. This surface was chosen for microstructural 

preparation with the exception of the planar section of the fiber composite. Since the 

polymer matrix is reasonably soft, the material removal rate is sufficiently high that the 

rough grinding step, normally used on metallic samples, can be eliminated. 

6. A guide [20] presenting various aspects of fine grinding and polishing, specifically 

using Buehler equipment and consumables, has been published. Other guides describing 

grinding [21] and polishing [22] have also been published. 

7. According to Sawyer and Grubb [23], voids or holes in fiber PMC samples appear 

black. 

8. This photomicrograph is significantly higher quality because the filler particles have a 

reflective coating that reduces the amount of light transmission and scattering compared 

to the sample in Figure 2. 
9. This is calculated using the relation 

Actual Dimension = Dimension on FilmIMagnification. (1) 

In this work, the magnification is the product of the powers of the eyepiece and objective 

(12.5X and 16X, respectively) since the camera lens has the same power as the eyepiece. 

General: In addition to all of the instructional literature from various vendors cited in the 

References, two instructional video cassette tapes (VHS) entitled "Introduction to 

Metallographic Sample Preparation" and "Microscopes/Metallographs" have been 

prepared by LECO Corporation, same address as in [l 11. 

[I] Vand4er Voort, G.F.: Metallography Principles and Practice. McGraw-Hill Book 

Company, Inc., 1984. 

[2] Blann, G.F. : Preparation of Composites for Microstructural Analysis: in 

Metallorrraphv of Advanced Materials. H.J. Cialoni, M.E. Blum, G.W.E. 

Johnson, and G.F. Vander Voort, eds. Microstructural Science, vol. 16, 1988, pp. 

97-1 10. 

[3] Nelson, J.A. : A New Direction for Metallography. Pract. Met., vol. 26, 1989, 

pp. 225-240. 

[4] 

5 

Shehata, M.T. ; Leduc, T,H. ; LeMay, I. ; and Louthan, M.R., Jr., eds. : 

Steel. and Other Engineering Materials. Microstructural Science, vol. 22, 1995. 

[5] Flinn, R.A. ; and Trojan, P.K. : Eneineerin~ Materials and Their Applications. 4th 

Edn. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990, pp. 647-677. 

$1 'me Material Difference," Alcoa Laboratories, Alcoa Center, Pennsylvania 

15069. 
[7] Hamerton, I., ed. : Chemis and Technologv of Cyanate Ester Resins. Blackie 

Academic and Professional, 1994. 

Ellis, B., ed.: Chemistry and Technoloev of Epoxy Resins. Blackie Academic and 

Professional, 1993. 

Ahmed, W. (Buehler Ltd., 4 1 Waukegan Road, Lake Bluff, Illinois 60044): 

Private Communication. Mwch 1992. 

"EPO-KWICK Fast Cure Epoxy Instructions, " Buehler Microstructural Analysis 

Division, same address as in [9]. 

Restivo, F.: "A Simplified Approach to the Use of Reflected Light Microscopes," 

Form No. 200-853. LECO Corporation, 3000 Lakeview Avenue, St. Joseph, 

Missouri 49085, 1987. 

Flinn, R.A.; and Trojan, P.K.: OD. cit., pp. 670-671. 

Oberth, A.E.: Principle of Strength Reinforcement in Filled Rubbers. Rubber 

Chem. and Tech., vol. 40, no. 5, December 1967, pp. 1337-1363. 

Colling, D.A.; and Vasilos, T.: Industrial Materials Polvmers. Ceramics. and 

Com-wsites Volume 2. Prentice Hall, 1995, pp. 130-135. 

Martin, D .H. ; and Dawson, G.L. : Microstructural Analysis (University and 

Industry Partnership), National Educators' Workshop: Update 90, NIST Special 

Publication 822, 1991, pp. 45-52. 

Kazem, S.M.: Elementary Metallography, National Educators' Workshop: Update 

91, NASA Conference Publication 3151, 1992, pp. 57-64. 

"Metallography Principles and Procedures," Form 200-860. LECO Corporation, 

same address as in [ 1 11, 199 1. 

Bjerregaard, L. ; Geels, K. ; Ottesen, B. ; and Ruckert, M. : Metalo Guide. Struers 

Tech, 1992 (available from Struers, A Division of Radiometer America, Inc., 810 

Sharon Drive, Westlake, Ohio 44 145). 
1191 Dillinger, L.: "What Type of Mounting Media to Use?" Met-Tips No. 4, Form 

200-976-04. LECO Corporation, same address as in [11], 1985. 

[20] "Metallographic Sample Preparation Fine Grinding - Polishing," Form No. 12-81- 

101. Metal Digest, vol. 20, no. 3, 1981 (from Buehler Ltd., same address as in 

[91). 

1211 Dillinger, L. : "The Art of Grinding," Met-Tips No. 11, Form 200-976-01 1. 

LECO Corporation, same address as in [l 11, 1984. 

[22] Dillinger, L.: "Polishing," Met-Tips No. 13, Form 200-976-013. LECO 

Corporation, same address as in [l 11, 1985. 

[23] Sawyer, L.C. ; and Grubb, D.T. : Polymer Microscopy. Chapman and Hall, 1987. 

pp. 221-227. 

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES: The composite samples used in this experiment were 

provided by a private vendor who is no longer able to make them available. However, 

two alternate suppliers for similar type materials have been identified: (1) G.M. Jurscaga, 

Head, Polymer Technology Section, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 

Langley Research Center, Mail Stop 397, Hanapton, Virginia 23665 and (2) J.V., Masi, 

Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Western New England College, 1215 

Wilbraham Road, Springfield, Massachusetts 01 1 19. With one exception, the 

metallographic consumables are available from Buehler Ltd., 41 Waukegan Road, Lake 

Bluff, Illinois 60044. The 2400 grit silicon carbide waterproof paper is available from 

Struers, A Division of Radiometer America, Inc., 810 Sharon Drive, Westlake, Ohio 

44145, in 200 mm disks that were cut to fit on the Buehler Handimet grinder. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The author is deeply indebted to W. Ahmed (See 

Reference 9.) for providing microstructural sample preparation recommendations and 

other information that allowed the current work to be accomplished. The help of W.A. 

Glover, Information Services, Loyola College, in using image processing software to 

obtain Figures 1 to 5 in final form is gratefklly recognized. 
VISUALIZING INFRARED (IR) SPECTROSCOPY 

WITH COMPUTER ANIMATION 

Charles B. Abrams 

McGill University 

and 

Leonard W. Fine 

Department of Chemistry 

Columbia University in the City of New York 

Havemeyer Hall 

New York, New York 10027 

Telephone 2 12-854-2017 
Leonard W. Fine 
TITLE: Visualizing Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy with Computer Animation 

AUTHORS: Charles B. Abrams, McGill University, and Leonard W. F~na . * 

, Columbia University. 

IR Tutor, an interactive, animated infrared (IR) spectroscopy tutorial has been 

developed for Macintosh and IBM-compatible computers. Using unique color animation, 

complicated vibrational modes can be introduced to beginning students. Rules governing the 

appearance of IR absorption bands become obvious because the vibrational modes can be 

visualized. Each peak in the IR spectrum is highlighted, and the animation of the corresponding 

normal mode can be shown. Students can study each spectrum stepwise, or click on any 

individual peak to see its assignment. Important regions of each spectrum can be expanded and 

spectra can be overlaid for comparison. An introduction to the theory of IR spectroscopy is 

included, making the program a complete instructional package. Our own success in using this 

software for teach and research in both academic and industrial environments will be 

described. 

IR Tutor consists of three sections: (1) INTRODUCTION is a review of basic principles 

of spectroscopy. First, the absorption of light by a sample is discussed. Then, the physics of 

light (electromagnetic radiation) is reviewed. Finally, the operation of a grating spectrometer 

is explained with an animated schematic diagram. (2) THEORY begins with the classical model 

of a simple diatomic molecule. Quantization of energy levels is introduced, and the selection 

rules for the absorption of light are explained. The theory is expanded to include larger 

molecules by introducing normal modes and group frequencies. (3) INTERPRETATION is the heart 

of the tutorial. Thirteen IR spectra are analyzed in detail, covering the most important 

functional groups. This section features color animation of each normal mode, full 

interactivity ... 'click on any peak to see the assignmentn ... overlay of related spectra, and 

expansion of important regions. This section can also be used as a reference. 

' Author to whom requests for information should be addressed, care of Box 758, Department 

of Chemistry, Havemeyer Hall, Columbia University, New York, New York, 10027. 
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POLYBUTADIENE 

(Jumping Rubber) 

Leonard W. Fine 

Department of Chemistry 

Columbia University in the City of New York 

Havemeyer Hall 

New York, New York 10027 

Telephone 2 12-854-20 17 

POLYBUTADIENE 

(Jumping Rubber) 

A violet suspension of an "alfin* catalyst is added to a bottle containing a solution of 1'3- 

butadiene in pentane. The bottle is corked and shaken for several seconds. The mixture sets to 

a gel, and within 2 minutes the contents erupt from the bottle [I]. 

MATERIALS 

Jumping Rubber kit [2]. The kit includes: 

wax-sealed, screw-capped vial containing alfin catalyst 

small sealed bottle containing 1,3-butadiene dissolved in dry pentane cork for bottle 

gloves, plastic or rubber 

bottle opener 

stirring rod 

tongs 

PROCEDURE 

WARNING! The alfin catalyst is a fire hazard. 

Perform this demonstration in a well-ventilated room and wear gloves. 

Open the catalyst vial and stir its contents with the glass rod. Remove the crown seal from the 

bottle. Quickly add a// the catalyst to the bottle. Immediately cork the bottle and shake. Do not 

point the corked bottle at anyone. The temperature increases slightly (to about 50°C), and the 

pressure increases (perhaps 2-3 atm) until, within 2 minutes, the cork is forced from the 

mouth of the bottle and a polymer "snake" shoots out. The bottle is left almost dry, and the 

liquid is trapped in the polymer. Use a pair of tongs to handle the polymer. During the next 

hour or so, the trapped pentane will evaporate and the polymer will shrink. 

HAZARDS 

This dramatic demonstration should be performed only by individuals who understand the fire 

hazard and reactivity of organosodium reagents. We have performed this demonstration over 

three hundred times without a single accident. Under hot or extremely humid conditions, the 

catalyst could ignite in air or ignite the butadiene-pentane solution. A carbon dioxide fire 

extinguisher must be available. 

Pentane is a highly flammable and volatile liquid (boiling point: 36"C), which can explode when 

exposed to heat, sparks or flame. Avoid inhalation of pentane vapors since they are slightly 

toxic. In high concentrations pentane is a narcotic. 

The compound 1,3-butadiene (boiling point: -5°C) can be. irritating to skin and mucous 

membranes and is a narcotic in high concentrations. 

DISPOSAL 

Since pentane is trapped in the product, the polymer should be kept away from flames. After 

several hours the pentane will evaporate, and the shrunken polymer can be discarded. 
The empty screw-capped vial should be rinsed carefully with water and discarded. 

Alfin catalysts are a class of heterogeneous catalysts which cause rapid polymerization of 

butadiene, isoprene. and other monomers resulting in polymers with very high molecular 

weights (1-2 million or higher). The alfin catalyst used in this demonstration is a solid surface 

catalyst developed by A. A. Morton [3-51 and co-workers. It is produced by reacting amyl 

chloride (C5Hi1CI) with sodium, which is then reacted with isopropyl alcohol [(CH3)2 CHOH]. 

The resulting mixture contains amylsodium (C5Hl1Na), sodium isopropoxide [(CH3)2CHONa] and 

sodium chloride. Propylene (CH2=CHCH3) is added to produce allylsodium (CH2=CHCH2Na) from 

amylsodium. The following sequence shows the necessary stoichiometry [6]: 

The sodium isopropoxide-allylsodium combination gives the highest polymer yield. The role of 

the sodium chloride is not clear, although it could be acting as a support for the catalyst. 

The catalyst is the mixture of the three sodium compounds, allyl sodium, sodium isopropoxide, 

and sodium chloride. All are essential constituents. The name "alfin" was derived from the 

words "alcohol" and "olefin" because both are involved in the preparation of the reagent. 

The alfin catalyst is believed [7,8] to adsorb and orient the monomer prior to the chaingrowth 

process. Surface effects presumably influence the stereochemistry [6], and the polymer 

consists mainly of trans-1.4 repeating units. Since one allyl group is incorporated into each 

polymer chain, the process resembles Zeigler-Natta catalysis [6]: 

alfin catalyst 

trans- l,4-polybutadiene 

The predominance of 1,4-polymerization has been suggested as evidence for a free radical 

propagation mechanism. It has been proposed [6] that complexes such as 
are formed and that the adsorbed monomer displaces the allyl anion from the complex to form 

an ion pair, which then reacts to form a radical pair: 

The radical anion initiates polymerization, which continues until combination with an allyl 

radical occurs. This combination does not occur very readily because the allyl radical is bound 

to the catalyst surface 161, and hence very high molecular weights are obtained. 

An anionic mechanism for polymerization with the alfin catalyst has been proposed [9]. 

According to this mechanism, monomer molecules are inserted into the chain: 

- -\ 

Na+ 

I 

Na+CI- Na+ -OR catalyst surface catalyst surface 

catalyst surface 

The references cited include further discussion of these and other hypotheses. 

REFERENCES 

1. Shakhashiri, B. Z.; Dirreen, G. E., Williams, L. G., J. Chem. Educ. 1980, 57,738. 

2. The Jumping Rubber Kit can be obtained from Organometallics, Inc., Route 11 1, East 

Hampstead, New Hampshire 03826. 

3. Morton, A. A.; Magat, E.; Letsinger, R. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1947, 69, 950. 
4. Morton, A. A.; Welcher, R. P.; Collins. F.; Penner, S. E.; Combs, R. D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 

1949, 71, 487. 

5. Sorenson, W. R.; Campbell, T. W. "Preparative Methods of Polymer Chemistry," 2nd ed.; 

lnterscience Publishers, John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1968; pp 305-7. 

6. Stevens, M. P. "Polymer Chemistry: An Introduction"; Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.: 

Reading, Massachusetts, 1975; pp 179-80. 

7. Morton, A. A.; Lampher, E. J. J. Polymer Sci. 1960, 44, 233. (Includes bibliography.) 

8. Ravve, A. "Organic Chemistry of Macromolecules"; Marcel Dekker: New York, 1967; p 

125. 

9. Reich, L.; Schindler, A. "Polymerization by Organometallic Compounds"; lnterscience 

Publishers, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1966: Ch. 5. 
EFFECTS OF CORE THICKNESS AND 

FIBER ORIENTATION ON COMPOSITE 

BEAM STIFFNESS 

Vernon S. Hillsman 

and 

Patricia J. Olesak 

Mechanical Engineering Technology Department 

Purdue University 

1417 Knoy Hall 

West Lafayette, Indiana 47907- 1417 

Telephone 3 17-494-7486 
Patricia J. Olesak 
Effects of Core Thickness and Fiber Orientation on Composite Beam Stiffness 

Vernon S. Hillsman and Patricia J. Olesak 

Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 

Kev words: composite beam, fiber orientation, foam core, beam deflection, sandwich panels 

Prereauisite knowled~e reauired: This laboratory experiment is intended for students 

in an introductory polymer materials and processes course or engineering materials course. 

Students should understand the basic concepts of beam deflection, flexural stress and 

modulus of elasticity. However, this experiment can also be conducted as an introduction to 

the hand lay-up process, with additional observations regarding the stiffness of the completed 

composite beams based on core thickness and fiber orientation. 

Obiectives: Students gain hands-on experience with the hand lay-up process by 

constructing glasslepoxy composite panels. Each lab group produces a panel with different 

core thickness or fiber orientation. The panels are then cut into strips and tested for flexural 

stiffness in a three-point bending fixture. Students plots deflection versus load data for 

composite beams with two different fiber orientations, two core thicknesses and one beam .- 

with laminate plies only (no core). The deflection plots highlight the effects of core thickness 

and fiber orientation on composite beam stiffness. 

Eaui~ment and su~dies: 

1. Core materials (polyurethane or polystyrene foam) in 10 mm and 20 mrn thicknesses 

2. 0'-90' glass cloth, 6 or 7.5 oz. 

3. Glass mat 

4. Epoxy resin and hardener 

5. Digital scales 

6. Hat plates (6 mm - 10 mm aluminum) to use as mold forms 

7. Mold release 

8. Stir sticks, brushes, rollers, gloves 

9. Bandsaw 

10. Load frame with three-point bending fixture; set up to measure load and deflection 

Procedure: Students work in teams assigned by the instructor; three to four students per 

team. Each team is given two aluminum plates to be used as mold forms. The plates are 

used to form smooth sides on their hand laid panels. A label, containing lab division and 

group number, is applied to the back (rough) side of each plate. A very thin coating of mold 

release is then applied to the smooth side of each plate. 

Five different composite panels are constructed, one from each team, based on the core 

and fiber orientations shown in Table 1. The glass mat and glass cloth layers are cut using a 

rectangular "glass pattern" template so that all glass layers are the same size. Students must 

orient the template properly to cut glass cloth layers with the proper fiber orientation, as 

shown in Figure 1. 
Team 1 : mat, 0'-90' cloth, 3 mat layers, 0'-90' cloth, mat 

Team 2: mat, 0'-90' cloth, mat, 318" core, mat, 0'-90' cloth, mat 

Team 3: mat, 45°-450cloth, mat, 318" core, mat, 45'-45' cloth, mat 

Team 4: mat, 0'-90' cloth, mat, 314" core, mat, 0'-90' cloth, mat 

Team 5: mat, 45'45' cloth, mat, 314" core, mat, 45'-45' cloth, mat 

Table 1 Fiber orientations and core sizes of panels prepared by each team 

0'-90' glass cloth 45'45' glass cloth 

Figure 1 0'-90' and 45'45' fiber orientations used for the composite panels 

Students prepare a sufficient quantity of epoxy resin and hardener using a 3- 1 

resinhardener ratio (by weight). Digital scales are used to measure the weights of each 

component, and then the resin and hardener are completely mixed using the stirring sticks. A 

thin layer of the resinhardener mixture is then brushed onto one of the mold plates over an 

area that is slightly larger than the glass mat. The first layer (glass mat) is placed on the resin 

covering the mold form, and brushes andlor rollers are used to wet out all of the glass fibers. 

Successive layers are applied as above until all of the layers of the panel have been 

assembled, taking care to properly wet out all glass fibers in each layer. The second mold 

form is then placed on the laminated plies, mold release side facing in. All molds are then 

placed in a compression press, or vacuum bagged, to help remove any excess resin from 

the composite panel. All composite panels are allowed to cure overnight. 

After sufficient cure time, the composite panels are removed from the mold forms and 

cut into strips 25 rnrn by 250 rnrn using a bandsaw. Each strip is then tested in three-point 

bending as shown in Figure 2. Students collect deflection versus load data for all of the 

samples of various core thicknesses and fiber orientations; this data is then averaged for each 

sample type, and plotted as shown in Figure 3. 

Figure 2 Three-point bending test (1) 
Figure 3 Deflection versus load plot for composite beam samples 

Students can easily see the effect of core thickness on composite beam stiffness (2); 

however, it is much more difficult to see the stiffness effects of the fiber orientations used in 

this test. Although laminated plate theory (1) predicts that the 0'-90' orientation should 

exhibit higher stiffness than the 45'-45'orientation, the effects of fiber orientation are not 

readily apparent from the plots shown in Figure 3. 

Sam~le data sheets: Self-evident 

Instructor notes: Students generally have little trouble preparing acceptable composite 

panels; however, care must be taken to insure that the fibers in each ply are sufficiently wet 

out without using an excessive amount of resin. Composite beam strips of constant width 

can be cut on a bandsaw when using a rip fence. 

If extremely low density core materials are used to construct the composite panels, some 

compression of the core material may occur directly under the applied load, this will be 

evident in the data when deflection becomes nonlinear for each identical increase in load. 

If a load frame with load cell an cross-head position is not available for the three-point 

bending test, the composite beams c ! uld also be tested for deflection as cantilever beams, 

using the test equipment described in Reference 3. 

The plot of the three-point bending test data (Figure 3) easily shows the effects of core 

thickness on beam stiffness (deflection). It should be noted that composite beams of either 

core thickness were stiffer than the core material itself, but the core material was stiffer than 

the sample laminated without any core (not shown), primarily due to the higher rectangular 

moment of inertia of the core material. 

Unfortunately, the effects of fiber orientation are more difficult to show, perhaps because 

the stiffnesses of the 45'-45' and 0'-90' laminates were too similar for the differences to be 

clearly shown. The effects of fiber orientation on stiffness could be more clearly shown by 

comparing quasi-isotropic laminates to unidirectional laminates (4); this change will be 

incorporated into future versions of this experiment. 
References: 

1. Stephen W. Tsai, Comuosites Design, 4th edition, Think Composites, Dayton, Ohio, 

1988 

2. James A. Jacobs and Thomas F. Kilduff, engineer in^ Materials Technology, Second 

Edition, Prentice Hall Career and Technology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1994 

3. L. Roy Bunnell, "Simple Stressed-Slun Composites Using Paper Reinforcement", NIST 

Special Publication 822, National Educators Workshop: Update '90, 1990 

4. Robert L. Mott, "Applied Strength of Materials", Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1996 

Foam core materials, epoxy resins and glass cloth and mat are 

normally available from plastics supply companies, or from educational supply companies 

such as Iasco (Minneapolis, MN). Laminating supplies (brushes, rollers stir sticks, gloves) 

are normally available at local hardware or automotive supply stores. 
MATERIALS ALL AROUND US 

James A. Jacobs 

School of Technology 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504 

Telephone 804-683-8 109 

Materials All Around Us 

James A. Jacobs 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 

Key Words: Materials system, journal 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Initially none, but as course progresses students must be able to 

connect properties to the main groups of materials to their applications. Can use 

at pre- college - see References below for supplements. 

Objectives: To observe materials in the environment around use 

To determine the properties of materials that cause their use in materials systems 

To develop a strong rationale for gaining a knowledge about engineering materials 

Supplies: The variety of materials we encounter daily 

Students often look for a strong rationale for studying a subject. Among advantages to teaching 

a basic course in engineering materials is the fact that materials are all around us. While many 

people, including technical people, don't give much attention to materials, we can teach students 

to become materials observers. They will find proper and improper materials selection. They 

benefit from this knowledge as consumers, citizens, and in their careers. 

Procedures: 

1. Journal - Keep a journal with which regular entries about materials that include: a) 

applications in service, b) news reports, c) advertisements, d) candidates for usage. The journal 

should have entries entitled: date, observations and analysis. Sample entries are shown on the 

journal page below. For the sake of space, I used simplistic examples that illustrate the range 

of items that might be observed. Each item could involve very thorough analysis, but the goal 

is to make materials observers of students and let that motivate them to dig deeper into the 

subject. 

The journal doesn't require grading but serves a point of discussion for class. Discuss these 

observations and analysis in class. Many analyses will be simplistic. As the course progresses, 

students should be able to make progressively niore informed analysis as demonstrated on the 

sample below. Few of us possess the background to analyze all material conditions. It is 

difficult to simply look at an alloy or plastic and be able to make proper identification. This 

should not be a deterrent. Rather, it provides the opportunity for students to share their unique 

experiences and knowledge for which both professor and students learn. The journal idea 

connects with the "Writing Across the Curriculum" movement. This aims to encourage technical 

students to engage in free style writing in all courses. I encourage my students to use this journal 

( 100 page spiral notebook) as a central location to keep notes, make sketches, list resources, and 

keep together with their engineering materials textbook for later use in other classes and on the 
2. Mounted Samples - Students bring to class materials and products composed of materials 

systems. Encourage them to look around for broken and discarded examples of materials. The 

examples they bring vary widely from disassembled calculators and hair dryers to shoe soles, 

electrical switches, and computer speakers (Figure 1). I ask the students to mount the samples 

on 220mm x 280mm posterboard as seen in Figure 1, and label the types of materials while 

providing explanations of what properties caused the selection of the materials for the system as 

seen on the Data Sheet below. 

In our book Engineering Materials Technology, which we just finished the manuscript for the 

3rd edition that's due out next fall, we discuss materials systems as . . . 

Materials rarely exist in isolation without interacting with other materials. Rather, 

a combination of materials are selected to complement one another. In a successful 

materials system, each component is compatible with the others, while 

contributing its distinctive properties to the overall characteristics of the system 

of which it is a part. A state-of-the art telephone is a good example. The casing 

might be a tough ABS plastic, which houses a microchip (a solid-state ceramic 

device) that provides memory and sound-transmission capabilities. Copper leads 

join the circuitry together. There might be a battery and a ceramic light-emitting 

diode to show when the battery is low. The acid in the battery must be isolated 

to prevent corrosion, and the copper leads must be insulated so that they do not 

short out. Each component is made of materials that meet the demands of the 

physical and chemical environment normally encountered when using the system. 

[Jacobs, p. 15.1 

These specimens provide for useful discussion that help reinforce the content of the course. I 

include them as a part of the overall course grade. Mounting the specimens provide for 

interesting problem-solving. Many think a "super glue" will hold anything. This presents an 

opportunity to delve into adhesive bonding. Within the size restriction for the display, many 

approaches to mounting and labeling emerge as seen in Figure 1. The mounted specimens are 

also good to take to schools when I am asked to speak to students. 

Conclusion: Materials are all around us. Learning about materials is easily made interesting 

if we remember to encourage students to be materials observers. The ideas presented here 

suggest many other opportunities to make materials education relevant to any audience. 

References: 

Jacobs, James A. and Thomas F. Kilduff. Engineering Materials Technology. 3rd ed., 1997. 

ASM International. Advanced Materials & Processes. Selection and other volumes. 

ASM International. Engineering Materials Handbook - desk edition. 1995. 

Many supplementary ideas for pre-college level in Resources in Technology: Volumes 5-9. Order 

from International Technology Education Assoc., 19 14 Association Dr., Reston,VA 2209 1- 1539. 
Journal Entries 

Observation Analysis 

1/15/96 Garbage cans are rusted and top Make containers out of concrete 

has blown away 

1/25/96 Paint on the foam plastic bumper Wrong type of paint selected; shouldn't paint 

of car has faded and is cracking plastic or rubber but instead mix color into 

polymer; sun is attaching polymer 

2/13/96 News Item: A commuter plane 

crashed when the propeller blade fell Improper maintenance caused metal fatigue 

off 

2/15/96 Shopping for a bicycle, salesperson 9000 aluminum alloy provides light weight, 

. says brand x has an alloy frame corrosion resistance making it superior to 

with urethane shock absorbers steel alloy frames, urethane shocks are 

making it stiffer and lighter than superior to steel springs since they cushion 

competitor's frame and avoid sudden jolts, but will they wear 

out quickly? 

Data Sheet 

MATERIALS & THEIR PROPERTIES 

Type of Material: 

(Provide specific info. e.g. alloy 

or plastic name) 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Reason Material Selected: 

Functions of the material in the 

system, e.g.,corrosion resistance 

and electrical conductivity 
Figure 1 Examples: a) mica1 products readily available that consist of materials systems, b) students' sampies of discarded ceramics 
Figure 1 cont. c) students' samples of dscarded polymers, and d) students' disassembled products showing materaak systems 
Page intentionally left blank 
CRAFT STICK BE 

Alan K. Karplus 

Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering 

Western New England College 

1215 Wilbraham Road 

Springfield, Massachusetts 01 1 19-2684 

Telephone 413-782- 1220 

Craft Stick Beams 

Alan K. Karplus 

Western New England College 

Springlield, MA 

Keywords: 

Beams, Bend Tests, Composite Structures 

Prerequisite Knowledge: 

The student 

1. should know what a craft or popsicle stick is and that it can be bent and broken, 

2. should be familiar with fiberboard andlor cardboard and that it can be bent and torn apart, and 

3. should know that sticks of wood and fiberboard can be glued together to form beams of specified dimension. 

Objective: 

The objective of this exercise is to provide a phenomenological 'hands-on7'experience that shows how 

geometry can affect the load carrying capacity of a material used in construction, how diierent materials have 

different failure characteristics, and how construction affects the performance of a composite material. 

The student will learn to: 

1. Fabricate different types of layered beams such as 

A. Built-up beams of a single material, and 

B. Composite beams of a mixture of materials, 

2. Test these layered beams to determine how and where the beams fail, 

3. Use knowledge gained fiom 1 and 2, to design a layered beam that will fail in a predicted manner, and 

4. Capture a knowledge of the effects of lamination, adhesion, and geometry in layered beam construction on 

beam strength and failure location. 

Equipment and Supplies: . 

1. Forster Craft Sticks, Forster Inc. Wilton, ME or popsicle sticks, fiberboard sheets fiom backs of pads of 

paper, Puritan Tongue Depressors, Hardwood Products Company, Word, ME 

2. Large Size Paper Cutter 

3. Micrometer or Vernier Caliper to measure sample thickness 

4. Safety Glasses 

5. Glue - Elmer's Glue All, Bordon, Inc., Columbus, OH, is suggested, but any other glue can be used. Xn fact, 

glue type can become a variable. Be sure to use the she glue for ALL samples in a given test. 

6. Clamps for holding glued craft sticks (an anvil capable of applying load over the complete craft stick is 

necessary for quality results) 

7. Test Apparatus with three point loading ktme: Instron Load Fme with Load versus Deflection plot 

output capability or Hydraulic Tester and gage to read 'bn-the-run" the first dum load. 

8. Data Sheet (see recommended samples below) 

9. M.agdyng glass 

10. Computer spread sheet if desii 
Test Activity Overview: 

The £ht step is to create reference data for comparison purposes. This can be considered a "benchmark" to 

which all subsequent findings can be compared. The recommendation is to record failure loads in a table for 

one, then two, three, and four d sticks placed together on their wide flat fkces unglued (Series I), and 

loaded to find the first maximum Mure load as the beam is loaded to failure, which occurs when the load 

carried by the beam decreases after reaching a maximum. Remember the load is applied at a right angle to the 

wide flat face of the craft stick and uniformly across the width as shown in Figure 1. In the case that a plot of 

load against beam deformation can be made while the test is under way, a review of the plot may show jumps 

which can be due to material failure or debonding of glue that indicate significant changes in the abiity of the 

beam to cany load. A loss of load signals a failure. These kinds of observations will be seen in the glued 

beams such as series 11. 

Testing - Phase I: 

Two three point type beam test units are available. One is similar to an Instron machine under position 

control when the load rate is specified in inches per second and a plot of load against deflection is obtained. 

. The second is a hydraulic jack setup which could be prepared as a clamp when curing the glued beams and 

as a device for obtaining maximum failure load for each beam loaded to failure. When d sticks are used 

each measures a length close to 4.5 inches. Prepare the three point loading apparatus so the bottom supports 

are 4.00 inches apart and the third load is applied in the center or 2.00 inches ftom each end of the bottom 

supports. Kundu and Wickman (1) present an approach to making a mechanical tester. 

Once a three point beam test unit has been selected, place a beam in the three point test fixture - two load 

edges on the bottom and one on the top make three points. Be sure the load is applied perpendicular to the 

wide face of the craft sticks on the outside surfaces of a manufactured beam. Apply load until the beam Ms. 

Failure is seen as the load indicator rises and then fds off as the beam is no longer able to support load. For 

the unglued beams sliding of the components relative to the upper stick is often noticeable, especially when 

noting the alignment at the end of a beam. Use of a eg glass will help. Check the beam under the 

load points, on the free ends and under the center applied load. LISTEN and you may hear a noise as the 

beam or glue fails, too. Place on the data sheet the maximum load found just before the FIRST Mure occurs. 

Continue this process for all beams in a series. Please remember a usefbl approach is to make notes about the 

noises heard, the changes seen in the beam - in series IV with the three layered beam, did the fiber beam in the 

center layer crush? 

Series I: First a siigle stick beam and then built-up beams made fiom two, three, and four craft sticks should 

be tested and the fist maximum load prior to Mure recorded in the table. Written notes on the data sheet 

about the response of each beam to its three point bending evaluation are recommended. For example, for the 

single craft stick the maximum load carried is 12 pounds; the beam broke in the middle under the applied 

load and the beam splintered. In addition, written cdrnments on a visual inspection of each beam before, 

during and after test can be helpfbl. Since there are many beams under evaluation, please label each beam in a 

series (series I - beam 1, etc.) and make notes before the next beam is loaded. Figure 2 shows the load 

deformation plot for one, two, three, and four layered glued craft sticks. The jumps present failures which 

often can be heard as a 'snap' when the test is run. 

Composite Beams: 

AU composite beams will be made with layers that are glued together. The naming of composite beams 

is used to spe beam stick layering. One or more fiber sticks is substituted for one or more of the wooden 
Overview: 

The first step is to make built-up beams. One, Go ,thee, and four aaft sticks are used to make a series of 

unglued beams and a series of glued beams. The second step is to make fiber sticks cut fiom the backings of 

pads of paper and make fiber stick built-up beams: a series of unglued fiber stick beams and a series of glued 

fiber stick beams. The third step is to test each beam in the fbur series and make a record of the results of the 

mechanical testing so that composite beams can be designed. The fourth step is to design series of composite 

beams with fiber sticks and craft sticks, and to prepare hypotheses that predict which layer in a composite 

beam will fail first and where in the layer the failure will occur. The last step is to test each beam in a series of 

composite beams to accept or reject an hypothesis. 

Sample Preparation: 

The craft sticks are used as they come fiom the package. The fiber board needs to be cut to size with a large 

'paper cutter. A pair of scissors can be used, but the chance to twist and bend or break the fiber board is so 

great that scissors are not recommended. Another recommended cutter is a scroll saw, but again care in 

cutting is critical to assure beam integrity. The craft sticks are close to 0.088 by 0.364 by 4.488 inches in size 

while fiber boards fiom legal pads found were 0.073 inches thick. While 0.073 inches is less than 0.088 

inches the thinner fiber board sticks were used due to legal pad availability. 

Sample Gluing: 

The task of placing glue on the beams is signdicant. At &st there appears to be no concern, and then concern 

sets in. How uniform is the coating, how fast will it set up on a beam with three layers of craft sticks, and how 

should the beams be clamped, etc.? Perhaps the best suggestion is to select and use the same glue for all 

series needing glue. A good approach is to use Elmer's Glue All and a small brush to quickly lay a bead of 

glue which is spread with the brush, and if three craft sticks are to be joined, place glue on two craft sticks 

and place them together, rub them about and realign the sticks as one beam and place the composite b 

into the clamp. Next apply the clamp force as soon as possible. Be sure to check alignment after clamping to 

be assured that all members are parallel. Make up the series of beams you plan to evaluate, select the 

materials needed to build them, and build them, being sure to keep notes along the way. 

To assist the experimenter in keeping good records, a beam series is defined as a group of samples which 

have common features. Four sticks are chosen because four craft sticks have the same height as the width of 

one aaft stick. The series of Built-Up Beams follows: 

1. Wooden Craft Sticks 

a. Series I : First a craft stick alone, and then two, three, and four craft sticks stacked together, and 

b. Series 11: Two, three, and four of the wooden craft sticks are glued together on their wide flat faces as 

built-up beams. 

2. Fiber stick beams are developed when fiber board as fiber sticks of the same thickness and size of the 

craft stick are used in place of the wooden craft sticks. The selections are: 

a. Series III: Fist a fiber stick alone, and then two, three, and four fiber sticks are stacked together, and 

b. Series IV: Two, three, and four fiber sticks glued together on the wide flat faces as a built-up b 
craft sticks when a composite beam is prepared. A scheme for designating wood sticks (W) and fiber sticks 

(F) components is created. If the first letter denotes the top surface and top member of the composit 

then the following combinations may prove interesting: Series V which includes FW and WF, Series 

members FWF, WFW, Series VII with members , WFWF, and FWFW are 

Hypothesis fbrmation: 

Each student should make an hypothesis which addresses which layer in the layered structure of a WFVV 

composite beam will fid first and will it be crushed or splintered. The hypothesis should be formulated based 

on the findiigs fiom testing sigle material beams of wooden craft stick beams and fiber stick beams. The 

previously collected information can enhance your knowledge and is to be used to make an hypothesis for 

composite beam performance. For example, in series V, the first hypothesis is that the fiber stick (I?) in the 

middle of a three layer composite beam (WEW) will be the first to fail and will it M in the center of the beam 

layer beam by crushing or splintering, is made. Future hypotheses can address the expected location in the 

beam and the expected types of failures in KVlTW, WFWE;, and FWFW beams. 

Testing- Phase 11: ' Composite beam load tests are performed to determine the effect of material arrangement for fabrcated 

composite beams. The first hypothesis is for the WFW beam, and this hypothesis should be tested prior to 

testing other composite beams. Once confidence has been gained in predicting that the fiber stick will fail first 

and the Mures will be due to separation within the fiber stick given that the glue between layers does not tid, 

new composite arrangements can be addressed. Sometimes failures will occur because of gluing technique 

and not because of materials arrangement. Remember the hypothesis presented above. When evaluating the 

series V, three layered composite beam WFW be sure to look at the data fiom series I-IV and see what beam 

configuration is the strongest. How did the hypothesis fare? Was it accepted or rejected? The fiber layer in 

WFW usually Ms directly under the applied load and is crushed. 

It is always possible to check the current hypothesis a second time. This verification activity is accomplished 

by preparing a second sample of the beam fiom this series, but be sure the procedure used to make, glue, 

and clamp the beam is the SAME as before. Variation will be present, but the trend should be clear. 

The experimenters will soon discover that making composite beams fi-om layers of sticks which are glued 

together needs an expertise developed for glue application and clamping. The amount of clamping force can 

alter the quality of end product. Often the glue is not the weakest link and the beam material will firil W. 

However, dorm application of glue to the mrfkes to be joined is important as otherwise premature Mures 

may occur. 

As multiple layered composite beams are made car& observation of beam layer f$ilure may show a 

drdc change or jump in load on a load against deformation graph that is made while the beam is under 

test. In addition, astute observation by a student may catch the layer destruction action when one member of 

the glued composite beam fails. As the load applied to a beam increases a card observer can see the 

reaction on the beam - splinters can be formed, fiber beams can be crushed and separate hrn their glued 

outer surhxs, and sometimes the composite beam separates in the glued region at one end between the 

wood stick and the fiber stick or maybe within the fiber itself! This information should be recorded and used 

when the next series of composite beams is designed and hypotheses are made for where the failure will 

OCCUT. 
Results Review: 

To gain perspective and show the type of findings possible for first maximum load canied by the craft stick 

beams, the data in Table 1 is shown with notes below the table and series dehed in the text. 

Table 1 - Sample Data at 0.01 inches per second Loading Rate: Pounds at Failure Load 

Series I 11 III IV VII S-2 

Layers : 1 10.1 -- 1.7 - 29.5 19.5 

2 18.2 37.4 2.0 6.6 44.2 58.5 

3 29.3 78.8 4.5 14.0 27.1 108.9 

4 35.4 90.9 4.6 21.3 28.3 197.6 

Series I is craft sticks without glue 

Series II is craft sticks glued with Elmer's Glue All 

Series III is fiber sticks without glue 

Series IV is fiber sticks glued with Elmer's Glue All 

Series VII is a 4 layer composite as follows: for Layer 1 designation Wm;W, Layer 2 designation FWWF, for 

Layer 3 designation WFWF, and Layer 4 designation FWF\N 

Series S-2 is solid birch cut to thickness of layers designated (see Comments below) 

From Table 1 data it is seen that the unglued craft sticks in series I carry more load than the fiber sticks in 

series III and that gluing sticks to double the beam height in a built-up beam can triple ( two layers of craft 

sticks or fiber sticks) load carrying capacity. Built-up fiber stick beams appear not to gain appreciable load 

carrying capacity after 3 layers ifunglued, but that gluing makes a tremendous difference and increases the 

load carrying capacity over a single stick by seven or more times. The four layered unglued beams are not as 

good in carrying load as the two member glued beams. In series VII the combination WFWF is not as good 

as FWFW, and FWWE; is best, but not as strong as four layers of glued craft sticks. From Figure 3, which is a 

plot of series II, series IV and series S-2, it can be seen that the difference between the glued stick beams 

and solid wood beams of thickness is siiar to the layered beams. In all cases the center of the beam resists the 

transverse shear load on the beam which is greatest at the center of the cross-section at mid-span as presented 

by Hibbler (2). In all cases the solid wood samples were superior to the laminated beams. 

Comments: 

Extension of the concepts learned includes several initiatives which you andlor your students may want to 

follow: 

1. A change in glue is possible. Ifthis is done, be sure all sets of beams use this same glue so that one kind of 

glue can be compared to another. DAP Weldwood Carpenter's Glue, DAP, Inc., Dayton, Oa Titebond 

Wood Glue, Franklin Chemical Industries, Columbus, OR and Dap Weldwood Hobby'n Craft Glue, DAP, 

Inc., Dayton, OH, are a few that have been tried. Ask yourselfa question - Is the glue weaker or stronger than 

the wood andlor the fiberboard used? Usually the glue ik stronger and fails when the wood andlor fiber sticks 

change shape under load. 

2. A set of solid wood beams with thickness of one, two, three, and four craft sticks with the depth and length 

the same as the craft sticks could be prepared. This should be done caremy because cutting small pieces the 

size of craft sticks can be dangerous. Seek the help of a craftsperson who knows how to do this type ofwork. 
3. The craft sticks are white birch which was found via a call to the manufacturer. Tongue depressors (about 

0.063 by 0.706 by 6.007 inches in size) are usually white birch, too. How are the white birch sticks andlor the 

tongue depressors made? Consider a log that has a layer of the selected thickness peeled off and then a punch 

is used to form craft sticks or tongue depressors. This process is compared to making tangential or transverse 

saw cuts for the formation of solid wood samples that you might prepare. 

4. Different treatments could be given to the beams prior to testing. Painting or coating with a penetrating 

preservative can change attributes. Even wrapping the beams in tissue and painting with airplane dope will 

simulate a built-up wing type structure. You select the options! 

5. An interesting approach is to use tongue depressors which are wider and thinner than craft sticks. Select 

tongue depressor beams of one, two, three, four, five, and six thicknesses which comespond to the width of a 

craft stick and compare finding for the composite structures of WFW, FWF, WFFW, FWWF, 

WWFWW,WFFFW,FWWWF, FWFWF,WWFFWW,WFFFFW,FFWWFF,andWFWWFW, 

for example, to those of the craft stick thickness. Commonly available fiberboard fiom paper pads of 0.026 

inches was used because of availability. The trends observed could be that the strongest combinations are 

WF, WFW, FWWF, WWFWW, and WWFEWW. You might ask about the reasons for this, and reference 

to the resistance to the maximum shear stress provides an answer. At the center of the mid-span of the beam 

consider the cross-section that is perpendicular to the length of the beam. The maximum transverse shear 

stress occurs at the center of this beam cross-section while the maximum bending stress occurs at the outermost fiw of this cross-section of the beam. 

6. A comparison of recorded information for white birch by Tsoumis (3), often refbred to as Paper Biich, can 

provide some engineering calculations. The Wood Handbook (4) presents for paper birch with 12 percent 

moisture content a modulus of rupture of 12300 psi and a shear strength parallel to the grain of 1210 psi. 

These properties can be compared to values found for loads listed in Table 1, above, under column S-2 for 

the solid wood beams cut to order. Equations for the calculations after Higdon (5) are available to students 

of engineering who have studied Mechanics of Materials. In addition, the Wood Handbook provides some 

reference to the "basic stresses" for structural members while reference information on the strength of glued 

joints is scarce. 

7. A set of sample of other materials can be used. Plastic inaterials and appropriate bonding agents, some of 

which might be solvents, can be considered. A feature of this approach is that several student teams can be 

selected, given same size geometries and appropriate bonding agents, sent to independently build uniform 

material beams or composite material beams and aU brought together for testing andfor data analysis. 
References: 

1. Kundu, N.K. and Wickman, J.L., An Affordable Material Testing Device, NASA Conference 

Publication 3 3 04, National Educators' Workshop: New 94, November 1994, pp.20 1-209. 

2. Hibbler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, Macrnillan Publishing Company, New York, NY,1991, Ch 7. 

3. Tsoumis, G., Wood As A Raw Material, Pergarnon Press, N.Y.,NY, 1968, p.229 

4. The Forest Products Laboratory, Wood Handbook, Agricultural Handbook 72, Superintendent of 

Documents, U. S. Printing Office, 1955 

5. Higdon, A Et.al., Mechanics of Materials, 4th edition, John Wiey & Sons, Inc. N.Y., My 1985 

Acknowledgments 

The author received assistance over the 1995 summer fiom Robert Chhugani, a Western New England 

College incorning Senior Mechanical Engineering student, and fiom Mathew and Jeff Kolb, brothers, and 

local Springfield, MA, high school students. Their endeavor and comments were valuable and greatly 

appreciated. 
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........ 
AN EXERCISE IN ION BEAM ANALYSIS 

Kristen T. ern' 

Stephen W. RussellZ 

Joseph R. ~esrner~ 

and 

Carl J. 'Maggiore3 

'Materials Research Laboratory 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23 104 

2Department of Chemical, Bio, and Materials Engineering 

Arizona State University 

Tempe, Arizona 

3Los Alarnos National Laboratory 

Los Alamos, New Mexico 
Kristen T. Kern 
An Exercise in Ion Beam Analysis 

Kristen T. r ern', Stephen W. us sell^, Joseph R. ~esmer~, and Carl J. ~a~~iore~ 

Materials Research Laboratory 

Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia 

Department of Chemical, Bio, and Materials Engineering 

Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 

Los Alarnos National Laboratory, Los Alarnos, New Mexico 

Key Words: Ion Beam Analysis, Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Introductory understanding of conservation of energy and 

momentum in col!isions and Rutherford scattering is helpful. 

Objective: To analyze data from Rutherford Backscattering experiments in order to 

determine elemental composition. 

Supplies: Sample RBS spectra, including a calibration spectrum, Ruler. 

Introduction: 

Scattering phenomena are taught in introductory physics classes, and concepts such as 

conservation of energy and momentum are used at all levels of physics. However, 

applications of scattering are often not included as part of an education. Rutherford 

scattering, a topic of any modern physics course, is now used as a tool for materials 

science applications [1,2,3]. In the absence of laboratory equipment for students to 

perform such experiments, an exercise in the analysis of scattering data may accent the 

useful concepts given in lectures. 

The fundamental picture of Rutherford scattering is shown in Figure 1. An energetic ion 

of mass m, shown here approaching from the left, comes into the proximity of a stationary 

nucleus of mass M. For the case of a positive ion approaching the nucleus of a target 

atom, there is mutual repulsion due the charges on each. As a result, energy is transferred 

from the incident ion to the target nucleus. The direction of travel and the energy of the 

incident ion is changed and the target nucleus will recoil as a result of the collision. The 

process described here is elastic scattering. In such collisions, energy and momentum are 

conserved, as is expressed in three equations: 

Eq. 1 ntv = ntv,CosO + Mv2Cosat 

0 = ntv,SinO - Mv,Sin@ 
Figure 1. Rutherford Scattering. 

It is common for these equations to be combined to find the ratio of the energy El of the 

scattered ion to the energy 6 of the incident ion, called the kinematic factor, K, 

(M - m2Sin20)112 + mCosO Eq. 2 M +m 

The kinematic factor is a finction of the masses of the incident ion and target ion and the 

scattering angle O. This factor allows the identification of the target nucleus if the 

incident ion species is known and the angle of scattering and energy of the scattered 

particle are measured. 

Consider the experiment shown in Figure 2. A beam of ions of known species and known 

energy is incident on some material. A detector, which measures the number of particles it 

receives and separates them into discrete energy channels, is placed to capture the ions 

scattered through an angle O. The result of such an experiment is a plot of the number of 

Detector 

__.-- , .... O - - 

-0 

m, Eo 

Sample 

Figure 2. Experimental Arrangement for RBS. 
ions received (counts) in each channel. For the case when O approaches 180°, the ions 

collected are those which are scattered back toward the ion source, and K has its smallest 

value resulting in the greatest mass resolution. This experimental configuration is termed 

Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) and is the most useful configuration for 

identification of target atoms. From the measured energy of a scattered ion, K can be 

calculated, and thus the mass of the nucleus from which the ion was scattered can be 

determined. 

RBS is an analytical technique that is extensively used in materials science. The exercise 

being presented here involves identifllng major elements within the sample only, whereas 

further analysis can be used to determine relative amounts of elements, depth profiles of 

elemental concentrations, and thickness of films. These analyses require a discussion of 

scattering cross sections and stopping powers. More advanced ion beam experiments can 

yield information on crystalline structure. These techniques are in current use in fields as 

diverse as materials science, archeology, geology, and anthropology [4]. 

Exercise: 

This exercise is divided into two parts. First, the energy-channel scale must be calibrated, 

and second, this calibration may be used to identi@ elements in a spectrum. 

1. Calibration: 

One method for calibrating the energy-channel scale is to record the spectrum of a 

material that includes scattering peaks from known elements with large mass separation. 

A common standard material is a thin layer of Au deposited on SiOz. A spectrum of 

counts versus channel number for 2-MeV He" ions scattering from such a sample to a 

detector positioned at a scattering angle of 170" is shown in Figure 3. From knowledge of 

the sample structure, features in the spectrum can be identified as scattering from Au, 0, 

and Si. Calculated values of K for each of these elements and the energy (Kh) of the ions 

scattered from each are shown in Table 1. From the values of the energy, the signals from 

each element can be identified in the spectrum, as higher channel numbers correspond to 

higher energies. The signal from Au appears as a sharp peak centered at channel 700, the 

sharpness of the peak being indicative of the thinness of the Au layer. The Si, being much 

thicker than the depth the ions can penetrate, scatters ions with a maximum energy of ICEo, 

which are seen at channel 424. Note that for accuracy the channel number is read as the 

channel for which the Si signal reaches half of its maximum below the sharp rise. See 

instructor's notes. Ions scattered from Si atoms below the surface of the material also 

reach the detector but with energy lower than KE&, as they lose energy as they pass 

through the material. Similarly, ions scattered fiom 0 appear as a broad peak with the 

highest energy ions appearing at channel 262. The height and width of these signals 

indicate the concentration and depth of the element in the material, which are topics of 

advanced analysis and will not be covered here. To calibrate the energy scale, the signals 

from Au and 0 can be used to calculate a linear conversion fiom channel number to 
energy. These two signals are used as they span a greater portion of the scale than could 

be achieved using the Si signal. From these data we find E = 2.55 keV/ch x Channel + 

59.1 keV, and thus the energy for any channel number may be calculated. This conversion 

is a result of the experimental setup and may vary for different systems. The 0-channel 

offset (59.1 keV) in particular is extremely sensitive to experimental setup. It is expected 

that the student, reading channel numbers to perform this calibration, should reproduce the 

calibration slope accurately, but may vary somewhat in the offset value. 

Table 1. RBS data for He" ions (Eo=2 MeV) scattered from AuISiOz through 170' 

2. Identification of Elements: 

To identie elements in an RBS spectrum, first the channel number of the feature in the 

spectrum is determined, which is best accomplished using a ruler. Again, for the spectra 

discussed below, the channel number at the midpoint of the feature is selected for best 

accuracy. From the calibration, the energy (El) of the scattered ions can be calculated, 

and from this the kinematic factor, K = ElIEo, is calculated. The atomic mass of the target 

atom can then be determined by several different methods. The most obvious manner for 

this is by solving Equation 2 for the mass of the target atom, M. While this is an exercise 

in algebra, tables of kinematic factors exist in several texts [1,2], with which a kinematic 

factor can be matched to M. Kinematic factors for selected elements are shown in Table 2. 

A third method would be for the student, using a computer, to generate tables of K for all 

values of M. 

Examples: 

K 

0.923 

0.565 

0.363 

El (MeV) 

1.844 

1.130 

0.726 

Element 

Au 

Si 

0 

Figures 4-6 are example spectra that can be analyzed using the calibration performed 

above. These are simulated RBS spectra generated using standard analytical sohare 

entitled RUMP. See Instructor's note 1. Figure 4 shows a simulated RBS spectrum of a 

polymer (Polyimide - CuNzOsHlo). Three steps are seen in the spectrum at channels 175, 

221, and 261. These can be identified as the signals from C, N, and 0, respectively. Note 

that while polyimide also contains H, it does not appear in this spectrum. H atoms are 

lighter than the He' ions and thus do not backscatter the incident ions. Figure 5 shows the 

spectrum for boron nitride. Note the two steps around channel number 150. These are 

due to isotopes of boron, 'OB and "B, for which K is 0.186 and 0.220, giving scattered ion 

energies of 0.372 and 0.439 MeV. These two isotopes, although close in atomic mass, are 

easily distinguished. This is not the case for higher atomic mass elements. For example, 

W (184 AMU) and Au (197 AMU) would be separated by only 0.01 MeV for this incident 

ion energy, and thus cannot easily be resolved from each other. See Instructor's note 2. 

Channel 

700 

424 

262 

Mass (AMU) 

197.0 

28.1 

16.0 
Figure 6 shows the simulated RBS spectrum for Al2O3 and Figure 7 is that of NaCI. Note 

in Figure 7 that signals from 35~1 and 37~1 can be identified. Following the procedure 

above, the student should be able to identifjr the elements in each of these spectra. 

Table 2. Kinematic Factors for Selected Elements (m = 4 AMU). 

Instructor's Notes: 

Element 

Mass (AMU) 

10 

11 

12 

14 

16 

23 

27 

28 

35 

37 

56 

184 

197 

1. Spectra - While it is often not feasible to often generate spectra through actual RBS, 

adequate simulations serve the purposes of this exercise. Simulation software entitled 

RUMP is available from Computer Graphics Service, Ltd. 52 Genung Circle, Ithaca, NY 

14850. Current list price is $250 for a RUMPIGENPLOT package. 

2. Limitations - As the mass of the target atom gets larger, the difference between values 

of K and thus El for successive elements gets smaller. For example, analyzing by hand a 

spectrum for steel containing Cr, Fe, and Ni fails miserably as heavier elements cannot 

easily be resolved. Reasonable success should be achieved for elements with masses from 

4 to 40. Also note that H cannot be detected as it is lighter than the incident ions and thus 

does not backscatter, but rather the H is scattered in the forward direction. 

Detector Angle, O 

3. Choosing Channel Number - On the spectra included in this paper, the elements are 

identified by finding the channel number at which the signal drops as channel number 

increases. The drops do not occur at one channel due to the detector resolution. 

Therefore, for accuracy, the channel number at the midpoint of the drop is selected. 

90 

0.429 

0.467 

0.500 

0.556 

0.600 

0.704 

0.742 

0.750 

0.795 

0.805 

0.867 

0.957 

0.960 

Acknowledgments: Many thanks to Kevin C. Walter for ideas in preparing this paper 

This work was supported by Department of Energy grant DE-FGO1-94EW 1 1493. 

180 

0.184 

0.218 

0.250 

0.309 

0.360 

0.495 

0.550 

0.563 

0.632 

0.648 

0.75 1 

0.917 

0.922 

120 

0.278 

0.317 

0.352 

0.4 13 

0.464 

0.590 

0.639 

0.649 

0.709 

0.722 

0.807 

0.937 

0.941 

170 

0.186 

0.220 

0.253 

0.3 11 

0.363 

0.498 

0.553 

0.565 

0.634 

0.650 

0.753 

0.917 

0.923 
References: 

1. Fundamentals of Surface and Thin Film Analysis, Leonard C. Feldman and James W. 

Mayer. PTP Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1986. 

2. Handbook of Modem Ion Beam Analysis, Joseph R. Tesmer and Michael Nastasi, ed. 

MRS, Pittsburgh, 1995. 

3. Backscattering Spectrometrv, W.K. Chu, J.W. Mayer, and M.A. Nicolet. Academic 

Press, New York, 1978. 

4. Proceedings: Twelfth International Conference on Ion Beam Analysis. Conference 

held Arizona State University, Tempe AZ, 22-26 May, 1995. 
0 200 400 600 800 

Channel 

Figure 3. RBS Spectrum (2 MeV HC') for Au on Sia for calibration. 

0 50 100 1 50 200 250 300 

Channel 

Figure 4. Simulated RBS Spectrum for Polyimide. 
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 

Channel 

Figure 5. Simulated RBS Spectrum for BN. 

0 100 200 300 400 ,5 0 0 

Channel 

Figure 6. Simulated RBS Spectrum for A12@. 
Figure 7. Simulated RBS Spectrum for NaCl. 
Page intentionally left blank 
COMPUTER-BASED MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTIONS 

FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS 

Mustaq A. Khan 

and 

Curtiss E. Wall 

Department of Mathematics 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504 

Telephone 804-683-9569 and 957 1 
Ciastiss E, Wall 

Mustaq A. Khan 
Computer-Based Mathematics Instructions 

for Engineering Students 

Mushtaq A. Khan 

and 

Curtiss E. Wall 

Norfolk State University 

Norfolk, Virginia 

KEY WORDS: Crystals, Maple, Analysis, Random Walks, Adjacency Matrix, 

Differential Equations. 

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Students entering first engineering course are 

expected to have College Algebra and Trigonometry courses. Knowledge of the basic 

applications of microcomputer and DOS commands is helpfbl. 

OBJECTIVES: To enhance the understanding of engineering problems through the 

integration of computer technology in classrooms. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: 

4861586 MSDOS Computer with Maple software 

Overhead Projection Panel 

IT-82/85 Graphing Calculator with Overhead Panel 

Abstract 

Almost every engineering course involves mathematics in one form or another. The 

analytical process of developing mathematical models is very important for engineering students. 

However, the computational process involved in the solution of some mathematical problems 

may be very tedious and time consuming. There is a significant amount of mathematical sofiware 

such as Mathernatica, Mathcad, and Maple designed to aid in the solution of these instructional 

problems. The use of these packages in classroom teaching can greatly enhance understanding, 

and save time. Integration of computer technology in mathematics classes, without 

de-emphasizing the traditional analytical aspects of teaching, has proven very successfbl and is 

becoming almost essential. 

Sample computer laboratory modules are developed for presentation in the classroom 

setting. This is accomplished through the use of overhead projectors linked to graphing 

calculators and computers. Model problems are c'arefblly selected from different areas. 
INTRODUCTION: 

Computers and computer aided instruction have become the norm in many of our 

classrooms. However, they have failed to penetrate significantly into the college level 

engineering and mathematics classroom. Although the analytical process of developing 

mathematical models is very important for engineering students, the computational process 

involved in the solution of some mathematical problems may be very tedious and time consuming. 

The use of mathematics software packages, such as Mathematica, Mathcad, Math Tool Kit, and 

Maple in classroom teaching can save time and greatly enhance understanding of the physical 

problems. Teachers have realized that the computers should be used as teaching tools to 

illustrate and motivate concepts which are too difficult to explain. Integration of computer 

technology in mathematics classes, without de-emphasizing the traditional analytical aspects of 

teaching, has proven very successfbl [I]. This has created new challenges for curriculum 

development in mathematics and science to take into account the availability of significant 

computational facilities. The introduction of these tools will mean fbndamental changes in the 

curriculum. 

Ideally, each classroom should be a computer laboratory, and each lecture should be a 

computer based drill project along with analytical teaching. Until that time comes, we will 

demonstrate how a portable computer attached to an overhead projection panel or a graphing 

calculator with an overhead panel can be used in a classroom to facilitate computational teaching. 

A live demonstration will be given by solving a few sample problems. 
RANDOM WALKS EN CRYSTALS 

One model of atoms in a crystal structure is that of a lattice. A mathematical model of a 

lattice in two dimensions is called a graph. The study of graphs is well described in Harary [5], 

and Chartrand and Lesniak [3]. To most people involved in mathematics, the word "graph" 

probably suggests a picture of x and y axes together with a curve or perhaps a collection of 

points. Although this is indeed a "graph", it is not the kind of graph to which we are referring. 

For the purposes of this article, a graph is a finite non-empty collection of objects, called vertices 

together with lines or curves joining certain pairs of vertices. The lines are referred to as edges. 

It is customary to denote a graph by G and its sets of vertices and edges by V and E, respectively. 

If u and v are vertices of a graph G, and G contains the edge joining u and v, then we represent 

this edge by uv or vu. Although in a strict sense this may not be permitted, we allow more than 

one edge to join the same pair of vertices, an edge to join a vertex to itself (resulting in a loop), 

and numbers to be assigned to edges if the situation calls for it. 

As an example of a graph G, let V = { u, v, w, x ) and E = { uv, uw, vw, wx ). The graph 

G is "drawn" in figure 1. 

figure 1. 

A crystal lattice is said to be defective if atoms can jump from an occupied node in the 

lattice to an adjacent unoccupied node. This process can be repeated by the same atom or a new 

atom jumping to a newly vacated spot. In a given time interval, each atom may move in one of 

several possible directions, or it may remain in its initial position. This motion of the atoms 

through the lattice is called a random walk and has a mathematical description in Graph Theory. 

Let each node on the lattice be denoted by a vertek, and two vertices will be connected by an 

edge if an atom can move between the locations denoted by the vertices. An atom's movement 

through the lattice can be described as a random walk. According to Chartrand [3], a u-v walk of a 

graph G is a finite alternating sequence of vertices and edges of G, beginning with u and ending 

with v, such that every edge is immediately preceded and succeeded by the two vertices with 

which it is incident. The length of the walk is the number of edges in the walk. An example of a 

u-v walk in figure 1 is u,v,w,x,w,u,v. This u-v walk has length six. 
Let the graph in figure 2 represent the possible movements of atoms in a defective crystal. 

In this case, an atom at vertex v, would be able to jump to either location v, or v,, Suppose that 

we wish to ascertain the number of different u-v walks of a given length between two locations in 

the crystal. Two walks of the same length are different if they do not have the same sequence of 

labels in their respective u-v paths. If the length of the walk between the two atoms is small, 

we could list the walks. However, as the length of the walks increases, the difficulty of listing the 

walks becomes exceedingly complex. Fortunately, the following theorem provides a solution to 

this problem. 

Theorem: Let G be a labeled graph with adjacency matrix A. Then the i,j entry ofAn is the 

number of walks of length n from vertex vi to vj. 

In order to use this theorem we must be able to construct the adjacency matrix of a graph. The 

adjacency matrix is a square matrix with the labels of the vertices listed vertically and horizontally 

outside the matrix. If two vertices are adjacent, then a 1 is placed at the intersection of the row 

and column represented by the two labels. Otherwise, a 0 is placed at the intersection as well as 

along the diagonal. If we apply this method to the graph in figure 2 we have the adjacency matrix 

A. By applying the theorem to G we obtain the adjacency matrices below. Thus, there are two 

paths of length 2 between vertices v, and v, and 9 of length 3. 

I:::::::! 
COUPLED SPRING 

The motion of a mass attached to a spring serves as a relatively simple example of the 

vibrations that occur in more complex mechanical systems. In an example below, we consider the 

system of two masses and two springs, which is an elementary application involving systems of 

differential equations. Two masses m, and m, are connected to two springs A and B of negligible 

mass having spring constants k, and k,, respectively. The two springs are attached as shown in 

figure 3 below. 

Coupled Spring 

Figure 3 

We denote by x,(t) and x,(t) the vertical displacements of the masses from their 

equilibrium positions. Thus the two springs are neither stretched nor compressed when x, and x, 

are zero. When the system is in motion, spring A is stretched x, units and spring B is stretched 

x, -x, units. Hence by Hook's Law, the force exerted on mass m, is -k,x, + k,(x,-x,) and the net 

force exerted on mass m, is due solely to the net elongation of spring B, that is, -k,(x,-x,). 

Applying Newton's second law of motion, the motion of the coupled system is represented by the 

following system of simultaneous second-order differential equations: 

Example 1: 

Solve the above system if k, = 6, k, = 4, m, = 1, m, = 1 and that the masses start from 

their equilibrium positions with opposite unit velocities. In other words, solve 

x:'+loxl-4x2=o 
At this point, the teacher has two options: spend another thirty minutes to solve this 

system manually in class step by step or use the computer and any suitable mathematics package 

and get the result in a few minutes, and use the remaining time in interpreting and explaining the 

output. In engineering courses, where differential equations courses are a prerequisite, it seems to 

be a waste of valuable classroom time to go through a step by step solution of this problem 

manually. The second option is strongly recommended. Hence, using Maple, we find the 

following solution to the above problem. 

This solution can be fbrther analyzed graphically and the position of the masses m, and m, can be 

determined instantly at different times. 

Furthermore, the same problem can be solved for a different set of initial conditions and the 

results can be shown for comparison. The Maple commands used to solve the above system are 

given below. 

del := dijflxl(t), t$2) + 10 * xl(t) - 4 * x2(t) = 0; 

de2 := -4 * xl(t) + dzflx2(t), t$2) + 4 * x2(t) = 0; 
sys := del, de2 : fcns := (xl(t),x2(t)} 

dsolve((sys, xl(0) = 0, D(xl)(O) = 1, x2(0) = 0, D(x2)(0) = -1 }, fcns, laplace); 

REFERENCES 

[I] "Calculus Reform Project Report." Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Old Dominion 

University, Norfolk, Virginia. 

[2] Chartrand, Gary, Introductory Graph Theory, Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York 

(1985). 

[3] Chartrand, Gary and Linda Lesniak, Graphs and Digraphs, second edition. Wadsworth & 

BrooksICole, Monterey, California (1986). 

[4] Harary, Frank, Gra~h Theory, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. (1969). 

[5] Harary, Frank, Gra~h Theorv and Theoretical Physics, Academic Press, London and New 

York, (1 967). 
Page intentionally left blank 
AN AUTOGRADING (STUDENT) PROBLEM 

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR THE 

COMPEUWTIR ILITTURS 

Glenn S. Kohne 

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College 

4501 North Charles Street, DS-224 

Baltimore, Maryland 212 10-2699 

Telephone 4 10-6 17-2249 

An Autograding (Student) Problem Management System for the 

Compeuwtir Ilittur8 

Glenn S. Kohne 

Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering 

Loyola College in Maryland 

Abstract: 

In order to develop analysis skills necessary in engineering disciplines, students need practice solving 

problems using specified analytical techniques. Unless homework is collected and graded, students tend 

not to spend much time or effort in performing it. Teachers do not, realistically, have the time to grade 

large numbers of homework problems on a regular basis. This paper presents and makes available a 

miracle cure. The Autograding Problem Management System (APMS) provides a disciplineindependent mechanism for teachers to create (quickly and easily) sets of homework problems. The 

APMS system provides CRT andlor printed summaries of the graded student responses. This 

presentation will demonstrate both the speed and the drag-and-drop simplicity of using the APMS to 

create self-grading homework problem sets comprised of traditional types of problems and of problems 

which would not be possible without the use of computers. 

Introduction: 

In order to develop analysis skills necessary in engineering disciplines, students need practice solving 

problems using specified analytical techniques. Traditionally, instructors assign homework problems to 

provide students with the necessary problem-solving practice and give examinations to evaluate their 

skill. 

Two things have changed over the last thirty years. First, a much larger percentage of high school 

graduates is attending college. This has broadened the range of academic skill and motivation in the 

student body. Second, faculty salary has been linked to student opinion. The combination of these two 

factors has led to a dilution of performance required of the students and to (well-documented) grade 

inflation. The challenge to instructors is to motivate, the students to do the necessary work to learn 

without incurring their wrath. 

We have found that assigning, collecting, and grading homework, will motivate the students sufficiently 

and they will do well on examinations. We have also found that assigning but not collecting and grading 

homework is not sufficient motivation and that students tend not to spend much time or effort in 

performing it. This results in poorer performance on examinations and student unhappiness. Teachers 

do not, realistically, have the time to grade large numbers of homework problems on a regular basis. 
The Autograding Problem Management System (APMS) was designed and developed to accomplish 

several very distinct goals. The goals were to provide a mechanism: 

for assigning homework that would be graded by computer; and, 

that would spark student interest by presenting more interesting problems in a more interesting 

fashion; and, 

that instructors could learn to use in one or two hours; and, 

to use colors and graphics which were previously unpractical. 

The APMS is not presented as an earth-shattering breakthrough in the pedagogic use of computers. 

I Rather, it is presented as a unique and simple-to-use packaging of those tools an instructor needs to 

create homework (or exam) question sets which the students can administer to themselves outside of the 

classroom. 

The APMS System: 

The APMS system consists of two Wjndows 3.1 programs. Hardware requirements are modest by 

today's standards. The minimum co&guration requires Windows 3.1 and about 2MB of hard disk 

space. Both performance and versatility are enhanced with more modern hardware. The recommended 

minimum hardware configuration for the Student Program is a 33 MHz 486 processor with a 1024x768 

1MB video display. The recommended minimum hardware for the Teacher Program includes a 100 

MHz 486 or 75 MHz Pentium, a 1024x768 2MB video display, a color scanner, and a printer. 

In the paragraphs that follow, the Teacher Program and the Student Program will be discussed. 

Following that, several implementation issues and observations will be given. 

The Teacher Program: 

The Teacher Program provides two basic functions. It allows the instructor to create and edit individual 

problems (exercises) and it provides a means to assemble new and existing problems into coherent sets 

of student assignments. 

Creation of new problems is accomplished through "button clicking" and "drag-and-drop" operations. 

Initially, a new problem is presented as a blank work area. An array of "buttons" allows the instructor to 

"drop" any one of a variety of "objects" into the problem. These "objects" are: windows to display 

pictures; text boxes to contain problem statements; number boxes to receive and automatically grade 

numerical answers; word boxes to receive and automatically grade truelfalse and short-answer answers; 

multiple choice boxes to receive and automatically grade multiple choice answers; essay boxes to receive 

essay type answers (up to 32,000 characters each); and graphics boxes to receive drawings made by the 

student. 
Once the "object" is dropped into the problem, the instructor can move its position, change its size and 

shape, and fill it with the correct answer (where appropriate). Each autograded box will spawn a selfdescriptive dialog window to collect the correct answer. 

After creation, each problem can be saved individually as a DOS-type file (recommended). That 

problem can then be copied, edited to become a slightly different problem, and saved. Homework sets 

are generated by collecting a group of individual problems and creating student assignment diskettes. 

The Student Program: 

The Student Program administers the homework set. It presents the individual problems and collects the 

student's answers. Depending on choices made by the instructor, various types of grading will be 

available. 

After the student opens an assignment set, helshe can work on individual problems in any order. The 

. answer boxes spawn didog windows to collect the answers. The answers can be saved and work 

continued or answers changed at any time. 

Problems for Drill: 

As instructors in engineering, we want students to accomplish at least two levels of understanding. 

Initially, we want the students to learn about and to understand some kndamental theoretical concept or 

characteristic behavior. To achieve this, we explain, demonstrate, present examples, ask questions, draw 

pictures, discuss analogs and do all sorts of other things to help the student to understand. Secondly, we 

want the students to be able to use this understanding to solve problems. To this end, we can employ a 

two-step process. The first step is to give the students a variety of drill-type problems. By completing 

the drills, the students achieve competence in using analytic tools and convince themselves that they 

understand the underlying concept or behavior. The second step is to give students problems which are 

"fiesh" and which require the student to consider how a problem should be solved and to select the 

proper analytic tools to solve it. 

While most instructors have no difficulty in conceiving good drill problems, posing the problems has 

generally been tedious and time consuming. A large variety of basic engineering problems require some 

sort of picture or graphic to pose the problem adequately. This requirement has tended to keep us 

"married" to the textbook problems, with their printed graphics. Newer texts are using color printing of 

the problem graphics. Color can be used very effectively to help the student understand the problem, 

but it kills the instructor's ability to generate drill problems based on the graphic which cannot be 

faitffilly photocopied. 

With the APMS, it becomes quite easy to modifjr existing pictures or graphics so as to quickly build 

large sets of drill-type exercises. I believe that students relate better to problems which are presented as 

clean originals than they do to marked up photocopies. 
Grading Options: 

There are a variety of points-of-view among instructors as to how and when students should have access 

to correct answers. Some feel that the students should know the correct answer before starting the 

problem solution; some believe that the student should have instant feedback, either incrementally as 

they solve the problem or immediately upon completion; and some believe that part of learning to solve 

problems requires the student to have enough confidence in hisher technique to defend the work 

without being given the correct answer. The APMS was designed to accommodate each of these points 

of view. When the instructor creates the assignment disk for the student, helshe has the option of 

specifying how and when the student can access the correct answers. 

Networks1 Large Graphics Sets: 

One of the major advantages of the APMS is its ability to present photographic quality color graphics to 

the students. In the default configuration, the APMS includes a copy of each graphics image referenced 

within the problem set on the assignment diskette given to the student. Graphics files can be very large. 

There may be occasions where it is desirable to install the graphics images on the computers available to 

the students or on a network server, and not include them on the student assignment disk. The APMS 

provides an easy to use mechanism that allows you to specifjr on the student assignment disk, the 

location of the graphics images referenced within the set. The images themselves can then be installed 

on your network server or on computers available to the students. This option allows you to transfer 

"~~mpre~~ed'~ files or to use more than one diskette to distribute an assignment set. 

Textbook Editions: 

It is common for authors/publishers to produce a new edition for a given text every three or four years. 

This practice tends to keep commerce in the used book market relatively low. It also creates work for 

instructors. Frequently, the content of a newer edition (for basic engineering courses) will present little 

or no new information, although the material might be slightly rearranged. The problem sets given for 

homework do tend to change. This means that instructors must commit considerable time evaluating the 

new problems and preparing solutions for those problems selected. With the APMS, it becomes quite 

easy for the instructor to maintain hisher own sets of homework exercises (collected over time). In this 

manner, the instructor can move to later editions with relatively little "busy-work". 

Conclusion: 

The APMS seems to meet all of the design goals. mat remains to be evaluated is student acceptance. 

There is little doubt that our students will have a lot to say about the APMS. We hope that their input 

can be used to make this system a better tool for both the teacher and the student. 
FACTORIAL DESIGN: 

AN EIGHT FACTOR EXPERIMENT 

USING PAPER HELICOPTERS 

Michael Kozma 

Student 

Loyola College in Maryland 

Baltimore, Maryland 2 12 10 
Page intentionally left blank 
Factorial Design: 

An Eight Factor Expe~ment Using Paper Helicopters 

Michael Kozlma 

Student - EG 490.01 Spring 1995 

Loyola College in Maryland 

Baltimore, MD 21210 

F. Xavier Spiegel, Associate Professor 

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College in Maryland 

April 25, 1995 

Concise Statement of Purpose, Goals: 

The goal of this paper is to present the analysis of the 

multi-factor experiment (factorial design) conducted in EG 490, 

Junior Design. The discussion of this paper concludes the 

experimental analysis and ties the individual class papers 

together. The analysis described and used in this paper was 

substantially derived from the paper by Larry Panchula and John - 

W. Patterson of the Department of Materials Science and 

Engineering of Iowa State university.' 

Procedure: 

There are several design possibilites for paper helicopters. 

This experiment consists of the variables listed in Table IV. 

These varaibles can be considered to be "onw or "offN (i.e. does 

the paper helicopter contain a paper wing?). Construction of 

'~arry Panchula and John W. Patterson. Department of Materials 

Science and Engineering. Iowa State University - Ames, IA 50010. 
paper helicopters using every cambination of design possibilities 

would be both tedious and, utilizing factorial design, not 

necessary. Factorial design allows the experimenter to construct 

only a small portion of these possibili.ties, yet be able to 

determine the individual effects of each variable. In the paper 

helicopter experiment, only sixteen (14) helicopters were 

constructed per group. The settings for each variable were 

randomally ch~sen, 

I was presented data of various formats by the six groups of 

two students participating in the experiment. In every case, I 

was given the characteristics (i-e. W* length, etc., please 

refer to Iater discussion and Table of each of the sixteen 

(16) helicopters along with five (5) trial times and a subsequent 

average drop time. 

Since we are dealing with sixteen (16) "samplen helicopters 

(of the possible maximum number of 256 combinations) and two (2) 

possibilities for each variable (either a 0 or 1, please refer to 

later discussilon) , we must have eight ) +" and eight (8) "- 

helicopters far each variable. If this conditioL is not met, we 

are not performing a true factorial design as the difference 

factor (effect) will be influenced by the fact that some 

variables are "weighted moren than others. At the time of 

writing of this paper only four (4) of the six (6) groups met the 

above conditions and therefore only four (4) groups are 

considered in the analysis. 

Once the data appears to be in accordance with the rules 
governing factorial design, the computation of difference factors 

can be done. Basically, this is the "effectH the variable has on 

the overall effect of the event under consideration. In this 

particular instance, we are concerned with the overall flight 

time of the paper helicopters. We are interested in determining 

how each condition (variable, factor) affects the flight time. 

Through a partial factorial design, as opposed to a full scale 

design test consisting of 256 helicopter tests per group, we can 

gain a very good sense of how each of these variables affects the 

flying time. 

The above described difference effect is computed one 

variable at a time, one experiment at a time. I1Highl1 (or +) 

values of the first variable of the design (in our situation, PI 

the type of paper used) are marked and distinguished between 

"Low" (or -) values. As described earlier, there should be eight 

(8) llHighll and eight (8) llLowll values. Next, the values of the 

average times of the helicopters whose design parameters match a 

"High" condition for the variable we are currently dealing with 

(P) are averaged and recorded as the "high timesn. Similarly, a 

"low time" is obtained by averaging the average flight times of 

the eight (8) I1lowl1 valued helicopters that are identified by the 

11 0 11 or 11 - 11 for the particular variable being analyzed. The 

difference factor, effect, is simply the absolute value of the 

difference between the average of the "high times" and the 

average of the "low timesu. 
Effect = ABS { CAverage TimesHigh/8 - CAverage Timeshw/8 } 

This process is repeated for each variable and for each of 

the four (4) groups. The results are presented in table form 

beginning on the next page. In addition, a statistical analysis 

of each variable is shown. The importance of this analysis will 

be discussed later. Table I lists the groups and participants of 

the experiment. Table I1 displays all the experimental data 

including a statistical analysis of each variable. 

Table I 

Randomly Selected Group number associations: 

Group 1 - > Michelle Davis, Derek Klinedinst 

Group 3 - > Brian Marinari, Nadeem Kureishy 

Group 4 - > Joseph South, John Ward 

Group 5 - > Ann Nickle, Brandon Quick 

*BECAUSE OF INCONSISTENT DATA AT THE TIME THIS REPORT 

WAS COMPILED, GROUPS 2 AND 6 ARE NOT INCLUDED IN THE 

ANALYSIS. 
Table I1 

Variable => P 

Statistical Analysis of Effects with respect to all 6 aroups 
Variable => B 

Statistical Analysis of Effects with respect to all 6 uroups 

. 

Variable => L 

Group # 

1. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Mean 

Median 

Var. (a2) 

S.D. (a) 

Effect 

.I1225 

.074 

-0885 

.I487 - 

.074 

.I487 

.I058625 

.I00375 

.001064 

.0326217 

Statistical Analysis of Effects with respect to all 6 crrouDs 

Group # 

1. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Effect 

.I115 

.02475 

-1435 

.I312 
Variable => W 

L 

Statistical Analvsis of Effects with respect to all 6 qrouns 

Variable => C 

Statistical Analysis of Effects with respect to all 6 sroups 
Variable => F 

Statistical Analvsis of Effects with respect to all 6 uroups 

Variable => T (X) 

Statistical Analysis of Effects with respect to all 6 uroups 

Group # 

1. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Effect 

-1335 

.05825 

.I775 

.02625 
Variable => M (Y) 

Statistical Analvsis of Effects with resDect to all 6 qrouDs 

Group # 

1. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Table I11 

Effect 

.283 

-41025 

.3255 

.20125 

Summary of Variable Effects (means) 

Table I11 represents the best picture of the collective 

data. From this data, we can easily see the effect of each 
variable. Consulting the above table, we can rank the importance 

of each variable according to the data of the experiment. Table 

IV presents this information with a being the importance factor 

of each variable; an alpha value of 1.0 represents the most 

important variable. Every other value of alpha represents the ' 

fractional importance with respect to the most important variable 

(a=l. 0) . 

Table IV 

This data is shown in different forms in figures 1, 2, and 3. In 

figure 1, the individual difference effects for each variable and 

each group (1, 3, 4 and 5) are displayed in addition to the mean 

effect for each variable. Figure 2 presents a clearer picture of 

just the means of the effects (with respect to all four groups). 

Figure 3 contains data of three different types. The first type 

is the mean (as used above) of all four groups. The second 

portion is a group of three randomly selected groups (the random 
groups selected were 1, 3 and 5). The final portion was a random 

sample group (group number 4). This analysis provides a broader 

picture in terms of error reduction and visualization. 

The next step in the analysis involves selecting how the 

variables should be set (either high or low) to maximize the 

flight time of a paper helicopter. This is accomplished by 

computing the average of the high and low times for each 

variable. These can be easily compared to determine which 

setting yielded a longer flight time. Table V shows the values 

of the high and low settings for each variable. 

Perhaps the biggest advantage of factorial design is that 

the experimenter can easily detect an error in the data such as a 

miscalculated average run time. In this experiment, one group 

was disqualified from the analysis because the data provided - by 

that group was not consistent at all with the data provided by 

the other groups of the experiment. This was discovered by 

simply viewing the data in graphical format. This yielded the 

conclusion that the group had not made eight (8) l1highl1 and eight 

(8) "loww settings for each variable. Another group made a 

simple mathematical error. This fact was easily verified by 

performing the calculations again. 
The data is presented in table form as Table VI. 

Table VI 

This data is shown in graphical format as figure 4. From 

this data, we can see that in order to maximize flight time, the 
design parameters presented in table VII should be adhered to in 

the construction of paper helicopters: 

Table VII 

-Regular Paper 

-1 Body Width 

-1.5" Body Length 

-4" Wing Length 

-No Paper Clip 

-No Fold 

-No &ped Body 

-No Taped Wing 

However, it should be noted that there is not a large deviation 

in the values; perhaps the addition of more data sets would shift 

the design parameter decision(s) in the other direction. 

Future Work, Closing Remarks 

The addition of the other two groups would provide us with a 

more meaningful analysis. However, a fairly clear ,picture is 

obtained by the existing sets of data. The main goal of the 

paper has thus been accomplished. We have seen how every 

variable affects the overall design and how to set each variable 

in order to obtain the maximum flight time. 
References, Assistance Provided 

Larry Panchula and John W. Patterson 

Department of Materials Science and Engineering 

Iowa State University - Ames, IA 50010 

The students participating in the experiment as previously named: 

EG490, Spring 1995 

Loyola College in Maryland 
PI P5 B1 85 L1 L5 W1 W5 C1 C5 F1 F5 TI T5 M! M5 

Figure I - Individual Group Effects and Mean Effects of Each Variable 

P B L W C F 

Figure 2 - Mean Effects of Each Variable 
P-4 P-1 8-4 B-1 L-4 L-1 W-4 W-1 C-4 C-1 F-4 F-1 T-4 T-1 M-4 M-1 

Runs Run Runs Run Runs Run Runs Run Runs Run Runs Runs Runs Run Runs Run 

Figure 3 - Effects - Random Samples (Groups of 4,3 and 'I) 

PHI P BHI B LHI L WW CHI C FHI F THI T M M 

Avg LO Avg LO Avg LO HI LO Avg LO Avg LO Avg LO HI LO 

Avg Avg Avg Avg Avg AVg Avg Avg Avg Avg 

Figure 4 - Averages of "HIGH" and "LOW Times for Each Variable 
PLASTIC RECYCLING EXPERIMENTS IN 

PvlATERIALS EDUCATION 

Ping Liu 

and 

Tomy L. Waskom 

School of Technology 

Eastern Illinois University 

101 Klehm Hall 

Charleston, Illinois 61 920 

Telephone 2 17-58 1-6267 
Tommy L. Waskom 
Plastic Recycling Experiments in Materials Education 

Ping Liu and Tommy L. Waskom 

School of Technology 

Eastern Illinois University 

Charleston, IL 61920 

Key Words: Plastic recycling, collection, granulating, extrusion compounding, pelletizing. 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Thermoplastics properties and extrusion processing. 

Objective: The objective of this project was to introduce a series of plastic recycling 

experiments to students in materials-related courses such as materials science, material technology 

and materials testing. With the plastic recycling experiments, students not only can learn the 

fundamentals of plastic processing and properties as in conventional materials courses, but also 

can be exposed to the issue of materials life cycle and the impact on society and environment. 

Equipment : 

1. Plastic granulator 

2. Extrusion machine 

3. Pelletizer 

4. Universal testing machine 

5. Durometer hardness tester 

6. Optical microscope 

htroduction: 

Reducing the volume of solid waste disposal in landfills has drawn considerable public 

attention due to the decreasing number and size of landfills in the nation. It is estimated that 

179.6 million tons of municipal solid waste are generated each year [I]. This figure represents 

an equivalent of four pounds of trash produced daily by every man, woman and child in the 

United States. At this rate major cities including New York and bs Angeles will exhaust 1anBfill 

space in just a few years - Philadelphia and other cities are already out of space [2]. Because 

of the nature and application of packaging materials, plastics occupy about 20 percent in volume 

of the landfdl space [3]. However, less than one percent of the plastics in the United States was 

recycled in 1990 [4, 51. Thus, recycling and reusing plastics will play a significant role in 

reducing the amount of solid waste disposal to landfills. Researchers are attempting to find 

different ways to recycle plastics [6, 71 and more' industrial companies are becoming involved in 

plastic recycling activities 18, 91. There is an urgent need to expose undergraduate students in 

technical and non-science majors to materials recycling for environmental protection. 

The objective of this project was to introduce a series of plastic recycling experiments to 

students in materials-related courses such as materials science, material technology and materials 
testing. With the plastic recycling experiments, students not only learned the fundamentals of 

plastic processing and properties as in conventional materials courses, but also dealt with the issue 

of materials life cycle and the impact on society and environment. Many students became more 

environmental conscious and more knowledgeable of environmental protection. 

Experiments : 

Figure 1 shows the flow chart of a series of plastic recycling activities, including 

collection, cleaning, granulating, extrusion-pelletizing, property-testing and structural analysis. 

Prior to the laboratory activities, students were introduced to the fundamentals of materials 

structure, processing and behavior. 

Figure 1. Flow chart of a series of plastic recycling activities. 

1. Collecting and Cleaning Post-Consumer Plastic Products 

To begin the plastic recycling experiments, students were exposed to some practical aspects 

of recycling post-consumer plastic products. These issues included mechanisms of collection, 

separation, transportation and storage, economics and community involvement for a successful 

recycling program. Recycling bins were established at Eastern Illinois University to collect 

plastics by faculty, staff and students. At this stage only high density polyethylene was collected 

for the laboratory activities. 

The blending of various types of plastics will result in different properties of the final 

products made from recycled materials, ,which makes the control of product quality difficult. 

Therefore, separation of plastics has been a critical issue for plastic recycling and reuse. To 

facilitate the separation effort, the Society for Plastic Industries (SPI) has recommended a series 
of voluntary codes to be placed on plastic containers. For example, high density polyethylene is 

coded #2 on the bottom of plastic milk jugs. This is an excellent way 10 introduce students to the 

plastics codes for practical recycling. 

2. Granulating Recycled Plastic PI.oducts 

Ideally, thermoplastics can be reprocessed into new products by various thermoprocessing 

methods such as extrusion and injection molding. Usually the plastics are fed into processing 

machines in pellet form. A granulator was used to cut the post consumer plastic containers into 

small flakes for processing. Flakes of recycled plastics obtained from grinding were used for 

subsequent extrusion processing. 

3. Extruding and Pelletizing Recycled Plastic Flakes 

Plastic flakes are not directly used for producing products because their bulk density is 

very low. The low bulk density of recycled plastics would hinder the material feeding efficiency 

and impose a serious problem of process stability in manufacturing. The recycled plastic flakes 

must be pelletized into dense particles before being processed into new products. 

An extrusion machine was used to form the recycled plastic flakes into rods of 6.35 mm 

(114") diameter. In this experiment, students were introduced to the principle of extrusion, the 

effects of processing parameters on the material integrity and properties. The processing variables 

included heating temperature profile on the extrusion barrel, melt temperature, extrusion pressure, 

extrusion speed and cooling on the extruded rods. 

A downstream pelletizer was employed to cut the extruded rods into small pellets. The 

pellets can be used for subsequent processing such as injection and blow molding for new 

products. The pellet form of recycled plastics provides a high feed efficiency for stable 

production of quality products. With this process the recycled plastics can be effectively reused 

or reprocessed into new products. 

Another benefit of the extrusion system is that certain additives or reinforcements can be 

incorporated into the recycled plastics to make new composite materials. Due to contaminations, 

recycled plastics usually have inferior properties or undesirable color. Thus, it is beneficial to 

compound the plastics with certain additives or reinforcement so that the composite will possess 

improved material performance and physical appearance. The extruder can provide effective 

mixing of constituents and therefore promote uniform distribution of the reinforcements or 

additives. With this system, students can investigate the role of various reinforcements in 

improving material properties so that effective reinforcement of recycled plastics can be identified. 

4. Studying the Morphology of Recycled Plastics 

Since the material properties are related to material structure, it is essential to understand 

the plastic structure to control properties. An optical microscopic system was used to investigate 

the morphology of recycled plastics. This system has image analysis capability with a display 
monitor allowing several students to view the microstructure of the recycled plastic 

simultaneously. The displayed image helps students perform investigative study and promotes 

active discussion among students on the material morphology. 

5. Testing Mechanical Properties of the Plastics 

To control the properties and quality of products made of recycled plastics, students needed 

to understand the methods of evaluating material properties. For this purpose, a tension test was 

selected to measure the mechanical strength and rigidity of plastics. The extruded rods were tested 

according to the standards set forth by Arnerican Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) for 

ultimate tensile strength. Material rigidity is measured by percent elongation after rupture. 

Another mechanical test introduced for the experiments was a Durometer hardness test. 

Using a fully automated Durometer test system, hardness was measured conveniently and quickly 

to monitor and control the product quality. Hardness can also be used to predict or estimate other 

mechanical properties of the material. For plastics and rubber, Durometer hardness is often 

appropriate. TWG types of testing scales, type A and type D, were selected for soft and rigid 

plastics, respectively. 

Conclusions: 

This project introduced a series of plastic recycling experiments to undergraduate materials 

laboratories in materials science, materials technology and materials testing courses. With an 

integrative review at various stages, students participated in the entire recycling process, including 

collecting, granulating, extrusion-compounding , testing and structure analyzing. 

In this project, students were exposed to some practical issues of material life cycles 

including the impacts on environment. By conducting plastic recycling experiments in the 

laboratory, students can learn the basic techniques for recycling plastic materials. Students can 

also gain an understanding of basic plastics properties, processing characteristics, structure and 

property control methods. 

Industrial technology and non-science students with environment concerns have exhibited 

an interest in the courses. With exposure to plastic recycling activities and practical techniques 

of material recycling, students have become more aware of individual responsibility for 

environmental protection and the need for recycling research and development. 

Acknowledgment : 

The material is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant 

No. DUE-9350629. Another part of the support was from Illinois Department of Energy and 

Natural Resources through Office of Solid Waste Research at University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. 
References: 

1. U. S . EPA; Characterization of municipl solid waste in the United States: 1990 UpdQe. 

2. Overview: Solid waste disposal alternatives, Keep America Beautiful, Stamford, CT (1990). 

3. Fearncombe, John; Guides for recyclers of plastic packaging in Illinois, Illinois Department 

of Energy and Natural Resources, Springfield, IL (1990). 

4. The Recycler's Handbook, The Earth Works Group, Earth Works Press, Berkeley, CA. 

(1 990). 

5. Post consumer PP mixes with recycled HDPE, Plastic World, March 1991. 

6. Rebeiz, S . S . ; Recycling plastics in the construction industry, Waste Age, Feb. 1992. 

7. Liu, P. and Waskom, T. L.; The mechanical properties of recycled high density 

polyethylene (HDPE), Final Report, the Council for Faculty Research, Eastern Illinois 

University (1 992). 

8. Recycling, Solid waste council targets 25 %-bottle recycle rate, Plastics World, Apr. (1991). 

9. Recycling plant expands production potential, Design Nms, 6 (22) (1992). 
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COMPRESSION MOLDING OF COMPOSITE OF 

CYCLED PE RECYCLED T 

PARTICLES 

Ping Liu 

Tommy L. Waskom 

Zhengyu Chen 

Yanze Li 

Linda Peng 

School of Technology 

Eastern Illinois University 

Charleston, IL 61920 
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Compression Molding of Composite of Recycled HDPE and Recycled Tire Particles 

Ping Liu, Tornmy L. Waskom 

Zhengyu Chen, Yanze Li and Linda Peng 

School of Technology 

Eastern Illinois University 

Charleston, IL 61920 

Key Words: Recycled plastics, high density polyethylene (HDPE) , recycled rubber, 

composites, compression molding, design of experiment (DOE). 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Behavior and processing of thermoplastics and rubber, compression 

molding of plastics, thermoplastic elastomers, design of experiments. 

Objective: To htroduce students to compression molding of composite from recycled high 

density polyethylene (HDPE) and recycled automobile tire particles. To optimize the process 

parameters using design of experiments (DOE) techniques. 

Equipment: 

1. Compression molding machine (A metallurgical specimen press can be good enough.) 

2. Compression molds 

3. Cutoff wheel or other cutting tools 

Introduction: 

Plastic and rubber recycling is an effective means of reducing solid waste to the 

environment and preserving natural resources. A project aimed at developing a new composite 

material from recycled high density polyethylene (HDPE) and recycled rubber is currently 

being conducted at Eastern Illinois University. The recycled plastic pellets with recycled 

rubber particles are extruded into some HDPEtrubber composite strands. The strand can be 

further cut into pellets that can be used to fabricate other material forms or products. 

This experiment was inspired by the above-mentioned research activity. In order to 

measure Durometer hardness of the extruded composite, a specimen with relatively large 

dimensions was needed. Thus, compression molding was used to form a cylindrical specimen 

of 1" diameter and 1" thickness. The initial poor quality of the molded specimen prompted a 

need to optimize the processing parameters such as temperature, holding time and pressure. 

Design of experiment (DOE) was used to obtain optimum combination of the parameters. 

Experiment: 

The composite of 95 %HDPE - 5 %rubber was pelletized into small particles before 

being used for compression molding. A metallurgical specimen press was used as a 

compression molder for making a composite cylindrical block of 1 " diameter and 1 " thickness.' 
To improve the quality of molded specimen, parameters such as holding time (min.), 

temperature ("C), and pressure (psi) are identified as controllable variables to be optimized. 

Heating rate, environment, quality of composite pellets and distribution of rubber in pellets are 

identified as uncontrolled variables. 

A two level full factorial (z3 ) design was used for the experiment. Appropriate levels 

of the controllable variables are determined by fundamental understanding of materials 

properties, practical knowledge and limits of the press. For example, a heating temperature 

was chosen between 130 and 150 "C, holding time at the experimental temperature would not 

exceed twenty minutes, and highest pressure and temperature that can be obtained in the 

apparatus are 10,000 psi and 150 "C respectively. The design matrix (coded test conditions), 

actual test condition matrix and experimental results are shown in Table I. 

Table I. Coded test conditions, actual test conditions and results of compression molding. 

Before tests, a random testing order was determined, as listed in Table I. Nine grams 

of HDPEIrubber composite pellets were used for the molding. Pressure was maintained at the 

designed level during the whole period of processing. After temperature reached the set value, 

the holding time was counted. When holding time was up, pressure was released and electrical 

power for heating was turned off. All eight samples were made in the same procedure. 

The surface appearances of samples were first examined with naked eyes. Four 

qualitative scales were used to describe the surface quality of the specimen, i.e., excellent, 

good, fair and bad. Then, samples were cut in the middle of height, as shown in Fig. 1 (a). 
Formability was defined as a percentage of melted diameter in cross-section in relation to the 

diameter of the specimen, which is calculated according to the following equation. 

Average Unmelted Dimneter (2) Fonnabiliiy = [l - ]x 100% 

Diameter of Sample ( D ) 

n 

Figure 1. Schematic of compression-molded specimen: (a) Cross-section position in the 

specimen, (b) average unrnelted diameter d. 

Results and Analysis: 

The experimental results are shown in right columns of Table I. Surface appearance 

was used to evaluate the quality of specimens before cross-sectioning was made. The 

experimental results could be rearranged according to the level of surface quality of specimens, 

as shown in Table I.. It is noted that the surface appearance was excellent when temperature 

was 150 OC regardless of holding time and pressure. At low temperature level, the surface 

quality of specimen was good when holding time was 15 min. When a shorter holding time 

was chosen, the surface quality was fair at lower pressure and bad at high pressure level. In 

other words, temperature is a significant factor in the compression molding. 

For the formability, the data analysis is presented in Table 111. Among the three 

factors, temperature showed the largest effect on the formability, which increased formability 

from 20.625 % at lower level to 74.125 % at higher level, i. e., a net increase of 53.5 % . The 

second effective factor was time, showing 30.5 % net increase from lower level to higher level. 

Pressure showed a negative effect on the formability, which is consistent with the 

thermodynamic principle that the melting point of a substance will increase with increasing 

pressure. Moreover, pressure had the least effect on the formability in the testing range 

among the three factors. 
Table 11. Rearrangement of actual test conditions and the results 

Test Time Temperature 

Order I (min) I ("C) 

pressure I Result 

6000 1 Bad 1 10% 

2000 1 Fair 1 22% 

2000 1 Good 1 25% 

6000 1 Good 1 25.5% 

6000 1 Excellent 1 42% 

Excellent 54.5% 

Excellent 100% 

6000 1 Excellent 1 100% 

Table III Main effects and interactions of factors 
The interaction between time and temperature was very strong. That implies that the 

two factors have to be controlled synergetically to optimize the compression molding quality. 

There was less significant interaction between holding time and pressure, which can be 

neglected for practical purpose. There was no significant interaction between temperature and 

pressure. 

In summary, a good compression specimen can be obtained using a higher temperature 

(150 "C), a longer holding time (15 min.) and a lower pressure (2000 psi). 

Conclusions: 

The following conclusions can be made from the analysis of 23 factorial experiments. 

(1) HDPEIrubber composite pellets can be compression-molded as a thermoplastic 

elastomer. The experiment can be performed by a simple metallurgical specimen press if a 

compression molding machine is not available. 

(2) In compression molding, temperature is the most significant factor to control so that 

a good surface quality can be achieved. 

(3) The interaction between time and temperature is very strong. Other interactions can 

be neglected for practical purpose. 

(4) The optimum parameters for the compression molding of the HDPEJrubber 

composite are higher temperature (150 "C), longer holding time (15 min.) and lower pressure 

(2000 psi). 

References: 

R. J. Ehrig, Plastics Recycling, Hanser Publishers, New York, 1992. 

Richard E. DeVor, Tsong-how Chang and John W. Sutherland, Statistical Quality 

Design and Control, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1992. 

Michael L. Berins, SPI Plastics Engineering Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New 

York, 1991. 
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TESTING AND CHARACTERIZING OF 

CONTINUOUS FIBER CERAMIC COMPOSITES 

Richard A. Lowden 

Karren L. Moore 

Pete F. Tortorelli 

Edgar Lara-Curzio 

CFCC 

MS 6087, Bldg. 4508 

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 3783 1 

Telephone 6 15-576-2769 
Richard A, Lowden Edgar Lara-Gurzio 

Pete F. Tortorelli Karren L. Moore 
Characterizah'on of 

Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites 

Ricltard M. Lo~s*den, Kaireii L. ~Wore, 

Pete F. Tortorelli and Edgar bra-Cunio 

Metals and Ceramics Division 

Oak Ridge Rational Laboratory 

- - -- - - - - -- 

Rescorch sponrored by the (I. S. Dcpamnt of Enrrg?: Assistnnf Scrrera~for Energ?. 

Eficienc?. und Rcnmablc Ener~?; Oficr qflnLsrna1 Trchnologies. Idusrial Energy 

Eficicncy Div~sirm ad Gvlrinicuus Fiber Ccramic Contpo.ri~cs Program, under i.onrra,v 

DE-ACO5-MORZ1400 with l~ckheed Munir; Dtrrgy Sysrcn~s. Inc. ornl 

Design Flow 
Design Reqgirements 

Constitzrerlt properties Stiffizess (-0~71 )ll/.~ .Ylcll'lZ 

Intei$acial properties Strength o i stress 

e Work of Fracture urrci service 

Fatigue resistance c!trt:itr)nfne~~t 

Creep resistance 

Er~vironmentally assisted 

degradarion of properties arzd 
Mechanical Evaluation 

Basic modes of loading 

Tension 

Behavior of CFCCs under tensile loading 

0 

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 

strain (%) 

ornl 
Role of Interfaces - . --- -. . 

The fiber-matrix interface has beconle 

synonymous of the region between the 

fiber and the matrix, including the fiber 

coatings. 

The i~ztelfoce contro 

stress transfer. 

crack deflection to promote fiber 

debonding and slidirrg. 
Interfacial Evaluation 

* bond strength 

state of stress Z=PO, 

coefJieient of friction 

ornl 

Single-fiber Push-ozrt test 

Fiber-end displacement (pm) ornl 
Interfacial requirements 

@ chcrrlical corrzpaiibilih between fiber, 

fiber coating (s) and matrix. 

low fracture torrgh~zess and "optimum" 

adhesion 

"optimum" roughness. 

mechanically conlpliant. 

ornl 

Effect offiber coating thickizess on ZSS 

ornl 
Effect of fiber surface topography 012 ISS 

Brittle Fibers 

+ 

Brittle Matrix 

Brittle Composite 

Brittle Fibers 

+ 

~n~ineed Interfaces 

+ 

Brittle Matrix 

Tough Cornpos ite 
Environmenta Effects On Properties Of CFCCs 

"CHEMISTRY MEETS MECHANICS" 

In General, How Can The 

Environment Affect Properties? 

Wastage 

reduction in area 

0 Surface Modification 

0 Ingress 

protection 

or 

stress riser, failure initiator 

modify microstructure, ccimp'n. 

embrittle material 
Environmental Effects Are Of 

Particular Concern For CFCCs 

8 Presence of fibers can result in greater suscepti.biiity 

to environmental interactions 

- direct attack of fibers and their coatings 

- chemical instabilities 

- mass transport along extended fiber-matrix 

interfaces 

n Environmental reactions r 250'k- --x. NicalonlSiC 4 

I 

a 200 I- can lead to degradation g i 

of strength, damage 2 150 - 

V) I 

g roo !- 

tolerance, and fracture 3 I 

\I 

;j 5 0 - (Frey & Boussage, 1990) 

& L 0 ------i I I I 

0.01 1 1 02 

Time At 800°C (h) 

Approaches To Characterization Of 

Environmental Effects 

Vary environment 

Examine reactions 
Sensitive Microba ances Can Be 

Used To Monitor Reactions 

Microbalance Wt. changes on order of yg's 

owing (or static) gases 

High temperatures 

* Track reactions in real time 

* Determine reaction kinetics, 

mechanisms 

Reaction Of Metal With Oxygen 

To Form Solid Product 

5 0 100 150 

Time (h) 

corresponds to AI2O, surface layer - 250 nrn thick 
Reaction Of SIC With Oxygen 

40 60 80 

Time (h) 

(N. S. Jacobson) 

Oxidation Of SIC With C-Coated Sic Fibers 

Results In Complex Gravimetric Behavior 

Air Exposure, 950°C 

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 

Time (h) 
Relatively Simple Model Can Explain 

Oxidation Behavior Of This Composite 

Loss of C Interphase: 

C+ 1/20,=co 

C + 0, = co, 

Growth of Silica: 

Sic + 312 O2 = Si02 + CO 

(Filipuzzi et al.) 

Microbalance Data Can Be Used To Determine 

Test Times For Properties Measurements 

Air Exposure. 950°C 

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 

Time (h) 
Flexure Curves For NicaioniCiSiC Preoxidized 

At 950°C Far Various Times 

0.5 I PULLOUT FROM'GROWTH 

Displacement imm) OF SILICA AT FiBER- - - 

The Great Interphase Challenge 

Carbon: good mechanical behavior of composite, but 

reacts with oxygen at high temperature 

Can we find an alternative to carbon that has oxidative 

stability but retains good mechanical characteristics 

as an interphase? 
Protective Coatings 

Example: SIC seal coat on SiC matrix composite 

SIC Seal Coats Can Be Effective 

10 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 

Time (h) 
Other Compounds, Compositions 

For Fiber Coatingllnterphase 

a appropriate mechanical/physical properties 

oxidation resistance 

compatible with fiber and matrix 

Possible Alternatives For Interphase 

Boron-doped carbon 

Boron nitride 

Oxides 

Sic 

Nothing 
nterphase Gives mproved Oxidation 

Resistance Relative To Carbon 

-0.15 ! 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 

Time (h) 

Interrupted Carbon Interface 
Porous or Layered nterphases 

Of Matrix Materia 
MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION 

OF CFCCS 

KARREN L. MORE 

NATIONAL EDUCATORS WORKSHOP 

NOVEMBER 7,1995 

What Exactly do we "characterize" in CFCCs? 

Matrix 

Fibers 

FiberIMatrix Interface 
Development of Interfacial Coatings is 

Important in Composite Materials: 

Protection of Fiber Reinforcement During 

Processing 

Modification of Interfacial Bonding and 

Frictional Stresses 

Enhancement of the Overall Oxidation 

Resistance of the Composite 

There are MANY Techniques Available for the 

Microstructural Characterization of CFCCs 

Optical Microscopy for Bulk Evaluation 

Scanning Electron Microscopy for Bulk and 

Topographic Characterization 

Transmission Electron Microscopy for 

Interface Characterization 
Evaluation Using Optical Microscopy is Limited 

Extensive Fiber Pull-out is Generally Observed 

for Toughened CFCCs 
Poor Interfacial Design in CFCCs Will Result in 

Brittle Ceramic 

The basal planes in Propylene-derived Carbon interfaces 

were well aligned with respect to the Nicalon surface 
An Amorphous Silica Layer Replaces 

The Carbon Interlayer During Oxidation 

As-Fabricated Oxidized 1 Q%0O0C/1 00Oh 

The Effects Of Oxidation On Mechanical Properties 

Were Progressive As A Function Of Exposure Time 

0 

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 

Displacement (cm) 
Microstructural Changes Occurring at the Interface 

During Oxidation Can be Fully Characterized 

Individual Oxidation Kinetics for Matrix and 

Fibers can be Determined 

Oxidation Effects as a Function of Depth 

Below the Surface can be Evaluated 

ange In Oxide Thickness As A Function 

Of Time At 950% In NicalonlClSiC 

0.0 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 

Time (h) 

Nicalon fiber oxidation 

atrix oxidation 
Boron-Containing Materials Offer Improved 

Oxidation Resistance As Compared To Carbon 

lo-' 

1273 1473 1673 1873 2073 2273 2473 

TEMPERATURE (K) 
As-Deposited BN Coatings Contained Oxygen 

Energy Loss (eV) 

Composite 

Were Emb 

s With Boron Nitride Interlayers 

rittled By Short-Term Oxidation 

400 

0 

0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 

Displacement (em) 

0.42 pm BN interlayer 
Oxidation Of The Composite Changed 

The Fracture Behavior 

not oxidized oxidized 1000 h at 1000°C 

Microstructural Changes Were Observed 

At the BNINicalon Interface 

oxidized 24 h at 1000°C oxidized "100 0 at 1000°C 
Decomposition Of The Nicalon Fibers 

Occurred During Oxidation 

not oxidized oxidized 1000 h at 1000°C 

Small Additions Of BClg To Methane Drastically Alters 

The Nature Of The Carbon Interface (C:B = 18) 
AIY~IU pau611e pue pauleguoa Aueu slDajap 
Carbon Microstructures Observed 

Boron-Doped Propylene Methane Carbon 

Summary 

* Understanding Interfacial Microstructural 

Evolution During Environmental TestinglUse 

is Critical to the Development of Stable 

CFCCs for Use in "Corrosive" Environments 

* The Use of Advanced Characterization 

Techniques is Required to Track Subtle 

Microstructural Changes 

Characterization Effort Must be Coordinated 

With Other CFCC Tasks to Completely 

Evaluate Interfacial Behavior 
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INSTRUMENTED MATERIALS TESTING 

Thomas J. Mackin 

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering 

The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 

1206 West Green Street 

Urbana, Illinois 6 180 1 

Telephone 2 17-333- 1942 

Instrumented Materials Testing 

Thomas J. Mackin 

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering 

The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 

1206 West Green Street 

Urbana, IL 61801 

OutlineIntroduce the need for materials testing 

Classic Failures 

Fundamental Discoveries in Fracture 

Standard Tests 

Brittle vs Ductile Failure 

Most Practical Test 

- Experiments 

Composite Strategy - Griffith showed us that smaller 

was better 

Composite tests 

Stress Waves 
Ignorance can lead to tragedy 

Teflon Insert for TMJ / 100% failure rate! 

G..- :;?-~edi&1 Mess: Implants in Jaw Joint DipintegratC'< : !. 

C.. 

. r .y--.+---.;--------c--- - . .- ..--.. T . . . . - . .'.. - ... .-.-. . -. ...-- -. ...-- . -. ;..: .,-.? .... ;. -.*. 

I,', :.in Many -TwJ': Pa&hb-ki P&. afid DisfiJ'&edd ;. I -. -,- h.d-*- .,.I. ..-: ........-....... .-w-~~il.-,~*-&-**.3n"..-3n. +.%.ad .-a-.4--I-.- .C ..A Y 

Failure of Liberty Ships 

Brittle Hull Fractures 

- properties changed with temperature 

An oil barge that fractured in a brittle manner by crack propagation around its gir~h. 

(Photography by Neal Boenzi. Reprinted with permission from The New York Times.) 
Failwe initiates at defects 

Griffith 1920 

Westergaard 

Irwin 

Standard Tests have been identified 

K,, test 

- carefully machined specimen 

- fatigue pre-crack 

- satisfy test criteria, check plastic zone size 

Charpy Test 

- simple sample prep 

- simple experiment 

Falling Dart 

- simple sample prep 

- simple experiment 
Instrumented tests provide more 

information 

Standard Impact 

Absorbed Energy 

Instrumented Impact 

Load-displacement 

Dynamic Modulus 

Yield Stress (onset of damage) 

Ultimate Strength 

Absorbed Energy 

Is Failure Brittle or Ductile? 

shear stress 

I 

I cohesive failure line 

I 

tensile stress 
Brittle to, Ductile Transition Occurs in 

BCC metals 

impact energy 

temperature 

Ttnnsition 

Transition is due to dislocation mobility 

impuritieslalloy elements concentrate at 

dislocation core 

impuritieslalloy elements relieve dislocation 

stress field 
Impact response changes dramatically 

across the BrittleIDuctile Transition 

Load 

Toughness is defined as a materials 

resistance to being torn apart 

Work of Rupture - area under loaddisplacement curve 

Load Load 
Simple experiments illustrate brittle1 

ductile transition 

El liquid nitrogen m ice water boiling water 

Load-deflection curves show distinct 

differences with Temperature 

Load Load 
Front Panel 
Front Panel 

BELOW WIU BE USED 

AS INTEGRATION 

LIMITS FOR ENERGY 

CALCULATIONS ON ME 

UNDER FILE MNU 
Front Panel 
Composite Paradigm exploits Griffith's 

results 

Smaller specimens are stronger because theyhave smaller flaws 

0~- 1 

la 

Fibers are used as reinforcement 

- stiffness 

- strength 

- toughness 

- creep resistance 

Specific Stiffness and Strength are the 

main reason composites are used 

Metallic Bonding 

non-directional 

facilitates close packing, high density 

Ionic 

Requires nearest neighbors of opposite sign 

restricted atomic arrangements 

Covalent 

Directional 

Fixed bond orientations affect packing 
Materials Selection for Stiffness 

/ n 

Material Selection Parameter I/% 

CFRP 2.9 (XI O3 /N112m-3~2) 

Wood 5.5 

Aluminum 10 

GFRP 10 

Concrete 12 

Polyeurethane 13 

* Steel 17 

Materials selection to minimize weight 

and prevent yield 

Material Selection Parameter 

CFRP .002 

Aluminum .007 

Alloy Steel .0078 

Fiberglass .009 

Concrete .0125 

Mild Steel .035 
Polymer Matrix Composites are used as 

structural wingskins 

wingskins are exposed to: 

High velocity impact - ballistics 

Low velocity impact - tool drops 

, compression 

Wing skins are made by lamination 

Laminate interface properties affect 

compressive strength 

Non-penetrating impact causes 

sub-surface delamination 
Tests were conducted on stitchedlaminated composites 

layer thickness=1.45mm 

* 10-12 layers thick 

3-4 rnm stitch spacing 

Impact tests were conducted using a 

DYNATUP instrumented drop weight 

system 
Oscillations in Load-Time curve are due 

to stress waves 

Damaging Impacts Exhibit Different Load 

Spectra 
Knowledge of material properties is crucial in 

design 

instrumented testing provides important 

information 

- impact is simple and efficient means of evaluating 

properties 

Simple experiments can be used to illustrate 

key concepts 

- brittlelductile behavior 

- trade-off between strength and ductility 

- notch sensitivity 

Stress waves initiate damage 
APPLICATION ADVANCER.IIENTS 

USING ELECTRO EOLOGICAL FLUIDS 

John A. Marshall 

303 E. Wilson Avenue 

Farmville, NC 27828 

Telephone 9 19-753-330 1 
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Application Advancements Using Electrorheological Fluids 

John A. Marshall, Ph.D. 

School of Industry and Technology 

East Carolina University 

Greenville, North Carolina 27858 

KEY WORDS: 

Electrorheology, electrorheological fluid, fluid power transmission, 

hydraulics. 

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: 

The student should understand the elementary concepts of 

magnetism. A basic understanding of fluid flow would be helpful. 

OBJECTIVE: 

To observe the unusual characteristics of electrorheological 

fluids. To understand how these fluids change from a liquid to a solid. To 

understand the potential power transmission advantages of these fluids. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: 

1) Plastic bottle containing electrorheological fluid. 

2) Energizing probe 

3) Personal safety equipment 

4) Paper towels 

5) Pen 

INTRODUCTION: 

Electrorheological fluids change their flow characteristics when 

subject to an electrical field. ~esponse, which takes only milliseconds, is 

in the form of a progressive gelling that is proportional to field strength. 

With no field present, the fluid flows as freely as hydraulic oil (Korane, 

1991). 
Electrorheological fluids represent a maturing technology that has 

the potential to widen the performance range of automated 

electromechanical and electrohydraulic equipment. Research and 

ongoing developments are refining this technology and experts predict an 

important future for these fluids. 

Importance of Electrorheological Fluids: 

Current automation capabilities are not advanced enough to build 

a robot that could play tennis. Even though cameras and computers 

could direct the robot towards a ball, robot's move in an awkward, 

lumbering fashion because conventional hydraulic valves cannot keep 

pace with the commands of the computerized controllers. 

With electrorheological fluid technology, this type of response time 

is possible. This technology will allow devices that can operate instantly 

and without mechanical valves. Increased productivity and better product 

quality through more dependable and responsive automated equipment is 

just a small part of what this maturing technology can deliver. 

How Electrorheological Fluid Functions: 

Electrorheological fluids are composed of two primary components. 

They are the carrier fluid and the suspended particles. The carrier fluid 

needs to be a good insulator, compatible with the materials they contact. 

Typical particle materials include polymers, minerals, and ceramics 

(Scott, 1984). 

When an electrical field is applied across the fluid, positive and 

negative charges on the particles respond by separating, so each particle 

then has a positive end and a negative end. Particles of the 

electrorheological fluid then link together in the same manner that the 

north pole of one magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet 

(Duclos, 1 988). 

When the electrical field is removed, the particle attraction is no 

longer present. The fluid then begins flowing freely. Please see Figures 

1 and 2. 
Figure 1 - No electrical field present, charges are random, 

no particle attraction. 

Figure 2 - Probe energizing the fluid, particles linked together. 
Potential Applications: 

Electrorheological fluids can change from solids to liquids so fast, 

they will work well with fast-acting computers. These characteristics 

suggest a number of unusual engineering applications such as fluid 

clutches and vibration isolators (Duclos, 1988). 

According to Hans Conrad, professor of materials science and 

engineering at North Carolina State University, electrorheological fluids 

will lead to a whole new generation of brakes, automatic transmissioas, 

actuator devices, hydraulic valves, pump parts, and motors (Conrad, 

1 992). 

PROCEDURE: 

Safety Considerations: 

1. Be very careful to avoid being shocked by the energizing probe. 

2. Protective eye wear is mandatory for all those in the lab area. 

3. Do not allow the electrorheological fluid to touch anyone's skin 

or clothing. 

4. Obtain a "Material Data Safety Sheet" on the fluid from the 

supplier. Read the sheet completely and ask questions relating 

to any information you do not understand. 

Electrorheological Fluid Preparation: 

1. Check the cap on the plastic bottle containing the fluid and 

make sure it is securely tightened. 

2. Shake the bottle to distribute the stratified particles evenly 

within the fluid. 

3. Set the bottle down on the lab bench and carefully remove the 

top. 
Observing Electrorheological Fluid as a Liquid: 

1. Slowly insert the probe into the container of fluid until the metal 

rods are submerged approximately two inches below the 

surface of the fluid. 

2. Slowly withdraw the probe from the fluid and hold it slightly 

above the bottle. Observe what happens to the 

electrorheological fluid on the metal rods of the probe. 

3. Set the probe on a paper towel and record your observations. 

Observing Electrorheological Fluid as a Gelled Solid: 

1. Slowly insert the probe into the container of fluid until the metal 

rods are submerged approximately two inches below the 

surface of the fluid. 

2. Press and hold down the button on the top of the probe. 

3. Slowly withdraw the probe from the fluid and hold it slightly 

above the bottle. Observe the status of the electrorheological 

fluid on the metal rods of the probe. 

4. With the probe slightly above the fluid level in the bottle, 

release the button (de-energizing the probe) and observe what 

happens to the electrorheological fluid on the metal rods of the 

probe. 

5. Set the probe down on a paper towel and record your 

observations. 
SAMPLE DATA SHEET: 

Record below the characteristics of the fluid when the probe was not 

energized: 

Record below the characteristics of the fluid when the probe 

energized: 

INSTRUCTOR NOTES: 

1. When the probe was removed from the fluid without being energized, 

students should have observed the fluid flowing off the metal rods and 

back into bottle. The fluid will flow as easily as oil. 

2. When the probe was removed from the fluid while being energized, 

students should have observed a gelling of the fluid around the rods 

of the probe. 

3. De-energizing the probe will cause the gelled electrorheological fluid 

to liquefy and drip into the bottle. 

REFERENCES: 

Korane, K.: Putting ER Fluids To Work. Machine Design, May 9,1991, 

pp. 52-57. 

Scott, D.: Amazing Hardening Fluids Open a New World of Hydraulic 

Drives. Popular Science, April 1984, pp. 42-46. 

Duclos, T.G.: Ebctrorheological Fluids and Devices. Automotive 

Engineering, December 1988, pp. 45-48. 

Conrad, H.: The Impact of ER Fluids. Compressed Air Magazine, March 

1992, pp. 14-1 7. 
EXPERIMENTS IN NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC 

DENTAL MATERIALS: 

A MOUTHFUL OF EXPERIMENTS 

James V. Masi 

Western New England College 

Department of E. E., MIS 2168 

Springfield, Massachusetts 01 1 19 

Telephone 4 13-782- 1344 

EXPERIMENTS IN NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC DENTAL MATERIALS: 

A MOUTHFUL OF EXPERIMENTS 

James V. Masi 

Western New England College 

Dept. of Electrical Engineering 

Springfield, MA 0 1 1 19 

(4 13)782-1344, FAX (413)782-1746 

KEY WORDS: Biomaterials, dental, corrosion, composite, amalgam 

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should be familiar with the basics of materials science, 

metallography, and chemistry. Levels at which these experiments are performed are second semester junior year 

and either semester senior year. The students are first given lectures on fracture mechanics, metals, alloys, and 

composites. They should have already had a laboratory experiment on metallography and sample preparation. A 

video on the deterioration of restorative materials in the oral environment is used as a backdrop for the 

experiments. 

OBJECTIVJCS: The objectives of these experiments are to show that the area of biomaterials, especially 

dental materials (natural and synthetic), contain all of the elements of good and bad design, with the caveat that a 

person's health is directly involved. The students learn the process of designing materials for the complex 

interactions in the oral cavity, analyze those already used, and suggest possible solutions to the problems involved 

with present technology. The N.I.O.S.H. Handbook is used extensively by the students and judgment calls are 

made, even without extensive biology education. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: 

(1) Metallurgical preparation and polishing apparatus (eg. Buehler Co.), 

(2) Amalgam triturated samples (Johnson & Johnson, Inc., Degussa Chemical, etc.). 

(3) Titanium, gold crowns, graphite, and stainless steel (3 16L) posts and fixtures (J. & J.), 

(4) Teeth with amalgam, ceramic, and composite restorations (Local dentists), 

(5) Selenium oxychloride solution (Hg stain from Fisher Scientific, etc.). 

(6) Metallurgical microscope (Olympus, Zeiss, etc.). and 

(7) SEM with EDAX (optional). 

INTRODUCTION: 

There are few materials which capture the essence of materials science as dental materials and the 

amazing. adaptive natural dental materials. In the same vein, these materials are all subject to the same 

mechanical, electrical, chemical. and biological laws as all other materials. Certain of these synthetic materials are 

now deemed potentially hadl in the human bio-system. Newer materials have shown promise of solving the 

restoration problem. At Western New England College. two senior projects and some extensive research have led 

to the development of a two-part experiment involving natural and synthetic materials such as actual previously 

ek?racted teeth, amalgam filled teeth, stainless steel orthodonture material, gold alloy crowns. composite 

restoration material, titanium implants, and graphite endodontic posts. Tests involve corrosion couples, 

sectioning and microscopic investigation of alloys and composites, and bond strength of polymer adhesives. 

The problem of restoration of carious regions. the materials used, and the associated appliances employed 

in orthodonture and implantolo~ provide a complex electrochemical scenario to be sorted out by the practitioner 

and patient alike. Add to this the fact that many scientists cannot even agree on the cause/effect relationships 

associated with pathologies resulting from the release of ions, metallic vapors. and molecules from the man-made 

materials placed in the oral cavity. and the problem of imagination vs reality eludes even the more astute 

practitioner. much less the patient. 
l'llcc c\-pcri~ttcnts dct;til lllc b;tsics ofcorrosio~t :tnd ~tl;tlcri:il ft~rtcliorl ;tnd r:liltrrc ill lltc oritl ctt\.iroi~alctt~. 

liziirig t11;111? of tl~c possilrte cor~tl~irt;~tio~ts of tt;ltcri;tls ~lt;t~ could hc ;III~ iltc erl~l)lo?cd in tile pr;icticc of or;bl 

rcctctr:~tio~~s. ii~tpl:tr~ts. ;tnd ortl~otlorl!rrre. K~io~iii facts \sill bc isol;\lcd Tro~ii cot!jccIttr.c. nlrilc visrtnl observ;~lior~s 

nrttl tticnsr~rcntcnl tccltnicltics \\-ill hc c\-pl;lir~cd in Illc ligllt of good clcclrocl~crt~icitl pritclice ittld COIIIIIIOII SCIISC 

:~l>j~c?:tcltcs. Sl:tttd:trd Icsls. rritlgiltg Trottt cspcnsi\.c ;t~td I~igltly sopltistic:tlcd o~lcs lo si~ttplc. i;tc~~c~tsi\c lesls tvill 

hc ct~rt~~~criilcd. \\hiltlcss crpc~tsi\.c o~lcs 11 ill bc ct~tployctl. Bitscs for agrcclttclll on fitndanlcnl:tl slorlillg points 

Tor TII~III-c "gootl pritcticc" Icclitticlr~cs I\ ill bc discrlsscd its p;lrl oflllc cspcri~t~c~~lal \I rilcop. So~t~c of ll~c rurt1cri;tls 

co\.crcd mill l~: rttcrctlry ;ttnnlg;t~tls (rcclrtt~tl;t~il: rtnlalgi~ti~ Ittcans will^ mcrcltrj"). itoblc 1ncla1 inl;tys. appliitnccs. 

poctc. fislurcs. intpl:tt~Is. ccritnlics. :tnd polyntcric co~ttposilcs. A scclioll on bitckgro~tltd tltcory is givcrt in tlte 

Appcndir Tor tlse as ;I prc-litb lcctttrc or its rcfcrc~tcc for IIIC slndc~tt n~td labor;lrory inslrttclor. 

EXPERIMENTS: 

'I'lic specific ;tints of ~ltcsc cspcrinicnts itrc to cl;~ssi@ tllesc ~ltccliit~lical cffccts. Iltcr~i~odyn;t~tiic pl~iisc 

tli;tgr;t~n rcillitics. elcclrocltenlic:tl itnd corrosive cffccts. idcolify flie spccics involved. use ccrlain a1eastlrctncnt 

clc\ iccs. nr~d sltotv the pll!sic;~l clntrt associitlcd wit11 the acl~~ill rcsloritlions. ;tppli;lnces. and intplr~nls and tltcir 

:1llcncI:1111 biotlc~ilitl cnginccrillp cfkcls. 

7'11~ sluctcnt sltortld rcrcr lo IItc Appc~tclis in Figrlrc A3 lo obscrvc lltc Icnt:try pltnsc diitgm~n for 

~~tcrcr~r~-sil\cr-titi. Thswill scr\,c to hclp Ihc slttdcwf idcnlify tllc polisltcd s:t~ttplcs prodnccd by the Tollo~\i~tg 

procctlorcs. S;ttnplcs or liiglt copper :tnti~lgants arc prepared by Irituralion accordiug to Ihe spccifici~tio~~s of IItc 

1t1;t11ttI;.tc~rtrcr~/srrj~~'1icr. Typicitl tttisl~lrc ~uorpl~ologics and Irilnr;ttio~i :tppar;tlr~s arc slio\v11 ill Figure 1. Thcsc 

s:t~ttl>lcs :ire lllcrl ~ttoutilcd itt pllc~lolic or sttititblc cold tiiolt~ttittg po1y111crs a~ld obscrvcd ttndcr a sui1;iblc opticitl 

ttticroscopc (11. clec~ron rtticroscopc ill niagnificafio~ts approprii~lc for pltitsc tlclccliott. A typical polislsd siin~plc is 

slto\\ 11 in Figr~rc 2. Makc sure lltnl llic slr~tlctlls rlolc llic "clroplcts" or frcc ntcrctlr n.ltic11 rcsull. 

Figure 1 

Miaetl Amalgams and Triturator 
If :I potcatiostalic or potc~ttio~rtantic ;~ppat;ltl~s iacnilablc, ~~~casurc~~tc~tls C;III hc tuadc or1 tllc clcclrochc~nic;~l 

polcnli;tls and a~todic j>olari7ntio11 cttrccs of rcstorntio~t alloys nit11 a~t~alg;tt~~s Pllascs C;III bc ~ttadc fro111 scratcl~. 

nqing sl:lrtdard :~Ilojing tcchniqr~cs Polc~~tio~ttctric corrosio~t crlrccs 1j pical of sortlc of t11c rcstoratio~t ~tli~tcrials. 

appliances. :tnd iinpl:~nt nlalcrials arc slto\\~in Figr~rc 7. 

Figure 3 

Pote~itiomctric Corrosion Curves of Son~e Rcstoratio~l Rlilterids 

Thcsc crlr\.cq \crib tltc dcgrce of corrosio~t l~~tdcr given corrosio~t potclttinls. Notc thc considcr:ttio~t of ercn in thc 

cr~rrcrlt dcl~sily on lllc ordinatc of tl~c graph. arc;^ of the :tnoctc and ci~tl~odc il~fl~tcr~cc gre:ttly tl~c rate of corrosiotl 

of tllc ~~~:ilcrinls ir.ol\.ccI. For i~~sta~icc. if llic area of Illc cathodc is iuucl~ I;~rgcr Iltnn tllc a~todc. tltc corrosiort 

rc;tclioll it ill procccd ;tl n n~uclt f;lslcr rnlc III;III if lltc iIrc;ts of ~IIC t\\o arc lllc S;IIIIC. 

Ol)t;~i~~i~tg f~.csItI! csfrnctcd tcctlt frolt~ ;I local dcntal pr:~ctilioltcr. tllc I;~bor;~loi?; instruclor III:I~ n is11 lo 

sllou. lllc ~t~icrostr~~clt~rc of rt:ltur;tl tcct11 cracking fro111 rcsloralio~~s. IfEDAX is a\-ailnblc on all SEM, ~IICII 

difi~sion of t1g ;~itd Ag C;III bc lttndc \.isiblc o~t polislicd lcctl~ (scc Appc~~tlis). 
Composites ;ttltl Pol?.nlers 

Co~itpositcs ;III~ pol? 111~~s. 1110stiy co~itp~scd ofbis-GMA n-ill1 Gllcrs aid colorittlls. arc CiIsy lo prcprlrc for 

obscr-\~ation. S;~~iiplcs frotlr Coi11par1ies st~ch ;IS Bisco nrtd Dcrttnrtt provide a basis Tor obsening some of the rttos~ 

Itiglt-lccli. durnhlc rn;~lcri;tls of Illis cspcrinlcnt. Taking a small salnplc from tltc Itypodcrntic dispcllscr (Figt~rc 4). 

prcpnrc a lltor~t~lcd s;tntplc as iit t11c cnrlicr part of llw cspcrintcttt (setup tiruc is less llta~i 10 ntinntcs). Polis11 ;111d 

prcl>;trc lccll~. ft.otti 1l1c dcnt;~l pracliliot~c~. \\lticl~ conlaill cot~tposilc rcslor;iliotis :~lttl/or cndodonlic posls (rool 

c;~ii;tl fillcr posts). Obscrvc (as ill thc Appcndis) tltc stractttrc and lopogrr~pl~ics or thcsc rcslor. <I I' 1011s. 

Rcporls sllorlld be trtatle ott prcp;~r;rlioii asd obsen~alioas rcg;trdirtg Iltc :ll>o\.e epcrimc~ils :itld ~>roccd~trc. 

Jndgt~rcnls bnscd on corrosiott n11c1 cl~tr;tbilily. as \\-cll its slrrlclttrc of lltc t~~;~lc~.ials sltotlld bc dc1;tilcd by lltc 

sl~tdcr~ls. A "u Itilc pitpcr" lo tltc ADA nt;~! bc cou~poscd b;tscd 11po11 boll1 I>:lckgrot~nd nt:~lcriitl :III~ IIIC 

infot ll~:ttiott glc:~ttcd rroni thc cspcrirt~cttls. Tllcsc cspcrir~~ctils arc cos! bcgi~tniiigs for sc~~ior c:tl>slot~c tlcsiglt 

prqjccls. Tltc c~pcrinsnl is t;lkctr qttilc scrio~tsly and pcrsoi~:~ll!. ;~nd lltc cot~it~~c~tls ;~rc t,cr posilitc lo tl:~lc. 7'hc 

slttdct~l sliottld hc allo\~cd lo srtggcst otltcr c\-pcrintctits lo clnt-ir\ co~tccpts. bol11 ill tl~cir ~t~itttls ;ttlti ill 111~ scict~lific 

cot~~~tir~~til~-. Tl~cspcrit~~ctits dct:~ilcd ltcrc ~vill bc broken up illlo fivc dislilicl strind-alottc ntodr~lcs. 

230 
APPENDIX 

BACKGROUNDITHEORY: 

Techniques and materials for dental restorations have advanced greatly over the past decade with 

improved dental metals, ceramics, and polymeric composites. The mechanical properties and ease of fabrication of 

restorative fillings of mercury-silver amalgams have undoubtedly been the strong driving force for the retention of 

this practice in modern dentistry. The reality of the electrochemistry of "oral galvanism" first appeared in 1751 

with a paper by Sulzer (1). It was later, in 1879, that Chase (2) called this new "oral electricity", associated with 

the dental amalgam, hazardous. Dental amalgams have been employed in the United States as restorative 

materials since 1832 and, according to the American Dental Association and others (3,1,5). no cases of 

well-documented "patient toxicity" have been reported in the scientific literature. This view is in sharp contrast to 

other researchers (6,7,8,9). to mention a few, documenting literature and physico-chemical effects of the vapor and 

corrosive release of mercury in the oral environment. Work has been done to elaborate on the degradation of 

amalgams and the implications of this degradation in the oral environment (4). The purpose of these experiments 

is not to discuss the medical or physiological effects of the restorations or possible etiology of other pathologies. but 

to explain and document the mechanical. materials science, electrochemical, and chemical phenomena attendant to 

the placement and use of many of these materials alone or together in the oral environment. 

Corrosion 

Corrosion can be defined as the destruction or deterioration of a material because of its reaction with its 

environment (10). This definition includes both metals and non-metals. The general classifications of corrosion 

are wet or dry, direct combination or electrochemical. 

For the purpose of this study. wet electrochemical corrosion occurring in electrolytes is considered. The principles 

underlying corrosion state that there are two basic requirements for electrochemical corrosion: at least one anode 

and one cathode must be present to form a cell, and direct currents must flow. Anodes and cathodes may be near 

to each other (local cell) or farther apart. The current (ion and electron flow) may be self-generated (as in the case 

of two dissimilar metals in solution) or may be impressed from an outside source (as in plating. for example). The 

anode is the area where corrosion occurs, current leaves the metal in the form of dissolved ions, and enters the 

electrolyte solution. The cathode is the area where no corrosion occurs and current enters the metal. Two basic 

diagrams show- the requirements for metallic corrosion, as seen in Figure Al. Note the separate and same surface 

scenarios for corrosion between two different materials. The governing factor for the corrosion of one material in 

the presence of another has to do with the Nernst equation 

where E is the half-cell potential, E, the standard half-cell potential. R is the gas constant, T is the absolute 

temperature. n is the number of electrons transferred, F is the Faraday constant. and a, and qed are the activities 

(concentration) of the oxidized and reduced species. Table A1 shows a series of half-cell potentials measured by 

potentiometric means. using a standard calomel electrode (SCE) as a reference in saline solution. The more active 

(anodic) metals corrode at the expense of the less active (more noble or cathodic) metals. For instance, mercury 

would be corroded (release ions into solution) in a couple aith titanium or gold. Simply stated: "In any electrochemical reaction, the most negative or active half cell tends to be oxidized. while the most positive or noble 

half-cell tends to be reduced" (1 1). These determinations were made for pure metals and phases of amalgam as 

part of this work. Figure A2 shows a typical potentionletric schenlatic of a setup for the determination of the 

corrosion (galvanic) potential between metallic species in an electrolyte. 
Table Al: Potentials of phases and alloys vs SCE 

PHASEIMETAL (av.)POTENTIALO vs SCE 

pure gold (Au) M.26 (cath.) 

titanium (Ti) M.05 

Ti6AI1V M.01 

316 stainless steel -0.05 

Silver (Ag) -0.10 

alpha AglSn (100-8910-1 1) -0.10 to -0.12 

gamma AglSn (74126) -0.13 

gamma 1 AglHg (40160) -0.11 

beta Ag/Sn (84116) -0.11 

mercury OJg) -0.16 

copper (Cu) -0.30 

epsilon CuISn (75125) -0.31 

eta CuISn (5.1116) -0.32 

gamma 2 SnMg (88112) -0.33 

Tin (Sn) -0.35 (anodic) 

R - Reierence Eleclrode 

A - Auxiiiarl Electrodes 

5 - Corrosion Specimen 

SB - Salt Bridge 

Polarization Cell 

Figure A2 

Potentiometric Apparatus Schematic 

Biodental Engineering Factors 

Previous work (1 1.12) has identified several factors acting alone or in concert to produce a variety of 

corrosive, fracture, physico-mechanical, and electrical effects in the oral environment. These factors are shown 

below in Table A2. 
7 ENVIRONMENT - 7 7 Currenr Leaves Current J F-.. . 

L Metallic 

Anodic and cathodic regions on the same material 

OR TOUCHING 

Separate anode and cathode in solution 

Basic corrosion mechanism 

Figure A1 , 

Table A2. Biodental Engineering Factors 

Biomechanical: Column loading 

Compressive and tensile forces 

Stress concentration 

Biochemical : 

Bioelectrical: 

Stress and fatigue corrosion 

Crevice corrosion 

Ionic transport 

Saliva - pH. flow rate. buffering capaci* 

Piezoelectric. Hydro-electrodynamic 

Electrochemical potential difference 

between different materials 

Electrolysis 
Combined effects of the above mentioned biodental engineering factors have been shown to exacerbate thc release 

of metallic vapors, ions. and tooth material. both natural and man-made substitutes. Only with nletallic 

restorations, implants. and appliances do the bioelectrical effects become dominant causal factors in the ionic 

release. It should also be noted that the underplay of HgO n1ercuF vapor and particulate HgO by many is seldom if 

ever accompanied by a mention of the more vitally active ionic Hg- free to combine thermodynamicallj in a wide 

variety of species. The abfraction (1 1) of both natural and man-made tooth substance due to bruxing. abrasion. 

clenching (squeezing). and malocclusive forces serves only to make the scenario an unquestionable multifactorial 

maze in which the scientist must "sort out" cause and effect and take proper corrective actions. Shown in Figure 

A3, for the purpose of basic illustration. is a ternaq phase diagram (13) of the alloys of Silver (Ag). Mercup- (Hg). 

and Tin (Sn). More complex quaternary and pentenaq diagrams are not possible due to the multidimensionali@ of 

the drawing and the enormity of the data. 

Figure A3 

Ternary Phase Diagram for Hg-Sn-Ag 

The multiplicity of phases and the fact that these phases are formed. not from room temperature amalgamation. but 

from standard elevated temperature techniques further complicates the scenario. 

The overall simplified reaction (11) for the phases in amalgams can be written in general for high copper 

(non-gamma 2 phase materials): 

Ag,Sn + Hg +AgCu -------> Ag3Sn + Ag2Hg, + Cu,Sn, + (other phases) (eq. 2) 

(unreacted) 

Ignoring the minor phases. noting that the gamma 2 phase is no longer present in high copper amalgams. and 

applying the same criteria for corrosion to the phases (15) as to the bases for local and separate cathodes and 

anodes, the conditions for corrosion in the oral environment with mixed metals as well as the local anode-cathodc 

areas on the amalgam itself (due to its phases) become apparent. Amalgams. due to the multiplici& of their phases 

forming local anodes and cathodes, are self-corroding. 

Experimental methods for determinations of mercury 

There are a variety of methods of determining the presence of mercury and detecting ionic current flo~. 

Among these are methods ranging from high cost and high sophistication to lower cost and less sophistication of 

technique. The most sophisticated of the methods for analyzing Hg and other metals in saline and saliva is Atomic 

Absorption Spectroscopy (A.A.S.). This method utilized the injection atomized species into a flame with the 

attendant absorption (from an Hg discharge lamp. for example) or emission from the flame of certain wavelengths 

characteristic of the metal to be detected. The basis of this work utilized both FAAS and GFAAS with detection 

limits of 0.3 to la. dependent on whether or not gold amalgamation concentration techniques (16) were used. A 

second method involves a slightly less expensive gold film technique called Differential Pulse Anodic Stripping 

Voltammetry (17). with detection capabilities down to 1 ppb (1 pa). A third, less expensive method for detection 

in vivo is a potentiaUcunentJenergy meter. shown in Figure A4, which measures the potential, current, and enerabetween two metallic restorations. 
Figure A4 

Oral potential meter 

An inference regarding the ion exchange. anodic and cathodic regions. and possible excessive galvanic effects can 

be made simply. as follows: 

Polarity indicates cathode vs anode: voltage gives the magnitude (driving potential) for the 

electrochemical reaction; and current gives the number of ions per second transferred. 

eg. Hg vs Au. Au is positive. approximately 0.4 volts. with respect to Hg. at 10 microamperes (Qyical of 

measured values using this method). If N is the number of ions per second of the species, I is the current 

in amperes (Coulombs/second). q is the electronic charge (coulombs). n is the valence of the species (eg. 

Hg). then 

N = Vnq (eq. 3) 

or N = 10 s 10'" (2 s 1.6 s 10-IQ) = 3.12 x 10" ionsfsec.. assuming Hg is available in an 

electrolq.tic environment. Further calculations lead to removal of approximately 10 ngfsec. for a constant 

current as measured. 

Measurements made on the saliva of thirty subjects with mixed metals in the mouth (eg. combinations of 

one or more pairs of orthodontic stainless steel. amalgams. gold inlays. titanium posts. base metal posts. graphite 

composite endodontic posts. etc.) were made b?- A.A.S.. stripping voltammetry. and potential meter. Since the 

A.A.S. and stripping voltanlmetry were ion specific (Hg). these results correlated well in total Hg concentration in 

the saliva. No attempt was made to mechanically disturb the restorations by chewing or similar disruption. Saliva 

was retained in the mouth without swallowing for a period of 30 seconds and then released into a vial four times 

for testing. The tests showed that the A.A.S. and the stripping voltamnletq correlated within thirty percent in 

ranges tens to hundreds of parts per nullion (ppnl). The nleasurement of ionic flow between suspected anodes and 

cathodes, as an estimate of Hg ion concentration. was consistently higher than predicted bv the A.A.S.. by a factor 

of two or more, probably due to the fact that the ions detected by this method were not solel?- mercury. but 

included other ions anodic with respect to the cathode chosen. 

Scanning electron microscop?- (SEM) and energ?- dispersive x-ray anal!-sis (EDXA) 

of sectioned teeth with amalgams 

Over six%- san~ples of amalgam restorations in their host tooth were mounted and polished using standard 

metallurgical techniques. SEM photomicrographs and EDXA scans were made to observe some of the phenomena 

associated with these restorations. cracking. mercu? migration. and effects of mechanical pressure on the surface 

of the amalgam. Ten of the specimens were scanned to study the concentration of Hg vs distance from the 

restoration. Three notable commonalities were seen on alnlost all of the samples studied: (a) The samples all 

showed some degree of nucro-cracking: (b) Migration of mercury through the dentin occurred and was accelerated 

down the micro-cracks; and (c) Mechanical pressure of less than 2000 Pa on the amalganl surface always produced 

"droplets" of mercury. exclusive of the age of the restoration. Figure AS below shows electron micrographs of 

lingual and occlusal restorations along with a magnif~ed view of a region on which a pressure of approximately 

1900 Pa was applied. Note the regions of microcracking. voids. and Hg droplet formation. Mercury relative 
concentration analyses were made on the teeth from the margin of the amalgam restoration to both the pulpal 

region and to the lateral ex-tremitv of the dentin. 

" 0 5 i0 15 20 

D~stance (8 of turns) 

Figure AS 

Restoration and EDXA measurement of Mg vs distance from the restoration 

Figure A5 shows a tooth measured and the plot of relative Hg concentration vs distance both toward the outer 

extremity of the dentin and in the direction of the pulpal region. As can be seen from the plots and from the map 

of Hg in and around cracks. inercuq- migrates in the tooth material. most likely driven by combinations of 

concentration gradients and electrochemical potentials existing in the oral cavity prior to emaction. Figure A6 

shows possible scenarios of corrosion (ionic current paths) in the oral enviroimlent and oxygen deprived anodic 

regions on the tooth (18). These paths filrther enhance the probabilih- of anodic dissolution in both tissue and 

saliva. Some researchers (11) have found that sealing the amalgam with polynleric sealers retards evaporation of 

the highly volatile mercury vapor. Add to this the possibilit?; of crevice and oxlvgen deprivation corrosion, and the 

use of mixed metals appears to be less than ideal in the oral environment. at least from a materials science 

perspective. t1l l 

Cleatt aurfacr, Pe iymev/ Pla ue 

buildup 

Ptaque buildup 

161 

Figure A6 

Possible paths of corrosion (ion flow) and oxygen cathode 
Polymers and ceramics 

Polymers used as restorations with and without fillers are composed of a number of materials, some of 

which (19) are shown in Table A3. These polymers combined with fillers such as Si,N, . SiO, . A12 0,. calciunl 

hydrox?;apatite. glass. glass ionomers. phosphates. etc. make up classes of materials called restorative dental 

composites. These composites. when cured with zero residue promoter or when light cured to full polymerization. 

possess good properties mechanically and no electrochemical ion transfer effects in the oral caviq. The strength of 

the materials, though falling short of amalgams for occlusal restorations, wear well. Adhesives. available from a 

number of manufacturers, perform vee well in securing the restorations and in minimizing marginal leakage. The 

materials themselves are non toxic and present no reported hazard. The wear mechanism is clearly visible on 

filled composites. however. showing bonding failure after seven months between the filler and the matris. leading 

to cracking in the restoration. as shown in Figure A7. Also shown is a margin of a restoration fabricated from both 

a composite and amalgam (19). There is great promise for fiuther work in the successful development of strong. 

long-lasting restorations made from combinations of polymers and inorganic fillers. 

Table A3. Some monomers used in dental restorations 

I 

UDMA 4- t 

Figure A7 

Sexen month views of polymeric composites 

showing filler picking and marginal terracing 
It should be noted that even occlusal regions in natural tooth enamel (a natural composite) crack and fail (20). 

Ceramics composed of aluminum oxide. glass ceramic phases. hydroxyapatites. sapphire single c~stals. 

etc. are ex3remely durable and inert as implant materials. but have shortcomings as restoration materials. Theq- are 

mostly- veq hard materials and offer an abrasive surface to opposing natural teeth or other restorations. In 

addition. the may fracture. presenting a danger of swallowing sharp debris or cutting oral tissue near the 

remaining restoration. As work proceeds with these highly inert. non-ion releasing materials. it is hoped that 

biomimetic analogs can be developed. 

REFERENCES: 

1. Sulzer, M. (1751): Recherche sur l'origine des sentiments agreable et desagreable. Troisieme partie: Des plaisirs 

des sens. Histoire de 1'Academie des Sciences et Belles Lettres de Berlin (Amee 1752). In Handbuch der 

Physiologie der Niederen Sinne. I. Bd.:378, Leipzig. Germany: Thieme. 1926. 

2. Chase, H. S.(1879): Oral electricity. Dent. Cosmos 21. 205-207. 

3. Council on Dental Material, Instrument, and Equipment (1 987): American Dental Association status report on 

the occurrence of galvanic corrosion in the mouth and its potential effects, J.A. D.A. 115, 783-787. 

4. Anusavice, K.J., Soderholm. K.-J.. and Grossman, D. G.(1993): Implications of Amalgam and Ceramic 

Degradation in the Oral Environment. MRS Bulletin XVIII, 9.64-69. 

5. Mandel, I.D. (1991): Amalgam Hazards: An assessment of research. J.A.D.A. 122,624. 

6. Meiners, H. (1984): Elektrische erscheinungen an metallischen fullungen. ZWR. 93, 38-47. 

7. Enwonwu, C.O. (1987): Potential health hazard of the use of mercury in dentistry: critical review of the 

literature, Environmental Research 42, 257-271. 

8. Hahn, L.J., et al. (1989): Dental "silver" tooth fillings: a source of mercury exposure revealed by whole-body 

image scan and tissue analysis, FASEB 3.2641-2616. 

9. Pleva, J. (1989): Corrosion and mercury release from dental amalgam, The Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine 

4, 3, 141-158. 

10. Fontana, M.G. (1986): Corrosion Engineering. McGraw-Hill. Inc.. New York. NY. 4 and 152. 

11 Grippo. J.O. and Masi, J.V. (1991): Role of bioengineering factors (BEF) in the etiology of root caries, Jnl. of 

Esth. Dent. 3.2. 71-76. 

12. Masi, J.V. and Grippo. J.O. (1987): The role of stress corrosion and piezoelectriciQ in the formation of root 

caries, Proc. 13th Ann. N.E. Bioeng. Conf.. Foster. K.R. (ed). 93-95. 

13. Handbook Committee of ASM International (1 986): Metals Handbook. 8th ed.. Phase Diagrams. Vol. 8. 

Metals Park, Ohio, USA. 433. 

11. Stannard, J.G. (1988): Amalgam. Chapter 12. in Materials in Dentistry. 2nd ed.. Denali Pub.. Hanover. MA. 

USA., 1 -13. 

15. Handbook Committee of ASM International (1990): Tarnish and Corrosion of Dental Alloys. in Metals 

Handbook, 9th ed.. Corrosion. Vol. 13, Metals Park. Ohio. USA. 1336-1365. 

16. Schrier. L.C. and Manahan. S.E. (1991): An overview of xenobiotic analysis: the deternlination of Cd. Hg. and 

Pb in human matrices by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Spectroscopq-. 9. 2.24-29. 

17. Peterson, W.M. and Wong. R.V. (198 1): Fundamentals of stripping voltammetry. American Laboratorj. 

November, 23. 11, 30-38. 

18. Schriever, W. and Diamond, L.E. (1952): Electronlotive forces caused by metallic fillings. Jnl. Dent. Res.. 31. 

2,205-229. 

19. Rottlet, J.-F. (1987): Degradation of dental polqmers, S. Karger AG. Basel, Swit., 3-59. 

20. Masi, J.V.. Masi. S.F.. and Nesman C. (1994): Stress corrosion cracking of natural and dental composite 

surfaces. (in preparation). 
EVALUATION OF STUDENT OUTCOMES 

IN MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 

Steven Piippo 

Materials Science Technology 

Richland High School 

930 Long Avenue 

Richland, Washington 99352 

Telephone 509-946-5 12 1 

Materials Science 

Technology 

Benchmarks 

and 

Exit Standards 
MST BENCHMARKS & EXIT STANDARDS 

1. Technological materials may be classified in 

categories including metals, g lass/ceramics, polymers 

(plastics) and composites. 

Student should be able to list or point to examples from each category. In 

general are they in metallic or oxide form, what are the basic atomic 

structures, and what are the general types of properties represented by 

each group. For example, polymers are generally formed from long 

spaghetti shaped molecules, they tend to be light weight and vary from 

soft and pliable to moderately hard and strong. 

2. Each type of solid material has specific properties that 

can be measured. 

What are some of the important properties of steel, of aluminum, of 

window glass, of "plastic wrap," of composites. Students should be able 

to read their reference text: Engineering Materials Technology to locate 

and describe properties such as: conductivity, ductility, malleability, 

strength, stiffness, corrosion, weatherability, or melting point. 

3. All solid materials have either a long range crystalline 

structure (i.e., crystalline) or a short range amorphous 

structure (i.. glassy). 

Student should be able to explain the difference between metal crystal 

structure and an amorphous glass in terms of atomic structure, and 

properties. Students should recognize a crystalline and amorphous 

arrangement of a toms. 

4. The choice of materials for a particular application 

depends on the properties of the material. 

Student should be able to list several actual parts/cornponents from each 

category and explain what material the component is made of and what 

properties led to the choice of that material for that application. For 

example, the exterior door on a car is high-strength steel, whereas the 

dashboard is a soft polymer, light stiff materials,in a K2 snow ski, a 

footbaN helmet, or non-corrosive hip implant. 
5. The properties of the material depends on its crystal 

structure. 

Students should be able to alloy and cast sterling silver or draw a copper 

wire to demonstrate malleability, ductility, yield, and elongation in a 

crystal material. Students will also batch, melt, pour, anneal, and temper 

an amorphous glass (generally non-crys taline material) to observe and 

demonstrate glass materials have different properties (brittlecatastrophic failure) than a crystal material. 

6. The properties of the material depend on its 

microstructure (i.e., its grain structure or the microscopic 

arrangements of its components), which may be modified 

by the methods by which the material is processed (i.e., 

heat treatments, forming, casting operations) 

Studenrs should be able to explain, in their journal, and also demonstrate 

the process to anneal and temper an amorphous material {glass). 

Students will explain in their journal, and demonstrate, the process of 

sintering a ceramic body to reduce porosity , increasing densification and 

strength (changing the micro structure and properties). 

7. Most technological materials are alloys (metals) or 

compounds (ceramics, polymers) containing different 

elements rather than pure elements. 

Students should be able to demonstrate why/how chemical oxides are 

added to silica to form a borosilicate glass. Students should grasp why 

bottle glass is not made from pure silica through performing 

experiments with chemicals to create glass. Students should be able to 

explain the effect of copper as an impurity in the crystal structure and 

how properties of silver can change by alloying. 

8. Composite materials are made up of a combination of 

metals, ceramics and/or polyme,rs. 

Students should be able to offer examples of composites, tell what is the 

matrix phase and what is the reinforcing phase, what are the special 

properties of both these phases and tell how they work together to yield 

the good properties of the composite. The students will demonstrate the 

application/engineering or processing of epoxy/fiberglass, epoxy/kevlar, 

honeycomb core/fiberglass, fop core/paper skin, and a balsa 
thermoplastic skin composite airfoil to gain understanding of the 

properties. The students will measure the strength versus stiffness and in 

their journal, write observations explaining the concepts of tension and 

compression in relation to the foam core/paper skin beam, and the airfoil9. Writing, observation skills, and creativity are 

developed in a student technical journal. 

The student will write and sketch in their laboratory journal specific to 

fostering creativity and the processing of materials applied in their 

experiments and projects. Technical writing will consist of student 

writ ten summaries from pro fessioal journal articles, periodicals, notes, 

sketches, calculations, tools, apparatus, modifications, process, 

observations, frustrations, successes, and ultimately the "Why. " 

This portfolio r4ill demonstrate student participation, management of 

time, connections to our text, and in general student success. 

Students will also successfully complete a research paper or written 

report focusing on a material, process, or application using technology in 

our school library. 

Students will research , write an outline, and prepare visual aids for an 

oral presentation using the text: Engineering Materials Technology as a 

reference. 

10. Students will receive exposure to the world of work, 

post secondary educational opportunities, and in general 

learning that will lead to a technologically literate 

intelligent citizen. 

Guest speakers from the materials sciences arena and the private sector 

will speak with students about materials concepts, careers, and the 

future. Field trips to Boeing Commercial Aircraft and Siemens Power 

Corporation will provide students the opportunity to experince first hand 

processing, assembly, careers, safety, and a whole host of inspiring real 

world connections, 

1 1. The students will process materials by successfully 

performing numerous experiments and projects that 

pertain to the nature, properties and technological 

application of polymers, composites, alloys, glass, and 

ceramics. 

The technical journal, instructor observation, and dialogue be tween 
students and the instructor will help ensure students' success and 

participation. 

12. Students will be immersed into their world of materials 

understanding that materials dictate our quality of life and 

that a society that dominates materials dominates 

technology. 

The student will demonstrate through reading, writing, general 

discussion, and performing numerous experiments and projects students 

an understanding and appreciation for materials. 

13. Students shall understand there are a variety of 

techniques for characterizing materials properties and 

structures. 

Students will read information generally explaining electron microscopy 

(SEM), metallography, and prepare a metallography sample for microscope 

observation. Students will test materials and write data/observations 

using laboratory devices that' wilj apply deflection, tension, compression, 

and hardness forces. Through field trips students will see industrial 

/research applications. 

14. Students will understand that materials can change 

their structure with time and exposure to the 

environment (weatherability) affecting the materials 

performance. 

Students will read about weatherability and through discussion and 

observing their world become aware of materials or structures that have 

degraded or failed because of the environment. Examples are corrosion on 

the Aloha Air 737 airframe, ruptures in highways, bridge coatings, tires 

cracking, and concrete cracking. 
MST Benchmarks and Exit Standards Contributors 

Dr. Tom Stoebe 

Chainnan 

Materials Science Engineering 

University of Washington 

PatrIcia MacGowan 

EliiecSar 

MESA 

Idnivesity of Washington 

Dr. Jim Jacobs 

Author/U.S. Materials Education Council 

Norfolk State University 

Dr. Rusturn Roy 

Materiak Laboratoy/U.S. Materials Education Council 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Dr. Stephen D. Antolovich 

Director and Professor 

School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering 

Washington State University 

Dr. Larry Chick 

Materials Science 

Battelle National Laboratory 

Project 2061 

Science For All Americans 

American Association for the Advancement of Science 

1 989 

BENCH MARKS for Science Literacy 

American Association for the Advancement of Science 

1993 

National Educators' Workshop 

Oakridge National Laboratory 

1995 

Engineering Materials Technology 

Jacobs, Kilduff 

Prentice Hall, 1 985 & 1 995 
DESIGNING WITH BRITTLE MATRIX COMPOSITES 

Kenneth L. Reifsnider 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 

Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics 

College of Engineering 

120 Patton Hall 

Blacksburg, Virginia 2406 1-02 19 

Telephone 703-23 1-53 16 

Designing with 

Brittle Matrix Composites 

Ken Reifsnider 

.Materials Response Group, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 

, I I Comparative Utility 

I I Material cost 

1 Manufacturing cost Mot8l 

- 

cwank 

- 

Corrosion resistance -A - 

Durability 

PdYmcH Knowledge base mi 

Cmmi - 

Po(vmM Designldata base mt81 

Cmmk 
I I I Comparative Utility 

I Specific strength u.ta 

c.rmic - 

I 

I 

polynm Thermal expansion U.1.l *_* 

Porymsr Specific stiffness M~DI 

Polynm Use temperature u.181 

Clcunic 

c.nmic 

wr Thermal conductivity ulProduct cost 

i, Ceramic Matrix .Composites j / j 

." L..;..; -..---* :" "." ..-.-.--........-.- " --.-- ............... " ...-... :" - jjj 

Iff 

-> Gas turbines - liners, vanes, shrouds, blades 

-> Radiant burners - tubes, combustors 

-> Heat exchangers - tubes, headers, manifolds 

-> Electronic components - boards, elements, 

sensors, fiber optic devices 

-> Engines - power transfer, exhaustlair 

transfer systems 

-> Hot-gas filters - engines, power plants 
Ceramic Matrix Composites 

Manufacturing industry applications - 

-> Steel soaking pits 

-> Aluminum remelt furnaces 

-> Glass melting furnaces 

-> Recycling facilities 

Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Engines - 10-35 percent fuel savings 

I 

-> Heat exchangers - recovery of large part of 

the 25 to 65 percent heat loss generated 

by high temperature combustion systems 

Projected advantages - 
Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Properties and end uses of advanced ceramics 

Aknnnr 31 0 17 4 tZOO 310 WpW~wtihgtcdS 

SiliCMradnfb 690 224 4 2Om 450 Wwpatls.cuMingtcdS, 

hatSilicon rnbids 925 15.9 55 14MI 315 Wsrr~autwnohre 

anpna- Zircm 1440 128 85 800 m~ cunaqtoars.warrprm. 

--angtm 

Tool sMal !No0 10 98 m0 210 Cultingtoolt. wur wtts 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

Tabh3. Various wnsnt and potential applications of A!K 

ad application requimment, 

I 

Machiitod lhltingtods Wear and corrosion resistance. 

Bearinos minimum lubrication requirements Wire drawing dim 

-> Advanced structural composites; applications 

and markets 

Petroehsmical Seals Enem-efficient heat regeneration 

Yahres 

2Zrn I 

Automotive TurLuxharger rotors Light-weigM, high-temperature. 

Push md tips corrosion and wear resistance 

Rocker arms 

Cylinder liners 

Defense Gun limn Light-wetght, strength, corrosion. 

Ceramic armor and high-temperature resistance 

Table 2. hUmated size of cumnt and 

pmjeded U.S. markets lot ASC 

(in miiilons of dollars) (61 

ltrn 

Wear parts 

Cutting tool inserts 

Bearings 

Bioceramics 

Heat exchangers 

Automotive/heat engine 

Aerospace, defense 

CHEMECH NOVEMBER 1993 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-V Projected development of ceramic components 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

Task 1 Applicatioris Assessrirertt 

Solar Tztrbities - Betiefits 

I 

Energy Savings - Fleet of Metalllc and Ceramic Englnra to Meet Predkled Needs 

Year I Cumubtive I EnQinos Reauired to Satisfy Need I 

-v Application examples - benefits 

Environmental Savlngs - Comparatlve NOx Emlrsiqhs In TonslYear for Metallic vs. Cersmlc Englne 

Melallic Mars TI4000 I Ceramic Mars 

Need s Need I 

2005 

2010 

201 5 

Slrategic Elements SavlngslEnglne: Cr, Co. W, Mo, Cb. NI 

Com~onenl Total Unflnlshed Welahl (lbs.1 

- Combuslor 447 

Turblne 1408 

Turblne Ollluser Houslng 839 

Total 2694 

GW md 

8 

24 

40 

Metallic 

814 

2443 

4071 

Ce571 

1714 

2856 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

' 1 1 -> Application example - valve guides 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

I IBItOSPEC'I'I VL CPCC COMBON LN'I' AIB1'LICiYI'IONS 

' 1 

,IIDPLIC,ITIUN AREA: I'WIMAIW ANU SECUNllAlIY AlE'I'ALS PROCESSIN(: 

lDHUSPECTll'E CFCC COflII~UNENIS: IIAUIAN'I' OM IICIMEUSION IIMI'ER 'I'UIIES 

-z Application example - immersion heater tubes 

[TEXTRON 1 

Specialty Materials 

OXIIlIZING, h1Ol;l EN hIKI'A1, OII INEIII' . Z30IC260Il01' (12110-1 4woc3 OI~EIOYI'INC; wni1*s 

1'UINCIMI.LY 'I'IIEIInlO~lECllANICnl. (AND Ibll'ACl) 1.OAVINC; (I'EIIIIAI'S 

15-20 ksl (IUO-130 nlra) SI'WESS LEVELS) 

. ONE '10 FOUI YEAII LlwIlnlE 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

' 1 ;r Application example - soaking furnaces 

+111+1 

I .JPPLlGlTION AREA: PFXROCIIEMLCAL PROCESSING MVUSI'KV 

SURFACE COMBUSTION'S 

JJ BIQ FURNACE 

I 

I'RO.YI'ECT1VE CPCC COMIpONENT: CKI'ALY'I'IC 1IEI;OIIMEH OK I'YIIOLYSIS .I'UUI<S 

I rrmpatm 1 

-> Application example - chemical processing 

IBItOSPECTIVE CFCC COMPONEN'I' AI'IBLICA'I'IONS 

OXIIJIZIN(;; HOUEIIA'I'E-IIIGII I'AlTl'lAL I'IIESSIIRIIS 01' SI'EAhl 

r~nu-zaoooc) orElcarINC I'EMII 

I'IIINCIMLLV 'I'IIEItMOhlECIIANIC,\L(ANU IMPACI') LOADING; (I'EIIIIAI'S 15-2U 

kri (IUU-130 h1P1) BI'IIESS LEVELS) 

LlFFrlhlE UP 'KO 'I'EN OK MOllE YEAIIS 

mRo~ 

Specialty Materials 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

I -> Application example - radiant burner tubes 

I eeew.1 

eemeqe on& 

ae 

em RADIANT BURNER TUBES :? (BURFACE C- J J COIII~ I 

BENEFITS - ASSU~ FULL MARKET POTENTIAL 

ANNUAL ENERGY SAVINGS 

MTCH lMEQAAL WENCH MWICES 

JOOO fwlNACEs 

mKouRsNUR 

CURRENT TEYrUUNRL 

INCREASED RECUPERATION -W 280 Wf-Hrs (500 llllLS OF OK) 

ELECTRIC PIT FURNACES 

WOWRNACES 

OWU mXWlYrEAR 

I CURRENT EUPERANACS 

C0NVERSK)N FROM ELECTRIC TO GAS FIRED D TOO MW - IhS 

(1.m eew OF OIL) 

Ceramic Matrix Composites 

Technical Constraints - 

I -> Production methods and costs 

-> Reliability, reproducibility, inspection methods 

-> Availability of design data (static, long term) 

-> Thermal stability 

-> Supporting technologies - 

Characterization methodologies 

* Durability, damage tolerance, life prediction 

Design methodologies 
- i i Ceramic Matrix Composites . . i ....... i " " " " " " ..... " " :: 

jj 

:.. 

:j: 

. . : . j i : Preliminary Design Properties - 

-> Stiffness and strength (all anisotropic values) 

-> Coefficients of thermal expansion 

-> Thermal conductivity 

-> Thermal diffusivity 

-> Creep, creep-rupture, fatigue behavior 

-> Environmental degradation 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

' 1 / -> ~ach composite system offers a range 

I of properties and performance 

Modulus of Elasticity 
Ceramic Matrix Composites 

' I I -> Reinforcement is the key to properties 

I and performance 

Ceramic Matrix Composites 

- Local fiber architecture influences performance 

weave pattern 

- 

crimping near a crossover 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites ' 1 1 -> Infernal constraints cause thermal stresses 

(El 1 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

Durability - 

-> Damage tolerance (fatigue) 

-> Resistance to creep, creep rupture 

-> Resistance to aging 

- chemical 

- physical 
Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Matrix cracking is a dominant damage mode 

Fibers control the effect of 

matrix cracking 

, I I Ceramic A4atrix Composites 

' 1 -> Local damage modes control damage tolerance 
Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Fibers can break many times before "rupture" 

Ceramic Matrix Composites 

to those for short-term behavior 

I 

* Internal stress redistribution 

results from damage modes 

-> Damage tolerance (fatigue) 

* Composite systems fail from the 

* Failure modes are similar 

(statistical) accumulation of defects 
Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Damage develops by accumulation 

I I 

RESIDUAL STRENGTH I 

I I 

I I I 

I I I 

I I I 

I I I I I I I II 0.0 

I 2 3 4 5 6 

log N 

Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Resistance to (physical, chemical) aging 

Modulus 

Temperature 
Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Resistance to (physical, chemical) aging 

* Chemical reaction rates or 

I dzjcfusion may control rate 

I or chemical aging 

Temperature 

I I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

1 

1 

Stress 

- Resistance to creep, creep rupture 

Creep 

Rate 

Slope = ? 
Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Resistance to creep, creep rupture 

* Combined effects may be "anomalous" 

* Mechanisms control the 

slope of the rate curve 

* Temperature greatly affects 

the controlling mechanism 

Ceramic Matrix Composites 

-> Damage tolerance Cfatigue) 

Cycles 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

' / I Durability - The Problem: 

I I How can we combine our data and understandings of material system 

behavior under long-term conditions to estimate remaining strength 

and life, or to make a better material system? 

Initial 

strength 

Degradation Processes 

Cycle 

dependent 

Chemical 

N Thermodynamic life 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

I - identify a local material element whose failure defines 

global failure for a given failure mode. 

I 

laminate 

Our Approach: 

subcritical 

"Critical Element Concept" 

/ critical elernent(s) 

failure modes 

element A A 

"damage" representative volume 

MRLife l'M 

265 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

' 1 Degradation Processes Modeled: 

Stiffness Strength 

Phenomena Change Change 

Stress relaxation X 

Oxidation X 

Viscoelastic creep X 

Creep rupture X 

Moisture effect X X 

Aging X X 

Environmental degradation X 

Temperature effect X X 

MRLife " 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

Remaining Strength 

I 

/ I I Failure Criterion I 

I 1 

State of State of 

Stress Material 

I 

Micro-, Meso-, Properties, 

Macro-mechanics Evolution 

MRLife Approach: 

I I 

life *1 

I I Loading History, geometry, Properties I 

MRLife TM 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

Residual / / 

strength Failure criterion Current life 

1. K/Kc I. Constituent SN 

 or a given 2. Tsai-Hill 2. Kinetic process life 

failure male 3. A€ / =(critical) 

I I 

( 4. (others ...) 

MRLife TM 

Residual Strength Calculation: 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

>> Chemical - activation rates 

>> Cracking - density vs. applied conditions 

>> Creep - compliance vs. time (tensor components?) 

>> Delamination - rate as a function of energy release 

I 

>> Geometry or property degradation rates 

Rate Equations Needed: 
, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

'I I Implementation: Integration into Design Codes - 

___------ 

MRLife " 

_ . -' Remaining Strength 

----_____---- 

Cycles 1 Time 

, I I Ceramic Matrix Composites 

MRLife 

A Performance Simulation Code 

for Material Systems 

An Opportunity: 

The MRLife code, and the critical element philosophy behind it, present 

a unique opportunity to design for durability, damage tolerance, 

reliability, and safety in a rigorous, economical, convenient, and 

competitive manner. 
I Summary: 

I 

Many brittle matrix composites have unique 

durability and damage tolerance capabilities 

Designing with 

Brittle Matrix Composites 

= We can design safe, reliable structures with 

brittle matrix composites 

More experimental data are needed 

= Simulation of properties and performance can 

save time and money in material and product 

development 

Ceramic Matrix Composites 

Other issues - 

-> Joining, load application methods 

-> Process control methods, methodologies 

-> Processing 1 property relationships 

-> Basic understanding of behavior 
I I I Designing with 

I Other Issues: 

Joining, load application methods 

- Process control methods, methodologies 

Processing 1 propeay I performance relationships 

I I 

Basic understanding of long-term behavior 

Brittle trix Composites 
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO 

LASER CRYSTAL DEVELOPMENT 

Heidi R. Ries 

Materials Research Laboratory 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504 

Telephone 804-683-8020 

An Integrated Approach to Laser Crystal Development 

Heidi R Ries 

Associate Director 

Materials Research Laboratory 

Norfolk State University 

Norfolk, VA 

Abstract 

Norfolk State University has developed an integrated research program in the area of laser crystal 

development, including crystal modeling, crystal growth, spectroscopy, and laser modeling. This 

research program supports a new graduate program in Chemical Physics, designed in part to address 

the shortage of minority scientists. 

Backmound 

Norfolk State University, founded in 1935, is a historically black college or university (HBCU) 

with an enrollment of nearly 9,000 students. As one of the largest HBCITs in the nation, Norfolk 

State has a special responsibility to address the educational needs of the minority population. One 

area of particular need is the sciences, where Mcan Americans are significantly underrepresented. 

The university has already had a positive impact on undergraduate minority science education via the 

Dozoretz National Institute for Minorities in the Applied Sciences (DNIMAS). Over ninety percent of 

DNIMAS students enter graduate or professional school upon graduation. 

However, the national percentage of degrees conferred to Mcan Americans in the physical 

sciences declined fiom 4.2% at the B.S. level to 0.7% at the Ph.D. level [I]. Since HBCU's are more 

successfi.d than majority institutions in graduating minority students at the baccalaureate level [2], this 

decline may be attributable to the fact that fewer than 15% of all HBCU's nationwide offer graduate 

degree programs in the sciences. Norfolk State University's commitment to implementing new, quality 

graduate science programs is in part a response to this imbalance. 

The Graduate Program 

The first graduate science program at Norfolk State, the Master of Science in Chemical 

Physics with research emphasis in materials science, was initiated in the Fall of 1994. The purpose of 

this program is to provide students with the knowledge, analytical skills, and research experience 

necessary to contribute significantly to federal and commercial research efforts on the forefront of 

chemical physics and materials science. Therefore, the curriculum includes an overview of materials 

science and current research areas, in-depth study of relevant physical theories, and basic research. All 

coursework has been designed to emphasize applications to solid state physics, chemistry, and 

materials science where appropriate. In addition to required coursework, students mst complete a 

master's thesis on a topic approved by the Chemical Physics Graduate Committee. Students are also 

expected to present their findings at national conferences and to participate in related workshops and 

short courses. 
Research Propram 

All graduate programs in science must also address a national research interest. For Norfolk 

State to have a sigadicant impact, it was decided in 1991 to develop an integrated research program in 

laser crystal development. In contrast to inefficiently pursuing several unrelated efforts, the laser 

crystal research was designed to take maximum advantage of existing faculty expertise and obtainable 

resources. Study of polymeric materials, particularly those of interest to NASA, was identified as a 

secondary area of research to fhther utilize existing equipment. 

With funding fiom NASA, the Materials Research Laboratory (MRL) was established in 1992 

at Norfolk State University to pursue laser crystal growth and characterization. Recent funding fiom 

the Department of Energy for additional faculty and facilities has permitted expansion of the research 

program to include a fidl range of activities fiom laser crystal modeling to design of resonators for 

demonstration laser systems. 

The crystal field splitting model sohe developed by Clyde Morrison et al. at Harry 

Diamond Laboratories has been installed at Norfolk State, and plans are being made to update the 

program. This model will provide ab initio calculations of energy levels in the crystals to be studied. 

Version 6.04 (1995) of the EPR-NMR computer program fiom the Department of Chemistry at the 

University of Saskatchewan has also been installed and will be used to simulate EPR and NMR crystal 

spectra. 

A Czochralski crystal growth laboratory has recently been commissioned at Norfblk State by 

Dr. George Loutts. Lei Lin, one of the first graduate students admitted to the M.S. Chemical Physics 

program, is expected to complete his thesis in May, 1996. Entitled "Crystal Growth and 

Characterization of Neodymium Doped Yttrium Orthoaluminate", the overall objective of Mr. Lin's 

thesis work is to study and try to eliminate defects in Nd-doped YA103 single crystal grown fiom 

melt. 

The laser spectroscopy laboratory, operated under the supervision of Drs. George Miller, Carl 

Bonner, and Waldo Rodriguez, is equipped with several lasers including a state of the art 

femptosecond laser. This facility is capable of measuring many physical parameters of interest 

including radiative and nonradiative transition rates, Einstein emission and absorption coefficients, 

index of refraction as a kction of wavelength, nonlinear optical susceptibilities, birefringence, and 

spectral half-widths over a broad wavelength range, near UV to -1 100nm. The laser laboratory has 

the facilities necessary to conduct harmonic generation, optical pumping, and laser modeling 

experiments on nonlinear optical (NLO) crystals such as those grown in the Czochralski crystal 

growth laboratory. Two graduate and three undergraduate students are presently pursuing laser 

spectroscopy research. 

A Bruker EMX X-band electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometer with 1.3 T magnet is 

presently being installed. Dr. Heidi Ries is planning studies of the rare earth ion dopants and point 

defects in NLO crystals. Measurements of hyperfine coupling constants and g-fiictors will be made 

fiom 10 to 300 K. ESR may also be used to study radiation effects in polymers. 
Dr. Larry Mattix operates a 300 megahertz high resolution (narrow spectral line) nuclear 

magnetic resonance spectrometer for both liqtaids and solids. This instrument is capable of observing a 

large number of nuclei, including lH, 2H, 7~i, 13C, 15N, 29~i, 27Al, and 31~, with 1H (proton) 

decoupling, and measures chemical shifts, scalar couplings, relaxation times, and quadrupole coupling 

constants. NMR studies of the lineshapes and spin-lattice relaxation times, complementary to the ESR 

studies, may yield valuable information about electric field gradient in the lattice and the local structure 

of the NLO crystals. James Toy is studying "12%e NMR as a Probe for the Characterization of 

Microvoids in Polymers" and is also scheduled to complete the M.S. Chemical Physics in May, 1996. 

References 

1. RaceIEtbnicity Trends in Degrees Conferred by Institutions of Higher Education: 1980-81 

through 1989-90 National Center for Education Statistics, U. S. Department of Education Office 

of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 92-039, May 1992 

2. 40% of all degrees earned by &can Americans are fiom HBCWs, although only 18% of Afi.ican 

American college enrollment is at HBCU's. Black Colleges Still Carrying Their Load - And Then 

Some Charles S. Farrell, Black Issues in Higher Education May 7, 1992 p. 10. 
Page intentionally left blank 
DIAMOND RESEARCH OVERVIEW AND A 

MODEL FOR LAB EXPERIMENTS 

USING OXYACETYLENE TORCH 

Rustum Roy 

102 M.R.L. 

The Pennsylvania State University 

University Park, PA 16802 

DIAMOND SYNTHESIS 1995 

1. High pressure synthetic diamonds now a 

commercial product for 40 years. (Price of diamond 

grit dropped by a factor of 10 in last 2 years.) Total 

value less than $1 billion. 

2. CVD process invented by Soviets 30 years ago. 

Developed by Japanese 20 years ago. Brought to 

U.S. by speaker 10 years ago. 

3. New syntheses (Penn State leading) focus on liquid 

and solid phase approaches. 

4. Three CVD processes: (a) microwave plasma; (b) 

hot filament; (c) oxy-acetylene torch. 

5. Oxy-acetylene torch is an excellent materials 

synthesis lab experiment. Emphasizes SIMPLICITY of 

all effective science, not complexity and bigness. 

The Three Diamond Synthesis Processes. 

I r-e Pressure Pressure 

Sl kbars el atm <1 a*, 

H' CH + MFOr H ' 

solid solid Substrate scratch^" 

carbon carbon for ................... nucleation 

sourcg source 

metallic specific 

8GO --1200 % catalyst 400 '11 000 % solid nuclei 400 '-1 000 T 

HPHT SSS LPSSS CVD 

The traditional '.-@I temperature high pressure The new process, whic!~ also uses a pre-skaped solid The CVD process utiiirg &on am 

process used worldwide for diamond synthesis source consisting of carbn mixed with a very he brought into the chamber as a wpor, snd 

starts with solid cubon which is transiorned second solid phase of iscstruchuai semiconductor or deposik them on a substrate, often 

to diamond by use of a lie metal phase as a heterocypic metals. The fluid catalyst Wy will scratched or nudeated with a second 

catalyst invoive the IT vapor. phase. 
SOLID OR LIQUID PHASE APPROACH 

Why? Condensed phases are lOOOx more 

dense. Structure is different. 

What solids? Carbon. Shock waves-old; lasernew. 

What liquids? 1. Metallic-carbon solutions used in 

high pressure. Substitute HO for low 

pressure (LPSSS) 

2. Aqueous solutions, learn from 

nature. 

3. C02 (+H20)? (No advantage.) 

Status Penn State has succeeded with both 1 

and 2 at. low ressure 

NIRIM (Japan with 3 at. high 

pressure. 

P 

DIAMOND FILM DEPOSITION IS A TEXTBOOK CASE OF 

A GENERIC DUAL-USE, ENABLING TECHNOLOGY. 

ONE CAN DEPOSIT DIAMOND COATINGS ON 

VIRTUALLY ANY MATERIAL (FERROUS ALLOYS NOT 

EASILY) . 

TYPICAL HIGH RATES ARE ~O~/HR (MAXIMUM 

REPORTED ~o~/HR). 

LARGEST AREAS IN THE ORDER OF 20-30 IN2. 

280 
THICKEST FILMS MADE: 1-2 MM. 

LOWEST FOR CRYSTALLINE FILM 

=350mCe FASTEST AT =900mC. 

VERY DDFFERENT METHODS FOR GROWINC 

FILM. 

SING= HOMOEPITAXZAL CRYSTALS EASY. 

ISOTOPICALLY ENRICHED CRYSTALS GROWN, 

1. ACOUSTIC IN WNY SPEAKERS. 

2, DIAMOND COATED CUTTING TOOLS. 

3. ~JITSU HEAT SINKS. 
DIAMOND IS AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY 

X-RAY MASKS FOR La . LUBRICATION-FREE DXAIMOND BEARING/ JOURNAL 

SURFACES, 

~CR~WA~E AND MILLIMETER WAVE DIAMOND 

AMPLIFIERS. 

+ DIAMOND THERMAL SPREADERS FOR COMPUTER 

CHIPS PACKAGED 6 TIMES CLOSER. 

DIAMOND'S HIGH ACOUSTIC "$" FOR MORE ** CHANNELS PER UNlT SPECTRUM, 

DLAMOND CUTTING TOOLS FOR ALUMINUM IN THE 

.Sc AUTOMOBXlS AND RELATED INDUSTRIES. 

ALL FAR TOO OPTIMISTIC 

DIAMOND THIN FILMS MARKET 

(made by Business Groups NOT PSU) 

APPLICATION ITEM 1988 1990 1995 

LOUDSPEAKERS $ SM $30~ $50~ 

COATED mms & TOOLS IOM 40~ 150~ 

MEMORY DISX COATINGS .. 5M 70M 

OPTICAL COATINGS (PASSIVE) 2 M 40 M 70 M 

~ER COATINGS 

(W INCLUDED) - - 25 M 

282 
1988 PREDICTIONS MUCH TOO OPTIMISTIC 

DIAMOND THIN FILMS MARKET (cont) 

Chances COMMERCIAL SEMICONDUCTORS - 1-5M 400M 

look poorer 

check in ~o~~.MILITARY SEMICONDUCTORS - ? 10.300 M 

Here, but MILITARY OPTICS 

small. 

Here, but CUT"TING TOOLS . 

slow & small. 

DIAMOND SYNTHESIS FROM VAPOR 

A VAPOR COMPOSITIONS 

1% CQ + 99% H2 - ~est Typical 

+ 

C2J32, C2N4, (CHQIZCO, C~H~OH, %, etc. 

Halogenated carbon compounds (new) 

R SUBSTRATES 

Silicon Nickel; WC; titaniumDiamond Silicon carbide, etc. 

si%; A1203 
MAJOR PROCESS TARGETS 

RATE OF GROWTH 

I+ p/mBIALZ. METEODS 

300+ p/mt BY DC puma 

LARGE AREAS 

W-FILAME~YT, MICROWAVE PLASMA FOR TEXS 

OF ~1162 

#LAMEOR?? FORSQU-~~ETERS 

AaHESIOns 

SOL~E~~CA]UY IN EACH CASE. 

MICROWAVE PLASMA CVD 

FLOW CONTROL 

SYSTEM J 

='?- OPTICAL WINOOW 

SILICA TUBE 

APPLlCATOTa 

SILICON WAFER 

PRESSURE 4-10 Torr SUBSTRATE BELOW 700 

20-100 sccm 

TEMPERATURE FLOW 

CHqM2 0.5-2% GROWTH RATE 0.03-0.1 p{ 

POWER 400-600W THICKNESS UP TO 1 11m 

A. BADZIAN et al. APPL. PHYS. 
Schematic representation of apparatus for 

deposition of diamond by CVD. Left: with 

microwave generated piasma; right: with fibment. 

MICROWAVE PLASMA ASSISTED CHEMICAL 

VAPOR DEPOSmON 

THE MICROWAVE APPLICATOR USED FOR 

HOMOEPITAXIAL DIAMOND GROWTH 

TEMPERATURE 850-WO'C 

PRESSURE 80 TORR 

CONCENTRATON OF CH4 IN H2 1% 

f LOW 100 SCCM 

GROWTH RATE - IpM/H 

RAM43 SpECf RUM OF EPlTAXlAL fl~ 

ON Ia CRYSTAL 
HOMO-EPITAXY. 

Co~llbustion Synthesis of Diamond 

Various "zotles" in an oxyacetylme brazing torch (-I:I OK or krs) 

1. '~raasprrnt. cvlurkss. P~t~at zone.Remixed gas st high velocity is heabed to 

combustion. 

2. nrigltt hralxkswnt white. Primary mbuscidn. Remixed a~yh md oxygen bums 

to pmcluce prit~~nrily CO aid IIr AdiaW combusdon (emperawn (I: IC2H2 - 0,) 

3300 K. Much 11, expected to be a~omic. Dimand pwth obwned here. 

3. Blue, (nutrpmnt. Secotwlary combustian. Canburtkn d & CO and 11, pmduced 

in primary con~busthit~ the surratncling rlr. 
IMPACT OF MULTIMEDIA AND 

NETWORK SERVICES 

ON AN INTRODUCTORY LEVEL COURSE 

John C. Russ 

Materials Science and Engineering Department 

North Carolina State University 

Box 7907 

Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 

Telephone 919-5 15-3328 
Presented by 

Cheryl S. Alderman 

North Carolina State University 

Engineering Programs at UNCA 
Impact of Multimedia and Network Services on an Introductory Level Course 

John C. Russ 

Materials Science and Engineering Department 

North Carolina State Ifniversity, Raleigh, NC 27695 

Keywords: Multimedia, CD-ROM, computer animation, computer graphics, simulations, 

network connectivity, interactive hypermedia, self-paced learning. 

We will demonstrate and describe the impact of our use of multimedia and network 

connectivity on a sophomore-level introductory course in materials science. This class 

services all engineering students, resulting in large (>150) class sections with no hands-on 

laboratory. Concerned that traditional lecture and textbook approaches did not reach many 

students whose lexning style is primarily visual and interactive rather than auditory and 

passive, we began in 1990 to develop computer graphics that might substitute for some 

laboratory or real-world experiences, and demonstrate relationships hard to show with static 

textbook images or chalkboard drawings. 

With some NSF funding through Project Succeed and strong local support from the College of 

Engineering and our Department, we have used student labor to create a comprehensive series 

of modules that cover the entire course contents. Called VIMS isualizations in Materials 

Science), these are available in the form of a CD-ROM (Macintos P version available now, PC 

version early next year), and also via the Internet (http://vims.ncsu.edu). The CD-ROM 

version, which is in use at more than 20 universities worldwide, uses a Hypercard front end 

with succinct but complete highlights that correspond (and are keyed to) all of the introductory 

materials science textbooks, with hyperlinks and a searchable index. This provides the student 

with a valuable resource to select the important information from the enormous amount of 

material covered in an introdtlctory course. 

Extensive graphics in the form of nearly 700 Quicktime movie files are available at the click of 

the mouse to explain the concepts presented in the text. These include digitized movie clips 

from laboratory or demonstration experiments, cartoon graphics that clarify difficult concepts, 

computer simulations to illustrate physical principles, etc. Many of the movies show side-byside presentations of complementary views or related material. Of course, this rich amount of 

information is most valuable to students who can access it at their own self-paced rate, and test 

their knowledge with the built-in self-quizzes. The CD also includes about 300 worked 

problems including all of the assigned homework and many example problems from the text. 

These are not just answers, but heavily annotated step-by-step solutions using Theorist, an 

interactive math package that allows students to solve complex equations, substitute numeric 

values, and plot results. 

The VIMS webserver was introduced this fall (1995), and makes the text and graphical 

information available on our campus workstation network (as well as worldwide). Combined 

with a listserver that allows students to ask questions, express frustrations, and share insights 

with each other and with the faculty, this electronic connectivity provides a new level of 

support for students. The response has been overwhelmingly positive, and we have extensive 

statistics from control-group experiments and student questionnaires that indicate higher 

interest levels and better performance fiom students who use these new capabilities. 

This result justifies the enormous cost, g~imaiily in human effort and many hours of faculty 

and student time needed to develop these multimedia materials, and also points the way to 

extension of the technology to other venues. We are particularly interested in the applicability 

of some of the same materials, with the addition or substitution of appropriate descriptive 

language, for use in primary and secondary schools. VIMS has already been used as part of a 

third-grade science curriculum based on materials science that has been recently introduced in 

the Wake County (North Carolina) public schools. 
Impact of Multimedia 

and Network Services 

on an Introductory 

xkk Level Course 

Visualizations in 

Material Science 2 

CD-ROM 

Context 

Background 

. Hiory 

Demo 

Latest Developments # 

I 

Ordering Info 
MAT201 

Structure and Properties of 

Engineering Materials 

Sophomore level 

Introductory course in Mat'k 

m No lab 

Fhstcowse Link 

m 800 shidents per year 

r 1st exposure to Mat'k for a# Q 

m Attmct majors 

R , con~ g: 

, Teaching method 

; Textbook presentation 

:" ID Went leaffling styles 

r No lab 

m New approach 

Computer 

m Multimedia 8" u: 

Crystallo(pa~hy L 

Phase diagrams Ir 

g 

I 

~rnlrrn~~~ 
i rn Computer rendered unit cells 

digital movies - rotation 

Color choice 

Hue & brightness 

Saturation 

Inconsistent use 

The amazing shrinking atoms! 

Cutawayview f 

3i 

Phase diagrams I 

I ~'~~es, 

microstmture 3 

"It takes on average 1 hour to 

produce each second of final 

cfigibai movie." P i 

B 

P ( Believe it I No Experience) = 0 

f 
Clessroom-based multimedia 

I 

I:, LCD projection panel , - $- : Bright werhead projector 

CD-ROM ,- 

8 VlMS 

VMS2 interactive Ir 

Internet 

$: NSF - Project SUCCEED . tl .< 

a NC State College of Engr 

- Department 

m Department & Head f 

COE a 

University . It 

3 

Students 
Demonstration of VIMS2 

Title Page Overview of Structure & Icons 

Table of Contents Index card format 

Subiect Area Subsection Title Key word, icon 

Chapter 3 

Chapter 4 

Chapter 6 

Chapter 7 

Chapter 9 

Chapter 10 

Highlighted terms 

Problems icon 

Cubic unit cells BCC, FCC 

Directions & Linear Density 

Planes & Plane Density 

Ionic Crystals I 

Deformation 

Simulations I 

Tensile Test 

Tensile Testing Equipment 

Failure Examples 

Cold Rolling 

Cold Rolling & Microstructure 

Examples 

Solidification of SS Alloy 

Eutectic Alloys 

Hypo & Hyperhtectic 

FCC, BCC 

Picture: FCC 

Graph: QQ2 

Picture: planes 

NaCl 

shrinking 

Pilm clip 

corn cob 

corn borer 

stretches 

neck & fail 

Picture 

looked at several 

strained sequence 

Graph 

rolling mill 

elongated 

Graph 

Picture 

Graph 

Graph-graph 

HYPQ 
5. 

: eetterwitheachgeneration 

. . 

rn High level of student padkipah 

Usage 

rn Develqment 1 

L 

Software reqrrkements 1 

8 Mac - Qrricldime I 

Ir .PC-QuicktimeforWhdowr 

It @m@klaa 

rn hQxJ/vims.ncsu.edu 

m Fal semester, 1995 

E 8000 accesses in fkst week 

m Homework soMions # 

rnLisiSe~~w , a 

I 

r JLlrriols and Seniors revisiting 

the came material i 

Q 

I 

&#LLlralB 
li. More topics ' . 

- Better graphics 

m More red wordd exa- 

~Mechanismisinplaoe 

csPrifnarydsecondary I 

sdroals I 

a FmdamenWy alter ihe m 

aducatiorrofengineersIlnd B 

scienim PI 

fi 
VIRTUAL REALITY LAB ASSISTANT 

Hrishikesh Saha 

Alabama A&M University 

P. 0. Box 88 

Normal, Alabama 35762 

Telephone 205-85 1-5570 

and 

Timothy A. Palmer 

CG2, Inc. 

Huntsville, Alabama 
Krishikesh Saha 
Virtual Reality Lab Assistant 

Hrishikesh Saha 

Alabama A&M University 

Normal, Alabama 

Timothy A. Palmer 

CG~, Inc. 

Huntsville, Alabama 

Key Words: 

Virtual Reality, Toolkit, Hardware, Software, Lab Experiment, Simulation 

Prerequisite Knowledge: 

Knowledge of computer hardware, software, graphics, 3-dimensional lab environment 

Objective: 

Virtual Reality Lab Assistant (VRLA) demonstration model is aligned for engineering and material science 

experiments to be performed by undergraduate and graduate students in the course as a pre-lab simulation 

experience. This will help students to get a preview of how to use lab equipmeat to run experiments 

without using the lab hardwarelsoftware equipment. 

Equipment: 

1. Silicon Graphics Indigo2lExtreme computer 

2. VRLA Software toolkit specific to the desired pre-lab 

3. Compatible VR Head Mounted Display (HMD)* 

4. Ascension "flock-of-birds" 6-DOF Tracker System* 

*note: These items are only required for an "immersive" experience. 

Introduction: 

The science of virtual reality (VR) is beginning to find many uses in Government and industry. As a tool, 

VR is being used to study complex processes, explore hazardous environments remotely, visualize abstract 

ideas, and to entertain. While there has been a wealth of applications emerging in these areas, however, 

relatively few applications of VR to secondary education have been introduced. Never before has such a 

captivating teaching tool as VR been available for personal training and instruction. By tapping into this 

learning resource, students will be able to receive detailed visually oriented learning at a pace that best 

benefits the student. This paper explores the area of virtual reality as it can be applied to education and, 

specifically, to the college level electrical engineering laboratory. Access to a "virtual mentor" in the 

laboratory would result in a higher success rate, quick& results, less equipment damage, and a more 

thorough understanding of the underlying theory. 

Procedure: 

Given the rapidly expanding body of knowledge associated with nearly every experimental science and 

engineering discipline it is becoming increasingly difficult to present the student with meaninghl 

laboratory exercises that represent a wide cross-section of the discipline. This is largely due to the fact that 

laboratory procedures are difficult to design and perfect, requiring a substantial investment in time on the 
part of the instructor. As a result, laboratory experiments, once perfected, tend to remain in the course 

longer than they should and eventually become less meaningful to the student. Furthermore, performing the 

laboratory experiment can be costly, time consuming, and sometimes hazardous to the student and the 

facilities. From the student's perspective, experiments are often tedious and offer only a modest learning 

experience. This is usually because the student is unfamiliar with the laboratory environment, experiment 

procedures, or the equipment and apparatus needed to perform experiment. Clearly, if the student was able 

to experience the experiment prior to actually entering the laboratory facility the chances for successfully 

achieving the objectives of the experiment are greatly enhanced. 

The concept of training the experimenter prior to performing the experiment is not a new one. It has been 

applied with very successfully, for example, in the military and commercial aviation arenas. It is unheard 

of in today's high-tech world for a pilot to be qualified for flying a jet without first spending many hours in 

a computer controlled virtual flight simulator. The reasons are many but include the cost of operating an 

actual aircraft for training, the potential collateral damage or loss of life resulting from a crash, and the 

limited resources, both human and other, that are available for training the pilot. Until today, the use of this 

type of "virtual environment" (VE) for training has been unavailable or uneconomical for all but the 

, military and other niche markets. With the general power and availability of personal and workstation 

computers today, along with the tremendously vast and ever increasing knowledge base of virtual reality 

resekch, VEs are becoming a viable option for training at nearly every level. 

"Virtual reality" is a very broad and often misunderstood concept. For the purposes of this paper, we use 

virtual reality to mean a computer generated audio-visual environment with which the student can interact 

using standard or specialized computer input devices to predictably affect the environment. Likewise, a 

"virtual environment" is the synthetic, or computer generated, "world" with which the participant interacts. 

Recent advances in computer hardware and software are making it possible to create VEs and allow VR 

interaction with them using off-the-shelf computer platforms and the addition of relatively inexpensive and 

cost effective peripherals designed for VR use. The resulting potential of VR for teaching is staggering. 

For the first time, meaningful interactive learning is possible using virtual reality in the laboratory. 

Benefits of Virtual Reality in the Laboratory 

Invariably, a certain percentage of the students in a given laboratory will not achieve success in the 

experiment. In many cases this failure could be mitigated through the use of a VR pre-laboratory because 

the student would be better trained prior to actually performing the experimental procedures. Before the 

actual experiment is performed, the student has already perfohed the virtual experiment and understands 

the required procedures and expected outcomes. Familiarity with the experiment will allow the student to 

recognize failure early in the experiment and correct the mistake before the experiment is unsalvageable. 

Laboratory time is a valuable commodity both to the student and to the instructor. The time spent 

performing meaningful experiments in the laboratory is directly related to the student's practicable 

knowledge of the underlying theory of the experiment. For the laboratory instructor, much of the time is 

spent resolving issues relating to equipment operation and experimental procedures. The use of VR in the 

laboratory can maximize the student's time in the laboratory by better preparing the student for the 

experiment. Training in the basic operation of equipment and procedures as well as a reinforcing of the 

goals of the experiment are just a few of the ways that VR will help prepare the student and maximize time 

spent in the laboratory. The instructor will also benefit from the student's preparation since the student will 

require less assistance in performing the experiment. 
A successful laboratory experiment requires access to reliable equipment and apparatus. Unfortunately it is 

often the case that needed equipment is not working in the laboratory. While a percentage of this 

equipment failure can be attributed to equipment life cycle, a larger percentage is usually due to misuse by 

students. Traditionally, students are much more knowledgeable about the experiment and its procedures 

than about the laboratory equipment needed to perform the procedures. This is understandable but results 

in a higher than necessary frequency of broken or miscalibrated apparatus. Clearly, better training in the 

use of the equipment would result in a lower incidence of equipment failure. This is another area where 

virtual reality offers assistance. Training the student in the basic operation, hazards, and maintenance of 

laboratory equipment using virtual reality techniques would result in a higher quality laboratory 

environment, foster quicker assimilation of experiment results because the student is free to concentrate on 

the experiment itself -- not the apparatus and equipment, reduce the time needed to complete the 

experiment, and increase the chances of a successful experiment outcome. 

The laboratory experiment is designed to reinforce theory learned in the classroom and to give practical 

meaning to seemingly abstract theory. While there is no real substitute for true "hands on" training, virtual 

reality can help the student bridge the gap between the theory and practice. The unique nature of virtual 

reality allows the student to at once visualize theory and see its application. Interaction within the properly 

designed virtual environment leads the student to extend understanding by reinforcing theory with 

(simulated) application and, visa-versa, pointing out theoretical bases for observed (simulated) results. The 

synergy between the virtual reality simulation and the student creates a rich learning environment that is 

unavailable in the classroom or laborafory alone. 

To summarize its benefits, a virtual reality laboratory "mentor" would result in a higher success rate, 

quicker results, less equipment damage, and a more thorough understanding of the theory underlying the 

experiment. 

Prototype Experiment Description 

The experiment is similar to one found in many electrical engineering curriculums in which a student builds 

a passive electrical circuit, stimulates it using a signal generator, and observes it using an oscilloscope. 

Prior to performing this experiment, however, the student will participate in a virtual reality pre-lab. In the 

pre-lab, the student will interact with the virtual environment to construct a breadboard circuit. 

Components and wires are taken from a "palette" of parts and placed onto an experimenter's breadboard 

one by one. As the circuit is constructed, environment is visualizing the breadboard, components, parts 

palette, and the circuit schematic. When components are correctly placed on the breadboard, the schematic 

visually changes to cue the student that the component selection and placement were correct. Similarly, the 

student is informed when a component is incorrectly chosen or placed. The student is given a chance to try 

again after the environment removes the incorrect component. 

Once the circuit is complete, the student may connect.the signal generator to the circuit input terminals. 

Again, successes and failures are acknowledged interactively. Finally, the student can utilize the 

oscilloscope to attach one or two probes to the circuit. 

The signal generator can be adjusted by the student to present various amplitude and frequency signals to 

the circuit. Similarly, the oscilloscope can be attached at any terminal and adjusted by the student to any 

amplitude and time scaling. Two oscilloscope traces are available and can be used independently or 

together in x-y mode. 
An illustration of the layout of the experiment components is given in figure 1. Notice that a rendering of 

the correctly constructed circuit breadboard is given in the upper right, followed by the schematic, the 

component pallet, and the blank breadboard showing signal generator terminals already connected. The 

oscilloscope with probes is in the upper left followed by the signal generator below. 

Figure 1. Virtual Experiment Lavout 

Notes to the Instructor: 

The components of the example virtual laboratory are shown in figure 2. A Silicon Graphics Indigo2 

computer is used to accept user input via a mouse and keyboard and display the results graphically. The 

student can view the results on the monitor or use a virtual reality helmet mounted display (HMD) for a 

fully irnrnersive experience. The Indigo2 computer has excellent graphics for this type of experience and 

provides auxiliary inputs for virtual reality devices such as gloves and handlhead position trackers. 
The software used for this example experiment was a combination of off-the-shelf and custom designed. 

An off-the-shelf computer graphics modeller, Wmefiont, was used to generate the models used in the 

graphics part of the experiment. Custom software for interfacing with the virtual reality peripherals, 

scripting the experiment, and performing the circuit and equipment simulations was used. 

Step by Step Instructions 

1. Insure that the Indigo2 computer is properly connected to power and any peripherals in use, such as the 

HMD, glove, and tracker. The HMD connects to the NTSC video output of the Indigo2 computer. The 

glove and tracker connect to the "ttyl" and "tty2" ports of the Indigo2, respectively. The experiment 

can be configured to run without any peripherals. In this case all student interaction will be visualized 

on the main Indigo2 monitor and input using the system mouse. 

2. Apply power to the Indigo2 and wait for the system to show the "login" screen. 

3. Login to the system using as "vrla" (there is no password required). The VRLA prototype pre-lab will 

appear as shown in figure 1. 

4. The pre-lab experiment can now be performed following the procedures outlined in the procedures 

section and given below with greater detail. These procedures assume that the main input device is the 

system mouse and the output device is the Indigo2 video monitor. 

Wires are added to the blank breadboard by clickirig on one end of the wire shown in the parts palette 

and "dragging" the end (while holding the mouse button down) to the desired breadboard hole. The 

wire will "snap" into the hole when the mouse button is released. The other end of the wire is attached 

in the same manner. A wire end can be moved by clicking in the hole where the wire is connected and 

dragging the end to a new location. A wire can be removed completely by dragging both ends outside 

of the breadboard area. Components are added to the breadboard in a manner similar to wires. 

Component terminals are "dragged" into holes on the breadboard. Moving and removing components 
is also the same as outlined for wires, above. As the circuit is constructed, the schematic visual will 

change to indicate propa part placement. 

Once the circuit is complete, the VRLA will automatically apply power to the osci~loscope and signal 

generator. The oscilloscope probes can be attached to the oscilloscope and to points on the breadboard 

using the same techniques as for wires and components. The oscilloscope can be adjusted for desired 

time base and amplitude scaling using the knobs on the face of the virtual oscilloscope. This is done by 

clicking on the desired knob and "dragging" the knob in the desired directi~n. Similarly, the 

oscilloscope modes can be changed by clicking on the buttons on the face of the oscilloscope. 

Controlling the signal generator is performed in the same manner. 

5. VRLA can be stopped at any time by pressing the "Quit" button on the VRLA screen. 

6. The Indigo2 computer can be powered down by clicking on the "Shutdown" icon from the main login 

screen. 

Concluding Remarks: 

This paper describes the usefulness of virtual reality and shows an example application of virtual reality as 

a teaching tool in the laboratory. Although the example was for an engineering discipline, similar 

methodology can be applied to other disciplines such as medicine, agriculture, the sciences, and any other 

that requires hands-on interactive training. 

As the power of computers and virtual reality peripherals improves, and as the working concept of virtual 

reality evolves, so must its application to teaching. Nothing can replace the teacher in the classroom nor 

actual "hands-on" experience. However, the quality of the time available for experimenting in the 

laboratory can be significantly improved through the use of virtual reality technology. 

References: 

1. Howard Rheingold, Virtual Reality, Summit Books, New York. 

2. Sense8 Corp., World Toolkit, 1001 Bridgeway, Suite 477, Sausalito, Ca 94964. 

3. Virtual Reality Sourcebook, Sophistech Research, 6936 Seaborn St., Lakewood, Ca 90713. 

4. Dimension International, Desktop VR: Virtual Reality Toolkit, Autowalk, Zephyr One, Calleva Park, 

Aldermaston RG7 4QW, Berkshire, England. 

5. Ed. R. A. Earnshaw, M.A. Gigante, H. Jones, Virtual Reality Systems, Academic Press, Harcourt Brace 

& Company, Publishers. 
SOME EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS IN TEFE 

ROLLING OF NI~AI ALLOY 

Hui-Ru Shih 

Department of Technology 

jackson State University 

Jackson, Mississippi 392 17 

and 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 
Page intentionally left blank 
SOME EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS IN THE ROLLING OF Ni3AI ALLOY 

Hui-Ru Shih 

Jackson State University 

Jackson, Mississippi 

Vinod K. Sikka 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Rolling, Tensile Test, Microhardness, Grain Structure 

OBJECTNE: To investigate the rolling propertie of a Ni3A1 alloy and to determine the 

factors affecting its rollability. 

EQUIPMENT: 

Rolling Machine 

Tensile Test Machine 

Vickers Microhardness Tester 

1NTROI)UCTION: 

Alloys based on the nickel aluminide, intermetallic compound Ni3Al [1,2], possess many 

desirable properties including: (1) lower density; (2) superior fatigue, wear, oxidation, and 

cavitation erosion resistance; as well as (3) excellent creep and high-temperature strength. Early 

studies indicated that Ni3Al alloy for structural applications has been limited because of their low 

ductility and brittle fracture. While Ni3AI has been ductilized recently by small additions of 

boron, the nickel aluminides remain difficult to fabricate by conventional methods. Considerable 

development work is required for the processing of these alloys by conventional methods. 

These include development of an uhderstanding of the effect of alloying and microstructure on 

room temperature properties, as well as their processing and fabrication. 

The rolling process is to reduce the cross section of the incoming material, improve its 

properties, and obtain the desired section at the exit from the rolls. The process can be carried out 

hot, warm, or cold. In this study, the cold rolling properties of a Ni3Al alloy (IC50) is 

investigated. Various experimental methods have been employed The cold rollability of Ni3A1 

has been found to be very sensitive to the starting thickness. 
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS 

The Ni34 alloys used in this study were produced at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 

Armco Research and Technology, and Allegheny Ludlum Corporation. At Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, the materials were prepared by nonconsumable-arc melting process. This operation 

yielded 0.5"- and 3116"-thick ingots. The 0.04"-thick sheet was produced by direct casting 

process at Allegheny Ludlum Corporation. The 2.7"-diameter ingot was produced by vacuuminduction melting (VIM) process at Armco. The nominal composition of Ni3Al alloy (IC50) 

under investigation is listed in Table 1. 

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND RESULTS 

1. Cold Rolling Test (Specimen without Heat Treatment) 

The first rolling test was conducted on three ascast specimens with different thickness 

(0.5", 3/16", and 0.04"). In all the rolling processes, the roll diameter was 4 inches, roll speed 

was set at 15 ft/min, and the reduction per pass was 3 %. Each specimen was cold rolled until the 

first crack appears. 

Figure 1 shows the percentage of reduction in thickness for initiation of cracking. It has 

been observed that the thicker specimen develops cracking at lower % deformation as opposed to 

thinner specimen. This result indicates that cold rollability of Ni3Al-based alloys is very sensitive 

to the cast thickness. On the other hand, the direct cast 0.04"-thick sheet possesses excellent 

rollability. It can be cold rolled extensively without developing cracking. 

2. Cold Rolling Test (Specimen With Heat Treatment) 

Possible factors contributing for the observed cracking tendency of Ni3Al alloy are the 

chemical inhomogeneous of the as-cast microstructure and the relatively large grain size. In order 

to improve the homogeneity of the cast microstructure, one 0.5"-thick section was annealed in air 

and the other in vacuum at 1 100°C for one hour. A comparison of the rolling behavior for the 

different processing conditions is made in Table 2. It should be noted that the crack initiation was 

significantly improved for specimen annealed both in air and vacuum Tt is also observed from 

Table 2 that air annealing is slightly degraded compared with vacuum annealing. This may 

indicate that some of the boron at boundaries near surface grains may be oxidized and ductility for 

the specimen annealed in air is reduced 

3. Tensile Test 

In order to understand the mechanical properties, tensile tests were conducted on samples 

machined from 0.5"- and 3116"-thick ingots and punched out of 0.04"-thick sheet. The result of 

tensile tests, a comparison of stress-strain curves, is made in Figure 2. These curves reveal that 

the thicker Ni3Al alloys have higher work-hardening rate. Generally speaking, nickel aluminides 

have very high work-hardening rates, which means the materials can possess very high hardness 
with small amount of cold work 

4. Microhardness Test 

The microhardness test was conducted to determine the effect of initial thickness and cold 

rolling on transverse (the thickness direction) hardness distribution. Results of the test for Ni3A1 

alloy with different initial thicknesses in as-cast, and in as-cast plus 20% cold rolled condition are 

compared in Figures 3(a) and (b), respectively. Transverse hardness data were plotted as a 

function of distance from the surface. 

It is observed from Figure 3 that the Vickers hardness reading is extremely high along the 

rolling surface of specimen with 0.5" initial thickness. It appears that the observed hardness 

values correlate well with the tensile test results. The 0.5"-thick specimen has higher workhardening rate and tends to work harden rapidly. During the rolling, this will make the material 

more and more difficult to be deformed 

5. Grain Structure 

The macrograph of 2.7"-diameter VIM ingot is shown in Figure 4. The equiaxed grains are 

observed near the center, and the columnar structure is elsewhere. In order to understand the 

effect of grain structure on the rollability, the ingot was sequently cut into plates with various 

thicknesses. Plates containing only columnar grains and plates consisting of only equiaxed grains 

were used to compare the rolling behavior of those two grain structures. The results are listed in 

Table 3. It should be noted that the columnar structure responds to cold rollability better than 

equiaxed structure. 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 

This study has examined several issues to understand the cold rollability of Ni3A1 alloy. It 

has been found that the cold rolling response of Ni3A1 alloy (IC50) is very sensitive to the 

starting thickness. The segregation of elements is worse for the thicker casting as opposed to the 

thinner section. This is exemplified by the point that cast plus annealed pieces showed cracking at 

much larger reduction as opposed to the as-cast piece. Increase in the thickness of the casting 

produces more complex microstructure. For example, in Figure 4, the center of the cross section 

is clearly equiaxed microstructure, which is surrounded by columnar microstructure on the 

outside. It has been found that a material with columnar grain structure has greater rollability than 

a material with equiaxed grains. The 0.5"-thick casting shows very high work-hardening rate, 

which may result in reduction in ductility values and lead to poor rollability. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This research was supported by an appointment to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's 

HBCU Faculty Research Participation Program administered by Oak Ridge Institute for Science 

and Education through a cooperative agreement between the U. S. Department of Energy and the 

U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 
REFERENCES 

1. Sikka, V. K., "Nickel Aluminides - New Advanced Alloy", Materials and Mm~mn'ng 

Processes, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1989, pp. 1-24. 

2. Wright, R N., Rabin, B. H., and Knibloe, J. R., "Consolidation of Ni3Al Powders By Hot 

Isostatic Pressing", Materials and Manufmring Processes, Vol. 4, No. 1,1989, pp. 25- 

37. 

Table 1. Compositions of Ni3Al Alloy (IC50) 

Roll Diameter: 4 inches 

Reduction Per Pass: 3% 

Roll Speed: 15 ft/min 

I 1 

Element 

Weight, % 

0 

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 -- =s Initial thickness, inch 

Figure 1. Effect of initial thickness on initiation of cracking 

during rolling of as-cast Ni3Al alloy. 

Ni 

88.08 

Al 

1 1.30 

Zr 

0.60 

B 

0.02 
Table 2. Effect of Anneal on the Rolling Behavior 

of a 0.5"-thick Ni3AI Alloy 

I % of Reduction in Thickness 1 Rocessine Condition 

I - to Start Cracking 

Cast 

Cast + Anneal in Air 

10 15 20 25 

Strain, % 

10.0 

24.0 

Cast + Anneal in Vaccum 

Figure 2. Comparison of stress-strain behavior of Ni3Al alloy 

in as-cast condition. 

A: specimen machined from 0.5"-thick ingot 

B: specimen machined from 0.1875"-thick ingot 

C: specimen punched out of 0.04"-thick sheet 

30.0 
Distance tic~nl the surface, % of the thickness 

350 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

(he) (-a) 

Distance from the surface, % of the thickness 

Figure 3. Distribution of transverse hardness for Ni3Al alloy: (a) in as-cast 

condition, (b) in as-cast plus 20% cold rolled condition. 

A: specimen with 0.5" initial thickness 

B: specimen with 0.1875" initial thickness 

C: specimen with 0.04" initial thickness 
Figure 4. Macrograph of VIM ingot of NiRAl alloy. 

Table 3. Comparison of Cold Rollability of Colutnnar and 

Equiaxed Grain Structures 
Page intentionally left blank 
THERE ARE GOOD VIBRATIONS 

AND 

NOT SO GOOD VIBRATIONS 

F. Xavier Spiegel 

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College 

4501 North Charles Street 

Baltimore, Maryland 2 12 10-2699 

Telephone 4 10-6 1 7-25 15 

THERE ARE GOOD VIBRATIONS AND NOT SO GOOD VIBRATIONS 

F. Xavier Spiegel 

Department of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College, Baltimore, Maryland 

ABSTRACT: This paper investigates several instances where mechanical 

vibrations are explored to enlighten the reader about some of the results of these 

vibrations. 

REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: Curiosity. 

KEY WORDS: Mechanical Vibration, Damping, Coupling, Modulation 

Chladni Plate, Water, Telephone, Modulation. 

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of these demonstrations is to illustrate 

some interesting responses of materials to vibrations. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: 

1) Wooden Dowels 

2) Violin Bow 

3) Aluminum Plate 

4) Movement from a Mechanical Music Box 

5) Eye Dropper 

THE VIBRATING STICK2 If a wooden dowel (.75 cm dia. x 12 cm) is 

notched along its surface (8 or more notches in the form of vees .5 cm wide and .2 cm 

deep) are equally spaced and a flat piece of wood ( .2 cm x .5cm x 3 cm) is attached to 

the end of the dowel with a wood screw so that the flat piece of wood is free to rotate, 

a very interesting behavior of the device can be demonstrated by rubbing another piece 

of wood back and forth across the notches. The flat piece of wood will wobble but not 

rotate uniformly. (See Figure 1.) However, if the dowel is touched by stroking hard on 

one side, the flat piece will rotate in one direction, and if touched on the other side it will 

rotate in the opposite direction. The original stroking causes random vibrations throughout 

the device; however, when one side of the dowel is touched while being stroked, some of 

the vibations are damped and there are no longer random vibrations but instead a driving 

vibrational mode is set up which causes the flat'piece of wood to rotate in a preferred 

direction. Please note that the end piece is not a propeller, that is, it does not have a pitch. 

The author has used twigs to demonstrate this phenomenon on many occasions. The 

dimensions given above do not appear to be critical.' 

THE CHLADNI PLATE: If an aluminum plate (25 cm x 25 cm x .25 cm) is 

supported in the middle by attaching a handle ( a dowel about 2 cm in diameter and 12 cm 
long), a very interesting phenomenon can be demonstrated by sprinkling sand or salt on 

the plate and then stroking the plate with a violin bow. (See Figure 2.) Standing patterns 

will appear on the surface. These will change according to the stroking motion. The plate 

has been put into vibration by the stroking motion and only certain parts of the plate are 

not in vibration. The material which was originally at rest will hop around on the plate 

and settle on parts of the plate which are not vibrating. Different patterns can be obtained 

because there are several vibrational modes which the plate can accomrn~date.~~~~~ 

WATER TELEPHONE: If a mechanical music box mechanism is removed 

from its sounding board and wound there will hardly be a perceptible sound heard. If 

the mechanism is placed on a piece of wood or in fact onto most materials, a much more 

perceptible sound will be heard. The interesting concept of modulation can be 

demonstrated using this mechanism, along with an eye dropper and a constant water 

supply. If the eye dropper is placed through one of the holes (attachment points for the 

sounding board) of the n~ecl~anism and a constant stream of water is flowing through the 

eye dropper, a steady stream will be noticed when the mechanism is not playing. However, 

if the mechanism is wound and the stream is observed you will notice that the flow of 

water is now altered. This is a form of modulation of a signal, very similar to the way that 

radio signals are modulated. A signal, which was once pristine, is now carrying some sort 

of information. This information could be music, voice or data to mention a few.6 

DISCUSSION: There are many examples of the results of vibrations in 

materials. Among these are musical instruments including our voices, whistling, 

ultrasonic cleaners, friction welding and induction melting, and some undesirable 

results such as friction, wear, heat, fatigue, loosening of bolts and screws and nails, 

the hum of a motor or tranformer and such natural phenomena such as earthquakes, 

tidal waves and in general noise. These demonstrations can lead an audience to 

explore the effects of vibrations and the control of desirable and undesirable 

types of vibration.' 

REFERENCES: 

1. Halliday, David and Resnick, Robert: Fundamentals of Physics, 2nd Ed., 

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 198 1. 

2. Walker, Jearl: The Flying Circus of Physics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1975. 

3 Waller, M.D.: Chladni Figures, G. Bell and Sons, Ltd. 1961. 

4. Wood, A.: The Physics of Music, University Paperbacks, 1962. 

5. Jensen, H.C. : Production of Chladni Figures, Am. J. Phys., 25,203 1957. 

6. Boys, C.V.; Soap Bubbles, Dover Publications, Inc. 1959. 

7. Jacobs, James A. and Kilduff, Thomas F.: Engineering Materials Technology, 

Prentice - Hall, 1990. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The author wishes to thank Mary L. Spiegel for 

processing this manuscript. 
FIGURE 1 

VIBRATING STICK 

FIGURE 2 

TYPICAL CHLADNI PATTERNS 
Page intentionally left blank 
A NOVEL APPROACH TO HARDNESS TESTING 

F. Xavier Spiegel 

Department of Electrical Engineering and ~ngineering Science 

Loyola College 

4501 North Charles Street 

Baltimore, Maryland 212 10-2699 

Telephone 4 10-6 17-25 15 

and 

Harvey A. West 

Materials Analytical Services 

616 Hutton Street, Suite 101 

Raleigh, North Carolina 27606 

Telephone 9 19-829-704 1 
F. Xavier Spiegel 
A Novel Approach to Hardness Testing 

F. Xavier Spiegel and Harvey A. West* 

Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College, Baltimore, MD 

"Materials Analytical Services, Raleigh, NC 

Key Words: Hardness, rebound, scleroscope, coefficient of restitution 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Knowledge of physical testing of metallic materids 

Objective: To demonstrate a simple rebound hardness measuring device and explore its applications 

and limitations. 

Equipment: 

1. Rebound hardness tester as outlined in Reference 1. 

2. Several metallic samples of various compositions and hardnesses. 

Introducton: 

This paper gives a description of the application of a simple rebound time measuring device and relates 

the determination of relative hardness of a variety of common engineering metals. A relation between 

rebound time and hardness will be sought. The effect of geometry and surface condition will also be 

discussed in order to acquaint the student with the problems associated with this type of method. 

Procedure: 

A complete description of the construction of the apparatus is contained in Reference 1. This device, 

constructed for under $100, is designed to repeatedly drop a 5.59 mm (0.220 in.) diameter ball from a 

fixed height of 9.0 cm (3.54 in.) onto a metal specimen clamped to a rigid base. A microphone coupled 

through an operational amplifier precisely relays the initial contact and subsequent rebound contact. A 

timing circuit is used to measure the interval between these events and calculates the rebound time, 

relatable to the coefficient of restitution of materials, an indication of the energy loss of the ball during the 

initial contact event. 
Results and Discussion: 

As shown in Table 1, there is a general trend for the materials with lower hardness to exhibit lower 

rebound times. Figure 1 shows that a linear relationship exists for Shore Sclerosope hardness numbers 

with Brinell hardness numbers over the entire range of steel samples tested. Figure 2 indicates that a 

linear relationship between rebound time and Brinell hardness can be established for steels having 

hardnesses measurable on the Rockwell C scale (Brinell hardness 300-500). The hardness relationship, 

unfortuntely, does not extrapolate well into the Rockwell B range for steels. As also observed in Table 1 

and Figure 3, there exists a relatively linear relationshp for aluminum with hardness measurable on the 

Rockwell F scale. 

Like the apparatus described in Reference 1, the Shore Scleroscope is designed to drop a steel ball or 

diamond indentor from a fixed height onto a test specimen placed on a clamping stand; the rebound 

height is either visually noted or recorded on a dial and used to indcate relative hardness. With the test 

apparatus described in this gaper, the time interval is measured by digital circuitry, giving this method an 

enhanced degree of precision over the scleroscope. With both of these devices, the portability, ease of 

use, and relative non-destructive interaction with the material are significant with respect to Brinell 

testing in the field as well as in the undergraduate laboratory. 

While cost, convenience, simplicity, and apparent correlation with conventional hardness tests are 

advantages of this devised testing method, sample geometry and surface condition can appreciably affect 

the precision of the device. As reported in Table 1, four copper specimens, all with the same hardness as 

measured by the Rockwell F test, did not give the same rebound time. The difference in each of these 

was either geometric or in the condition of the test surface. However, it should be possible to explain the 

results in terms of energy absorption mechanisms andlor sample-base coupling. For instance, on the 

oxidized surface, the interaction with the surface layer (fracture, dssipation of rebound energy at the 

layer interface) could reduce the rebounding. A bent specimen (even with concave side up) could lower 

the rebound by inefficiently reflecting the stress wave moving through the test piece. The reduced 

rebound time with the thinner specimen suggests that, as in static indentation tests, there could be a 

minimum specimen size necessary to characterize the hardness of the bulk material. 

Notes to the Instructor: 

The above results give rise to many thought-provoking, yet simple experiments for the students. They 

could investigate rebound time vs. sample thickness (for the same material hardness). Would a stack of 

thin specimens give the same result as one thick specimen? What is the effect of surface finish on 

rebound time? 
Acknowledgment: 

The authors would like to express their appreciation to Starnos Courpas, graduate assistant in the 

Department of Physics and Computer Science at Loyola College, for his efforts in the design and 

construction of this testing device. 

References: 

1. Weigman, Bernard J. and Courpas, Starnos. "Measuring Energy Loss Between Colliding Metal 

Objects". National Educators' Workshop: Update 94. 

2. Small, Louis. Hardness: Theory and Practice, Part I, Practice, Abridged Edition, Service Diamond 

Tool Co., Ferndale, Michigan, pp. 291-309. 

"3,000 kg load, 10 mm standard ball 

Table 1: Hardness Values vs. Rebound Times 
-1 

Scleroscope vs. Brine11 

(SM) 

gD/ 

l-j Ift I! " -- 

A 

3t 

f 20-- 

0 

a 

Wl 

0 1 

/ 

I 

200.0 

i 150.0 

8 

0 100 200 300 400 500 

Brinell Hardness 

- 

-- 

C 3 100.0 -- I Rebound mm 2 vs. Brinell 

I 

b.0 -- t 

C 

0.0 7 

(Steel) 

I 

Fisure3 

Rebound vs. Rockwe11 F 

(Aluminum) 

0 100 200 300 400 500 

Brineil Hardness 

120.0 - 

x 

C 

CCI 

I r"- 

8' 3 40.0 

t C 

0.0 0 

: 

I 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

Hardness Rockwe11 F 
COST EFFECTIVE PROTOTYPING 

Jerry L. Wickman 

Director Plastics Research and Education Center 

Department of Industry and Technology 

Ball State University 

Muncie , Indiana 47306-0255 

Telephone 3 17-285-5648 

and 

Purdue University 

Statewide Technology 

2424 California Road 

Elkhart, Indiana 465 14 
Nikhil K. Kundu 
Cost Effective Prototyping 

J.L. Wickman 

Ball State University 

Nikhil Kundu 

Purdue University 

Key Words: Rapid prototyping (RP), Prototyping, Reverse engineering, Investment casting 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Basic knowledge of part design, Computer Aided Design (CAD), 

prototyping, and mold flow characteristics are beneficial. 

Objectives: To develop a cost effective laboratory exercise for prototype development. 

To develop a prototyping laboratory exercise that has the potential of linking part design, 

CAD, mold development, quality control, metrology, mold flow, materials testing, fixture 

design, automation, limited parts production and other issues as related to plastics 

manufacturing. 

Equipment: 

1. investment casting material 

2. silicone rubber for casting 

3. urethane elastomer for casting 

4. pressurized wax injection unit 

5. vacuum tank with vacuum pump 

6. injection wax 

7. paste floor wax 

8. various tools for cutting sprue, runners, and gates 

9. injection molded parts to be used as masters 

Introduction: 

Webster defines prototype as the first thing or being of its kind; original; model; pattern or 

archetype. The methods by which prototypes can be produced have changed drastically since 

Webster defined the term. Three dimensional models can be created in various CAD systems 

and an actual model produced within 24 hours. This can be done using Stereolithography 

(SLA) , Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) , Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) , 3 Dimensional 

Printing (3DP), and Solid Ground Curing (SGC) 'to name the more common rapid prototyping 

methods. The cost of rapid prototyping (RP) equipment as it is known has dropped while the 

methods of RP have increased. Other methods of prototype development exist. They range 

from using Room Temperature Vulcanizing (RTV) silicone, lost foam process, and lost wax 

process to investment casting. These later processes are less costly and more time consuming 

but have the capability of helping to create a seamless education across the manufacturing 

curriculum. 
This laboratory exercise is limited to using investment casting for mold building and a 

pressurized wax injection unit for the model building. The intent of the prototyping laboratory 

is to begin to address the issues of prototype development, materials selection, part design, 

mold design, CAD, quality control/metrology, cavity balancing, heating and cooling needs, 

cycle time calculations, and processing considerations as related to injection molding. 

Plastics part design changes are occurring with greater frequency than ever before in history. 

The quality, accuracy, and speed of part design changes have a critical impact on the 

manufacturability of the final product. Global competition is forcing plastics manufacturers to 

utilize all available resources to ensure survival. 

As a result of part design changes, it is important that students understand how a prototype is 

developed and can be produced. This laboratory exercise has applications in virtually any area 

where a product is being made: the final material (cast or machined metal, ceramic, plastic, 

etc.) is not critical to the prototype issue. 

Procedure: 

1. Select part or master. It is easier to start with an existing injection molded part as opposed 

to designing and fabricating your master. Small injection molded parts work well: examples 

may be electronic mouse parts, forkslkniveslspoons, plotter components, electronic 

components (snap fit), etc. Using existing parts allows one to investigate the possibilities and 

nuances of reverse engineering. 

What to avoid or consider for good part designs: * avoid deep cavities because partlmaster removal becomes more difficult and 

may fracture investment. Using glass reinforced investment will help if deep 

cavities are a necessity. * avoid thin wall parts if possible, they tend to be weak and difficult to fill when 

wax injecting. * avoid long material flow requirements because the wax is cooling as it flows. 

Long flow requirements may prevent a part from ever filling out. If necessary 

relocate the gating system to minimize long flow requirements. * consider parting line location, it is essential * consider parting line location, it is essential that the part can be removed from 

the investment. Carefully evaluate where the parting line should be on the part 

and how can an investment mold be made. Not all parts will easily lend 

themselves to this use of investment. * carefully consider all available options for the physical location(s) of the sprue, 

runner, and gate. The location, shape and size of the sprue, runner, and gate 

may be the difference between a successful prototype and/or one that fails. * draft on all parts is critical. The greater the draft the easier it is to remove the 

part from the investment. 
* casting and build method-develop flow charts and graphs of how the investment 

will be cast and the mold built. Flow charting minimizes errors in the 

production of the prototype and increases success rates. Also consider the 

process by which the vacuum is being used. Entrapped air bubbles will affect 

surface characteristics. If a flat back partlmaster is placed face down in the 

investment, as in Figure 1, entrapped air may not be removed. 

Figure 1. Flat back pattern placed into investment with detail facing down. 

Consider placing the part in the bottom of the mold frame and pouring/casting 

investment on top of the part. If the partlmaster density is such that the part 

floats in the investment, the parting line is moved or lost. A method should be 

devised to temporarily secure the part to the mold frame. Conversely if the part 

sinks in the investment, one should devise a method of supporting the part. * part orientation in mold is a function of the parting line axis, size of the mold 

frame, and planned location of the sprue, runner and gating system. * single vs. multiple cavity mold. Start building single cavity molds using simple 

flat back parts with a single axis parting line. In order to avoid frustration start 

simple and move with experience to the more complex designs. 

2. Put coating of wax on plastic part or master to minimize investment adhering to part. 

3. Fabricate mold frame, depending on size of part; a plastic food container (Tupperware, 

Rubbermaid, etc.) works well. Some thermoformed containers work well also. Disposable 

mold frames can be used and are available in the shape of small fiberboard boxes. * What is the size and shape of the part, this dictates the minimum dimensions of 

the mold frame? * Where is the parting line to be located? * Is draft important and how will investment be removed from the mold frame? * What is the life expectancy of mold frame? * What facilities are available for building mold frames? 

4. Mix investment to specifications. 

x Check for consistency of investment. * Minimize the introduction of air when blending investment. * Mix sufficient quantities of investment to fill 60% of the mold. * If the directions for mixing investment are followed, shrinkage of the 
investment material in small volumes should be minimal. As one increases the 

water content of the mix, shrinkage and cracking will occur. Pulling a vacuum 

removes trapped air and enhances one's ability to capture detail. The investment 

will harden whether a vacuum is pulled or not. 

5. Pull vacuum to remove air and enhance detail. * Possible vacuum devices (pump, chamber, gage)? * Optimal vacuum time? 

* Measuring vacuum? 

* Mating surfaces? 

6. Cast investment to parting line. * Wax interior surfaces of mold frame. * Consider dimensional shrinkage, if any, of investment. * Where and how will the master be placed in the investment? * Density of master vs. investment? * What is optimal cure time? * Place on level surface (keep parting line level). * Possible sprue, runner, and gate locations? * Mating surfaces of the mold halves? 

7. Pull vacuum to remove air and enhance detail. 

8. Cleanup and/or machine mold half. * The investment should be allowed to cure a minimum of two hours before any 

machining takes place. * Is the meniscus of the investment going to cause a mating problem? * Defect identification (recast or repair), a lox hand lens will show critical details 

and potential defects. * Investment can be easily machined depending on the tools available. Once the 

investment hardens it is still relatively soft. It can be worked with a variety of 

tools ranging from hand tools to CNC mills or lathes. * Locating pin placement, how will the mold halves maintain alignment when 

removed from the mold frame? Locating pins can be cast in or pockets can be 

drilled into the hardened investment. Once the opposing mold halves are cast, 

the alignment problems should be resolved. If pockets are to be machined in the 

first cavity cast, shallow (0.250"-0.500") depressions will suffice. * Wax mating surfaces. 

9. Prepare to cast opposing half of mold (mold may be made of more than 2 parts). * See #4/5 for reference. 

10. Pour investment into cavity * Place waxed master in cavity. * Use original mold frame. 
11. Pull vacuum to remove air and enhance detail. 

Cleanup and/or machine mold. * Depending on intended use, square mold. * Clean thin sections. * Repair or recast sections. Repair of small voids or pockets can be accomplished 

by mixing the investment to specifications and filling the void or pocket. Allow 

the investment time to harden and machine to final size. If the section is badly 

damaged or cracked, recasting the mold half may be the more expedient 

method. 

13. Per calculated specifications cut sprue, runner(s), and gates. * Avoid sharp corners. * Avoid thin sections (consider glass reinforced investment). * Investment can be cut with hand tools. * Match sprue radii on mold to that of wax injection unit. * Gate size - start with 0.040" x 0.020" - keeping the cavity wall as thick as 

possible. * Runner size - keep length as short as possible, start with 0.125" round. 

14. Wax mating surfaces/cavity of mold or use mold release 

15. Bring wax injection unit up to operating temperature * Wax injection temperatures usually range from 140° F/60° to 170' F/77O C. The 

following represents a brief listing of waxes available from The Kindt-Collins 

Company. Your needs will dictate which wax works best for your part. 

16. Produce wax prototyped parts. * Fine tune process. Fine tuning of the process (investment of cavities, wax 

injection molding, sizing sprue, runner, and gating system) may need to take 

place. The investment is soft, gates can be enlarged as needed with hand tools. 

The viscosity of the wax varies and cavities may or may not fill the first time. 

The investment will typically be at room temperature. If a gate is too small or a 

long flow length is experienced, the wax may freeze. Depending on the level of 

detail required in the part and temperature of laboratory environment, it may be 

necessary to warm the mold. Preheating the mold to 100 - 120' F should 

prevent the wax from freezing at any critical points, primarily thin sections. * Consider changing size of sprue, runner, and gates. * Consider changing location of sprue, runner, and gates. * Evaluate part characteristics 

Form 

Fit 

Function 
Notes to the Instructor: 

This particular laboratory exercise, depending on the resources available, has the ability to 

create a product that has topical implications across the curriculum. The prototyping issue can 

be used to tie together the various technical issues. The wax injection unit is cost effective, yet 

simple. For impressive designs, the CAD files could be used to produce an RP model. Local 

industries with more costly RP facilities (SLA, SLS, FDM, etc.) are not difficult to find. 

The first several castings of parts or molds should be done using investment. If the part 

warrants additional development, silicone or urethane can be used. The silicone and urethane 

are more expensive than investment, but many of the properties of the final product outweigh 

those of using investment. For example a small mold may require roughly 1 Ib. of investment 

($1.00) whereas the same tool in silicone or urethane may cost from $20.00 to $30.00. 

Silicone rubber is available from IASCO, 5724 West 36th. Street, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 

55416-2594. Urethane elastomers are available from BCC Products Inc., P.O. Box 327, 

Franklin, Indiana, 461 3 1. 

The injection wax varies in price depending on the type and quantity purchased. Fifty pounds 

of injection wax will cost approximately $330.00 and should last several years. The wax, 

investment, and wax injection unit are available from Kerr Manufacturing Co., P.O. Box 

455, Romulus, Michigan, 48174-0908. Investment currently costs $70.00/100 lbs., while the 

injection unit is $750.00. 

The vacuum pump can be obtained from Cole Parmer Instrument Co., 7425 North Oak Park, 

Niles, Illinois, 60714-9930, for approximately $200.00. The vacuum chamber (22 quart 

pressure cooker) with modifications can be obtained for $70.00. 

References: 

Jacobs, P., Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing: Fundamentals of Stereolithography, Society 

of Manufacturing Engineers, 1992. 

Wood, L., Rapid Automated Prototyping: An Introduction, Society of Manufacturing 

Engineers, 1993. 

Rapid Tooling, Rapid Parts, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, lh " video tape, 1994. 

Neufeldt, Victoria., Ed.,Webster's New World Dictionary, Third College edition, Simon & 

Shuster, Inc., 1988. 
COMPUTERIZED TESTING OF 

WOVEN COMPOSITE FIBERS 

Amy Laurie Wilkerson 

Department of Technology 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504 

Telephone 804-683-8 109 

Computerized Testing of Woven Composite Fibers 

Amy Laurie Wilkerson 

Norfolk State University 

Department of Technology 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504 

Phone: (804) 683-81 09 

Fax: (804) 683-8215 

Key Words: Woven Composite Fibers, fiber, glass fibers, graphite, stress, strain, 

modulus of elasticity, constant-rate-of-extension tensile testing machine. 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Computer skills will be required to interface with the 

material testing center. Classroom study of the basics of stress, strain and modulus of 

elasticity in conjunction with or prior to the experiment. 

Objective: The student will utilize the computerized testing center to perform tensile 

testing of the various woven composite fibers. They will interpret the graphs to provide 

more advanced testing results and data for stress, strain, and modulus of elasticity. 

unilabQ Material Testing Center 

Materials Testing Textile Accessory 

Materials Testing Software 

Computer ( ~indows~ Software must be installed) 

Computer Printer 

Zirconia Scissors 

Steel rule (with millimeter increments) 

0-1 " outside micrometer or metric equivalent 

Rubber gloves 

Calipers or inside micrometer 

Paper, marker, calculator, pencil 

Suggested woven fibers: Fine E-Glass Cloth 

AS4 Graphite 1 E-Glass Weave 

Introduction: 

A composite material or composife is a structured solid material composed of 

two or more materials that form a useful material. The composite is designed to 

display the best properties or qualities of its component or once combined, display 

properties that neither material possesses. The existing materials are combined by 

physical means, as opposed to the chemical bonding that takes place in solid materials 

at the crystal stage. 
A fiber is the single strand of material which threads or fabrics are made of. 

Glass fibers are produced by the process of drawing molten glass through tiny 

precision made openings and then lengthening them by air jet. Standard glass fiber 

normally used in glass-reinforced composite materials is known as e-glass. E-glass is 

the first type of fiberglass that was developed for use as a continuous fiber. It is a 

combination of 55% silica, 20% calcium oxide, 15% aluminum oxide, and 10% boron 

oxide. 

Another type of fiber used in many applications is a black crystalline carbon 

known as graphite. Graphite has a very high melting point. The carbon content of 

graphite is 99% or greater. It is known as one of the few truly effective structural 

reinforcements. Cowoven fabric is a reinforced fabric woven with two different types of 

fibers in individual yarns, such as the AS4 graphite 1 E-glass Weave used in this 

experiment. 

Woven composite materials have mechanical properties that are defined as a 

measure of the materials capabilities of being able to carry or resist mechanical forces 

or stresses. The resistance offered by a material to external forces or loads is defined 

as Stress. Stress is the amount of force ( F ) divided by the area ( A ) over which it 

acts. Using o (sigma ) as the universal symbol for normal stress, we have the following 

expression in equation 1. 

The corresponding SI (Systems International ) units for force ( F ) = Newton's ( N ), 

Area ( A ) = square meters ( m2 ), and stress ( o ) are Newton's per square meter ( N I 

m2 ) or Pascal ( Pa ). The percentage of elongation ( e ) or strain of the material is a 

ratio of the change in length of a specimen, from zero stress to a stressed state. Strain 

is the ratio of these two iengths, where Ir = final length and lo = the original length, it is 

then multiplied by 100% to give the strain as a percentage. This expression can be 

seen in equation 2. 

% elongation = x 100% 

10 

The modulus of elasticity ( E ) is equal to the stress divided 'by the strain with 

corresponding SI units in Newton's per square meter ( N I m2) or Pascal (Pa ). 

The American Society for Testing and Materials ( ASTM ) publishes standard 

test methods, specifications, practices, guides, classifications, and terminology for 

materials, products, systems, and services. The ASTM states that "A standard test 

method is a definitive procedure for the identification, measurement, and evaluation of 

one or more qualities, characteristics, or properties of a material, product, system, or 

service that produces a test result." In this experiment we will be using the tensile 

testing machine. According to ASTM D 76 section 3.1.20, the tensile testing machine is 
an apparatus designed to impart, or transmit, force/extension, or stresslstrain, to a 

material and to measure the effect of the action. There are three types of tensile 

testing machines used for the force and elongation properties of materials. These are 

the constant-rate-of-traverse, CRT, constant-rate-of loading (force),CRL, and the 

constant-rate-of-extension, CRE. In accordance with ASTM standard D 1682 Section 

3.6, the CRE tensile testing machine is a testing machine in which the rate of increase 

of specimen length is uniform with time. In this experiment we will be setting up the 

unilabB material testing center and the materials testing textile accessory to act as a 

CRE tensile testing machine. 

This experiment will focus on the stress, strain and modulus of elasticity of two 

different types of woven composite fabrics. The student will learn to transform the 

forcelextension graph to a stresslstrain graph. The computer interaction with the 

material testing center will automatically display the stress and strain readings when 

the cursor is placed at the point where the student requires the reading. The student 

will also perform exercises to learn how to automatically size and zoom in the graph so 

a more precise reading may be obtained. 

Procedure: 

Step I : Producing the Fabric Sample: 

To obtain results that can be compared, it is necessary to cut the sample fabrics 

identically. For this experiment we will be cutting the material to be tested along the 

warp of the material. The warp is defined as the yarn running lengthwise in a woven 

fabric. 

Required equipment: A. zirconia scissors 

B. steel rule (with millimeter increments ) 

C. fine e-glass cloth or substitute 

D. AS4 graphite I e-glass weave or substitute 

E. 0-1 " outside micrometer or metric equivalent 

1. Cut the fabrics to be tested 250 mm long by 40 mm wide, as shown in Figure I a. 

Figure la - 

4 250mm b 

t warp, 40mm 

1 

2. Using the outside micrometer, take a thickness reading of the fabric, reference 

Figure I b. Record the data in Table I. Also, record the width of the fabric sample in 

Table 1 ( this should be approximately 40 mm). Calculate the cross sectional area in 

millimeters (thickness times the width ) of the sample. Record in Table 1. 

40mrn- +' 

Figure I b Thickness 

+ 
Table I Preliminary Measurements 

Step 2: Mounting the Fabric Sample 

Required equipment: A. fabric samples 

B. unilabg material testing center 

C. materials testing textile accessory 

D. steel rule (with millimeter increments ) 

E. paper and marker 

1. First, mark 100 mm out on a piece of paper. Next, lay the fabric flat on the paper, 

positioning the two circular grippers 100 mm apart as shown in Figure 2. 

Figure 2 

fabric sample 

-100mm - - 

grippers 

2. Holding the grippers and fabric, turn the grippers toward the center, 270°, as shown 

in Figure 3. 

Figure 3 

3. Pick up the sample and slide the flat sections at the end of the gripping cylinders 

into the slots of the textile accessories as shown in figures 4 and 5. Pull out on the 

loose ends to take up slack. 
Figure 4 

Figure 5 

Step 3: Setting the Meters 

Required equipment: A. calipers or inside micrometer 

B. steel rule ( with mm increments ) 

1. The force meter has three range settings to choose from: 0.5 kN, 2 kN and 5 kN. 

Initially set the meter on its highest setting of 5 kN. Zero the force meter. 

2. The displacement meter has five range settings to choose from: 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 

5 mm, 10 mm, and 50 mm. Initially set the meter on its highest setting of 50 mm. 

3. Slowly turn the operating handle clockwise to take up any slack in the fabric sample. 

Stop turning the operating handle when the force meter registers any slight reading. 

Zero the displacement meter. 

4.. At this point, take the nominal gage length of the sample. According to ASTM 

standard D 76 Section 9.1, the nominal gage length of a CRE type machine is the 

measured distance between the inner edges of the clamping surfaces of the clamps to 

the nearest 0.25 mm. By using a pair of calipers and a steel rule or an inside 

micrometer, a reading may be taken. Record this length in Table 1. 

5. Do not switch from one range setting to another during a test. When you need to 

change scales, take the load off the sample and start a new test after you have 

switched range settings. 
Step 4: Using the computer to plot the graph of 

Force ( y-axis ) vs Extension ( x-axis ) 

Additional Equipment: A. Materials Testing Software 

B. computer 

C. Printer ( optional ) 

I. The initial default setting for the test time is 25 seconds. For this experiment the 

test time does not need to be changed. 

2. Select Configure option menu. Select Test Type. Click on the tensile test option, 

then click on OK to exit the menu. 

3. Using the mouse, place the cursor on the Start Sample button found to the left of the 

graph ( this button resembles a graph ). Click the mouse button once to start the test. 

4. Slowly turn the operating handle clockwise until the specimen breaks. As force is 

exerted on the sample, a line wcl be plotted on the graph. 4f the test should finish early, 

the reset button can be clicked on and the test can be stopped. 

5. At this point, save the data to a file or a disk to avoid loss of the data obtained. 

Step 5: Automatic Szing of the Initial Graph 

1. Using the mouse and cursor, select the Graph option menu. 

2. Select the Scale option ( located at the bottom of the menu ), to rescale the graph, 

and click on. 

3. Select the autoscale button to provide the best fit of the graph to the screen. Click 

on OK to exit menu. 

Step 6: Reading the Data 

1. Place the cross-hairs at the highest point on the graph of the force vs extension, 

where the breaking point is. Click on the mouse button and a reading will appear in the 

information and control area of the screen display. Record the data obtained in Table 2 

Step 7: Using the Zoom In Mode 

1. Using the mouse and cursor select the Graph option menu. 

2. Select the Zoom in option and click on. Cross-hairs will appear on the graph instead 

of the cursor. Zoom mode will appear in the information and control area of the screen 

display. 
3. Position the cross-hairs on the graph near the area in which you wish to zoom in. 

Hold the mouse button down and drag the mouse to create a boxed area. Let up on 

the mouse button, and the area within the box will be enlarged to fill the screen. 

4. Repeat Step 6, Reading the Data, in the zoom in mode and compare this data to the 

data obtained in the automatic sizing mode. The data may vary with increased 

magnification. 

Table 2 Force 1 Extension Graph 

Step 8: Transforming the Graph to Stress and Strain 

1. Using the mouse and cursor, select the Graph option menu. 

2. Select the Zoom out option and click on. The graph will return to the normal mode. 

3. Next, select the Transform option menu. 

4. Select the Stress & Strain option and click on. 

5. Enter the area ( mm2 ) and nominal gauge length ( mm ), from Table 1, of the 

sample material. Click on OK to exit the menu. 

6. The graph will change to the stresslstrain mode, with the y axis being stress in MPa 

and the x axis being strain in percent (%). 

Step 9: Automatic sizing of the Stress 1 Strain Graph 

1. Using the mouse and cursor, select the Graph option menu. 

2. Select the Scale option( located at the bottom of the menu), to rescale the graph, 

and click on. 

3. Select the autoscale button to provide the best fit of the graph to the screen. Click 

on OK to exit menu. 
Step 10: Reading thta Data 

I. Place the cross-hairs at the highest point on the graph. Click on the mouse button 

and a reading will appear in the information and control area of the screen display. 

Record the data obtained in Table 3. , 

Step 11 : Using the Zoom In Mode 

1. Using the mouse and cursor, select the Graph option menu. 

2. Select the Zoom in option and click on. Cross-hairs will appear on the graph instead 

of the cursor. Zoom mode will appear in the information and control area of the screen 

display. 

3. Position the cross-hairs on the graph near the area in which you wish to zoom in. 

Hold the mouse button down and drag the mouse to create a boxed area. Let up on 

the mouse button, and the area within the box will be enlarged to fill the screen. 

4. Repeat Step 10, Reading the Data, in the zoom in mode and compare this data to 

the data obtained in the automatic sizing mode. The data may vary with increased 

magnification. 

Table 3 Stress 1 Strain Graph 

Step 12: Comparing the Data 

1. For use with calculations, transfer the cross sectional area of the sample from Table 

1 into Table 4 and transfer the data recorded for force in Table 2 (zoom mode) into 

Table 4. 

2. Using equation I (o = F 1 A ) calculate the stress using this data. Record the results 

in Table 4. 

3. Compare these results with the data obtained for stress in Table 3 ( zoom mode ) for 

the same samples. ( These results should be similar ). 
fable 4 Comparison of the force / extension graph vs stress / strain graph 

Step 13: Calculating the Modulus of Elasticity 

1. For use with calculations, transfer the data recorded for stress and strain in Table 3 

(zoom mode) into Table 5. 

2. Using equation 3 ( E = o 1 e ), calculate the modulus of elasticity for each sample 

and record these results in Table 5. 

Table 5 Calculating the Modulus of Elasticity 

* Repeat entire procedure for each additional sample taken. 

Engineering Discussion Questions: 

1. While performing Step 1.2, you were asked to calculate the cross sectional area of 

the sample. 

A. From an engineering standpoint, evaluate and state the major source of error 

that occurred in this calculation. 

B. How did this one error-affect the rest of the experiment? 

C. Suggest methods to overcome this error. 

2. What other errors can occur in this type of experiment? 
Notes to Instructor: 

1. Discussion Question I-A: The major cause of error occurred because the air gaps 

between the fibers of the sample are not taken into account. 

Question 1-B: This error directly impacts the cross sectional area of the sample. The 

calculations performed for stress will be insufficient because they are directly 

proportional to the cross sectional area. This ultimately will cause the final results of 

the modulus of elasticity for the samples to have a large standard of deviation. 

Question I-C: Methods to overcome this include: a) using a micrometer to verify the 

diameter of a single fiber, then counting the number of individual fibers in the sample 

and multiplying them ( however even then the standard of deviation may be great 

between each individual fiber ); b) using an air permeability detection apparatus to 

verify the extent of the air in the sample; c) purchasing material that the manufacturer 

has verified the cross sectional area. 

Question 2: The most common type of errors which occur in this type of an experiment 

include: a) the fabric slipping in the jaws of the clamps, b) failing to zero the test 

meters prior to each test, c) failure to properly read measuring devices ( micrometers, 

etc. ). 

2. Some faculty teaching introductory courses in materials technology lack the 

laboratory and equipment necessary for students to have hands on experience. This 

experiment utilizes a very low-cost, "student friendly", multiple purpose, computerized 

testing device. This testing center and type of experiment works f~r a course even if 

there is no scheduled laboratory. The device and experiment are very simple to use as 

a supplemental outside activity set up in a computer lab. 

3. The unilab" Materials Testing Center is a technology education laboratory device. It 

is not one that is in industry to meet ASTM standards or to establish standards. 

However, you will note the results obtained and the graphical outputs represent the 

manner in which materials react when forces are applied to them. Samples of the 

tables, results, and graphs I obtained follow this experiment. 

4. A printer may be used with this experiment to print out the resulting graphs. 

5. The unilabB Materials Testing Center can be obtained through ~nilab", Inc. 1604 

Walker Lake Road, Mansfield, Ohio 44906. Phone number - (41 9) 747-1 040. Fax 

number (41 9) 747-1 041. 

6. The Zirconia scissars can be obtained through Lone Peak Engineering, 12660 S. 

Fort St., Draper, Utah 84020-9362. Phone number - (801) 553-1732. Fax number 

(801 ) 553-1 734. 

7. Rubber gloves should be worn when handling certain woven fabrics to avoid the 

possibility of loose fibers getting embedded into skin. 

8. 1 found that taping the ends of the sample helped keep the sample from unraveling. 
9. This experiment may be used with any type of woven composite fabric or other 

fabrics you choose. Woven fabrics can be purchased in your local area through 

various suppliers of fiberglass materials. I was able to purchase a 2' X 4' sheet of 

fiberglass used for automobile repair at Wal-Mart for approximately $4.00. Prices will 

vary depending on the type of material you choose. 

10. 1 experimented with aramid fabric ( Kevlar ). I was unable to break the Kevlar@ 

fabric at widths of 40mm or 20mm. I was finally able to break the ~evlar by pulling 

one band of fibers out and testing them. 

References: 

American Society for Testing and Materials. 1994 Annual Book of ASTM standards. 

Philadelphia: ASTM, 1994. ASTM D 76 Section 3.1.20, D 76 Section 9.1, D 1682 

Section 3.6. 

Jacobs, James A. and Thomas F. KildM. Engineering Materials Technology, 2nd ed. 

New Jersey, Prentice Hall Career & Technology, 1994, pp. I 19,134, & Chapter 8. 

Materials Testing Kit and User Guide and Reference Manual, unilab" Limited, 1994. 

The Science Park, Hutton Street, Blackburn BBI 3BT England. pp. 13, 24, 25. 

Materials Testing Apparatus Program User Guide, unilab" Limited, 1 992. 

The Science Park, Hutton Street, Blackburn BB1 3BT England. 
RESULTS OBTAINED FROM SAMPLES TAKEN 

*NOTE: Excessive significant digits are used in this result section to show the student 

the capabilities of the computerized system. However, students should be aware that 

reporting of actual engineering material properties should be with appropriate 

significant digits. 

Table 1 Preliminary Measuremen* 

Table 2 Force / Extension Graph 

Table 3 Stress I Strain Graph 

Table 4 Comparison of the Force / Extension Graph vs Stress I Strain Graph 

Fabric Type 

fine e-glass 

graphite / eglass weave 

Table 5 Calculating the Modulus of Elasticity 

Sample # 

1 

2 

Autosizing Mode Zoom In Mode 

Force (kN) 

0.459 

3.360 

Force 

(kN) 

0.459 

3.347 

Extension (mm) 

3.800 

3.61 3 

Extension 

(mm ) 

3.809 

3.51 0 
See Steps 9 and 10: Automatic Sizina of the StressIStrain Graph and Readina the Data 

The following is a copv of the screen vou will see for Step 9 and Step 10 

- File Configure - Graph Transform Help 

- - 

*NOTE: The actual graph on this screen will be the print mode output,. 
&proved 

OMB No. 0704-0188 

REPORT NUMBER 

NASA Langley Research Center 

Hampton, VA 23681-0001 L-17561 

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, 'M: AGENCY REPORT NUMBER 

20546-0001: Norfolk State Universitv. Norfolk, VA 23504: &tional Institute 

I of standards and Technology, ~aithckbur~, Mb 20899; U.S. Department of NASA CP-3330 Energy, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6132 I 

American Society for Engineering Education; ASM Foundation; Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories; Fernald 

Environmental Restoration Management Corp.; Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc.; Materials Education 

Council 

12a. DlSTRlBUTlONIAVAlLABlLlTY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE 

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13. ABSTRACT (Maxlmum 200 wonis) I 

This document contains a collection of experiments presented and demonstrated at the National Educators' 

Workshop: Update 95, held at the Oak Ridge National Labomtory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, on November 5-8,1995 

The experiments related to the nature and properties of engineering materials and provided Wonnation to assist ir 

teaching about materials in the education community. 

14. BUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAaES Materials; Experiments; Education 404 

16. PRICE CWE 

A18 

OF REPORT OF THIS PAQE OFABSTRACT OF ABSTRACT 

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