enrichment

Jeffrey A. French, Ph.D. & Jeffrey E. Fite, Ph.D.

Callitrichid Research Center

University of Nebraska at Omaha

for nonhuman primates

Marmosets 

 & Tamarins

 (Callitrichids)
Marmosets & Tamarins

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Marmosets & Tamarins

Introduction

Nonhuman primates maintained in captivity have a valuable role in education 

and research. They are also occasionally used in entertainment. The scope of 

these activities can range from large, accredited zoos to small “roadside” exhibits; from national primate research centers to small academic institutions with 

only a few monkeys; and from movie sets to street performers. Attached to these 

uses of primates comes an ethical responsibility to provide the animals with an 

environment that promotes their physical and behavioral health and well-being. Thus, an obligation is entailed that those individuals/institutions caring for 

captive primates should make every effort to ensure adequate veterinary care and 

husbandry are provided, that the animals are housed in appropriate facilities, 

and that as broad a range of species-typical behaviors are able to be expressed by 

the animals as is possible for the captive environment.

This book serves as an introduction to the basic behavior and environmental 

enrichment of several species of nonhuman primates that are more commonly 

used in education, research and entertainment. In many ways, this book is 

meant to be a “how to” manual; it is not intended to be a broad scientific review 

of the primate behavior and enrichment literature. The fundamental premise 

taken throughout each chapter is that for an enrichment program to be effective, there must be a basic understanding of the biology and behavior of the 

primate species. The species addressed in this series are: baboons, capuchins, 

chimpanzees, macaques, marmosets and tamarins, and squirrel monkeys. Each 

species-section can be read as a stand-alone document without need to reference 

the other sections. This then allows the user to distribute the different sections 

to personnel caring for the specific animals. 

Each section is divided into five parts: 1) Background, comprised of the habitat 

of the primate, the physical features of the primate, its psychological and/or so

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Marmosets & Tamarins

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ii

social behavior, and its mating and reproductive behavior; 2) Social World; 

3) Physical World; 4) Special Cases, describing any age-related considerations 

and concerns associated with individual housing; and 5) Problem Behaviors. 

The content of this series has been provided by members of the Association of 

Primate Veterinarians (APV) and the American Society of Primatologists (ASP) 

who have special expertise in the species addressed. This book is intended to be 

a primer because it is, indeed, an introduction to the subject of environmental 

enrichment for primates housed in a diversity of conditions. A list of references 

and/or other resources (principally on-line) is provided at the end of each chapter that provide additional guidance. The use of scientific references has been 

limited, but should the reader desire more information about a specific subject, 

the links at the end of the sections will provide direction to obtaining additional 

detailed information. Readers are also directed to the National Research Council 

publication, the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (1996) and 

the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal Welfare Regulations to 

review the regulatory requirements of the Public Health Service and the USDA 

for the provision of environmental enrichment.

The APV and ASP wish to thank the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, in 

particular Ms. Carol Wigglesworth and Dr. Axel Wolff; the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture/Animal Care, in particular Dr. Chester Gipson; and Ms. Dale Feurer, editor, and Ms. Lori Wieder, graphics and layout production, for their assistance with this project. The authors acknowledge the helpful contributions of 

Dr. David J. Shepherdson, Conservation Program Scientist, Metro Washington 

Park Zoo; Ms. April D. Truitt, Director, Primate Rescue Center, Inc.; and Ms. 

Kathleen Conlee, Program Officer, Humane Society of the United States. Special thanks also go to the chapter authors Dr. Christian Abee, Dr. Kate Baker, 

Dr. Linda Brent, Dr. Thomas Butler, Dr. Jeffrey Fite, Dr. Dorothy Fragazy, Dr. 

Jeffrey French and Dr. A. Michele Schuler, and to the reviewers from the American Society of Primatologists and the Association of Primate Veterinarians.

—Kathryn Bayne, M.S., Ph.D., D.V.M., DACLAM, CAAB

Editor, Working Group

This project is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Sylvia Taylor, Veterinary 

Medical Officer, Animal Care, U.S. Department of Agriculture, who 

was a proponent of providing enrichment to nonhuman primates and 

was generous in sharing her knowledge and expertise in this regard. 
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Marmosets & Tamarins

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Marmosets & Tamarins

Background

Habitat

In the wild, marmosets and tamarins inhabit diverse habitats, ranging from 

Costa Rica to southern Brazil and Bolivia. They are principally tree-dwelling 

animals.

Physical Features

Marmosets and tamarins belong to the New World primate family Callitrichidae, which is characterized by unique morphological and reproductive traits. 

Callitrichids, among the smallest (.5 to 1.3 lbs.) of the New World primates, 

often are brightly colored monkeys with little, if any, gender differences in body 

size or coloration. 

Other distinguishing morphological 

features of marmosets and tamarins 

include claws instead 

of nails on all digits 

except for the opposable hallux, and two 

molars on either side 

of each jaw.

Cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) with nestbox and perches 

(photo by K.Bayne).
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Behavior

Marmosets and tamarins have rich 

communicative behavioral repertoires 

that help individuals communicate 

within their group and with other 

groups. Chemical communication 

via scent marking is one important 

aspect of callitrichid social and sexual 

behavior. Scent marking increases 

when marmosets and tamarins are 

exposed to unfamiliar animals. Callitrichid primates have specialized 

glands (found in the anogenital, suprapubic, sternal, and perhaps facial 

areas), which produce oily secretions 

that are mixed with urine and deposited on branches and, to a lesser 

degree, other surfaces. These scents contain information on species, subspecies, 

and individual identity, as well as reproductive status, social rank, and the age 

of the marking. Scents are also thought to facilitate reproductive suppression of 

subordinate females in some callitrichid species.

Marmoset (Callithrix geoffroyi ) parents sitting with their infants (photo by H. A. Jensen).

Adult Geoffroy’s marmoset, Callithrix geoffroyi 

(photo by H. A. Jensen).
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Marmosets & Tamarins

Mating and Reproduction

The social behavior of callitrichids within groups, in many ways, revolves 

around two aspects of callitrichid reproduction: reproductive suppression, which 

prevents subordinate males and females from engaging in sexual behavior, and 

extended residence of offspring in the natal family group. Subordinate females 

and adult-aged daughters living in their natal family group do not typically 

engage in reproductive activity and, in most cases, nonbreeding females are 

endocrinologically suppressed and do not ovulate. Likewise, subordinate males 

and adult-aged sons typically do not engage in sexual behavior. Reproductive 

suppression is known to be lifted from subordinate individuals when a new 

breeding male is introduced and following the death or illness of a breeding 

male or female.

Cooperative care is another important component of callitrichid social life. 

Marmosets and tamarins typically produce fraternal twins that are cared for by 

all group members, including both male and female non-reproductive individuals. This is particularly important because, at birth, litters weigh approximately 

15 – 25 percent of adult body weight. Numerous studies have demonstrated 

that subordinate individuals provide a significant amount of care to infants born 

into the group. Indeed, the breeding male has been shown to participate less in 

carrying behavior when there are multiple helpers (e.g., adult offspring), with 

a concomitant increase in his survivability. The expression of competent caregiving behavior, however, requires experience with infants (either one’s own or 

siblings). It is suggested, then, that individuals remain within their natal groups 

during the rearing of the next one or two litters. 

Social World

The social lives of marmosets and tamarins are unique among primates. Marmosets and tamarins are the only primates known to exhibit a cooperative breeding system, characterized by extended residence of offspring within the family 

group, breeding that is mostly limited to a single breeding pair, and care of 

offspring provided by group members other than the parents.

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Marmosets & Tamarins

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In captive settings, callitrichid primates are 

commonly housed in 

groups comprised of a 

single breeding adult male 

and female, along with 

the independent (subadult 

and juvenile) and dependent (infant) offspring of 

the breeding pair. Captive groups generally do 

not contain unrelated 

individuals, because social 

groups containing unrelated same-sex individuals are likely to be unstable. Studies of captive and wild 

populations of callitrichid primates, however, have revealed that there is some 

degree of intra-specific variation in social structure that can remain stable over 

long periods of time. In fact, a variety of different social structures have been 

found to result in stable social groups, including the following:

• fathers with offspring

• mothers with offspring

• same- and opposite-sex siblings (note: opposite-sex sibling groups are not 

recommended for cotton-top tamarins)

• same-sex pairs or small groups of unrelated or unfamiliar individuals

• single same-sex or opposite-sex individuals of different species

Intra-group aggression is generally directed toward non-breeding individuals by 

their same-sex sibling or same-sex parent. Displacement, threat behavior, chasing, and minor injuries often precede the eviction of an individual from a social 

group. The victim is easily identified because he/she will often separate from the 

group, show fearful behavior when approached by group members (especially an 

aggressor), and generally remain closer to the floor of the cage than other group 

members. Temporary separation for a period of hours or days may allow an 

individual that was in the process of being evicted to be reintegrated into a social 

group. These aggressive events within families are often triggered by periods of 

fertility in the dominant female, and special care should be taken to monitor 

group relations in the two to three weeks after the birth of infants, when the 

dominant females are likely to be ovulating.

Subadult male marmoset (Callithrix kuhlii ) carrying

infant sibling (photo by C. N. Ross).
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Marmosets & Tamarins

Introducing an adult male and female is quite easy. Generally, a brief period of 

limited contact through mesh or a “howdy cage,” followed by a brief period of 

close observations once full contact is allowed, is all that is needed. Successfully 

introducing same-sex unrelated individuals or new adults into breeding groups, 

however, often is more difficult. In fact, the likelihood of failure increases with 

the age of the same-sex individuals already present in the group. For these introductions, much longer introduction and observation times are necessary.

Physical World

Housing

An ideal captive environment for callitrichid primates promotes good physical 

health, allows for successful reproduction and rearing of offspring, and facilitates 

the acquisition of skills that the animals would need to survive in the wild. Although there are no clear specifications for optimal habitat size, habitats should 

be large enough, and rich enough, to allow and promote a full range of naturalistic behaviors, social interactions, and locomotion patterns. The general rule for 

callitrichid housing is that no housing is too large. Also, as callitrichids are treedwellers and range up to 10 meters above the ground in their natural habitats, 

vertical space is extremely important. If space is limited, narrow, tall housing is 

preferred to wide, low housing.

Cages often are constructed of wood or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) frames with 

steel or wire mesh. Many zoological parks also are constructing callitrichid housing from textured rockwork with glass or wire fronting. The primary furnishing for callitrichid housing should be natural tree branches and other surfaces 

on which the monkeys can climb, leap, and run. Branches should be arranged 

to provide a network of pathways by which the animals can move about their 

home. Branches are particularly important because marmosets and tamarins 

use these as the normal substrate for scent marking. If natural branches are not 

provided, the monkeys will scent mark on smooth, nonabsorbent substrates, and 

the marks may soil their fur.

Marmoset and tamarin group members sleep huddled together, so a nest box, 

placed high in the cage should be provided. Floors should be covered with wood 

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Marmosets & Tamarins

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chips or shredded paper; this provides padding for young animals, which are 

most likely to fall from a branch onto the floor, and it also encourages animals 

to forage through the bedding. Food and water should be made available on a 

feeding platform or in a bowl placed high in the cage in a location that prevents 

contamination by urine and feces. 

Since wild marmosets and tamarins are highly territorial under most conditions, 

visual and auditory contact between different social groups should be limited. 

When multiple groups are housed in close proximity to one another, and when 

overcrowding occurs within social groups, increased aggressive behavior is not 

uncommon. Further, chronic arousal associated with prolonged exposure to 

unfamiliar animals can lead to abortions and infant loss. Visual barriers, and 

sometimes sound absorbing materials, should be used to prevent territorial and 

aggressive displays between groups. 

In light of the important role scent marking plays in social and sexual behavior, 

it is often suggested that husbandry practices maintain a sanitary, but smellintact, environment by sanitizing cages less frequently and/or allowing some 

scent-marked items (e.g., nest box, perch, branches, etc.) to remain unsanitized 

and, thereby, retain their odor. However, some practical experience suggests that 

Golden Lion Tamarin (Leontidius sp.) using a rope crossing between trees (photo by K. Bayne).
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Marmosets & Tamarins

sanitizing these items 

routinely does not result 

in adverse effects on the 

health or reproductive 

capacity of the animals. 

Regardless, most guidelines allow for the maintenance of scent-marked 

branches in cages for 

periods of several weeks 

to several months.

 

Environmental enrichment items and devices 

also are a necessary part 

of callitrichid housing. Not only do they 

promote the development of behavioral and 

logical skills and mental 

and sensory stimulation, 

but they can prompt 

naturally occurring 

behaviors in the animals. 

The amount, type, and presentation of enrichment should be varied to prevent 

boredom. Foraging devices, artificial gum trees, cardboard boxes and gallon milk 

jugs with large holes cut in them, paper towel and toilet paper, are commonly 

used for enrichment. 

Feeding

Meeting the nutritional needs of callitrichid primates is essential to their health 

and well-being in captivity. The diets of wild marmosets and tamarins include 

tree exudates (sap or gum), fruits, buds and flowers, nectar, insects, and small 

vertebrates. Since proportions vary between and within species, only general nutritional issues will be covered here. However, it is important to avoid over-feeding these animals with food treats such that they do not consume a nutritionally 

balanced diet. Further detailed information can be found in the Callitrichid 

Husbandry Manual. 

Example of basic cage with ladder/swing and polyvinyl chloride 

(PVC) nestbox. Branches can be added for scent-marking

(photo by K.Bayne).
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Young monkeys begin to beg for and eat solid food between three to five weeks 

of age. Approximately 20 percent of the diet of wild marmosets and tamarins is 

protein. A canned marmoset diet, which is now commercially available, should 

provide the foundation of the diet. New World primate biscuits also should 

be offered, along with an assortment of fresh fruits and vegetables. Two fruits 

and two vegetables should be offered daily. Cooked and uncooked cereals, and 

cooked pasta, are ideal sources of carbohydrates. Treats can include gum arabic, 

marshmallows, raisins, crickets, mealworms, and waxworms. 

In the wild, callitrichids spend nearly 60 percent of their day foraging for food. 

Live food or highly preferred food items hidden in bedding simulates a natural 

situation and provides an additional opportunity for enrichment. A foraging box 

can be easily made by placing highly preferred food items into small holes that 

have been cut into a cardboard box filled with bedding. Callitrichids also enjoy 

food items suspended from branches, and treat cups with lids and peek holes. 

Special Cases

Age-related Considerations

Healthy marmosets and tamarins maintain good abilities to forage and move 

about well into their old age. The only major issue with older animals is difficulGolden Lion Tamarin (Leontidius sp.) perching on a branch (photo by K. Bayne).

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Marmosets & Tamarins

ty in chewing solid food because of tooth wear and loss. In these cases, soaking 

food in liquids prior to feeding or provisioning animals with softer diets are two 

easy solutions. 

 

In terms of normal social development, most institutions that rear marmosets 

and tamarins have a policy of keeping young individuals in their family groups 

until they have had exposure to and experience with one or more sets of younger 

siblings. It is assumed that this experience will increase the likelihood of success 

in rearing young when the animals are placed in a position where breeding is 

possible. As mentioned above, however, older siblings are sometimes involved 

in mild to serious fights with same-sex siblings, and may need to be removed 

from the group. Decisions about removing an individual from a group should 

be made in light of the need for normal experience with siblings and the seriousness of the aggression. 

Rejection of infants by parents and the inability of infants to maintain contact 

with caregivers are fairly regular occurrences in captive marmosets and tamarins. 

In some cases, lack of infant success is associated with infant health and vigor 

(e.g., low birth-weight infants are unable to maintain a grip on their parent’s 

fur). In other cases, parents (particularly mothers) may actively reject and fail 

to carry and nurse their infants. A number of zoos and research facilities have 

reported some success in hand-rearing infants. Specific details of hand-rearing 

protocols can be found in the Callitrichid Husbandry Manual.

It is important to note that hand-rearing is associated with a variety of behavioral problems, particularly as the hand-reared individuals reach reproductive age. 

Therefore, decisions about hand-rearing rejected infants should involve a careful 

consideration of the animal’s purpose in the facility as an adult. An individual 

that is highly aggressive toward people may not be a good animal for a zoological exhibit, for example. 

 

Individual Housing

Like other primates, marmosets and tamarins are highly social, and individual 

or solitary housing is strongly discouraged. In the event that animals need to be 

housed individually, efforts should be taken to maximize regular social contact 

with caretakers. Marmosets and tamarins have been housed successfully with 

birds or rodents. Specific examples of successful mixed-species housing can 

be found in the Callitrichid Husbandry Manual. However, in no case should 
Marmosets & Tamarins

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10

a marmoset or 

tamarin be housed 

with a New 

World primate 

from the Family 

Cebidae, including 

squirrel monkeys, 

capuchins, spider 

monkeys. Cebids 

can carry viruses, 

such as Herpesvirus 

saimiri, that do 

not affect their 

own health but 

could be lethal for 

marmosets and 

tamarins. 

 

In the event that 

animals do require 

individual housing, efforts should be taken to compensate for the isolation by 

providing additional enrichment. Increased and regular positive social contact 

with caretakers should be encouraged, but these people should be familiar and 

non-threatening to the animals. Increasing the complexity of the physical environment with live plants or other cage furnishings is also a worthwhile endeavor. 

Marmosets and tamarins rely extensively on vocalizations for communicating 

both within and between groups, and isolated animals can be stimulated to call 

by hearing vocalizations from their own or related species.

Downloadable versions of vocalizations can be found in a variety of locations 

(e.g., http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/av/vocals/). 

Safety Issues

As with all primates, marmosets and tamarins do not like handling, and alternatives to handling should be sought. The animals are easily trained to do a variety 

Infant Wied’s black tufted-ear marmoset, Callithrix kuhlii 

(photo by J. E. Fite).

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Marmosets & Tamarins

of tasks (e.g., present for physical examination, sit on a scale for weighing, 

voluntarily enter a transport cage). Training works best if the animals are worked 

regularly and if training occurs before the day’s feeding. However, even well-fed 

animals can be trained with highly preferred food items. Detailed examples and 

descriptions of procedures can be found in the Callitrichid Husbandry Manual. 

Marmosets and tamarins should be handled as little as possible, since they tend 

to be highly reactive to unusual stressors. For routine procedures that are short 

(less than five minutes), such as physical examination or biological sample 

collection, hand-held restraint can work well. Animals can be captured with 

fine-mesh nets (“butterfly net mesh”) and removed by hand. However, the netting procedure can be a major stressor for other group members. Animals can 

be readily trained to enter a detachable nest box, and removing the animal in 

a separate procedure room can minimize this distress. Handlers should wear 

protective leather gloves. A grip from behind the animal’s back, with thumb 

and middle finger underneath the forearms, provides the most secure holding 

position. Most animals will take treats during this restraint, which can serve as a 

reward and enrichment during the handling. If handlers are also caretakers, different clothing should be worn during manual restraint procedures to minimize 

distress for the animals during other routine caretaking activities. 

 

For procedures of longer duration, animals should be given some form of 

chemical immobilization. Ketamine hydrochloride (intramuscular injection) 

provides good immobilization for medium-term procedures (5 - 15 minutes) 

and suggested dosages are provided in the Callitrichid Husbandry Manual. For 

long-term procedures (more than 15 minutes) inhalable anesthetics are recommended, particularly isoflurane. A cat-sized face mask can be used to deliver the 

anesthetic. Some facilities have had success in inducing isoflurane anesthesia by 

placing the animal into an empty 2-liter plastic soda bottle with a removable 

bottom, and directing the anesthetic gas into the bottle. This procedure minimizes the struggle and stress of placing the mask over an awake and alert animal. 

For these longer procedures, care should be taken to monitor and maintain core 

body temperature (warming blanket or warm water bottle) since body temperature can drop quickly in an anesthetized animal. 
Marmosets & Tamarins

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12

References 

Abbott DH, McNeilly AS, Lunn SF, Hulme MJ, Burden FJ. 1981. Inhibition of ovarian function 

in subordinate female marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus jacchus). Journal of Reproduction and 

Fertility 63:335-345.

Baker JV, Abbott DH, Saltzman W. 1999. Social determinants of reproductive failure in male 

common marmosets housed with their natal family. Animal Behaviour 58:501-513.

Baker AJ, Savage A. 1999. Social management of callitrichids and Callimico. In Callitrichid 

Husbandry Manual. Brookfield, IL: AZA Neotropical TAG.

Bales K, Dietz J, Baker A, Miller K, Tardiff SD. 2000. Effects of allocare-givers on fitness of 

infants and parents in callitrichid primates. Folia Primatol (Basel) 71(1-2):27-38.

Byron JK, Bodri MS. 2001. Environmental enrichment for laboratory marmosets. Lab Animal 

30(8):42-48.

de Rosa C, Vitale A, Puopolo M. 2003. The puzzle-feeder as feeding enrichment for common 

marmosets (Callithrix jacchus): a pilot study. Lab Animal, 37(2):100-107. 

Emlen ST. 1991. Evolution of cooperative breeding in birds and mammals. In JR Krebs and NB 

Davies (Eds.), Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (pp. 301-335). London: Blackwell 

Scientific Publications.

Epple G. 1975. Parental behavior in Saguinus fuscicollis ssp. (Callitrichidae). Folia Primatologica 

24: 221-238.

Epple G. 1986. Communication by chemical signals. In G. Mitchel and J. Erwin (Eds.), 

Comparative Primate Biology, Volume 2, Part A; Behavior, Conservation, and Ecology (pp. 531-580). 

New York: Alan R Liss.

Farmerie M, Neiffer D, Vacco K. 1999. Enrichment and operant conditioning of callitrichids. 

In Callitrichid Husbandry Manual. Brookfield, IL: AZA Neotropical TAG. pp. 64-89.

French JA. 1997. Regulation of singular breeding in callitrichid primates. In NG Solomon and 

JA French (Eds.), Cooperative breeding in mammals (pp. 34-75). New York: Cambridge University 

Press.

French JA, Inglett BJ. 1991. Responses to novel social stimuli in tamarins: A comparative 

perspective. In HO Box (Ed.), Primate responses to environmental change (pp. 275-294). London: 

Chapman and Hall.

French JA, Pissinatti A, Coimbra-Filho AF. 1996. Reproduction in captive lion tamarins 

(Leontopithecus): Seasonality, infant survival, and sex ratios. American Journal of Primatology 39:

17-33.

Heymann EW, Soini P. 1999. Offspring number in pygmy marmosets, Cebuella pygmaea, in 

relation to group size and the number of adult males. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 46:

400-404.

Inglett BJ, JA French, LG Simmons, KW Vires. 1989. Dynamics of intrafamily aggression and 

social reintegration in lion tamarins. Zoo Biology 8:67-78.

Kinzey WG. 1997. Synopsis of New World Primates (16 Genera). In WG Kinzey (Ed.), New 

World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (pp. 222-296). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

Kleiman DG. 1977. Monogamy in mammals. Quarterly Review of Biology 52: 39-69.

McGrew WC, Brennan JA, Russell J. 1986. An artificial “gum-tree” for marmosets (Callithrix j. 

jacchus). Zoo Biology 5: 45-50.

National Research Council. 1998. The Psychological Well-Being of Nonhuman Primates. 

Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

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Poole TB. 1990. Environmental enrichment for marmosets. Animal Technology 41(2): 81-86.

Rukstalis M, French JA. 2003. Exposure to conspecific vocalizations modulates stress responses in 

marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii). American Journal of Primatology 60 (Supplement1): 129-130. 

Santos CV, Martins MM. 2000. Parental care in the buffy-tufted-ear marmoset (Callithrix aurita) 

in wild and captive groups. Braz J Biol. 60(4):667-72.

Snowdon CT, Savage A. 1989. Psychological well-being of captive primates: General 

considerations and examples from Callitrichids. In E Segal (Ed.), Housing, Care, and Psychological 

Well-being of Captive and Laboratory Primates (pp.75-88). Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Publications.

Snowdon CT, Soini P. 1988. The Lion Tamarins, Genus Leontopithecus. In RA Mittermeier, AB 

Rylands, AF Coimbra-Filho and GAB Fonseca (Eds.), Ecology and behavior of neotropical primates 

(Vol. 2, pp. 223-298). Washington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund.

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Soini P. 1988. The Pygmy Marmoset, Genus Cebuella. In RA Mittermeier, AB Rylands, AF 

Coimbra-Filho and GAB Fonseca (Eds.), Ecology and behavior of neotropical primates (Vol. 2, pp. 

79-129). Washington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund.

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(Vol. 2, pp. 131-222). Washington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund.

Tardif S, Carson RL, Gangaware BL. 1990. Infant-care behavior of mothers and fathers in 

a communal-care primate, the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). American Journal of 

Primatology 22: 73-85.

Tardif SD, Clapp NK, Hence MA, Carson RL, Knapka JJ. 1988. Maintenance of cotton-top 

tamarins fed an experimental pelleted diet versus a highly diverse sweetened diet. Laboratory 

Animal Science 5: 588-591.

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Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice 2(1): 209-240.

Other Resources

Callitrichid Husbandry Manual, produced by the American Zoological Association. E-mail: 

bzadmin@brookfieldzoo.org 

The Psychological Well-Being of Nonhuman Primates, produced by the Institute for Laboratory 

Animal Research of the National Resource Council, at http://books.nap.edu/books/0309052335/

html/index.html

Common Names of the Callitrichids

Marmosets:

Callithrix acariensis: Rio Acarí marmoset

C. argentata: Black-tailed marmoset, Silvery marmoset

C. aurita: White-eared marmoset, Buffy tufted-ear marmoset

C. chrysoleuca: Golden marmoset, Silky marmoset, Golden-white tassel-ear marmoset

C. emiliae: Snethlage’s marmoset

C. flaviceps: Buff-headed marmoset, Buffy headed marmoset, White-eared marmoset, Whiteheaded marmoset
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14

C. geoffroyi: White-fronted marmoset, Geoffroy’s marmoset, Geoffroy’s tufted-ear marmoset

C. humeralifer: Santarem marmoset, Tassel-eared marmoset, Black and white tassel-ear marmoset, 

White-shouldered marmoset, Golden marmoset, Silky marmoset, Yellow-legged marmoset

C. intermedia: Aripuanã marmoset

C. jacchus: Common marmoset, White ear-tufted marmoset, Tufted-Ear marmoset

C. kuhlii: Weid’s black tufted-ear marmoset

C. lucippe: Golden-white bare-ear marmoset

C. manicorensis: Manicore marmoset

C. marcai or Callithrix argentata marcai: Marca’s marmoset

C. mauesi: Rio Maues marmoset, Maues marmoset

C. melanura: Black-tailed marmoset

C. nigriceps: Black-headed marmoset

C. penicillata: Black-eared marmoset, Black ear-tufted marmoset, Black-pencilled marmoset, 

Black-plumed marmoset

C. saterei: Satere marmoset

Cebuella pygmaea: Pygmy marmoset

Goeldi’s Monkey

Callimico goeldii: Goeldi’s marmoset, Goeldi’s tamarin, Calimico

Tamarins

Saguinus bicolor: Pied tamarin, Bare-faced tamarin, Pied bare-face tamarin, Brazilian bare-faced 

tamarin

S. fuscicollis ssp: Ávila Pires’ Saddle-back tamarin, Crandall’s Saddle-back tamarin, Cruz Lima’s 

saddle-back tamarin, Spix’s saddle-back tamarin, Lesson’s saddle-back tamarin, Illiger’s saddleback tamarin, Red-mantle saddle-back tamarin, Andean saddle-back tamarin, White saddle-back 

tamarin, Geoffroy’s saddle-back tamarin, Saddle-back tamarin, Weddell’s saddle-back tamarin

S. geoffroyi: Geoffroy’s tamarin, Rufous-naped tamarin

S. graellsi: Rio Napo tamarin, Graell’s black-mantle tamarin

S. imperator ssp: Black-chinned emperor tamarin, Bearded emperor tamarin

S. inustus: Mottle-faced tamarin

S. labiatus ssp: Red-bellied tamarin, Red-chested tamarin, Red-chested mustached tamarin, 

Thomas’ mustached tamarin

S. leucopus: White-footed tamarin, Silvery-brown bare-faced tamarin, Silvery-brown bare-face 

tamarin

S. martinsi: Martin’s tamarin, Martin’s bare-face tamarin, Ochraceous bare-face tamarin

S. midas: Midas tamarin, Red-handed tamarin, Golden-handed tamarin, Rufous-handed tamarin, 

Lacepede’s tamarin

S. mystax ssp: Moustached tamarin, Red-capped tamarin, White-rump mustached tamarin

S. niger: Black-handed tamarin

S. nigricollis: Spix’s black mantle tamarin, Black-mantle tamarin, Black-mantled tamarin, Blackand-red tamarin

S. oedipus: Cotton-top tamarin, Pinche marmoset, Cotton-head tamarin, Cotton-tops, Liszt 

monkey

S. tamarin: Negro tamarin 

S. tripartitus: Golden-mantled tamarin, Golden-mantle saddle-back tamarin

S. weddelli: Weddell’s tamarin
......

15

Marmosets & Tamarins
This series of booklets on enrichment for nonhuman 

primates was made possible through the cooperation of: 

~ Department of Health and Human Services

~ NIH, Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW)

~ US Department of Agriculture, Animal Care

~ Association of Primate Veterinarians

~ American Society of Primatologists

For more information, contact OLAW at NIH

tel: (301) 496-7163, e-mail olaw@od.nih.gov

NIH Publication No. 05-5747

Department of Health and Human Services, 2005

enrichment for nonhuman primates