National Educators' Workshop:Update 99 

Standard Experiments in Engineering, Materials Science, 

and Technology 

Compiled by 

Ginger L. E Arrington and James E. Gardner 

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 

James A. Jacobs 

Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia 

John E. Fillion 

DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Auburn Hills, Michigan 

P. K. Mallick 

University of Michigan, Dearborn, Michigan 
The NASA ST1 Program Office . . . in Profile 

Since its founding, NASA has been dedicated 

to the advancement of aeronautics and space 

science. The NASA Scientific and Technical 

Information (STI) Program Office plays a key 

part in helping NASA maintain this 

important role. 

The NASA ST1 Program Office is operated by 

Langley Research Center, the lead center for 

NASA's scientific and technical information. 

The NASA STI Program Office provides 

access to the NASA ST1 Database, the 

largest collection of aeronautical and space 

science STI in the world. The Program Office 

is also NASA's institutional mechanism for 

disseminating the results of its research and 

development activities. These results are 

published by NASA in the NASA STI Report 

Series, which includes the following report 

types: 

* TECHNICAL PUBLICATION. Reports of 

completed research or a major significant 

phase of research that present the results 

of NASA programs and include extensive 

data or theoretical analysis. Includes 

compilations of sigruficant scientific and 

technical data and information deemed 

to be of continuing reference value. NASA 

counterpart of peer-reviewed formal 

professional papers, but having less 

stringent limitations on manuscript 

length and extent of graphic 

presentations. 

* TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM. 

Scientific and technical findings that are 

preliminary or of specialized interest, 

e.g., quick release reports, working 

papers, and bibliographies that contain 

minimal annotation. Does not contain 

extensive analysis. 

* CONTRACTOR REPORT. Scientific and 

technical findings by NASA-sponsored 

contractors and grantees. 

* CONFERENCE PUBLICATION. 

Collected papers from scientific and 

technical conferences, symposia, 

seminars, or other meetings sponsored or 

cosponsored by NASA. 

* SPECIAL PUBLICATION. Scientific, 

technical, or historical information from 

NASA programs, projects, and missions, 

often concerned with subjects having 

substantial public interest. 

TECHNICAL TRANSLATION. Englishlanguage translations of foreign scientific 

and technical material pertinent to 

NASA's mission. 

Specialized services that complement the 

ST1 Program Office's diverse offerings include 

creating custom thesauri, building customized 

databases, organizing and publishing 

research results . . . even providing videos. 

For more information about the NASA STI 

Program Office, see the following: 

* Access the NASA STI Program Home 

Page at hitp:llwww.sti.nasa.gov 

Email your question via the Internet to 

help@sti.nasa.gov 

Fax your question to the NASA STI 

Help Desk at (301) 621-0134 

* Telephone the NASA STI Help Desk at 

(301) 621-0390 

* Write to: 

NASA STI Help Desk 

NASA Center for Aerospace Information 

7121 Standard Drive 

Hanover, MD 21076-1320 
National E-ducators' Workshop:Update 99 

Standard Experiments in Engineering, Materials Science, 

and Technology 

Compiled by 

Ginger L. E Arrington and James E. Gardner 

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 

James A. Jacobs 

Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia 

John E. Fillion 

DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Auburn Hills, Michigan 

l? K. Mallick 

University of Michigan, Dehborn, Michigan 

Proceedings of a workshop sponsored jointly by the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, Washington, DC; Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia; the 

Department of Defense, Washington, DC; the National Institute of Standards and 

Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland; DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Auburn Hills, 

Michigan; and the University of Michigan, Dearborn, Michigan 

and held in 

Dearbom and Auburn Hills, Michigan 

October 31-November 3,1999 

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

Langley Research Center 

Hampton, Virginia 23681-2199 

October 2000 
official endorsement either expressed or implied, of such products or manufacturers by the National Aeronautics and 

Available from: 

NASA Center for Aerospace Information (CASI) 

7121 Standard Drive 

Hanover, MD 21076-1320 

(301) 621-0390 

National Technical Information Service (NTIS) 

5285 Port Royal Road 

Springfield, VA 22161-2171 

(703) 605-6000 
PREFACE 

NEW:Update 99, hosted by the University of Michigan-Dearborn and the DaimlerChrysler 

Corporation, was held October 3 1 - November 3, 1999. 

The 14th Annual NEWUpdate was built on themes, activities and presentations based on extensive 

evaluations fiom participants of previous workshops as we continued efforts to strengthening 

materials education. About 100 participants witnessed demonstrations of experiments, discussed 

issues of materials science and engineering (MS&E) with people fiom education, industry, 

government, and technical societies, heard about new MS&E developments, and chose fkom nine, 

three-hour mini workshops in state-of-the-art laboratories. Faculty in attendance represented high 

schools, community colleges, smaller colleges, and major universities. Undergraduate and graduate 

students also attended and presented. 

As in past years, we were fortunate to have excellent support fiom our hosts. DaimlerChrysler and 

the University of Michigan Dearborn helped to coordinate the many scientist, engineers, professors 

and other staff, by providing funding, opening their facilities, developing presentations and 

activities. 

NEW:Update 99 participants saw the demonstration of about fifty experiments and aided in 

evaluating them. We also heard updating information relating to materials science, engineering and 

technology presented at mini plenary sessions. 

The experiments in this publication can serve as a valuable guide to faculty who are interested in 

useful activities for their students. The material was the result of years of research aimed at better 

methods of teaching materials science, engineering and technology. The experiments developed by 

faculty, scientists, and engineers throughout the United States and abroad add to the collection from 

past workshops. There is a blend of experiments on new materials and traditional materials. 

Experiments underwent an extensive peer review process. After submission of abstracts, selected 

authors were notified of their acceptance and given the format for submission of experiments. 

Experiments were reviewed by a panel of specialists through the cooperation of the International 

Council for Materials E'ducation (ICME). Comments fiom workshop participants provided additional 

feedback which authors used to make final revisions, which were then submitted to the NASA 

editorial group for this publication. 

The ICME encourages authors of experiments to make submissions for use in the Journal of 

Materials Education (JME). The JME offers valuable teaching and curriculum aids including 

instructional modules on emerging materials technology, experiments, book reviews, and editorials 

to materials educators. 

As with previous NEWUpdates, critiques were made of the workshop to provide continuing 

improvement of this activity. The evaluations and recommendations made by participants provide 

valuable feedback for the planning of subsequent NEW:Updates. 

iii 
NEW:Update 99 and the series of workshops that go back to 1986 are, to our knowledge, the only 

national workshops or gatherings for materials educators that have a focus on the full range of issues 

on strategies for better teaching about the full complement of materials. NEW:Update 98, with its 

diversity of faculty, industry, and government MSE participants, served as a forum for both formal 

and informal issues facing MSE education that ranged fkom the challenges of keeping faculty and 

students abreast of new technology to ideas to ensure that materials scientists, engineers, and 

technicians maintain the proper respect for the environment in the pursuit of their objectives. 

We demonstrated the second edition of Experiments in Materials Science, Engineering & 

Technology, (EMSET2) CD-ROM with over 300 experiments fkom NEW:Updates. This CD-ROM 

is another example of cooperative efforts to support materials education. The primary contributions 

came fkom the many authors of the demonstrations and experiments for NEWUpdates. Funding for 

the CD came fkom both private industry and federal agencies. Please see the attached information 

for obtaining the CD. 

We express our appreciation to all those who helped to keep this series of workshops viable. Special 

thanks goes to those on our national organizing committee, management team, hosts, sponsors, and 

especially those of you who developed and shared your ideas for experiments, demonstrations, and 

novel approaches to teaching. 

We hope that the experiments presented in this publication will assist you in teaching about materials 

science, engineering and technology. We would like to have your comments on their value and 

means of improving them. Please send comments to Jim Jacobs, School of Science and 

Technology, Norfolk State University, Norfolk, Virginia 23504. 

The use of trademarks or manufacturers' names in this publication does not constitute endorsement, 

either expressed or implied, by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 
MANAGEMENT TEAM 

James A. Jacobs 

Workshop Co-chairperson 

Norfolk State University 

John E. Fillion 

Workshop Co-chairperson 

DaimlerChrysler 

P. K. Mallick 

Workshop Co-chairperson 

University of Michigan 

Diana P. LaClaire 

Assistant Director 

Norfolk State University 

Robert Berrettini 

International Council for Materials Education 

James M. Boileau 

Ford Motor Company 

Paul Brown 

International Council for Materials Education 

L. ROY Bumell 

Southridge High School 

S. Raj Chaudhury 

Norfolk State University 

James Clum 

University of Detroit-Mercy 

Martin A. Crimp 

Michigan State University 

Leonard W. Fine 

Columbia University 

Morton Friedman 

Gateway Engineering Coalition 

Kenneth L. Jewett 

National Institute of Standards & 

Technology 

Thomas F. Kilduff, Emeritus 

Thomas Nelson Community College 

James V. Masi 

Northeast Center for Telecommunication 

Technologies 

Alfred E. McKenney 

IBM Corporation, Retired 

Thomas C. Pederson 

General Motors Company 

Edwin Prior 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration 

Heidi Ries 

Air Force Institute of Technology 

Philip S. Sklad 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Laura L. Sullivan 

American Society for Engineering 

Education 

Charles V. White 

Kettering University 

Steven M. Yalisove 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 
Acknowledgements 

We greatly appreciate the support provided by these organizations: 

American Society for Engineering 

Columbia University 

Kettering University 

Michigan State University 

University of Detroit-Mercy 

ASM International 

Delphi Automotive Chassis Systems 

International Council for Materials Education 

Northeast Center for Telecommunication Technologies 

University of Michigan-Ann Arbor 
CONTENTS 

... PREFACE ................................................................................................... UI 

MANAGEMENT TEAM.. ................................................................................ v 

REVIEWERS OF EXPERIMENTS. ................................................................. xi 

LISTING OF EXPERIMENTS FROM NEW:UPDATES .................................. xiii 

PARTICIPANTS.. ..................................................................................... xxxi 

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN DEARBORN ................................................. xlix 

CONTINUOUS LEARNING NETWORK (CLN) .............................................. 1 

Robert Kleinhans, Marina Arizpe, - Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

STUDY OF MOLECULAR DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS BY 

INTRINSIC VISCOSITY ......................................................................... 27 

Ping Liu - Eastern Illinois University, Danuta Ciesielska - Poman University 

of Technology, Poland 

MICROWAVE DIELECTRIC RESPONSE OF WATER AS A FUNCTION 

OF FREQUENCY ........................................................................................ 37 

J. N. Dahiya - Southeast Missouri State University 

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR MATERIALS 

RESEARCH IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY.. ......................................... 51 

Christine S. Sloane - General Motors R&D Center and Advanced 

Technology Vehicles 

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS ................................................................... 69 

John A. Marshall - University of Southern Maine 

ACCELERATED AGING STUDY OF ABS COPOLYMER.. .............................. 75 

Wayne L. Elban, Scott N. Hornung, Matthew C. Reinhardt - 

Loyola College 

FRICTION AND LUBRICATION OF HIGHLY DEFORMABLE POROUS 

BEARINGS: LEARNING FROM ARTICULAR CARTILAGE OF HUMAN 

JOINTS.. .................................................................................................. -101 

Michael A. Soltz, Gerard A. Ateshian - Columbia University 

EXPERIMENTS IN MAGNETICS FOR TELECOMMUNICATIONS: 

ORGANIC AND SOL-GEL.. ........................................................................ 109 

James V. Masi - Northeast Center for Telecommunications Technologies 

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE IMPACT BEHAVIOR AND 

DIMENSIONAL STABILITY OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS. ................. .12 1 

Wayne L. Elban - Loyola College, Matthew J. Elban - 

Carroll Christian High School 

MICROWAVE DRIVEN ACTUATORS POWER ALLOCATION AND 

DISTRIBUTION .......................... .:. .......................................................... -303 

Timothy Forbes, Kyo D. Song - Norfolk State University 

STRETCHY "ELASTIC" BANDS 111 CONTAMINANT EFFECTS .................. .3 13 

Alan K. Karplus - Western New England College 

GALVANOSTATIC POLARIZATION CURVES FOR TEACHING 

PURPOSES, PART 11. .............................................................................. ..329 

Carlos E. Umana - University of Costa Rica 

DIGITAL SHEAROGRAPHY AND APPLICATIONS.. ................................... -341 

Y. Y. Hung - Oakland University 

LARCTM RP46 POLYIMIDE LOW COST HIGH TEMPERATURE 

TECHNOLOGY. ........................................................................................ ..387 

Ruth H. Pater - NASA Langley Research Center 

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SHEET STEELS USED IN 

STAMPING AND DRAWING. .................................................................... -39 1 

Harvey Abramowitz - Purdue University - Calumet 

EVERY-DAY OBJECTS AND CLASS DEMONSTRATION IN MATERIAL 

SCIENCE CLASS, DESIGNED TO HELP STUDENTS LEARN ...................... 423 

Neda S. Fabris - California State University, Los Angeles 

ENGINEERING PLAN BEHIND THE ULTRA LIGHT STEEL 

AUTO BODY AND AISUCARS '98 OVERVIEW.. ......................................... .431 

Darryl Martin, Samuel K. Errera - American Iron and Steel Institute 

MST-ONLINE: THE DESIGN OF AN INTERNET GATEWAY FOR 

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES IN MATERIALS SCIENCE AND 

TECHNOLOGY. ........................................................................................ -46 1 

S. Raj Chaudhury, Matthew Sanders, Curtiss Wall, James A. Jacobs - 

Norfolk State University 

VISIO-PLASTIC MODELING OF METAL FORGING 

AND EXTRUSION.. .................................................................................. -475 

Ghassan T. Kridli - University of Michigan - Dearborn 

CORPORATE PARTNERSHIPS: WIN-WIN-WIN.. ....................................... .48 1 

David H. Devier - Owens Community College 

A SIMPLE EXPERIMENT FOR DETERMINING ELASTIC 

PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS ................................................................... -489 

P. K. Mallick, Subrata Sengupta - University of Michigan - Dearborn 

THE MATERIALS EDUCATION LIBRARY: SHARING 

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES VIA THE WORLD WIDE WEB ....................... 499 

Darcy J. M. Clark - University of Michigan 
TEACHING THE PRINCIPLES OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 

USING OUR NATURAL SURROUNDINGS: SPIDER SILK ......................... .513 

Robert J. Scheer - Winona State University 

SIMPLE CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATIONS IN CHEMISTRY 

AND MATERIALS SCIENCE.. ................................................................... -519 

John B. Hudson - Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 

ARTIFACTS IN X-RAY DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENTS ............................. .529 

Bruce J. Pletka, Ruth I. Schultz Kramer, Edward A. Laitila - 

Michigan Technological University 

THE ADVANCED MATERIALS AND PROCESSING EDUCATION 

CENTER.. ................................................................................................ -543 

R. S. Goldman, D. Clark, A. Ghosh, L. P. Kendig, J. F. Mansfield, 

K. McIntyre, X. Pan, K. Worth - University of Michigan 

PREVIEW OF NEW :UPDATE 2000.. ........................................................... -547 

Richard Lee - National Composite Center 

USCAR LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY STUDY.. .............................................. -573 

J. L. Sullivan - Ford, R. Williams - GM, S. Yester - Chrysler, 

S. Hentges - APC, S. Pomper - AA, S. Chubbs - AISI 

USE OF A WEBSEM (REMOTE SCANNING ELECTRON 

MICROSC0PE)TO CHARACTERIZE AUTOMOTIVE WEAR DEBRIS.. .......... -597 

Stephen K. Kennedy - RJ Lee Group, Inc., Michael Gaston - 

West Greene High School 

TEENAGED MATERIALS SCIENCE.. ......................................................... .605 

Joanna Mirecki Millunchick - University of Michigan 

INTRODUCTION TO EMSET2 .................................................................. ..617 

James A. Jacobs, Alfred E. McKenney, Matthew Sanders, - 

Norfolk State University 

A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETOSTRICTION 

IN FERROMAGNETIC ALLOYS ................................................................ -633 

0. Garcia-Hernandez, R. Galindo, K. L. Garcia, R. Valenzuela - 

National University of Mexico 

CORKING AN OPEN-ENDED TANK.. ........................................................ -647 

Edward L. Widener - Purdue University 

MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY: CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATION.. ......... -655 

Richard B. Griff~n, Lance Terrill - Texas A&M University 

THE ROLE OF PLASTICS IN THE AUTOMOBILE ....................................... 665 

Bruce Cundiff - American Plastics Council 
Else Breval 

Senior Research Associate 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Paul W. Brown 

Professor Ceramics Science and Engineering 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Witold Brostow 

Professor of Materials Science 

Center for Materials Characterization 

University of North Texas 

L. Roy Bunnell 

Southridge High School 

William CaUister 

Adjunct Professor of Metallurgy University of Utah 

James Clum 

Director Manufacturing Engineering College of Engineering and Science 

University of Detroit Mercy 

Michael Grutzcek 

Associate Professor 

Materials Research Laboratory 

The Pennsylvania State University 

Technical notebooks were provided by 

NASA LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER 

Announcements of the workshop were provided by 

Northeast Center for Telecommunication Technologies 
Page intentionally left blank 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS -IN STRUCTURES, TESTING, AND EVALUATION 

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060 

Sastri, Sankar. "Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection" 

Sastri, Sankar. "Magnetic Particle Jnspection" 

Sastri, Sankar. "Radiographic Inspection" 

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Chowdhury, ~ostahz R. and Chowdhury, Farida. "Experimental Determination of Material Damping 

Using Vibration Analyzer" 

Chung, Wenchiang R. "The Assessment of Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites" 

Stibolt, Kenneth A. "Tensile and Shear Strength of Adhesives" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Azzara, Drew C. "ASTM: The Development and Application of Standards" 

Bates, Seth P. "Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing of Hot Rolled 1020 Steel to Explore Temperature Impact 

Strength Relationships" 

Chowdhury, Mostafiz R. "A Nondestructive Testing Method to Detect Defects in Structural Members" 

Cornwell, L. R., Grjffii, R. B., and Massarweh, W. A. "Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile Properties of 

Plastics" 

Gray, Stephanie L., Kern, Kristen T., Harries, Wynford L., and Long, Sheila Ann T. 

"Improved Technique for Measuring Coefficients of Thermal Extension for Polymer Films" 

Halperin, Kopl. "Design Project for the Materials Course: To Pick the Best Material for a Cooking Pot" 

Kundu, Nikhil. "Environmental Stress Cracking of Recycled Thermoplastics" 

Panchula, Larry and Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of a Simple Screening Strategy for Multifactor 

Experiments in Engineering" 

Taylor, Jenifer A. T. "How Does Change in Temperature Affect Resistance?" 

Wickman, Jeny L. and Corbin, Scott M. "Determining the Impact of ~djustin~~em~erature Profiles on 

Photodegradability of LDPEIStarch Blown Film" 

Widener, Edward L. "It's Hard to Test Hardness" 

Widener, Edward L. "Unconventional Impact-Toughness Experiments" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Tempered Glass and Thermal Shock of Ceramic Materials" 

Lundeen, Calvin D. "Impact Testing of Welded Samples" 

Gorman, Thomas M. "Designing, Engineering, and Testing Wood Structures" 

Strehlow, Richard R. "ASTM - Terminology for Experiments and Testing" 

Karplus, Alan K. "Determining Significant Material Properties, A Discovery Approach 

Spiegel, F. Xavier and Weigrnan, Bernard J. "An Automated System for Creep Testing" 

Denton, Nancy L. and Hillsman, Vernon S. "Isotropic Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel Experiment" 

Allen, David J. "Stress-Strain Characteristics of Rubber-Like Materials: Experiment and Analysis" 

Dahl, Charles C. "Computer Integrated Lab Testing" 

Cornwell, L. R. "Mechanical Properties of Brittle Material" 

xiii 
NEWUpdate 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Temperature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass and Construction 

and Testing of Simple Airfoils to Demonstrate Structural Design, Materials Choice, and Composite 

Concepts" 

Marpet, Mark I. "Walkway Friction: Experiment and Analysis" 

Martin, Donald H. "Application of Hardness Testing in Foundry Processing Operations: A University and 

Industry Partnership" 

Masi, James V. "Experiment.. in Corrosion for Younger Students By and For Older Students" 

Needham, David. "Micropipet Manipulation of Lipid Membranes: Direct Measurement of the Material 

Properties of a Cohesive Structure That is Only Two Molecules Thick" 

Perkins, Steven W. "Direct Tension Experiments on Compacted Granular Materials" 

Shih, Hui-Ru. "Development of an Experimental Method to Determine the Axial Rigidity of a 

Strut-Node Joint" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier. "An Automated Data Collection System For a Charpy Impact Tester" 

Tipton, Steven M. "A Miniature Fatigue Test Machine" 

Widener, Edward L. "Tool Grinding and Spark Testing" 

NEWUpdate 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Borst, Mark A. "Design and Construction of a Tensile Tester for the Testing of Simple Composites" 

Clum, James A. "Developing Modules on Experimental Design and Process Characterization for 

Manufacturing/Materials Processes Laboratories" 

Diller, T. E. and A. L. Wicks, "Measurement of Surface Heat Flux and Temperature" 

Denton, Nancy and Vernon S. Hillsman, "An Introduction to Strength of Materials for Middle School and 

Beyond 

Fisher, Jonathan H. "Bridgrnan Solidification and Experiment to Assess Boundaries and Interface Shape" 

Gray, Jennifer "Symmetry and Structure Through Optical Diffraction" 

Karplus, Alan K. "Knotty Knots" 

Kohne, Glenn S. "An Automated Digital Data Collection and Analysis System for the Charpy Impact 

Tester" 

Olesak, Patricia J. "Scferoscope Hardness Testing" 

Speigel, F. Xavier, "Inexpensive Materials Science Demonstrations" 

Wickman, J. L. "Plastic Part Design Analysis Using Polarized Filters and Birefringence" 

Widener, Edward L. "Testing Rigidity by Torque Wrench 
NEW:Update 94 NASA Conference Publication 3304 

Bruzan, Raymond and Baker, Douglas, "Density by Titration" 

Dahiya, Jai N., "Precision Measurements of the Microwave Dielectric Constants of Polyvinyl Stearate and 

Polyvinylidene Fluoride as a Function of Frequency and Temperature" 

Daufenbach, JoDee and Griffin, Alair, "Impact of Flaws" 

Fine, Leonard W., "Concrete Repair Applications and Polymerization of Butadiene by an "Mi1' Catalyst" 

Hillsman, Vernon S., "Stress Concentration: Computer Finite Element Analysis vs. Photoelasticity" 

Hutchinson, Ben, Giglio, Kim, Bowling, John, and Green, David, "Photocatalytic Destruction of an 

Organic Dyd Using TiO," 

Jenkins, Thomas J., Comtois, John H., and Bright, Victor M., "Micromachining of Suspended Structures 

in Silicon and Bulk Etching of Silicon for Micromachining" 

Jacobs, James A. and Jenkins, Thomas J., "Mathematics for Engineering Materials Technology 

Experiments and Problem Solving" 

Karplus, Alan K., "Paper Clip Fatigue Bend Test" 

Kohne, Glenn S., "Fluids With Magnetic Personalities" 

Liu, Ping and Waskom, Tommy L., "Ultrasonic Welding of Recycled High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)" 

Martin, Donald H., Schwan, Hermann, Diehm, Michael, "Testing Sand Quality in the Foundry (A Basic 

University-Industry Partnership" 

Shull, Robert D., "Nanostructured Materials" 

Werstler, David E., "Introduction to Nondestructive Testing" 

White, Charles V., "Glass Fracture Experiment for Failure Analysis" 

Wickman, Jerry L. and Kundu, Nikhil K., "Failure Analysis of Injection Molded Plastic Engineered Parts" 

Widener, Edward L., "Dimensionless Fun With Foam" 

NEW:Update 95 NASA Conference Publication 3330 

Brown, Scott, "Crystalline Hors d'oeuvres" 

Karplus, Alan K., "Craft Stick Beams" 

Kern, Kristen, "ION Beam Analysis of Materials" 

Kozma, Michael, "A Revisit to the Helicopter Factorial Design Experiment" 

Pond, Robert B., Sr., "Recrystallization Art Sketching" 

Roy, Rustum, "CVD Diamond Synthesis and Characterization: A Video Walk-Through 

Saha, Hrishikesh, "Virtual Reality Lab Assistant" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "A Novel Approach to Hardness Testing" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "There are Good Vibrations and Not So Good Vibrations" 

Tognarelli, David, "Computerized Materials Testing" 

Wickman, Jeny L., "Cost Effective Prototyping" 

NEW:Update 96 NASA Conference Publication 3354 

Chao, Julie, Currotto, Selene, Anderson, Cameron, Selvaduray, Guna, "The Effect of Surface Finish on 

Tensile Strength" 

Fabris, Neda S., "From Rugs to Demonstrations in Engineering Materials Class" 

Ferguson, Luke, Stoebe, Thomas, "Hysteresis Loops and Barkhausen Effects in Magnetic Materials" 

Karplus, Alan K., "Holy Holes or Holes Can Make Tensile Struts Stronger" 

Koon, Daniel W., "Relaxation and Resistance Measurements" 

Liu, Ping, Waskom, Tommy L., "Composite of Glass Fiber with Epoxy Matrix" 

Song, Kyo D., Ries, Heidi R., Scotti, Stephen J., Choi, Sang H., "Transpiration Cooling Experiment" 

South, Joe, Keilson, Suzanne, Keefer, Don, "In-Vivo Testing of Biomaterials" 

Thorogood, Michael G., "Tensile Test Experiments With Plastics" 

Widener, Edward L., "Brinelling the Malay Snail" 
NEW:Update 97 NASA Conference Publication 208726 

Banerjee, Gautam, Miller, Albert E. "Understanding Galvanic Corrosion Tricks to Pr~vent Some Expensive 

Failures" 

Cadwell, John and Eric, Piippo, Steven. "Strength Testing of Composite Materials" 

Diez, C. Ray. "Case Hardening: An Activity to Demonstrate Brinnell Hardness" 

Draayer, B. F., Dahiya, J. N. "A Computerized Microwave Spectrometer for Dielectric Relaxation Studies" 

Erickson, Glen C., Chung, W. Richard. "Effectiveness of Ultrasonic Testing Method in Detecting 

Delamination Effects in Thick Composites" 

Fabris, Neda S. "Learning More From Tensile Test Experiment" 

Ferguson, Luke, Stoebe, Thomas. "Properties of Magnetic Ferrites With a Simple Fabrication Method" 

Fine, Leonard W. "Demonstrating the Critical Properties of Carbon Dioxide" 

Goranson, Ulf. "Jet Transport Structures Performance Monitoring" 

Gorman, Thomas M. "Relationship Between Moisture Changes and Dimensional Change in Wood 

Griffin, R. B., Cornwell, L. R. "Measurement of the Modulus of Elasticity Using a Three-Point Bend Test" 

Homidany, Mtrook Al, Weick, Brian L. "A Device for Measuring the Elastic Modules of Spherical 

Materials" 

Hudson, John B., Svanes, Torkel, Bryson, Daniel, Sawyer, W. Gregory, "An Interactive Molecular 

Dynamics Simulation of Atomic Behavior" 

Karplus, Alan K. "Stretchy "Elastic" Bands" 

Liu, Paul Cheng-Hsin, Moore, Kenneth, Ogu, Chris. "Rapid Prototyping Processes and Procedures" 

Loutts, George B. "Crystal Growth of Mixed Optical Materials With the Automatic Czochralski Puller" 

Lund, David W. "High Speed Civil Transport - Design Challenges" 

Masi, James V. "Experiments in Diffusion: Gases, Liquids, and Solids For Under Five Dollars" 

McCoy, Robert A. "How a Heat Pack Works" 

Nydam, Andrew. "Low Dollar Tensile (Torsion) Tester" 

Song, Kyo D. "Design of Hypervelocity Flow Generator and Its Flow Visualizations" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier. "Medicine, Magic, Materials, and Mankind'' 

Umana, Carlos E. "The Combined Effect of Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Expansion in a PMMA 

Plastic Heated by Thermal Radiation" 

Vanasupa, Linda, Braun, David. "The Human Half-Adder: Understanding the Big Picture of Digital 

Logic" 

Warren, Matthew E., Loutts, George. "Optical Experiments With Manganese Doped Yttrium 

Orthoaluminate, A Potential Material For Holographic Recording and Data Storage" 

Werstler, David. "Case Studies in Metal Failure and Selection" 

Whang. Kyumin and Hsu, Matthew. "Evaluating the Strength and Biodegradation of a Gelatine-Based 

Material" 

Williams, John R. "Corrosion Demonstration Utilizing Low Cost Materials" 

NEW:Update 98 NASA Conference Publication 209549 

Griffin, Richard B., Cornwell, L. Roy, Yapura, Carlos, Krishnan, Sivasubramaniam, Hallford, John. "Use 

of a Four-Point Bend Apparatus to Determine the Modulus of Elasticity" 

Karplus, Alan K. "Stretchy "Elastic" Bands I[ 

McWhan, Denis. "Materials Science With Photons and Neutrons" 

Meier, Mike L., Ewald, Karl. "The Underlying Structure of Engineering Materials" 

Meier, Mike L., "Artificial Microstructures" 

Rudes, Merrill. "Crystal Growth 

Song, Kyo D., Budde, Bruce, Hamilton, Carolyn. "System Upgrade of Atomic Oxygen Generator for 

Space Materials Research" 

Stang, Robert G. "Room Temperature Creep of Solder" 

Umana, Carlos E. "Galvanostatic Polarization Curves for Teaching Purposes" 
NEW:Update 99 NASA Conference Publication 

Fabris, Neda S. "Every-Day Objects and Class Demonstration in Material Science Class, Designed to 

Help Students Learn" 

Griffin, Richard, Tenill, Lance. "Measurement of Viscosity: Classroom Demonstration" 

Hudson, John B. "Simple Classroom Demonstrations in Chemistry and Materials Science" 

Karplus, Alan K. "Stretchy "Elastic" Bands III Contaminant Effects" 

Kennedy, Stephen K. "Use of a WEBSEM (Remote Scanning Electron Microscope) to Characterize 

Automotive Wear Debris" 

Kin, Yulian, Holler, Dennis. "Accelerated Fatigue Test" 

Meier, Mike L. "Ionic Bonding, an Introduction to Materials and to Spreadsheets" 

Meier, Mike L. "Four Windows Programs for the Materials Science Laboratory" 

McCoy, Robert A. "Egg Bungee Cord Drop" 

Pletka, Bruce J., Schultz Kramer, Ruth I., Laitila, Edward A. "Artifacts in X-Ray Diffraction 

Experiments" 

Scheer, Robert J. "Teaching the Principles of Materials Science Using Our Natural Surroundings: Spider 

Silk" 

Smelser, R. E., Odom, E. M., Beyerlein, S. W. "Tabletop Experiments for Material Properties. 

Determination" 

xvii 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN METALS 

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060 

Nagy, James P. "Sensitization of Stainless Steel" 

Neville, J. P. "Crystal Growing" 

Pond, Robert B. "A Demonstration of Chill Block Melt Spinning of Metal" 

Shull, Robert D. "Low Carbon Steel: Metallurgical Structure vs. Mechanical Properties" 

NEW.Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Balsamel, Richard. "The Magnetization Process - Hysteresis" 

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution or Revolution" 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Hands-On Thermal Conductivity and Work-Hardening and Annealing in Metals" 

Kazem, Sayyed M. "Thermal Conductivity of Metals" 

Nagy, James P. "Austempering" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Bates, Seth P. "Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing of Hot Rolled 1020 Steel to Explore Temperature Impact 

Strength Relationships" 

Chung, Wenchiang R. and Morse, Margery L. "Effect of Heat Treatment on a Metal Alloy" 

Rastani, Mansur. "Post Heat Treatment in Liquid Phase Sintered Tungsten-Nickel-Iron Alloys" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier. "Crystal Models for the Beginning Student" 

Yang, Y. Y. and Stang, R. G. "Measurement of Strain Rate Sensitivity in Metals" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Cowan, Richard L. "Be-Cu Precipitation Hardening Experiment" 

Kazem, Sayyed M. "Elementary Metallography" 

Krepski, Richard P. "Experiments with the Low Melting Indium-Bismuth Alloy System" 

Lundeen, Calvin D. "Impact Testing of Welded Samples" 

McCoy, Robert A. "Cu-Zn Binary Phase Diagram and Diffusion Couples" 

Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of Magnetic Domain Boundary Movement Using an Easily 

Assembled Videocam-Microscope System" 

Widener, Edward L. "Heat-Treating of Materials" 

NEWUpdate 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Dahiya, Jai N. "Phase Transition Studies in Barium and Strontium Titanates at Microwave 

Frequencies" 

Rastani, Mansur. "Improved Measurement of Thermal Effects on Microstructure" 

Walsh, Daniel W. "Visualizing Weld Metal Solidification Using Organic Analogs" 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Guichelaar, Philip J. "The Anisotrophy of Toughness in Hot-Rolled Mild Steel" 

Martin, Donald H. "From Sand Casting TO Finished Product (A Basic University-Industry Partnership)" 

Petit, Jocelyn I. "New Developments in Aluminum for Aircraft and Automobiles" 

Smith, R. Carlisle "Crater Cracking in Aluminum Welds" 

NEWUpdate 94 NASA Conference Publication 3304 

Gabrykewicz, Ted, "Water Drop Test for Silver Migration" 

Kavikondala, Kishen and Gambrel, Jr., S. C., "Studying Macroscopic Yielding in Welded Aluminum 

Joints Using Photostress" 

Krepski, Richard P., "Exploring the Crystal Structure of Metals" 

McClelland, H. Thomas, "Effect of Risers on Cast Alumhum Plates" 

Weigman, Bernard J. and Courpas, Stamos, "Measuring Energy Loss Between Colliding Metal Objects" 

xviii 
NEW:Update 95 NASA Conference Publication 3330 

Callister, William, "Unknown Determination of a Steel Specimen" 

Elban, Wayne L., "Metallographic Preparation and Examination of Polymer-Matrix Composites" 

Shih, Hui-Ru, "Some Experimental Results in the Rolling of Ni,A1 Alloy" 

NEW:Update 96 NASA Conference Publication 3354 

Callister, Jr., William D., "Identification of an Unknown Steel Specimen" 

Elban, Wayne L., "Metallurgical Evaluation of Historic Wrought Iron to Provide Insights into MetalForming Operations and Resultant Microstructure" 

Griffin, R. B., Cornwell, L. R., Ridings, Holly E., "The Application of Computers to the Determination 

of Corrosion Rates for Metals in Aqueous Solutions" 

Hilden, J., Lewis, K., Meamaripous, Selvaduray, Guna, "Measurement of Springback Angle in Sheet 

Bending" 

Moss, T. S., Dye, R. C., "Experimental Investigation of Hydrogen Transport Through Metals" 

Olesak, Patricia J., "2nd Steel Heat Treatment Lab: Austempering" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "A Magnetic Dilemma: A Case Study" 

Werstler, David E., "Lost Foam Casting" 

NEW:Update 97 NASA Conference Publication 208726 

Dalton, William K., Olesak, Patricia J. "Making a Phase Diagram" 

Hartwig. K. T., Haouaoui, M., Cornwell, L. R. "Alloy Composition Determinations" 

Kin, Yulian, Abramowitz, Harvey, Hentea, Toma, Xu, Ying. "Life Estimate Based on Fatigue Crack 

Propagation" 

NEW:Update 98 NASA Conference Publication 209549 

Biancaniello, Frank S., Jiggetts, Rodney D., Ridder, Stephen D. "Characterization of High Nitrogen 

Stainless Steel (HNSS) Produced via Inert Gas Atomization and Hip Consolidation" 

Cooke, Archie M. "Cast Iron, Wrought Iron & Steel (Historical Perspective of Properties of Ferrous 

Material" 

Kin, Yulian, Abramowitz, Harvey, Hentea, Toma, Higley, Jim, Richards, Jason. "Laboratory Measurement 

of J-Integral" 

NEW:Update 99 NASA Conference Publication 

Kridli, Ghassan T. "Visio-Plastic Modeling of Metal Forging and Extrusion" 

Marshall, John A. "Shape Memory Alloys" 

Umana, Carlos E. "Galvanostatic Polarization Cwes for Teaching Purposes Part 11" 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN POLYMERS 

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Chung, Wenchiang R. "The Assessment of Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites" 

Greet, Richard and Cobaugh, Robert. "Rubberlike Elasticity Experiment" 

Kern, Kristen T., Harries, Wynford L., and Long, Sheila Ann T. "Dynamic Mechanical Analysis of 

Polymeric Materials" 

Kundu, Nikhil K. and Kundu, Malay. "Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric Effects of a Crystalline Polymer" 

Kundu, Nikhil K. "The Effect of Thermal Damage on the Mechanical Properties of Polymer Regrinds" 

Stibolt, Kenneth A. "Tensile and Shear Strength of Adhesives" 

Widener, Edward L. "Industrial Plastics Waste: Identification and Segregation" 

Widener, Edward L. "Recycling Waste-Paper" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Brostow, Witold and Kozak, Michael R. "Instruction in Processing as a Part of a Course in Polymer 

Science and Engineering" 

Cornwell, L. R., Griffin, R. B., and Massarweh, W. A. "Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile Properties of 

Plastics" 

Gray, Stephanie L., Kern, Kristen T., Harries, Wynford L., and Long, Sheila Ann T. "Improved Technique 

for Measuring Coefficients of Thermal Extension for Polymer FW 

Humble, Jeffrey S. "Biodegradable Plastics: An Informative Laboratory Approach 

Kundu, Nikhil. "Environmental Stress Cracking of Recycled Thermoplastics" 

Wickman, Jerry L. and Corbin, Scott M. "Determining the Impact of Adjusting Temperature Prof~les on 

Photodegradability of LDPEIStarch Blown Film 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Allen, David J. "Stress-Strain Characteristics of Rubber-Like Materials: Experiment and Analysis" 

Chowdhury, Mostafiz R. "An Experiment on the Use of Disposable Plastics as a Reinforcement in 

Concrete Beams" 

Gorrnan, Thomas M. "Designing, Engineering, and Testing Wood Structures" 

Lloyd, Isabel K., Kolos, Kimberly R, Menegaux, Edmond C., Luo, Huy, McCuen, Richard H., and 

Regan, Thomas M. "Structure, Processing and Properties of Potatoes" 

McClelland, H. T. "Laboratory bperiments from the Toy Store" 

Sorensen, Carl D. "Measuring the Surface Tension of Soap Bubbles" 

Wickman, Jerry L. and Plocinski, David. "A Senior Manufacturing Laboratory for Determining Injection 

Molding Process Capability" 

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Kundu, Nikhil K. "Performance of Thermal Adhesives in Forced Convection" 

Liu, Ping. "Solving Product Safety Problem on Recycled High Density Polyethylene Container" 

Wickman, Jerry L. "Thennoforming From a Systems Viewpoint" 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Csernica, Jeffrey "Mechanical Properties of Crosslinked Polymer Coatings" 

Edblom, Elizabeth "Testing Adhesive Strength & "Adhesives The State of the Industry" 

Elban, Wayne L. "Three-Point Bend Testing of Poly (Methyl Methacrylate) and Balsa Wood 

Labana, S. S. "Recycling of Automobiles an Overview" 

Liu, Ping and Tommy L. Waskom, "Application of Materials Database (MAT.DB>) to Materials 

Education and Laminated Thermoplastic Composite Material" 

Marshall, John A. "Liquids That Take Only Milliseconds to Turn into Solids" 

Quaal, Karen S. "Incorporating Polymeric Materials Topics into the Undergraduate Chemistry Cor 

Curriculum: NSF-Polyed Scholars Project: Microscale Synthesis and Characterization 

of Polystyrene" 
NEW:Update 94 NASA Conference Publication 3304 

Fine, Leonard W., "Concrete Repair Applications and Polymerization of Butadiene by an "Alfin" Catalyst" 

Halperin, Kopl, Eccles, Charles, and Latirner,+Brett, "Inexpensive Experiments in Creep and Relaxation 

of Polymers" 

Kern, Kristen and Ries, Heidi R., "Dielectric Analysis of Polymer Processing 

Kundu, Mukul and Kundu, Nikhil K., "Optimizing Wing Design by Using a Piezoelectric Polymer" 

Kundu, Nikhil K. and Wickman, Jerry L., "An Affordable Materials Testing Device" 

Stienstra, David, "In-Class Experiments: Piano Wire & Polymers" 

NEW:Update 95 NASA Conference Publication 3330 

Fine, Leonard W., "Polybutadiene (Jumping Rubber)" 

Liu, Ping, and Waskom, Tommy L., "Plastic Recycling Experiments in Materials Education" 

Liu, Ping, and Waskom, Tommy L., "Compression Molding of Composite of Recycled HDPE and 

Recycled Tire Chips" 

Masi, James V., "Experiments in Natural and Synthetic Dental Materials: A Mouthful of Experiments" 

NEW:Update 96 NASA Conference Publication 3354 

Brindos, Richard, Selvaduray, Guna, "Effect of Temperature on Wetting Angle" 

Liu, Ping, Waskom, Tommy L., "Making Products Using Post Consumer Recycled High Density 

Polyethylene: A Series of Recycling Experiments" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "Elasticity, Plasticity and Anelasticity: Demonstrations" 

NEW:Update 97 NASA Conference Publication 208726 

Liu, Ping, Waskom, Tom L. "Study of Rheological Behavior of Polymers" 

Sullivan, Laura L. "Correlation of Birefringent Patterns to Retained Orientation in Injection Molded 

Polystyrene Tensile Bars" 

NmUpdate 98 NASA Conference Publication 209549 

Tomalia, Donald A. Dendritic Polymer Properties and Macromolecular Architecture'' 

NEW:Update 99 NASA Conference Publication 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Simple and Inexpensive Method for Testing Shear Strength of Adhesive Bonds" 

Elban, Wayne L., Elban, Matthew J. "Effect of Temperature on the Impact Behavior and Dimensional 

Stability of Thermoplastic Polymers" 

Elban, Wayne L., Hornung, Scott N., Reinhardt, Matthew C. "Accelerated Aging Study of ABS 

Copolymer" 

Forbes, Tornothy, Song, Kyo D. "Microwave Driven Actuators Power Allocation and Distribution" 

Liu, Ping. "Study of Molecular Degradation of Polymers by Intrinsic Viscosity" 

Mallick, P. K. "A Simple Experiment for Determining Elastic Properties of Polymers" 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN CERAMICS 

NEW:Update 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060 

Nelson, James A. "Glasses and Ceramics: Making and Testing Superconductors" 

Schull, Robert D. "High T, Superconductors: Are They Magnetic?" 

NEWUpdate 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution or Revolution" 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Hands-On Thermal Conductivity and Work-Hardening and Annealing in Metals" 

Link, Bruce. "Ceramic Fibers" 

Nagy, James P. "Austempering" 

Ries, Heidi R. "Dielectric Determjnation of the Glass Transition Temperature" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Dahiya, J. N. "Dielectric Behavior of Superconductors at Microwave Frequencies" 

Jordan, Gail W. "Adapting Archimedesf Method for Determining Densities and Porosities of Small 

Ceramic Samples" 

Snail, Keith A., Hanssen, Leonard M., Oakes, David B., and Butler, James E. "Diamond Synthesis with 

a Commercial Oxygen-Acetylene Torch 

NEWUpdate 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Tempered Glass and Thermal Shock of Ceramic Materials" 

Craig, Douglas F. "Structural Ceramics" 

Dahiya, J. N. "Dielectric Behavior of Semiconductors at Microwave Frequencies" 

Weiser, Martin W., Lauben, David N., and Madrid, Philip. "Ceramic Processing: Experimental 

Design and Optjrnization" 

NEWUpdate 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Temperature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass" 

Henshaw, John M. "Fracture of Glass" 

Stephan, Patrick M. "High Thermal Conductivity of Diamond 

Vanasupa, Linda S. "A $.69 Look at Thermoplastic Softening" 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Bunnell, L. Roy and Stephen Piippo, "Property Changes During Firing of a Typical Porcelain Ceramic" 

Burchell, Timothy D. "Developments in Carbon Materials" 

Dahiya, J.N., "Dielectric Measurements of Selected Ceramics at Microwave Frequencies" 

Ketron, L.A. "Preparation of Simple Plaster Mold for Slip Casting and Slip Casting" 

Masi, James V. "Experiments in Diamond Film Fabrication in Table Top Plasma Apparatus" 

Werstler, David E. "Microwave Sintering of Machining Inserts" 

NEWUpdate 94 NASA Conference Publication 3304 

Bunnell, L. Roy and Piippo, Steven, "The Development of Mechanical Strength in a Ceramic Material 

During Firing" 

Long, William G., "Introduction to Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites" 

Reifsnider, Kenneth L., "Designing with Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites" 

West, Harvey A. & Spiegel, F. Xavier, "Crystal Models for the Beginning Student: An Extension to 

Diamond Cubic 

NEWUpdate 95 NASA Conference Publication 3330 

Louden, Richard A., "Testing and Characterizing of Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites" 
NEW:Update 96 NASA Conference Publication 3354 

Bunnell, L. Roy, Piippo, Steven W., "Evaluation of Chemically Tempered Soda-Lime-Silica Glass by 

Bend Testing" 

Dahiya, J. N., "Microwave Measurements of the Dielectric Relaxation in Different Grain Size Crystals of 

BaTiO," 

Masi, James V., "Experiments in Sol-Gel: Hydroxyapatite and YBCO 

Stang, Robert G., "The Effect of Surface Treatment on the Strength of Glass" 

Thomas, Shad, Hasenkamp, Erin, Selvaduray, Guna, "Determination of Oxygen Diffusion in Ionic Solids" 

NEW:Update 98 NASA Conference Publication 209549 

Ferguson, Luke, Stoebe, Thomas. An Inexpensive 1600°C (2912°F) Miniature Electric Furnace for 

Teaching Materials Science. 

Welch, David. "Superconducting Magnets and Applications" 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN COMPOSITES 

NEWUpdate 88 NASA Conference Publication 3060 

Nelson, James A. "Composites: Fiberglass Hand Laminating Process" 

NEW:Update 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Beardmore, Peter. "Future Automotive Materials - Evolution 0r~Revo1ution" 

Chung, Wenchiang R. "The Assessment of Metal Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites" 

Coleman, J. Mario. "Using Template/Hotwire Cutting to Demonstrate Moldless Composite Fabrication" 

NEWUpdate 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Bunnell, L. R. "Simple Stressed-Skin Composites Using Paper Reinforcement" 

Schrnenk, Myron J. "Fabrication and Evaluation of a Simple Composite Structural Beam" 

West, Harvey A. and Sprecher, A. F. "Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials" 

NEW:Update 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Greet, Richard J. "Composite Column of Common Materials" 

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Thornton, H. Richard. "Mechanical Properties of Composite Materials" 

NEWUpdate 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Masters, John "ASTM Methods for Composite Characterization and Evaluation" 

Webber, M. D. and Harvey A. West. "Continuous Unidirectional Fiber Reinforced Composites: 

Fabrication and Testing" 

NEWUpdate 95 NASA Conference Publication 3330 

Craig, Douglas F., "Role of Processing in Total Materials" 

Wilkerson, Amy Laurie, "Computerized Testing of Woven Composite Materials" 

NEW:Update 97 NASA Conference Publication 208726 

Gardea, Luis, Weick, Brian L. "A Method for Measuring the Shear Strength of Polymers and 

Composites" 

NEWUpdate 99 NASA Conference Publication 

Lee, Richard. "National Composite Center" 

Marshall, John A. "Shape Memory Alloys" 

Rusch, Ken. "Thermoset Composites (SMC & RRIM) for Automotive Components" 

xxiv 
EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN ELECTRONIC AND OPTICAL MATERIALS 

NEW UPDATE^^ 

Sastri, Sankar. "Magnetic Particle Inspection" 

NASA Conference Publication 3060 

NEWUpdate 89 NASA Conference Publication 3074 

Kundu, Nikhil K. and Kundu, Malay. "Piezoelectric and F'yroelectric Effects of a Crystalline Poly~ner" 

Molton, Peter M. and Clarke, Clayton. "Anode Materials for Electrochemical Waste Destruction" 

Ries, Heidi R. "Dielectric Determjnation of the Glass Transition Temperature" 

NEW:Update 90 NIST Special Publication 822 

Dahiya, J. N. "Dielectric Behavior of Superconductors at Microwave Frequencies" 

NEWUpdate 91 NASA Conference Publication 3151 

Dahiya, J. N. "Dielectric Behavior of Semiconductors at Microwave Frequencies" 

Patterson, John W. "Demonstration of Magnetic Domain Boundary Movement Using an Easily Assembled 

Videocam-Microscope System" 

NEW:Update 92 NASA Conference Publication 3201 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Temperature-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Soda-Lime Glass 

Dahiya, Jai N. "Phase Transition Studies in Barium and Strontium Titanates at Microwave Frequencies" 

NEW:Update 94 NASA Conference Publication 3304 

Elban, Wayne L., "Stereographic Projection Analysis of Fracture Plane Traces in Polished Silicon Wafers 

for Integrated Circuits" 

Parmar, Devendra S. and Singh, J. J., "Measurement of the Electro-Optic Switching Response in 

Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals" 

NEWUpdate 95 NASA Conference Publication 3330 

Dahiya, Jai N., "Temperature Dependence of the Microwave Dielectric Behavior of Selected Materials" 

Marshall, John, "Application Advancements Using Electrorheological Fluids" 

Ono, Kanji, "Piezoelectric Sensing and Acoustic Emission" 

Ries, Heidi R., "An Integrated Approach to Laser Crystal Development" 

NEWUpdate 96 NASA Conference Publication 3354 

Jain, H., "Learning About Electric Dipoles From a Kitchen Microwave Oven" 

NEW:Update 97 NASA Conference Publication 208726 

Marshall, John A. "Magneto-Rheological Fluid Technology" 

Umana, Carlos E. "How to Compute the Atomic Magnetic Dipole Moment of An Element: An 

Engineering Approach" 

NEW:Update 98 NASA Conference Publication 209549 

Abrarnowitz, Harvey. "Use of Piezoelectric Crystals for Voice Recognition" 

Dahiya, J. N. "Liquid Crystal pAzoxyanisole in Microwave Field" 

Draayer, Bret. "Simulating Optical Correlation on a PC" 

Kasdan, Matthew, Kennedy, Stephen K. "Microchemistry and the New Scanning Electron Microscopes" 

Loutts, George B., Noginov, Mikhail A., Wynne, Rosalind, Ross, Kai T., Grandy, Talia. "Investigation 

of thermal Bleaching in Manganese Doped Orghoaluminate Single Crystals" 

Marshall, John A. "Magneto-Rheological Fluid Technology" 

Noginov, M. A., Warren, M., Loutts, G. B. "X-ray Excited Emission of MN2' ions in Mn: YAIO, 

Valenquela, R., Amano, E. "Determination of the Curie Temperature in Ferro and Ferrirnagnets" 
NEW:Update 99 NASA Conference Publication 

Dahiya, J. N. "Microwave Dielectric Response of Water as a Function of Frequency" 

Masi, James V. "Experiments in Magnetics for Telecommunications: Organic and Sol-Gel" 

Widener, Edward L. "Corking an Open-Ended Tank" 

EXPERIMENTS & DEMONSTRATIONS IN MATERIALS SYSTEMS 

NEWUpdate 96 NASA Conference Publication 3354 

Aceves, Salvador M., Smith, J. Ray, Johnson, Norman L., "Computer Modeling in the Design and 

Evaluation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles" 

Benjamin, Robert F., "Experiments Showing Dynamics of Materials Interfaces" 

Daugherty, Mark A., "Electrolytic Production of Hydrogen Utilizing Photovoltaic Cells" 

Fine, Leonard W., "The Incandescent Light Bulb" 

~ac~enzie, James J., "Hydrogen - The Energy Carrier of the Future" 

NEW:Update 97 NASA Conference Publication 208726 

Bunnell, L. Roy. "Weakening of Latex Rubber by Environmental Effects 

Chadwick, Margaret. "Automotive Materials For the Next Millennium" 

NEWUpdate 98 NASA Conference Publication 209549 

Fabris, Neda S. "Teaching Statistical Quality Control and Process Analysis in Materials Laboratory" 

Widener, Edward L. "The Colorful Character of Materials" 
EXPERIMENTS & TOPICS IN MATERIALS CURRICULUM 

NEW:Update 93 NASA Conference Publication 3259 

Bright, Victor M. "Simulation of Materials Processing: Fantasy or Reality?" 

Diwan, Ravinder M. "Manufacturing Processes Laboratory Projects in Mechanical Engineering 

Cuniculum" 

Kundu, Nikhil K. "Graphing Techniques for Materials Laboratory Using Excel" 

McClelland, H. T. "Process Capability Determination of New and Existing Equipment and 

Introduction to Usable Statistical Methods" 

Passek, Thomas "University Outreach Focused Discussion: What Do Educators Want From ASM 

International" 

NEWUpdate 94 NASA Conference Publication 3304 

Brimacombe, J. K., "Transferring Knowledge to the Shop Floor" 

Burte, Harris M., "Emerging Materials Technology" 

Constant, Kristen P. and Vedula, Krishna, "Development of Course Modules for Materials Experiments" 

Coyne, Jr., Paul J., Kohne, Glenn S., Elban, and Wayne L., "PC Laser Printer-Generated Cubic 

Stereographic Projections with Accompanying Student Exercise" 

Masi, James V., "Bubble Rafts, Crystal Structures, and Computer Animation" 

McKenney, Alfred E., Evelyn D., and Berrettini, Robert, "CD-ROM Technology to Strengthen Materials 

Education" 

Olesak, Patricia J., "Understanding Phase Diagrams" 

Scheer, Robert J., "Incorporating "Intelligent" Materials into Science Education" 

Schwartz, Lyle H., "Technology Transfer of NIST Research" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "Demonstrations in Materials Science From the Candy Shop" 

Uhl, Robert, "ASM Educational Tools Now and Into the Future" 

NEW:Update 95 NASA Conference Publication 3330 

Belanger, Brian C., "NIST Advanced Technology Programs" 

Berrettini, Robert, "The VTLA System of Course Delivery and Faculty in Materials Education" 

Kohne, Glenn S., "An Autograding (Student) Problem Management System for the Compeuwtir Ilittur8" 

Russ, John, "Self-paced Interactive CD-ROMs" 

NEWUpdate 96 NASA Conference Publication 3354 

Chaudhury, S. Raj, Escalada, Larry, Zollman, Dean, "Visual Quantum Mechanics - A Materials Approach 

Gulden, Teny D., Winter, Patricia, "Explorations in Materials Science" 

McKelvy, Michael J., Birk, James P., Ramakrishna, B. L., "Bringing Advanced Experimental Technology 

Into Education" 

McMahon, Jr., Charles J., "Labs on Videotape for Materials Science and Engineering" 

Parkin, Don M., "Los Alamos - The Challenging World of Nuclear Materials Science" 

Pendleton, Stuart E., "Next Generation Multimedia Distributed Data Base Systems" 

Russ, John C., "Impact of Multimedia and Network Services on an Introductory Level Course" 

Spiegel, F. Xavier, "NEW:Update, The Experience of One College" 

Wilkerson, Amy, Self, Donna, Rodriquez, Waldo J., Ries, Heidi R., "A "Problem Based Learning" 

Approach to Reflection and Refraction" 

Winter, Patricia S., "Business Involvement in Science Education" 
NEW:Update 97 NASA Conference Publication 208726 

Chaudhury, S. Raj. "The National Educators' Workshop WEB 

Hudson, John B., Shadler, Linda S., Palnier, Mark A., Moore, James A. "Integration of Laboratory 

Experiences Into An Interactive Chemistry/Materials Course" 

Jacobs, James A., McKenney, Alfred E. "213 Experiments on CD-ROM From 10 Years of NEW:Updates" 

Kayser, Jack R. "Structural Laboratory Manual" 

Russ, John C. "Impact of Multimedia and Network Services on an Introductory Level Course" 

Sawyer, W. Gregory, Bryson, Daniel, Svanes, Torkel, and Hudson, John B. "Effective Learning Through 

Interactive Computer simulation and Experimentation. 

Shackelford, James F., Meier, Michael. "Computer Applications For The Materials Laboratory/Classroom: 

Illustrating Structure and Diffraction" 

Swyler, Karl J., Fine, Leonard W. "Preview of NEW:Update 98" 

Winter, John M. Jr., Lipetzky, Kirsten G. "X-Ray Radiographic Exercises for an Undergraduate Materials 

Lab" 

NEW:UPDATE 98 NASA CONFERENCE PUBLICATION 209549 

Bemdt, C. C. "Internet Research and the Undergraduate Learning Experience" 

Chaudhury, S. Raj, Golembiewski, Gae. "Educational and Public Outreach for the Mars Sample 

Return Project" 

Halada, Gary. "Earthquake Resistant Engineering Design" 

Halada, Gary. "Teaching Through Engineering Disaster" 

Higley, James B. "Concurrent Engineering" 

McKenney, Alfred E. "Producing PDF Files Using Adobe Acrobat Capture V2.01" 

McMahon, Charles J., Jr. "Tutorials for Introduction to Materials Engineering" 

Petrakis, Leon. "Rendering Asbestos Hamless" 

Swyler, Karl. "Educational Programs at BNL and Other DOE Labs" 

NEW:Update 99 NASA Conference Publication 

Chaudhury, S. Raj, Sanders, Matthew, Wall, Curtiss, Jacobs, James A. "MST-Online: The Design of an 

Internet Gateway for Educational Resources in Materials Science and Technology" 

Clark, Darcy J. M. "The Materials Education Library: Sharing Educational Resources Via the World Wide 

Web" 

Devier, David H. "Corporate Partnerships: WIN-WIN-WIN" 

Gardia-Hernandez, O., Galindo, R., Garcia, K. L., Valenzuela, R. "A Method for the Measurement of 

Magnetostriction in Ferromagnetic Alloys" 

Millunchick, Joanna Mirecki "Teenaged Materials Science" 
A Multimedia Tool of Laboratory E-~periments and Classroom Demonstrations 

- 

FEATURES: 

Over 200 laboratory experiments and classroom demonstrations which you can modify to suit your 

teaching objectives, environment, and students' needs. 

Access to instructional aids developed by hundreds of materials educators and industry specialists in 

the field of materials science, engineering and technology. 

* Provides students with "hands-on"activities that cover the full range of materials science and 

technology: topics such as woods, metals, and emerging technologies including processing and 

structures of advanced composites and sol-gel ceramics. 

Flexibility: emphasis is placed on low-cost, multi-concept exercises in recognition of the many 

settings in which materials education occurs. 

The CD-ROM allows you to read, navigate, search for other experiments/documents, print, and edit. 

EMSET CD R0M 

EXPERIME'NTS INMATERCQLS SCIENCE, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY 

ISBN: 0-13-648486-7 

. . James A. Jacobs 

CATEGORIES OF EXPERIMENTS: 

TESTING & EVALUATION. POLYMERT, METALS, CERAWCS, COMPOSITES, ELECTRONIC 

MATERIALS & MA TERlA LS CURRICULUM 

A BONUS CD OF VIDEO CLIPS: 

A bonus CD provides video segments on selected concepts. 

STiM & AFM MICROSCOPY, POLYMERS, CERAiMICS, AND COMPOSITES 

PLATFORMS SUPPORTED: 

This CD-ROM can be used on Windows and Macintosh platforms. Acrobat Reader and QuickTime 

sohare is included on the disk for Windows 3x, Windows 95 and Macintosh. The disk may be used on 

other platforms provided the appropriate software is installed. 

OR simplyfill out and mail this to: 

Prentice Hall, Order Processing Dept. 

200 Old Tappan Road, Old Tappan, NJ 07675 

Tax Exempt Cert No. 

SHIP TO: 
Page intentionally left blank 
National Educators9 Workshop 

1999 Participants 

Row 1. W. Elban, R. Valenzuela, R Pater, L. Smith, S. Bhonsle, E. Widener, D. LaClaire 

Row 2. M. Arizpe, M. Fu, P. K. Mallick, B. Callister, 3. Patbl, P. Liu, M. Hung, J. Jacobs, D. Finlow, J. Fillion, B. Snedeker, L. Santos 

Row 3. R. Goldman, L. Bao, R. Smelser, A. Nye, B. McCoy, R. Singh, A. Karplus, J. Masi, L. Huang, 6. Arrington, D. Wells 

Row 4. R. Raffo, S. Yalisove, M. Meier, S. R. Chaudhury, S. Kennedy, Z. Wang, S. Gerritsma, M. Churma 

Row 5. C. Alderman, T. Kilduff, C. Gallinat, C. Reichel, D. Gerbus, C. R. Diez, P. Alesso, I. Hudson, R. Griffin, P. Sklad, M. Hjelmstad, C. Smith, C. Chrovian, H. Tang 

Row 6. R. Yang, D. Clark, I. Clum, C. White, N. Card, R. Bunnell, B. Berrettini, J. Gardner, J. Stuef 

Row 7. M, Sanders, S. Errera, D. Schiavello, R. Kissell, 6. Johnson, M. Friedman, B. Pletka, M. Crimp, T. Pederson, 3. Morrison, H. Abramowitz, Y. Kin, C. Umana, 

N. Fabris, S. Helba, M. Rudes 
Page intentionally left blank 
NATIONAL EDUCATORS' WORKSHOP 

1999 PARTICIPANTS 

Harvey Abrarnowitz 

Department of Engineering 

Purdue University - Calumet 

2200 169th Street 

Hammond, IN 46323 

219-989-2473 

harveya@ calumet.purdue.edu 

Cheryl Alderrnan 

North Carolina State University at UNCA 

CPO 2360 

One University Heights 

Asheville, NC 28804-85 1 1 

828-25 1-6943 

alderman @ eos.ncsu.edu 

Lori Aldridge 

Northwestern High School 

2503 W. Main Street 

Rockhill, SC 29732 

803-547-0969 

ll1516@aol.com 

Philip Alesso 

SUNY College of Technology at Alfred 

Alfred, NY 14802 

607-587-8576 

allessopf @ alfredtech.edu 

Marina Arizpe 

Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

7005 Double Eagle Court 

St. Louis, MO 63 129 

3 14-846-0082 

Ginger Arrington 

NASA Langley Research Center 

Mail Stop 21 1 

Hampton, VA 2368 1-2199 

757-864-9696 

g.l.freeman@larc.nasa.gov 

Lingyun Bao 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Robert Berrettini 

209 Kenmar Drive 

Monroeville, PA 15 146- 17 17 

412-373-7975 

berrettini@juno.com 

Steve R. Bhonsle 

Valparaiso University 

ME Department 

Valparaiso, IN 46383 

219-464-51 19 

suryaji.bhonsle @ valpo.edu 

L. Roy Bunnell 

61 19 W. Willamette 

Kennewick, WA 99336 

509-734-3800 

Bunnro @ ksd.org 

William D. Callister 

University of Utah 

2419 East 3510 South 

Salt Lake City, UT 84109 

801-278-861 1 

bill.callister@m.cc.utah.edu 

Hershey Card 

Farmington High School 

32000 Shiawassee 

Farmington, MI 48336 

248-489-3456 

card.hershey@farmington.k12.rni.u~ 

~e~kment of Energy 

202-586- 1022 

Cindy Carter 

Prentice Hall 

445 Hutchinson Avenue 

Columbus, OH 43235 

C. Raj Chaudhury 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

757-823-2241 

srchaudhury @nsu.edu 

Michelle Chum 

Prentice-Hall, Inc. 

445 Hutchinson Avenue 4th floor 

Columbus, OH 43235 

614-841-3636 

michele-churma@ prenhall.com 
Darcy J. M. Clark 

MSE Department 

University of Michigan-Ann Arbor 

H. H. Dow Building 

2300 Hayward Street 

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2136 

734-764-3377 

darcyc @engin.umich.edu 

James Clum 

Director Manufacturing Engineering 

College of Engineering & Science 

University of Detroit Mercy 

4001 W. McNichols Road 

P. 0. Box 19900 

Detroit, MI 48219-0900 

313-992-1510 

clumj a@uclmercy .edu 

Martin Crimp 

Department of Materials Science & Mechanics 

Michigan State University 

East Lansing, MI 48824-1226 

5 17-355-0294 

Crimp @EGR.MSU.EDU 

Bruce Cundiff 

Director of Automotive 

American Plastics Council 

1800 Crooks Road, Suite A 

Troy, 'MI 48084 

bcundiff @ ameriplas.org 

Jai N. Dahiya 

Physics Department 

Southeast Missouri State university 

One University Plaza 

MS 6600 

Cape Girardeau, MO 63701 

573-65 1-2390 

dahiya@ physics.semo.edu 

Steve Dairy 

Harper Creek High School 

David H. Devier 

Owens Community College 

Oregon Road 

P. 0. Box 10,000 

Toledo, OH 43669-1947 

Wayne L. Elban 

Loyola College 

Department of Electrical Engineering 

and Engineering Science 

4501 N. Charles Street 

Baltimore, MD 21210 

410-617-2853 

welban @ 1oyola.edu 

Samuel K. Errera 

American Iron and Steel Institute 

2000 Town Centr 

Suite 320 

Southfield, MI 48075- 1 199 

248-945-4770 

erreras @autosteel.org 

Neda S. Fabris 

Mechanical Engineering 

California State University, Los Angeles 

5 15 1 State University 

Los Angeles, CA 90032 

323-343-5218 

nfabris @calstatela.edu 

Ron Fasca 

Owens Community College 

P. 0. Box 10,000 

Toledo, OH 43612 

41 9-661-7469 

rfasca@owens.cc.oh 

John E. Fillion 

Manager of Body Materials Engineering 

CIMS : 482-00- 1 1 

DairnlerChrysler Corporation 

800 Chrysler Drive 

Auburn Hills, MI 48326-2757 

248-576-7472 

jef2@chrysler.com 

Leonard W. Fine 

Department of Chemistry 

Columbia University in the 

City of New York 

Havemeyer Hall 

New York, NY 10027 

2 12-854-201 7 

fine @chem.columbia.edu 

ddevier@owens.cc.oh.us David E. Finlow 

C. Ray Diez 

Industrial Technology 

University of North Dakota 

Box 7118 

Grand Forks, ND 58202-7 1 18 

Shawnee State University 

940 Second Street 

Portsmouth, OH 45662 

740-355-2686 

dfinlow @shawnee.edu 
Timothy Forbes 

Norfolk State University 

700 Park Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

Morton Friedman 

Columbia University 

500 West 120th Street 

Room 5 10 Mudd 

New York, NY 10027 

212-854-2986 

friedman @ columbia.edu 

Maofeng Fu 

University of Michigan-Detroit 

James E. Gardner 

Technical Staff Assistant 

NASA Langley Research Center 

Building 121 9, Room 2 17 

MS 118 

Hampton, VA 2368 1-0001 

757-864-6003 

j .e.gardner@larc.nasa.gov 

Dan Gerbus 

Universty of Idaho 

Mechanical Engineering Dept. 

Moscow, ID 83844-0902 

Steve Gerritsma 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Rachael S. Goldman 

Dow Corriing 

Dept. of Materials Science & Engineering 

2300 Hayward Street 

Ann Arbor, MI 48 109-2136 

734-647-682 1 

rsgold @engin.umich.edu 

Richard B. Griffin 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Texas A&M 

College Station, TX 77843 

409-845-9779 

rgriffin @mengr.tamu.edu 

Jeremiah Habets 

Columbia University 

510 SW Mudd 

500 W. 120th Street 

New York, NY 10027 

2 12-854-4729 

johl8 @columbia.edu 

W. C. Harris 

Columbia University Biosphere 2 Center 

P. 0. Box 689 

Oracle, AZ 85623 

520-896-6453 

wharris@ bio2.edu 

Steve Helba 

Prentice Hall 

445 Hutchinson Avenue 

Columbus, OH 43235 

800-228-7854 

Donald Heckelman 

Engineering Science Program 

Hudson Valley Community College 

80Vandenburgh Avenue 

Troy, NY 12180 

heckedon @ hvcc.edu 

Luke Hamming Huang 

University of North Dakota 

152 Starcher Hall 

Grand Forks, ND 58203 

701 -777-2202 

Luke-huang @und.nodak.edu 

John B. Hudson 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 

Materials Science & Engineering Dept. 

Troy, NY 12180 

5 18-276-6447 

hudsoj @ rpi.edu 

Michael Y. Y. Hung 

John F. Dodge Chair Professor 

Mechanical Engineering Dept. 

Oakland University 

Rochester Hills, MI 48309 

248-370-2238 

hung @oakland.edu 

James A. Jacobs 

Norfolk State University 

700 Park Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

757-823-8 109 

jajacobs @nsu.edu 

Glenn E. Johnson 

Andrews University 

Mail Stop 0370 

Berrien Springs, MI 49 1046 16-47 1-3 19 1 

johnsong@andrews.edu 
Alan K. Karplus 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Western New England College 

Springfield, MA 01 119-2684 

413-782-1220 

akarplus @ wnec.edu 

Stephen K. Kennedy 

RJ Lee Group, Inc.350 Hochberg Road 

Monroeville, PA 15 146 

724-325-1776 

skemedy @jlg.com 

Thomas F. Kilduff 

504 Brafferton Circle 

Hampton, VA 23663 

757-857-0272 

tkilduff @whro.net 

Yulian Kin 

Purdue University Calumet 

2200 169th Street 

Hammond, IN 46323 

2 19-989-2684 

kin@calumet.purdue.edu 

Gary Kinzel 

The Ohio State University 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

1063 West 18th Avenue 

Columbus, OH 43210-1 107 

614-292-6884 

kinzel. 1 @ osu.edu 

Randy Kissell 

The TGB Partnership 

1325 Farmview Road 

Hillsborough, NC 27278 

9 19-644-8250 

tgb @mindspring.com 

Robert Kleinhans 

Lightspeed Technologies 

5987 Royal Country 

St. Louis, MO 63 129 

636-394-00 12 

rk@ lightspeed-tech.com 

Steve Kosmos 

Grosse Point High School 

Ghassan T. Kridli 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

4901 Evergreen Road 

Dearborn, MI 48128 

3 13-593-5467 

gkridli @umich.edu 

Diana P. LaClaire 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

757-823-9072 

dplaclaire @ nsu.edu 

Richard E. Lee 

National Composites Center 

2000 Composites Drive 

Kettering, OH 45420 

937-297-9453 

teamelks @ix.netcom.com 

Ping Liu 

Eastern Illinois University 

101 Klehm Hall 

Charleston, IL 61920 

21 7-58 1-6267 

cfpl @eiu.edu 

P. K. Mallick 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Dearborn, MI 48128 

313-593-51 19 

pkm @ urnich.edu 

John Marshall 

University of Southern Maine 

John Mitchell Center 

Gorharn, ME 04038 

207-780-5447 

jmarshal @usm.maine.edu 

Darryl Martin, Sr. Director 

American Iron and Steel Institute 

2000 Town Center 

Suite 320 

Southfield, MI 48075- 1 199 

248-945-4760 

martin@autosteel.org 

James V. Masi, Director 

Northeast Center for Telecommunications 

Technologies 

One Federal Street 

Springfield, MA 01 105 

413-731-3155 

masi @stcc.mass.edu 

Robert A. McCoy 

Mechanical Engineering Department 

Youngstown State University 

Youngstown, OH 44555 

330-742- 1736 

ramccoy @cc.ysu.edu 
Mike Meier 

University of California Davis 

Department Chemical Engineering & Materids 

Science 

Davis, CA 95616 

530-752-5 166 

rnlmeier @ ucdavis.edu 

Kay Milewski 

Ford Research Laboratory 

P. 0. Box 2053 

20000 Rotunda Drive 

Dearborn, MI 48 121-2053 

3 13-248-8 196 

Joanna Mirecki Millunchick 

Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 

University of Michigan 

2300 Hayward Street 

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2136 

Jim Morrison 

Lightspeed Technologies 

5987 Royal Country 

St. Louis, MO 63 129 

jm@lightspeed-tech.com 

Wayne A. No11 

Delphi Auto 

937-455-6757 

wayne.a.oll@delphiauto.com 

Alan Nye 

Rochester Institute of Technology 

76 Lomb Drive 

Rochester, NY 14623 

716-475-6121 

ahneme @rit.edu 

Debby Parker 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

University of Michigaii-Dearborn 

Dearborn, MI 48 128 

3 13-593-5882 

dparker @ urnich.edu 

Ruth Pater 

Mail Stop 226 

Materials Div. Research & Technology Group 

NASA Langley Research Center 

Hampton, VA 2368 1-2199 

757-864-4277 

r.h.pater@ 1arc.nasa.gov 

Thomas C. Pederson 

Senior Staff Research Scientist 

Research & Development Centr 

General Motors Corporation 

Mail Code 480-103-001 

30500 Mound Road 103 

Box 9055 

Warren, MI 48090-9055 

8 10-986- 1650 

thomas-c.-pederson @ gm.r.com 

Bruce J. Pletka 

Michigan Technological University 

1400 Townsend Drive 

Houghton, MI 4993 1- 1295 

906-487-2639 

bjpletka@mtu.edu 

Federico Raffo 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Carl Reichel 

Augusta Technical Institute 

3 1 16 Deans Bridge Road 

Augusta, GA30906 

706-77 1-4092 

creichel @rnindspring.com 

Anthony Renshaw 

Columbia University in the City 

of New York 

School of Engineering & Applied Science 

New York, NY 10027 

Bill Ross 

Muskegon Community College 

221 S. Quarterline Road 

Muskegon, MI 49442 

6 16-777-0367 

rossb @muskegon.cc.mi.us 

Merrill Rudes 

Energy Concepts, Inc. 

595 Bond Street 

Lincolnshire, IL 60069 

847-821-1900 ext. 3 12 

ecieng 1 @ aol.com 

Kenneth Rusch 

Budd Plastic Division 

1850 Research Drive 

Troy, MI 48083-2167 

248-6 19-2235 

rushkr@troyrd.buddcompany.com 
Constance L. Rutherford 

DaimlerChrysler Corporation 

800 Chrysler Drive 

Auburn Hills, MI 48326-2757 

248-576-7501 

CR15 @ dairnlerchrysler.com 

Lori Rysdorp 

American Iron and Steel Institute 

2000 Town Center 

Southfield, MI 48075- 1 199 

248-945-4768 

rysdorpl @autosteel..org 

Matthew Sanders 

Norfolk State University 

700 Park Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

7 17-683-8109 

Leslie Santos 

3310 West Big Beaver Road 

Suite 144 

Troy, MI 48084 

248-649-4888 

lsantos@ wwnet.net 

Jessica Schroeder 

Materials & Processes Laboratory 

GM R&DE Center 

Warren, MI 

8 10-986- 1 176 

Subrata Sengupta 

College of Engineering and Computer Science 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Dearborn, MI 48 128 

Daniel V. Schiavello 

Desktop Engineering International 

1200 MacArthur Blvd. 

Mahwah, NJ 07430 

201-8 18-9700 

schiavello @ deiusa.com 

Ram N. Singh 

St. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley 

3400 Pershall Road 

St. Louis, MO 63135-1408 

3 14-595-1822 

rsingh @ fd.stlcc.cc.mo.us 

Philip S. SMad 

Oak Ridge National laboratory 

Bldg. 45 15, MS-6065 

P. 0. Box 2008 

Oak Ridge, TN 3783 1-6065 

423-574-5069 

pxi @ornl.gov 

Christine S. Sloane 

General Motors R & D Center and 

Advanced Technology Vehicles 

MC: 483-619-409 

1996 Technology Drive 

Troy, MI 48007-7083 

248-680-5754 

christine.s.sloane@ gm.com 

Ron Smelser 

University of Idaho 

Mechanical Engineering Department 

Moscow, ID 83844-0902 

208-885-4049 

rsmelser @ uidaho.edu 

Ann Smith 

Automotive Composites Alliance 

3310 W. Big Beaver 

Suite 144 

Troy, MI 48098 

248-649-4888 

L. Brent Smith 

Shawnee State University 

940 Second Street 

Portsmouth, OH 45662 

740-355-2686 

bsmith@ shawnee.edu 

Becky Snedeker 

The Aluminum Association 

900 19th Street, N.W. 

Washington, DC 20006 

Michael E. Soltz 

Columbia University in the 

City of New York 

New York, NY 1 1027 

Jim Stuef 

ECI 

32900 W. 13 Mile Road 

Farmington Public Schools 

Farmington Hill, MI 48334 
Michael P. Thomas 

Alcan Global Automotive Products 

37676 Enterprise Court 

Farmington Hills, MI 4833 1 

248-487-5633 

Mike.Thomas @ Alcan.com 

Brian Thompson 

Michigan State University 

Mechanical Engineering 

5 17-355-2179 

Yinghao Tian 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Gary Tibbetts 

Materials & Processes Laboratory 

GM R&D Center 

Warren, MI 

8 10-986-0655 

Carlos E. Umana 

School of Mecanical Engineering 

University of Costa Rica 

San Pedro, Costa Rica 

506-207-4548 

camma@ terraba.fing.ucr.ac.cr 

Alejandro Vadillo 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Raul Valenzuela 

Institute for Materials Research 

National University of Mexico 

P. 0. Box 70-360 

Mexico 045 10 Mexico 

525-622-46 53 

monj aras @ servidor.unam.mx 

Marcel vanschaik 

AISI-Southfield 

vanschaikm@ autosteel.org 

Dave Vebecky 

Farmington High School 

Farmington Public Schools 

Farmington Hills, MI 48336 

Anthony S. Warren 

Alcan Aluminum 

37676 Enterprise court 

Farmington Hills, MI 4833 1 

248-489-563 1 

tony.warren@ alcan.com 

David L. Wells 

Focus: Hope 

Wayne State University 

1400 Oakrnan Boulevard 

Detroit, MI 48 128 

3 13-494-4293 

wellsd@ focushope.edu 

Michael Wheeler 

Alcan Global Automotive Products 

136 Bagot Street 

Kingston, Ontario K7L 3E5 

Canada 

Mike.Wheeler2@ sympatico.ca 

Barbara White 

8 10-659-2269 

Charles V. White 

Professor of Manufacturing Engineering 

Kettering University 

1700 West Third Avenue 

Flint, MI 48504-4898 

8 10-762-7884 

cwhite @ kettering.edu 

Edward L. Widener 

Purdue University 

Knoy Hall 1 19 

West Lafayette, IN 47907- 13 17 

765-494-752 1 

elwidener@ tech.purdue.edu 

Steven Yalisove 

Director, Center for Nanomaterials Science 

Department of Materials Science and Engineering 

University of Michigan 

2300 Hayward Street 

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2136 

734-764-4346 

smy @umich.edu 

Robert L. Yang 

NASA Langley Research Center 

MS 211 

Harnpton, VA 2368 1-0001 

757-864-8020 

r.l.yang @larc.nasa.gov 

Susan G. Yester 

DairnlerChrysler Corporation 

800 Chrysler Drive 

Auburn Hills, MI 48326 
Page intentionally left blank 
NATIONAL EDUCATORS' WORKSHOP 

Update 99: Standard Experiments 

in Engineering Materials, Science, 

and Technology 

October 3 1 - November 3, 1999 - Dearbom and Auburn Hills, Michigan 

Sponsored by 

Department of Energy 

Office of Energy Efficiency and 

Renewable Energy 

MSEL 

Materials Science & 

Engineering LaboratoriesNlST 

General Motors Corporation 

Center for Lightweight Materials 

and Processing 

University of Michigan- earb born 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Administration 

Langley Research Center 

DaimlerChrysler Corporation 

Energy Efiiciency & Renewable 

Energy Program 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

Gateway Engineering Coalition 

Aluminum Association American Plastics Council 

with the support of 

American Society for Engineering 

Columbia University 

Kettering University 

Michigan State University 

University of Dekoit-Mercy 

Norfolk State University 

School of Science and 

Technology 

Scientific Research Laboratory 

Ford Motor Company 

USAMP 

United States Automotive 

Materials Partnership 

American Iron & Steel Institute 

Automotive Composites Alliance 

ASM International 

Delphi Automotive Chassis Systems 

International Council for Materials Education 

Northeast Center for Telecommunication Technologies 

University of Michigan-Ann Arbor 




Ginger AMnma 

Diana LaClaire and Consace Ruthefiord 

x19i 
POSTER SESSIONS 
POSTER SESSIONS AND DISPLAYS 
University of Michigan 

Dearborn 

Tour of Henry Ford Estate and National Historic Landmark 

Graduate Curriculum on Lightweight Automotive Materials 

Demonstration on Lightweight Automotive Materials Database 

Seminar 

Concurrent Engineering and Rapid Prototyping 

Gary Kinzel 

The Ohio State University 

Research on Lightweight Automotive Materials and Processes 

University of Michigan - Dearborn Faculty and Students 

Lab Tour 
Tour of Henry Ford Estate and National Historic Landmark 
Sedam- Gaacumaent E@@ne&ng md Rapid Pratamfgglg 

Gq Mmel, me Ohio Sbte Udver&Q 
LAB TOUR 
MINI WORKSHOPS 

LIGHTSPEED TECHNOLOGIES 

Web-Based Training System: 

Hands-on activities with materials design, 

tooling, finishing and 

injection molding 

GENERAL MOTORS 

Demonstration of carbon fibers from Natural Gas: 

formation and application and nondestructive 

testing of bonded composites using Shearography 

(optical technique for evaluating polymer matrix composite) 

ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION 

Design Practices for Automotive and Light Truck 

Aluminum Bodies Computer Aided Design, 

Welding and Recycling 

AUTOMOTIVE COMPOSITE ALLIANCE 

Interactive tours of plastics and composites 

production facilities at Budd Plastics 

and 

Cambridge Industties 

DAIMLERCHRYSLER 

Tour of DaimlerChrysler production development 

facilities for Prowler and Viper 

AMERICAN IRON & STEEL INSTITUTE 

Automotive Design Systems - ULSAB Engineering: 

Plan for the ultra light steel auto body and 

Using CARS Computer Program: Designing 

automotive components 

FORD MOTOR COMPANY 

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH LABORATORY 

To include Microscopy (SEM) interesting topics on material properties; 

Adhesives - different adhesives for different materials and use 

of liquid nitrogen in testing; 

Lightweight Materials such as SMC, RTM - 

materials of future products; 

Plastics - new materials and testing 

liii 

Mini- Workshops 

(Continued) 
Mini- Workshops 

(Concluded) 
CONTINUOUS LEARNING NETWORK (CLN) 

Robert Kleinhans 

and 

Marina Arizpe 

Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

5987 Royal Country 

St. Louis, Missouri 63 129 

Telephone 636-394-00 12 

e-mail rk@lightspeed-tech.com 
Robert Beidam 
LIGHTSPEED 

LigHtSpeed Technologies, Inc. 

Continuous Learning Network (CLNB) 

Presented By: 

Marina Arizpe 

Robert Kleinhans 

November 2,1999 

Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

Continuous Learning Netivork (CLNW) 

Scope of Demands on Today's Engineers 

Today's Engineers must be 

cross-trained in numerous 

processes and technologies 

to effectively communicate 

with many diverse crossfunctional design teams! 

LightSpeed Technologies, Inc. 

Co~lti~litol~s Learning Net~vork (CLNW) 

Training via the Intranet 

a Requires NetscapeIExplorer Browser on PC 

Centrally supported architecture 

* Knowledge shared across the Enterprise 

* Designed for Engineers, Manufacturing, Purchasing 

& Management Personnel 

Allows for limitless number of students wEducation on demand -- anytime, any pace 

Minimizes travel costs & employee down-time 

CLN reflects latest materials & processes 

LIGHTSPEED 

--a 
Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

Continuous Learning Network (CLNa) 

Reference Materials via the Intranet 

. Technical in formation A 

Design formulas 

* Glossary 

Material & Equipment Suppliers 

. Best Practices 

Case Studies 
Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

Continuous Learning Network (CLNS) 

Problem Solving Tool via the Intranet 

@ Design Checklist 

Design Tips 

Troubleshooting Guides 

Design Guides 

Case Studies 

Problem Solving Techniques 

Process Improvement Procedures 

Photos & Illustrations of Defects/Failures 

"Find what you need, when you need I 99 it. 
Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

Continuous Learning Network (CLNB) 

CLN@ for the Education Sector 

Topics are Individually Packaged on CD's - 

- Access CD as often as needed 

Consistent with Full Production Release :.: 

Requires only Netscape or Microsoft Browser 

$50 per Student fee for each Seminar 

Fees can be Bundled in with Price of Class 

Updates can be obtained for a Minimal Fee ($15) 

Robust Training Programs 
Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

Continuous Learning Network (CLN@) 

Typical Cost Factors for Engineering Seminars 

Off-site Training CLN@ Training 

Seminar fees $650 - $1,500 ea. 

Day's Wages $300 - $500 ea. 

$150 ea. 

$90- 

Day's productivity Lost Yes! 

Travel Expenses $20 - $1,250 ea. 

Knowledge Retrieval 20% after 30 days 

Content UpdateIRefresh NIA 

Easy access to CLN! 

Continuously! 

LIGHTSPEED 
1 

Li 

w 

ad 

fir 

6 

fir 

Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

Continuous Learning Network (CLNG) 

& ['"Xa L 

&S;/pe(ed iFecharo h&yieq8 L 

Continuous Learning Network@ (CLN@) 

44Demonstration " 
Lightspeed Technologies, Inc. 

1999 CLN@ Seminar Price List 

“‘&&+"ms-- “Etlucational" Price $SO/Seniinar/Stu(Ie~it 

lniection Molding 

Processing Essentials of Injection Molding 

Process Optimization for 111jectio11 Molding 

Injection Molding Process rouble shoot in^ 

Injection Molding & Testing of Colored Parts 

Cost Reduction of Plastic Parts 

Gas Assist Part & Mold Design Considerations 

Advanced Injection Molding Processes 

Multi-Color & Co-Injection Molding 

* Selection Criteria for Injection Molding Machines & Auxiliary Equip. 

* Automation of the Injection Molding Process 

* Insert Molding & E~~capsulation 

Plastics Enpineering 

FEA, Virtual Prototyping & Validation 

Rapid Prototyping 

Rapid Tooling 

Testing & Specifications of Plastic Materials 

Weathering of Plastics & Colors 

* Noise, Vibration & Harshness (NVH) Testing 

Tooling 

Design Cor~cepts for 111iectio11 Molds 

 old Filling brnalysis " 

Selection & Preventative Maintenance for lnjectiori Molds 

Hot Runner Systems 

Advanced Injection Mold Design 

Plastics Processing 

Extrusion 

Recycling of Plastics Parts 

* Blow Molding 

* Compression Molding & Resin Transfer Molding 

* Reaction Injection Molding (RIM) 

Plastics Finishing 

Plastic Parts Finishing Methods 

Paint Application & Troubleshooting 

Plastic Finishes Specifications 

Chrome Plating for Metals & Plastics 

* Off-line Painting of Interior & Exterior Parts 

Materials Quality Engineering 

Thermoplastic Materials Quality Engineering for Plastics Manufacturing 

Plastic Material Additives 

Foams: Insulating, EnergylSound Absorbing, Structural 

Plastics Desipn 

Design Concepts for Molded Parts 

Advanced Molded Part Design 

Assembly Designs for Plastic Parts 

Metals - Materials and Processing 

Steel Materials & Processing Methods 

Aluminum Materials & Processing Methods 

* Sheet Metal Stamping 

* Corrosion 

* Denotes availability within 6-months LIGHTSPEED 
. CLN Seminars 

process in^ Essentials of Injection Molding Injection mold in^ Process Troubleshooting 

Description Description 

Injection molding is a form of plastics processing that melts a 

thtmoplastic polymer and injects the molten polymer into a mold. 

As the polymer cools in the mold, it takes the shape of the cavities 

and will retain this shape unless heat or mechanical forces change it. 

'he injection molding process can be described in four stages. In 

each stage, the temperatures and pressures, or the time, must be 

carefully and consistently controlled to produce high quality 

moldings (parts). A quality molding will reflect the tool surface and 

the cavity shape perfectly, will have minimum residual molding 

stress and will be free of flash around the edges or defects on visible 

surfaces. The technology that offers the most control and 

consistency is the reciprocating screw method. Maintaining 

consistency is the most important concept to employ to ensure 

quality and efficiency in the injection molding process. 

This course provides a fundamental understanding of injection 

molding and is directed at engineering personnel. The course 

discusses the advantages and disadvantages of injection molding and 

reviews the equipment involved, the processing, and then finishes 

with Process Set-Up and Cycle Time. 

The term "Troubleshooting" refers to the process of solving 

problems. Problems within an injection molding process will 

usually be detected when visible defects appear on the molded parts. 

Other problems, such as parts sticking in the mold, or flashing of 

litters or core pins, may interrupt the molding cycle, causing down 

time or excessive cycle times. Sometimes a problem will not 

surface until parts begin to fail dimensional or performance tests. In 

any case, once a problem becomes evident, it must be solved. 

This seminar is designed to utilize an understanding of the injection 

molding process (learned in the Process Optimization seminar) to 

solve problems quickly and permanently. There are multitudes of 

problems that can result from the injection molding process. 

Included in this seminar is a Troubleshooting guide to many of the 

common defects found in injection molding, detailing possible 

causes and practical solutions. 

The seminar also proposes a "Ten Step Process" to be used as a 

checklist for troubleshooting. This checklist is designed to help 

solve problems fast and effectively. A ten-step process may seem 

imposing, but the process is essential to ensure the success of 

solutions and to prevent recurrence of molding problems. 

Process Optimization for Iniection Molding Understanding that these ste@s are necessary to achieve and 

maintain process control increases their acceptance as part of an Description improvement plan. Taking the time to follow the ten steps will 

yield permanent solutions with records of the results. The steps Injection molding of thermoplastic materials is a process that has require people in direrent depments to work tog&er to solve 

many and must be set up in order to produce high problems, implement changes, and track progress, thus encomging quality parts consistently. The main requirements for achieving t-work, As is usually the -, the solutions will apply to 

high quality and consistency in production are: problems in other areas of the plant. The Ten-Step process will 

make continuous improvement a natural progression of 

Tooling - a well designed and well-built mold troubleshooting. The Ten Step Process is defied within the course. 

Equipment - molding & auxiliary equipment which is capable and 

repeatable 

Staff - trained and empowered personnel in all disciplines 

Material - produced to meet or esceed the specification, with 

consistent quality 

Use of these factors makes it possible to mold parts within a 

predictable range of qualities, including dimensional, performance 

and appearance characteristics. A system must be devised to 

optimize the processing conditions for production of each part. It is 

cquallv important to implenient a system to maintain control over 

the process alter it is optimized. 

'Ihis seminar details the parameters of injection molding, their effect 

on the llow of melted thermoplastic material and molded parts and 

hou to control these parameters. It also describes the causes of 

variations in part dimensions, performance, appearance and advises 

on mcthods to optimize the plastics injection molding process. As 

uitli all Lightspeed 'rechnologies, Inc. training seminars, fwus is on 

practical methods of maintaining quality assurance in a production 

cnvironmmt. 

Molding & test in^ of Colored Parts 

Description 

Color is much more than the simple description of a molded plastic 

part. Color is really a material science and study of color must 

include subjects such as light and illumination and the interactions 

of light with materials. When considering color it is also nlcessary 

to have an understanding of visual evaluation and instrumental color 

measurement. Once an understanding of color measurement is 

gained it then becomes possible to establish tolerances for the 

appearance of a molded part. 

Within this seminar, the coloring of plastics and use of special effect 

additives is explained and recommendations for the coloring of 

specific polymer families are made. The use of pigments, dyes and 

special effects are examined along with discussion of the handling of 

coloring agents including dispersion and compounding. This seminar 

closes with an examination of molding colored materials, covering 

an assortment of tht: problems that can be encountered and the 

techniques used to solve them. 
INJECTION MOLDING 

CLN Seminars 

Cost Reduction of Plastic Parts 

Description 

Injection molding is a manufacturing process with several stages. 

Simplistically defined, it involves melting a thermoplastic material 

in an injection molding machine and injecting it into a mold. The 

injection molding machine operates in two main sequences: melting 

the plastic pellets in the injection unit, and injecting the melt into a 

mold held in the clamping unit (molding the parts). If you have any 

involvement with manufacturing, you are aware of the many 

variables that effect these two "simple" stages, including a number 

of processes dependent on operator set-up and several functions 

performed by auxiliary equipment. Reducing costs of this 

manufacturing process can be accomplished in increments by 

improving each aspect one at a time. 

Part design and mold design will define the rules and the playing 

field for those attempting to improve a process. For this reason, this 

seminar is recommended not only for manufacturing and 

maintenance personnel, but for designers and product en=' Omeers as 

well. Also, anyone responsible for purchasing molds and equipment 

will tind helpful infbrrnation in this seminar, since various features 

and options may have a significant effect on overall piece costs. 

Some options discussed here will have a more immediate and 

profound effect than others, so the relative potential for cost 

reduction of each option will be indicated. 

Gas Assist PartMold Design Considerations 

Description 

Although the earliest 'gas assist' patents date back to the mid1970's, it is only since the early 1990's that the technolog has 

gained widespread industry acceptance. Gas assist is one of the most 

innovative, enabling molding techniques to emerge in the last 

decade. Proliferation of gas assist technology during that time has 

been rapid as designers have continued to push the limits in 

developing new applications. Gas assist equipment manufacturers 

have responded ulth a continuous stream of developments in 

hardware and control technology. 

Gas assist molding is most useful when a part has thick sections or 

where the part is large and difficult to fill without high levels of 

residual stress. This process forms hollow sections in parts, reducing 

part weight, cycle times and stress resulting from dft'ferential 

shrihge. With gas assist, larger channels can be intentionally 

designed into a part to facilitate flow so that the stress typically 

induced by the long flow paths is reduced. Injected gas creates 

hollow sections in each channel eliminating thick sections. 

Advanced Iniection mold in^ Processes 

Description 

The injection molding industry is continually investigating new 

methods and technologies to drive the continuous improvement 

goals of improved quality, reduced cost, and greater speed. This 

seminar contains discussions on two process technologies that have 

the potential to achieve some of these goals. Alsa included are 

several Case Studies detailing applications that these processes are 

being used for. 

The first technology discussed in the seminar is called Multi-LiveFeed Molding, more commonly referred to as the ScorimTM process 

(Scorim is an acronym for Shear Controlled ORientation Injection 

Molding). Scorim isy designed to reduce or eliminate weldlines and 

increase orientation by oscillating the melt in the cavity and 

maintaining it in a molten state long enough to achieve a better knit 

of the two flow fronts across the weldline. 

The second technology discussed is called Pulsed Mold Temperature 

Control. Pulsed Mold Temperature Control is a technique designed 

to maximize the efficiency of the cooling stage of the molding cycle 

while maintaining or in many cases improving product quality. The 

technology works by supplying heating or cooling to the mold in 

intermittent bursts, or "pulses,". rather than on a continuous basis. 

This scminar otyers insight into the hard~vare/componmts used in 

 us assist, the polymer parameters, the gas injection parameters, the 

mold parameters, as \\*ell as the gas assist injection techniques and 

dcsign considerations. 
PLASTICS ENGINEERING . CLN Seminars 

FEA. Virtual Prototv~ing & Validation 

Description 

In today's marketplace, there are strong pressures to decrease 

development time and costs. Perhaps the best method to meet these 

dcmands is through the use of technological tools to reduce the need 

for prototype iterations and testing. By getting the design right the 

tirst time, large blocks of time, as well as capital, can be removed 

from the development process. These tools fall under the broad 

description of virtual simulation. 

Virtual Simulation implies the use of the computer to simulate the 

design for a variety of requirements. Through the use of these tools, 

an engineer can develop the geometry of the individual parts, check 

fit and function in an assembly, generate images of the final part 

that retlect colors, texwes, and additional cosmetic features, and 

determine the response to the operating environment. A11 of this can 

he completed without generating a single physical prototype, and, 

due to the advances in computational power, this can be done in a 

matter of minutes or hours, as opposed to days or longer for the 

meation of prototypes. 

Within this seminar, each of these techniques are discussed, with 

examples and common tools provided. In addition, this seminar 

discusses the two stages in the virtual design process. The first is 

the creation of the engineering design, and the second is the 

evaluation of the design. The tools for each are reviewed in this 

seminar. 

Ra~id Prototv~ing 

Description 

Ihe ability to create a functioning prototype, or at least a three 

dimensional model, has always been considered critical to the 

product development process. Designers need to see their concepts 

in a physical form to verifv aesthetics, dimensions, the ability to 

manufacture, and some aspects of the part's hctional capabilities. 

Based on the information about these characteristics that are 

demonstrated by the prototype parts, design revisions are then made 

to im~rove these characteristics. Prototwes are also usehl tools for . . nlarketing nea products, allowing customers to see, feel, and 

sometimes test out models of the designs. This reduces measiness 

about new ideas. elimi~lating many unknowns that may be perceived 

as intangible risks to customers. 

Prototype parts are valuable tools used to evaluate form, fit, and 

function of new product designs. RP exmtes build times 

significantly over conventional protot-ping methods. These 

technologies have been advanced over the past 10 years to provide 

more dimensional accuracy, smoother surface finishes and a larger 

selection of materials to better simulate the physical characteristics 

of the intended production materials. These improvements serve to 

makc rapid prototyping more valuable and ektive at reducing lead 

timss to market. 

test in^ & Soecifications of Plastic Materials 

Description 

There are many dilyerent methods that may be used to analyze 

polymeric materials, ranging Gom a simple test like the notched hod 

to a sophisticated analysis canid out before, during and after a year 

long exposure under glass. These test methods all have a common 

purpose: insuring that a material or a part design does not fail during 

the product service life. In order to avoid and eliminate potential 

failures it is important to have an understanding of what the 

dit'ferent test methods measure and the types of instruments that are 

used in the tests. Equally important is how these tests are used in 

writing specifications and what variables affect the test results. 

This seminar discusses the variety of methods used to test the 

properties of different plastic materials, as well as the material 

standards and specifications that are used in establishing procedures 

to insure that a material will meet the application service 

requirements. 

Raoid Tooling 

Description 

As Rapid Prototyping technologies are becoming more widely used 

to produce first concept articles, a whole new field is opening up in 

which Rapid Prototyping is being used to produce molds for 

multiple production of compon&ts. This seminar will discuss the 

various facets of this "Rapid Tooling" initiative being taken on by 

Rapid Prototyping vendors and users alike. 

This seminar will also review advancements in existing tooling 

methods that accelerate the build of molds for prototype and short 

run production. New methods of reducing the build time for metal 

molds will be discussed, including using rapid prototyped parts to 

make mold inserts and using high performance machining 

technology to CNC steel or aluminum molds. 

weather in^ of Plastics & Colors 

Description 

The phenomena known as weathering, is a complex mis of 

environmental and material characteristics that are continually 

changing as a material undergoes exposure. The degrading influence 

of ultraviolet light, temperature and humidity cycling result in 

significant changes for many polymeric materials. These changes 

may be minimal for materials such as the acrylic polymers or very 

severe as in the case of epoxies. Exposure to natural sunlight and 

actual environmental weathering conditions require significant time 

periods but are the most accurate methods for judging material 

performance and service life. Artificial weathering methods have 

been developed to reduce the time required for weathering exposure 

and to provide a uniform means of exposing materials under 

controlled conditions. 

This seminar provides an insight into the processes by which a This seminar discusses the advantages and limitations of rapid material degrades under a of environmental conditions. The prototyping, and highlights many rapid prototyping technologies and concludes by discwsing the methods and instruments used concept modeling technologies that are available within the industry. to analye the effects of weathering on a variety of materials. 
MATERIALS 

CLN Seminars 

Thermoolastic Materials 

Description 

A plastic material that can be sotiened and processed using heat, 

and that solidifies when cooled, maintaining the desired molded 

shape is a thermoplastic material. Thermoplastics can be reprocessed repeatedly, and can be easily recycled. There are a variety 

or thtmoplastic materials available, so it is important to carellly 

select the type that will best meet all of the usage and assembly 

requirements specific to each individual application. 

Thermoplastic materials all have their own distinctive physical 

propexties that dit'ferentiates them from other polymers. The most 

important differences that determine their performance in a given 

application include stitTness, tensile strength, elongation, resistance 

to heat, impact. abrasion, and chemicals. 

The objectives of this seminar are to provide the users with a grasp 

of the basic properties and appropriate usage's associated with each 

thermoplastic polymer we. Thermoplastic materials are available 

in a wide variety and each type has characteristics that \%ill be 

presented in this seminar in a concise manner. Photos of familiar 

applications are intended to make the aesthetic and functional 

capabilities of each material easy to conceptualize and identify. 

Brief summaries of the methods of processing thermoplastics are 

also discussed and exemplified by photographs of common 

applications produced by each processing method. 

Foams: Insulating, Absorbing, Structural 

Description 

Polyurethane foams' greatest advantage over other po1)meric 

materials is their broad range of finished product properties and 

simplistic process requirements. The physical properties, which 

contribute to the perfbrmance for a g~ven application, are density, 

hardness, compression strength, stiffness, elongation, and resiliency. 

The common automotive applications are as follows: seats, 

headlines, carpet backing, steering wheels, instrument panels, door 

trim panels, package shelf, acoustical body cavity b&ers/sealers, 

impact megy absorbers, and acoustical absorbers & decouplers. 

'This seminar provides insight into the components of urethane 

foan~s, thc formation. structure, and physical properties of foams, as 

well as the applications best suited for foams. 

Plastic Material Additives 

Description 

The additives used in modem polymer formulations have played a 

key role in the enormous expansion of applications for these 

materials. Plastics have become engineering materials, with 

combinations of properties and processing advantages that are 

duplicated by no other material. 

Additives may be examined from many perspectives: the approach 

taken in this seminar will examine them &om the main purpose for 

using the additive, broadly separated into processing aids, prmodifiers and protective materials. Each of these is discussed bnefly 

below. The seminar also presents information on the additives that 

are blended with polymers to improve the balance of properties and 

optimize the poIymrr for specific applications. 

Processing aids refer to materials like lubricants or plasticizers that 

improve the efficiency of processing. By improving the flow of 

molten polymer or aiding in the release of plastic from a metal 

surface, they increase cycle times and make processing much easier. 

Property modifiers change many of the physical properties of a 

polymer. Impact mmers and flame retardants allow plastics to be 

specified in applications previously not suitable for synthetic 

materials. The protective additives such as the antioxidants and light 

stabilizers improve the durability and resistance to deterioration of 

plastics. Many materials can be adversely affected by processing 

conditions or -sure to heat and light. These additives prevent 

degradation and extend the service life of the plastic part. 

The expansion of polymers into difficult hce conditions like 

under the hood applications has placed demand on the additives 

manufacturers for improved products. The additives used in these 

materials are also under continuous development, sening to insure 

polymeric products continue to meet the requirements and 

expectation of the end user. 

LIGHTSPEED 

19 
PLASTICS DESIGN 

CLN Seminars 

Design Conce~ts for Molded Parts 

Description 

Thc process of designing a plastic part may be broken down 

into steps. and there are many factors to consider when 

making decisions regarding design features. Listed in this 

seminar is an outline of basic design factors and a brief 

comment about their significance to part bction. cost, and 

reliability. Each of these factors is discussed in this seminar. 

providing concise design guidelines and illustrated examples. 

Descriptions of pitfalls associated with common design errors 

demonstrate that there is more to part design than achieving 

the desired appearance and fitting to mating parts. 

To summarize the concepts in this seminar. a short list of the 

most critical concepts of part design is provided. The 

relationships between part design fees and part 

performance in the field are also described in detail. It is 

important to follow the basic rules listed in the seminar when 

determining part dimensions and design. in order to 

maximize the performance of the material and the end 

product. 

Advanced Molded Part Desipn 

Description 

In today's world of advanced materials and manufacturing 

processes. plastic part design is perhaps one of the most 

challenging fields of design. Variables such as design 

materials. finishes. molding methods. assembly and 

packaging require esperienced input to achieve an acceptable 

finished part. 

Unlike a puzzle where pieces can be assembled in a random 

fashion. the plastic pan design process requires a coordinated 

effort to put each piece in its place in the correct sequence. 

Without proper planning some aspect of the process usually 

suffers. such as part quality. manufacturing cost. performance 

or scrvice life. 

This seminar provides insight into the critical roles that 

people play in the success of a Simultaneous Engineering 

Project. It also highlights molded part tolerances. insert 

molding. and provides much detail on structural design. 

including useful design formulas. 

Assembly Desi~ns for Plastic Parts 

Description 

In a study conducted by The Institute for Competitive Design 

in Rochester. Michigan. the design stage represents just 5% 

of the overall product cost. yet design decides 70% of the 

products production cost. Designing parts for assembly and 

manufacturing is an important task for all involved in the 

evolution of a product. 

This seminar provides an insight into the various assembly 

methods eommoniy used in plastic product assembly and 

manufacturing. Once the preliminary design is completed the 

engineering stage begins which consists of detailed 

engineering design and analysis of the part and assembly. It is 

during this stage where an understanding of plastic behavior 

and its mechanical limits are essential to preventing failure. It 

must be understood that classical theories of strength of 

materials do not always apply as plastics have a lower 

strength level than most metals and experience a much higher 

degree of deformation in the elastic region, especially under 

elevated temperatures. Experience and a working relationship 

with the material supplier are key to developing the find 

dimensions to achieve the optimum fit of a fastener or the 

proper joint design. 

LICHTSPEED 
CLN Seminars 

Desi~n Concepts for Iniection Molds Select & Prevent ~Maint. for Injection Molds 

Description Description 

The mold is the most important component of the injection 

molding process. The mold consists of two halves. the 

stationary (injection) half. and the moving (ejection) half. 

which are mounted to the platens of a molding machine. The 

molding machine injects melted thermoplastic material into a 

hollow section in the center of the mold. which is called the 

mold cavity. There may be multiple cavities in the mold 

which allow for molding many parts simultaneously, and they 

are typically in multiples of two to balance the pressure while 

the mold is filling. 

This seminar discusses the critical features of a mold design. 

including cavity number and placement. gating and feed 

systems. paning line locations. cooling layout. and ejection 

methods. Several important factors that influence these mold 

design decisions are also covered. including part production 

volumes. part function and quality requirements. and the 

material selected for part production. 

Mold Filling Analvsis 

Description 

In the modern production and manufacturing environment. a 

buyer is given a design from the designer and is directed to 

solicit bids. Often the project is behind schedule and the 

buyer is directed to place the job as quickly as possible in 

order to get the part into production. This seminar will 

explain why carefid selection and preventative maintenance 

for injection molds is extremely important in the current 

production environment. 

The price of the part will be a direct function of the 

manufacturability of the part design. The more intelligent the 

design. the more reliable the product and the lower it's cost. 

Significant savings can be achieved if, prior to soliciting 

quotations, the design is sent to someone who is independent 

of the project for a critique of the part's manufacturability. 

Products with overly tight tolerances, 'zero draft' 

unreasonable cosmetic requirements, or specifications that the 

material is only marginally capable of producing, will 

increase the scrap rate and therefore inflate the cost of the 

part and increase wear on the tool. 

The seminar will also discuss the importance of defining 

"tooling standards" so that all suppliers will bid a comparable 

Mold filling analysis is the simulation of the injection product- It addresses pricing and maintenance concern, 

molding process. one of the methods used to make plastic mold classifications, and the materials used to make molds, as 

parts. This tool allows the engineer the ability to predict how well. 

the mold will create the part. and if the part produced will be 

acceptable. This is accomplished by mathematically 

approximating the mold and the plastic that fills it. 

A mold. in its simplest form. is composed of two halves. One 

half is named the core. the other the cavity. When placed 

together. a volume is enclosed between these two halves that 

defines the shape of the part to be made. This volume is then 

filled \kith molten plastic. which cools and forms the part. 

While this process sounds simple. the actual process is 

immensely comples. and an error in any one of hundreds of 

variables can cause the parts that are formed to be useless. 

This seminar breaks down the mold filling analysis and how 

it uses the computer to simulate the physics of the injection 

molding process. The seminar also reviews the geometry of 

the part. the filling of the mold. the cooling analysis. and 

finishes with a review of several mold filling software tools. 

Within this seminar. one will find many case studies with 

valuable esamples of the use of mold filling analysis. 
Recvcling of Plastic Parts 

Description 

PLASTICS PROCESSING 

CLN Seminars 

One of the controversial issues surrounding the 

implementation of recycling programs in the automotive 

industry is the effect on quality when reclaimed plastic 

materials are re-introduced back into automotive components. 

In general. engineers and designers are unaware of the fact 

that many "virgin" thermoplastic materials available on the 

market today already contain a percentage of recycled resins, 

either from off-spec material or from reclaimed post 

consumer products. This is not done in secrecy or against 

customer agreements. since agreements with customers can 

be fully adhered to while including recycled materials in their 

formulas. 

For applications with specific requirements that prohibit the 

use of reprocessed materials. such as medical, optical, or 

critically functioning parts, the materials suppliers are careful 

not to use any qcled product. However. the majority of 

automotive and consumer goods applications simply require 

consistent melt behavior and physical properties, which can 

be accomplished while incorporating reprocessed materials in 

a controlled manner. 

The key to controlling the quality of recycled material is to 

maintain control over each critical phase of the process. This 

seminar provides insight into In-Process recycling, 

Mechanical recycling. and reviews several applications where 

recycled materials are used. 

Extrusion 

Description 

Estrusion involves the conversion of a polymer melt into a 

profile with a precise cross section with consistent and 

continuous repeatability in the machine direction. This 

seminar provides insight into the Extrusion process and the 

equipment required to complete an Extrusion process. 

including: 

Dryer 

Hopper 

Extruder (components:) 

Screen changer 

Static mixer (optional) 

Die 

Calibration unit 

Puller and cutoff device 

Higher line speeds have translated into the need for on-line 

inspection of the profile as it sets in its final geometry. Both 

camera inspection and laser measuring have improved in 

speed and have come down in price to provide the capability 

to continually measure a number of geometric parameters of 

the profile. The seminar concludes with a discussion on 

inspection and measurement of the profile as it sets in its final 

geometry. 
PLASTICS FINISHING 

CLN Seminars 

Plastic Parts Finishing Methods Plastic Finishes S~ecifications 

Description Description 

The decorating and finishing of molded plastic materials is as 

varied as the materials themselves. The methods used for 

decorating range from simple pad printing done on a 

manually operated machine to sophisticated graphics 

produced by lasers on an automated.production line. 

This seminar reviews the variety of methods used in the 

decorating and finishing of plastic parts. We discuss In-mold 

dccorating and how using inserts or films provide a means of 

producing a finished part without post molding operations. 

The seminar reviews Transfer pad printing as a method used 

to print graphics or images on the esterior of molded parts. 

Another example covered in the seminar is Heat stamping 

and how it is used to give molded parts a colored surface by 

using a foil or film to carry the graphic image. The images 

can be quite complicated in appearance. yet veq simple to 

apply to the finished part. Other examples covered are Laser 

decorating of plastics. Metallizing technologies. and vacuum 

metallizing. Functional decorating is also discussed. refemng 

to post molding finishing pperations. such as flocking. hardcoating and part identification. 

Paint Application and Troubleshooting 

Description 

There are many different application methods used in the 

automotive coatings industry. These may vary from 

something as simple as a hand spray gun supplied from a 

pressure pot to the very sophisticated robotic arms equipped 

with automated spray bells and flow meters. This seminar 

reviews many different application methods. including 

stationary and reciprocating applications, which may use 

conventional or rotary atomizers. We'll also discuss the 

different coatings used on External and Internal parts. 

The defects that may occur in coatings are as numerous as the 

application technologies. each of which has inherent issues. 

As with troubleshooting of any manufacturing process. 

esperience is in~aluable. The ability to properly identify 

defects and the many factors contributing to these defects 

comes more easily to the esperienced. however. these answers 

may be attained with careful diligence eyen for new 

personnel. This seminar will provide knowledge and 

procedures essential for successfil and consistent painting 

processing. 

The finishes used on injection molds may range from 

extremely high gloss for optical applications. to the sand 

blasted matte finish. When designing a part it is wise to . 

consider the type of surface needed for the application due to 

the costly and time-consuming nature of the finishing 

process. 

This seminar provides much information on the different 

finishing techniques and the specifications that accompany 

the tpe of material, application and surfaces being finished. 

The seminar discusses Gloss and Matte Finishes. Mold 

Finishing, Textured Surfaces, as well as Painted Finishes 

Specifications. Finally. this seminar discusses the three other 

methods of finishing including Metallizing, Hot Stamping, 

and Printing. 

Chrome Plating for Metals and Plastics 

Description 

Electroplating is not a new science. In fact, its origins can be 

dated back as far as Ancient Egypt. Amazing artifacts found 

from that ancient civilization show electricity, generated from 

acid batteries, was used to electroplate less precious metal 

with gold. From early on, man has had the desire to alter the 

appearance of many objects. rendering those objects more 

visually appealing and or environmentally durable. 

Decorative plating. in general, is typically a thin layer of 

metal or metals applied to a substrate to achieve a visually 

improved appearance. This seminar will describe the 

decorative chrome plating process on plastics as it relates to 

products used in the automotive. appliance. and plumbing 

industries. The seminar covers the materials selection 

process and how it relates to metal and plastic materials. In 

addition. the seminar discusses the advantages and 

disadvantages of Selective plating. as well as the Plating 

process itself. 
. CLN Seminars 

Oualitv Engineering, Plastics Manufacturing 

Description 

Quality is actually a philosophy that one must be willing to 

embrace in order to implement a successful quality 

management ?stem. Building quality into the produa 

within each process should be a normal mode of operation 

at a manufacturing facility. Brand names such as Rolls 

Royce automobiles. Bosch lenses. Waterford crystal. and 

Lladro sculptures are synonymous with excellence. This is 

not by chance. It is due to their staunch commitment to and 

insistence upon quality. In the culture of these 

organizations. the thought of producing or shipping 

products that do not conform to their standards for 

excellence is totally unacceptable. 

The topics discussed in this seminar, variation. tolerance 

and quality control are designed to assist you in 

understanding quality management in its various 

incarnations. The seminar goes on to define the many 

beaefits that could be gained from improving quality 

processes within an organization. not to mention improved 

production. customer satisfaction and reduced scrap. 

To understand "Quality" one must first have an 

understanding of the nature of "variation". Without process 

or material variations. there would be no need for quality 

programs. inspections. and tolerances. however, variation is 

an inescapable eventuality. This seminar starts out by 

esploring this very important natural phenomenon called 

variation. 

LIGHTSPEED 

--@ 
METALS - MATERIALS & PROCESSING 

CtN Seminars 

Steel Materials & process in^ Methods 

Description 

In general, all solid matters that are known and used as a material of 

construction can be recognized as either metals or non-metals. This 

seminar is concerned with metals only and focuses particularly on 

steel, however, ~mphasis will be placed on other selected metals. 

Metals are usually estracted from ore minerals which are mined 

fmm the earth, crush&, melted in a fmace at high temperatures 

and metallurgically processed before they are formed into shapes 

and prepared for manufacturing. They are generally classified as 

ferrous or non-ferrous. Ferrous metals contain iron as the major 

element in their composition, while the non-ferrous metals do not. 

Ferrous metals are heavier than some non-ferrous metals because of 

their density. For example, steel is three times heavier than 

aluminum, which is a non-ferrous metal. 

The production, application and manufacturing of each kind of metal 

will be covered in the seminar, in a broad but limited sense. A brief 

discussion of properties and behavior of the metals will be 

submitted for a better comprehension of the subject to aid with . 

selection and use of materials. Finally, the seminar provides major ' 

classifications of steeI and discusses several application uses of 

steel. 

LIGHTSPEED 

STUDY OF MOLECULAR DEGRADATION 

OF POLYMERS BY INTRINSIC VISCOSITY 

Ping Liu 

School of Technology 

Eastern Illionois University 

Charleston, Illinois 61920 

Telephone: 2 17-58 1-6267 . 

and 

Danuta Ciesielska 

Polymer Processing Laboratory 

Institute of Materials Technology 

Poznan University of Technology 

Poland 
Ping Liu 
Study of Molecular Degradation of Polymers by 

Intrinsic Viscosity 

Ping Liu 

School of Technology 

Eastern Illinois University 

Charleston, IL 6 1920 

USA 

Danuta Ciesielska 

Polymer Processing Laboratory 

Institute of Materials Technology 

Poman University of Technology 

Poland 

Abstract: 

Polymeric degradation causes deterioration in materials properties of polymers in 

various environments. Thus, understanding the degradation in molecular structure of 

polymers is of critical importance for many applications. This paper presents a method 

of evaluating molecular degradation of recycled polystyrene in terms of intrinsic 

viscosity. Fundamental relationship between molecular weight and intrinsic viscosity, as 

well as the experimental procedures are discussed. 

Key Words: Polymers, Recycling, Degradation, Molecular Weight, Intrinsic Viscosity. 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Basic knowledge of polymer degradation due to recycling. 

That is, polymeric chain scission occurs or polymeric chain length is reduced as a result 

of reprocessing. Polymeric chain length is expressed in terms of molecular weight. 

Objective: To understand the experimental method of measuring molecular weight 

related to degradation caused by recycling or reprocessing. 

Equipment and Materials: 

I. Constant temperature bath 

2. Glass thermometer 

3. Viscometer (Ubbelohde type) 

4. Solvent (Chloroform, 99.9%, ACS HPLC grade) 

5. Timer or stop watch. 
Safety Precautions: 

1. Eye safety goggle is required. 

2. Follow the Materials Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the chloroform in case of 

emergency. 

3. After testing, do not pour the solution directly into any regular sink because the 

solvent will dissolve or severely corrode plastic plumbing parts. 

Introduction: 

Polymeric degradation causes deterioration in materials properties. Thus, 

understanding the degradation in molecular structure of polymers is of critical importance 

for many applications. One of the important measures for polymer structure is molecular 

weight, which is decreased as a result of polymer chain scission. 

The molecular weight of a polymer is related to its intrinsic viscosity (limiting 

viscosity number) according to the following Mark-Houwink-Sakurada equation. 

where [d is intrinsic viscosity, which is also called limiting viscosity number. M, is 

known as viscosity-average molecular weight since it is calculated from intrinsic 

viscosity. Empirical constants K and a are determined depending upon polymer type and 

experimental conditions. For example, for atactic polystyrene, K and a are 4.9 x 10" 

mllg and 0.794, respectively. 

A polymer can be dissolved into certain solvent to form a polymer solution at a 

specific concentration. Intrinsic viscosity [v of a polymer can be measured in terms of 

the solution viscosity. It is defined as 

where q, is solvent viscosity, % is the viscosity of solution, and c is the solution 

concentration of the polymer. 

For molecular weight measurement, it is customary to employ dilute polymer 

solution and to use a glass viscometer. A typical glass viscometer, known as Ubbelhode 

viscometer, is shown in Fig. 1. The glass viscometer with solution is kept in a bath of 

constant temperature. Once the temperature of the solution is equilibrated at set point, 

the viscosity can be measured. 

In measuring solution viscosity, the bulb A is filled with a solution of known 

concentration. Certain volume of this solution is then transferred to completely fill bulb 
C between marks E and F by closing arm N and applying pressure in L. Upon 

simultaneously opening N and releasing pressure in L, excess liquid drains back into A. 

Thus, the pressure at point B at the bottom end of the capillary is atmospheric. The 

polymer solution is allowed to flow under gravity through the capillary. The time taken 

for the liquid level to move from mark F to mark E is called efflux time, which is 

recorded with a stopwatch. The efflux time can be measured several times in order to 

calculate average efflux time. 

Based upon the efflux time, reduced viscosity can be calculated for a specific 

polymer solution. The reduced viscosity can be calculated from the following equation: 

7 =- tc - to 

red tot 

where qred is reduced viscosity, t, is efflux time for polymer solution of specific 

concentration c, and to efflux time for solvent. 

A graph of reduced viscosity versus polymer concentration can be plotted as in 

Fig. 2. The intrinsic viscosity [d can be obtained by extrapolating the straight line to 

zero concentration. 

Experimental: 

In a study of molecular degradation of polystyrene due to repeated recycling, 

recycled polystyrene was processed using a close-loop computer controlled injection 

molding machine (BOY 50M). After each cycle, the polymer was granulated into small 

pellets. The process was repeated up to six times to simulate repetitious recycling of the 

polymer. 

Chloroform (99.9%, ACS HPLC grade) was used to dissolve the recycled 

polystyrene. The dilute solution concentrations were 0.002, 0.004, 0.006 and 0.008 g/ml. 

After the polymer was completely dissolved into the solvent, the solution was loaded into 

the glass viscometer. Then, glass viscometer was placed in the constant temperature 

bath, which was equilibrated at 30 "C. 

Efflux time, the time for the liquid level to move from mark F to mark E in the 

capillary as shown in Fig. 1, was recorded for each solution and the pure solvent using a 

stopwatch. Ten readings on efflux time were taken for each solution. With the average 

efflux times for a specific solution and solvent, reduced viscosity can be calculated 

according to Eq. (3). Using the extrapolation shown in Fig. 2, intrinsic viscosity was 

obtained for the polystyrene at certain cycle. Viscosity-average molecular weight of the 

polymer was then computed according to Eq. (1). 
Results: 

Fig. 3 shows the viscosity-average molecular weight of recycled polystyrene as a 

function of injection molding cycles. As the number of injection molding cycles 

increased, the molecular weight of the recycled polystyrene was drastically reduced. For 

example, the molecular weight of recycled polystyrene was about 65,000 where the 

molecular weight was reduced to less than 10,000 after six cycles of repeated processing. 

Conclusions: 

1. The molecular weight of recycled polystyrene can be measured in terms of 

intrinsic viscosity using dilute concentration with chloroform. 

2. The molecular weight of recycled polystyrene decreased drastically with 

increasing number of repeated processing cycles. 

References: 

1. A. Kumar and R. K. Gupta, Fundamentals of Polymers, The McGraw-Hill: New 

York (1998). 

2. J. Brandrup, E. H. Immergut and E. A. Grulke (Editors), Polymer Handbook (4& 

ed.), J. Wiley and Son: New York (1999). 

3. D. Ciesielska and P. Liu, Effect of processing on properties of recycled 

polystyrene, ANTEC'98, Society of Plastics Engineers (1998). 

4. D. Ciesielska and P. Liu, Effects of reprocessing on structure and rheological 

behavior of recycled expanded polystyrene, to be published. 

Acknowledgment 

This work was performed at School of Technology, Eastern Illinois University 

with partial support from International Exchange Funds at Lumpkin College of Business 

and Applied Sciences, Eastern Illinois University. 

Biographical Information: 

Dr. Ping Liu obtained his B.S. degree in mechanical engineering from 

Nanchang University, China in 1982. He earned an M. S. degree in materials science 

and engineering from Zhejiang University, China in 1984 and completed a Ph.D. 

degree in mechanical engineering from Iowa State University in 1991. His major 

research interests rest on polymer recycling, polymer rheology, biomedical polymers, 

materials tribology, electrical sliding, corrosion, and failure analysis. He is a 

registered professional engineer (PE) in the State of Illinois, a certified quality engineer 
(CQE) by American Society for Quality and a certified senior industrial technologist 

(CSIT) by National Association of ~ndustrial Technology. He is currently a full 

professor at Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL, USA. 

Dr. Danuta Ciesielska works in the Polymer Processing Laboratory of Poznan 

University of Technology in Poland. She earned a Doctor of Engineering degree in 1980 

from Technical University of Poznan. Her specialty is the use of microscopic techniques 

for observation and study of the structure of interfacial surfaces as well as the 

examination of the rheological properties of polymers. 

During Spring 1997 and again in Spring 1999, Dr. Danuta Ciesielska was invited 

to work at the Polymer Laboratories of Eastern Illinois University in Charleston, USA. 

Her research works were focused on the structure and properties of recycled polystyrene 

and its blends. 

Dr. Danuta Ciesielska has received awards several times by the Rector of 

Technical University in Poznan for researches and activity. Dr. Danuta Ciesielska has 

authored 22 domestic publications, four international papers, and lectured at 18 scientific 

conferences. 
Figure 1. An ubbelhode viscometer. 

Polymer concentration c(g/ml) 

Figure 2. Typical plot of reduced solution viscosity of polystyrene as a fbnction of 

concentration. 
Nurn ber of hjection Molding Cycles 

Figure 3. Variation of viscosity-average molecular weight of recycled polystyrene with 

number of injection molding cycles. 
Dr. Danuta Ciesielska works in the Polymer Processing Laboratory of Poznan 

University of Technology in poland.* She earned a Doctor of Engineering degree in 1980 

from Technical University of Poznan. Her specialty is the use of microscopic techniques 

for observation and study of the structure of interfacial surfaces as well as the 

examination of the rheological properties of polymers. 

During Spring 1997 and again in Spring 1999, Dr. Danuta Ciesielska was invited 

to work at the Polymer Laboratories of Eastern Illinois University in Charleston, USA. 

Her research works were focused on the structure and properties of recycled polystyrene 

and its blends. 

Dr. Danuta Ciesielska has received awards several times by the Rector of 

Technical University in Poznan for researches and activity. Dr. Danuta Ciesielska has 

authored 22 domestic publications, four international papers, and lectured at 18 scientific 

conferences. 

Acknowledgment 

This work was performed at School of Technology, Eastern Illinois University 

with partial support from International Exchange Funds at Lumpkin College of Business 

and Applied Sciences, Eastern Illinois University. 
MICROWAVE DIELECTRIC RESPONSE 

OF' WATER AS A FUNCTION OF FIRIEQUENCY 

J. N. Dahiya 

Physics Department 

Southeast Missouri State University 

One University Plaza 

MS 6600 

Cape Girardeau, Missouri 6370 1 

Telephone: 573-65 1-2390 

e-mail dahiya@physics. semo.edu 

MICROWAVE DIELECTRIC RESPONSE OF WATER 

AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY 

J.N. Dahiya 

Physics Department 

Southeast Missouri State University 

One University Plaza, MS 6600 

Cape Girardeau, MO 63701 

dahiya@physics.semo.edu 

Keywords 

Microwave Resonant Cavity, Dielectric Response, Slater's Equations, Relaxation Time 

Objectives 

1. Set up a Microwave Spectrometer for temperature dependent studies. 

2. Study dielectric relaxation in a sample of dionized distilled water as a function of 

temperature and frequencies. 

3. Use computer interface for temperature dependent studies. 

4. From the frequency dependent studies of water draw conclusions regarding the 

resonance behavior. 

Introduction 

In general materials expand when heated but there are a few exceptions and water is one of them. 

At 4OC the volume vs temperature curve shows a minima indicating a maximum density value 

for that temperature. It is very interesting to study the microwave dielectric response of water 

near this temperature of 4°C. The anomalous dielectric dispersion of water at various 

frequencies has been widely investigated [l-61. There is no doubt in the main qualitative 

features of the phenomenon, but there are wide divergencies in the quantitative analysis of the 

problem. The fundamental importance of this problem lies in the theoretical analysis of the 

structure of water that is very significant in terms of its technical and biological interest. A 

detailed knowledge of the dielectric behavior of water at various microwave frequencies is 

needed for a partial solution of this problem. 

A cylindrical resonant cavity in TEol 1 mode is used in a microwave spectrometer to do the 

dielectric analysis of water. The dielectric relaxation studies of water are performed as a 

function of temperature at three different frequencies of 10.2, 10.6, and 1 1.4 GHz. A sensitive 

thermal bath is used to vary the temperature of the sample under study very precisely. A 

dramatic change in the dielectric response is seen near 4"C, the temperature at which density of 
water is maximum rather than the phase transition temperature of 0°C. Slater's perturbation 

equations are used to calculate the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant. The 

activation energy of this molecule is calculated using Eyring's rate equations and Debye's theory 

of polar molecules is used to calculate the relaxation times at different frequencies used in this 

experiment. 

Theory, Experiment and Results 

According to Debye's theory of polar molecules [7] in terms of a single relaxation time, the 

dielectric permittivities are related to the relaxation time as shown below. 

E=&, + E.v -60 

l+ jwz 

where E is the complex permittivity (dielectric constant) at angular frequency a, ES is the static 

dielectric constant, EO is the contribution to the dielectric constant that is due to the atomic and 

electronic polarization and is independent of o. In terms of the optical constants, equation (1) 

can be written as follows: 

or in terms of h: 

and 

or Equation (4) expressed in terms of h: 

2nk= E"= (&s - 60 )A.v /A 

1 + [A, /A12 

Where h is the wavelength corresponding to a frequency o and hs corresponds to 1IT, n is the 

real part of the index of refraction, k is the absorption coefficient, E' and E" are the real and 

imaginary parts of the complex dielectric constant. 

Equations 1-5 indicate a drop in the dielectric constant from its value at low frequencies ES to 

optical frequency value €0. This drop in the dielectric constant is accompanied by a single broad 

absorption band near a characteristic wavelength h. 
The real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant are related to the frequency shifts and Qchanges of a microwave signal through Slater's perturbation equations [8] shown below. 

and 

where ~f and A(1lQ) are the frequency shifts and Q-changes of the resonant cavity, E' and E" are 

the real and imaginary parts of the complex permittivity ( dielectric constant ), Es, E and Ea are 

the fields of the sample, the unperturbed cavity and the field as applied to the cavity respectively, 

and v is the volume of the sample with V being the volume of the cavity. 

A sample of dionized distilled water is placed in the resonant cavity through a capillary tube. The 

resonant cavity is used as a probe in a microwave spectrometer operating in the x-band of 

frequencies between 8.0 and 12.4 GHz. A condensed block diagram representation of the 

spectrometer is shown in Figure 1. The details of the spectrometer have been discussed 

elsewhere 141. 

As the sample is inserted in the cavity a perturbation of electric and magnetic field takes place. 

For TEOI I mode the perturbations are mainly of the electric field. The perturbations of the 

electric field translate into a shift in frequency and Q-change of the signal. The frequency shifts 

and Q-changes are measured as a function of temperature. The real and imaginary parts of the 

dielectric constant are calculated using Slater's equations 6 and 7. 

Figures 2-7 represent a response in the dielectric behavior of a sample of dionized distilled water 

at 10.2, 10.6, and 1 1.4 GHz. There seems to be a dramatic change in the real and imaginary 

parts of the dielectric constant near 4°C. 

The results of this experiment indicate an extension of this study to higher frequencies. It will be 

very interesting to determine resonance behavior from frequency dependent dielectric studies of 

water. 
. References 

Rusche, E.W. and W.B. Good," Search for Discontinuities in the Temperature 

Dependence of the Dielectric Constant of Pure Water from -5" to +25OC," J. Chem. 

Phys., Vol. 45, Number 12, 1966, p. 4667. 

Kay, Robert L., G.A. Vidulich and Krishnahadi S. Pribadi, "A Reinvestigation of the 

Dielectric Constant of Water and its Temperature Coefficient," J. Phys. Chem., Vol. 73, 

Number 2, 1969, p. 445. 

Roberts, J. and F. Wang, "Dielectric Relaxation in Water Over the Frequency Range 

13 5 f 5 18 GHz using a Resonant Microwave Cavity Operating in the TMolo Mode," J. 

Of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, Vol. 28, No. 4, 1993, p. 196. 

Dahiya, J.N., S.K. Jani and J.A. Roberts, "Phase Transition Studies in Polar and NonPolar Liquid at Microwave Frequencies," J. Chem. Phys. 74(6), 198 1, p. 3609. 

Johri, G.K. and J.A. Roberts, "Study of the ~iel&tric Response of Water using a 

Resonant Microwave Cavity as a Probe," J. Phys. Chem., 1994, p. 7386. 

Hong, K.H. and J.A. Roberts, "Microwave properties of Liquids and Solids using a 

Resonant Microwave Cavity as a Probe," J. Appl. Phys., 1974, p. 2452. 

Debye, P., "Polar Molecules," Chemical Catalog, NY, Chap. V, 1929. 

Slater, J.C., "The Thory of Resonant Cavities," Microwave Electronics, Dover 

Publications, New York, 1969. 
Figure 1. Condensed block diagram of the microwave spectrometer used in this 

experiment. 

Klystron Power 

supply 

Frequency + 

Standard 

I - 

Mixer I 

Interpolation 

Receiver 

Klystron 

Tunable 

Cavity 

Tuned 

Amplifier 

Modulator pkd Recorder P~D --c~o 

I J 
-25 -20 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Temperature (C) 

Figure 2. Change in frequency as a function of temperature for a sample of water at a 

resonant frequency of 10.2 GHz. 
-25 -20 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Temperature (C) 

Figure 3. Change in 1IQ as a function of temperature for a sample of water at a 

resonant frequency of 10.2 GHz. 
-25 -20 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Temperature (C) 

Figure 4. Change in frequency as a function of temperature for a sample of water at a 

resonant frequency of 10.6 GHz. 
0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I 

-25 -20 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Temperature (C) 

Figure 5. Change in IIQ as a function of temperature for a sample of water at a 

resonant frequency of 10.6 GHz. 
-25 -20 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Temperature (C) 

Figure 6. Change in frequency as a function of temperature for a sample of water at a 

resonant frequency of I I .4 GHz. 
Temperature (C) 

Figure 7. Change in 11Q as a function of temperature for a sample of water at a 

resonant frequency of 1 1.4 GHz. 

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 

FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH IN 

THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 

Christine S. Sloane 

General Motors R&D Center and Advanced Technology Vehicles 

MC: 483-6 19-409 

1996 Technology Drive 

Troy, Michigan 48007-7083 

Telephone: 248-680-5754 

e-mail christine.s.sloane@gm.com 

Challenges and Opportunities 

, 

for Materials Research 

in the Automotive Industry 

Average Amount of Aluminum in 

North American Passenger Cars 
PNGV Changing Materials Useage 

5000 1 I Other Materials 

Model Year 


Integration of Parts and Function 

Elimination of connectors 

Compact design 

Reduced assembly cost 

. Improved quality 

Photos illustrating design integration 
Weight Reduction through Integration 

of Parts & Function 

requires 

Molding of Complex Parts 

Photos of complex molds 
Advantages of Composites in Automobiles 

Lower mass 

Damage and corrosion resistance 

Can be cost effective because of 

-- parts consolidation 

-- lower scrap rate 

Photos of large composite molds 
Current Barriers to Wide Useage of 

Composites in Automobiles 

.Major change from current assembly methods 

.Unknown durability as structural materials ' 

*Understanding to design with composites 

.Slow cycle times 
Orientation 

Glass fiber reinforced polymers are anisotropic 

Anisotropy is driven by process, materials and geometry 

Graphic of flow in forming mold 

I Graphics illustrating forming effects / 
Powertrain Challenges 

*Light weight materials 

*Fuels for efficient, low-emission combustion 

m 

a *Catalysts for emission control 

*Catalysts & membranes for fuel cells 

Catalysts for Exhaust Emission Control 

Key challenges: I. &mission reduction , 

2. On-board monitoring 

3. Lean NOx catalysts 

Photo of catalyst designs 
Material Recycling 

manufactured scrap 

vehicles at end of life 

Chart showingBreakout of material % recycled 

94% of vehicles retired from use are 

processed for recycling 

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS 

John A. Marshall 

School of Applied Science 

University of Southern Maine 

Gorharn, Maine 04038 

Telephone 207-780-5447 

e-mail jmarshal @ usm.maine.edu 
John A, MarshaD 
Shape Memory Alloys 

John A. Marshall 

School of Applied Science 

University of Southem Maine 

Gorham, Maine, 04038 

Key Words: Shape Memory Alloys, Memory Metals, Nitinol 

Prerequisite Knowledge: A basic understanding of electricity and materials 

Objective: To observe and gain an understanding of an unusual crystal alloy that 

radically transitions to a different structure at a distinct temperature and 

recovers to the pre-deformation shape. 

Equipment: Nitinol wire, mounting board, two AA batteries with holder and connecting 

wires, elastic band, two push pins, empty plastic milk jug. 

Introduction: 

Motors and solenoids are two very common ways to create motion fkom 

electricity. The majority of the machines and equipment used in industries 

and homes today make extensive use of these two devices. Both of these 

devices rely on magnetic fields to produce the mechanical motion that is 

utilized for linear and rotary power transmission. 

Due to recent advancements in Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs), another 

method of creating motion has become available that does not rely on 

magnetic fields. SMAs are special metals that undergo changes in shape 

and hardness when heated or cooIed, and do so with a great amount of 

force. 

When made into wires, SMAs can be stretched fkom five to eight percent 

and will recover their original, shorter length when heated. This is 

formally referred to as the materials "deformation-to-recovery ratio. 
Research during the 1960's and 70's was focused on devices such as: 

satellite antennas (NASA) that would unfold and expand when exposed to 

the heat of the sun; engines that would run on hot and cold water, 

automatic temperature-controlled greenhouse windows; and car fan 

clutches that would engage only when the engine warmed-up. 

One of the primary applications of SMAs today are in the medical arena 

with devices such as filters that are inserted into a patient's vein or artery 

to trap strokecausing blood clots. It is inserted cold, and as it warms, it 

opens to form a filter. Other applications include highly reliable cou$ing 

connections for aircraft hydraulic lines, air valves, fuse protectors, and 

even a six axis computer-controlled robotic arm! 

Procedure: 

1. Cut a strip of plastic from the milk jug that measures threequarters of an inch by three and one-half inches to form the lever 

arm and make two holes in it with the pushpin. The ht hole 

should be three-eighths of an inch fiom the end, and a second hole 

three-quarters of an inch from the same end. 

2. Mount the lever arm on the wdboard by inserting the pushpin into 

the first hole. This is the pivot point of the lever. 

3. Attach a four inch length of Nitinol wire to the second hole and, 

using the second pushpin, attach the other end of the Nitinol wire 

. to the mounting board to position the lever slightly below 

horizontal. 

4. The elastic band will serve as our "load" and is attached to the 

opposite end of the lever. 

5. Connect the two "AA" batteries (in series) and briefly apply power 

to each of the ends of the Nitinol wire. 

6. After observing the movement, remove the power quickly and 

observe the recovery. 
Several forms of data collection are possible fiom this type of experiment. 

One data set can be the deformation-to-recovery ratios at various lengths 

of Nitinol wire. Other interesting data sets that can be collected and 

dyzed include mechanical advantages, loads, and lever calculations. 

References: Gilbertson, R., Muscle Wires, Mondo-Tronics, Third Edition, San 

Anselmo, CA, 1994. 

Deformation-To-Recovery Ratio 

Biographical Information: 

Sample One 

Sample Two 

Sample Three 

Sample Four 

John Marshall is the Internship Coordinator for the Department of 

Technology at the University of Southern Maine. His areas of 

specialization include Power and Energy Processing, Electronic Control 

Systems, Plant Layout 1 Material Handling, and Industrial Distribution. 

Inactivated 

Length 

Activated 

Length 

Ratio 

ACCELERATED AGING STUDY OF 

AI3S COPOLYMER 

Wayne L. Elban 

Scott N. Hornung 

Matthew C. Reinhardt 

Department of Electrical Engineering and 

Engineering Science 

Loyola College 

4501 North Charles Street 

Baltimore, Maryland 2 12 1 0 

Telephone: 41 0-6 17-2853 

e-mail welban@loyola.edu 
Wayne L, Elbm 
Accelerated Aging Study of ABS Copolymer 

Wayne L. Elban, Scott N. Hornung, and Matthew C. Reinhardt 

Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College 

Baltimore, Maryland 21210 

ABSTRACT: A procedure is described for measuring the mechanical deformationffracture 

properties and dimensional stability of tensile specimens of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 

(ABS) copolymer exposed to several accelerated aging environments. A bench-top universal 

testing machine is used to obtain room temperature determinations of ultimate tensile and 

fracture strengths, and corresponding elongations, as a function of specimen 

conditioninglaging temperatures: 23 (room temperature), 50, 75, 90, and 105" C. Resultant 

fracture surfaces are visually inspected to determine brittlelductile character. Subsequently, 

the exterior specimen surfaces immediately behind the fracture surfaces are examined using a 

reflected light microscope. Experimental determinations of mechanical properties are 

compared to values appearing in the literature. Dimensions of recovered specimens are 

measured, using a dial caliper, to study their dimensional stability for the same temperatures. 

KEY WORDS: Uniaxial tensile testing, mechanical deformation properties, fracture, 

dimensional stability, stress whitening, accelerated aging, thermoplastic polymers, 

acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer. 

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: upper-level undergraduate laboratory experiment 

requiring basic knowledge of thermoplastic polymers and their mechanical 

deformationlfracture behaviors and mechanical property testing as described in an 

introductory materials science course and accompanying laboratory course. 

OBJECTIVES: 

(a) Experimental Goals: 

1. to measure the uniaxial tensile mechanical properties to fracture of a 

representative thermoplastic polymer having undergone accelerated aging at 

various elevated temperatures; 

2. to measure the room temperature dimensions of tensile specimens of a 

thermoplastic polymer exposed to various temperatures in order to assess their 

dimensional stability; and 

3. to examine the resultant fracture surfaces to assess their brittle-ductile 

character and the occurrence of stress whitening. 
@) Learning Goals: 

1. to become familiar with uniaxial tensile testing, a prominent technique for 

characterizing the mechanical response of materials; 

2. to become familiar with the distinctive features of brittle and ductile fracture; 

and 

3. to become familiar with the effect of temperature on the aging behavior of a 

representative thermoplastic polymer. 

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS: (1) Chatillon model LRX universal testing machine 

(bench top model with 500 pound capacity); (2) Wedge-action grips (model TG15N); (3) 

Metric universal dial caliper (Brown and Sharpe 559-579-13); (4) Zeiss model ICM 405 

bench metallograph; (5) Conditioning ovens; (6) Injection molded tensile test specimens 

(ASTM Type I for sheet, plate, and molded plastics). 

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: Care must be taken to avoid having eye contact with or 

injesting ABS debris that results from sanding specimen tabs. During this operation, it 

is recommended that safety glasses or laboratory goggles be worn along with a 

laboratory coat. Hands and specimens should be cleaned with a shop vacuum and then 

thoroughly washed in ambient-temperature water and dried before commencing tensile 

testing. (Instructor Note 1) 

INTRODUCTION: 

Problem Statement: You have recently been hired as a materials scientist by a company that 

is interested in starting up a testing effort to investigate the plastic deformationlfracture 

properties of various plastics that they manufacture. In an initial effort, it is of interest to 

investigate the aging behavior of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer [I]. It is 

proposed to accomplish this by measuring the room temperature mechanical properties and 

dimensional stability of specimens exposed to several accelerated aging environments. 

Subsequently, it is desired to examine the specimens and relate observations to the 

measurements. Your company recently acquired a new universal testing machine (Chatillon 

model LRX) equipped with wedge-action grips (model TG15N). It is computer controlled 

and has computer data acquisition capabilities, and your boss requests that you use the new 

machine in your assessment of mechanical properties. 

Thermoplastic polymers usually have a linear structure, although branching is 

possible. One prominent example is ABS, which is a two-phase material involving a brittle 

styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer matrix with rubbery styrene-butadiene copolymer inclusions. 

[2] Typical uses include luggage and telephones. [3] Upon heating above room temperature, 

thermoplastic polymers undergo significant changes in their elevated temperature mechanical 

properties as determined, for example, by uniaxial tensile testing, including decreases in 

elastic (Young's) modulus, ultimate tensile strength, and fracture strength and increase in 

elongation at break. (Instructor Note 2) However, chemical decomposition is minimal. 
The effect of temperature on thermoplastic polymers is also exhibited by changes in 

dimensions that occur in specimens subjected to sufficiently elevated temperatures. This 

material behavior is important to design engineers who must select materials with good 

dimensional stability for end-products that experience a range of temperatures during their 

service lives. 

The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the room temperature mechanical 

deformationlfracture behaviors of ABS copolymer having undergone accelerated aging. To 

this end, a quantitative evaluation of ultimate tensile and fracture strengths, and their 

corresponding elongations, as a function of aging temperature will be made from uniaxial 

tensile testing measurements. Subsequently, a visual inspection of each resultant fracture 

surface will be made to determine its character (i.e., degree of brittle versus ductile 

fracture). The regions immediately behind the fracture surfaces will also be examined using 

light microscopy. To verify determinations of strength and elongation for the room 

temperature specimens, the experimental values will be compared with those values for ABS 

appearing in the literature. Further, the dimensions of recovered samples will be measured 

allowing the dimensional stability of ABS to be studied for the same aging conditions. 

PROCEDURE: 

A. TENSILE TESTING (Instructor Note 1) 

1. Development of Experimental Procedure: Referring to ASTM Standard Tensile Test 

Method [4] and Holman [5], specify what measurements need to be made and how 

they will be accomplished. The tensile testing machine will be operated at a constant 

crosshead speed (CHS) of 2.0n/min. 

2. Preparatory Reading Assignment: 

(a) Read Ref. [6] providing brief descriptions of aging at elevated temperatures and 

temperature index. 

(b) Lightly read Ref. [7] providing background information on the aging of polymers. 

(c) Read Ref. [8] providing detailed information on the yield behavior of polymers. 

Not all of the material contained in Refs. [7,8] will be totally understandable, and results for 

many polymers are presented. However, becoming familiar with polymers and their 

mechanical and aging properties is very worthwhile since these materials are now widely 

used, and there is not time to cover this important topic in class. Further, reading and 

understanding technical survey articles are important skills to develop in preparation for your 

engineering careers. 
3. Measurements (as developed according to Item #1 above): 

(a) Measure the thickness and width of each specimen using a dial caliper prior to 

tensile testing. 

(b) Perform room temperature tensile testing on five (5) specimens minimum for the 

following ABS copolymer: 

(i) as-received to serve as a control; 

(ii) exposed to 50" C for four (4) hours; 

(iii) exposed to 75" C for four (4) hours; 

(iv) exposed to 90" C for four (4) hours; and 

(v) exposed to 105" C for four (4) hours. (Instructor Note 3) 

4. After testing, place handwritten identification labels near both tab ends of each 

specimen. 

5. Retain all specimen pieces for subsequent dimension measurements and examination. 

6. Record your measurements and any relevant observations in your laboratory notebook 

with one or more drawings as appropriate. 

B. DIMENSION MEASUREMENTS OF RECOVERED SPECIMENS 

1. Using a dial caliper, measure the thickness and width of each tensile specimen in its 

gage length a few millimeters away from the fracture surfaces. 

2. Record your measurements and any relevant observations in your laboratory notebook 

with one or more drawings as appropriate. 

C. VISUALIMICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF RECOVERED SPECIMENS 

1. Ascertain how well the pieces from each tensile specimen fit back together as a 

preliminary check on whether the failure was brittle or ductile. 

2. Examine a representative fracture surface from each tensile specimen type tested. Pay 

particular attention to the degree of surface roughness and whether the fracture 

surface appears to have undergone brittle or ductile fracture [9]. 

3. Examine the fracture surface and the region immediately behind it for a phenomena 

known as stress whitening. (Instructor Note 4) 

4. Record any relevant observations in your laboratory notebook with one or more 

drawings as appropriate. 
5. Using a Zeiss model ICM 405 bench metallograph, examine a representative specimen 

for each sample type tested, looking in the vicinity of the fracture surfaces. 

D. ANALYSIS 

Perform the following analyses and respond to any questions as completely as possible, 

being sure to show all of your work and reasoning as partial credit can be earned. 

1. Tensile testing measurements: 

a. Calculate (ultimate) tensile strength (a,-), fracture strength (af), elongation at 

maximum strength (em), and elongation at break (e,) for each specimen using 

engineering stress-strain relationships (e.g., Eqn. (1-la,b) in Ref. [lo]) -- 

(Instructor Note 5): 

a, = F-/(t x w), (1) 

where F, = maximum force in force-displacement curve, Ibf, 

t = specimen thickness in gage length prior to testing, in., and 

w = specimen width in gage length prior to testing, in.; 

a, = Ff/(t x w), . (2) 

where F, = fracture force in force-displacement curve, lbf; 

where Al, = corresponding displacement at maximum force in forcedisplacement curve, in., 

1, = specimen gage length prior to testing, in.; and 

where A1, = corresponding displacement at fracture (break) in forcedisplacement curve, in. 

b. Calculate [I 11 the average and standard deviation, a, of these determinations 

(Instructor Note 6) for each sample type. 

2. Discuss the effect that aging temperature has on the mechanical properties of the 

copolymer specimens. 
3. Compare the room temperature mechanical property values obtained with those given 

in the literature. Give one or more reasons why differences may exist. 

4. Specimen dimension measurements: 

a. Calculate the change in thickness, At, in units of mm, for each specimen 

using: 

where tT = thickness of specimen exposed to a given aging temperature, mm, 

and 

t, = room temperature specimen thickness, mm. 

b. Calculate the change in width, Aw, in units of mm, for each specimen using: 

where wT = width of specimen exposed to a given aging temperature, mm, 

and 

w, = room temperature specimen width, mm. 

c. Calculate [ll] the average and standard deviation, a, of these determinations 

for each sample type. 

6. Discuss the effect that aging temperature has on the dimensional stability of the 

copolymer specimens. 

7. Based on visual and microscopic observations, discuss the brittle versus ductile 

character of the fracture surfaces that resulted for each sample type. Also, discuss 

the occurrence of stress whitening as a function of aging temperature. 

COMMENTS with Data Sheets and Plots: 

All of the experimental steps were performed a number of times to verify that the results 

were reasonably reproducible. The data sets appearing in this section are considered to be 

representative. 

Effect of Aging Temperature on Uniaxial Tensile Testinrr Response: Force and displacement 

measurements taken from experimental curves (e.g., Figure 1) are given in Table I as a 

function of aging temperature for the ABS specimens. The resultant strength and elongation 

determinations appear in Table 11. Referring to the average values in Table 11, the aged 

specimens did not exhibit large changes in their mechanical properties. Tensile strength 

increases slightly (1.1 %) in going from 23 to 50" C, and then undergoes a modest decrease 

(6.3 %) as temperature rises to 105" C. A similar trend occurs for fracture strength. The 

elongation at maximum strength values are nearly constant with temperature except for 105" 
Figure 1. Force-displacement curve for as-received ABS copolymer 

(specimen CY5998) tested at room temperature in uniaxial tension. 
Table I. Force and Displacement Measurements (23" C) for ABS Exposed to Various Aging Temperatures 

Specimen 

Designation 

Temperature Maximum Force* 

("C) (lb3 

Displacement at Max. * 

(in.) 

Fracture Force** 

(lb3 

Displacement at Break** 

(in.) 
Table I. Force and Displacement Measurements (23" C) for ABS Exposed to Various Aging Temperatures, Cont'd. 

Specimen Temperature Maximum Force* 

Designation (OC) (lbr) 

Displacement at Max.* 

(in.) 

Fracture Forces* 

(lb3 

Displacement at Break** 

(in.) 

* Obtained from computer analysis of force-displacement curve. 

** Determined from graphical analysis of force-displacement curve. 
Table 11. Mechanical Property Results (23" C) for ABS Exposed to Various Aging Temperatures 

Specimen Temperature Tensile Strength Elongation at Max. Fracture Strength Elongation at Break 

Designation ("C) (psi) [MPa] (%I (psi) [MPa] (%I 

Avg.: 

u: 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

Avg.: 

u: 

75 

75 

75 

75 

75 

75 

Avg. : 

u : 
Table 11. Mechanical Property Results (23" C) for ABS Exposed to Various Aging Temperatures, Cont'd. 

Specimen Temperature 

Designation ("C) 

CY4698 90 

CY4798 90 

CY4898 90 

CY4998 90 

CY5098 90 

CY5 198 90 

Avg. : 

Ii: 

03 

4 CY5298 105 

CY5398 1 05 

CY 5498 105 

CY5598 105 

CY 5698 105 

CY5798 105 

Avg.: 

Ii: 

Tensile Strength 

(psi) [MPa] 

Elongation at Max. 

(%I 

Fracture Strength 

(psi) [MPa] 

Elongation at Break 

(%) 
C where the average elongation is higher. The average elongation at break values increpe 

with temperature with the highest value also being obtained for the specimens exposed to the 

highest aging temperature. Significantly higher standard deviations are associated with 

fracture elongation. 

Literature Comvarison: There is reasonable agreement between experimental room 

temperature mechanical properties of unaged ABS specimens (Table 11) and those appearing 

in the literature. Average values of 7260 and 5830 psi (50.1 and 40.2 MPa) were obtained 

for tensile strength and fracture strength, respectively, versus a value of 6000 psi (41 MPa) 

reported [I] for yield strength (essentially tensile strength based on the force-displacement 

curve in Figure 1) for a commercial-grade material, designated as Cycolac T resin, that is 

like what was used in the experiment. An average value of 19% elongation at break was 

obtained compared with reported [3] values ranging from 20 to 80%. 

Dimensional Stability Assessment: Thickness and width measurements as a function of aging 

temperature for ABS specimens appear in Tables I11 and IV, respectively. Changes in 

thickness and width are also provided in these tables. Although ABS retained much of its 

strength and all of its strain capacity for the aging conditions selected, this was not the case 

for its dimensional stability, which differed markedly in heated specimens over the range of 

aging temperatures. Up to 75" C, the dimensional stability of ABS was excellent; at and 

above 90" C, significant changes in thickness and width were obtained with stability 

worsening as the temperature increased to 105" C, as expected. The loss of dimensional 

stability at 105" C is anisotropic with a strain of +8.3% occurring for specimen thickness 

compared to + 3.5 % for specimen width. 

Visual and Microscopic Observations: A compilation of visual observations for the resultant 

fracture surfaces of ABS tensile specimens is given in Table V. Essentially brittle fracture 

occurred in specimens exposed to the entire range of conditioninglaging temperatures. In 

each instance, the fracture surfaces have a light appearance, and little or no necking 

occurred. The degree of surface roughness did change with the general tendency of 

smoother surfaces occurring for the specimens exposed to the higher temperatures. There is 

a similar trend for the occurrence of stress lightening (whitening). 

Microscopic examination of specimen surfaces immediately behind the fracture 

surfaces revealed that numerous sub-critical cracks are present (Figures 2-5). The cracking 

is least prominent for specimens exposed to 50" C (Figure 3), which is consistent with having 

the highest average strength values (Table 11). Less microcracking developed in specimens 

heated at 90" C (Figure 5), but large, relatively straight secondary cracks occurred. There 

was even less microcracking in specimens heated to 105" C; instead, a relatively fine-scale 

surface texture formed that caused the light to scatter, yielding poor quality photographs. 

INSTRUCTOR NOTES: 

1. A brief discussion of this test is provided [12] in another manual that is available in 

photocopied form. Students should be shown how to operate the testing machine and to 

position specimens in the machine prior to actual testing. Using 80 grit garnet paper on 
Table 111. Specimen Thickness Stability Results (23" C) for ABS Exposed to Various Aging Temperatures 

Specimen 

Designation 

Temperature Initial Thickness Final Thickness Change in Thickness 

("C) (mm) (mm) (mm) 

3.12 

3.12 

3.12 

3.13 

3.13 

3.13 

Avg.: 

u: 

0.0 

0.01 

-0.01 

-0 .o 1 

-0.01 

-0.02 

Avg.: -0.01 

u: 0.01 

Avg.: 

u: 
Table 111. Specimen Thickness Stability Results (23' C) for ABS Exposed to Various Aging Temperatures, Cont'd. 

Specimen 

Designation 

Temperature 

("C) 

Initial Thickness 

(mm> 

Final Thickness 

(mm) 

Avg. : 

(i: 

3.46 

3.39 

3.38 

3.42 

3.33 

3.38 

Avg. : 

(i: 

Change in Thickness 

(mm) 
Specimen 

Designation 

Table IV. Specimen Width Stability Results (23" C) for ABS Exposed to Various Aging Temperatures 

Temperature 

("C) 

Initial Width* 

(mm) 

Final Width 

(mm) 

12.73 

12.73 

12.73 

12.72 

12.73 

12.72 

Avg.: 

a: 

12.73 

12.74 

12.74 

12.74 

12.74 

12.73 

Avg. : 

a: 

Avg.: 

a: 

Change in Width 

(mm) 
Table IV. Specimen Width Stability Results (23" C) for ABS Exposed to Various Aging Temperatures, Cont'd. 

Specimen 

Designation 

Temperature 

PC> 

Initial Width* 

(mm) 

Final Width 

(mm) 

12.92 

12.96 

12.95 

12.96 

12.94 

12.95 

Avg. : 

ff : 

13.40 

13.19 

13.14 

13.25 

12.97 

13.15 

Avg.: 

ff: 

Change in Width 

(mm) 

* Initial width measurements were inadvertently not made for any specimens exposed to temperatures above 23" C. A value of 12.73 

mm was chosen for all specimens exposed to elevated temperatures based on the rather consistent values obtained for the six room 

temperature specimens. 
Table V. Fracture Surface Appearance of Recovered ABS Tensile Specimens 

Temperature Visual Observations 

("0 

Mostly brittle with small reduction in cross-sectional area; light 

surface; somewhat rough; slight necking; slight stress lightening 

(whitening) 

Brittle; light surface; somewhat rough; no necking 

Brittle; light surface; smoother; no necking; slight stress lightening 

(whitening) 

Brittle; light surface; smooth; no necking; slightly more stress 

lightening (whitening) 

Less brittle; light surface; mostly smooth; very slight necking; more 

stress lightening (whitening) 
Figure 2. Photomicrograph of near-fracture surface region of ABS 

copolymer (specimen CY5998) conditioned at 23" C. 
Figure 3. Photomicrograph of near-fracture surface region of ABS 

copolymer (specimen CY3598) aged at 50" C for 4 hrs. 
Figure 4. Photomicrograph of near-fracture surface region of ABS 

copolymer (specimen CY4098) aged at 75" C for 4 hrs. 
Figure 5. Photomicrograph of near-fracture surface region of ABS 

copolymer (specimen CY5098) aged at 90" C for 4 hrs. 
specimens tabs (coarse scratches oriented orthogonal to pulling direction) reduces/eliminates 

slippage in grips. See SAF'ETY PRECAUTIONS. 

2. A very nice discussion of various thermal properties of polymers is provided [13] in a 

manual that is available free for distribution to students. 

3. The aging time was selected after performing a preliminary study of the effect of time on 

the maximum tensile force for various times up to 16 hours at 50" C. The greatest change 

occurred for specimens exposed for 4 hours. Specimens exposed to elevated temperatures 

were placed on glass plates in the conditioning ovens in order to retain specimen flatness. 

The specimens tend to stick to glass; this can be greatly alleviated by lightly coating the glass 

plates with silicone spray before switching on the ovens. The aging temperatures are all 

below the glass transition temperature (120" C) based on heat capacity measurements [14] 

obtained for commercial-grade material, designated as Cycolac T resin, that is like what was 

used in this experiment. 

4. Stress whitening [15], sometimes referred to as blushing, can occur because of the 

formation of numerous small cracks causing a change in reflected light. Stress whitening can 

also result when polymer molecules become highly oriented upon experiencing large local 

stresses that alter the degree of crystallinity and cause internal micro-porosity (voids). The 

particular specimens used in this experiment contained a brown pigment (additive) which 

changed the observations to stress "lightening". 

5. As an additional data analysis exercise, tensile toughness can be determined using Eqn. (1- 

25) in Ref. [16]. 

6. The uncertainty in the elongation determinations is large because displacement was 

obtained indirectly from constant CHS rather than using the preferred technique of affixing 

an extensometer to the specimen, thus providing a direct measurement. 

REFERENCES: 

[1] "Properties Guide: GE Engineering Thermoplastics, " Publication PEG-140H (August 

1992lReprinted December 1996), General Electric Company, One Plastics Avenue, 

Pittsfield, Massachusetts 01201, pp. 6-7. 

"Cycolac Resin Properties Guide," Publication CYC-300B (December 1993), General 

Electric Company, One Plastics Avenue, Pittsfield, Massachusetts 01201, pp. 1-2. 

[2] Billmeyer, Jr., F.W.: Textbook of Polvmer Science, 2nd Edn., Wiley-Interscience, 

1971, p. 408. 

[3] Flinn, R. A. ; and Trojan, P.K. : Engineering Materials and Their Applications, 4th 

Edn., Houghton Mifflin Co. (now John Wiley and Sons, Inc.), 1990, pp. 560-561. 
[4] "Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics," ASTM Designation D638- 

89, in 1989 Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Section 8: Plastics, Vol. 08.01, 

American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 156-167. 

[5] Holman, J.P. : Experimental Methods for Engineers, 6th Edn., McGraw-Hill Book 

Co., 1994, pp. 35-38. 

[6] "Designing with Plastic: The Fundamentals, " Design Manual TDM-1 (1996), Hoechst 

Celanese Corporation, 90 Morris Avenue, Summit, New Jersey 07901, p. 4-3. 

[7] Struik, L.C.E. : "Physical Aging: Influence on the Deformation Behavior of 

Amorphous Polymers, " in Failure of Plastics, W. Brostow and R. D. Corneliussen 

(Eds.) , Hanser Publishers, 1986, pp. 209-234. 

[8] Brown, N.: "Yield Behavior of Polymers," in Failure of Plastics, W. Brostow and 

R.D. Corneliussen (Eds.), Hanser Publishers, 1986, pp. 98-1 18. 

[9] Hertzberg, R. W. : Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Enyineering Materials, 4th 

Edn., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996, pp. 298-303. 

[lo] Hertzberg, R.W.: op. cit., p. 3. 

[ll] Holman, J.P.: op. cit., p. 58. 

[12] "Standard Tests on Plastics," Bulletin 1GC (1988), Hoechst Celanese Corporation, 90 

Morris Avenue, Summit, New Jersey 07901, p. 4. 

[13] "Designing with Plastic: The Fundamentals, " op. cit., pp. 4-1 to 5. 

[14] "Specific Heat, " Materials Technology Notes, Number 1, MTD-ATN-001B (1993), 

General Electric Company, One Plastics Avenue, Pittsfield, Massachusetts 01201 

(available in a packet entitled "Applied Technology Notes "). 

[15] Strong, A.B.: Plastics: Materials and Processing, 2nd Edn., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2000, 

pp. 168-169. 

[16] Hertzberg, R.W.: OD. cit., p. 28. 

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES: See Acknowledgements. It is also possible that plastics 

manufacturers will supply specimens and accompanying material property data sheets, thus 

allowing a more appropriate literature comparison to be made. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Dr. Jerry L. Wickman, Director, Plastics Research and 

Education Center, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, kindly provided the ABS tensile 

specimens with useful material descriptionlproperties. Special thanks to Mark A. Elban for 

re-analyzing all of the experimental data leading to preparation of Tables I to IV. Dr. John 
D. Williams, Lab Manager, Mechaniqil Testing Instructional Laboratory, University of 

Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, provided helpful insights into tensile testing, especially 

specimen displacement measurements. 

Wayne L. Elban 

Since 1985, Professor Elban has 

taught engineering science courses at 

Loyola College, including introductory 

materials science, materials science lab, 

mechanical properties of materials, and 

transformations in solids. He received a 

BChE with distinction ('69) and a PhD 

in Applied Sciences: Metallurgy ('77) 

from the University of Delaware and a 

MS in Engineering Materials ('72) from 

the University of Maryland, College 

Park. From 1969-1985, he was a 

research engineer at the Naval Surface 

Warfare Center, White Oak Laboratory, 

Silver Spring, Maryland. He is a 

member of ASM International. 
FRICTION AND LUBRICATION OF HIGHLY 

DEFORMABLE POROUS BEARINGS: 

LEARNING FROM THE ARTICULAR 

CARTILAGE OF HUMAN JOINTS 

Michael A. Soltz 

and 

Gerard Ateshian 

Columbia University in the City of New York 

Department of Mecanical Engineering 

500 West 120th Street 

New York, New York 10027 

Friction and Lubrication of Highly Deformable Porous Bearings: Learning 

From Articular Cartilage of Human Joints 

Michael A. Soltz and Gerard A. Ateshian 

Depamnent of Mechanical Engineering 

Columbia University 

New York, NY 

Diarthrodial joints such as the knee, hip, or elbow provide the wide range of 

motion between body segments required for activities of daily living. Diarthrodial joints 

share a common structure (Figure 1) with a joint cavity surrounded by capsular ligaments 

that provide stability to the joint. The inner lining of the 

capsule secretes synovial fluid as well as absorbs waste 

products from cellular activity. The synovial fluid is a 

Jo~nt clear, yellowish, viscous fluid which aids in the nutrition apsrre 

of the avascular articular cartilage which is the bearing 

material lining the end of the bones; it is also believed to 

act as a lubricant for the joint. Articular cartilage is a - 

deformable porous hydrated connective tissue, 1 to 6 

mm in thickness, able to provide smooth, nearly 

frictionless motion under large time-varying loads 

(upwards of 3 to 5 times body weight) at low sliding FW 1 Genenc artaarlar ~cim 

speeds. Despite the harsh loading conditions of 

diarthrodial joints, cartilage normally remains functional for nearly seventy to eighty 

years in humans, due its remarkable tribological properties. When mechanical breakdown 

of the cartilage does occur, the joint progresses toward osteoarthritis, which is a common 

joint degenerative disease. Thus, understanding the tribology of diarthrodial joints 

provides insight into the osteoarthritic process which can potentially improve existing 

clinical treatment modalities. A number of theories have been proposed over the past 

several decades to explain the frictional properties of articular cartilage, though the precise 

mechanism of cartilage lubrication has 'not been fully elucidated. This paper briefly 

reviews the previous literature and summarizes some of our advances in this field which 

can provide a clearer understanding of the mode of lubrication inside our joints. 

For nearly seven decades researchers have hypothesized various modes of 

lubrication in diarthrodial joints in order to explain the particularly low measured friction 

coefficient of articular cartilage. The earliest hypothesis proposed was that diarthrodial 

joints operate in the hydrodynamic lubrication mode, whereby the opposing articular 

surfaces are separated by a thin film of synovial fluid lubricant; as the fluid is entrained 

into the narrow gap separating the surfaces, it would pressurize and support the load 

acting across the joint (MacConaill, 1932). However, for this mode to be viable, the 

thickness of the fluid film would have to exceed the surface roughness of articular 

cartilage, which varies from 1 to 6 pm, and standard analyses demonstrated that this 

would not be possible given typical values of the sliding speeds, joint loads, and viscosity 
of synovial fluid. Therefore this mode of lubrication may only be realistic if the loads are 

small and the relative sliding velocities are high, as may happen in lower extremity joints 

in the swing phase of walking. As a refinement to this theory, Dintenfass (1963) 

proposed that the hydrodynamic pressure in the lubricant would cause deformation of the 

articular surfaces that may promote a sufficiently thick lubricant film, using this 

elastohydrodynamic model however, subsequent calculations demonstrated that the film 

thickness would still remain below the cartilage surface roughness. To address this 

limitation, Dowson and Jin (1 986) proposed that micro-elastohydrodynamic lubrication 

may prevail in joints, whereby the articular surface asperities would be flattened under 

the hydrodynamic pressure, making this mode of lubrication viable. While this model 

appeared promising, theoretical calculations demonstrated that the predicted cartilage 

friction coefficient under this mode of lubrication would be much smaller than that 

measured fiom experiment, suggesting that another mode may prevail in joints. 

In contrast to these previous authors, Charnley (1 959, 1960) argued that the high 

loads, low sliding speeds and reciprocating motion of diarthrodial joints provided 

inadequate conditions for fluid film lubrication; he proposed that the more likely mode 

would be that of boundary lubrication and he experimentally demonstrated fiiction 

coefficients in the range 0.005-0.023. Further evidence refuting hydrodynamic lubrication 

was also provided by McCutchen (1966) and others. Since hydrodynamic lubrication is 

dependant upon the viscosity of the lubricant, this author used hyaluronidase to decrease 

the viscosity of the synovial fluid and he observed no noticeable changes in the friction 

coefficient of articular cartilage when compared to the untreated synovial fluid. He 

hypothesized that synovial mucin, a component of synovial fluid, may act as a boundary 

lubricant under small loads; similarly, Radin and coworkers (1970) and Swan and 

coworkers (1981) extracted a glycoprotein which they called lubricin and which they 

proposed as the candidate boundary lubricant of cartilage. Instead, Hills and Butler (1984) 

suggested that a phospholipid (dipalmitoyl phosphatydilcholine or DPPC) was the 

boundary lubricant of synovial fluid and that DPPC contaminated the lubricin extracted 

by Swam et al. Several studies on synthetic surfaces confmed that either lubricin or 

DPPC could reduce the friction coefficient under boundary lubrication, though not to the 

low values observed experimentally in cartilage. 

Further experimentation on the frictional properties of cartilage revealed a time 

dependant response of the friction coefficient. After initial loading of the tissue the 

friction coefficient could increase fiom a value as small as 0.002 up to 0.15 in 30 minutes, 

suggesting that cartilage maintains good fiictional properties only under transient 

conditions. McCutchen (1959) attributed this phenomenon to a hydrostatic pressure 

developing within the cartilage interstitial fluid which drives fluid into the gap between 

the articular surfaces, thus acting as a "self-pressurized" hydrostatic bearing. Under this 

proposed mode of lubrication, only a small component of the contact stress would be 

borne by the solid matrix resulting in a small friction coefficient. As the pressure 

decreases the friction coefficient would increase. McCutchen termed this new mechanism 

"weeping lubrication". Conversely, Walker and coworkers (1968) attributed the time 

varying friction coefficient to another proposed mode termed "boosted lubrication" where 
pools of synovial fluid would be trapped between the contacting micro-asperities of the 

opposing articular surfaces. These pools would pressurize when loaded, supporting the 

majority of the applied stress and reducing the fiiction. Over time the low-viscosity 

components of the fluid would filter into the tissue leaving behind a viscous gel of 

hyaluronan which may then act as a boundary lubricant. However, subsequent theoretical 

squeeze-film lubrication analyses performed by Hou and coworkers (1 992) suggested that 

the transient response for such a mechanism has a time constant of a few seconds and 

could not explain the much longer transient response of the fiiction coefficient observed 

experimentally. 

In parallel to the progress reported on the measurement and analysis of cartilage 

lubrication, major advances have taken place in the last two decades in understanding the 

complex mechanics of articular cartilage. Through the work of Mow and coworkers 

(1 980, 1992) it has been shown that porous media theories can successfully predict the 

experimentally measured response of articular cartilage under various loading conditions, 

thereby attributing the viscoelasticity of this tissue to the viscous drag of the interstitial 

fluid flowing within the porous-permeable solid matrix. From theoretical analyses of 

contacting articular layers modeled using solid-fluid mixture theory, it has been codbned 

that the interstitial water of articular cartilage pressurizes considerably under loading and 

that the time constant for the duration of this pressurization under a prescribed load is on 

the order of 1,000 seconds or greater (Ateshian et al., 1994; Ateshian and Wang, 1995; 

Kelkar and Ateshian, 1999). From these same studies it has been observed that even in 

the absence of a synovial fluid film separating the articular surfaces, the interstitial fluid 

pressure at the contact interface still contributes in excess of 90% of the total applied load 

for physiological durations of loading (up to a few hundred seconds). (In contrast, in 

fluid film lubrication, 100% of the load would be supported by the pressurized fluid film 

lubricant.) Therefore, from these studies, we concluded that the porous-permeable 

cartilage naturally imparts a form of mixed lubrication at the contacting interface of 

articular layers where the fluid pressure supports most, but not all, of the load 

transmitted across the joint; unlike squeeze-film lubrication which may last for only a few 

seconds, the very low permeability of articular cartilage prevents a rapid loss of the fluid 

pressurization thereby maintaining favorable conditions for much longer durations. This 

interpretation is closest in agreement with the mechanism proposed by McCutchen 

(1959) and later by Malcom (1976) where the time dependent behavior of the fiiction 

coefficient relies on the developed interstitial fluid pressure. Importantly however, our 

proposed mechanism functions regardless of the direction of fluid flow at the contact 

interface; thus, in our model, there is no need to appeal to a "weeping" or "boosted" 

lubrication mechanism to explain the frictional response of cartilage. 

A theoretical formulation of this new fiiction model was developed and was 

demonstrated to provide predictions of the cartilage frictional response consistent with 

previously reported experimental findings (Ateshian, 1997). Subsequently we performed 

our own experimental friction measurements and demonstrated direct agreement between 

theory and experiment (Ateshian et al., 1998). The formulation of this model employed 

the theory of mixtures, recognizing that the contact of biphasic (solid-fluid mixture) 
materials involves solid-solid, solid-fluid, and fluid- m , I 

fluid interactions at the contacting surfaces when in 

the absence of a fluid film lubricant. Because of the 

paramount role of interstitial fluid pressurization in b, 

the formulation of this theory, we performed parallel 

experiments of cartilage loading to demonstrate that (0 

the predictions of interstitial fluid pressurization '0 IWO 4W aKU am $cum 7- (rr) 

from the biphasic theory of Mow et al. (1 980) FW*~ 6p.~-~*mw-~~e~r~w.~-c~~~*wuindeed agreed accurately with experimental so 

measurements. Thus, we used a novel approach to 1 9 

measure the cartilage interstitial fluid pressure (Soltz ;go . and Ateshian, 1998, 1999) in a one-dimensional , . 0 

loading configuration, during static and dynamic lo , 

loading. Remarkably we found nearly 100% of the 0 - 

applied load to be supported by fluid pressure for 0.0001 0.001 , IIY.., 0.01 o 1 

' 3. -I several hundred seconds after load application in the ~io.l. 3.~- - ofin-*-m-e 

static tests (Figure 2); we also observed that under 

dynamic loading, the fluid pressure does not subside .%., ,J,/I& ~-mbad 

even over four decades of loading frequencies (Figure 

3). These results clearly demonstrate the significance t 

of the fluid pressurization in supporting the applied -1.5 

-1.0 

load and its role in shielding the solid matrix fiom 

damaging stresses. Using our friction model we have O.' 2000 4000 6000 

Time (sec.) been able to successfully predict the measured 

Flgure 4 ExperlrnenBl arri predcted frtcbon friction coefficient of cartilage in the configuration of coefficient with predicted flu~dpressure 

unconfined compression stress-relaxation as shown 

in Figure 4. From both theory and experiment, it can be observed that the friction 

coefficient achieves its lowest value when the fluid pressure is at its peak; as the fluid 

pressure subsides and a greater portion of the applied load shifts to the solid collagenproteoglycan matrix, the friction coefficient increases, confirming that interstitial fluid 

pressurization regulates the frictional response of articular cartilage. These results not 

only help validate our theoretical cartilage fiiction model but also demonstrate an 

appreciable advance in our understanding of the tribology of articular cartilage. While it 

had long been recognized that fluid pressurization occurs within the tissue under loading, 

it now has been verified from our studies that it is a hdarnental mechanism essential for 

the normal function of articular cartilage. 

Acknowledgement: This study was supported by a grant fiom the National Institutes of 

Health (AR43628). 

References: 

1. Ateshian, G.A., Wang, H., Lai, W.M. (1998) The role of interstitial fluid pressurization and surfke 

porosities on the boundary friction of articular cartilage. J. Tribology, ASME, 120:241-251. 

2. Ateshian , G.A., (1997) A theoretical formulation for the boundary fiiction in articular cartilage. J. 

Biomech. Eng. , ASME, 1 19:81-86. 
3. Ateshian G.A. Lai, W.M., Zhu, W.B., Mow, V.C. (1994) An asymtotic solution for two contacting 

biphasic cartilage layers. J. Biomech., 25: 1347- 1360. 

4. Ateshian G.A., Wang H. (1995) A theoretical solution for the rolling contact of frictionless cylindrical 

biphasic cartilage layer. J. Biomech. 28: 134 1 - 1355. 

5. Charnely, J., (1959) The lubrication of animal joints. In: Symposium on biomechanics IMechE, 

London, pp. 12-22. 

6. Charnely, J. (1960) The lubrication of animal joints in relation to surgical reconstruction by 

arthroplasty. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 19: 10- 19. 

7. Dintenfass, L. (1963) Lubrication in synovial joints: A theoretical analysis. J. Bone Joint Surg. 

45A11241-1256. 

8. Dowson D. and Jin, Z.M. (1986) Micro-elastohydrodynamic lubrication of synovial joints. Eng. 

Med. 1263-65. 

9. Hills, B.A., Butler B.D. (1984) Surfactants identified in synovial fluid and their ability to act as 

boundary lubricants. Ann Rheum. Dis. 43541-648. 

10. Hou, J.S., Mow, V.C., Lai, W.M. and Holmes, M.H. (1992), Squeeze film lubrication for articular 

cartilage with synovial fluid. J. Biomech. 25:247-259. 

11. Kelkar R., Ateshian, G.A. (1999) Contact creep of biphasic cartilage layers: Identical layers. J. App. 

Mech., ASME, 66: 137-145. 

12. MacConaill, M.A., (1932) The function of intra-articular fibrocartilages, with special refecences to the 

knee and radio-ulnar joints. J. Anat.66:210-227. 

13. Malcom, L.L., (1976) An experimental investigation of the fictional and deformational response cf 

articular cartilage interfacesto static and dynamic loading. PhD, University of California, San Diego. 

14. McCutchen, C.W., (1 959) Sponge-hydrostatic and weeping bearing. 184: 1284. 

15. McCutchen, C.W., (1966) Boundary lubrication by synovial fluid: demonstration and possible 

osmotic explanation. Fed. Proc. 25: 106 1. 

16. Mow, V.C., Kuei, S.C., Lai, W.M., Armstrong, C.G. (1 980) Biphasic creep and stress relaxation cf 

articular cartilage in compression: Theory and experiments. J. Biomech. Eng., ASME 102:73. 

17. Mow, V.C., Ratcliffe, A., Poole, A.R. (1992) Cartilage and diarthrodial joints as paradigms kr 

hierarchical materials and structures. Biomaterials 13:67-97. 

18. Radin, E.L., Swan D.A. and Weisser, P.A., (1970) Separation of a byaluronate-fiee lubrication 

Eraction from synovial fluid. Nature 228:377-378. 

19. Soltz M.A., Ateshian, G.A. (1998) Experimental verification and theoretical prediction of cartilage 

interstitial fluid pressurization at an impermeable in confined compression. J. Biomech., 3 1 :927-934. 

20. Soltz M.A., Ateshian, G.A. (1999) Interstitial fluid pressurization during confmed compression 

cyclical loading of articular cartilage. Ann. Biomed. Eng., In Press. 

21. Swann D.A., Hendren, R.B., Radin, E.L., Sotman, S.L., Duda, E.A. (1981) The lubricating activity 

of synovial fluid glycoprotiens. Arthritis and Rheumatism 24:22-30. 

22. Walker, P.S., Dowson, D., Longfield, M.D., and Wright, V. (1968) "Boosted lubrication" in 

synovial jointsby fluid.entrapmentand enrichment. Ann. Rheum Dis. 27512-520. 

EXPERIMENTS IN MAGNETICS 

FOR TELECOMMUNICATIONS: 

ORGANIC AND SOL-GEL 

James V. Masi 

Northeast Center for Telecommunications Technologies 

1 Armory Square 

Springfield, Massachusetts 0 1 105 

Telephone 413-731-3155 

e-mail masi@stcc.mass.edu 
James V. Masi 
EXPERIMENTS IN MAGNETICS FOR TELECOMMUNICATIONS: ORGANIC AND SOL-GEL 

James V. Masi 

Northeast Center for Telecommunications Technologies 

Springfield, MA 01 105 

(413)73 1-3 155, FAX (413)734-0515 

masi@stcc.mass.edu 

KEY WORDS: Sol-gel, polymers, magnetics, nanoparticles. 

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: The student should be familiar with the basics of materials 

science, metallography, and chemistry. Levels at which these experiments are performed are second semester 

junior year and either semester senior year. The students are first given lectures the properties of materials 

produced by sol-gel methods and one lecture on organic magnetic and conducting polymers. They should 

have already had a laboratory experiment on metallography and sample preparation. 

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of these experiments are to show the area of Eabrication of sol-gel 

magnetic ceramic materials and magnetic polymer (organic molecular materials), especially the similarities 

associated with the apparently disparate materials. These experiments contain all of the elements of good 

design, with the caveat that a novelty in structure is sometimes a part of design. The students learn the 

process of designing materials for the world of telecommunications, analyze those already used, and suggest 

possible solutions to the problems involved with present technology. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: 

(1) Metallurgical preparation and polishing apparatus (eg. Buehler Co.). 

(2) Chlorides of nickel, iron, and zinc; ammonium hydroxide; nitric acid; ethylenediamine-tetra acetic acid 

salt; hydrochloric acid; phenylene vinylene monomer; (eg. Fisher Scientific). 

(3) Miscellaneous graduates, glassware, alumina firing boats, and hces(Fisher Scientific), 

(4) Magnets (Edmund Scientific). 

(5) Alumina substrates (Kyocera); miscellaneous meters and power supplies. 

(6) Metallurgical microscope (Olympus, Zeiss, etc.). 

7) SEM with EDAX (optional). 

INTRODUCTION: 

New organic and sol-gel technologies have allowed the experimenter to turn designs into a world of 

size control, materials properties, and new materials hard to realiie by other more arduous methods. The 

importance of size and crystallite perfection with respect to properties of finished devices has, only recently, 

been shown to be one of many critical parameters vital to high performance magnetic devices. The realm of 

very high and very low frequency devices seem to benefit most fiom the unique properties attainable from 

these sol-gel methods. Low temperature scenarios seem to benefit most from the use of the new organic 

materials. The advent of creating organic electromagnetic materials has raised the challenge of finding 

polymer (organic) materials in which there is &cient electronic exchange as well as stability in both the 

thermal and chemical arena. This experiment gives an overview of how to build and synthesize promising 

new complex polymer building blocks and sol-gel nanoscale materials which can yield superparamagnetic 

materials for devices of the future in power, storage, displays, and communications devices. The underlying 

principles and fdations of molecular and sol-gel structures which either imitate conventional 

ferromagnetic materials or uniquely take advantage of the very small and very complex magnets offered by 

organic materials and sol-gel formulations. A wide variety of properties may be obtained, dependent on pH, 

concentrations, impurities, polymer type, dopants, etc. Applications of these materials to transformers and 

inductors are detailed, and the underlying principles and formulations of both equilibrium and nonequilibrium materials are explained. The experiments are simple to perform and make great demonstrations 

of ferro-, ferri, and molecular magnetism. 

EXPER1MENTS:Sol-gel materials 

There are few materials which capture the essence and the mystery of materials science as those 

which can be fabricated by gel and sol-gel methods. The unique properties and the control of the chemistry 
leading to these properties make these methods excellent teaching, research, and learning tools. Certain of 

these synthetic materials are now deemed potentially useful as magnetic materials for such applications as 

magnetic devices (transformers, inductors, etc.), high fiequency magnetic and electromagnetic devices, 

shielding materials, and magneto-optic devices. The development of sol-gel methods for the production of 

nanoscale materials allows the scientist to tailor both properties and physical chatacteai~cs in fabrication by 

thick film, casting, firing or baking, dipping, or spraying. These methods produce nanoparticulate materials 

which have properties different &om those formed by conventional chemical and calcining techniques. Tests 

involving SEM, conventional optical microscopy, and x-ray diffraction techniques are employed. A section 

on background theory1 is given in the Appendix for use as a reference for the researcher. There are different 

forms of sol-gel technology (See Appendix A). The one chosen for these experiments involves the use of an 

organic compound as the complexing agent. The organic compound is ethylene-diarnine-tetra acetic acid 

(EDTA). One of the reasons EDTA was chosen is because it bonds well with most metallic elements and that 

it is comprised of an amine and an acid, fundamental for the gel. 

Figure 1 

Stages of sol-gel 

Figure 1 shows a typical depiction of the stages of the sol-gel process. Nanoparticles (particles with sizes in 

the range of a tens of nanometers) form up to and including step five. Some growth occurs in step six, and 

even larger particles result from firing (sintering) in stage 7. In this experiment, the regions 1 through 6 are 

pertinent to the unique properties obtained by sol-gel processes. It is these regions which we will use for most 

of the materials described. 

The change in properties for magnetic materials at the nanocrystalline sue scale are the following: 

(a) Initially there is an increase in the magnetic coercivity down to a critical crystallite size in the nanoscale 

size regime; and (b) below a critical rrystallite size, there is a decrease in coercivity leading to 

superparamagnetic behavior, high fiequency response, and higher than expected permeabilities at these 

frequencies". This approach initially involves the complexing of aqueous solutions of iron, nickel, and zinc 

cations in complex nitrate gels. This method consists of complexing the solution with two mole citric 

acidlmole of cation and adjusting the pH of the mixture with ammonium hydroxide in the range of 7 to 11, 

dependent on the morphology of the powder desired. The solutions used Feel3 , NiC12 , and &C12 in an 

aqueous solution.. Ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid salt (EDTA) are added to obtain the sol-gel, typical of 

that shown in Figure 2. The pH is adjusted upward and downward using aqueous =OH and HC1 

respectively. The compounds formed are FQ (NixZql,))O4with x =0.8. 

Once processed, all of the above yields are added together to fm one mixture, which is then ready 

to be processed fiuther. The metal and nitrate mixtures are combined are then heated at 220°C mtl a dark, 

reddish brown foam (the oxide) forms from the gel (approximately 15 minutes). The ''fibam" is ground to 

obtain a very fine powder, shown in Figure 2. 
Erst fid foamlpowder 

The powder is then fired in an aluminum oxide crucible according to a schedule, shown in Figure 1 

up to step 5. The powder is then either pressed into bulk forms or processed in polymer binder (>80w/o 

powder to polymer) for thick film screening onto alumina The vehiclelpolymer is composed of polyimide or 

epoxy. Using a screen printer and using alumina or printed circuit board substrates, the films are printed 150 

microns off contact with 3 psi squeegee pressure through a 200 mesh screen. This produces films ranging in 

thickness &om 3 to 27 microns. The disks or thick films are then fired according to a schedule shown in 

Figure 1 up to step 5 (on a printed circuit board) or up to step 7 (on alumina) or cured (if polymer binder 

remains) at 150' C. Variations on the samples produced can range &om solids to "packed" powders. 

Tests involving SEM, conventional optical microscopy, and x-ray difiaction techniques are 

employed. A section on background theory1 is given in the Appendix for use as a prefab lecture or as 

reference for the student and laboratory instructor. 

Organic Magnetic Materials 

The experiments in this section are for reference only. They are advanced in both preparation and 

concept and should be given at the discretion of the instructor. An overview is given in Appendix 2. 

New Organic Magnetic Materials Design 

Since standard stand-alone materials gave way to polymeric techniques, the possibilities of 

cooperative phenomena became more feasible. Since magnetic materials are only usem below their Curie 

temperature, this temperature should be substantially above room temperature. In fact, to obtain these higher 

Curie temperatures, one must induce some order (local disorder leads to random and inconsistent 

interactions). In 1985, the first molecule based magnetic materials were rep0rted.5.~ These materials were 

ionic salts (containing alternating donors and acceptors, of tetracyanoethylene and tetracyanoquinodimethane, 

TCNE and TCNQ in a "...DADA,.." configuration, producing high multiplicity spin radicals. A ferromagnetic 

F~C~',]-+ [TCNEP- forming chains of alternating donors (cations) and acceptors (anions)can be modified 

fiom ferromagnetic to metamagnetic by replacing TCNE with TCNQ or when [C,(CN),J- is added magnetic 

coupling is no longer effective. (cp* is ptamethylcyclopentadiedlide> A symbolic representation is shown 

in Figure 3.9 

N 

Figure 3 

TCNE and TCNQ salts with ,.. DADA... 
Up to 1991, the Curie temperatures were low, only in the tens of degrees Kelvin. Though the performance in 

magnetization in all forms of magnetic behavior seem to degrade with increasing temperature, a few materials 

show promise for the future.9 Some of these are shown in Figures 4 and 5. 

Figure 4 

Magnetization vs applied magnetic field for some materials 

Fire 5 

Vanadium salt V(TCNE~y(CX2CU) 

prepared fkom V(COI6 

As can be seen &om the figures above, the magnetic behavior, magnetization, and temperature profile vary 

greatly with host (TCNE, TCNQ, etc.), salt (vanadium, iron, cobalt, nickel, etc.) and precursor. These 

polymers, especially the V(TCNE)x*y(CH3C12), can be formed fiom the monomer and initiated with a 

peroxide initiator. Standard safety common to other cyano organic compounds should be observed. As 

mentioned previously in this paper, these are experiments which are both advanced and should be given at the 

discretion of the instructor. 
Electrical Measurements 

Electrical measurements are made with scrmed contacts in a 4-point probe arrangement. Early 

 measurement^"^ l2 indicate that these materials are semiconductor-like in their. Devices are also made by 

immersing a coil, as shown in Figure 6, in a polymer sol-gel or molecular magnetic mixture. It should be 

noted that "planar magentic" devices are made with similar coil structures but have prefired, large aystallite 

materials as their core and the coils are not "immersed in the 'c~e". Due to the conductive nature of some of 

these materials, insulating coatings are necessary to prevent losses due to shunting the metallic coil. 

(Courtesy of Philips Magnetics) 

insulation 

Coil ~onfiga~mtions for Test 

Magnetic Testing 

Impedance measuranents, giving the relative permeability and dielectric constant as well, and multiport tests on the materials can be made on an 8700 series HP Network analyzer as shown in Figure 7. 

"Donuts" were 3 mm thick made to fit in the coaxial air line. 

Network ~nal~er~~oaxial Setup 

High frequency measurements vary on the molecular materials with the vanadium salts showing 

permeabilities of 30 at room temperature at 100 MHz. More work needs to be performed on these materials at 

high frequencies to determine what models are justified by these measurements. Permeabilities in excess of 

80 have been measured for sol-gel materials at 250 MWz , as shown in Figure 8. 
Wt% Sol-Gel Ferrite in Polymer 

vs Permeability 

'Ox1]rn 

Wt.% Ferrite in Polymer 

- @ 250 MHz 

l?igure 8 

Polymer/Ferrite Loading 

As with the molecular materials, much work needs to be done to further characterize and exploit the unique 

properties of these new magnetic materials. Students should suggest methods of both materials fabrication 

and device testing. These suggestions should be inmed into future experiments. 

REFERENCES: 

1. A. B. Ellis, et al., "Teaching General Chemistry: A Materials Science Companion", A.C.S. Books, 1993. 

pp.463-472. 

2. H. B. Weiser, A Textbook of Colloid Chemistry, John Wiley, New York, 1949. pp. 2-4. 

3. C. W. Turner, Atomic Energy of Canada Rept. No. AECL-8062. Chalk River Labs, Chalk River 

ONT., Canada, 1986. 

4. R L. Beatty, et al., Oak Ridge Nat'l Labs Rept. No. ORNL-5469, Oak Ridge, TN, 1979. 

5. J. S. Miller and A. J. Epstein, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 

109,3850 (1987). 

6. J. M. Williams et al., Acc. Chem. Res., 18,261 

(1985). 

7. G. Allinson et al., J. Mat. &i. : Mat '1s in Electr., 5, 

67 (1994). 

8. D. Gatteschi, Ah. Mat., 6,635 (1994). 

9. J. S. Miller and k J. Epstein, ed. 'Troceediigs of 

the Conference on Molecule-33ased Magnets," 

Molec. Cyst., Liq. Cyst., 27 1-274 (1995). 

10. k Lukasiewicz, et al., Mat. Lett., 14, 127 (1992). 

1 1. J. V. Masi and W. Thibault, New, High Frequency 

Transformer Topologies, in Proc. of the EMCWA, 

IEEE Press, N.J., 1995, pp 157-162. 

12. J. S. Miller and k J. Epstein, C & EN, 30, Oct. 2, 

(1995). 

APPENDIX A1 

Sol-Gels 

introductioni 

Sols are dispersions of colloidal (solid) particles (size 1-100 nm) in a liquid phase where the particles 

are small enough to remain suspended, almost indefinitely, by Brownian motion4. For aqueous sols this 

implies a particle size of under 1 mm. Sols are called lyophobic (weak solvent-particle interaction) and 
lyophylic (relatively strong interaction). A gel is an interconnected, rigid network with pores of 

submicrometer dimensions and polymeric chains whose average length is greater than a micrometer and the 

solid and liquid are in a highly dispersed state. One of the most important conditions for gel formation is that 

a strong solvent-particle interaction exists, in order to bind a large amount of the solvent. 

The sol-gel process is the name given to any one of a number of processes that involve a solution or 

sol that undergoes a transition to a rigid, porous mass, a gel. These processes can be divided into two 

categories: aqueous-based processes that start fkom a solution of a metal salt " and the alcohol based 

processes that initiate fim metal al~xides.~ ATypical schematic diagram of the metal aloxide process is 

shown in Figure A 1. 

Figure Al-1 

Sol-Gel Schematic and Typical Products 

A particular example of a sol-gel process which is easier to understand than the magnetic oxide 

reaction is the reaction of Si(OCH2CH3)4, ethanol, and water. These three reactants form a one-phase solutim 

that goes through a sol-gel transition to a rigid, two-phase system of solid silica (Si02) and solvent-filled 

pores. The hdamental reaction of the sol-gel process is hydrolysis and polymerization of a silicon alkoxide. 

Hydrolysis occurs when Si(OCH2CH3)4 and water are mixed in a mutual solvent, generally ethanol: 

The intermediates that exist as a result of partial hydrolysis include molecules with Si-OH groups, which are 

called silanols. Complete hydrolysis of Si(OCH2CH3)4 to Si(OW4 would yield silicic acid, but complete 

hydrolysis does not occur. Instead, condensation may occur between either two silanols or a silanol and an 

ethoxy group to form a bridging oxygen or a siloxane group 

I I 

(-Si-O-Si-), and a water or ethanol molecule is eliminated. An example of the condensation 

I I 

between two silanols with the ekation of water is 

Then hydrolysis of (CH3CH20)3SiOSi(OCH2CH3)3 will produce, as one possibility, (CH3CH2 0)3 

Si(OH)OSi(OCH2CH3)3 that can undergo hrther polymerjzation. When a sufticient number of interconnected 
Si-0-Si bonds are fmed in a region, they interact cooperatively to form colloidal particles or a sol. With 

time, the colloidal particles and condensed silica species link together to form a three-dimensional network. 

At gelation, the viscosity increases sharply, and a solid object in the shape of the mold results. The product of 

this process at the sol-gel transition is called an akogel. Once through the sol-gel transition, the solvent phase 

can be removed. If it is removed by conventional drying, such as evaporation, xerogekk result If it is 

removed via super.critcal (high-temperature) evacuation, aerogels result. 

Acid-Catalyzed Reaction 

At low pH levels, that is, acidic conditions (slow hydrolysis), the silica tends to form linear 

molecules that are occasionally cross-linked. These entangle and farm additional branches, 

resulting in gelation. 

far from gel $el paint XerQ$@ 

micmgraph of xewr 

(1 00 x 1 M) rtm] 

Base-Catalyzed Reaction 

Under basic conditions (faster hydrolysis), more highly branched clusters form that do not 

interpenetrate prior to drying and thus behave as discrete species. Gelation occurs by linking of the clusters. 

far from gel . xerogel 

Some advantages of sol-gel processing over conventional ceramic processing are: 

1. Increased chemical homogeneity in multicomponent systems; 

2. High surface area of the geVpowders, leading to relatively low sintesing 

3. Relatively high chemical purity is possible due to the absence of grinding and 

pressing; and 

4. Product in the form of powders, fibers, coatings, and spheres are possible with 

simple solution controls, such as pH, temperature, aging, etc. 

APPENDIX.2 

Organic Magnetic Materials 

When the early civilizations made the discovery that iron was indeed attracted to lodestone, the era of 

magnetism and its devices and effects was launched. ARer that time, the earliest device recorded was the 

compass, an invention of the Chinese. Since then, ferromagnetic (Fe, Ni, Co, etc.), ferrimagnetic (eg. F,O,), 

and paramagnetic materials have been used in technology applications such as magnets, magnetic tapes and 

disks, magnetic resonance imaging contrast enhancers, and magneto-optic memories, to name a few. 

Organiclmolecular based materials, with p or d orbitals aiding the magnetic properties, have been a source of - - 

scientific curiosity for a number of years5', but only recently have suchmaterials become a reality 7789. 

This new class of magnetic materials is, for the most part, non-metallic, being made fiom simple to 

complex organic molecules. Their structure can be uni- or bi-dimensional and need not have the threedimensional format necessary for conventional ferromagnetic, feagnetic, paramagnetic, and 

antiferromagnetic materials. These materials can be simply i5bricated from a variety of solvents at or near 
room temperature. These should not be confus,ed with bimetallic complexes such as those formed by pyrolisis 

or partial-odation.'O Other work postulated the use of a new class of pi-biradicals called the non-Kekule 

polynuclear aromatics, shown in Figure A2-lbelow? The high spin nature of these systems should drive 

ferromagnetic coupling in charge transfer complexes. This is best sefyed by having the centers covalently 

bonded together, namely, a polymer system made up of repeating molecular segments sharing the framework 

of the high-spin systems, quinodimethanes based on the benzene, naphthalene, and biphenyl nuclei. 

Polymetaquinodimethane 

Metaquinodirnethane 

Conduction 

Band 

A 4 7- 'f superdegenerate Band S e t +- 

Valence 

hnd 

Figure A2-1 

Representation of pi-molecular of metaquinodimethane, the associated spins, and an oligomer 

p and sp2 2gi orbltals on 02 

Figure A2-2 

Possible model for magnetic spin coupling 

Figure A2-2 shows a possible model for magnetic spin coupling where spins align in orthogonal orbitals in a 

small spatial region.3 Figure A2-3 shows six possible configurations of parallel and anti-parallel spins, along 

with canted ones for reference, to describe paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferrmagnetic, fenimagnetic 

canted fmomagnetic, and correlated spin glass (disordered structure previously mentioned). 
'1 

\fI-ffL ttfttt 

~1~

il 

Figure A23 

Spin configuration directions for magnetic types 
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE IMPACT 

BEHAVIOR AND DIMENSIONAL STABILITY 

OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS 

Wayne L. Elban 

Department of Electrical Engineering and 

Engineering Science 

Loyola College 

4501 North Charles Street 

Baltimore, Maryland 2 12 10 

Telephone: 4 10-6 17-2853 

e-mail welban@loyola.edu 

and 

Matthew J. Elban 

Carroll Christian High School 

Westminster, Maryland 2 1 1 57 
Wayne L. Elban 
Effect of Temperature on the Impact Behavior and 

Dimensional Stability of Thermoplastic Polymers 

Wayne L. Elban 

Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Engineering Science 

Loyola College 

Baltimore, Maryland 21210 

Matthew J. Elban 

Carroll Christian High School 

Westminster, Maryland 21 157 

ABSTRACT: A procedure is described for evaluating the brittle-ductile transition behavior of 

two thermoplastic polymers: acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer and recycled 

high density polyethylene (HDPE). A bench-top Charpy impact tester is used to make a 

quantitative evaluation of impact strength as a function of specimen conditioning (testing) 

temperature, which ranged from -196 to 120" C for ABS and to 135" C for HDPE. 

Additionally, the notch sensitivity of both materials is assessed by determining the impact 

strength of room temperature specimens with and without standard V-notches. The resultant 

fracture surfaces are visually inspected to determine its brittlelductile character. The fracture 

surface and region immediately behind it are examined for stress whitening. The 

experimental determinations of impact strength are compared to values appearing in the 

literature for both materials. Thicknesses of recovered samples are measured, using a dial 

caliper, to study the dimensional stability of both polymers for the same temperature ranges. 

KEY WORDS: Charpy impact testing, brittle-ductile transition behavior, notch sensitivity, 

dimensional stability, fracture, stress whitening, thermoplastic polymers, acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer, high density polyethylene (HDPE). 

PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: sophomore-level undergraduate laboratory experiment 

requiring basic knowledge of thermoplastic polymers and brittle versus ductile fracture 

behaviors as described in an introductory materials science course and accompanying 

laboratory course. 

OBJECTIVES: 

(a) Experimental Goals: 

1. to measure the Charpy impact energies of V-notched specimens of two 

representative thermoplastic polymers as a function of temperature; 

2. to measure the Charpy impact energies of specimens with and without standard 

V-notches for the same polymers; 
3. to measure the room temperature thicknesses of impact specimens of two 

thermoplastic polymers exposed to various temperatures in order to assess their 

dimensional stability; and 

4. to examine the resultant fracture surfaces to assess their brittle-ductile 

character and the occurrence of stress whitening. 

(b) Learning Goals: 

1. to become familiar with Charpy impact testing, a prominent technique for 

characterizing the dynamic mechanical response of materials; 

2. to become familiar with the distinctive features of brittle and ductile fracture; 

3. to become familiar with the effect of temperature on the properties of 

thermoplastic polymers, including transition temperature phenomena; and 

4. to become familiar with notch sensitivity, an important material property 

relating to machining and fabrication processes. 

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS: (1) Tinius Olsen Charpy impact tester (bench top model 

with 50 inch-pound capacity); (2) Metric universal dial caliper (Brown and Sharpe 559-579- 

13); (3) Liquid nitrogen contained in cylindrical Dewar flask; (4) Conditioning ovens; (5) 

Injection molded Charpy impact specimens: (i) Un-notched ABS; (ii) Un-notched HDPE; (iii) 

ABS with V-notch; and (iv) HDPE with V-notch. 

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: It is required that the same person both position the 

specimen and operate the Charpy impact tester; extreme care must be taken to have 

both hands away from the sample prior to releasing the pendulum. Everyone else must 

stay in back of the operator so that they are not struck by flying specimen pieces. 

Handling specimens at temperatures other than room temperature also requires 

care that frost bite and burns do not occur. Normal safe laboratory practice for 

working with liquid nitrogen should be followed. Specimens can be safely immersed in 

liquid nitrogen with long-handled tongs, taking care to use an insulated glove and to 

extend arm fully. Depending on stand-off distance determined by the size of the tongs, 

safety glasses or laboratory goggles should be worn. Rapid retrieval of specimens from 

the conditioning ovens can be safely accomplished with large, blunt tweezers. (Instructor 

Note 1) 

INTRODUCTION: 

Problem Statement: You have recently been hired as an entry-level materials engineer in a 

company that molds plastic parts using both newly formulated and recycledlscrap materials. 

For your first assignment, you are asked to study the influence that temperature has on the 

properties of injection molded beam specimens of two thermoplastic polymers: ABS and 
HDPE. Secondly, it is of interest to assess the notch sensitivity of these polymers. The 

material phenomena of interest and specimen geometry are amenable to pendulum impact 

testing, and the quality of specimens is representative of parts that your company 

manufactures. As such, their characterization provides important materials science insights 

to your company's design and applications engineers. 

Thermoplastic polymers usually have a linear structure, although branching is 

possible. Two prominent examples are ABS and HDPE. ABS is a two-phase material 

involving a brittle styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer matrix with rubbery styrene-butadiene 

copolymer inclusions. [I] Typical uses include luggage and telephones. [2] HDPE has a 

linear carbon backbone and reasonably high degree of crystallinity, referred to as being 

semicrystalline. It has a sizable use percentage that includes film, sheet, and 

bottles/containers [3] together with wirelcable insulation, pipe, and conduit [4]. Upon 

heating above room temperature, thermoplastic polymers undergo significant changes in 

mechanical properties as determined, for example, by uniaxial tensile testing, including 

decreases in elastic (Young's) modulus, ultimate tensile strength, and fracture strength and 

increase in elongation at break. (Instructor Note 2) However, chemical decomposition is 

minimal. 

A V-notched Charpy specimen and associated standard ASTM procedure [5] provide a 

laboratory evaluation of fracture toughness in order to simulate actual service conditions. 

This destructive, single-blow impact test involves a bar or beam specimen, supported at both 

ends, having a transverse load applied at high strain rate in the center with a pendulum 

striker (Fig. 3.6(a), Ref. [6]). [7,8] The amount of energy absorbed by the specimen on 

impact is inversely related to the maximum height the pendulum rises after it passes through 

the specimen. A wide range of metallic and non-metallic materials, including steels and 

plastics, have been studied using this technique. For plastics, the specimen is specified to be 

5 in. long, 112 in. wide and 112 in. or less thick with a 22.5' notch machined in the thin 

dimension. A specimen with 118 in. thickness is often tested because this corresponds to the 

nominal thickness for molded commercial plastic parts. [9] 

By performing Charpy impact tests on thermoplastic polymer specimens above and 

below room temperature, with follow-up examination of the resultant fracture surfaces, it is 

possible to assess transition temperature behavior. The effect of temperature on the energy 

to fracture is related to a change in the fracture mechanism at the micronlnanometer level. 

At sufficiently low temperature, fracture occurs at low energy and is said to be brittle. In 

contrast, high energy or ductile fracture occurs at a sufficiently elevated temperature. A 

transition from brittle to ductile fracture manifests itself in the portion of the plot of impact 

energy (or stress) versus temperature where a sizable change in energy occurs over a narrow 

temperature range (Fig. 3.6(b), Ref. [6]). 

Notch sensitivity can be evaluated by performing Charpy impact tests on specimens 

with and without notches at a given temperature (e.g., room temperature), If there is a 

significant difference in the absorbed energies for the two specimen types, the material is 

said to be notch sensitive. The energy level is much lower, and fracture propagation is more 

controlled and reproducible for a specimen with a notch. 
The effect of temperature on th~rmoplastic polymers is also exhibited by changes in 

dimensions that occur in specimens subjected to sufficiently elevated temperatures. Lie 

brittle-ductile transition and notch sensitivity behaviors, this phenomena is important to 

design engineers who must select materials with good dimensional stability for end-products 

that experience a range of temperatures during their service lives. 

The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the brittle-ductile transition and notch 

sensitivity behaviors of both polymers using Charpy impact testing. To this end, a 

quantitative evaluation of impact energy as a function of specimen conditioning temperature 

(taken also to be the specimen testing temperature) will be made using standard V-notch 

specimens. Impact energy measurements will also be obtained for room temperature 

specimens with and without V-notches. Subsequently, a visual inspection of each resultant 

fracture surface will be performed to determine its character (i.e., degree of brittle versus 

ductile fracture). To verify the measurements, experimental values of impact strength will be 

compared with those values appearing in the literature for both materials. Further, the 

thicknesses of recovered specimens will be measured allowing the dimensional stability of 

both polymers to be studied for the same temperature range. 

PROCEDURE: 

A. CHARPY IMPACT TESTING (Instructor Notes 1,3) 

1. Preparatory to testing, place handwritten identification labels (Instructor Note 4) near 

both ends of two (2) specimens of each of sample type listed below: 

un-notched ABS at room temperature (23 + 2" C); 

un-notched HDPE at room temperature (23 + 2" C); 

V-notched ABS at room temperature (23 + 2" C); 

V-notched HDPE at room temperature (23 + 2" C); 

V-notched ABS kept at liquid nitrogen temperature 

(-196" C) until boiling stops; 

V-notched HDPE kept at liquid nitrogen temperature 

(-196" C) until boiling stops; 

V-notched ABS kept at 80 + 2" C for 30 minutes; 

V-notched ABS kept at 100 + 2" C for 30 minutes; 

V-notched HDPE kept at 100 + 2" C for 30 minutes; 

V-notched ABS kept at 110 & 2" C for 30 minutes; 

V-notched ABS kept at 120 & 2" C for 30 minutes; 

V-notched HDPE kept at 120 + 2" C for 30 minutes; 

V-notched HDPE kept at 127 + 2" C for 30 minutes; and 

V-notched HDPE kept at 135 + 2" C for 30 minutes. 

2. Measure the thickness in several places near the center with a dial caliper. 

3. Perform impact testing by measuring the apparent impact energy from the large dial. 
4. Recover all of the fractured pieces and retain for subsequent thickness measurements 

and examination. 

5. Correct the apparent impact energy values to account for the center location of the 

pendulum. (Instructor Note 5) 

6. Record your measurements and any relevant observations in your laboratory notebook 

with one or more drawings as appropriate. 

B. THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS OF RECOVERED SPECIMENS 

1. Using a dial caliper, measure the thickness of each impacted specimen several 

millimeters away from its fracture surfaces. 

2. Record your measurements and any relevant observations in your laboratory notebook 

with one or more drawings as appropriate. 

C. VISUAL OBSERVATION OF RECOVERED SPECIMENS 

1. Ascertain how well the pieces from each impacted specimen fit back together as a 

preliminary check on whether the failure was brittle or ductile. 

2. Examine a fracture surface from each impacted specimen. Pay particular attention to 

the degree of surface roughness and whether the fracture surface appears to have 

undergone brittle or ductile fracture. 

3. Examine the fracture surface and the region immediately behind it for a phenomena 

known as stress whitening. (Instructor Note 6) 

4. Record any relevant observations in your laboratory notebook with one or more 

drawings as appropriate. 

D. ANALYSIS 

Perform the following analyses and respond to any questions as completely as possible 

being sure to show all of your work and reasoning as partial credit can be earned. 

1. Impact energy measurements: 

a. Plot (#I) impact energy, in-lb, versus temperature, "C. Use different plotting 

symbols to distinguish the two polymers. 

b. Calculate the Charpy impact strength, a,, in units of ft-lb/in, for each room 

temperature specimen of both polymers using: 
where IEC = corrected impact energy; and 

tRT = room temperature specimen thickness. 

Note: impact energy and specimen thickness measurements were obtained in units 

of in-lb and mm, respectively. 

2. Discuss the effect temperature has on the impact behavior of both polymers. 

3. Discuss what effect the presence of the V-notch has on the room temperature a, values 

of both polymers. 

4. Compare the room temperature q values obtained with those given in Refs. [lo], 

[ll]. Give one or more reasons why differences may exist. 

5. Specimen thickness measurements: 

a. Calculate the change in thickness, At, in units of mm, for each specimen of 

both polymers using: 

where tT = thickness of specimen exposed to a given conditioning 

temperature, mm. 

b. Plot (#2) At, mm, versus temperature, "C. For consistency, choose the same 

plotting symbols used in Plot #1 to distinguish the two polymers. 

6. Discuss the effect temperature has on the dimensional stability of both polymers. 

7. Based on visual observations, discuss the brittle versus ductile character of the 

fractures that resulted for both polymers over the temperature range used. Also 

discuss the occurrence of stress whitening as a function of temperature. 

COMMENTS with Sample Data Sheets and Plots: 

All of the experimental steps were performed twice to verify that the results were reasonably 

reproducible. The data sets appearing in this section are considered to be representative. 

Effect of Tem~erature on Charpy Impact Energies: The measured impact energies as a 

function of temperature for ABS and HDPE specimens appear in Tables I and 11, 

respectively, and are plotted in Figure 1. ABS and HDPE specimens tested at -196' C had 

the same Charpy impact energy, which was only slightly more than when no sample was 

present. Therefore, these materials offer very little impact resistance at cryogenic 

temperatures or even at room temperature for HDPE. As temperature increased, the impact 

energy values for both ABS and HDPE specimens increased, but the effect was more 

pronounced for HDPE. For ABS, there was a modest increase in impact energy up to 98" C. 
Table I. Charpy Impact Results for ABS Copolymer for Various Temperatures 

Specimen 

Designation 

ABS T5 

ABS T6 

ABS T1 

ABS T2 

ABS T3 

ABS T4 

ABS n 

ABS T8 

ABS TI1 

ABS T12 

ABS T9 

ABS TI0 

Temperature 

PC) 

Impact Energy 

(in-lb) 

* Numerous very fine cracks were observed. 

** More numerous small cracks were observed. 

*** Apparently, temperature was too high andlor time duration was too long because 

samples were very soft, and larger cracks developed throughout, that are attributed to 

causing a decrease in impact energy. 
Table 11. Charpy Impact Resplts for HDPE Polymer for Various Temperatures 

Specimen 

Designation 

PE T5 

PE T6 

PE T1 

PE n 

PE T3 

PE T4 

Temperature 

PC) 

Impact Energy 

(in-lb) 

Samples did not break. 

Samples did not break. 
Figure 1. Charpy impact energy versus temperature for ABS copolymer 

and HDPE polymer. 

30 

25 

20 c. 

n 

t !c. 

a 

8 15- 6 

Y 

H 

- E 

10 

5 

-%o 

Temperature [degrees C] 

+ ABS: Impact Energy 

AHDPE: Impact Enerqy 

- 

HDPE samples not 

broken completely - 

- 

- 

A. 

Ai 

L 

- 

* A 

I .... I .... 1 .,,, i ,.,. I 

-1 50 I.... 

-1 00 -50 0 5 0 100 150 
At 109" C, a large difference in higher energy values was obtained, indicating that the 

temperature was at least close to the brittle-ductile transition temperature. Exposure to 120" 

C resulted in small cracks developing with a consequent (but unexpected) reduction in impact 

energy. For HDPE, the impact energy increased gradually up to 120" C. At 127-128" C, a 

large variation in significantly higher energy values was obtained, indicating that the brittleductile transition temperature had been reached. 

Notch Sensitivity: For both plastics, the presence of the V-notch resulted in more than a 10X 

decrease in impact strength compared to when no notch was present (Table 111). This 

indicates that both materials exhibit a strong notch sensitivity. Designers using these 

materials must be mindful to avoid specifying parts with high stress concentrations. 1121 

Literature Com~arison: There is reasonable agreement between measured room temperature 

Charpy impact strengths of notched specimens (Table 111) and notched Izod impact strengths 

appearing in the literature. For ABS, values of 1.9 and 2.2 ft-lblin were obtained versus a 

value of 6.5 ft-lblin for a commercial-grade material, designated as Cycolac T resin [lo], 

that is like what was used in the experiment. For HDPE, a value of 1.0 ft-lb/in was 

measured versus values ranging from 1.2 to 25 ft-lblin depending on melt index for 

commercial-grade polyethylene with densities between 0.94 1 and 0.965 g/cm3 11 11. Material 

and processing variations probably explain the differences between measured and literature 

values for both materials. For HDPE, it is important to remember that recycled versus 

newly polymerized materials are being compared. 

Dimensional Stability Assessment: Thickness measurements as a function of temperature for 

ABS and HDPE specimens appear in Tables IV and V, respectively, and change in thickness 

versus temperature is plotted in Figure 2. Dimensional stability of the heated specimens 

differed markedly. HDPE showed excellent stability over the complete temperature range, 

while at and above 98" C, a significant change in thickness was measured for ABS. 

Visual Observations: A compilation of visual observations for the resultant fracture surfaces 

of ABS and HDPE impact specimens is given in Table VI. ABS underwent brittle fracture 

over the entire temperature range with the exception of one sample, tested at 109" C, 

exhibiting noticeable ductility. This is consistent with being close to the glass transition 

temperature (120" C) obtained for Cycolac T resin based on heat capacity measurements 

[13]. The occurrence of brittle fracture is consistent with the measured low impact energies. 

However, cracks developed in ABS specimens heated at or above 98" C which would at least 

partially explain the absence of a smoothly increasing trend above 80" C. In contrast, the 

observations reveal that HDPE clearly underwent brittle-ductile transition behavior with 

corresponding greater than 10X increase in impact energy over the temperature range where 

measurements could be obtained. 

Referring to Table VI, stress whitening becomes prominent in HDPE once the ductilebrittle transition temperature is reached, indicating that stress whitening is associated with 

plastic deformationlductile fracture. 
Table 111. Charpy Impact Results for ABS Copolymer and HDPE Polymer 

to Assess Notch Sensitivity at Room Temperature (23°C) 

Specimen 

Designation 

ABS Copolymer 

ABS T1 

ABS n 

ABS T13 

ABS T14 

FIDPE Polymer 

V-Notch Impact Energy Impact Strength 

Present (in-lb) (fi-lb/.in) 

Yes 3.25 2.2 

Yes 2.75 1.9 

Yes 

Yes 
a 

.8 

0 

a, 

rll 
Table V. Dimensional Stability Results for HDPE Polymer for Various Temperatures 

Specimen 

Designation 

Temperature 

PC) 

Initial Thickness Final Thickness 

(mm) (mm) 

Change in Thickness 

(mm) 

* ~verageof single measurements on both fractured pieces. 
Figure 2. Change in impact specimen thickness versus temperature 

for ABS copolymer and HDPE polymer. 
Table VI. Fracture Surface Agpearance for Recovered Specimens of Impacted 

ABS Copolymer and HDPE Polymer 

Material Temperature Visual Observations 

("C) 

ABS -196 Brittle; dark surface; somewhat rough 

23 Brittle; light surface; smooth 

80 Brittle; light surface; smooth 

98 Brittle; light surface; smooth 

109 (Tll) Brittle; light surface; smooth 

109 (T12) Somewhat ductile; dark surface; a little rough 

120 Brittle; light surface; smooth 

23 (No notch) Brittle; light surface; very rough 

HDPE -196 

23 

98 

120 

127 (T11) 

127 (T12) 

Brittle; rough; wavy surface 

Brittle; smooth; apparent "shear edge" (?) 

Brittle; smooth 

Brittle; smooth 

A little ductile, rough, and stress whitening 

More ductile; rougher; more stress whitening 

than TI1 

Very similar to T12 

Slightly less ductile, etc. than TI3 

Ductile; rougher; more stress whitening than T12/13; 

fracture not completely through specimens 

23 (No notch) Brittle; very irregular 
Optional Activity -- Scanned Images: Several of the recovered specimen pieces for both 

polymers were arranged on a Hewlett-Packard Scan Jet IIcx flatbed scanner, and roughly 

one-to-one magnification images were obtained (Figures 3,4). 

Referring to Figure 3, the fracture traces for both ABS specimens (Tl,T9) were 

essentially identical, having relatively straight trajectories. However, the lack of dimensional 

stability in Specimen T9 (exposed to 120" C) is seen to be quite dramatic with its final length 

being significantly less than room temperature Specimen TI. Referring to the bottom three 

specimens of HDPE in Figure 3, the fracture traces for the two completely broken specimens 

show an important difference in trajectory: Specimen T1 exhibits a very straight fracture path 

of shortest length through the specimen. Whereas, the path through Specimen T12 is less 

direct, indicating that the fracture process was more ductile, which is consistent with it 

having a significantly higher impact energy value. Finally, the even greater fracture 

toughness of Specimen T9 is quite apparent since the fracture could propagate only part way 

through the material. 

Referring to Figure 4, the absence of a V-notch in the impact specimens for both 

polymers causes the fracture path to be longer and more complicated that correlates well with 

the higher impact energy values measured for these specimens. Fracture of un-notched 

HDPE Specimen TI5 resulted in the formation of at least one small fragment per specimen 

half. 

INSTRUCTOR NOTES: 

1. It is important to demonstrate to students how to operate the Charpy impact tester and to 

position specimens in the machine prior to actual testing. The temperatures used in this 

experiment were selected in an effort to demonstrate brittle-ductile transition behavior for the 

polymers of interest, subject to the measurement limitation of the available impact tester and 

a serious heat distortion problem encountered for ABS at 120" C. Liquid nitrogen provided a 

convenient constant temperature medium that was below room temperature. Students also 

need to be shown how to handle specimens exposed to temperatures other than room 

temperature. The specimens exposed to elevated temperatures were placed on glass plates in 

the conditioning ovens in order to retain specimen flatness. ABS, in particular, tends to stick 

to glass; this can be greatly alleviated by lightly coating the glass plates with silicone spray 

before switching on the ovens. See SAFETY PRECAUTIONS. 

2. An excellent background discussion of various thermal properties of polymers and the 

effect of temperature on their mechanical properties is provided [14] in a manual that is 

available free for distribution to students. 

3. This part of the experiment relates to a previous year's National Educators'. Workshop 

paper [15] describing temperature dependent impact results for steel. 

4. Labeling both ends of each specimen facilitates keeping the recovered pieces organized for 

subsequent thickness measurements and visual examination. 
Figure 3. Scanned image of selected recovered ABS and HDPE Charpy 

impact specimens. 
Figure 4. Scanned image of selected recovered ABS and HDPE Charpy 

impact specimens with (top of each pair) and without V-notches. 
5. The particular Charpy impact tester used in this experiment no longer has the pointer 

assembly used to make direct impact energy readings. The forward progress of the 

pendulum can be easily viewed and then corrected to give a value to correspond to the 

center of the pendulum tup. The reason and method for doing this is presented in lab. 

Hopefully, this will not be an issue for those who adopt this experiment. 

6. Stress whitening [16], sometimes referred to as blushing, can occur because of the 

formation of numerous small cracks causing a change in reflected light. Stress whitening can 

also result when polymer molecules become highly oriented upon experiencing large local 

stresses that alter the degree of crystallinity and cause internal micro-porosity (voids). 

REFERENCES: 

[I] Billmeyer, Jr., F. W. : Textbook of Polvmer Science, 2nd Edn., Wiley-Interscience, 

1971, p. 408. 

[2] Flinn, R. A. ; and Trojan, P.K. : Engineering Materials and Their Applications, 4th 

Edn., Houghton Mifflin Co. (now John Wiley and Sons, Inc.), 1990, pp. 560-561. 

[4] Billmeyer, Jr., F.W.: OD. cit., pp. 279-280. 

[5] "Standard Test Methods for Impact Resistance of Plastics and Electrical Insulating 

Materials, " ASTM Designation D 256-88, in 1989 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 

Section 8: Plastics, Vol. 08.01, American Society for Testing and Materials, 

Philadelphia, pp. 57-73. 

[6] Flinn, R.A.; and Trojan, P.K.: op. cit., p. 163. 

[7] "Mechanical Properties and Tests, " Materials and Methods Manual 106, Compiled by 

J. B. Campbell, Compliments of Reihle Testing Machines, Reprinted from Materials 

in Design Engineering, July 1954. 

[8] "Designing with Plastic: The Fundamentals, " Design Manual TDM-1 (1996), Hoechst 

Celanese Corporation, 90 Morris Avenue, Summit, New Jersey 07901, pp. 3-10 to 

11. 

[9] "Standard Tests on Plastics," Bulletin 1GC (1988), Hoechst Celanese Corporation, 90 

Morris Avenue, Summit, New Jersey 07901, p. 6. 

[lo] "Properties Guide: GE Engineering Thermoplastics, " PBG-140H (August 

1992fReprinted December 1996), General Electric Company, One Plastics Avenue, 

Pittsfield, Massachusetts 01201. 
"Cycolac Resin Properties Guide," CYC-300B (12/1993), General Electric Company, 

One Plastics Avenue, Pittsfield, Massachusetts 01201. 

[ll] "Materials Selector 1992," Materials Engineering;, December 1991, p. 184. 

[12] "Designing with Plastic: The Fundamentals," OD. cit., pp. 8-10 to 11. 

[13] "Specific Heat," Materials Technology Notes, Number 1, MTD-ATN-001B (1993), 

General Electric Company, One Plastics Avenue, Pittsfield, Massachusetts 01201 

(available in a packet entitled "Applied Technology Notes"). 

[14] "Designing with Plastic: The Fundamentals," op. cit., pp. 4-1 to 5. 

[15] Bates, S.P.: Charpy V-notch Impact Testing of Hot Rolled 1020 Steel to Explore 

Temperature-Impact Strength Relationships, in National Educators' Workshop: U~date 

- 90, NIST Special Publication 822, 1991, pp. 129-135. 

1161 Strong, A.B.: Plastics: Materials and Processing;, 2nd Edn., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2000, 

pp. 168-169. 

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES: See Acknowledgements. It is also possible that plastics 

manufacturers will supply specimens and accompanying material property data sheets, thus 

allowing a more appropriate literature comparison to be made. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Dr. Jerry L. Wickman, Director, Plastics Research and 

Education Center, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, kindly provided un-notched polymer 

impact specimens with useful material descriptions/properties. Michael Frankowiac, Johns 

Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, machined standard V-notches in the impact specimens. 

Special thanks to Mark A. Elban for using computer graphics to prepare Figures 1,2. 
Wayne L. Elban 

Since 1985, Professor Elban has 

taught engineering science courses at 

Loyola College, including introductory 

materials science, materials science lab, 

mechanical properties of materials, and 

transformations in solids. He received a 

BChE with distinction ('69) and a PhD 

in Applied Sciences: Metallurgy ('77) 

from the University of Delaware and a 

MS in Engineering Materials ('72) from 

the University of Maryland, College 

Park. From 1969-1985, he was a 

research engineer at the Naval Surface 

Warfare Center, White Oak Laboratory, 

Silver Spring, Maryland. He is a 

member of ASM International. 

Matthew J. Elban 

Matt Elban is currently a high 

school junior and especially enjoys 

mathematics and science courses and 

writing. He is a member of the varsity 

soccer, basketball, and baseball teams. 

For the past two years, he has received 

honorable mention on the All-Carroll 

County soccer team. He has been the 

recipient of several ribbons for craft 

entries in the Maryland State Fair. His 

hobbies including fishing, playing guitar, 

and mountain biking. He is considering 

a career in criminal justice, forensics, or 

journalism. 

BIOSPHERE 2 CENTER 

PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE 

W. C. Harris 

Columbia University 

Biosphere 2 Center 

32540 S. Biosphere Road 

Oracle, Arizona 85623 

Telephone 520-896-6453 

e-mail wharris @ bio2.edu 

Leonard W. Fine 

Columbia University in the City of New York 

Department of Chemistry 

Havemeyer Hall MC 3 108 

500 West 120th Street 

New York, New York 10027 

Telephone 2 12-854-2017 

e-mail fine 62 chem.columbia.edu 

Morton B. Friedman 

Columbia University 

School of Engineering and Applied Science 

Office of the Dean, 5 10 Mudd 

New York, New York 10027 

Telephone 2 12-854-2986 

e-mail friedman@ columbia.edu 
Leonard W, Fine 
Biosphere 2 Center 

Past, Present and Future 

Columbia University assumed responsibility for the Biosphere 2 Center January 1, 1996 

with the goal of building a new campus that focused on earth systems science, policy and 

management. Academic programs are now offered year round and we benefit by working 

with 25 university and college partners. IN ADDITION, WE HAVE A WORKING 

PARTNERSHIE' WITH VOLVO WITH RESPECT TO EDUCATION AND PUBLIC 

OUTREACH. Our research effort is now receiving external funding, following a major 

investment in re-configuring the Biosphere 2 apparatus and converting into a laboratory 

for controlled studies to determine the impact of high C02 on oceans (coral reefs), agroforestry systems (carbon sequestration) and a rain forest model. THE UNIQUE 

NATURE OF THE BIOSPHERE 2 CENTER MAKES IT ESPECIALLY 

ATTRACTIVE FOR APPLIED RESEARCH AND ENGTNEERTNG EDUCATION 

COURSES AND PROGRAMS. How did Columbia University get involved in this new 

activity is a fascinating story - which will be outlined during the presentation. 

William C. Harris 

Columbia University 

Biosphere 2 Center 

32540 S. Biosphere Road 

Oracle, AZ 85623 

520-896-6453 

email:<wharris@bio2.edu> 

Leonard W. Fine 

Columbia University 

Department of Chemistry 

Havemeyer Hall MC 3 108 

New York, NY 10027 

2 121854-20 17 

email~fine@chem.columbia. edu> 

Morton B. Friedman 

Columbia University 

School of Engineering and Applied Science 

Office of the Dean, 5 10 Mudd 

New York, New York 10027 

2121854-2986 

email~friedman@columbia.edu~ 
introduction 

I DESERT 1 

I J 

Figure 1 : Locations of Biosphere 2 mesocosms. 

Biosphere 2 consists of medium scale synthetic communities of plants and soils encased in a glass and metal 

shell. It includes a rainforest, desert, savanna, marsh, ocean and a separate agro-forestry area (Figures 1, 2). The 

structure covers 1.27 hectares (3.15 acres) and can be operated in a variety of configurations including 

'flow-through' and 'closed system' modes. When operated as a 'closed system' the air leakage is estimated at a 

rate of 1.5% per day (as measured on 12-May-97). Operation as a 'flow-through' system means that the 

apparatus has external air flowing through it. In the wilderness area air can be brought into the desert and 

exhausted through the rainforest either with a TESCO fan (Figure 2) at a rate of up to 280 meters3/min (10,000 

feet3/min) or by passive air movement in and out of the apparatus. The enclosure contains approximately 170,000 

meters3 (6,000,000 feet3) of atmosphere, 1,500,000 liters (390,000 gallons) of freshwater, 3,800,000 liters 

(988,000 gallons) of saltwater, and 17,000 meters3 (600,000 feet3) of soil. 

Located at an elevation of 1,200 meters (3,960 feet) above sea level at 32.5 north latitude in southern Arizona, 

Biosphere 2 is subject to the light regimes of a temperate desert region. The glass and structure components of 

the Biosphere 2 act as a filter for incoming solar radiation. Virtually all UV radiation is absorbed, and 

photosynthetically-active radiation (PAR) is cut by about 55%. However, because of the low-latitude location of this 

facility mean daily par levels inside the agro-forestry of about 15 mol m-2 day-1 in the winter and 25 mol m-2 day-1 

in the summer are higher than typical greenhouse intensities and are acceptable for research purposes. The 

designers of Biosphere 2 used soils with high organic matter in the agro-forestry and the rainforest, resulting in a 

system that had experienced higher than ambient concentrations of carbon dioxide (C02). Heating, cooling, and 

electricity are supplied from an energy center external to the structure. Water is conserved inside Biosphere 2 

wilderness mesocosm (desert, marsh, savanna, and rainforest). The major internal water cycling components for 

the wilderness are condensation (mainly in cooling coils of airhandlers), artificial rain or irrigation (by sprinkler 

systems), evapotranspiration, and soil sub-drainage (Figure 3). The agro-forestry water cycle unlike the wilderness 

mesocosms uses a single-pass water system. 

The internal pressure is maintained close to external pressures by using two variable volume chambers, or 

'lungs,' to avoid pressure-induced damage to the glass structure. The lungs are used only when the structure is 

operated as a closed system. 

An array of sensors (CO, analyzers, temperature, relative humidity, and light) are housed inside the facility to 

monitor the atmospheric composition and climate. Mesocosm conditions are maintained to simulate the area they 

were modeled after and are tightly controlled (Figures 5, 7, 9-10). 

Biosphere 2 Center strives to check data quality however, the nature of equipment is such that faults may develop. 

If this occurs during non-working times this often results in deviations present in the data (Figures 5, 7, 9-1 0). 

Data acquisition and communication are fully automated. To allow maximum flexibility for research the Biosphere 

2 facility is currently divided into four independent areas: wilderness (desert, savanna, ocean), rainforest, 

agro-forestry, and human habitat (Table 1, Figure 2), the last being open for interpretive visitor experiences. 
j Volumes (air) I 

Areas I 

I Dimensions 

i Square i 

, Mesocosms ; Cubic Meters , I . Hectare / N-S (Meters) ! E-W (Meters) Height (Meters), 

hgro-forestry 1 35222* ' 2000 1 .022 i i 

41 54 24 

44 

i Rainforest f 26700" i 2000 i 0.19 1 44 28 

Savanna' 2500 I ! 

,Ocean i i i 30 27 0.26 : I 

!Desert 1 18WW 1 1400 0.14 37 I ! 37 23 i I 

Fable 1: Biosphere 2 facts. *(Silverstone and Nelson, 1995). "Derived from mass balance calculations after SF6 : ! injection. (Van Haren, pers. comm.) t 

Biosphere 2 and a group of external scientists have Seen conducting a facility assessment to quantify current 

capabilities. Suggested changes necessary to implement fully controlled scientific experiments have been made in 

the rainforest and agro-forestry regions. Recent modifications include the installation of a CO, control system to 

adjust internal C02 levels to programmed set points, air circulation fans to help reduce thermal stratification, 

continuous trace gas monitoring system, and movable partitions to isolate the rainforest and divide the 

agro-forestry into three separate sections. 

Figure 2: Airflow, trace gas sampling, C02 injection and partition placement with Biosphere 2 Center. 

The continuous trace gas monitoring system (Figure 2) consists of an air sampling system and a gas analysis 

system. Air pumps draw air at approximately five liters per minute from the rainforest, savanna, desert, and 

agricultural areas in Biosphere 2 and from one external location through 318 inch bonded tubing. Currently, the 

system is set up for analyses of methane (CH,) and nitrous oxide (N20) on a continuous basis and manual 

canister filling for other gas analyses (N2/02 ratio, stable isotope analyses, etc.). CH, and N20 are analyzed on a 

Gas Chromatograph using a FID (Flame Ionization Detector) and ECD (Electron Capture Detector) for CH, and 

N20, respectively. The gas sampling system allows future expansion of the analytical capabilities. We are 

developing a fully automated GC-IRMS (Gas Chromatograph - Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer) system that will 

analyze the stable carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen isotope compositions of CO, and N20 on a continuous basis. 

The system could also supply air samples for the analyses of other gases of interest; for example, isoprene, 
carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and terpenes. 

Lightweight curtains allow reversible closure of the rainforest and three agro-forestry sections (Figure 2). The 

curtains provide isolated 'system level' responses (e.g. net ecosystem carbon exchange, transpiration, trace g& 

production and isotope balances) to changing CO, and/or other climate factors, allowing comparisons between 

vegetation types under set experimental conditions. The isolated mesocosm acts essentially like a large static 

chamber in which fluxes of water, carbon and other compounds can be monitored precisely. The associated data 

are invaluable to validate models that scale up from leaf to canopy to ecosystem. The curtains also allow the 

Bio-Operations team better control of the environmental parameters necessary to maintain the biomes. When the 

rainforest curtain is sealed, the exchange of air occurs at a rate of approximately 1.4% per hour (as measured on 

24-NOV-97). 

These and future modifications will produce unique research opportunities to study 'system-level' responses to 

elevated CO, and climate changes. 

Figure 3: Biosphere 2 water cycle in terrestrial wilderness areas. 

I r Biosphere 2 Water cycle in terrestrial I Air handlers 

Sub-soil water 
IONIC BONDING, AN INTRODUCTION TO 

MATERIALS AND TO SPFEADSHEETS 

Mike L. Meier 

Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science 

University of California, Davis 

Davis, California 956 16 

Telephone: 9 16-752-5 166 

e-mail mlmeier@ucdavis.edu 

Ionic Bonding, An Introduction to 

Materials and to Spreadsheets 

Mike E. Meier 

Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science 

University of California, Davis 

Davis, CA 95616 

Keywords 

Ionic bonding, NaC1-type structure, halite, interatomic spacing, bulk modulus, shear modulus, 

Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio. 

Prerequisite Knowledge 

The student should be familiar with the basics of ionic bonding, including the attractive and 

repulsive energy terms, their relationship to interatomic forces, the relationships between bulk, shear 

and Young's elastic moduli and the effect of temperature on lattice energy. They should also be 

familiar with the basics of simple crystal structures, particularly the halite structure. 

0 bj ective 

In this experiment the energies and forces involved in ionic bonding plus selected physical properties 

will be computed. The energy-spacing and force-spacing results will be graphed and the calculated 

properties will be compared to the values available in the literature. All calculations plus the 

graphing will be done using a spreadsheet. This spreadsheet program will be constructed using a 

logical, progressive approach which allows one to carefully examine each aspect of the program as 

it is being built. This spreadsheet will also be somewhat generalized, allowing one to calculate the 

bonding energies and forces for a number of ionic substances. 

This exercise will involve first performing these calculations for KC1 and, when you are sure your 

program works correctly, repeating the calculations for at least one of the other compounds listed 

in tables 1 and 2. The results will be compared to those compiled in table 2. 

Equipment and Materials 

1. Personal computers, at least one for every two students, running a spreadsheet program such as 

Quattro Pro, Excel, etc., and a printer 

2. A quick-reference card covering basic spreadsheet commands and procedures (constants, 

formulas, formatting cells, copying cells, graphing, printing) 

3. A model of the halite structure 

Introduction 

A good place to start the study of engineering materials is with the nature of the energies and forces 

involved in the bonding between atoms in a crystalline lattice. When we do we find that there are 

four principle types of bonds: ioilic, metallic, covalent and Van der Wads. While bonding in most 

materials involves several of types of bonds it is still convenient to think of materials in terms of 
their dominant type of bonding. For example, ceramics, whose bonding is primarily ionic but may 

also have covalent traits; tend to be brittle, chemically inert, poor electrical conductors and may be 

optically transparent while metals, due to their primarily metallic bonding, are ductile, shiny and 

have high thermal and electrical conductivities. Certain covalently bonded materials are among the 

hardest (diamond) and have the highest melting points. The chemical bonds in the well known 

semiconductors silicon and germanium are almost purely covalent. 

Clearly when we know something about a material's 

bonding we are in a better position to predict and even 

control its structure and properties. Fortunately we can 

also make a number of generalizations regarding properties 

such as its melting point, stiffness and coefficient of 

thermal expansion even without having to consider the 

details of the band structure of inner and outer electron 

shells (the outer shells are most important in bonding and 

in the material's electrical properties). In fact, the methods 

of calculating these bonding energies and properties can be 

quite simple. 

Lattice Energies 

The chemical bonds in a crystal consists of two parts, an 

attractive component which acts over relatively large 

distances, and a repulsive component, which dominates at Figure 1. me formation of an ionic bond 

small interatomic spacings. For purely ionic bonds the between a sodium and chlorine atom [I]. 

energy of attraction is primarily due to the coulombic 

attraction between the outer shells of the oppositely charged ions. The equation for this energy is 

given by 

where M is the Madelung constant, r is the interatomic spacing, E, is the permittivity in free space, 

q is the elementary charge and z, and 2, are the valences of two ions. The energy of repulsion is due 

to the overlapping of the negatively charged electric fields of the inner shells and the positively 

charged nuclei. While the exact expression for this energy is difficult to derive a good 

approximation is given [2] by 

where b is the coordination number, h is the repulsive energy coefficient and p is the repulsive range . parameter. The total energy of the bond between the two ions is equal to the sum of the repulsive 
and attractive energies 

Figure 2. Energy per molecule in the KC1 crystal [2]. 

Figure 2 shows the individual and combined lattice energies of NaCl as a function of interatomic 

spacing. Note that at large spacings there is still a small energy of attraction which increases ever 

more rapidly as the ions are brought closer together. On the other hand, the energy of repulsion is 

negligible at large spacings but when the ions are brought close enough together this term increases 

very quickly and soon dominates. Adding these two terms produces a minimum in the total lattice 

energy curve which defines both the equilibrium bond energy and interatomic spacing. The lattice 

energy at this point is given by: 

where r, is the equilibrium spacing between nearest neighbor ions. A typical value for this 

equilibrium spacing is 0.3 nm and 6 eV is a typical value for the lattice energy. 
Mechanical (Elastic) Properties 

The forces that hold the lattice together are simply the first derivatives of lattice energies with respect 

to the interatomic spacing 

Written this way we can better understand, and predict, certain mechanical properties. These are the 

elastic properties, one of which is the bulk modulus 

The bulk modulus describes the elastic behavior of a material subjected to hydrostatic pressures and 

is related to the mechanical force required to change the volume per ion. It is also related to the 

material's shear modulus, its resistance to elastic deformation by shear forces, by the equation 

and to Young's modulus, the material's stiffness in uniaxial tension and compression, by 

where v is Poisson's ratio. The value of Poisson's ratio ranges from 0.1 for ceramics to 0.3 for 

metals. 

Thermal Properties 

Calculations of lattice energies and spacing and the corresponding experiments are often done for 

temperatures at absolute zero but they are also done for other temperatures. When we examine the 

results for the different temperatures we find that as the temperature increases the magnitude of the 

lattice energy decreases and the equilibrium spacing between ions increases. This increase in 

spacing is what is commonly called thermal expansion and is one manifestation of the energy 

required to change the volume per ion. The decrease in the lattice energy leads to an understanding 

of why materials become softer as they are heated. We also know from experience that if the 

temperature continues to increase the material will eventually reach a point where the bonds are is 

so weak tRat atoms can easily move to other lattice sites, the crystalline structure may break down, 

and the material either melts or vaporizes. The amount of thermal energy required to melt the 

material is also shown in figure 2. Once we locate this point on the graph we should be able to 
estimate the melting point. 

If the amount of thermal energy was equal to the energy of the bond the two atoms would separate 

completely. Merely melting the material, however, would require considerably less thermal energy. 

The energy level one must reach to cause melting is difficult to see in figure 2 but if we use the data 

to plot force versus distance one will find a maximum slightly to the right of the equilibrium spacing. 

This is an interesting point whose interpretation strongly suggests the material is in a fluid state. At 

this point a significant restoring force exists (the force is quite high) so the material is not yet a gas. 

But if an applied force equal to the maximum is removed it is just as likely that the atom would 

return to its original position as it is to move further away. If thermal energy alone had brought us 

close to this maximum then very little additional force would be required to move the atoms past the 

maximum, or back again, and if even more thermal energy was present then we would be to the right 

of the maximum where only a small restoring force is holding the atoms together. The material 

would be fluid. 

The maximum on the F-r curve corresponds to the inflection point on the E-r curve. Once this 

energy E, has been found one can then estimate the melting point of the material. The energy 

required to raise the temperature of the material to its melting point is given by 

where c is the material's heat capacity, which can be approximated as 3kB (kB is Boltzmann's 

constant), and n is the number of lattice sites in the unit cell. The melting point can now be 

estimated using the following equation 

where To is the temperature for which Eo was calculated. 

Procedure 

Start these computations by defining all terms, parameters and constants that are using in these 

equations and make sure the units of measure for each are consistent. Next, define the parameters 

for the particular material whose bonding behavior is being modelled. Once this has been done it will 

be possible to compute the attractive, repulsive and total lattice energies and then, taking the first 

derivative to be the central difference of these E-r data, one can compute the F-r curves. When this 

is done one will be able to extract several results, specifically: 

Interatomic Spacing Locating the minimum in the E-r data one can determine the interatomic 

(interionic) spacing. 
Bond Strength The minimum onthe E-r curve gives the strength of the bonds in the lattice. 

Elastic Moduli The bulk modulus (compressibility) can be computed using equation 8. 

Provide your own estimate of Poisson's ratio and compute the tensile and 

shear moduli. 

Melting Point Determine the amount of thermal energy required to reach melting point and 

then estimate the melting temperature. 

After successfully completing these calculations for potassium chloride repeat them for other 

materials listed in table 2. 

The remainder of this procedure will guide a person new to spreadsheets through the process of 

building an organized, readable, reusable spreadsheet, one that can be used to model the bonding 

behavior of all of the ionic materials listed in table 2. Immediately following table 2 is a printout 

of the interesting part of a spreadsheet like the one you will be making. 

Necessary Preparations 

1. Go to the various reference books and look up the interatomic spacing, lattice energy, melting 

point, bulk modulus and Young's modulus for a number of inorganic compounds. Your 

objective here is to find the typical range of values for these properties. 

2. Obtain the relevant data for the specific material for which you will be calculating the bonding 

energies. 

3. Sketch the unit cell for this material. Label the positions of each ion and determine the spacing 

between nearest neighbor atoms. 

4. Decide on which units you will be using and obtain the necessary conversion factors. 

5. The calculations you will be doing may produce divide-by-zero errors or, if you attempt to divide 

a very large number by a very small number, you may get an overflow error. Which equations 

are most likely to produce these errors and how do you plan to deal with these situations? 

6. The numerical method you will be using to calculate the lattice energies and their derivatives 

involves an approximation of a curve with a series straight line segments. Comment on the 

errors you will be introducing into these calculations and how you plan to minimize their effects 

in your results. 

General Layout of the Spreadsheet 

The process of building this spreadsheet involved four basic steps. They are: 

1. Put All Constants and Parameters in a Se~arate Block of Cells 

As a general rule it is best to define all constants and parameters used by the equations in a separate 

block of cells. This makes it easier to debug the program, to change the units used and to experiment 
with the equations. It also makes constructing the spreadsheet simpler since it is easier to reference 

a particular cell than it is to memorize a p&eter9s value and enter it into each equation. Besides, 

later you may want to replace a particular parameter with an equation, for instance, replacing a fixed 

value with an equation to this parameter a temperature-dependent variable. 

2. Enter the Eauations for Lattice Energies and Forces in Columns 

The main part of the spreadsheet will be a series of columns containing the values and equations for 

the interatomic spacing, the energy of attraction, the energy of repulsion and the total lattice energy. 

One could put all this into one large equation for the energy of the lattice but long equations are 

difficult to enter and even more difficult to debug. It is best to keep all equations to a reasonable 

length. 

3. Analyze the Results 

Create a table where you list the reference values of the interatomic spacing, lattice energy, moduli, 

etc. and where you calculate these properties based on the E-r and F-r data. This is also a good place 

to show the differences in the two sets of numbers. 

4. Define the Graphs 

The graphs will be standard x-y graphs with interatomic spacing as the x axes and the lattice energies 

and forces plotted along the y axes. The line colors and styles and the legend will be used to identify 

the attractive, repulsive and total energies and forces. 

Construct the Spreadsheet 

1. Create the Header 

Start by entering the basic details about this spreadsheet, such as the file name, title, owner, and the 

dates it was created and last revised, at the top. Next, enter a brief description of the purpose or 

function of this spreadsheet plus any literature citations that might be important. This header can 

be very useful when sharing the spreadsheet with others or when referring to it in the future. 

2. Define the Physical Constants. Conversion Factors and Parameters for the Euuations for Bonding 

Energies and Forces 

Enter the values for every parameter used by all equations in cells just below the spreadsheet's 

header. Include their names and the units you are using. If the original units are not those you will 

be using in the equations then include a cell with the value of this parameter given in the correct 

units. Your equations will then reference these cells, saving you the trouble of including the units 

conversion factors in the equations. 

3. Define the Parameters for the Material 

Use a block of cells to define all details about the material that the lattice energy and force equations 

will require. You might also want to include additional information such as the mineral name, 

lattice-type and references to your sources of information. 

4. Define the Values for the Interatomic Spacing 

The first column in your spreadsheet will contain the values for the interionic spacing which the 

equations for lattice energy and force will use. The equation which generates these values will 
require only an initial value and an increment. Both of these parameters should be located in the 

parameter section of your spreadsheet. This approach will allow you to easily adjust the value of the 

increment to change the range and resolution of interionic spacing and to adjust the initial value to 

shift the curves to the left and right on the graphs. This can be useful when fine tuning the 

spreadsheet to obtain the best estimate of the energy minimum. 

At the top of the first column you will reference the cell containing the initial value of the interionic 

spacing. In the next cell you will add the predefined increment to the value in the first cell. Finally, 

you will replicate this second cell, say 300 times, to generate a column containing all of the values 

for the interionc spacing. 

5. Calculate the Attractive. Repulsive and Total Lattice Ener!$es and Forces 

In the adjacent columns enter the equations for the attractive and repulsive energies. Enter them at 

the top of the columns and then replicate them so that these two columns are as long this the first 

column. Add these two columns together in column 4 to obtain the total lattice energy. Next, add 

three more columns containing the calculated coulombic, repulsive and total lattice forces. The 

equations for these columns will be simply the slopes (first derivative) of the corresponding bond 

energy values. Finally, add one last column which will contain the dF/dr data, calculated from the 

slope of the F-r curve. 

6. Create the Results Section 

Construct a table-style summary of the reference and calculated properties. If this is done well it will . make debugging, using and improving the accuracy of your spreadsheet much easier. 

7. Annotate the S~readsheet 

Label each column, parameter, physical constant and result in the spreadsheet. Don't forget to 

include the units, to center the text, etc. 

8. Construct the Graphs 

Construct xy graphs for both the E-r and F-r results. In this spreadsheet column 1 contains the 

values for the x axis for both graphs, columns 2 though 4 contain the values for the first 3 series of 

the y axis in the E-r graph and columns 5 through 6 contain the values for the data for the y axis on 

the F-r graph. Label the axes appropriately and include a legend. Insert the graph into the 

spreadsheet, above the columns and to the right of the parameters. Optionally, save these graphs as 

TlFF or JPEG files so that you can insert them into your report or you can copy them to the clipboard 

then paste them directly into your laboratory report. 

9. Add Data Svrnbols and Labels 

Enter the values of the energy minimum and the force maximum in column 9 and in the same row 

the values are found in columns 4 and 7. Add this column to your graph but specify plotting symbols 

without lines. 

Enter text into column 9 and in the same row as the energy minimum and the force maximum. Make 

this column the data label column for the total lattice energy and total force data. This text will be 

displayed on the graph next to the symbols. 
10. Print the Spreadsheet 

Print each graph separately and then priG the top portion of the spreadsheet which includes the 

parameters, results, the first dozen or so values in the columns and possibly the inserted graphs. This 

can be placed in the appendix to show the reader how you set up and solved this problem using a 

spreadsheet. 

Analyzing the Results of these Calculations 

You might want to start with a brief description of the curves you calculated, noting the similarities 

and differences to those shown in figure 2 and the correspondence of key features in your E-r and 

F-r curves. Next, you will probably want to compare your results with those measured and 

calculated by others. In general, the differences between measured and calculated values of the 

lattice energy are usually around 1% or 2%. Some of the other results will be within these limits 

while others will not. Can you account for this and can you think of ways to improve on these 

results? 

Optionally, plot dF/dr versus r for values of r within a few percent of the equilibrium spacing. Is 

the line straight? What does this say about the elastic moduli? Refer to these results again when you 

do the tensile tests in another experiment. 

Discussion of the Results 

The reader would probably like for you to start your discussion by confirming that your results are 

consistent with the description of ionic bonding given above. I€ everything looks OK up to this point 

you might want to comment on the possibility of using your spreadsheet to model the bonding and 

properties of the other materials listed in table 2. You might even want to take this to the next level 

and show that the equations you have used, the results of your calculations and the data in table 2 

prove that there is a well-defined relationship between the nature of the chemical bond and certain 

physical properties. You might even think of other properties which one might be able to calculate 

using your spreadsheet. Finally, would it be possible to modify this spreadsheet to model other types 

of bonding? 

Conclusions 

If all has gone well your results will be very close to those measured and calculated by others. 

Looking back on this experiment you may also find that this exercise has provided you with both a 

valuable new set of skills which you can use to solve other engineering problems and also a good 

lesson on the fundamental aspects of chemical bonding which will help you understand something 

about the nature of all materials and the origins of many of their properties. 

Comments 

The author has used this experiment for several years in an introductory materials science course. 

It is the first of four experiments and as such is both a good introduction to materials science and an 

introduction to modeling using spreadsheets. As an introduction to spreadsheets this experiment has 

become a valuable asset in our laboratory teaching program. Without requiring it, the students use 

these new skills in the other three experiments, for example, compiling data from group experiments 

or importing data from a tensile test to analyze the mechanical properties and plot the stress strain 

curve. It is also our most successful experiment in terms of the quality and completeness of the 
results the students obtain and in the amognt of out-of-class time they devote to this experiment. We 

believe that the sense of ownership of their work, the creative outlet this experiment provides, the 

fun of makinglbuilding something, and addictive quality of programming are what has made this 

experiment work. 

References 

1. J.F.Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers, 4" edition, Prentice Hall, New 

Jersey, pp. 26-36, (1996). 

2. C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Phvsics, 7" edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 

pp.66-73, (1996). 

3. 1, R.Weast, ed., 65" edition, CRC Press, Inc, Boca Raton, 

EL, pp. F190-F191, (1984). 

4. J.Shermon, Chemical Reviews, vol. 11, pp.93-170, (1932). 

5. H.H.Sisler, Electronic Structure. Proverties and the Periodic Law, 2nd edition, D.Van Nostrand, 

New York, pp.65-69, (1973). 

6. G.Simmons and H.Wang, Single Crystal Elastic Constants and Calculated Agme~ate Proverties, 

A Handbook, 2nd edition, The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, (1971). 

7. 0.H.Wyatt and D.Dew-Hughes, Metals. Ceramics and Polvmers, Cambridge University Press, 

pp.67-69, (1974). 

8. L.Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3d edition, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 

pp. 505-510, (1960). 

9. C.Giacovazzo, H.L.Monaco, D.Viterbo, F.Scordari, G.Gilli, G.Zanotti, M.Catti, Fundamentals 

of Crvstallog.ra~hv, International Union of Crystallography, Oxford University Press, pp.410- 

413, (1992). 

10. ICDD-JCPDS Powder Diffraction Database, Sets 1-46, (1 997). 

Biographical Information 

Michael E. Meier received his B.S. in Materials Engineering from North Carolina State University 

in 1979 and his M.S. (1986) and Ph.D. (1991) in Materials Science and Engineering from the 

University of California, Davis. After a two-year post-doctorate position at the Universitat ErlangenNiirnberg in Erlangen, Germany he returned to UC Davis where he is the director of Materials 

Science Central Facilities and teaches many of the laboratory courses. 
Physical Constants 

Avogadro' s Number NA 6.022045~10~ mol-' 

Boltzmann's Constant k, 1.380662~ 1 o-~~ J K-I 

Elementary Charge 4 1.6021 892x10-l9 C 

Permittivity of Free Space E, 8.85418782~18~~ C2 N1 m-2 or C2 J-I m-I 

Conversion Factors 

1 eV 1.6021917~10‘~~ J 

1 MPa 145 psi 

1 calorie 4.184 J 

Distance Between Any Two Points 

The following equation gives the distance between point 1 and point 2 where their coordinates x,y,z 

are defined for any of the seven crystal systems where a, b and c and a, $ and y have their usual 

meanings. 

2 

dl2 = -x212a + CYl -yJ2b + (zI - z212c + 2(xl -x2)(yI -y2) ab cosy + (11) 
Corundum Rhombohedral ad.47587, e1.29929 4.171900 

Fluorite Cubic ad.546305 23650 

(3320 Cuprite Cubic ad.42696 2.221240 

KBr NaCl-type ad.66005 1.747565 

KCl Sylvite NaC1-tvoe d.62917 1.747565 

LiI NaC1-type ad.600 1.747565 

Sellaite Tetragonal ad.462OO,c=O.30509 2.3810 

Periclase NaC1-type ad.42112 1.747565 

I I I I 

NaCl Halite NaC1-type ad.56402 1.747565 

NaF Viaumite NaC1-type ad.463329 1.747565 

NaI NaC1-type a4.6473 1.747565 

Ti02 Rutile Tetragonal a=0.45933,~=0.29592 2.248037 

Ti4 Anatase Tetragonal ad.37852, d.95139 2.400000 

H ZnO Zincite Hexagonal ad.324982, F0.520661 1.4985 , I 

ZnS Sphalrelite (Zinc Blend) FCC ad.54060 1.638060 I I 

1 ZnS I Wurtzite I Hexagonal 1 ad.382098, d.62573 1 1.641320 

Results 

Propem Reference Calculated Units Calculated Units Diiemnce Note 

Cell Containing E min: [F:Wational Educatofs WwkshopsWRN-Update 99Uonic Bonding.WB3]WkD17Uses the Quatlm Pro @MinLwkup function on column D 

ell Containing F max: 1F:Wational Educatofs WorkshopsWRN-Update 99Uonic Bonding.WB31KiUeI:G2Wses the Qualm Pro @MaxLookup function on column G 

Equilibrium Spacing: 0.314655 0.314395 nm 3.14395 Angstroms -0.08% Ionic spacing at the minimum for column D 

Energy Minimum: -7.190 -7.176 eV 492.3 kllmole -0.20% Minimum, column D 

Total Lattice Energy: -7.190 -7.175 eV 492.2 kJ/mde -0.21% Equation 4 

Fom at Emin: nla 2.607E-14 N Minimum, column G, absolute value 

dF1dSat F=O: da 99.299 Nlm - dFldr at E min 

BulkMOdUlUs: 17.40 17.55 GPa 2.54 1.36 psi 0.84% Equation 6 

Poisson's Ratio: 0.249 0.215 (Adjusl Poisson's ratio to get the wmd value for the shear modulus.) Shear Modulus: 10.50 10.49 GPa 1.52 106 psi -0.08% Equation 7 

Young's Modulus: 26.20 25.49 GPa 3.70 le6 psi -2.70% Equation 8 

MaxhwmForce: wa 2.252E-09 N - ~aximurn.column~ 

Energyat F max: wa 4.415 eV - Energy at maximum for column G 

della E: wa 0.760 eV 73.4 kJ/mole - Melting Point: 1043.0 1033.4 K 760.4 C 4.92% Equation 10 

Fik: lonic Bonding.WB3 

Owner: Mike Meier 

Creatad: June 19.1997 

Revised: June 15.1999 

Description: Calculation of ionic bonding energies, foms and related properties for materials with the NaCCtype slruclure. 

Conversion Factors From To Value Units 

JOUW eV 6.242€+16 eVlJ 

Coulombs eVs 6.2421+18 eVslC 

GPa ksi 145 ksiiGPa 

Calories Joules 4.184 Jlcal 

Physical Constants 

Avogadm's Number 6.022E+23 permole 

Bclmnn's Constant: 1.381E-23 J/K 8.618E-05 eVlK 

Proton Charge: 1.602E-19 C 

Velocity of Light 2.948E+08 mls Pennillinty: 6.854E-12 CZINm2 

Enviromental Parameters 

Temperature: 298 K 

Pressure: 1 atmospheres 

Material 

Substance: KC1 

Mineral Name: Sylvite 

Melting Point: 1M3 K 

Cryrlal Lanice: NaCl type 

Lallice CCnStanlJ: 0.629310 0.629310 0.629310 a.b.c in nm 

LallicsAngles: 90.000 90.000 90.W degrees 

Equivalent Sites: 4 

Reference Ion: 0 0 0 U.V.W 

Nearenlon: 0 0 m U.V.W 

Type Number Valence CN 

Cation: K+ 1. 1 6 

Anion: CC 1 1 6 

Interionic Spacing (independent variable) Initial Value: 0.061895 nm 

Increment: 0.002500 nm 

Repulsive Energy 

Energy Parameter: 2132.5 eV 

Range Parameter 0.032600 nm 

Coulombic Attraction 

Madelung Constant 1.747565 

1s 

12 - Y Rrplhii 

..-. 6 Aw.&"c 

>. - $0 TW 

i .3

4 

Y 

-12 

-15 

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 

Inmimiis Spoinp. m 

3,0Em 

- 2.OEuY ~*lbi~~ 

..-. 

1.0~49 Wvlir. 

- 

: 00, T-I 

i ' 

-1.OEU9 

-~.OE.(~J 

-3.OEd9 

0.0 0.1 0.2 -0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Interionis Swing. m 
TABLETOP EXPERIMENTS FOR MATERIAL 

PROPERTIES DETERMINATION 

R. E. Smelser 

E. M. Odom 

S. W. Beyerlein 

Mechanical Engineering Department 

University of Idaho 

Moscow, Idaho 83844-0902 

Telephone: 208-885-4049 

e-mail rsmelser@uidaho.edu 

eodom@uidaho.edu 

TABLETOP EXPERIMENTS FOR ~TERIAL PROPERTIES 

R. E. Smelser, E. M. Odom, and S. W. Beyerlein 

Mechanical Engineering Department 

University of Idaho 

Moscow, ID 83 844-0902 

Key Words: Elastic Modulus, Shear Modulus, Poisson's Ratio, Stress-Strain Curves 

Prerequisite Knowledge: A knowledge of statics and a curiosity to understand how materials 

respond when subjected to various loadings. 

Objectives: The determination of mechanical properties of materials can be a dull and sterile 

activity. Specimens are instrumented and loaded into testing machines. Machine parameters are 

set, buttons are pushed, and data are recorded. The data are subsequently analyzed and material 

properties are determined. This process removes the student from interaction with the material 

and a connection to the equipment. To increase student involvement and engage the student in 

the laboratory experience, we have designed a series of tabletop experiments to determine the 

elastic modulus, the shear modulus, Poisson's ratio, and the plastic response of engineering 

materials. 

These experiments are part of the introductory course in the laboratory sequence in the 

Mechanical Engineering Department at the University of Idaho. The experiments are designed 

to introduce the student to the fundamental behavior of materials and structures through 

experiential learning. The experiments are also designed to help the student bridge the gap 

between the materials science courses and mechanics of materials courses. The laboratories also 

move the student from the prescribed experiments found in chemistry and physics courses to 

defining the experimental procedures that will be required in an engineering environment. 

Equipment and Materials: The equipment used for these laboratories is a unique feature of the 

laboratory experience. Each of the experimental devices is simple, self-contained, portable, and 

of professional quality. Students design and construct the devices in the capstone design 

sequence under the mentoring of graduate assistants from the Idaho Engineering Works (IEW). 

The IEW is a program designed to foster leadership in engineering through an atmosphere of 

individual ownership and valuing of the person [Odom et al., 19991. 

The tensile response of materials is determined by using a variant of the experiments that 

Robert Hooke employed to establish the elastic modulus [Timoshenko, 19531. Figure 1 (a) shows 

the device. A tabletop electromechanical load frame is used to determine the plastic properties 

of materials. Figure l(b) shows a prototype of the tensile load frame. The load frame allows the 

students to feel the plastic response of a material as the deformation occurs under their control. 

The current load frame records the data from the experiment. The data can subsequently be 

downloaded to a personal computer for data analysis. A miniature R. R. Mohr device is 

currently under design and construction to allow the determination of the fatigue properties of 

metals. 
(a) @I 

Figure 1. Experimental alpparatus for tensile deformation (a) and stress-strain response (b). 

(a) @) 

Figure 2. Experimental alpparatus for fow point bending (a) and torsional response @). 

The elastic material propedies are accurately determined from a four-point bend 

experiment and a simple torsion experiment, Figwe 2. An optical system incorporating a lowpower laser ad a reflecting allows the accurate determination of the specimen 

deflections. Several loads are applied to the system. This produces a series of data as a hction 

of load. Elementary laws of optics and mechanics of maeerials formulae allow the d 

of the elastic properties fi-om this data. %he computed elastic properties are typically within five 

per-cent of the accepted handbook due. The authors are exploring ways to make the designs 

for this equipment available for others. 
Axial Loading - Tensile Tests 

Introduction 

In a standard tensile test, a uniaxial, increasing monotonic load is applied to a specimen until 

failure. Prior to specimen testing, the cross-sectional dimensions and the gage length of the 

specimen are measured. During the test, two transducers, a load cell and an extensometer, measure 

the load applied to the specimen and the elongation of the gauge length, respectively. A loadelongation plot is generated as the test progresses fiom these transducer signals. More commonly, 

the data are stored in a computer for subsequent analysis. Some tensile tests are performed for 

strength determination only. In this case, only the maximum load prior to failure is required. Other 

tensile tests are performed to obtain strength, Young's modulus (the slope of the linear portion of 

the stress-strain curve), and percent elongation at failure. 

Stress-strain data are typically generated fiom the load-elongation data by using the 

following equations: 

where ais the tensile stress, P is the applied load, Ai is the initial cross-sectional area, E is the strain, 

Sis the change in length, and Li and Lf are the initial and final specimen gage lengths. 

Objectives 

The objectives of this experiment are: 

a) To observe and measure the axial loading response of various engineering materials. 

b) To determine the desired material properties for the given materials. 

c) To develop a general understanding of the behavior of various engineering materials. 

Laboratory Equipment 

1 .) UI electromechanical test frame 

2.) Hanging scales/hanging apparatus 

3 .) UI Wire tension apparatus 

Procedure 

Conduct various axial tension tests, one each for the nickel-chromium wire, the aluminum, 

brass or steel tensile specimens, and a rubberband. This means that you will need to observe the 

applied load for all cases and the change in length of the gage section (elongation). For the 

aluminum, brass or steel specimens, you will obtain digital output of the load vs. elongation from 

the UI electromechanical test he. Your Lab Assistant will instruct you in the proper 

experimental procedure for these experiments. Before taking data, you should inspect and 

understand how the apparatus that you are going to use works. A brief explanation of each device is 

expected in your report. Some tablesfneeded information are provided as a guide to aid you in the 

data that you need to collect. 

Laboratory Write-up 

Your laboratory write-up should include all the sections outlined in the Laboratory Report 

requirements. Tables, graphs, answers to questions, and conclusions will be evaluated quite 
thoroughly. A graph of the data observed and a sample calculation of the results for each material is 

required. A regression fit of the data where appropriate is also appropriate. 

Questions/Exercise 

Perform a regression fit of the stress-strain data that you collected for the two different 

gauge lengths to find Young's modulus for the Ni-Cr wire. How do your "two" fits compare? 

After you plot the stress-strain curve for rubber, can you calculate Young's modulus for this 

material? If not why not? Can you explain how the behavior of the rubberband is similar to the 

"balloon7' behavior in your PC exercise? While you are on the computer making graphs, graph the 

stress-strain responses for rubber and the nickel-chromium wire on the same graph. Include this 

plot if you feel it is relevant. If you do not feel that it is relevant, do not include the graph but 

explain why it was not included. 

For the tensile specimens (aluminum, steel and brass) that were pulled apart, 

1. Calculate the percent elongation (% elong) at failure of the smooth part of the gage section, 

2. Calculate the percent reduction in area (% red area) at failure of the gage section, 

3. Reflect on the difference of the values above for the two materials, and what these values 

conceptually mean. 

4. How is &, from your tensile information different from your percent elongation at failure? 

What is that difference (calculation)? 

5. What can be said about the "stifhess" of the metal specimen tested? How about strength? 

6. Can you determine when the two metals tested began to yield? Estimate the yield strength of 

each material if you can. 

7. What happened to the cross section of the specimens once the maximum strength (stress) was 

applied to the specimens? 

8. Include a plot of the curves generated from the metal specimens and label the axes 

appropriately. Identify the point where the maximum stress was observed and where the 

specimen failed. If energy is measured as area under the curve (remember Experiment I), 

which specimen had more stored energy? 

Comment on the accuracy and adequacy of each apparatus used. What could be done to 

improve the accuracy of each portion of the experiment? 

Data Tables 

Load Versus Change in Length Data (Rubberband) 

LinitialZ in (width = in, thickness = in) 

P 

(lb-1 

Limmmw 

(in) 

6 

( in > 

P 

(lb-1 

Lamu 

(in> 

S 

(in) 
Load Versus Change in Len& Data (Nickel-Chromium Wire) 1 

I Force on wire = 2.5 x force due to weight of water I 

Comments: 

1. Example data is provided in the data table for the Ni-Cr wire experiment. This data is plotted 

in Figure 3. 

2. The Ni-Cr wire experiment reinforces the ideas learned fiom statics that the load and hence 

the stress in the wire is the same for all locations. 

3. The apparatus allows the deformation to be measured with an eyepiece micrometer at two 

locations. The reduction of the resulting data demonstrates that the strain at these locations is 

the same. 

4. The question concerning the plotting of results for the rubberband and metals on a single 

graph requires the student to think about what is being plotted. The rubberand has a large 

strain but a small stress. The metals have small strains but substantial stresses. These two 

behaviors are incompatible on a single plot. 

5. The data acquisition for the rubberband requires the students to consider the fiee body 

diagram of the loading devices. The total force is measured but is divided over two strands 

of the rubberband. Care must be used to assure that the appropriate forces and areas are used 

to compute the stresses. 

6. Data are graphically displayed for the tensile tests conducted on the metal specimens. The 

data table has also been filled in for the tests. 

Position #l kal= 14.125 in 

Tensile Information 

Wire diameter = 0.006 in 

Position #2 Ltia = 29.5625 in 

Water (ml) 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

- Steel Specimen 

6 

(in) 

0.0 

0.0053 

0.0098 

0.01 33 

0.01 83 

0.0250 

0.0279 

micrometer 

reading (in) 

0.3075 

0.31 10 

0.3 135 

0.3 157 

0.3 172 

0.3207 

0.3221 

of 

water (*) 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

d. .. = lnlclal 

Linitial = 

pmax = 

(from UI Load Frame) 

- Brass Specimen 

6 

(in) 

0.0 

0.0035 

0.006 

0.0082 

0.0097 

0.0132 

0.0146 

micrometer 

reading (in) 

0.1952 

0.2005 

0.2050 

0.2085 

0.2135 

0.2202 

0.223 1 

dfind = 

Lfind = 

&ax = (fiom UI Load Frame) 

d. . . ~n~tlal -‘ 

Linitid = 

Pmax = 

(fiom UI Load Frame) 

dfinal = 

Lfind = 

6max = (fiom UI Load Frame) 
7. The questions relating to these tests are to encourage the student to reflect on what the data is 

showing about the behavior of the materials and to make connections to descriptions in the 

course text [Gordon, 19781. 

8. Figure 4 shows plots of typical load - elongation responses obtained from the UI electromechanical test frame. 

Stress vs. Strain Ni-Cr Wire 

- - - - E=24.4~10% 

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 

Strain (Pct) 

Figure 3. Stress-strain curve for the Ni-Cr wire using the UI wire tension apparatus. 

Load vs. Elongation 

3000 

2500 

2000 

s 

1500 

+ Steel 

o A Brass 

S 1000 

500 

0 

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 

Elongation (in) 

Figure 4. Load Elongation data for the steel and brass specimens. 
Beam Deflections and Material Properties 

Introduction 

Probably the most common type of struciual member is the beam. A beam may be defined 

as a member whose length is relatively large in comparison with its thickness and depth, and it is 

loaded with transverse loads that produce significant bending effects as opposed to twisting or axial 

effects (Remember the Axial Load Experiment?). Whenever a real beam is loaded in any manner, 

the beam will deform such that an initially straight beam will assume some deformed shape. 

Remember that in statics we assumed a beam was rigid. This is not actually the case. In Mechanics 

of Materials, many relationships for beams will be developed. We will explore several of them in 

this laboratory. The first is: 

where p is the radius of curvature of the deflected beam at the point of interest. In addition, fiom 

your statics background, M is the internal bending moment, E is Young's modulus, and I is the 

moment of inertia of the cross sectional area of the beam about the neutral axis perpendicular to the 

direction of the applied load on the beam. The moment of inertia I is given by the expression 

below: 

where b is the width of the beam and h is the height or thickness of the beam. 

Objectives 

The objectives of this experiment are: 

a) To explore beam deflections that result fiom externally applied loads. To accomplish this, we 

will measure the Young's modulus of aluminum, brass, and steel. 

b) To experimentally measure beam deflections and compare them to analytical predictions. 

Procedure 

This experiment involves using a simply supported beam loaded as shown in the next figure. 

This beam is loaded in such a manner that the radius of cuwature, p, is constant between the two 

supports. A mirror mounted to the beam changes angle as the beam is loaded. By reflecting a laser 

beam off of the mirror and measuring the change in height of where the beam strikes a vertical 
plane, we can determine the radius of cqrvature (p). Knowing the moment (M) and the moment of 

inertia (0 we can perform a calculation to find Young's Modulus (E). 

Part A (Determining Young's Modulus) 

The following information should help you in understanh the fundamentals of beam 

deflection and should also allow you to make the proper calculations to determine Young's 

Modulus for the various beam materials. 

For the above loading condition on the beam, the moment, M, is determined to be: 

M=Pa 

From the following figure two more relationships can be found as shown below: 

eld = 28 p 8 = cI2 

If the last two relationships are combined, the result is: 

Putting all these relationships into the radius of curvature relationship leads to the following: 

This can be rearranged to give the following: 
The expression has the form of a straight line, y = m+b where y = P and x = e. In Part A, you will 

apply a load P and measure an elevation 6. You then will do a regression fit to find the slope m 

fkom which you can calculate Young's Modulus E. The data that you will need to take is to be 

found in the Data Sheets. 

Part B (Comparison of Values) 

In this part of the experiment, you will take measurements of beam deflections and compare 

them to an analytical prediction. The following equation applies to a cantilever beam as shown in 

the next figure. 

where (v) is the vertical deflection of the beam at any point along the length of the beam (x) The 

Laboratory Assistant will demonstrate the experimental apparatus. See the Data Sheets for the data 

that needs to be taken. 

Part C (Deviation of Curvature Equation) 

One of the main assumptions related to beam deflections is that the deflections are small. 

From this comes the simplification that when 8 is small, cose k: 1. However, when beams are 

exposed to large deflections, this assumption breaks down. This part of the laboratory addresses the 

breakdown of the moment-cwature equation presented in Part A. For the cantilever beam similar 

to Part B, the deflection equation for the "end" of the beam is 

Now apply loads in increments of 10 grams up to 100 grams and measure the deflections. See the 

Data Sheets for the required data. 

Laboratory Write-up 

Follow the laboratory report instructions previously provided. For Part A, do the values for 

Young's modulus compare well with the values provided in Gordon El9781 on page 54? Also find 

two other sources for Young's modulus. Are the various sources consistent? How well should 

they compare? You measured a, c, d, b, h, e, P during this experiment. An error in which of these 

would cause the most error in the resulting calculation of Young's Modulus? Why? Draw the 
general profile of the "Shear and Moment Diagram" for the loading conditions of Part A. Explain 

why the radius of curvature is constant o;er the range of "c" fiom the first figure in this laboratory. 

For Part B, prepare a plot of P (x-axis) versus v (y-axis) with the analytical expression 

indicated as a solid line and the experimental data as points. How well do the two compare? What 

is your definition of well in this case? 

For Part C, prepare a plot of P versus v with the analytical expression indicated as a solid 

line and the experimental data as points. How well do the two compare? At what load does it 

appear that the experimental results start to diverge fiom the analytical expression? If the equation 

for the slope of the beam at the point of loading is 13 = PL~I~EI, what is the angle Bat the maximum 

load applied? What is value of 0 where the analytical and experimental results diverge? What is 

the value of cos 8 at the angle you chose? Is it close to l? Also, in looking at the deflection of the 

beam at the higher loads, what geometrical changes are occurring to the loading configuration that 

could influence the deflection results? 

Data Sheets 

Part A: 

Data you will need before beginning the experiment is as follows: 

Distance fiom target to mirror (6)= 1 18.625 in 

Distance between supports (c)= 9 in 

Distance fiom load to support (a)= 3.5 in 

Width of beam (b)= 0.501 in 

Height of beam (h)=: 0.252 Al. 0.254 Steel. 0.253 Brass (in) 

Initial height mark of laser = 0 in 

Young's Modulus for al-um is 10.3 x lo6 lblin2 

Young's Modulus for brass is 15.4 x lo6 1blin2 . 

Young's Modulus for steel is 30.0 x lo6 lb/in2 

Young's Modulus for stainless steel is 27.8 x lo6 psi 

The following table may be useful for taking data. 

Load P Versus Elevation e 

Aluminum 

Load 

(lb) 

0.5 

1.5 

3.5 

2.5 

4.5 

Elevation 

(in) 

0.248 

0.804 

1.881 

1.358 

2.435 

Steel 

Load 

(lb) 

1 .O 

3.0 

5.0 

7.0 

4.5 

Brass 

Elevation 

(in) 

0.183 

0.561 

0.953 

1.354 

0.805 

Load 

(lb) 

4.5 

3.5 

2.5 

1.5 

0.5 

Elevation 

(in) 

1.890 

1.478 

1.054 

0.622 

0.201 
Part B: 

Before starting this experiment you need to measure the following quantities: 

The beam width (b) = 

The beam height (h) = 

The beam length (L+h) = 

The distance (x+h) to where 

you are measuring the deflection = 

The initial micrometer reading (Dbihz) = 

The following table may be useful for data collection. 

Part C: 

Load P versus Deflection (v) 

Before starting this experiment you need to measure the following quantities: 

The beam width (b) = 1.244 in 

The beam height (h) = 0.030 in 

The beam length (L+h) = 8 in 

The initial deflection of the beam due to its own weight (vinitiaI) = 0.140 in 

The following table may be useful for data collection. 

Load 

(lb) 

Comments: 

1. The data tables have been completed for the determination of the modulus. The data are 

plotted in Figure 5. The regression of the data is shown, and the resulting moduli are as 

follows: 

EAl = 10.3 x lo6 lb/in2 

Esteel = 28.0 x lo6 lb/in2 

EBms = 13.1 x lo6 lb/in2 

2. The modulus of brass is highly composition dependent. The student learns this from the 

exploration of the literature to find handbook values for this quantity. 

Load 

(lb) 

Load 

(Barns) 

10 

20 

3 0 

40 

50 

D! 

(in) 

Dm1 

(in) 

* 

v 

(in) 

* 

v 

(in) 

Deflection 

(in) 

0.416 

0.464 

0.508 

0.559 

0.602 

Deflection 

(in) 

0.192 

0.246 

0.277 

0.321 

0.369 

Load 

(~s) 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 
3. The data is randomly collected to avoid systemic errors that may occur in data collection. 

4. In Part B, the length of the beam is Specified as L+h. This is an empirical relationship. The 

relationship evokes student questions and facilitates a discussion of actual constraints in 

experimental development versus idealized constraints in models. 

5. The large deflection of the cantilever beam is included to demonstrate the limitations of 

theories for beam deflection. The data table has been completed for this experiment and the 

graph of the data is shown in Figure 6. 

6. The plot in Figure 6 forces students to recognize the mixed units in the plot. It also causes 

them to think about when a plot begins to deviate fiom the expected relationship and how to 

they might quantify such a deviation. 

7. The class discussion that follows the laboratory explores the reasons why the linear theory 

does not fit the data. The students are shown the analytical result of Bisshopp and Drucker 

119451 for this problem. 

Load vs. Elevation 

, Aluminum / 

-----m=5.126 

-m=1.834 

0 1 2 

Elevation (in) 

Figure 5. Plot of load vs. elevation for a beam in bending. The slope m is the elastic modulus 

Load vs. Deflection 

120 

100 

.;;j 80 Y 

60 0 

3 40 

20 

0 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 

Deflection (in) 

Figure 6. Plot of load vs. deflection for a large deflection cantilever beam. 

180 
Torsion of Shafts 

Introduction 

In the design of machinery (as well as structures) the problem of transmitting a torque (a 

couple) fiom one plane to a parallel plane is fiequently encountered. The simplest device for 

accomplishing this function is a circular shaft. An example of a shaft is the connection of an electric 

motor with a pump, compressor, or other mechanism. In statics you saw several problems where 

shafts were subjected to torsional loads. In Mechanics of Materials, several analytical relationships 

for shafts subjected to torsion will be derived. Most of these will be related to deformation and load 

characteristics. One of these follows: 

8 = angle of twist in degrees 

T = torque 

L = length of shaft 

J= nr4b (polar moment of inertia for circular cross section) 

G = shear modulus 

For the loading condition on the beam, the angle 28 is: 

28 = e/D (for small angles, in radians) or 28 = tan'' e/D (actual, in degrees) 

The angle of twist, 0, can then easily be determined. 

Objectives 

The objectives of this experiment are: 

a) To explore the relationship between the applied torque and the resulting angle of twist of a 

shaft. 

b) To measure the shear modulus of various engineering materials. 

c) To observe deformation characteristics of torsional members. 

Target -T 

Part A (Torque vs. Angle of Twist)-Dial Apparatus 

First, rewrite the above relationship as: 
This equation has the form ofy = mx+b,where 6 = y, m = (T/JG')(360°/2z), x = L, and b = 0. To 

veri@ this relationship, first place a shaft into the torsion test device and make the measurements as 

indicated in the data table. Plot the angle of twist versus the length for each of the applied torque's. 

If appropriate draw a straight line through the data. 

Part B (Determining Torsional Properties) 

In this experiment, you will measure the shear modulus of aluminum, brass, and steel. This 

will be accomplished by first rewriting the previous equation as follows: 

In this case the slope m = (JG/L)(2d60°). By selecting one rod of aluminum, brass, and steel, 

applying at least three torque's (T's), and measuring the resulting angles of twist (6 's), the slope m 

can be calculated using a regression fit. Since the length L and the radius r can be measured before 

the test, the only value to be determined is the shear modulus G. 

Laboratory Write-up 

Answer the following questions for each of the parts of the experiments where appropriate. 

Perform a regression fit between the angle of twist versus length data for each applied torque. Does 

a straight line represent the data? Does the regression fit give an intercept of zero. Should it? Any 

ideas? After determining the slope m for Part B, calculate the shear modulus G for both procedures. 

How do the results compare? Which appears more accurate (for actual values-see last question)? 

List some of the experimental errors for both experimental set-ups. How might the errors 

introduced be reduced or eliminated? In your experiments, how would you know if you 

accidentally exceeded the elastic limit of the rods? Assuming a Poisson's ratio of 0.3, a value for 

Young's modulus E as stated on page 54 of Gordon [1978], and the equation on the bottom of page 

249 of Gordon [1978], calculate the shear modulus G. Compare G from the experiments to these 

values. In addition, list and briefly describe three components that experience torsional loads (try 

and be creative). 

Data Tables 

T2= (force X moment arm) =( X - 

L, 

L3 

Angle of Twist 8 versus Length L 

T3= (force X moment arm) =( X 

I I 

Material: 

1 L I I I I 

The radius of the pulley, r, is 3 in 

TI= (force X moment arm) =( X - 

L1 

L7 

Length 

(in) 

CLitia~ 

("1 

Qna~ 

("1 gq&,-w 

("1 
(Part B)-ALL THREE MATERIALS 

Torque = load x moment arm = P x r 

Load P vs. elevation e 

Aluminum 

load(P) I Elevation(e) 

(grams) 

1 000 

Wart BbTWO OF THE THREE MATERIALS 

Brass 

load I Elevation 

I1 Torque = load x moment arm = P x r I1 

Steel 

load ( Elevation 

(in) 

4.125 

I 

The radius of the pulley, r, is 2 in 

3000 

Material , Length , shaft diameter 7 

The radius of the pulley, r, is 3 in 

(grams) 

500 

15.8125 I 

Material Length shaft diameter 7 

Comments: 

1. The data table for Part B has been completed. The resulting plots are shown in Figure 7. 

The resulting shear moduli are 

GAI = 3.8 x lo6 lb/in2 

GS&* = 1 1 -3 x 1 o6 lb/in2 

~s~~ = 5.1 x lo6 1b/in2 

2. The shear modulus from this experiment can be used with the tensile modulus from the beam 

bending experiment to compute Poisson's ratio. 

3. The combination of these two experiments to compute Poisson's ratio is a natural way to 

introduce the subject of error propagation in experiments. This topic is discussed in detail in 

later laboratory courses. 

L= 7.81 in7 

diameter = 0.2506 in 

D= 115 in 

1200 I 

Load (lb) 

(in) 

2.8375 

7.125 1200 

L = 7.25 in, 

diameter = 0.1878 in 

D= 115 in 

16.125 

(grams) 

500 

L = 7.25 in, 

diameter = 0.1251 in 

D = 114.25 in 

ainitia~ (O) E)=afind-ainitial (") 

(in) 

6.7125 

afind (O) 
Load vs. Angle 

3500 

3000 

2500 

CR - 2000 a g 1500 

-' 1000 

500 m=43. 1x10A3 

0 - - - - m=8.51x10A3 

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 -----m=19.5x10A3 

Angle (rad) 

Figure 7. Load vs. angle of elevation for determining the shear modulus 

for Aluminum, steel, and brass. 

References: 

K. E. Bisshopp and D. C. Drucker, 1945, Large Deflection of Cantilever Beams, Quarterly of 

Applied Mathematics, 3,272-275. 

J. E. Gordon, 1978, Structures, or Why Things Don 't Fall Down, Da Capo Press, New York. 

Edwin M. Odom, Steven W. Beyerlein, Blaine W. Tew, Ronald E. Smelser, and Donald M. 

Blackketter, 1999, Idaho Engineering Works: A Model for Leadership Development in 

Design Education, Frontiers in Education Conference, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1999 

November 1 0- 1 3. 

Stephen P. Timoshenko, 1953, History of Strength of Materials, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 

New York. 
Ronald E. Smelser 

Ronald E. Smelser is an Associate Professor of 

Mechanical Engineering at the University of Idaho. 

He holds a Bachelor's degree fiom the University of 

Cincinnati, a Master's Degree form MIT, and a Ph. 

D. fi-om Carnegie Mellon University. Prior to 

joining the faculty at the University of Idaho, he 

worked for fourteen years at U. S. Steel, Alcoa, and 

Concurrent Technology Corporation. He currently 

teaches the Sophomore Laboratory, is involved with 

the Idaho Engineering Works, and leads the effort 

to develop the Sophomore Laboratory for distance 

delivery. His interests include materials process 

modeling, structure-property relations of materials, 

and material failure and fracture. He is a member 

of ASME, ASEE, and AAM. He has published 

numerous papers on materials processing and 

fracture and has contributed to the ASEE Annual 

Conference. 

Edwin M. Odom 

Edwin M. Odom, an Associate Professor of 

Mechanical Engineering at the University of Idaho, 

obtained his undergraduate and graduate degrees 

from the University of Wyoming. His interests 

include experimental mechanics and the design 

process. Dr. Odom joined the University of Idaho 

eight years ago and takes an active interest in the 

ME Machine Shop as a key element in design 

education. The ME department benefits enormously 

fiom his experience in the US Army at the Material 

Test Directorate as well as his experience as a gas 

turbine design engineer for the General Electric 

Company. Dr. Odom developed the Sophomore 

Laboratory. He also maintains an avid interest in the 

subject of creativity and management and is a 

recognized leader in the areas of team dynamics and 

leadership styles. He was recognized for his role in 

development of the Senior Design program and the 

Idaho Engineering Works by a university teaching 

award in 1998. 
Steven W. Beyerlein 

Steven W. Beyerlein is an Associate Professor of 

Mechanical Engineering at the University of Idaho. 

He has a Bachelor's degree fiom the University of 

Massachusetts, a Master's degree fiom Dartmouth 

University, and a Ph. D. fiom Washington State 

University. Dr. Beyerlein is a leader in the design 

and implementation of process-oriented engineering 

curricula that stresses cooperative learning, 

computer technology, and mini-projects. Since 

joining the University of Idaho eleven years ago, he 

has regularly taught introductory courses to 

fieshman and sophomores and has shaped the 

Senior Laboratory course. Implementation of 

Process Education techniques in these courses 

significantly improved student preparation for the 

ME capstone design experience. Over the last four 

years, he has led interactive faculty workshops on 

Process Education at the University of Idaho, 

Washington State University, Boise State 

University, and Ricks College. He has also been 

active in the local section of ASEE. 
ACCELERATED FATIGUE TEST 

Yulian Kin 

and 

Dennis Holler 

Graduate Student 

hdue University Calumet 

Hammond, Indiana 46323 

Telephone: 2 19-989-2684 

e-mail kin 8 hwi.calumet.purdue.edu 

ACCELERqTED FATIGUE TEST 

Yulian Kin 

Dennis Holler 

Purdue University Calumet 

Key Words: Fatigue, endurance limit, fatigue life, htigue tests. 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Knowledge of basic fatigue concepts and fatigue 

experimentation is helpful. 

Objective: Conduct a conventional fatigue test using 16-20 standard specimens, plot S-N 

curve, plot family of fatigue curves with 5%, 50% and 95% probability of failures and 

determine necessary parameters for the accelerated htigue test. Then conduct an 

accelerated fatigue test. Compare the endurance limits determined fiom conventional and 

accelerated tests. 

Equipment: 

1. Rotating beam fatigue machine. 

2. Standard round fatigue specimens. 

Introduction: 

A long-term conventional fatigue test procedure requires the breaking of 30 to 60 

identically prepared specimens and 15 days to 1 month to complete. Thus, rnanuhcturers 

are often reluctant to perform a conventional fatigue test in spite of its obvious utility. 

Therefore, there is a definite need for an accelerated test that can be completed in 

approximately one shift. The accelerated fatigue test is also very useful to control 

technological process and in preliminary evaluation of the new designs. 

The Locaty's accelerated procedure was used in this experiment. This method is based on 

the concept of cumulative fatigue damage [I] and we assumed that fatigue limit 

corresponds to sum of relative lives C (&mi) = 1, where ni is the number of cycles which a 

specimen worked in the specified testing regime, and Ni is the number of cycles which a 

specimen could potentially work in accordance with the fatigue curve received fiom the 

long-term fatigue tests of the same type of specimens. The loading program and treatment 

of the results are given in details later. 
Specimens: 

The testing specimens were machined fiom 101 8 cold finished steel and their 

configuration is given in Figure 1. 

4 in. - 

Figure I. Specimen Configuration. 

Experimental Set-u p: 

A bending fatigue testing machine sketch with an installed specimen is shown in Figure 2. 

The bending moment varies along the beam and the critical stress was determined at 

section "A". 

I supPo" Bearings / 

F 

Figure 2. Experimental set-up. 
Conventional Fatigue Test Procedurtj and Results: 

61 identical specimens were tested to accumulate data for the S-N curves. Load levels and 

corresponding fatigue lives are given in the Table 1. They were ordered by load and 

cycles to failure for ease of use in the Excel program. While an equal number of 

specimens per stress level is desirable, it is not necessary. The difference in specimen 

number per stress level is due to the limited amount of testing time. 

TABLE 1. Conventional Fatigue Test Results 

Specimen Amplitude Number Specimen 

number Stress, psi of cycles number 

1 55,411 160000 32 

2 55,411 178700 33 

3 55,411 190000 34 

4 55,411 205800 35 

5 55,411 207400 36 

6 55,411 2 10000 37 

7 55,4 1 1 210100 38 

8 55,411 224000 39 

9 55,411 224000 40 

10 55,411 238000 41 

11 55,411 250000 42 

12 55,411 260000 43 

13 55,411 280000 44 

14 52,151 339400 45 

15 52,151 360000 46 

16 52,151 41 8300 47 

17 52,151 420000 48 

18 52,151 541600 49 

19 52,151 620000 50 

20 52,151 860000 5 1 

21 52,151 946700 52 

22 52,151 965500 53 

23 52,151 990000 54 

24 50,522 204800 55 

25 50,522 350000 56 

26 50,522 400000 57 

27 50,522 447300 58 

28 50,522 520000 59 

29 50,522 603 100 60 

30 50,522 623 100 61 

3 1 50,522 626500 

Amplitude 

Stress, psi 

50,522 

50,522 

50,522 

50,522 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

48,892 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

45,632 

39,113 

39,113 

39,113 

Number 

of cycles 

800000 

920000 

980700 

1553000 

61 1700 

630000 

639400 

733300 

797600 

809200 

9 14200 

950000 

1 169500 

1326300 

1801100 

1 107 

1871100 

2480000 

3738600 

4092800 

5545400 

7472500 

1 x lo7 

1 lo7 

1 lo7 

1 lo7 

1 x lo7 

1 x lo7 

1 x lo7 

1 x lo7 

Fatigue data for constant stress level with 50% probability of survival plotted on standard 

S-N plot are given in Figure 3 and curves with 5% and 95% probability of survival are 

shown in Figure 4. The vertical portion of the curves is formed based on a plot of the 

probability of failure of each specimen at a given life on log-normal probability paper. At 

the same time, the horizontal portion of the curves is based on the probability of survival 

at the load level. From these data we can conclude that 50% fatigue limit = 45,632 psi, 

5% fatigue limit = 48,240 psi, and 95% fktigue limit = 41,721 psi. 
BOOW 

55000 

- ul P 50m 

d 0 

g! 

f 45000 

u 

3 = - 

4ww 

35000 

30000 

1 .EM5 1.EIOB 1 .E107 

Cycles to Failure 

Figure 3: 50% probability fatigue curve 

BOO00 

55WO 

- L SOWO 

6 

g! 

f 4000 

'I: = - g 4oooo 

3HWO 

30000 

l.E+05 1.E- 1.E47 

Cycles to Failure 

Figure 4: Family of Fatigue Curves (5%, 50%, 95% probability of survival) 
Accelerated Fatigue Test Procedure apd Results: 

Program and results of accelerated fhtigue test are given in Figure 5 and 6. The load 

increment and constant number of cycles on one load level were determined by trials to 

get at least 6 loading increments before fiacture of the specimen. 

Figure 5: Program of Accelerated Fatigue Test. Load increment = 3000 psi; 

Number of cycles at each load level before fracture = 160,000 cycles. 

Amplitude 

Stress, psi 

54000 

51000 

48000 

45000 

42000 

39000 

36000 

family of fatigre Carves 

580m 

56mt 

54ml 

'I 5x0 

: i m - 

m 

':4ao 

; 

4- 

44az 

4x03 

4WXf 

lwya ianm, 

C,.Zlc. 

ni = 160,000 cycles 

Ao = 3,000 psi 

n~ 

Figure 6: Probability S-N curves and accelerated fatigue test results. This diagram 

is used to determine relative lives at each load level for each curve. 

Cycles 
The accelerated fatigue test results are given also in table 2, and treatment of the results is 

shown in table 3. 

Table 2. Accelerated Test Results 

Specimen Stress Number of Number of Number of cycles 

number increment, cycles at one steps until until fdre 

psi load level ~~e 

Table 3. Accelerated Test Results Treatment 

Amplitude Curve A (95%) Curve B (50%) Curve C (5%) 

Stress, psi Ni aimi Ni s mi Ni Q/N~ 

Where: N = number of cycles possible for defined infinite life of specimen 

n = number of cycles completed by specimen at the particular 

stress level. 

The Treatment of the Accelerated Test Results is a sum of the cycles completed at each 

load level compared to the cycles at inhnte life of the specimen. These values were then 

plotted versus the endurance limit for each of the fatigue curves (5%, 50%, 95%). The 

resulting amplitude stress that corresponds to one is the endurance limit of the material. 

The Graphical Determination of Fatigue Strength (Figure 7) shows how the accelerated 

test results treatment (Table 3) is used to find the Endurance Limit of the material. 
Graphical representation of the accelerated htigue test results is given in Figure 7. Fatigue 

knit conespomls to the sum of relativelives equal unity which is jndicated on the plot by 

the lines with arrows 

Graphical Determination of Fatigue Sbengfh 

2 

1.5 

n2Ni 1 

0.5 

0 

41000 42000 43000 44000 45000 46000 47000 48000 49000 

-, psi 

Comments: 

1. Comparing fatigue limits determined from the accelerated and conventional tests 

we can see that the difference is not more than 5% which is very good for the 

fatigue experimental results. 

2. Time spent for the accelerated fatigue test was four hours. 

'3. Time spent for the conventional htigue test was fifteen days. 

4. Number of specimens used in the conventional procedure was (lots). 

5. Number of specimens used in the accelerated procedure was three. 

Acknowledgement: 

Sponsorship by the Indiana Space Grant Consortium is gratellly acknowledged. 

Referencb: 

1. A. Pawen, "'Die Legensdauer von Kugellagern", ZVDI, Vol. 68, pp. 339-341,1924, 

M. A. Miner, "Cumulative Damage in Fatigue", J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 12, Trans. ASME, 

Vol. 67, pp. A1 59-1 64, 1945 

FOUR WINDOWS PROGRAMS FOR THE 

MATERIALS SCIENCE LABORATORY 

Mike L. Meier 

Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science 

University of California, Davis 

Davis, California 956 1 6 

Telephone: 9 16-752-5 166 

e-mail mlmeier@ucdavis.edu 

Four Windows Programs for the Materials Science 

Laboratory 

Mike L. Meier 

Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science 

University of California, Davis 

Davis, CA 956 1 6 

Keywords 

Software, grain size, mean lineal intercept, volume fraction of phases, point count method, Jominy 

end-quench, heat treating of steels, hardness, hardenability, data acquisition, WAV files. 

Prerequisite Knowledge 

The prerequisite knowledge for each of the programs is listed below. 

Heyn 's Method - basic metallography and stereology, grain size, mean lineal intercept 

Point Count - basic metallography and stereology, volume fraction of phases, point count 

method 

Jominy - Jominy end-quench, heat treating of steels, hardness, hardenability 

Audio Scope - data acquisition, WAV files 

Objective 

This article does not describe an experiment, but rather several computer programs that may be 

useful in laboratory experiments many of us already perform. The functions and features of each 

program are summarized along with comments on how we use these programs in the classroom. 

Equipment and Materials 

All of these programs m under Window 95 and NT, so all one needs is a PC running one of these 

operating systems. To use Audio Scope in the laboratory one may also need an external amplifier 

to condition the signal for the =tl volt sound card inputs. 

Introduction 

As microcomputers become more powerful, less expensive and easier to use they are finding their 

way into almost every aspect of education. In the laboratory they have long been used for data 

collection and analysis. Currently there are also many large and often expensive programs on the 

market that will do what would have been extremely impractical, if not impossible to do by hand. 

In our small department, for instance, we use major software packages that perform finite element 

modeling, molecular dynamics modeling, crystallographic calculations, image processing and 

analysis, thermodynamic calculations and data retrieval from large databases. Still, we are in 

constant need of simpler and smaller software tools that do tedious work that we somehow still find 

ourselves doing manually. Many of us can think of operations that we wish the computer could do 

for us, or which would help ensure success in our teaching experiments, or something that has been 

sitting in our heads for years, or staring back at us from a text book, whose time has come to be 
"animated" as computer code. Fortunately programming tools such as Microsoft's VisualBASIC 

and Borland's Delphi make it relatively easy for intermittent programmers such as engineering 

students and instructors to write useful programs that can run in the rich but very complicated 

Windows environment. With the availability of such tools the desire to code finally got the best of 

me and I ended up writing several modest but useful computer programs that we regularly use in our 

laboratory courses. 

Heyn's Method 

Heyn's method, better known as the mean 

lineal intercept method, is widely used for 

estimating the average grain size in 

polycrystalline materials. ASTM standard E 

1 12-88 describes this method in detail along 

with the procedure for converting the mean 

lineal intercept length to an equivalent 

ASTM grain size. 

Basically, the method involves laying a test 

line over a field of view and counting either 

the number of grain boundary intersections or 

the number of grain intercepts. The length of 

the test line divided by the number of 

intersections, or intercepts, gives a mean 

lineal intercept length. After repeating this 

procedure a number of times basic sampling Figure 1 Screen shot of the Heyn's Method program. 

statistics can be used to produce an overall average value plus the confidence interval for a specified 

confidence level. The math is simple enough, but tallying the counts and doing the calculations 

while observing the microstructure is tedious and likely to lead to errors, especially for the student 

who is doing this for the first time. 

The program Heyn 's Method (Figure 1) makes tallying the counts and calculating -s 

and easy. To use it, one presses the New button to start a new measurement. After entering the test 

line length, magnification and confidence level one can start entering the counts into a spreadsheetstyle grid. After five entries have been made, the program will calculate and display the mean value, 

the relevant statistics and the ASTM grain size. To aid in data entry one can bring up the keypad 

tool which will allow one to click-in the intercepts while observing them in the microscope. Finally, 

the results can be printed and saved as a text file. 

One final feature, the graph, was added to help the student see the data plotted as a histogram plus 

the normal distribution for the current values of the mean and standard deviation. This graph will 

automatically rescale itself to center the data along the x-axis and to fit it within the range of the yaxis. 

This has been a very useful program in several of our laboratory courses. We give it to the students 

to take home and perform several grain size measurements on real and artificial microstructures [I] 
after we have spent sufficient time together discussing the technique and the statistical functions 

involved. Several of our graduate researchers have also taken copies to their lab and use it to analyze 

their optical and TEM images. 

Point Count 

The point count method is widely used to 

estimate the volume fraction of phases in a 

multi-phase material. This method, 

described in detail in reference 2, involves 

laying a grid over the field of view and 

counting the number of grid intersections 

which fall on the phase of interest. The 

volume fraction of phases is calculated by 

simply dividing this count by the total 

number of intersections in the grid. 

The program Point Count (Figure 2) is nearly 

identical to Heyn 's Method except for minor 

changes in how it handles the counts, and the 

fact that it is used to estimate the volume 

fraction of ~hases. The statistics are 

identical. Figure 2 Screen shot of the Point Count program. 

The utility of this program in our laboratories is similar to that of the Heyn 's Method. Student's and 

researchers alike have found it to be a handy program to have on a computer next to the microscope 

or a collection of micrographs. 

Jominy End-Quench 

The Jominy end-quench (ASTM A 255-89) 

is widely used in industry to gage the heat 

treatability of steels. In the classroom it may 

be used to teach the principles of the kinetics 

of phase transformations, of strengthening 

mechanisms, and of the heat treatment of 

steel. Among these lessons is the fact that it 

is the carbon in steel which is primarily 

responsible for the maximum hardness of the 

martensite while the other alloying elements 

may increase or decrease the rate of 

martensite formation and therefore the 

amount of martensite that forms for a given Figure 3 Screen shot of the Jominy End-Quench program. - cooling rate. Appendix X2 of ASTM A 255- 

89 describes how to calculate the maximum hardness and the hardness as a function of distance from 

the quenched end of the Jominy specimen. These calculations involve a number of polynomials, 

A - each of which is valid over various ranges of composition and distance from the quenched end; the 
calculations which are tedious when done manually but are easy to code. 

The Jominy program (Figure 3) allows one to calculate the Jominy curve for whatever steel is being 

tested (within the limits specified in the ASTM standard); this curve may also be plotted on the same 

graph as the measured hardness values. To use this program one creates a new job and after entering 

data on the steel and the end-quench procedure, the user can enter the composition of the steel and 

the measured hardness values. When this is complete, the program will calculate the initial hardness, 

the ideal diameter, and the hardness at a point in the Jominy specimen (along the length or in fiom 

the outer diameter) where the microstructure consists of 50% martensite. The graph can be rescaled 

and the results printed, saved in a file and reloaded at a future time. It is an MDI-type program, 

meaning that within the main (parent) window one can open any number of child windows, each for 

a different Jominy specimen. 

We have used an earlier version of this program in our courses. It was well received and added 

much to the success of the experiment. The students could share their printouts and their files with 

each other, allowing them to very efficiently pool the results fiom a number of quenches of different 

steels. 

Audio Scope 

Audio Scope was written to avoid 

having to purchase expensive data 

acquisition boards or oscilloscopes 

for up to three laboratory stations 

where students could observe B-H 

curves. This experiment [3] uses 60 

Hz excitation and our current 

DMMIscanner setups could not 

provide the necessary data acquisition 

rates and they do not offer 

simultaneous sample-hold for the two 

channels of input. All we needed 

were two channels of input, 

simultaneous sample hold, and 

moderate data acquisition rates. In 

fact we could have used low data 

acquisition rates and collected data 

definitely needed simultaneous samp 

Figure 4 Screen shot of the Audio Scope program. 

over a period of time since the signal was periodic, but we 

~le-hold. 

The solution to this problem was to use the sound card which comes with most PCs. Sound cards 

provide two channels of input through their line-in ports plus a third channel through the microphone 

input. Sound cards offer sampling rates ranging fiom 8 kHz to 44.1 kHz, monaural or stereo,. and 

8 or 16-bit resolution. Input to the line-in ports has a full-scale range of A1 volt, which normally is 

adequate; and when it is inadequate one can use amplifiers to strengthen or other devices to attenuate 

the signals. 
Audio Scope offers many of the features one would expect to see on an oscilloscope. You can scale 

and attenuate the signals from each channe1;adjust their zero positions independently, and shift them 

left and right. It even offers a triggering feature plus the ability to plot the signal from one channel 

versus the signal from the other one. The data can be saved to disk, and, if desired, the data can be 

saved directly to disk as a WAV file and replayed later. 

Audio Scope is a much more ambitious program than the previous three. It has many more features 

and it must interact with Windows on a more intimate level. It makes many calls to Window's 

multimedia API functions [4] to get the data fiom the sound card and the data must be decoded from 

its native WAV file format [5] before it can be plotted. Audio Scope is also a much more active 

program since it must get the data fiom the sound card, translate it into x-y coordinates, plot it, and 

handle all user requests; it must do this quickly enough to present a smooth display. Unless your 

computer is reasonably fast you may not get the quick oscilloscope-like performance you were 

expecting. Also, if one can manage to make less demand on the system's resources -- for instance 

by sampling for shorter time periods -- the performance should be adequate. Even if the display is 

not smooth, it will still acquire data at audio rates. 

This program is new. I haven't had a chance to thoroughly test it or to use it in our courses, but I 

am anxious to implement it with Furguson and Stoebe's magnetic properties experiment that was 

presented at NEW:Update 96 in Los Alamos [3]. 

Comments 

Three of the four programs described here have been used in our laboratory courses for up to two 

years. They have been worthwhile additions to our experiments and have helped to improve the 

quality of and the student's understanding of the results. The fourth program, Audio Scope, will be 

used for the first time this year. Before using it we will do additional testing to ensure accuracy and 

reliability. We plan to test it on every sound card we can find and if the results vary appreciably 

between sound cards it may be necessary to add a calibration feature. One feature that each program 

needs, however, is an extensive help utility. These help utilities would explain how to use the 

program and how the technique works; use of a tutorial is a possibility. This would give the 

programs an additional instructional component. 

All four programs can be downloaded from our department's web site at www.matsci.ucdavis.edu. 

Go to the laboratory teaching section where you will frnd the link to the NEW:Update 99 page. All 

files are zipped so you will need a Pkunzip-type utility to extract them. 

References 

1. M.L.Meier, Artificial Microstructures, NEW:Update 98. 

2. R.T. Dehoff and F.N. Rhines, Ouantitative Microsco~v, McGraw-Hill, New York, (1968). 

3. M.Furguson and T.Stoebe, Hysteresis Loo~s and Barkhausen Effects in Magnetic Materials, 

NEW:Update 96. 

4. Wotsit's Format, The Programmer's Reference, www.wotsit.org 

5. A.Moore, The Tomes of Delphi 4: Win32 Multimedia API, Wordware Publishing, Inc., Plano, 

Texas, (1 999). 
Biographical Information 

Michael L. Meier received his B.S. in Materials Engineering from North Carolina State University 

in 1979 and his M.S. (1986) and Ph.D. (1991) in Materials Science and Engineering fiom the 

University of California, Davis. After a two-year post-doctorate position at the Universitiit ErlangenNiirnberg in Erlangen, Germany he returned to UC Davis and is the director of Materials Science 

Central Facilities and teaches many of the laboratory courses. 
EGG BUNGEE CORD DROP 

Robert A. McCoy 

Mechanical Engineering Department 

Youngstown State University 

Youngstown, Ohio 44555 

Telephone 330-742- 1 736 

e-mail rarnccoy@cc.ysu.edu 
Robert A. McCoy 

Robert A. McCoy is a Professor of Materials and 

Mechanical Engineering at Youngstown State 

University, Youngstown, Ohio. He has bachelor's 

and master's degrees from Ohio State University and 

a Doctor of Engineering degree from University of 

California at Berkeley. At YSCJ, he teaches 

freshmen engineering, mechanical engineering, 

manufacturing processes, and materials engineering 

courses. He is also a failure analysis consultant and 

a member of ASM and ASEE. 
Egg Bungee Cord Drop 

Robert A. McCoy 

Youngstown State University 

Youngstown, OH 44555 

Key Words: Bungee cord, spring, gravitational potential energy, spring potential energy 

Prerequisite Knowledge: The students need a basic understanding of how a linear spring 

behaves and how gravitational potential ener& can be converted into spring potential energy. 

Objectives: 

1. The students gain practical experience of working together on a group design project that is 

both educational and fun. 

2. The students learn how a real bungee cord behaves as compared with an ideal linear spring. 

3. The students discover the large difference between the cord behavior when statically loaded 

as compared with the same cord dynamically loaded. 

4. The students learn how to use the computer program Excel to record, mathematically 

manipulate, and plot experimental data. 

5. The students learn how to apply experimental data fiom a small test piece of cord to their 

full-scale egg-drop apparatus. 

Equipment and Materials: 

1. A 1000-ft spool of 3 1 gauge latex bungee cord. 

2. Large steel washers weighing about 17 grams each. Each group needs about ten. 

3. Small resealable fieezer plastic bags, three or four per group. 

4. Eggs, one or two per group. 

5. Tape measure, yardstick, or meter stick. 

6. Scissors, stapler, binder clips, and white correction fluid. 

7. Scale, 0-1 lb. or 0-500 g. 

8. Adjustable stand up to six feet high with a horizontal bar. 

9. A balcony with about a twenty-foot drop. 

1 0. A computer with the program Excel. 

1 1. A videocamera to tape the competition drops. 

Introduction: 

This paper describes a freshman engineering design project and competition. Groups of about 

five students each design, build, and test a bungee cord apparatus such that when an attached egg 

is dropped fiom a height of twenty feet, the egg will come close to hitting the floor. The group 

whose egg comes closest to the floor without actually hitting it and breaking the egg wins the 

competition. Before building their egg-drop apparatus, the sudents must first figure out what 

mtretched cord length to use so their egg will just miss hitting the floor in the competition. 

They are not allowed to have a full-scale practice drop. Instead they must analyze static stretch 

data and dynamic drop data on a short test piece of cord in the range of 0.25 to 0.5 m (10 to 20 

in) long to be assigned by the instructor to determine their unstretched cord length. 
Procedure for Static Testing: 

Each group must devise a way to securely fasten the cord to the plastic bag by using a 

combination of square knots, staples, binder clips, etc. Knots alone will probably slip when the 

cord is stretched. Prior to securing the other cord end to a horizontal bar of an adjustable stand, 

the plastic bag, knots, staples, clips, and about one-third of the test-piece length of cord are 

weighed on a scale. This tare weight must be included in the weight versus stretch data. Care 

must be taken while securing the cord to the bar that the cord length between bar and the top of 

the plastic bag where it is attached is the assigned unstretched length when the cord is unloaded. 

The two cord ends should be marked with white correction fluid to aid in obtaining stretch data. 

The following parameters are defined: 

Lo = unstretched cord length with no weight added, not even the tare weight 

L = cord length with weight added 

S = stretch=L-Lo 

W = cumulative weight including tare weight acting on the cord 

H = drop height = distance fiom top cord end to bottom cord end where it attaches to the 

bag at the moment the bag reaches its lowest point in a drop. The bag height is not 

included. 

If S.I. units are used, the weights should be converted fiom grams (unit of mass) to newtons (unit 

of force). 

Using preweighed steel washers as weights, each group slips the washers, one by one, into their 

plastic bag and measures the new cord length after each addition. W and S should be calculated 

for each increase in weight and this data is entered into an Excel spreadsheet, as shown in Figure 

1. A weight versus stretch curve is plotted using the Excel plotting capability, as shown in 

Figure 2. Clearly this curve is not linear so the students should realize that the bungee cord will 

not behave as a linear spring. Since W (a force) acts through S (a distance), the area under the 

curve up to some specific S represents the work stored by the cord, i.e. the spring potential 

energy, SPE. 

To find SPE values for each data point, the trapezoidal method can be applied to the data in 

Figure 1 as follows: 

1. Delta S finds the difference in S between two adjacent data points. 

2. W, finds the average weight between two data points. 

3. W,, times delta S is the increase in potential energy in going .from one data point to the next. 

4. The column labeled SPE is the cumulative potential energy up to a particular weight and is 

plotted versus S in Figure 3. 

Procedure for Dynamic Testing: 

The gravitation potential energy of a weight W about to be dropped fiom a height H equals W x 

H. Theoretically at the bottom of the drop when all motion momentarily stops and kinetic 

energy is zero, the gravitational potential energy is completely transformed into spring potential 

energy. The students check this idea by performing a dynamic test dropping a weight close to 

their egg weight and using their short test piece. In this test, the weighted bag is raised to the 

height of the top end of the cord where it is secured to the horizontal bar and then released. The 

bag fieefalls for a height Lo and then the cord starts to stretch converting kinetic energy into 
spring potential energy. After the group measures the drop height, W x H is compared with the 

SPE from the SPE vs. S curve. The ratio of the W x H value to the SPE value will be called the 

static-to-dynamic factor Fs~ since the W x H was obtained from the dynamic test and SPE was 

obtained from static testing. 

The students may be surprised to find this factor to be around five. This relatively large factor 

results from the basic difference between the two tests. The static test depends only on balancing 

the forces, i. e., establishing an equilibrium between the weight and the spring force. This 

equilibrium is independent of the initial height of the weight and occurs when the weight is 

motionless. On the other hand, the dynamic test, the drop, is greatly affected by the height of the 

weight and the weight descends f8s lower than where the weight is balanced by the spring force. 

At the bottom of the drop, the spring force exceeds the weight and this net upward force causes 

the weight to accelerate upward. Although there may be a mathematical correlation between the 

two types of tests ifthe system could be approximated by an ideal linear spring, the correlation 

involving FsD had to be empirically determined for the actual bungee cord for the following 

reasons: 

1. The actual bungee cord was shown to behave nonlinearly. 

2. During static testing, the cord was found to creep and the amount of stretch was 

affected by how long the weight was applied. 

3. Dynamic testing may involve nonuniform stretching. 

Analysis of Test Data: 

After comparing the W vs. S curves for different test cord lengths, the groups should conclude 

that for supporting the same weight, stretch is directly proportional to unstretched length. Hence, 

a scale factor applies such that 

F = L& = & for the same weight 

Lo1 Sl 

Also the groups should compare their FsD values and arrive at an average value to be used in 

calculations. The following is an example of how the groups could use the test data to select the 

unstretched cord length for their drop. 

Let W = 1 -34 N (approx. weight of 2 eggs) 

Let H = 5.86 m (assigned by the instructor) 

From Fig. 2, S = 0.58 m for a 0.5-m test cord with static load 

From Fig. 3, SPE(static) = 0.47 J 

SPE(dyn) = FsD x SPE(static) = 5 x 0.47 J = 2.35 J for 0.5-m test cord 

Grav. Pot. Energy = W x H =1.34 N x 5.86 m = 7.85 J for drop. 

Length factor = F = Grav. Pot. Enerw = 7.85 J = 3-34 

spE(d~n) 2.35 J 

Therefore Lo(drop) = F x Lo(test) = 3.34 x 0.5 m = 1.67 m 
Comments: 

Prior to the competition, each group should use their drop weight and height to determine their 

unstretched cord length following the procedure outlined above which they should figure out on 

their own aided by guidance fiom the instructor only when needed. For a drop area, the 

instructor must select a safe balcony and provide a stable horizontal bar to which the top ends of 

the cords may be securely attached. On the ground floor, the instructor should tape a scale on a 

wall near the drop area floor indicating the height above the floor. The use of a videocamera to 

tape each drop of the competition is very helpful. By replaying the videotape in slow motion, 

one can easily judge the minimum height that each group's bag comes to hitting the floor. To do 

this successfblly, the camera, the bag, and the height scale must all be aligned. The group whose 

bag comes closest to the floor without hitting it should be given special recognition, a prize, or 

extra credit. After the competition, each group should be required to write a design project 

report. Ask that they include in their report a listing of what all they learned fiom their project. 

This could be quite a list. 

Bungee Cord Source: 

The bungee cord used by this author was a 3 1-gauge latex cord bought as a 1000-ft. spool for 

$175 fiom: 

Ross Mathews Mills, Inc. 

P.O. Box 27,372 Kilburn St. 

Fall River, MA 02724 

(508) 677-0601 

This cord had a diameter of 1.12 mm (0.044 inch) and weighed about 1 dm. It could be 

stretched at least 500% before breaking at a load of about 2.4 kg (3.3 lbs). 

Reference: 

Paul G. Menz, "The Physics of Bungee Jumping," The Physics Teacher, Vol. 3 1, No. 8,483-487, 

Nov., 1993 

Biography: 

Robert A. McCoy is a Professor of Materials and 

Mechanical Engineering at Youngstown State University, 

Youngstown, Ohio. He has bachelor's and master's 

degrees fiom Ohio State University and a Doctor of 

Engineering degree fiom University of California at 

Berkeley. At YSU, he teaches fieshmen engineering, 

mechanical engineering, manufacturing processes, and 

materials engineering courses. He is also a hilure analysis 

consultant and a member of ASM and ASEE. 
S (m) W (a) S (m) W(N) Delta S(m) WLV,-(N) 

Figure 1. Weight and Stretch Data for Lo = 0.5 m Cord 
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 

Stretch, S (m) 

Figure 2. Weight vs. Stretch for L9.5 m Cord 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 

Stretch, S (m) 

Figure 3. Spring Potential Energy vs. Stretch for b=0.5 rn Cord 
DESIGN PRACTICES FOR AUTOMOTIVE AND 

LIGHT TRUCK ALUMINUM BODIES 

M. J. Wheeler 

Alcan Global Automotive Products 

136 Bagot Street 

Kingston, Ontario K7L 3E5 

Canada 

Telephone: 

e-mail Mike.Wheeler2@sympatico.ca 

Design Practices for Automotive and Light Truck Aluminum Bodies 

M.J. Wheeler on behalf of Alcan Global Automotive Products 

and the Aluminum Association 

1 Introduction 

Aluminum has about one third the density of steel and 

about one third its elastic modulus so that both materials 

have essentially the same mass-specific elastic modulus. On the face of it therefore, for passenger car and 

truck body structures, where stiffness-and particularly 

torsional stiffneseis critical for achieving predictable 

handling and good driveability, there is little to be 

achieved in terms of weight saving by substituting aluminum for steel. However, in designing vehicles, we are 

concerned with three dimensional structures of beams 

and panels rather than just the material properties. What 

we need to examine and understand in looking at aluminum for vehicle structures is how the overall stiffness is 

governed by the dimensions and configuration of these 

beams and panels. 

In this plenary session therefore, I am going to cover 

briefly the material property and mechanical design aspects that govern the use of aluminum in achieving vehicle structures. I will then go on to illustrate how these 

principles have been applied in developing both sheetbased monocoque (body-frame integral) and space frame 

vehicle structures in aluminum. 

Before embarking on this, however, there are some related aspects that need to be appreciated. First, it should 

be remembered that elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio and 

density are essentially inherent material properties, and 

are not significantly changed by alloying additions. This 

is not rigorously true for aluminum alloys since there 

are now some Al-Li alloys which have a 10-15% higher 

modulus and a lower density than conventional aluminum alloys, and have found some specialized applications in advanced passenger jet aircraft. There are also 

aluminum metal matrix composites such as DuralcanTM 

which contain small ceramic particles such as alumina 

or silicon carbide, which increase the modulus by up to 

20%. However, these have been developed for specialty 

applications (e.g. DuralcanTM MMC for cast brake rotors, where its wear resistance and thermal stability are 

unique advantages). These materials are not available at 

costs, or in volumes, or-in the case of the metal matrix 

materialein product forms that make them at all feasible for manufacturing high volume autobody structures. 

In the same vein, you may have heard of "light weight 

steel," but in fact there is no such material as a reduced 

density steel. There are high strength steels where this 

higher strength allows thickness and hence weight to be 

reduced, but advantage of this can only be taken when 

stifiess is not the design-limiting factor. 

Finally, it should be noted that the overall stiffness of a 

vehicle structure is one of its key performance attributes 

and the way that the sub-components of a structure are 

joined together is critical to its overall structural stiffness. Thus joining technology is as critical as materials 

and mechanical design in achieving lightweight, structurally efficient vehicle structures. This will be illustrated 

for an aluminum monocoque structure and also for a truck 

frame. 

2.1 Material Characteristics - Sheet Materials 

For formed structural components, the main material requirements are for formability, stifhess and strength. Stability in the elevated temperature environments anticipated under the hood and close to the exhaust system, as 

well as crashworthiness and good corrosion resistance, 

are additional considerations. Probably the first requirement is for good formability. Fatigue strength, impact 

strength and ductility for collapse members, and high 

yield strength for the supporting structure are all important, as is the stability of the material properties over the 

life of the vehicle. 

For these requirements, the AA5xxx series aluminummagnesium alloys offer the best all round performance, 

andAA5754, where its performance has been optimized 

to maximize strength and formability while eliminating 

the risk of stress-corrosion, has become the alloy of 

choice for sheet structural applications. The excellent 

ductility for this alloy also means that structural beams 

in this alloy perform well for the front and rear end crash 

energy absorbing members of vehicle structures. 

External closure panels have different property requirements. Here the strength of the panel is key since that 

determines the denting resistance for a particular geometry. The AA6xxx aluminurn-magnesium-silicon series 

of alloys are attractive since they can be supplied in the 
Engineering Strain 

350- 

n 1 300- 

8 250-f m 

Figure 1. Stresslstrain curves for two aluminum alloys 

and auto steel. 

C---------- ---- --\ 

0 Y 

/ -_____-------- I -+.-- \ ~~to ~tee;\, 

AA6111-T4' j \ /' ,a0 , 1 I 1 

I,' I 

I I I I I I 

solutionized and quenched condition (T4 temper) where 

their yield strength, and hence springback, is low and 

their formability is high. This enables intricate external 

panel shapes to be formed and then, when the panels are 

subsequently heated during the E-coat cure step in the 

vehicle assembly process, a precipitation reaction occurs and the strength of the panels increases. The final 

strength is a function of the composition (alloy) and the 

strain and heating cycle imposed by the vehicle builder. 

m I I 

2 I I I 

;; 200- I I 

an I I I 

E I 1 '5 150- I 

I I I I 

S I ." 1 I 

I I 2 100- I 

Crl I I 

I 

I 

50- 'Properties after 30 minutes I 

0, simulated adhesive cure at l8OoC 

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 

ing vehicle service, unless a special aging treatment has 

been applied to stabilize the material and ensure good 

ductility. Typical mechanical properties and, for comparison purposes, those for a typical automotive steel, 

are shown in Table 1. Stress-strain curves for these materials are shown in Figure 1. 

2.2 Material characteristics - Extruded Shapes 

The aluminum AA6xxx (Al-Mg-Si) alloys are the preferred ones for extrusions for thin- walled (and solid) 

beam structural members, and particularly for space 

frame structures. This is due to ease of extrusion, good 

formability, excellent corrosion resistance and good 

weldability. These alloys provide good strength at low 

cost, are readily formed in the T4 temper and can be 

used in this temper or can be artificially aged to the T5 

or T6 temper to give higher strengths. Of the alloys used 

in space frames, AA6063 has the lowest strength and 

highest formability, followed by the medium strength 

AA6061, AA6005 and AA6005A alloys and the high 

strengthAA6082. Typical mechanical properties for these 

alloys are given in Table 2. The AA7xxx series of alloys 

(Al-Mg-Zn) are used for bumper support beams but are 

not as corrosion resistant, are not as easy to weld and are 

not therefore favored for body structures. The Al-Mg 

alloys are not readily extruded and therefore are not available as extrusions, but seam-welded tube in A1-Mg alloys such as AA5754 can be effectively used instead of 

A number of alloys are used in current applications, but 

the major one is the alloy AA6111 which has an A1-MgSi-Cu composition and offers the strongest properties 

after painting. However, care must be taken with alloys 

of the AA6xxx family when used for structural applications because they are not as thermally stable as the 5xxx 

alloys. For example, the 6xxx alloys should not be used 

for crash-energy management structural members that 

will be constantly exposed to elevated temperatures durTable 1. Material structural properties. 

.Simulaiedpaint bake conditions (t% plus 30 Table 2. Typical mechanical properties of automotive 

min at 177'C) extrusion alloys. 

Elastic Density Yield UTS Elong- Alloy mOdulus (kgIm3 strength ation 

(Mpa x 103) (ma) x 103) (%) 

6063-T4 90 172 23 

6063-T5 69 2.7 145 185 12 

6063-T6 215 240 12 

6005A-T4 115 215 22 

6005A-T5 69 2.7 265 290 12 

6005A-T6 265 290 12 

606 1 -T4 145 240 22 

6061-T5 69 2.7 270 300 10 

6061-T6 275 310 12 

6082-T4 150 2 1 

6082-T6 310 330 8 
Table 3. Structural performance of thin-walled beams for two aluminum alloys compared to auto steel. 

extruded tube in an AA6xxx alloy, and especially for 

making hydroformed shapes. 

The 6xxx alloys commonly used in vehicle structilres 

for crash energy absorption are 6063,6005A and 6061. 

As with the 6xxx sheet materials, some consideration 

must be given to the material temper that is employed, 

particularly where these components will be exposed to 

elevated temperature during vehicle service. One recommended treatment is overaging to the T7 temper, typically using 8 hrs. at 2 lo", to improve the ductility and 

reduce and stabilize the strength.. 

3.1 Aluminum in Automotive Structures - General 

Vehicle structures can be regarded as an assembly of three 

types of components namely: 

- Thin walled beams 

Panels 

Solid beams 

The performance of aluminum materials in each of these 

types of components depends on the yield strength of 

the material (0,) and three critical material parameters 

namely Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and density, 

all three of which as noted above are essentially constant for the alloys used in automotive structures. The 

value of these parameters at room temperature are: 

Young's modulus: (E) 70,000 MPa 

Poisson's ratio (v) 0.33 

Density (p) 2700 kgIm3 

The consequences of these material parameters in developing passenger car structures and truck frames when 

compared with steel, the conventional and well-proven 

material for automotive structures, are developed in the 

next three sections. 

3.2 Structural Performance of Thin-walled Beams 

from sheet as in monocoque body-in-white (6-I-W) 

structures or, in the case of aluminum space frame structures, from hollow extrusions. Structural criteria for thinwalled beams for two different materials for beams with 

fxed outer dimensions are presented in Appendix A. 

Numerical results for two different alloys, AA5754-0 

andAA6 11 1-T4, compared to a typical automotive steel 

are given in Table 3. 

The above results need some clarification. Namely, from 

the stiffness criterion, it looks as if there is no weight 

saving to be achieved by substitution of aluminum. This, 

however, will only be the case when the outer dimensions of the beam are fixed. In this case, the aluminum 

beam, with three times the wall thickness of the steel 

beam will be over-designed for all other criteria. When 

an increase in the outside dimension of the beam is permitted, however, aluminum substitution can achieve a 

balance of properties with equal wall buckling resistance 

and stiffness in bending, and with a mass ratio to a steel 

100 .-- --- - -- 1 Constant 

Thin walled beams are the predominant structural ele- Figure 2. Comparative box section bending stiffness 

ments in vehicle structures, whether these are fabricated of aluminum as a percentage of steel. 

0 

I 

I 

I I 

I . 0 25 50 75 100 

Relative Mass (%) 
Table 4. Structural performance of panels for two aluminum alloys compared to auto steel. 

beam of 0.67. In that case, the thickness ratio tA/ts is 1.65 It is also possible to calculate thickness and mass ratios 

and the beam height ratio hAhs is 1.22, where the sub- for two materials for bending strength, buckling strength, 

scripts A and S refer respectively to aluminum and steel. denting resistance and vibration frequency and the relaThe effect of changing the beam dimensions and mate- tionship for various performance criteria are given in 

rial thickness on the stiffness and mass of an aluminum Appendix B. 

beam relative to a steel one is shown in Figure 2. 

Numerical results for two different alloys, AA5754-0 

33 Structural Performance of Panels andAA6 1 1 1-T8X, compared to a typical automotive steel 

are presented in Table 4. 

The bending stiffness of a flat panel of a unit length is 

proportional to the cube of its thickness and the Young's It is apparent from the table that a mass reduction of 

modulus of the material. Again, designating steel and 50% compared to a typical automotive steel is achievaluminum properties with subscripts Sand A respectively, able in aluminum panels for all criteria. Furthermore, if 

the thickness ratios and mass ratios of components made denting resistance or the frequency of natural vibration 

of two materials for equal stiffness can be expressed as: are the dominant criteria, an alloy such as AA6 1 1 1 -T8X 

that attains high strength in the paint-baked condition, 

% has the potential to reduce the mass even more. 

3.4 Structural Performance of Solid Section Beams 

Substituting properties of aluminum as EA = 70,000 MPa, 

pA = 2700 kgIm3 and of steel as Es = 2 10,000 MPa, ps = 

7850 kg/m3 gives 

Therefore, in order to achieve the same bending stiffness, an aluminum panel will require to have 1.442 times 

the thickness of a steel panel. Its mass (and consequently 

weight) will be just under half of that of the steel one. 

Solid section beams rarely occur as structural components in passenger vehicles, but are dealt with here for 

completeness. It is assumed that the cross section is of a 

fixed shape (fixed ratio between width and height), but 

that it can vary in overall dimension. Structural criteria 

for two different materials for beams with fixed outer 

dimensions are presented in Appendix C. 

Numerical results for two different alloys, AA5754-0 

and AA6 1 1 1 -T8, compared to a typical automotive steel 

are given in Table 5. 

Table 5. Structural performance of solid section beams for two aluminum alloys compared to auto steel. 

218 
Figure 3. Ford P2000 aluminum body-in-white. Figure 4. Aluminum space frame for the Audi A8. 

4.1 Passenger Car Body Structures 

Figures 3 and 4 illustrate two good but very different 

approaches to the use of aluminum for passenger car body 

structures. The former shows the aluminum stamped 

sheet body-in-white (B-I-W) structure for Ford's P2000 

PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles) 

prototype family sedan, while Figure 4 shows the structural space frame of the production Audi A8, a large 

luxury sedan. However, both represent excellent examples of the structural use of aluminum for automotive 

applications. 

The P2000 structure is essentially built using stampings 

in AA5754-0 aluminum sheet material, joined in stiffness critical regions by weld bonding and otherwise by 

conventional spot welding. Weld bonding is a combination of structural adhesive bonding with spot welding 

and the continuous nature and the geometric configuration of such joints results in significant increases in joint 

stiffness and fatigue endurance compared with just spot 

The main structural members in the Audi A8 structure 

are derived from hollow aluminum extrusions in a medium strengthAA6xxx alloy of the 6063 type. These have 

been formed using either stretch bending or other forming techniques as appropriate, and they are joined together by fusion welding to cast, high ductility connector nodes in an A1-Si alloy. Again the thickness and the 

sections of the beams have been designed to provide a 

high stiffness and this is helped by the fact that the main 

beams are closed sections and that they are joined together efficiently at the nodes by the welding. The body 

structure is completed with sheet stampings, which act 

as shear panels. Audi has estimated that this structure is 

some 40% lighter than a similar sized steel structure and 

yet provides enhanced structural stiffness and exceptional 

crashworthiness. 

Several other aluminum space fkame vehicles have been 

successfully developed using formed extrusions, some 

with different joining techniques such as compression 

The benefit in terms of stiffness improvement that comes 

from using continuous rather that spot joining is illus- 70 -I 

trated in Figure 5. This shows as a result how the mate- 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

rial thickness can be reduced and also how then the ma- Relative Mass (%) 

terials gauges can be optimized to further reduce the Figure 5. Impact of adhesive bonding and gauge weight. optimization on body structure stifmess. 

welding. As a result, the amount of aluminum gauge increase necessary to obtain global structural stiffness compared with an equivalent all spot welded steel structure 110- 

can be limited to about 50%. However, in new designs, E selected increase in "beam" sections can reduce the , loo - rn 

amount of gauge increases that are necessary. The B-I- " 

W weight for the P2000 is just 299 lb. (135.6 kg) comgo- pared with 632 lb. (286.8 kg) for the current Ford Tau- > .- rus, an equivalent sized family sedan. * - cd 

2 80 

Steel 

- - - - 
fit forming or structural adhesive bonding coupled with 

self tapping mechanical fasteners. 

4.2 Truck body Frames 

The next example of aluminum for automotive structures comes from a study to examine the replacement of 

a steel truck frame with an aluminum one. Again this 

illustrates the use of section changes and the importance 

of joining for achieving both stiffness and weight saving. A typical ladder type frame, as is commonly used 

for pick-up trucks and some sports utility vehicles, was 

studied. The design options examined for substituting 

aluminum were as follows: 

Uniform up-gauge from steel 

Selective up-gauge (optimization) 

Increase in sections' outer dimensions 

Improvements in connections 

Modification of cross sections 

Up-gauging alone would allow the bending and torsional 

stiffness targets to be met with a gauge increase of some 

2.25, giving a weight saving of only 17%. However, upgauging by 1.8 and increasing section height by 20% 

allowed the bending stiffness target to be met and the 

torsion stiffness target to be exceeded, giving a projected 

weight saving of 34%. And with up-gauging optimization, this could be increased to a 36% weight saving. 

Next the stiffness of the joints between the longitudinal 

and cross beams was examined, and by making these 

more efficient, the weight saving over the steel frame 

could be increased to 47%. Finally, replacing some open 

beams with closed sections showed the potential for a 

greater than 50% weight saving. These various scenarios 

are summarized in Table 6. 

ansion of sections by 20%, 

Of necessity, the study also addressed fatigue durability 

and impact performance. In both cases it was concluded 

that, with the optimized gauges and sections required to 

achieve the stiffness targets, meeting the fatigue endurance and the impact collapse requirements to provide 

crashworthiness would not be an issue. 

It should be noted here, however, that the above study 

could only be carried using finite element analysis methods. Today, this has become a necessity for the detailed 

analysis and optimizations routines that are required to 

make optimum use of materials for establishing weightefficient vehicle structure designs. 

5. Summary 

The above study essentially captures all the factors that 

have to be considered in designing automotive structures 

in aluminum. In particular, it illustrates the importance 

of maximizing the sectipn properties of structural members, of optimizing gauge depending upon the structural 

function of each component, and of employing efficient 

joints between the structural members and between these 

and the structural shear panels. 

With a range of alloys for both structural and closure 

panel materials-which are available in a variety of product forms including sheet, extruded shapes and seam 

welded tube-and proven joining methods such as fusion welding and weld bonding, aluminum is well placed 

to meet the need of the automotive industry for building 

light weight, structurally efficient vehicles. 

6. Acknowledgment 

The author wishes to acknowledge the input of Dr. D.M. 

Moore and Mr. A.S. Warren of Alcan Global Automotive Products, and access to Alcan's automotive technology database. 

Table 6. Summary of potential design optimizations 

for an aluminum truck frame. DuraIcanTM is a trademark ofAlcan Aluminum Corporation 

Appendix B 

Structural Criteria for Panels 

Bending Stiffness 

Bending Strength 

Buckling Strength 

Denting Resistance 

Vibration Frequency 

I (a )7 EA 

I 

(sfi 

O YA 

I v Eslf 

(I -v i) EA 

Oa & I -( )T 

OYA ES 

-- Es PA 

EA PS 

- PA Es 1 (--i)T Ps EA 

1 

fi (9Ep Ps OYA 

PA (I-v~ Eslf -1 

PS (I-v~)EA 

-- I PA OYS EA (- 17 

Ps OYA Es 

(fiI2 - Es 

PS EA 
Appendix C 

Structural Criteria for Solid Section Beams 

Bending Strength 

0 YA 

Vibration Frequency 

I 

(& &I? 

EA Ps 

P Es 2 

(d)S (-)S P s EA 

ALUMINUM MATERIALS FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY 

FRIENDLY VEHICLES 

M. J. Wheeler 

Alcan Global Automotive Products 

136 Bagot Street 

Kingston, Ontario K7L 3E5 

Canada 

Telephone: 

e-mail Mike. Wheeler2@syrnpatico.ca 

Aluminum Materials for Environmentally Friendly Vehicles 

MJ. Wheeler 

Alcan International Limited 

ESDISAE Conference and Exposition (ENV'98) 

on Environmental Vehicles and Alternative Fuels 

Ypsilanti. MI - June 15-17 1998 

ABSTRACT 

The energy consumption of vehicles is largely determined 

by their weight. Therefore, reduction in weight for environmentally 

friendly vehicles is particularly important, not only for 

conventionally powered vehicles which generate exhaust 

emissions but also for electric and alternative energy powered 

vehicles since their range is Critically dependent on weight 

Aluminum, because of its low density and availability in 

a wide range or product forms, is already an important 

automotive material for saving weight. However, by using 

aluminum for the body structures and fi-arnes of vehicles, 

.significantly more weight can be saved. 

This paper will describe the aluminum materials and 

enabling technologies that have been developed for building 

aluminum intensive vehicles and will illustrate the application of 

'aluminum for vehicle structures through the prototype and 

production vehicles that have been developed by the auto 

companies during the last few years. The paper will conclude on 

.the activities of the aluminum industry to ensure an appropriate 

supply of material for the automotive industry. 

INTRODUCTION 

The carbon dioxide generated by transportation vehicles 

accounts for z very sigDlf1cant part of the greenhouse gases 

generated by industrialized countries and one statistic here, for 

example, is that one-third of the United States' carbon dioxide 

emissions comes fiom the transportation sector and primarily from 

passenger vehicles"). The fuel consumption and hence the CO, 

emissions of these vehicles is directly related to their weight and 

thus weight reduction is a very key requirement for the 

development of environmentally friendly vehicles powered by 

conventional fossil fuel engines. However, weight reduction is also 

very important for an alternative energy powered vehicles since 

this again lowers their energy consumption, reducing, in the 

size and output requirement of the power train and extending their 

range, this being a common limitation of most of the alternative 

fueled vehicles which have been introduced to date. 

Another important consideration for the development of 

environmentally fiiendly vehicles is that the materials used for 

their manufacture must themselves be environmentally friendly, 

especially in regard to recycling. This is so that as vehicles reach 

the end of their usell life, the materials can be recycled into new 

vehicles and done so without the generation of significant 

quantities of greenhouse gases. 

ALUMINUM AS A MATERIAL FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY FRlENDLY VEHXCLES 

Aluminum, because of its low density, high strength to 

weight ratio, corrosion resistance, ready availability in a wide 

range of product forms and its recyclability, is already an 

important material to the automakers for weight reduction. In 

1996, for example, some 3.6 billion Ibs. of aluminum were used 

in North American can and light trucks, saving about this same 

weight of heavier materials@). However, by extending its use to 

the main body structure of vehicles and for all the exterior 

panels, much more weight could be saved both as primary 

weight saving and also through the secondary weight saving 

which can be achieved when the primary weight is reduced. 

As I will describe in this presentation, aluminum can 

typically replace twice its weight in steel and the benefit of this 

for developing environmentally friendly vehicles is very 

significant, and especially so when recycling is involved. For a 

typical family-sized, six passenger sedan with a gasoline internal 

combustion engine, the accepted number for the impact of 

weight saving on fuel consumption is 0.88 US gal. per lb. of 

weight saving over a typical lifetime mileage of 100,000 miles. 

Some 2.88kg of CO, is generated from each liter of gasoline 

used, giving a reducGon of 21 tonnes of CO, when 2 tonnes of 

steel are replaced by 1 toke of aluminum. This is offset by the 

C02 generated in the production chain ofaluminum from bauxite 

and, for smelting in North America, this amounts today to about 

12.6 tonnes of C02 per tonne of aluminum. However, there are 

the savings in CO, gcneration from not producing the steel. 
If thc s1urrinpi-n 1s supplicd rrom recycled mst~rial, the 

CO, generated comes down from 12.6 to 1.6 tonncs per tonne of 

ai-minum, thc:c5y s;gn!iicuntly eni?ancing the znvironieni~i 

impac: of using aiurninurn acd cnphasizing the imponancc of 

using a matcria; which is readily recyclable and at minimum 

-';os:" in re.ms of energy use and CO, generation. As 3 matter of 

record, the s~dy onthe aluminum useage in the automotive and 

!ighi truck mark-[ for 1996 conducted on bchalf of the 

X:uminum Associ3tio~"~ showed that some 2.0 billion Ibs. of thc 

3.6 billion 1Ss. of slurninum used by the North Aiaerican auto 

industry in cars md light ;rucks in 1996 was secondary (recycled 

content) metal. Finally, it is perhaps worth noting that, should 

tnding permits for CO, cmissions develop as a iesuit of the 

Kyoto Protocol, then the improvement in gas mileage and 

rcduciions in CO, cmissions that will result from thc greater use 

of aluminum ir, vehicles could flow through to the auto 

companies and io their customers in terms of some significan: 

dollar value credits. 

There are thus some compelling reasons for using 

aluminum in the production of environmentally friendly 

vehicles but what materials and manufacturing systems have 

been developed to enable the environmental benefits of 

alumir,um to be strained? 

MXTEFU.4LS .%\XI .GL;MINUM VEHICLE DESIGM 

SYSTElMS 

SThcCfTED SHEET STRUCTUTfES 

The stamped sheet or unibody approach for aluminum 

structured vehicles is based on the approach used today with 

steel for essentizlly all high volume production vehicles where 

designs have been -gadually optimized to reduce mass and 

enhance structural stiffness, the latter being key for good 

handling and drivability characteristics. Hondal') employed the 

stamped sheet approach for their aluminum intensive NSX, 

using a combination of spot and MIG spot welding to join the 

structure together but, due to the lower modulus of aluminum, 

the body structure weight saving was limited to 40% compared 

with an equivalent steel design. However, a breakthrough came 

for aluminum with the development by Alcan of its Aluminum 

Vehicle Technology (XVT) structural bonding system using an 

AI-3%Mg structural sheet material (AA5754-0)(5). The 

structural bondhg significantly increases the body structure 

stiffness, particularly the torsional stiffness. In turn, this enables 

Figure 1. Ford's P2000 PNGV protorye 

228 

Figure 2. Aluminum body structure of Ford's P2000 

the weight saving compared to steel to be increased to over 50%. 

thereby improving the economics for using aluminum by 

reducing the weight used and also giving enhanced torsional 

stiffness compared to spot welded steel. exceptional fatipe 

endurance and enhanced impact energy absorption (which will 

be discussed later). 

The AVT system was fmt used in a production vehicle 

for the front longitudinal crash encrgy nanzgemeni beams for 

the Jaguar Sport XJ220, a limited production, high performance 

sports car. The major applications to date are for General 

Motors' EVI production electric car, for Ford's AIV and, most 

recently, for Ford's P2000 PNGV prototype which is shown in 

Figure 1. The road behaviour of all of these vehicles has proved 

to be outstandig particularly in terms of road holding, improved 

NVH characteristics and enhanced acceleration and braking 

performance. Table 1 shows the weig??t savings that were 

achieved with aluminum in Ford's AIV compared with the then 

current DN5 Ford Taurus on which the design was based. 

The weld-bonded aluminum body-in-white strucrure of 

the Ford P2000 is shown in Fi-we 2. Table 2 shows the weight 

reduction for the aluminum body-in-white and closure panels for 

the P2000 compared with the current (DN10 1) Taurus. In total, 

some 733 lbs. of aluminum, which represents some 36.9% of the 

vehicle weight, is used in the P2000 and the total weight 

reduction for this vehicle compared with the DN 10 1 Taurus is 

13 18 Ibs or 40%, much of which sterns from the substirution of 

aluminum for heavier material^^^'. 

Bused on publisheci Ford infirmation 

Tablc I. Weight and weight saving for the Ford AIV 
~2000 DN 10 1 Weight reduction 

Body-in-whitc 

Closures 102 243 141 58 

Total 10 1 875 474 54 

Table 2. Body-in-white and closure panel weight reductions for 

P2000 versus 1997 (DN 10 I) Taurus 

In the AVT system, essentially only one sheet material, 

the Al-Mg alloy AA5754 in the 0 temper is used. This is supplied 

with a surface pretreatment to provide good long-term bond 

strength durability and with a system compatible pre-applied 

press-forming lubricant to facilitate forming and to protect the 

pretreatment during fonning and handling. Honda uses 5 182-0 

in the body structure of the NSX but this material can be 

susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and must have 

appropriate surface protection. However, it has an excellent 

combination of strength and formability and is an excellent 

material for semi structural parts and inner closure panels. It is 

susceptible to Luders lines on forming and thus is not suitable for 

visually critical outer panels. 

While the use of aluminum for the body structure can 

provide weight savings of over 300 Ibs in a typical mid-sized 

sedan, the outer body panels also represent a significant 

opportunity for weight saving. Aluminum is already a well 

established material for exterior closure panels such as hoods 

and deck lids and Table 2 shows that the adoption of alumioum 

for all the closure panels in the Ford P2000 resulted in a weight 

of just 102 lbs. compared 243 Ibs. for closure panels of the 

current Ford Taurus. 

Today, the predominant closure panel alloy is AA6 1 1 1 

and is used, for example, for all the hoods on the Ford F150 

pickups where the annual volume is in excess of 600,000 units. 

It is an Al-Mg-Si-Cu alloy which is highly formable in the assupplied T4 temper and strengthens to give a yield strength of 

>200 MPa on paint baking. A roping-free version (T41 temper) 

and enhanced paint bake response variants (eg. T4P temper) 

which can also be roping-fiee, are now available where the latter 

can develop a yield strength of up to 270 MPa on paint baking 

following forming. This strength is comparable with that of 

some of the bake-hardening steels used today for closure panels 

and gives comparable dent resistance"). Another 6000 series 

alloy, AA6022, has also recently been introduced with 

somewhat similar properties to AA6 1 1 1 and is used for some of 

the body panels of the Plymouth Prowler. 

Typical properties for the above structural and closure 

sheet materials are given in Table 3. 

SPACE FM STRUCTURES 

The space frame approach for developing light weigh: 

vehicle structures was pioneered by Al~oa(~) and Norsk Hydro(g) 

and, more recently, has been fiuther evolved by AIumax('O) and 

by Lotus Cars"". In this approach, structural frames are built 

using shaped or formed aluminum extrusions which are joined 

together by a variety of methods such as hion welding to cast 

connecting nodes (Alcoa), sectioning and direct fusion welding 

(Norsk Hydro), compression fit forming (Alumax), and 

Density Yield UTS Elong- Alloy/ ~O~U~US (wd strensh 

temper (MPa (MPa) 103) 

5754-0 70 2.67 95 220 26 

5 182-0 7 1 2.65 130 275 21 

6111-T4 69 2.7 1 I50 290 26 

2% E + PB* 205 315 22 

6111-T4P 69 2.7 1 145 288 25 

2%&+PB 270 345 20 

6111-T41 69 2.7 1 165 290 25 

2%&+PB 215 295 19 

6062-T4 69 2.69 150 255 26 

2%e+PB 215 285 24 

- 

*PA tensile strain plus 30 min at 177'C 

Table 3. Typical mechanical properties for aluminum automotive sheet materials 

adhesive bonding supplemented by mechanical fasteners (Lotus 

Cars). 

The first aluminum space frame production car is the 

Audi A8, and Figure 3 shows the space frame of this vehicle. The 

major structural members; which are made from medium 

strength Al-MgSi alloy extrusions, are joined together by firsion 

welding to cast nodes in an AI-Si alloy, the latter being produced 

using a "high ductility" casting process. Much of the welding is 

carried out robotically. The body structure is completed with 

stamped panels in an aluminum 6000 series alloy and the 

exterior closure panels are also in aluminum, using the European 

AA6016 Al-MgSi alloy. As a result, sheet is the predominant 

material in the vehicle although structural integrity and energy 

absorption for crashworthiness is mainly provided by the space 

frame. 

Other examples of space frame vehicles are the Renault 

Spider with the Norsk Hydro approach, the Lotus Elise, the 

Plymouth Prowler (Alcoa) and the Panoz Roadster (Alumax). 

The latter is a very low volume production vehicle and 

interestingly its outer panels are formed from superplastic 

aluminum sheet. Another space frame vehicle is Nissan's AL-X 

Figure 3. Audi's AS aluminum space frame 
.hybrid gasolinelelectric powered vehicle and Chrysler has also 

taken advantage of the weight saving that can be achieved with 

aluminum in its ESX 1 and 2 PNGV prototypes. 

The aluminum 6000 series (Al-Mg-Si) alloys are the 

preferred ones for space frames due to ease of extrusion and good 

formability, corrosion resistance and weldability. They are 

readily formed in the as-extruded and naturally aged condition 

(T4 temper) and can be used in this condition or can be 

artificially aged to the T5 or T6 temper to give increased 

strengrh. The alloys most commonly used are AA6063, 

AA6005A and AA6061, with the T4 or the overaged T7 tempers 

preferred, due to their good fracture toughness, for members 

designed for the crash energy absorption structure of ~ehicles"~). 

Table 4 lists typical properties for these alloys. 

The various aluminum intensive vehicles that have been 

developed provide adequate demonstration that the weight 

savings required for environmentally friendly vehicles can and 

are being achieved. However, this is not by itself sufficient to 

prove that such vehicles will also be crashworthy. 

While it is obvious that no car manufacturer would build 

and sell or release for road use any vehicle that does not meet or 

exceed the accepted standards for occupant safety, there is 

nevertheless a concern that vehicles with reduced weight also 

have reduced crashworthiness. In fact, aluminum vehicle 

structures absorb kinetic energy in a crash by concertina folding 

or bending collapse in just the same way as for steel structures 

and very similar design approaches are used for both materials. 

Thus, the front and rear end extensions to the occupant "safety 

cage" are designed to collapse in major impacts by concertina 

folding. Aluminum, which typically is used at 50% thicker 

gauge than steel and hence at about half the weight, has an 

advantage in that the greater thickness results in more of the 

metal being deformed by the folding collapse, thereby 

enhancing its energy absorption This compensates for the 

Density Yield UTS ElongAlloy (kg& strength ation 

pax xlO3) (MPa) 103) 

6063-T4 90 172 23 

6063-T5 69 2.70 145 185 12 

6063-T6 215 240 12 

6063-T7* 115 13 

6005A-T4 115 215 22 

6005A-T5 69 2.70 265 290 12 

6005A-T6 265 290 12 

6005A-T7* I76 14 

606 1-T4 145 240 22 

$061-T5 69 2.70 270 300 10 

606 1-~6 275 310 12 

Dynamic crash (in) 

Head Injury Criteria 

WC) 

Chest acceleration (g) 

Chest displacement 

(in> 

Torso belt load (Ib) 

Left femur load (Ib) 

Right femur load (Ib) 

*8 hrs at 210% 

Steel FMVSS 

(DNS) 208 Req. 

30.8 28.4 - 

549 524 1000 

37 53 60 

1.4 1.4 3.0 

1219 1686 - 

697 1644 2250 

906 1092 2250 

Table 4. Typical mechanical properties for automotive extrusion 

alloys. 

higher strength of steel and the net result is that an aluminum 

structure will absorb about the same amount of energy as an 

equivalent steel one at half the weight. Another advantage for 

aluminum is that longer front and rear crumple zones can be 

maintained without incurring a severe weight penalty. 

Information on the crash behaviour of aluminum vehicle 

structures can be found in references (12), (13) and (14). 

Defmitive impact crash information has been released for 

both Ford's AN and Audi's A8 and this demonstrates that well 

designed aluminum vehicle structures can comfortably exceed 

the US FMVSS 208 occupant safety requirements for 3Omph 

impact, even when crashed at 3Smph. This represents a 36% 

Tablc 5. Frontal barrier crash results for Ford AIV and DN5 Tau- Table 6. Frontal crash banier data for 54.8 km/h impact forAudi 

m A8 (*medium risk) 

Head Injury 

Criteria (HIC) 

Head acceleration (g) 

Head pitch angle 

(3 

Chest acceleration (g) 

Pelvis acceleration (g) 

Force on thighs 

(lb) 

Driver Passenger Low Risk 

Injury Values 

53 1 424 < 1250 

6 1 54 5 90 

40 50 - 

56 57 < 60 

5 55 

61 66 (56-75*) 

1 1349 

530 587 
lncrcasc in the impac: energy over what IS rcquircd for iheSltti 

regulations. The cash data :i)r the AIV and thc A8 arc given in 

Tablcs 5 and 6. Tablc 5 also ~ncludcs corresponding data for ~1 

rcgular production steel DN5 Taurus and it can be seen that thc 

AIV gcnrrally meets or improvcs on the performancc of the 

production steel vehicle. 

OTHER AUTOIVIOTIVE ALUMINUM DEVELOPiLlENTS 

Today. the automotive use of aluminum is dominated by 

castings for engine and rransmission components, and for 

wheels where now over 10% of new vehicles have aluminum 

wheels, most of which are cast. The other major use of aluminum 

is for heat exchangers. i.c. radiators. evaporators and condensers 

for air conditioning systems and oil coolers where aluminum in 

the form of brazed and'or mechanically assembled units has 

essentially eliminated copper from hs sector of the automotive 

market. However, there are several new and significantly large 

market opportunities developing for aluminum in addition to the 

closure sheet market and the emerging body structure market. 

These are described briefly in the following sections:- 

CHASSIS AND SUSPENSION COMPONENTS 

Components for chassis and suspension components 

produced as structural castings or a semi-solid forgings (SSF) for 

engine brackets, control arms, steering knuckles and suspension 

components represent the next near term major growth 

opportunity for auto aluminum. 

Figure 4. SSF suspension components for the Plymouth Prowler 

Figure 4 illusuates some of the suspension components 

made by the SSF process for thc Plymouth Prowler. Cast brake 

rotors and brake drums in :DURALCAWM materials, a family 

aluminum metal matrix compositcs developed by Alcm, arc 

penetrating the markct. presently for in low volume vehicles 

such as the Prowler. GM's EV I and Toyota's electric version of 

the RAV4, and high volume applications are under active 

devclopmcnt. Figure 5 shows some examples for DURXLCAN 

brake components. DURILCAN material in the extruded form 

is also being used instead of stccl for dr~vzshaftsuch as in the 

current Chevrolet Corvcttc. 

L>URALCANTM - Owned by Alcan Alunllnlum Ltd. 

Figure 5. DURALCAW aluminum metal matrix brake components 

All of these aluminum applications have the advantage 

that they reduce the weight of unsprung components and thus 

provide an additional bonus in improving ride characteristics. In 

fact, it is necessary to do this to maintain good ride 

characteristics whenever the sprung weight of a vehicle is 

reduced such as when a cast-iron engine block is replaced by an 

aluminum one. 

TPJLOR WELDED BLANKS 

Tailor welded blanks in steel are now becoming 

commonplace due to improvement these give in terms of 

dimensional accuracy for the final stamped pan as well as to the 

reductions in material stamping offal and in the sets of stamping 

tooling required. These advantages will also apply to aluminum, 

first, as it fiu-ther penetrates into closures and then into body 

structures. Much progress has been made in the last two years in 

developing welding techniques for producing tailor welded 

blanks in aluminum, helped by the development of improved 

laser beam power sources, and particularly, YAG lasers. What I 

believc to be the fust application for an aluminum tailor welded 

blank in an automotive development is shown in Fi,yre 6. This 

is the rear body side inner stamping for Ford's P2000 prototypc 

produced in I .Omm joincd to 7.00m 5754 sheet material. The 

technology has now progressed to the point where components 

lncorponting an alumlnum tailor ~velded blank are being 

activcly pursued. 

tfYDROFOItL1ING 

ffydroformng of tubes to replace stamped and spot 

welded sub-components is growing mpldly for stecl and is also 

being adopted for some aluminum components. For cxamplc. 

tho current 5 scrles RblW scdnn has an aluminum rcar sub-frame 

nsscmblcd from hydroionned tuber; in an AI-blg alloy. the 
Fi,me 6. Aluminum body side inner stamping from a tailorwelded blan!! 

tubing being made from jheet formed into tube and joined by 

high-speed induction weldingis). The P2000 has a front subme made, in this cse, frorn hydroformed 6000 series 

extruded aluminum tubes and joined together by hion welding 

to Cast co~ectors'~'. 

Volvo has also explored the use of hydroformed 

aluminum members for the construction of a front end structure 

for the current S70 (forinerly the 850) model(t6). Combined with 

some aluminum sheet stainpings and an extrudedlstretched-bent 

part, they demonstrated a weight saving of 50% or 1211b 

compared with the steel monocoque structure of the production 

vehicle. The part count was also reduced by 50%. 

SObJCIXG SHEET MATEWS BY COhTINUOUS CASTING 

Concern has been expressed by the auto companies on the 

capacity of the aluminum industry to meet the sheet supply 

requirement needed for the high volume production of 

aluminum intensive vehicles. WXle this is certainly not an issue 

today or in the near future. there is a recognition that continuous 

strip casting inte,mted with rolling would be a way to add a new 

capacity when needed xd in increments t5at match the market 

grow-th. Typical capacir); increments for a suitable continuous 

casting plant would be : 90 :o 150,000 tonneiannum and would 

therefore avoid the high np-front costs for installing a DC ingotYield CTS Uniform r 

Stre~g~ El. (at n 

(SIPa) (Oh) 1094 E) 

6111-TiCC !71 305 22 .74 24 

(0.9mm)'3C 17! 312 72 .7S .25 

5754-0 CC 9.1 221 ! S .66 25 

(1.0mm)DC 102 731 20 .S4 .24 

from Frizdman and Shervar! 

Table 7. Mechanical pro?c'nlcs for alurni~~um autornotivz si:ect 

from continuom-cast ad DC, cast stock (rolling direction) 

ho: rnilL.coid ail1 production complex. fotentialiy, it could aiso 

rehc:: i!c ovcrall ?roduc::on costs for sheet. 

.Ucm hhas beer. explor!ng this possibi!ity, both tlrougi? 

Isbcntoy; jiz~iation sd :hcugh ~iais at the comLqr;ous strip 

casiing:;oi:ing plant it openlies in the Sapcnay region of 

Quebec. Fiaishea sheet of 3orh A45754 ma 1 1 hss been 

srodcccd md encomgicg results from ~e zvaiuation of some of 

his material were reported by Ford at 15s yex's DlS 

conference in San .kionio"'. A sample of these results is given 

in Table 7. W-52e =Of ciuire arching the performance of today's 

ccnves5orn!ly prcduced mtedals, the results iqdicate tht it 

shod2 be ?ossible io levz!op accepw5!e products by the 

coctinuous strip cas3ig rocte. 

Since the 5x1 consuption of vehicles is closely related 

to.:their weight, weight reduction is the key for developing 

enjzironmentally friendly vehicles, and especially those that 

derive their power fiom fossil fuels. 

Aluminum, due to its !ow density, high suen,d to weight 

ratio, ccorrosion resistance and availability ic a wide range of 

product forms is an idea1 mated for many automotive 

appiications including vehicle cons~~ction. Ty-picdly ;day, 

passenger cars contain - 8.5% aluminum and in 1996 the auto 

industry used 3.6 billion lbs. of aluninum in passenger vehicies, 

of which some 2 billion lbs. was secondary metal. 

Aluminum is a particularly effective material for body structures 

and closure panels which together comprise a large part of the 

primary weight of vehicles. Here, materials and enabling 

technologies have been developed to give wei&t reductions of 

over 50% compared with today's vehicles while yet maintaining 

vehicle crashwodEuess. In turn, the primary weight reduction 

allows the weight of many other components iacludiig the 

power train to be reduced. 

In body structures, closure panels and many other 

components, aluminum can replace twice its weight of steel, 

thereby save during the lifetime of typicd fay se& at 

least S tonnes of CO, for each one tonne of aluminum that has 

replaced hvo tonnes of steel, ad almost 20 tonnes of CO, when 

secondary aluminum is used. 

Several aluminum intensive environmentaily friendly 

Drototypes and production vehicles have been developed, 

notably, GM's EVI and Ford's P2000 PNGV prototype, 

providing vehicles that have excellent road holding, that are 

exciting to drive and amply dzmonstrate hat envirormenzlly 

fiiend!y vehicles can be ver);. attractive md desirable vehicles. 

REFERENCES 

[!I President Clinton Aimounces the United States C!imate 

Change Policy, Oct. 72. 1997 - Fact Sheet. 

[7] Drive .Aluminum and Drive Our Future - The Aluminum 

Association, LVashington. DC, 1997. 

[3j Study to Eeterrnifie .Aluminum Content in North .LL?erican Vehicles in 1996. Tine Aluminum Xssociarion, LVshingtori. 1996. 

[4] Y. Komatsu et al.. S.\E Technical Paper Scries 910548, 
[5] M.J. Wheeler et al., SAE Technical Paper 870416, 1987. 

161 Ford P2000 Ford Motor Company Press Release, May 

1997. 

173 H. Thorbum, Proceeding of the Intcmational Body Engineering Conference (IBEC '94) Vol. 7, Automotive Body 

Materials, p. 105. 

[8] E.F.M. Winter et al., Paper 905178 XXIII FISITA Congress Italy, Vol. 11, pgs. 465-471. 

193 IY. Ruch, Hydro Aluminium, Private Communication. 

[lo] J.C. Benedyk, Light Metal Age, pgs. 8-10, Oct 1996. 

Ell] Automotive Innovation, Materials World Vol. 3, pg. 584, 

1995. 

1121 M.J. Wheeler, Paper 98SAF042 ISATA Dusseldorf 1998. 

[I31 LJ. McGregor et al., Smctural Crashworthiness and Failure, Chapter 10 pgs. 385-42 1, Chapman and Hall, N.York, 

1993. 

[I41 "Crash Energy Management in Aluminum Alloy Automotive Structures", The Aluminum Association, Washington 

(to be published 1998). 

[IS] Thorsten Schulze VAW alutubes GmbH, 2nd International 

Conference on Innovations in Hydroforming Technology, 

Sept. 1997, Columbus, Ohio. 

[I 61 Guar Lass1 et al., IBEC '97 Advanced Technologies and 

Processes, pgs. 1 1-20. 

1171 P.A. Friedrnan and A.M. Sherman, Automotive Alloys I1 

TMS Annual Meeting, San Antonio, 1998, pgs. 147- 160. 

THE DRIVE FOR LIGHT WEIGHT VEHICLES 

IN NORTH AMIERICA 

M. J. Wheeler 

Alcan Global Automotive Products 

136 Bagot Street 

Kingston, Ontario K7L 3ES 

Canada 

Telephone: 

e-mail Mike. Wheeler2@sympatico.ca 

THE DRIVE FOR LIGHT WEIGHT VEHICLES IN NORTH AMERICA 

Dr. M.J. Wheeler*, Alcan International Limited 

ABSTRACT 

This paper will.summarize the underlying reasons for the drive for lighter weight passenger 

vehicles in North America and the response of the major North American vehicle manufacturers to government-imposed regulations and also to the joint government-industry initiative to 

develop light weight, high milease passenger cars under the so-called clean car or PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles) program. Some:of the aluminium intensive vehicles 

that have been developed under the various programs and the respective materials and technologies will be described. In addition, a summary will be presented of the efforts being undertaken by the North American aluminium companies, working jointly through the Automotive 

and Light Truck Committee of the Aluminum Association, to highlight the value of aluminium 

for light weighting vehicles and also to remove the rial andfor perceived barriers to the high 

volume use of aluminium in aluminium intensive vehicles. 

THE UNDERLYING REASONS FOR VEHICLE WEIGHT REDUCTION 

In North America, the major concerns about vehicle fuel consumption are the exhaust emissions that vehicles create, particular1 y CO,, the consumption of oil reserves and dependence on 

oil imports. This became highlighted in 1973 at the time of the OPEC oil crisis when the United 

States was importing some 359'0 of its crude oil needs and cars were only achieving 14.2mpg(US) 

(16.6U100km). These concerns led to the introduction of the CAFE or corporate average fuel 

economy regulations in 1978 which required each of the Big Three's car makers fleet of domestically produced cars (US and Canada) to achieve 18.0rnpg(US) (13.1 U100km). This target has 

been progressively increased to the present 27.5mpg (8.57U100km) and there are financial 

penalties imposed by the government if a car company's fleet does not reach this value. 

It was recognized that a vehicle's weight was the main factor in determining its fuel consumption and the impact of the OPEC coil crisis and then the CAFE legislation led to the introducEPA - Environmental Protection Agency 

OWL - Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

The average annual growth 

rate in vehicle weight since 

1986 is 1 .O% per year 

Figure 1. Average weight of new North American passenger cars 1977-1 995 

*Dr. M.J. Wheeler, Director of Research, Alcan International Limited 

237 
1976 1986 1991 1996 

Year 

Figure 2. Average aluminium content in North American passenger cars from 1976 to 1996 

tion of unibody or monocoque construction, the progressive adoption of front wheel drive and 

a general downsizing of vehicles to save weight. As a result, the average weight of new vehicles 

dropped rapidly from 1977 to 1980, reached a low in 1986 but has been increasing by about 1 % 

per annum for each new car since then (see Figure 1) due to the combination of government 

imposed safety requirements, and market demands and competition to provide added vehicle 

content and performance. However, the car makers have only been able to contain weight increases by gradually substituting aluminium for heavier materials in their vehicles, the aluminium content on average increasing from 39.5kg in 1976 to 114.3kg per car last year, a 

compound annual growth rate of - 6% (Figure 2)('). Currently, Chrysler and General Motors 

(GM) are meeting the passenger car CAFE requirement but Ford is just under the target at 

27.4mpg (8.60Y 100km) (Table1 ). 

Light trucks which includes mini vans and sports utility vehicles as well as the ubiquitous N. 

American pick up, were made subject to a CAFE target of 17.5mpg (US) (1 3.5U100km) in 

1982 and now have to meet a target of 20.7mpg (1 1.38UlOOkm). This market sector has become almost as large as the passenger car market but today none of the producers are meeting 

the CAFE target (see Table l), even though they are using on average 109.3kg of aluminium per 

vehicle. 

As a result of the growth of the light truck market sector and the lower CAFE requirement for 

these vehicles, the net fuel consumption and exhaust emissions for passenger vehicles are now 

increasing again in N. America and its also interesting to note that the US now imports some 

45% of its crude oil needs! 

Cars Light Trucks 

mpg (L/lOO km) mpg @,/lo0 km) 

Required 27.5 8.57 20.7 1 1.38 

Chrysler 27.9 8.44 20.4 11.55 

Ford 27.4 8.60 19.9 1 1.84 

General Motors 28.1 8.38 20.4 1 1.55 

Table 1. CAFE requirements and actuals 

238 
An obvious way to reverse these trends is to raise the CAFE requirements but recent US 

administrations have been reluctant to impose tighter standards. As an alternative, non-confrontational approach, the Clinton administration in the early part of its first term initiated a dialogue with the Big Three US car makers on ways to radically reduce vehicle fuel consumption 

and to improve air quality by the reduced exhaust emissions. This resulted in the PNGV or 

Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles program between the government and the Big 

Three car companies where the major aim is to develop by 2004 production ready prototypes of 

mid-sized sedans (saloons) which achieve 80mpg (US) (2.95UlOOkm) and which will cost at 

that time no more than conventional vehicles of the same size. Two other goals of the program 

are to increase material competitiveness in manufacturing and to implement technologies as 

they are developed to improve the gas mileage of conventional vehicle^'^). 

It was immediately recognized that the 80mpg goal would require power trains with much 

improved thermal eficiency compared with even the best of today's vehicles and also very 

significant weight reductions. especially in the body and the chassis. However, in 1995 when 

the partnership was started. all three of the car companies had some experience in using aluminium in body structures to reduce vehicle weight. Ford had built and tested its AIV and 

Synthesis 201 0 vehicles, aluminium intensive cars derived from the TaurusISable model, GM 

had developed an aluminium structure for the Impact, the prototype of its EVI electric car, and 

Chrysler had built the Neon Li te. an aluminium replica of the Neon sedan production car. 

Other factors driving weight reduction are the existence of various clean air acts and the 

slowness in the development of high storage capacity batteries for electric cars. Even though 

the GM EV1 and other electric vehicles are now available, the short range of these vehicles has 

limited their growth and the few that are in use are insufficient to provide any relief fiom vehicle air pollution effects in cities such as Los Angeles where they are being marketed. 

CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINIUM 

In a very detailed survey carried out on behalf of the Aluminum Association('), it was estimated 

that some 1.63M tonne of aluminium would be used in passenger cars and light trucks in N. 

America in 1996, some 0.9M tonne of which would be recycled metal. The dominant product 

form was castings (77%) followed by rolled products (12%) and extrusions (10%). 

The use by vehicle system is shown in Figure 3 where the major uses are for engine systems 

(32%) (cylinder heads, pump housings, and increasingly, cylinder blocks), transmission system 

(24%) (automatic transmission components, transmission cases, drive shafts, etc.), heat exchangers (1 9%) and wheels (1 4%). Almost all heat exchangers-radiators, oil cooler and air 

conditioning evaporator and condenser units--are now made in aluminium, most being brazed 

assemblies for reduced weight and increased thermal efficiency. Increasingly, some suspension 

components are now made by casting or by the semi-solid forging (SSF) process and brake 

components, particularly brake rotors and drums, are beginning to be made from aluminium 

metal matrix materials including the DURALCAP material developed by Alcan. These applications fall within the other applications sector (1 1%) which also includes closure sheet 

applications and body structures. It is these two where weight reduction fiom using aluminium 

can have the biggest impact and they represent major opportunities for aluminium that could 

grow to be bigger than the total of all of the aluminium applications in today's vehicles. 

DURALCAP - Owned by AIcan Aluminium ~i&ted 
Figure 3. Aluminium applications in vehicle Figure 4. primary and secondary weights in a 

systems for 1996 typical N. herican sedan (1 997 Ford Taurus) 

Aluminium is an obvious material for these and other automotive applications. Its density is 

about one-third that of steel (2.7kg/m3 versus 7.8kg/m3 for steel)., it has a higher strength to 

weight ratio than steel, and although its stiffness modulus is lower, it has specific modulus 

equal to that of steel. It is available in volume as sheet, ex~sions, castings, forgings and now as 

metal matrix composites, is corrosion resistant and 100% recyclable. 

PFUMARY AND SECONDARY WEIGHT SAVING 

In order to reduce the overall weight of a vehicle, it is important to appreciate the significant of 

saving weight in the body structure and to a lesser extent in the exterior closure panels. The 

various system weights for a typical N. American mid-sized sedan, the current Ford Taurus, is 

shown in Figure 4. The body structure or body-in-white is the single heaviest component in all 

cars and is structurally the most important, providing the safety cage to house and protect the 

occupants, front and rear crumple zones to absorb energy in the event of a major collision and 

a rigid structure to support the power train and the vehicle's suspension. 

It is the weight and size of the body structure and the weight of the closure panels that surrounds it that determine size of the power train required, the performance required of the suspension and brakes and the size of the fuel system. Thus, the body structure and closure panels 

fom part of what is known as the primary vehicle weight and major reductions in their weight 

allows for corresponding weight reductions in the secondary vehicle systems. Another paper in 

this conference, shows, in fact, that secondary weight savings can be almost equal to the primary weight saving. In the following section, some of the vehicles with aluminium body structures and the materials and enabling technologies that have been used to build them will be 

briefly described. 

ALUMINIUM SPACE FRAME VEHICLES 

The space fiame approach for developing light weight aluminium vehicle structures was pioneered by Al~oa(~) andNorsk Hydro and, more recently, has been further developed by Alurna~'~) 

and by Lotus Cars in the UK ('). In this approach, structural frames are built using shaped or 

formed aluminium extrusions which are joined together by a variety of methods such as fusion 

welding to cast connecting nodes (Alcoa), sectioning and direct fusion welding (Norsk Hydro), 

compression fit forming (Alumax), and adhesive bonding supplemented with mechanical fasteners (Lotus Cars). The compression fit forming approach is particularly attractive in that there 

is no heat-affected zone from welding and only relatively simple tooling is required. 
The first aluminium space frame production car was the Audi ASF A8 which is now sold in 

North America as well as in Europe, see.Figure 5. Other examples are the Renault Spider with 

the Norsk Hydro approach, the Lotus Elise, the Panoz Roadster (Alumax) and the Plymouth 

Prowler (Alcoa). In the latter two examples, the space frame is really more of a basic ladder 

frame since the vehicles are open-topped sports cars. 

Figure 5. Aluminium space fixme for the Audi A8 

The space frame approach does not save as much weight as the unibody approach but is more 

cost efficient at low production volumes, even in comparison with the conventional steel unibody 

design. This is because extrusion dies are less expensive than sheet stamping dies and the part 

integration opportunities with extrusions allows for the reduction in the number of parts and in 

the assembly costs. 

Space frames have to be completed with sheet stampings and, typically, there can be more 

sheet than extrusions in a completed body; for instance, in the Audi A8 there is 1 10kg of sheet 

compared with 61kg of extrusions. The major advantages for the aluminium space fiame approach are: 

- Lower part making investment costs. 

- Reduced part count due to part integration provided by extrusions and castings. 

- Adaptable to a variety of low volume vehicle design approaches and methods for assembly. 

- An enabling approach for the development of low volume specialty vehicles. 

ALUMINIUM UNIBODY VEHICLES 

Almost all the high volume cars produced today have steel unibodies made fiom stamped sheet, 

spot welded together. This approach has been gradually optimized to reduce the mass and enhance the structural stiffness, the latter being key for obtaining good handling and drivability 

characteristics. The aluminium unibody is based on the same approach and an early example 

was the Dyna Panhard of circa 1 954(6), where spot welding was used to assembly the panels. A 

much more recent example is the Acura NSX where Honda used a combination of spot and 

MIG spot welding"). However, due to the lower modulus of aluminium, the weight saving was 

limited to about 40% compared with steel but a breakthrough for aluminium came with the 

development by Alcan of its Aluminium Vehicle Technology (AVT) structural bonding approach 
using .4A5753 (AI-3%Mg) structural sheet'$) (Figure6). This enables the weight saving compared with steel to be increased to over 50%, thereby reducing the weight of the aluminium and 

hence ihe cost as well as giving enhanced structural stiffness compared with spot welded steel 

and exceptional fatigue endurance as a result of eliminating the stress concentrations at spot 

welds. 

r. I ; I,... 

I.... . 

Pressing m 

Adhesive 

application 

Storage 

.t:-z"-. '? 

Sub-assembly & Spot welding body build Thermal cure 

Figure 6. Alcan AVT system for bonded body structures 

Ford employed the AVT system for its Aluminium Intensive Vehicle (AN) program where 

some 40 D's were built, based on the geometry and mechanicals of the then current DN5 

Tauus/Sable models. The aims of this program were to confirm the weight savings that could 

be achieved, to test the drivability, durability and crashworthiness of the vehicles and to explore 

the suitability of the system for high volume manufacturing. The AIV body-in-white structure 

is shown in Fiewe 7 and the car body was completed with AA6111 aluminium alloy closure 

panels. The net weight saving was 173kg and the cars proved to have excellent handling and 

NVH characteristics, durability and crashworthiness. Had secondary weight savings been 

adopted, it is estimated that a total weight reduction of almost 3 18kg could have been achieved(9). 

Figure 7. Ford AN body-in-white 
GM also adopted the AVT system for the body structure of its electric car prototype, the 

Impact which has since become its EVI 6oduction car. Here, to reduce tooling costs for low 

volume production, some stamped sub-assemblies were replaced with either extrusions or castings and this also provided some part integration, reducing the past count from a typical 200 

plus to 1 68(9). 

The advantage of the AVT system for unibody structures are: 

- Use of structural adhesive bonding to minimize weight, enhance fatigue endurance and 

structural rigidity. 

- Its compatible with existing volume manufacturing facilities of the auto companies. 

- Adaptable to low volumes by incorporating extrusio& and casting. 

The Chrysler Corporation has explored the replacement of steel by aluminium in the body 

structure and closure panels in its Neon vehicle to produce the Neon Lite(Io) and subsequently 

developed an aluminium body structure for its Intrepid ESX PNGV prototype which is powered by a hybrid diesel-electric power system("). 

The most recent application of Alcan's AVT system is for Ford's P2000, their first purpose 

designed PNGV prototype where they have fully exploited the weight savings that can be achieved 

with aluminium in both the primary and secondary vehicle systems to achieve a projected weight 

- ofjust 908kg (20001b)"3. The major aluminium applications are as follows:- 

- A weld bonded AA5754 sheet body-in-white structure weighing 135.7kg and featuring two 

tailor welded blanks 

- Sheet closure panels in paint bake hardening 6000 series alloys (AA6111, with the deck lid 

in AA6022), weighing 46.3 kg 

- Cast front and rear shock towers in A356 alloy 

- Fabricated front-sub-frame using hydroforms and castings weighmg 14.4kg 

- DURALCAV front brake rotors and rear brake drums 

- Engine cylinder block for a 1.2 liter CIDI engine 

There is a total of 333kg aluminium in the P2000 and this comprises some 37% of the total 

vehicle weight. The full mix of materials compared with the materials used in the current Ford 

Taurus is shown in Table 2. The Figure 8 shows the weight reductions for the various vehicle 

P2000 

(kg) (%I 

Ferrous 218 24.0 

Aluminium 333 36.6 

Magnesium 3 9 4.3 

Plastic 122 13.4 

Other 196 2 1.6 

TOTAL 908 

Ford Taurus 

(kg) (%I 

978 65.0 

129 8.6 

4 0.3 

173 11.5 

22 1 14.7 

1505 

Table 2. Materials useage in Ford P2000 and Ford Taurus 

243 
Baseline 

1 997 Ford Taurus Ford P2000 

0 100 200 300 400' 500 600 

Weight Savings (kg) 

Figure 8. Primary and secondary weight reductions in the P2000 and Ford Taurus 

systems in the P2000 compared with those for the Taurus. The secondary weight saving is 

282kg which some 0.9 of the primary weight saving of 3 15kg and is a significant achievement. 

The projected fuel consumption of the vehicle for highway driving is expected to be at or above 

70mpg (US) (3 -3 7tll OOkm)(12? 

ALUMINIUM CLOSURE PANELS 

The closure panels on a car, while weighing considerably less than the body structure, still form 

part of the primary weight and the replacement of steel panels by aluminium can save considerable weight as is evident ftom the weight reduction data for the P2000. In fact, aluminium 

closure panels are already a reality, especially in the North American market where1 in 1 1 new 

vehicles produced today has one or more such panels. They are being produced at an annualized 

rate of about 1.7 million units and the key to this success has been the adoption of 6000 series 

aluminium alloys which are supplied in a solution-treated/formable condition but which harden 

during the normal automotive paint bake treatment to provide high strength and dent resistance. 

The highest volume use today is for the hood of the Ford F150 light truck and its derivatives 

where the production rate is expected to reach approximately 600,000 units per annum. The 

dominant alloy today is AA6111, an Al-Mg-Si-Cu heat-treatable alloy developed by Alcan, 

which typically reaches a strength of 230MPa following forming and paint baking or up to 

280MPa in a recently-introduced preaged version. This is comparable in strength to the bake 

hardening steels used today. With this strength, weight savings exceeding 50% compared with 

steel are being achieved. Table 3 lists the current N. American vehicles which have one or more 

aluminium closure panels. 

SUPPORTING TECHNOLOGY 

While individual aluminium companies are developing specific materials and technologies and 

introducing these to the various car companies, the aluminium producerseare also working together through the Aluminum Association in Washington to address those issues which are 

generic and which must be resolved for aluminium to penetrate the market for high volume 

production vehicles. In some cases, these activities also involve cooperative program with the 

car companies. Some of the more important projects are:- 
- - 

Lincoln Town Car Hood 

Mercury Marquis * Deck lid* and hood 

Ford Crown Victoria Deck lid* and hood 

1996 Ford Taurus Deck lid* 

1996 Mercury Sable Deck lid* 

Oldsmobile Aurora Hood* 

Buick Riviera Hood* 

1996FordF-150Pickup Hood* 

1997 GM APV Hoods* 

1997 Lincoln Mark VIII Hood* 

1997 Buick Park Avenue Hood* 

Table 3. Current N. American vehicles with aluminium closure panels 

*exterior panels in AA6 1 1 1 

- Modelling to predict the aluminium composition that would result from recycling aluminium 

intensive vehicles such as Ford P2000 PNGV prototype. 

- Evaluation of alloy sorting techniques for separating individual alloys or alloy families 

from mixed shredded scrap. 

- Life cycle analysis for vehicles based on the mix of the major materials. This is a joint 

activity between the United States Automotive Materials Partnership (USAMP), the 

Aluminum Association, the American Iron and Steel Institute and the Plastics Consortium. 

- Resolution of environmental issues and particularly a US Federal Environmental Protection 

Agency's regulation that wrongly identifies the sludge from automotive finishing lines 

processing aluminium as toxic. 

- The preparation and publication of technical manuals and, most recently, the distribution of 

a CD ROM promoting aluminium automotive technology and applications. 

In addition to these industry efforts, Alcan has pursued andlor encouraged the development of 

related technologies which are key to establishing and then maintaining the long-term economic availability of aluminium for vehicle-structures. Briefly, these are:- 

- - Evaluation of welding methods for producing tailor-welded blanks in aluminium. 

- Production of automotive structural sheet by continuous slab casting integrated with rolling. 

- Use of laser induced optical emission spectroscopy for the alloy identification of shredded 

scrap(I3). 

- Pollution-free decoating of painted automotive scrap prior to remelting by the use of fluidized bed de~oating('~). 

Not all of these technologies are needed today but their technical feasibility has been established to the point where industrial scale facilities could be developed when they are needed to 

sustain the economic production and recycling of aluminium automotive materials. 
SUMMARY 

- Today, the passenger cars produced by the Big Three automakers in N. America are just 

meeting the US government's CAFE (fuel economy) requirements but none of their light 

trucks fleets meet the CAFE: target for this class of vehicle. 

- The weight of new passenger cars is still increasing at about 1 % per annum, even though the 

use of aluminium to replace heavier materials is increasing at about 6% per annum and'is 

now at an average of 112kg per vehicle for the combined fleet of cars and light trucks. 

- Aluminium external closure panels are becoming relatively commonplace with one in eleven 

new vehicles with one or more such panels. Aluminium hoods for one vehicle, the Ford 

F 150 light truck, are being produced at a rate approaching 600,000 units/annum. 

- There are now proven technologies for light weight, aluminium intensive vehicles using 

either the space fi-ame technique with extrusions or the unibody approach with the structural bonding technique pioneered by Alcan. This latter approach is being favoured for the 

development of the high volume, light weight body structures needed to meet the weight 

reduction targets of the PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles) prom. 

- The PNGV program is now providing the driving force in N. America for the development 

of light weight but structurally efficient and crashworthy vehicles. 

- The real and/or perceived barriers to use of aluminium for high volume production cars, - including the eventual recycling of aluminium &om end-of-life vehicles 'are being addressed 

and resolved by the aluxninium producers working either independently or, when appropriate, through the Washington DC based Aluminum Association. 

References 

(1) Study to Determine Aluminum Content in North American Ehicles in 1996 - The Aluminum 

Association, Washington, 1996. 

(2) Parmership for a New Generation of yehicles - Program Plan - PNGV Secretariat, US 

Dept. of Commerce, Washington, 1995. 

(3) E.F.M. Winter et al, Paper 9051 78, XXUI FISITA Congress Italy Vol I1 pp 465-471. 

(4) J.C. Benedyk, Light Metal Age, pp 8-10, October 1996. 

(5) The Engineer Report - Engineer Nov 2, p 30,1995. 

(6) J.J. Baron, Alumhiurn Vol30, No. 5, 1954. 

(7) Y. Komatsu et al, SAE Technical Paper Series 9 10548, 1 99 1. 

(8) M.J. Wheeler et al, SAE Technical Paper Series 87041 6, 1987. 

(9) Aluminum Auto Design Review, Vol 3 No. 2, The Aluminum Association, Washington, 

1995. 

(1 0) Saad M. Abouzahr et al, Automotive Body Design and Engineering pp 12-1 6, IBEC, 1994. 

(1 1) PNGVTechnica1Accomplishrnent.s - United States Council for Automotive Research, 1996. 

(12) Ford P2000 Press Release, May 1997. 

(13) A.J. Gesing and A. Rosenfeld, SAE Technical Paper Series 960163,1996. 

(14) F. Tremblay et al, Proc 3rd International Symposium on Recycling of Metals. The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, pp 19-30, 1995. 
THE DRIVE FOR LIGHT WEIGHT VEHICLES IN NORTH AMERICA 

M. J. Wheeler, Alcan International limited 

Paper presented at the Institute of Materials' conference on 'Materials for Lean Weight 

Vehicles7' at Gaydon in the United Kingdom in November 1997 and subsequently 

published in the conference proceedings. 

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ALUMINUM 

COMPONENTS WITH ADS SOFTWARE 

J. Randolph Kissell 

The TGB Partnership 

1325 Farmview Road 

Hillsborough, North Carolina 27278 

Telephone: 9 19-644-8250 

e-mail tgb@mindspring .corn 

Structural Design of Aluminum Components with ADS Software 

Prepared by J. Randolph Kissell, The TGB Pafinership 

ABSTRACT - The Aluminum Association recently released software called the Aluminum Design 

System (ADS) based on Specfications for Aluminum Structures, a structural design code for aluminum 

components. Specifications for Aluminum Structures includes equations for the strength of aluminum 

members, but is complicated to understand and apply, often involving many calculations. The ADS 

software performs these calculations automatically to check the structural adequacy of aluminum parts 

subjected to various loads. The software also includes several data bases - one for various aluminum 

cross sections and one for aluminum alloys, both of which may be customized by the user. This paper 

describes the main features of the software for potential users. 

INTRODUCTION 

The structural design of many aluminum components 

is performed according to the rules in the Aluminum 

Association's Specifications for Aluminum Structures "1, 

hereafter referred to as the aluminum Specifications. 

This design process has been automated in the 

Aluminum Win System (ADS) software. This paper 

describes the capabilities of the software. 

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF COMPONENTS 

ADS operates in US or SI units as specified by the 

user. 

Reference Module 

The reference module contains the text of the 

Aluminum Design Manual which can be viewed, 

searched, navigated, and printed. Certain features are 

linked so that clicking on the text will immediately take 

the view to the section, table, or figure referred to in 

the text. For example, clicking on "section 6, 

Fabrication" in the table of contents takes the viewer to 

The dimensions of many aluminum components are that section. Searching for the word "extrusion" can 

bring the viewer to the next (or previous) occurrence of dictated by requirements that the part perform that word in the te*. adequately as a structural component. These 

requirements might include a limit on its deflection or 

the ability to support a certain load without permanent 

deformation. The great variety of extruded and rollformed shapes complicates the structural design of 

aluminum extrusions. In the US, such design is 

conducted according to the rules outlined in the 

aluminum Specifications. The Aluminum Design 

System (ADS) software was commissioned by the 

Aluminum Association to automate the procedures in 

the aluminum Specifications. By automating the 

process, it can be performed more quickly and 

consistently than performing the calculations by hand. 

ADS FEATURES 

ADS contains five modules: 

Reference 

Geometric Properties 

Material Properties 

Structural Analysis 

Member Design 

Geometric Properties Module 

The geometric properties module contains the cross 

sectional properties of: 

Aluminum Association standard I beams 

Aluminum Association standard channels 

Pipes 

The cross sectional properties include the designation 

for the shape (e.g., 1 6 x 4.03 for the standard 6" deep 

I beam weighing 4.03 Iblft), dimensions of the shape, 

area, weight per unit length, torsion constant, warping 

constant, and moment of inertia, section modulus, and 

radius of gyration about each of the two major axes of 

the shape. (For pipes, the warping constant is not not 

applicable and so is not given.) 

The geometric properties module can also calculate 

the cross sectional properties of 29 shapes with userdefined dimensions (including rectangles, solid and 

hollow regular polygons, and zees, to name a few). 

These properties include those in the following list that 

are appropriate for the given shape: area, location of 
the centroid, location of the shear center, torsion 

constant, warping constant, weight per unit+length, 

shear shape factor (ratio of average shear stress to 

maximum shear stress), orientation of principal axis, 

and moment of inertia, section modulus, and radius of 

gyration about each of the two major axes of the 

shape. 

ADS can also calculate the section properties for any 

shape for which the width-to-thickness ratio of the 

elements is large. The elements of such arbiirary thinwalled sections are treated as lines. These elements 

are more common in cold-formed sheet sections, but 

some extrusions can be idealized as thin-walled 

without a significant loss in accuracy. Included in the 

section properties ADS calculates for thin-walled 

shapes is the circumscribing circle size and center 

location, useful properties for extrusions. 

Material Properties 

The material ropert ties module contains a data base of 

properties for 135 aluminum alloy/temper/product 

combinations. The ropert ties aiven are: for welded 

and unwelded material, minimkm: tensile ultimate 

strength, tensile yield strength, compressive yield 

strength, shear ultimate strength, shear yield strength, 

bearing ultimate strength, and bearing yield strength; 

compressive modulus of elasticity, Aluminum 

Association ratings for: corrosion resistance, 

weldability, brazeability, machinability, and workability; 

and foreign alloy designations. The user may add his 

own alloys (for example, proprietary alloys) to the data 

base. 

Structural Analysis 

The structural analysis module calculates forces and 

moments for the following cases: single span and 

multiple span beams, beams with elastic support, 

curved beams, shafts, and rectangular plates. The 

results (forces and moments acting on the member) of 

these analyses can be used as input for the member 

design, the next module discussed. 

Member Design 

The member design module performs structural 

conformance checks. A structural conformance check 

shows if, as determined by the equations for strength 

given in the aluminum Specifications, a member is 

strong enough for a given application. This is probably 

the most useful aspect of ADS since no other 

commercially available software performs this function. 

ADS can perform this check for 13 cross sectional 

shapes: solid and hollow rectangles, solid and hollow 

circles, solid and hollow ellipses, angles (with equal or 

unequal legs), I sections (with equal or unequal width 

flanges), channels, C sections, hat sections, zees, and 

tees. ADS accepts axial tension and compression, 

bending moments, torques, and shear loads (or any 

combination of these). 

The aluminum Specifications provide two methods for 

conformance checks - allowable stress design (ASD) 

and load and resistance factor design (LRFD). LRFD 

is a more sophisticated method, but is used only for 

building type structures and requires additional input 

from the designer. ADS can perform whichever design 

method the user specifies. 

The member design module also contains a feature 

that permits the user to study the effect of a change in 

a design parameter. Such a study is called parametric 

analysis. For example, the length of a member can be 

varied over a user-specified range and the longest 

length that is strong enough to carry the required axial 

compressive load for a given application can be 

determined. 

LIMITATIONS 

The aluminum SpecZcations do not provide rules for 

the structural design of all extruded shapes. The 

method used in the Specifcations is to idealize shapes 

as a collection of curved or flat elements of constant 

thicknessm, as shown in Figure 1. 

Figure 1. Idealizing shapes as collections of elements 

If an element is connected to another element at its 

end, it is considered to be supported at that end. For 

example, the flange of an I beam is idealized as two 

elements, one on either side of the web. The tip of the 

flange is not connected to any other element of the 

cross section and thus is considered to be 

unsupported. Where the flange element is connected 

to the web, the flange element is considered to be 

supported. The strength of each element is a function 

of its width (or, in the case of curved elements, its 

radius), its thickness, the support conditions at its ends, 

and the variation of stress over its width. (Stress 

varies over the height of the web when the extrusion is 

subjected to bending, whereas stress is constant over 

the height of the web when the extrusion is subjected 

to axial compression, as in the case of a column). 

This method is complicated when elements have 

intermediate stiffeners across their width or stiffeners 
Figure 2. Edge and Intermediate Stiffeners 

at their ends, as shown in Figure 2. These stiffeners 

are too small to be considered elements in their own 

right, but the strength of the extrusion is 

underestimated if they are neglected in the design. 

The aluminum Specifications contain rules for many of 

the possible cases arising with stiffeners, but do not 

address all, since the number of possibilities is quite 

large. For example, the Specifications address an 

element supported at one end and not at the other (the 

flange described above) with a stiffener at the 

unsupported edge. The Specifications do not, 

however, address the same element if an intermediate 

stiffener is added somewhere along the width of the 

flange. Furthermore, the Specifications do not address 

elements of varying thickness and other more extreme 

variations in shape, as shown in Figure 3. 

Since ADS only performs designs by using the rules in 

the aluminum Specifications, there are extruded 

shapes that cannot be designed using ADS. Research 

GO-sponsored by the Aluminum Association and the US 

Department of Energy is currently being conducted at 

Figure 3. Extruded Shapes Not Addressed by the 

Aluminum Specifications 

Comell University to develop methods for determining 

the strength of shapes other than those already 

addressed by the aluminum Specifications. The finite 

strip method, a general method that can determine the 

strength of any shape, has shown promise. 

CONCLUSION 

The ADS software is a useful tool for quickly and 

accurately performing the structural design of many 

aluminum extrusions. 

REFERENCES 

1. Aluminum Association, Aluminum Design Manual, 

Aluminum Association, Washington, DC, 1994. 

2. Kissell, J. R. and Ferry, R. L., Aluminum 

Sfrucfures, John Wiley, New York, 1995, p. 86-88. 

OPPORTUNITIES FOR RECYCLING OF ALUMINUM 

FROM END-OF-LIFE WHICLES 

M. P. Thomas 

and 

C. L. Wood, Jr. 

The Aluminum Association, Inc. 

Washington, D. C. 

Opportunities for Recycling of Aluminum. 

from End-of-Life VehicIes 

M.P. Thomas and C.L. Wood, Jr. 

The Aluminum Association Inc., Washington, D.C. U.S.A. 

Abstract 

Around 250 lbs (1 15 kg) of aluminum are used on current North American vehicles. When these 

vehicles are scrapped, the aluminum will be recycled by a highly successful industry that thrives on 

free market economics. Aluminum is an attractive candidate for use in future powertrain, chassis and 

structural applications, including body structures and closure panels. Aluminum's many product forms 

can help the designer to reduce tooling cost and assedbly cost through parts consolidation. As the use 

of aluminum grows, and particularly with the increasing use of wrought alloys, there will be opportunities 

for methods to enhance the value of end-of-life vehicles, and particularly to optimize the recovery of 

the aluminum from these vehicles. The aluminum industry is working together to ensure that these 

methods are developed and implemented, and this paper will extend previous discussion of these 

activities in relation to existing and future recycling systems for automotive aluminum. 

Introduction 

Much effort is being applied to increase the use of lightweight materials in automobiles to improve 

performance and fuel efficiency. Aluminum is an attractive candidate for powertrain, chassis, body 

structure and closure sheet applications because of its lightweighting capability coupled with 

performance attributes. Currently about 250 Ibs (1 15 kg) of aluminum is used in automobiles, mainly 

in the form of foundry alloy castings [I]. The main growth opportunity for aluminum lies in sheet and 

extruded wrought alloy for structures and closures, together with Mer growth in castings for engine 

blocks, cylinder heads and suspension components. 

By the year 2006, the average usage of aluminum could reach over 400 Ibs (180 kg) per vehicle, and 

aluminum intensive vehicles could easily have in excess of 900 Ibs (400 kg). This growth in aluminum 

usage will have a significant impact on the downstream recycling of the manufacturing scraps generated 

during vehicle manufacturing and eventually of material from vehicles at the end of their life. 

Aluminum has an excellent history of recyclability because it retains a high value in scrap form and 

because it is easy to recycle. For example, the present recycling system for automotive aluminum, 

through the application of shredding, sink-float separation technology and eddy current processing, 

recovers aluminum from scrapped automobiles with over 85% recovery. In this system, the aluminum 

is recovered from a mixed stream of metals,and non-metallics and the intrinsic high value of the 

aluminum provides an incentive for the hrther development and implementation of separation 

technologies to improve yields and to upgrade the recovered material. Projections for the growth of 

aluminum used in automobiles and in the demand for secondary metal for automotive castings indicate 

that, on a weight basis, castings can continue to absorb aluminum automotive scrap well into the next 

decade [2]. However, as the market develops for closure sheet and aluminum body structures, it will 

be increasingly desirable to have these alloys segregated and recycled back into sheet products and, if 

possible, back into the same sheet applications from which they came. Moreover, the increasing fraction 

of wrought alloys in automotive scrap, coupled with increasingly tighter performance and hence 

metallurgical specifications for automotive castings, will put greater demands on the quality of the 

auto shred going back into foundry alloys. These issues are thus expected to provide increasing support 

for the demonstration and development of methods for ensuring that the future recycling of automotive 

aluminum follows a closed loop system. 
1976 1986 1991 1996 

Year 

Figure 1. Average aluminum contained in passenger cars from 1976-1 996 (approximate) 

exist in^ Recvcling Loop 

As stated earlier, most of the aluminum in current automotive applications is in the form of foundry 

alloys for castings, used in powertrain components such as engine blocks, transmissions, cylinder 

heads and in wheels. Some wrought alloy is used in trim, in bumpers, in radiator and air conditioning 

components, and in closure panels, namely hoods and decklids. There are also a number of aluminum 

intensive vehicles in production at this time; examples include the Audi A8, the Jaguar XJ220, the 

Honda NSX, the Chrysler Prowler and the General Motors EVI. These vehicles can contain up to 900 

Ibs (400 kg) of aluminum. Of course, current production vehicles will not be retired for around ten 

years, and it is the vehicles manufactured in the mid 1980's that are currently being scrapped. Figure 

1 shows the average aluminum content in passenger cars over the past 20 years. The mid-1 980's car 

contains about 150 Ibs (70 kg) of alurninh, of which an estimated 80% is in the form of castings, and 

the remaining 20% in wrought alloy products. 

The current recycling process flow sheet for this scrap is given in Figure 2. About 94% of all end-oflife vehicles enter this recycling stream (the other 6% being lost to the system in the form of abandoned 

or discarded vehicles), and within this stream, about 90-95% of the available aluminum is captured for 

recycling. Therefore, the overall recovery rate for aluminum from vehicles is in the range 85 to 90%, 

a remarkably high number consideringithat it has developed entirely on the basis of free market 

economics. The key to aluminum's successful recycling record lies in its ease of recycling, durability 

and sustained value. 

Recyclers benefit From the presence of aluminum at each step in the vehicle recycling process. First of 

all, during manufacturing of automotive components, scrap is generated in the form of machining 

chips and turnings, scrap castings, stamping skeletons etc., and these scraps are routinely fed back into 

the remelt loop. When the vehicles end their usefhl lives, they enter the recycling stream by way of the 

auto dismantlers. There are around 12000 of these in North America alone. The dismantlers remove 

useful components for resale purposes. At the same time, they will strip the vehicle of certain easily 

recognizable aluminum parts that are easy to remove but unsuitable for the resale market. Parts that are 

removed in this step include radiators, wheels and some powertrain components. These scrap items 

are generally segregated by the dismantlers according to type, because in this form they command a 

premium in the scrap market over mixed scrap. The stripped vehicles are commonly referred to as 

hulks at this stage, and they are sold on to the car shredders. There are around 200 of these in North 

America. 
Manufacturing Scrap 

(Offal) 

Unrecovered 

Vehicles 

Junked Vehicles 

Ferrous Scrap 

Shredder ASR (Non-metallics) 

Non-ferrous Scrap 4 

Parts for Resale1 

Reuse 

Sorted Aluminum Scrap 4 

Auto Hub 

Auto 

Dismantler 

Figure 2. The current automotive aluminum recycling process 

Mixed Aluminum Scrap 

At the car shredders very high horsepower hammermills are used to reduce the hulks into fist sized 

scrap pieces. The raw product from this process is a mixture of iron and steel, plastics, glass, rubber, 

wood and various non-ferrous metals including magnesium, zinc and aluminum. The ferrous material 

is separated by magnets, for subsequent sale to the steel industry. A small amount of aIuminum is lost 

to this ferrous fraction, in the form of scrap pieces which contain ferrous material joined to aluminum, 

for example screws, brackets, or hinges. Despite its loss to the aluminum recycling loop, this aluminum 

performs a valuable service as a deoxidant in the steel-making process. The non-metallic material, 

commonly referred to as automotive shredder residue, is a mixture of mainly polymers, wood, rubber 

and glass, which comprises around 25% of the vehicle's weight. Currently this material is either landfilled 

or incinerated, and it is the subject of significant research to identify other means of disposal or recycling. 

The remaining material is classified as the non-ferrous fi-action. This is passed on to specialized 

separators, of which there are around 12: in North America. The non-ferrous processors separate the 

non-ferrous mixture into various densities; including fractions rich in aluminum, zinc, brass and copper. 

Further processing of the separated aluminum fraction can take place using eddy current separators to 

yield a premium grade product. This product consists of a clean, dry mixture of foundry and wrought 

alloys. It is sold to the secondary aluminum industry in bulk form for remelting into fiesh secondary 

foundry alloy. In this manner the recycling loop is closed, because over 70% of the product of the 

secondary aluminum industry is foundry alloy for automotive castings. Overall, the aluminum present 

in current scrapped vehicles represents only a small percentage of the total vehicle weight, around 5% 

to lo%, yet it accounts for between 35% and 50% of the scrap value. 

Growth in Aluminum Usa~e in Vehicles 

Separator 

As Aluminum Intensive Vehicles achieve a significant percentage of the total vehicle market, the 

recycling infrastructure will be presented with changes in the balance of materials arising from the 

recycling process. Not only will there be more wrought aluminum alloys, in the form of skin panels 

and structures, but there will be more primary alloy specification castings in the form of suspension 

components. Table 1 lists the major aluminum components that can be used in current (1996) vehicles, 

4- Non-Aluminum 
as well as major aluminum components that could be specified for aluminum intensive vehicles. This 

is by no means an exhaustive list, asit omits those components with a cumulative w&ight of less than 

4 pounds, so parts such oil pump housings, seat pans, airbag components and the like are not listed. 

Even so, the list is impressive, and illustrates the diversity of potential application for aluminum in the 

automobile. Aside from potential decline in in aluminum usage in certain components, such as intake 

manifolds (to plastic) and transfer cases (to magnesium), there is huge potential for growth in usage in 

many current applications such as engine blocks, suspension, wheels and brake components, and 

enormous opportunity for growth in new high volume structure and body applications. 

In turn this mixture of new component. offers opportunities and challenges for the automotive recyclers. 

The wrought alloys and the primary foundry alloys have premium metallurgical and economic value. 

Therefore there will be strong incentives for these alloys to be segregated during the recycling process. 

Number Average Weight % in 1996 Average Weight % Potential 

Component in Vehicle of 1996 Vehicle Cars in lb (AN in AIV 

Component (lb) Potential) 

Cylinder head 

Intake manifold 

Engine block 

Engine pistons 

Supercharger housing 

Drivetrain cover 

Transmission transfer case 

Drive sprocket support 

Trans. struc. side cover 

Bumper, fiont 

Bumper, rear 

Deck lid 

Hood 

Body shell 

Doors 

Fender quarter panel 

Roof 

Front brake rotor 

Rear brake rotor 

Brake calipers 

Cross member subfi-ame 

Differential canier 

Front knuckle 

Rear knuckle 

Condenser 

Evaporator 

Radiator 

HVAC tubinglhardware 

Wheels 

Seat fiames 

- - - - 

Table 1. Major aluminum components of 1996 and potential aluminum intensive vehicles 

Source: The Aluminum Association 
All these new applications use aluminum to satisfy a number of performance criteh,, Aluminum has 

more commercial product forms and alloys than any other structural material. The three broad classes 

ofaluminurn products are ingot, wrought products and castings. ingot is cast From holding furnaces, in 

which alloying is carried out, and is the starting material for both cast and wrought products. Casting 

is employed to produce net shape products in which the mechanical properties are determined by the 

alloying elements and thermal treatments after casting. Wrought products are defined by the fact that 

they are given some mechanical deformation during production and achieve by some 

combination of that deformation, the alloy and thermal treatments, depending on the product. Wrought 

products are in turn grouped into flat rolled products (plate, sheet and foil), extnisions, forgings and 

wire, rod and bar. In common with castings, extrusions and forgings offer someket shape capability so 

that vehicle structure and components can be designed with fewer total parts and reduced tooling cost. 

In addition, these versatile product forms support new and innovative structures, such as the space 

frame construction exemplified by the Audi A8 and the weldbonded structure exemplified by the GM 

EVl. This variety of available forms has proved to be significant to the growth of aluminum usage and 

is expected to continue. Indeed, for the period 1990 to 2010 the growth of cast products has been 

forecast at 13 1 percent, while that of wrought products is put at 250 percent [4]. 

Sheet Alloys Si Fe Cu Mn MS Cr 20 Ti 

201 1 0.40 0.7 5.M.O - - - 0.30 - 

20 17 020-0.8 0-7 3.545 0-40-1.0 0.404.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 

2117 0.8 0.7 22-3.0 020 020-0.50 0.10 025 - 

3003 ' 0.6 0.7 0.05-020 1.0-1.5 - - 0.10 - 

5052 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 -2.8 0.15-0.35 0.10 - 

5182 0.20 035 0.15 020-0.50 4.04.0 0.10 0.25 0.10 

5454 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.50-1.0 2.4-3.0 0.05-0.20 0.25 0.20 

5754 0.40 0.40 0.10 0.50. 2.63.6 030 020 0.15 

6022 0.08-15 0.05-0.20 0.014.11 0.02-0.10 0.45-0.7 0.10 025 0.15 

6061 0.40.8 0.7 0.15-0.40 0.15 08-12 0.04-035 0.25 - 

61 11 0.61.1 0.40 0.50-0.9 0.10-0.45 050-1.0 0.10 0.15 0.10 

7072 t - 0.10 0.10 0.10 - 0.8-13 - 

7129 0.15 030 0.5.0-0.9 0.10 13-2.0 0.10 43-52 0.05 

Casting Alloys 

Extrusion Alloys 

Table 2. Chemical composition ranges for selected aluminum automotive alloys 

The growth trend is hrther supported by technological development. In the forging and casting arenas, 

for instance, significant technology advances are occurring as, for instance, semi-solid forming in 

which the processing technique offers to net shape parts the internal structure and properies of a 

forging but uses a casting alloy. The implication of these trends is that there is not likely to-be much 

diminution in the number of alloys in use and that the mix in alloys will continue to change. It .isn't 

possible at this point to predict just how the product mix will change over time, but at least the recycling 

industry has the benefit of knowing in advance what they are facing. This new mixture of products 

offers challenges and opportunities to automotive recyclers. Table 2 gives the chemical composition of 
selected alloys in current use. Ranges for the principal alloying elements are highligh~d in bold type. 

Assuming that alloys cannot be kept cbmpletely segregated during product use, or during the recycling 

process, the mixtures that result will have a value and application that is entirely dependent upon the 

chemical composition of the mixtures. Different degrees of absorption are permitted between alloys 

depending upon their composition limits. Within the sheet and extrusion alloy families, for example, 

6063 alloy is fully compatible as a metal source for 61 11, because the alloying limits for all major 

elements in 6 1 1 1 exceed those for 6063. For the same reason 61 1 1 is unsuitable as a metal source for 

6063, except in low concentrations blended with other alloys. In general, each alloy family will have 

limited chemical compatibility with other alloy families because there will be a conflict between the 

two or more major alloying ingredients, for example copper in the case of the &xx series, and zinc in 

the case of the 7xxx series. Within each alloy family there is a much better opportunity for absorption. 

Mixtures that exceed the composition limits of any of the wrought alloy specifications are currently 

used in secondary casting alloys, typically A380 or A319. These alloys have higher than average 

tolerance for many alloying elements, with the exception of magnesium, which can, however, be 

removed in the melting fiunace. Note that the casting alloys are not compatible with wrought alloy 

specifications because of their high silicon limits, silicon being added to foundry alloys to impart melt 

fluidity during the casting operation. Because of the wide chemical specifications of the casting alloys, 

and some of the non-automotive sheet alloys, all aluminum alloy mixtures arising from the post consumer 

stream are recycled. As a result aluminum is completely recyclable. 

The design engineer working with aluminum may be able to maximize the metallurgical scrap value 

of a dismantled product by paying close attention to these compatibility issues. The aluminum idustry 

recommends an integrated approach to design for recycling efficiency: . 

1. Avoid joining dissimilar materials where possible. Where aluminum alloys are joined with permanent 

joints, try to keep to one alloy family. If this cannot be done, try to use a joint that can be disassembled. 

2. Design for ease of component removal fiom the vehicle. 

3. Where possible specify recycling tolerant alloys or alloy combinations. 

4. Avoid combining aluminum with substances of concern, for example heavy metals, or compounds 

that decompose to give rise to toxic or difficult-to-control emissions. 

These design principles are only a partial answer to the overall process of recovering aluminum and 

returning it to producers for use in new product. Technology and economics will shape the recycling 

processes of tomorrow. 

Future Automotive Aluminum Recvclin~ Loop 

We foresee a future recycling loop for aluminum that is an extension of the existing infrastructure 

(Figure 3). In order to ensure a closed loop, the wrought alloys must be substantially returned to 

wrought alloy applications, and the cast alloys to fiesh castings. This will maximize the value of the 

recycled metal and make full use of the alloying ingredients in each of the scrap alloys. A closed loop 

also allows products to carry a significant recycled content, a desirable feature for economic and 

material conservation reasons. The increased use of aluminum presents a further business opportunity 

for the automotive dismantlers, with the use of many new components that may be easily accessible 

for dismantling. Examples of these components include doors, hoods, decklids fenders, and suspension 

components. Dismantling of these parts brings a significant benefit to the aluminum industry because 

the aluminum recycled by dismantling has the capability of being highly segregated by component 

type, and provided that the components are all of similar alloy families, the result will be a premium 

quality recycled metal source for making the same products over again. The second opportunity lies in 

upgrading the mixed scrap arising from the car shredderlnon ferrous processors. This mixed scrap will 
5ng 

I 

Scrap 

- 

Decoating End-of-Life Vehicles 

Unrecovered 

Vehicles 

AU~O AT' 

Ferrous Scrap 

Shredder ASR (Non-metallics) 

NOR-ferrous Scrap 

Sorted Aluminum Scrap 4 

4 

4 Alloy Mixed Aluminum Scrap 

1 Sorting Separator . e- Non-Aiuminum 

d 

Auto } k' Resale1 

Dismantler 

Figure 3. The future recycling loop for automotive aluminum. 

represent the hard-todismantle components in the scrapped vehicle, and will likely be enriched by the 

presence of wrought alloys in the form of sheet andlor extrusions used in the vehicle structure. 

New Processes and Technoloqy 

Several new approaches are being considered for assisting the recovery and recycling processes. They 

address the two points at which aluminum scrap will be generated in the future recycling loop, namely 

at the dismantlers and after the shreddednon-ferrous processors. 

For the dismantling step, consideration is being given to the establishment of data showing the location 

and weight of aluminum used in vehicles. This type of information is already being used in databases 

in Europe to assist the dismantlers in removing polymeric parts for recycling. A database for aluminum 

would ideally list the alloys used, together with a target dismantling time which reflects the value of 

the recovered metal. The key here is to. ensure that the maximum possible amount of aluminum is 

recovered by dismantling, subject, of course, to economic constraints. There will be a cutoff point 

where components are too small or too difficult to reach or disassemble and these will be left on the 

vehicle hulk for shredding. Of particular significance to the vehicle dismantler is the potential number 

of components over 4 Ibs in weight (Table 1) that may be readily accessible for dismantling. 

For the post-shredder scrap stream, new technologies offer the promise of being able to take a mixed 

alloy scrap stream and segregate it into its constituent alloys in a rapid, real-time process. A number of 

approaches have been proposed for the automatic sorting of aluminum alloys. A hot crush and screening 

method has been described for separating cast from wrought fractions in auto shred [5]. The method 

depends on the difference in embrittling temperature for different alloys and is generally restricted to 

the separation of two alloys or two classes of alloys. It should be noted that while such separation may 

facilitate the recycling of the cast fraction of auto shred back into foundry alloys, the wrouglt fraction 

thereby recovered would not be directly useable back into wrought materials. Eddy current techniques 

have been applied to the sorting of different metals in the non-ferrous fraction of auto shred [6]; the 

method is applicable in principle to the sorting of alloys but is limited by the magnitude of the 

conductivity differences between alloys and also requires the close sizing of the pieces to be separated. 
Both of these technologies are technically viable and may find their economic ni@e in aluminum 

scrap recycling, possibly in isolation or in combination with other techniques such as shape and color 

recognition methods in order to achieve alloy separation. 

Demands on the required degrees of separation for wrought alloy scraps are severe if these are to be 

effectively recycled back into wrought products. The greatest flexibility in dealing with the range of 

alloys likely to be encountered would be provided by a method that allows direct composition analysis 

of individual scrap pieces. The method of choice for composition analysis of aluminum alloys is 

optical emission spectroscopy (OES) which is used routinely in casting centers and foundries [7,8]. 

However, in the conventional DC arc excitation mode of this tkchnique, the need to contact differently 

shaped pieces moving at the required high speed would make application to yrap sorting very difficult. 

The use of a pulsed laser as the excitation source does, however, offer the potential for high rate, 

pieceby-piece analysis. 

The feasibility of applying laser-induced OES to the sorting of elemental metals has been demomted 

[9]. Application of this technique to the sorting of different metals in the non-ferrous fiaction of 

autoshred, as an alternative to conventional sink-float processing, has been tested at a pilot scale 110- 

121. Several publications have addressed the feasibility of laser-induced OES composition analysis of 

shredded aluminum alloy scrap pieces [13,14] and a system for piece-by-piece, high speed sorting of 

aluminum alloys has been descrj'bed [I31 as well as a scrap sorting system configured around the 

technique. 

Figure 4 is a schematic diagram of one concept of such a system after reference 13. Mixed shredded 

scrap, which has been mechanically cleaned or thermally decoated, is channeled into a stream of 

particles in single file. The stream passes under a sensor which triggers the laser fhbg system. Laser 

shots are used to evaporate a sample of the scrap surflce, and the optical emission generated is detected 

by a spectrometer. The spectrometer is calibrated with reference to known alloy standards, and from 

this the scrap alloy is identified A mechanical device is used to divert scrap pieces into collection bins 

Presentation 

I I I hwss I 

I + Manager 

Analyzer 

I 

<-=y& Mixed foundry 

Figure 4. Schematic representation of an automated system for sorting aluminum alloy scrap 
according to their alloy chemistry. While technologies like this are in the feasibilit). demonstration 

phase, they are, nevertheless, clearly th? way ahead for achieving economically &able routes for 

segregating alloys From mixed scrap and as such are a key part of the future recycling infrastructure. 

It is important to understand that both the existing and proposed recycling routes. for automotive 

aluminum are justifiable on the basis of economic benefits, and do not require recycling legislation to 

be successfil. Legislation will impact aluminum recovery indirectly through restricsions on the disposal 

of other streams from the vehicle recycling process, for example auto shredder residue (ASR). In the 

Netherlands ASR is being banned from landfills, with the result that it must instead be disposed of for 

a fee in industrial incinerators. The net result is an increase in the cost to the recyclers of processing 

scrapped vehicles. Interestingly, as the cost of disposal of ASR increases, at the same time we see an 

increase in the amount of aluminum recovered, which means increased revenue for the scrap processors. 

Recycled content legislation is another subject of discussion, and here there are some important 

statements to make on behalf of aluminum. While closed loop processes will ultimately allow a 

maximum amount of post-consumer recycled metal to be used in products, during the growth phase 

for new applications such as wrought alloy body and structure, the recycled content temporarily falls. 

This is because primary metal must be used the first time around in order to prime the market However, 

this primary metal will eventually be fuily recycled, preserving aluminum's excellent recycling record. 

Conclusions 

The existing recycling route for automotive aluminum is a highly syccessful example of a closed loop 

system. In the future, aluminum usage will grow and there will be changes in alloy mix, in the product 

forms used, and in the balance between cast and wrought alloys. These factors will present a challenge 

to maintain and enhance the closed loop process. Design considerations can play an important role in 

helping to achieve this, together with the establishment of new or enhanced dismantling practices and 

the selective application of new technology. Together, these activities offer promise of a future recycling 

loop that provides sustained value for automobile manufacturers, consumers and the recycling industry, 

as well as providing the means for the automakers to take full advantage of the lightweighting benefits 

and the design versatility of using aluminum. 

References 

1. Study to Determine Aluminum Content in North American Vehicles in 1996, Aluminum 

Association, (1 996). 

2. L.E. Dastolfo and P.R ~ru~~ink "Pr&rving the value Chain In Automotive Aluminum Recycling". 

L-. (TMS 1996). 1 121-1 127. 

3. Automotive Aluminum Design Guidelines, The Aluminum Association, (I 996). 

4. M.B. Tessieri, "Overview of Automotive Aluminum Scrap Recycling in North America". 2nd 

International Aluminum Conference and Trade Exposition. (The Aluminum Association, Inc., 

1997). 

5. R.D. Brown Jr., F. Ambrose and D. Montagna, "Separation of Cast and Wrought Aluminum Alloys 

by Thennomechanical Processing", (Report RI-8960. U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1985). 

6. R.R. Osterberg and RB. Wolanski, "Method and Apparatus for Sorting Non-Ferrous Metal -Piecesm, 

U.S. Patent 4.834.870 (1989). 

7. F. Kirnmerle, P. Begin, J.-L. Fortier and G. Peloquin, "Quality Control ofAluminum Alloys: OES 

HardwardSofhvare Developments", Light Metals 199 1. (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 

1990), 1077- 1082. 
8. B.P. Cochran, "Influence of Sampling Techniques on the Analysis of Aluminum Die Casting 

Alloys", 17th International Die Casting Congress and Exposition (North Ameacan Die Casting 

Association, 1993), 39-48. 

9. D.A. Cremers, "The Analysis of Metals at a Distance Using Laser-Induced Breakdown 

Spe~tr~~~~py", A-DD~. $D~C~TOSCOD& 4 1 (1 987), 572-579. 

10. w.-P. Sattler, "Automotic Sorting of Non-Ferrous Metals from AutomobiIe Shredders", Second 

l*ternational Symposium on Recycling of Metals and Engineered Materials (The Minerals, Metals 

& Materials Society, 1990), 333-34 1. 

11. M. Potzschke, H.-P. Sattler, K. Hohla and T.R Loree, "Scrap Detectof','U.S. Patent 5.042.947, 

UEU 

12.W.-P. Sattler and T. Yoshida, "New Sorting System for Recycling of Magnesium and its Alloys 

After Use", First International Conference on Processing Materials for Propertie (The Minerals, 

Metals and Materials Society, 1993), 86 1-864. 

13. A. Rosenfeld, A Gesing and B. Farahbakhsh, "Sorting ofAluminum Alloy Scrap by Laser Induced 

Optical Emission Spectroscopy", Third International Symposium on Recvcling of Metals and 

EnPineered Materials. 1991 (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1995), 75 1-763. 

14. H.-P Sattler, "The Laser Scrap Sorting Technique, New Developments and First Operational 

Experience", m. 3rd Int. S-D. on RecycIine of Metals, ed. P.B. Queneau and RD. Peterson 

(The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1995), 57-64. 
THERMOSET COMPOSITES (SMC & RRIM) 

FOR AUTOMOTIVE COMPONENTS 

Ken C. Rusch 

The Budd Company 

Plastics Division 

1850 Research Drive 

Troy, Michigan 48083-2 167 

Telephone: 248-6 19-2235 

e-mail rushkr@troyrd.buddcompany .com 

Bruce Budde 

LARSS Student 

New Mexico State University 

and 

Carolyn Hamilton 

LARSS student 

University of New Mexico 

Thermoset Composites (SMC & RRIM) 

For ~utomotive Components 

Ken Rusch . 

Technical Programs Manager 

The Budd Company Plastics Division 

Representing The Automotive Composites Alliance 

November I- 3,1999 

OUTLINE 

1. What is Sheet Molding Composite (SMC)? 

2. Composition, Manufacture and Molding of SMC 

3. What is Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding (RRIM)? 

4. Composition and Molding of RRIM 

5. Annual Production of Composites for Automotive Components 

3 SMC, BMC, LCM, RTM, RRIM & SRlM 

6. Why Use SMClRRlM Composites for Automotive Components? 

7. Typical Automotive Components in Production Today 

3 Grille Opening PanellReinforcement (GOPIGOR) 

3 Hood 

3 Fenders 

3 Side Doors 

3 Decklid 

3 Van Cowl Panel 

3 Radiator Support 

3 Valve CoversIEngine Components 

8. Recycling and Recycled Content in Composites 

9. Next Generation of Compcsite Materials for Automotive 

3 Low Density SMC 

3 Carbon Fiber Reinforcement 

3 Improved Surface Quality 

3 Improved Structural Properties and Toughness 
TYPICAL SMC FORMULATION 

Calcium Carbonate 

28% Strength & Physical 

Plastic Binder 

Low Profile Additive Shrinkage Compensation & 

Class "A" Surface 

Catalyst, Mold Release, 

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF 

SMC FOR AUTOMOTIVE 

Currently 300 Automotive Components On 110 Different Vehicle Models 

Millions of Lbs. 

Model Year 

+Annual Production 

PIm 

c 

= 

h Z ma 

lnjection Molding 

Advantages 

- Fast cycle time. 

- Precise part 

thickness. 

- Flashless parts. 

- Less operator 

variability 

Disadvantages 

- Lower mechanical 

properties 

Injection Molding 

- 

1. Mold Close 

- 

3. Fill and Pack 

2 Inject 4. Eject 
TYPICAL SMC 

R50 POLYESTER COMPOSITE 

Temperature, O F 

Temperature. "C 

Tensile, compressive and flexural moduli vs temperature 
.- -- 

PLASTICS DIVISION 

TYPICAL SMC 

R50 POLYESTER COMPOSITE 

Temperature. F 

Tensile, compressive and flexural strengths vs tempera.ture. 

400 

- 300 

(0 

a 

2 

r- - ul 

t 

al - Lcn 

200 

100 

-58 -1 3 32 77 

1 1 122 

1 

167 

1 

212 

1 257 

1 58.0 

A*. ...- .... --.... -.. --.. --... ... -... 

- ... --- Tensile '-".. *. 

.*. Compressive 

- -.. ......I. 

--. Flexural 0. 

*a. -. 9. .. - 43.5 .- 

'0. 

V) 

*-. a 

A *. 0 

6,- *. .. 0 -\ --. .. -C 

--\ -- *. -. 

-0.. 

-I A 5 

0. --. 0) \ **. C 

- \ '*. a3 \ a. 

L 

'a. - 

\ 

\ 'a- 29.0 

-0 

\ 

\ ' . \ "<E.\ 4=q 

I I I I 

-50 -25 

I I 

0 25 50 A 

14.5 

75 100 1 25 

Temperature, OC 









Steel 

SMC (sp. gr. 1.9) 

SMC (sp. gr. 1.3) 

Aluminum 

COSTWEIGHT COMPARISON 

SMALL HOOD 

Weiqht Com~arison 

Steel 

SMC (sp. gr. 1.9) 

SMC (sp. gr. 1.3) 

Aluminum 

38. Ibs. 

26. Ibs. 

19. Ibs. 

1 9. Ibs. 

Cost Comparison 

Base 

- 12. Ibs. 

- 1 9. I bs. 

- 19. Ibs. 

PC. Cost Toolinq Amort. Total Cost Cost Diff. 

$50.00 $5. Mil $8.35 $58.35 Base 

$53.00 $2.9 Mil $4.85 $57.85 40.50 

$58.00 $2.9 Mil $4.85 $62.85 +$4.50 

$75.00 $5. Mil $8.35 $83.35 +$25.00 
COSTNVEIGHT COMPARISON 

SMALL FENDER 

Steel 

SMC (sp. gr. 1.9) 

SMC (sp. gr. 1.3) 

Aluminum 

Weiqht Comparison 

19. Ibs. Base 

14.5 Ibs. - 4.5 Ibs. 

10. Ibs. 

10. Ibs. 

Cost Comparison 

PC. Cost Toolinq Amort. Total Cost Cost Diff. 

Steel $40.00 $8.9 Mil $14.85 $54.85 Base 

SMC (sp. gr. 1.9) $45.00 $4.0 Mil $6.65 $51.65 -$3.20 

SMC (sp. gr. 1.3) $50.00 $4.0 Mil $6.65 $56.65 +$I .80 

Aluminum $60.00 $8.9 Mil $1 4.85 $74.85 +$20.00 

Note: The above costs are for engineering purposes only and do not represent a cost 

quotation. Tooling amortization assumes 2 year program at 300,000 units per year. 
SMC CAN BE RECYCLED 

SMC is recyclable at the end of its life cycle; and, new SMC can contain substantial 

quantities of recycled products (including resin, filler and additives). A projected 300 million 

pounds of SMC will be used by the auto industry by 2000. This has prompted the ACA 

(Automotive Composites Alliance), to resolve the technical challenges associated with 

recycling old SMC parts and incorporating recycled materials into new SMC parts. 

Over the past ten years the ACA (previously SMCAA) has promoted the research and 

development activities necessary to establish economically viable processes for recycling, has 

demonstrated production applications for SMC with recycled content and has encouraged 

awareness of SMC recycling throughout the auto industry. To date, more than 20 

automotive parts containing recycled SMC filler are used on production vehicles, and 

additional parts are scheduled for future cars and trucks (with recycled content as high as 

25%). SMC molders have been successful in these recycling efforts because SMC is an 

easily recyclable plastic; there is no need to remove paint and adhesive from SMC prior to 

processing as recycled filler. In many respects, SMC is easier to recycle than thermoplastics; 

SMC recycling is less sensitive to contamination by dissimilar materials and there is no 

degradation of properties. The resin portion of SMC also can contain recycled PET (from 

recycled pop bottles). 

Currently, the best SMC recycling approach is to grind up the SMC scrap (end-of-life parts or 

in-plant scrap) to provide a filler which can be used to replace the limestone filler in new 

SMC. The first commercial SMC recycling operation was Phoenix Fibreglas, a Canadian 

recycler partially owned and managed by Owens-Corning. Through Phoenix Fibreglas the 

technical feasibility of SMC recycling was established and several auto parts with Phoenix 

filler were put into production. The Phoenix process separated the ground SMC into filler and 

"fiber" fractions; the recycled fibers were found to be useful in friction materials, putty, onecoat stucco and BMC type of composites. Phoenix processed primarily in-plant scrap (over 6 

million pounds); but, quantities of scrap SMC auto parts also were processed to demonstrate 

that the filler obtained is equivalent to that from in-plant SMC scrap. 

Phoenix Fibreglas closed in April of 1996. SMC recycling was their only primary business, 

and the infrastructure to recycle SMC had not developed to a level sufficient to support the 

Phoenix operation. Although unfortunate, the closing of Phoenix will not retard the SMC 

recycling programs put in place, nor will it discourage continued use of recycled SMC. The R. 

J. Marshall Co. has been working with the ACA to process SMC scrap and to provide a 

recycled filler equivalent to that supplied by Phoenix. Since R. J. Marshall is in the business 

of producing specialty fillers, they will not be solely dependant on recycled SMC filler sales; 

this is a more stable business relationship. The ACA and R. J. Marshall are highly confident 

that recycling SMC is economically viable, as well as technically feasible. 

The ease with which SMC can be recycled as a filler, and the capability to incorporate a 

number of different recycled products into the SMC formulation, without a cost penalty, are 

expected to make SMC even more competitive for auto components when compared to other 

plastic materials. As the infrastructure develops to collect scrap SMC, recyclability will be a 

major SMC advantage. 
RECYCLING DEFINITIONS 

(The Many Sides of the Recycling Picture) 

*:* Recycled Content In A New Part 

1. Post-Consumer Content 

2. Pre-Consumer Content ("Post-Industrial") 

3. Internal Reuse Of Scrap In The Manufacturing Process 

*:* Part (Or Material) Is Recyclable At The End Of Its Primary Life-Cycle 

1. Refurbish and Reuse Part (eg., Reuse Hood On Another Vehicle) 

2. Primary Recycling (Reuse Material To Make A Similar Or Identical Part) 

3. Secondaryfrertiary Recycling (Reuse Material To Make A Lesser Value Part, Recover 

Raw Material Ingredients or Recover Energy Content) 

*:* Life Cycle Assessment ("Cradle To Grave" Analysis) 

1. Life Cycle Inventory (eg., Total Energy Consumption From Raw Materials To Final 

Disposal Of Part) 

2. Environmental Impact Assessment (Natural Resources Depletion, Toxic Emissions, 

Pollution, Etc. From Initial Manufacture To Final Disposal Of Part) 
zzp 

00"' 

gge 

An

E 

asm 

Sn 

o$ 

0 z 

ZZZ 

000 

YVY 

axm 

Ann 

cn 

.A A A 

ZZZ 

000 

VVY 

alxm 

$zz 

"00 

-5s 

C 

IS) 

0 

.- - 

a, 0 

% 

-la, 

I B 

"' 

:=IS)? 

.s .s 

cn 

2S.s C ct 

zg 

oza:$ 

-ma 

2: 

B 

0 

>r 

0 

- 

5 

!g~$ 

"2~8 

IS) 

r - 

I 

.a, 

IS) 

A 

r 

Q) 

3 ' 

0 u 

-1 

IS) 

A 

I 

Q) 

3 - 

0 u 

-1 

H 

al 

Q) 

Q 

IS) 

13) 

Q) 

B 5 

5;:: o - L. 

mQz 2 

5kC 0 c 

"$a 

fm=2SCE 

QvJ*ul0~ 

w aar $a co cia^ 

-z EZ 39 e 

i.~SrnCJrnCJ<3 

gszazaa, 
CURRENT AUTOMOBILE RECYCLING INFRASTRUCTURE 

RECYCLING SEQUENCE 

*:* Scrap Car Delivered To Dismantler 

*: Usefui Or Recyclable Parts Are Removed 

*:* "Hulk" Is Passed Through Shedder 

+:* Ferrous Material Magnetically Removed; Remainder is ASR (Automotive Shredder 

Residue 

+:* ASR Passed Through Non-Ferrous Metal Separator (Removes Aluminum, Copper, 

Zinc, Magnesium, Etc.) 

*:* Balance Of ASR Normally Goes To Landfill 

TYPICAL RECOVERY RATES (Bv Material) 

Dismantling Ferrous Non-Ferrous Landfill 

1. Steel 35% 

2. Cast Iron 90% 

3. Aluminum 15% 

4. Thermopiastics 1% 

5. SMC/BMC 15% 

NOTE: The percentage of Organic Materials (Plastics, Rubber, Fabrics, Etc.) in an 

average American vehicle is 15% by weight and 55% by volume. 

This is an important factor when considering the percentage of "Plastics" which 

currently ends up in Landfill. 
REUSE OF AUTOMOTIVE PARTS (DISMANTLING) 

(Sorted by Type Of Part) 

). Wheels 

> Transmissions 

3 Engines 

3 Doors 

P Bumpers 

9 Fenders 

P Fuel Tanks 

> Deck Lids 

> Front End Panels 

;. Hoods 

3- Seats 

> Grilles/Exterior Trim 

9 Instrument Panels/lnterior Trim 

2 Wiper Motor/Assem blies 

Note: Parts which could be SMC are shown in "Bold Type". 

SMC parts are reused at higher rates than steel or aluminum. 

The reuse rates shown above are averages for all vehicles. 

Parts which are typically thermoplastic are reused at very low rates. 
LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY (ENERGY) 

SMC AUTOMOTIVE BODY PANELS 

REDUCE USEAGE OF FUEL RESERVES 

*:* The Lincoln Continental uses 100 Ibs. of SMC components, reducing vehicle 

mass by about 30 Ibs. versus steel. 

*:* This permits fuel savings of 24 gallons per 100,000 miles of driving. 

*:* About 8.6 gallons of fuel are saved per vehicle in the materials acquisition, 

processing and manufacture of the SMC parts (versus comparable steel 

parts). 

Q SMC parts are more easily refurbished and reused when a vehicle is 

scrapped (versus steel), reducing the need to manufacture service parts and 

providing another 2 gallons of fuel saved per average vehicle. 

*:* Recycling SMC scrap, end of lifecycle parts and introducing recycled content 

into new SMC material, can provide an additional 0.4 gallons of fuel saved. 

*:* The total fuel savings potential per Continental vehicle over 100,000 

miles is 35 gallons. 

ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY 

MAJOR LIFECYCLE STAGES FOR AUTOMOTIVE PART 

Iirr 

EMISSIONS EMISSIONS 

T . ,. 

, t - 

EMISSIONS 

.r 

EMISSIONS 

Materials Component 

Acquisition & Manufacture & 

Processing Assembly - Normal 

Lifetime Use & 

Maintenance 

v 

EARTH 

(LANDFILL) 

A 

EARTH 4 REFURBISH 8 REUSE 

MATERIALS RECYCLE 

(RAW MATERIALS) 

I 

Recovery 

Reuse 8 

Disposal 

ENERGY RECOVERY 

- 
Thermose Composi 

are being Recyc 

used as tiller in making similar 

components fprimav recycling). 

recycled without removing paint, adhesives 

or other materials. 
SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE METHOD FOR 

TESTING SHEAR STRENGTH OF 

ADHESIVE BONDS 

L. Roy Bunnell 

Southridge High School 

Kemewick, WA 99338 

Telephone 509-734-3800 

e-mail Bunnro@ksd.org 
L, Roy Bnnnell 
Simple and Inexpensive Method for Testing Shear Strength of Adhesive Bonds 

L. Roy Bunnell 

Southridge High School 

Kennewick, WA 99338 

Key Words: Shear Strength, Adhesive Bonds, Epoxy Resin 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Students will have been instructed in the basics of epoxy 

resins and the importance of cleanliness in the surfaces to be bonded. 

Objective: By testing adhesive bonds made under several different conditions, students 

develop an appreciation for the importance of proper batching of epoxy resins and the 

condition of surfaces to be bonded. 

Equipment: 

1. Torque Wrenches, probably 1 wrencW5 students, designed to measure torques fi-om 

0-200 N-m (0-150 ft-lb). A cheap beam-type wrench was used here, but a dial-gauge 

type would probably be more accurate and capable of showing subtle differences 

among specimen types. 

2. Machine screws; 7116 x 1-112 coarse threaded screws were used here. This size 

included enough bond area to give reasonable torque readings. Slightly larger screws 

could be used, but screws should probably be no smaller than this size. Each student 

should be supplied with one screw and matching nut. 

3. Several bench vises, probably one vise15 students to complete testing in one class 

period. 

4. Epoxy resin and hardener, see text below for details. 

5. Very light oil for contaminating surfaces, see text below for details. 

6. Commercially available anaerobic thread locking compound if desired, see text for 

details. 

Safety Precautions: 

Follow label directions on the epoxy resins used, and remove resin fi-om skin with 

soap and hot water, or methanol if that fails. When applying torque wrench to specimens, 

clamp the machine screw or nut securely and brace feet against reaction forces, and be 

cautious about sudden failure of the bond or screw. 

Experiment Description: 

Introduction: Adhesive bonds are finding increasing usage in the assembly of 

many manufactured products, fkom automobiles to passenger airplanes. This method of 

assembly has many advantages, including bonding of parts over large areas and the 

avoidance of stress-raising penetrations. However, adhesives must be chosen and used 

carefully, and surfaces to be bonded must be clean, dry and sound in order to develop 

consistently high bond strength.") Ideally, adhesively-bonded joints should be designed 
so that the adhesive is placed in shew for best results. Similarly, testing of adhesivelybonded materials should be done so that the bond line is in pure shear. The testing 

method outlined in this paper provides a simple means for doing such testing. 

Testing Method: Since the adhesively-bonded joint should be placed in pure 

shear, considerable thought was given to the testing method. Finally, the idea of using 

the adhesive between a standard machine screw and a corresponding nut occurred. By 

using this combination, the bond line would be placed in pure shear when the nut is 

rotated around the screw. Moreover, the torque for moving the nut could be easily 

measured by using a common torque wrench, as used previously by N~dam(~) to show the 

differences in strength among bolts of several different classes. Since the shear strength 

of common epoxy resins was unknown (at least to this author), the size of machine screw 

to be used was determined by trial and error. In this work, the machine screws used were 

7/16 x 1-112 inches, with coarse threads. When this size of screw was completely coated 

with adhesive and a nut applied, the torque necessary to break the bond was easily 

measured using a torque wrench of common size. 

Pre~aration of Adhesive Bonds: In all cases except one, the adhesive used was 

Vinacron Epoxy.' This epoxy is a room-temperature-curing epoxy, is easy to batch, and 

has never produced a skin reaction in the hundreds of high school students who have used 

it. The variables tested are listed below; since there were five variables, the classes were 

divided into six teams and each student on a team prepared a screw-nut combination of 

one of the six types below: 

A. As-Purchased (cadmium-plated) fittings, epoxy resin and hardener 

mixed in proper (3:l) ratio by weight, cured overnight. 

B. Fittings Cleaned of any oily surface contamination that may have been 

present, by heating both nuts and screws to 500 deg. C, overnight. 

Fittings were bonded with properly batched epoxy, as in (A) above. 

C. Fittings Contaminated by spraying with WD-402 lubricant, then 

adhered by properly batched epoxy, cured overnight. 

D. As-Purchased fittings, epoxy and hardener mixed in 6: 1 ratio, cured 

overnight. 

E. As-Purchased fittings, epoxy and hardener mixed in 1 : 1 ration, cured 

overnight. 

F. Loctite #2713 anaerobic thread lock, applied and cured overnight. 

Students should be directed to label the head of their screw with an appropriate 

marker, using one of the letters above. In all cases, students coated the threads of the 

screw with adhesive by dipping, then applied the nut to full coverage of the screw. 

Industrial Arts Supply Company, Minneapolis, MN 55416-2594 

WD-40 Company, San Diego, CA 921 10 

Loctite Corporation, North American Group, Rocky Hill, CT 06067 
Testing of Adhesive Bonds: Onthe day after preparing the specimens, students 

used a torque wrench to test their adhesive bonds, after first clamping the hex head of the 

machine screw in a vise. Students were directed to apply the torque wrench socket to the 

head of the nut and to turn very slowly, carefully noting the peak torque obtained before 

the adhesive bond failed. Students recorded torque values and reached team consensus as 

to the average peak torque value and the "feel" of the bond failure, i.e., whether the bond 

failed suddenly or gradually and whether further turning of the bolt met with continuing 

resistance. Results are shown in Figure 1. 

A B C D 

Preparation Method (see text) 

Figure 1. Measured Torque Values for Screw/Nut Combinations Bonded by the Six 

Methods as Described in the Text. 
Discussion of the Results: By examining the results as presented in Figure 1, it 

appears that the as-received fittings (A) were quite fkee fkom contamination, because 

heating them to high temperature (B) did not produce a markedly higher bond strength. 

Deliberate contamination of the surfaces (C) produced much lower bond strength, as 

would be expected. The epoxy used was very tolerant of hardener-deficient batching 

errors, because specimens of this type (D) were as strongly bonded as as-received 

specimens. On the other hand, adding grossly too much hardener to the epoxy resin (type 

E) resulted in a non-hardening condition indicated by very low bonding strength. Type E 

specimens showed a viscous flow behavior in that torque values increased with shear rate. 

The epoxy bonds were strong enough that in one case not shown, when properly batched 

epoxy was applied to previously heated (type B) specimens and post-cured overnight at 

60 deg. C, the machine screws actually failed by twisting during testing. On the other 

hand, the commercial thread-locking compound Q produced a weaker bond than with 

properly prepared epoxy on clean surfaces, sufficiently strong for its intended use but 

unlikely to be unduly hard to remove or to cause screw failure. 

Possible Variations and Extensions: The testing method in this paper appears 

applicable to evaluating the shear strength of epoxy. Other epoxies could be evaluated 

and compared, or mix ratio effects could be evaluated in more detail. If nonplated fittings 

were used, there would almost undoubtedly be oily contaminants present. The effects of 

different cleaning techniques might also be evaluated using the method of this paper. 

One might be tempted to use the method on other adhesives, but it should be kept in mind 

that solvent-based adhesives such as "airplane glue" or casein-based wood glues would 

not be appropriate because the solvent could not evaporate readily fkom the confined 

space of the threads. 

References: 

1. J. A. Jacobs, T. F. Kilduff, Engineerinn Materials Technology, Third Edition, 

Prentice-Hall, 1997 

2. A. Nydarn, "Low Dollar Tensile (Torsion) Tester", Presented at National Educators' 

Workshop: Update 97, NASAICP-1998-208726 

Biographical Information: 

L. Roy Bunnell is a teacher of Materials Science Technology at Southridge High School 

in Kennewick, Washington. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Ceramic 

Engineering from the University of Utah and worked at Pacific Northwest National 

Laboratory in Richland, Washington, where he worked on many materials-oriented 

projects and helped to develop the curriculum for a high school course in Materials 

Science. His major interests are glasses and composite materials. He has contributed 

papers to several National Educators' Workshops. 
MICROWAVE DRIVEN ACTUATORS 

POWER ALLOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION 

Timothy Forbes 

and 

Kyo D. Song 

Department of Technology 

Norfolk State University 

2401 Corprew Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504 

Telephone: 757-683-8 105 

e-mail kdsong @ vger.nsu.edu 
Kyo D. Song 
Microwave Driven Actuators 

Power Allocation and Distribution 

Timothy Forbes and Kyo D. Song 

Norfolk State University 

Department of Technology 

Center for Materials Research 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504 

Key Words: Microwave Driven Actuator, Voltage Upconverter (WC), Power 

Allocation and Distribution (PAD), Rectenna 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Understanding of basic electronics principles, and Microwave 

Driven Actuators. 

Objective: Develop a model system that will collect DC voltage from an array of 

rectenna and propagate the voltage to an array of actuators. 

Equipment: 

PSPICE circuit design simulator 

Computer 

Infrared relay systems 

Resistors 

Nine-volt batteries 

Voltmeters 

Proportional Voltage Booster 

Resistors, light emitting diodes, mechanical switches 

17"xl2"x6" aluminum chassis box (2) 

13.5x1.5" hinge 

Screws and nuts 
Abstract 

Design, fabrication and test of a power allocation and distribution (PAD) network for 

microwave driven actuators is presented in this paper. Development of a circuit that 

would collect power from a rectenna array amplify and distribute the power to actuators 

was designed and fabricated for space application in an actuator array driven by a 

microwave. A P- SPICE model was constructed initially for data reduction purposes, and 

was followed by a working real-world model. A voltage up - converter (VUC) is used to 

amplify the voltage from the individual rectenna. The testing yielded a 26:l voltage 

amplification ratio with input voltage at 9 volts and a measured output voltage 230VDC. 

Future work includes the miniaturization of the circuitry, the use of microwave remote 

control, and voltage amplification technology for each voltage source. 

Introduction 

The development of microwave driven smart materials has caused a need for on - board 

power allocation and distribution to control individual rectenna. Microwave driven smart 

materials technology has been developed as a remote, wireless method of powering smart 

materials, specifically piezo-actuators for the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST). 

Due to this fact, a power allocation and distribution (PAD) circuit must be integrated with 

the power source. Rectenna is a material that when bombarded with microwaves of 

certain frequency, generates voltage. This voltage must be collected, distributed, and 

amplified to control piezoelectric displacement actuators. The power allocation device 

and VUC integrated design makes this possible 

Circuit Description ( PSPICE model) 

The power allocation circuit (PAC) is a model of a voltage distribution network used to 

collect and distribute DC voltage to a system of piezoelectric actuators as shown in Fig. 

1. The design was tested and refined using PSPICE ICAP's 4Rx-circuit simulator. Stage 

one includes six nine-volt batteries and twelve solid-state switches (Fig la). Each set of 

switches represents relays (ICAP 4rxYs parts library does not include relays) used to tun 

sources on or off. Stage two is a step-up transformer with a 26:l voltage amplification 

ratio, which represents the voltage up - converter (Fig lb). Stage three is a parallel 

network that includes nine switches and nine identical circuits; a resistor and capacitor in 

series (Fig lc). The resistor and capacitor represent the electrical equivalent of a 

piezoelectric actuator. 
!CAP PADIVUC 

X 1 X3 X5 

SWITCH 

SWITCH SWITCH 

- Stage 1 

SWITCH 1 

X32 - 

Stage 3 

Stage 2 

k.id Figure 1. ICAP PADNUC Model 

Theory of Operation (PSPICE model) 

The power allocation model generally consists of stages one and two (Fig. la & b). Stage 

one provides a range of 9 to 54 volts DC in 9 - volt increments to the actuator array. The 

maximum voltage is achieved by linking voltage sources V1 -V6 in a series mode. V1 

through V6 are each 9 - volt DC cells. Operating con&tions with all sources on are X1 
- X11 odd on, X2 - X12 even off. The actuator array is a parallel network (Fig lc). The 

voltage across each branch is constant. All equivalent circuits may operate 

simultaneously, separately or in any combination. Switches S 13 through S2 1 determine 

the on or off state of the equivalent circuits. The equivalent circuits represent 

piezoelectric actuators. DC operating point analysis is used to obtain data. 

Voltage Up - Converter Circuit 

The Voltage Up - Converter (VUC) circuit in the PSPICE simulator consists of a voltage 

booster (step - up transformer) and a voltage divider circuit. The transformer ratio is 

26:1, in effect a voltage multiplier. The divider circuit is used to maintain a constant 

voltage across the array. The voltage divider circuit consists of a load resistor that is 

placed across the actuator array, and a potentiometer in series with the array. This 

configuration forms the voltage divider. Knowing that voltage is the same across parallel 

components, the voltage across load resistor will also be across the actuator array. The 

potentiometer is used to change the total resistance of the circuit as the output voltage 

from the voltage booster changes. As the total resistance of the divider decreases, the 

greater part of the voltage will drop across the load resistor. The potentiometer makes this 

possible. The voltage divider rule explains the relationship between voltage and 

resistance in a voltage divider circuit; 

Where Vl is voltage across the load resistor, Rl is a constant load resistance, Vo is the 

output voltage from the transformer, and Rt is the total resistance of the divider. 

Equivalent Circuits 

Figure 2 shows the equivalent circuit used in the power allocation and distribution circuit, 

a piezoelectric displacement actuator. Equivalent circuits for piezoelectric actuators vary 

by manufacturer. The difference between equivalent circuits is usually the state or mode 

of the actuator e.g. loaded, not loaded etc. Arbitrary values were used for ICAPs 

equivalent circuit. 

Figure 2. Actuator Equivalent Circuit. 

308 
Real World Model 

The real world integrated PADMJC model functions in the same way as the ICAP's 

model. The real-world model mainly consists of a Vellman IR controlled fifteen - 

channel relay system, a Morgan Matroc IR controlled relay system, a proportional 

voltage booster from Piezo Systems, and three panel mount multi-meters. Six nine-volt 

batteries produce the voltage, and the VUC is powered by one nine-volt battery. 

Actuators are represented by green light emitting diodes and Rectenna (voltage sources) 

are represented by red LED'S. Voltage sources and actuators are independently 

controlled by relays. The WC is also controlled remotely by an independent IR channel 

and relay (Morgan Matroc Proportional voltage booster shown in Fig 3). The 

configuration of the PADMJC system is shown in Fig. 4. 

Technical Issues 

Miniaturization 

1. For conservation of space the PAD/ WC will be produced at the microchp level 

2. Fabrication would be specific to NASA Langley Research Center 

3. Increased system reliability 

4. Convenience 

5. Increased speed and ease of production 

Infrared Interaction 

1. 15 channel IR system produced by Vellman 

2. Infrared remote control of relay state 

Microwave Remote Control 

1. Eventually microwave RF will be used in stead of IR 

2. Microwave allows for greater distance than IR. 

3. RF control signal may be piggy backed along main wave 

4. Development of multi - channel microwave system is needed. 
PADMJC - Circuit Interfacing . 

1. Circuit creates a common bus for each rectenna. 

2. Circuit can be imbedded in rectenna array. 

3. Allows bypassing or summing of rectenna power outputs. 

Conclusions 

During summer research at NASA Langley Research Center through the FAR Grant 

(NCC-1-280), development of a power allocation and distribution circuit (PADC) was 

completed. Testing yielded maximum values of voltage at 54 VDC using six nine-volt 

cells. Future work includes interfacing and testing of the circuitry with Rectenna 

fabricated at NASA Langley. Testing aims to discover data such as design eficiency, 

maximum voltage and current levels, as well as maximum power values. 
Figure 3 Morgan Matroc Proportional Voltage Booster 
Fig. 4. Configuration of PADNUC System 
STRETCHY "ELASTICTT BANDS 111 

CONTAMINANT EFFECTS 

Alan K. Karplus 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Western New England College 

12 1 5 Wilbraham Road 

Springfield, Massachusetts 0 1 1 19-2684 

Telephone 4 13-782- 1220 

e-mail akarplus@wnec.edu 

Stretchy "Elastic" Bands I11 

Contaminant Effects 

Alan K. Karplus 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Westem New England College 

Springfield, MA 0 1 1 19-2684 

Abstract: 

Near constant rate loading and unloading of traditional number 33 rubber bands shows fmes which 

are unique to these elastic products, especially when a band is coated with a common household 

chemical. Tensile load - deflection tests are performed on a series of three and one half inch long rubber 

bands of 118 inch width in the "as-received" condition, coated with machine oil, castor oil, water, liquid 

hand soap, and talcum powder, respectively. Comparisons made include: 1. shape of loading and 

unloading paths for loadldeflection plots, and 2. areas under stresdstrain plots found by approximation. 

The applied load - deflection plots on the same graph show common features as well as difFerences due 

to coatings. 

Key Words: Elastics, Tension Tests, Environmental Conditions 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Have an idea about changes in the load an elastic band holds as it is 

stretched and unloaded and know that application of substances such as oils, soaps, and talcum powder 

can alter the load canying capacity of some rubber bands. 

Objective: To work as a team member in the collection of data, to make plots for near constant rate 

loading and unloading of traditional rubber bands, and to show features which are unique to these 

rubber band products in different conditions such as "as-received" condition, coated with a machine oil, 

liquid hand soap, or talcum powder. 

Equipment: 

1. A series of three and one half inch long rubber "elastic" bands of 118 inch width which are often 

referred to as number 33 rubber bands. Most office supply houses will stock these. 

2. Yard Stick, or Tape measure or 30 inch long machinist's measure. 

3. Two, 2 inch size C - clamps. 

4. Mounting board ( 2 in. by 1 in. by 30 inches) with a six penny nail inserted one inch from one end 

on the 2 inch by 30 inch face, and to which the machinist's scale can be clamped. The zero of the 

machinist's scale should be at the nail. 
5. Vise to hold the mounting board. 

6. SafetyGo@es 

7. Heavy work gloves 

8. Load scale with a capacity to 10 pounds or 5 kg. 

9. Micrometer or vernier caliper. 

10. Household substances such as liquid hand soap, hydrogen peroxide, castor oil, machine cleaner oil 

and talcum powder. 

1 1. Hand protection gloves, hand towels, and paper plates for coated rubber bands. 

12. Half inch wide masking tape for making elastic band labels. 

13. Data page with 25 lines with one line for a tide and one line for units designation and twelve 

columns. Measurements are taken at one inch increments starting at a value of four inches listed in 

the first column. The next two columns are used to record load and unload while the remaining 

columns are used for computations of strain, stress, energy, etc. Be sure to label columns and 

include units of measure selected. 

14. A Spreadsheet such as EXCELTM. All work performed on the spreadsheet can be done by hand. 

15. When the computations are to be done by hand, computation paper and several pieces of linear 

graph paper with 20 divisions to the inch are needed. 

Introduction: 

Each rubber band is to be stretched at a near constant rate and unstretched at the same near constant 

rate while recording the load present at each stretch point. One team member does the loading and 

reads the load at each position while the second team member records the data. Try to load and unload 

the elastic at a constant rate, and about the same rate for each band so that meaningikl comparisons 

between bands can be made. Both team members should work on the data analysis, make observations 

fkom the computations and plots, and formulate conclusions. 

Testing and Load - Displacement Plot: 

After the data has been collected and when a spreadsheet is used consider making a column of 

displacement that starts at four inches and ends at 24 inches. Then enter the loading at four inches and 

ends at 24 inches, and unloading that starts at 24 inches and returns to four inches. Increments of one 

inch are used. Enter the collected data into the spreadsheet and the make a plot for the entered 

displacement - load data. 

Stress - Strain Plot: 

At each displacement position make a computation for engineering strain and engineering stress. 

Engineering strain is the length ( L ) at any displacement minus a reference displacement ( R ) divided 

by the reference displacement ( R ) or (L-R)/R Four ( 4 ) inches is chosen as the reference dimension 

( R ) for this experiment. Engineering stress or (EVA) is the load ( P ) divided by the cross section area 

( A ) of the band. Note that the band has two strands carrying load. Compute the strain and stress for 

the collected data. Make a second plot for the stress and strain found. 
Hystersis: 

Compute increments for the area under the LOADING line separately fiom the UNLOADING he. 

This represents the energy used to stretch and unstretch the band. Now compute the area under the 

curves with trapezoidal increments; fist the loading curve and then the unloading curve. A cell should 

be used to store each trapezoidal area increment. The trapezoidal increment is computed by fonning 

the average of two stresses and multiplying by the change in strain. The total area under a curve can be 

found by adding the incremental areas in a column, and is the energy related to each curve. The 

difference between column totals found is the hystersis. A ratio between this difference and the loading 

curve area when shown in percent finds the portion of energy lost to internal fiiction or hystersis. Be 

sure to check UNITS. 

Loading Data Ratio: 

To learn about the constant loading rate and constant unloading rate, the loading rate ratio is computed 

when the change in loading (stress) values are divided by the change in displacement (strain) values for 

each increment. When this ratio is the same across increments, the rate is constant 

Comparisons: 

An informative comparison for rubber bands tested can be made by plotting and clearly labeling: 

A the load deflection data for all elastics on one set of axes and 

B. the stress - strain data for all elastics on another set of axes. 

Note how both the stress-strain plot curves compare fivorably, how the load-displacement and stressstrain are comparable due to no changes in geometry of elastic bands evaluated, and how the 

percentage of energy allocated to hystersis is seen to differ due to coatings while the load - 

displacement plot clearly shows the change in load canied by each band, again due to coatings applied 

to the elastic bands. 

Once the above has been done for an "as-received" rubber band, select several common household 

materials such as machine oil, liquid hand soap, castor oil, talcum powder, and water, coat a new 

separate elastic band with each, and re - run the experiment with the coated band. Be sure to attach a 

label to each band. A piece of masking tape folded around the band and onto itself works nicely when 

the name of the contaminant is written on the label. When coating a band be sure to use hand 

protection gloves when immersing the band in a contaminant, and as appropriate, rubbing the 

contaminant intolonto the band. 

Preparation: 

Prepare the Mounting Board by placing a six penny nail into the 2 inch by 30 inch surface of the board 

one inch fiom the three surfaces at one end. Place the board into the vise and clamp the machinist's 

measure onto the top surface of the board. Clamps at six inches and 20 inches on the scale work well. 

Figure 1 shows a possible set-up. 
on Handle 

Mounting Deformation 

Board Scale 

(2 by 4) (Machinist Rule) 

Figure 1 

Example Test Apparatus Set-Up 

Secue a rubber band for the size to be tested. A number 33 elastic band is selected. Measure the 

thickness and width of the band and record the results. Remember there are two strands of each band 

carrying load. Now compute the cross sectional area. 

Prepare the data sheet with 25 lines and twelve columns. Add a title heading for each column on the 

fist line and the units of the value on the next line. Leave a line empty and enter the first measurement. 

Load measurements are to be taken at one inch increments starting at a displacement value of four 

inches listed in the first column and end at the 24 inch position. The remaining columns are used in 

pairs to record loading and unloading for each elastic size. Be sure to label the load columns in pairs 

(LOADING and UNLOADING) and include units of measure selected. The first LOADING value is 

recorded in column two at the four inch position. A position is designated where the hook of the load 

scale attaches to the rubber band and is sited on the machinist's measure. The last LOADING value at 

24 inches should be the FIRST UNLOADING value at 24 inches because the UNLOADING values 

are recorded for decreasing positions. 

When the extension exceeds 20 inches for the larger bands you must make a concentrated effort to 

keep the current band under load. DO NOT UNLOAD or LOOSE LOAD on the scale on the loading 

because the band will be unloaded and the loading data will not be represent near constant rate loading. 

In case a band breaks when under test, COMPLETELY redo the test. 

In preparation for a test run place a designated rubber band over the nail and through the hook of the 

load scale. Check that a load measurement can be made at the four inch mark on the machinist's 

measure. Be sure the operator of the load scale has safety glasses on and is wearing the heavy gloves. 
These Safety Devices will protect the operator if the elastic breaks and the spring scale unloads and the 

elastic flies around. Be sure to have a four inch long piece of masking tape available to label the 

condition of the elastic band tested. 

Procedure: 

1. Tests: 

Tensile load - deflection tests are to be performed on a series of number 33 rubber bands that are 

three and one half inch long and 118 inch wide. Place safety glasses and gloves on the spring 

scale operator, prepared band AR on the loading apparatus, and prepare the record for 

writing the data on the data sheet. The approach is to stretch a band and as this is done, at a 

near constant rate, record the load required to stretch the rubber band at each added inch. Start at 

four inches, which is one-half an inch past the three and one-half inch length of the rubber band. 

Continue until the length of the band is 24 inches. Next, unload the band at the same rate as was 

used to load the band, taking load measurements at each inch of reduced length. Remember the 

load value at the 24 inch position is the same for the LOADING and UNLOADING columns on 

the data sheet. The recorded data is defined as "raw data" for the "as-received" number 33 rubber 

band tested. "As-received" refers to the condition of the rubber band as it comes fiom the package. 

Be sure to label the rubber band tested "as-received ", or AR, with a piece of masking tape placed 

around a leg of the band and taped onto itself with the name AR written on it, and then measure 

and record its elastic band width and thickness. 

2. Load - Displacement Plots: 

The first comparison to be made is for the shape of loading and unloading paths for 

load/displacement data. Enter the displacement data which starts at four inches and ends at 24 

inches. At each displacement level, enter the load. Make an XY' or Scatter Plot of the data. The 

horizontal axis should be Displacement in inches while the vertical axis is Load in pounds. Label 

the Load - Displacement line as AR . 

Repeat the load-displacement test for each of the remaining coated rubber bands, plot the data on 

the SAME graph as for AIR and label each curve as Band-Ade Machine Cleaner @A), Castor Oil 

(CO), Liquid hand Soap (S), and Talcum Powder (T). Be sure to use hand protection gloves when 

coating bands, as appropriate. 

The applied load - displacement plots on the same graph show magnitude changes. The largest 

load carried by each band should be clearly evident on the right hand end of the displacement axis 

at 24 inches. Note if a trend appears which shows which coating impacts the loading features the 

most. 

3. Stress - Stain Plots: 

The second comparison is dependent on two modifications made to the raw data. The first 

modiication is to define the engineering strain as the ratio computed by taking the measured band 

displacement minus the starting displacement and dividing this quantity by the initial displacement. 

Be sure to make a plot of two variables and NOT a line chart as is the usual default setting on a spreadsheet. 

319 
For all samples use four inches as the initial displacement. This means that the first value of strain is 

zero with UNITS of inchehch. The strain is to be plotted on the horizontal axis. 

The second data modification is to divide the load by the cross-sectional area of the original rubber 

band. This computes the engineering stress in the band which has UNITS of pounds per square 

inch in the English system and is to be plotted on the vertical axis. 

Again prepare an XY or Scatter Plot with the modified data. This will be a stress-strain plot for 

the uncoated rubber band. Label the line on the plot with the selected symbol such as AR 

Repeat the strain and stress calculations for the different coatings, make separate stress-strain plots 

for each, and add this data to the same stress-strain plot for AR Elastic 33. Be sure to label each 

line. Note the similarities between these curves. If the effect of initial elastic length and original 

cross sectional area are considered, the stain range of 5 times or 500 percent is the same for each 

rubber band and the stress ranges are changed due to the coatings, however, the "characteristic 

shape" of the curve does not appear to change significantly due to the coating. 

4. Hystersis: 

Areas under each of the stresdstrain curves are to be found by approximation. An approach is to 

represent the area between strain values as a trapezoid and to sum the areas of all the trapezoids to 

obtain the area under the LOADING line. The summing of trapezoids is repeated for the 

UNLOADING line. Note that the trapezoid has a 'height' in stress units of pounds per square inch 

and that the 'width' of the trapezoid has strain units of inches per inch. The product of stress times 

strain becomes inch-pounds per cubic inch. In summary, the difference between these sums is the 

residual often referred to as hystersis. The hystersis represents the energy consumed in the 

displacement process. 

What can be presented about the energy differences between the AR and coated rubber bands? A 

rapid visual comparison is found when either the load-displacement (or the stress-strain plots) are 

super-imposed on one another. The plots show the common features such as the LOADING line 

differences such as and similarities for the UNLOADING lines between the coated rubber bands 

fiom four to 24 inches (or zero to 500 percent strain). Note that the area term represents 

ENERGY. When English units are used, the product of pounds times inches becomes in.- lbs. For 

the load-displacement plot (and for the stress-strain plot pounds per square inch times inches per 

inch becomes inch-pounds per cubic inch). 

What relationship can be found between LOADING energy, UNLOADING energy, and hystersis 

for the AR and various rubber band coatings? A summary table of rubber band coating with 

columns of maximum load and energy for LOADING and UNLOADING lines, and hystersis can 

show that about halfthe energy is assigned to hystersis for the AR condition. 
5. Loading Rate Ratio: 

Compute the loading rate ratios for each LOADING and UNLOADING line based on each 

displacement increment to learn about the constant loading rate and constant unloading rate. The 

loading rate ratio is computed when the change in loading (stress) values are divided by the change 

in displacement (strain) values for each increment. When this ratio is the same across increments, 

the rate is constant 

Comments: 

1. To aid the instructor in the execution of this experiment, a sample for Elastic 33 is shown below. 

Figure 2 presents the data collected in columns one through three fiom the I& and ensuing 

calculations in columns four through 12. Note the starting position for displacement at 4 inches 

with loading values to 24 inches and 24 inches to 4 inches. In Figure 3 the loading and unloading 

curves are seen. Figure 4 presents the stress- strain plot while in Figure 2 are found the strain 

values in column four, loading stress, unloading stress in columns five and six and the trapezoidal 

areas between strain increments in columns seven and eight with energy values summed in the next 

two columns. The last two columns contain the rate of loading ratios. 

To make a hand calculation for the 6 inch displacement: A strain [(L-R)/R] is (6-4114 = 0.5 and B. 

the loading stress (PIA) is 0.500 pounds 1 0.0085 in. sq. or 58.82 psi. as seen in column five fiom 

the left in Figure 2. In column seven of Figure 2 is C. the area under a part of the loading curve as 

11.03 in-lb. per cubic inch which is found by averaging 29.41 and 58.82 = (88.2312 = 44.12) psi. 

and multiplying 44.12 psi. by 0.25 in.fm. which is the change in strain increment. For the 

incremental download the energy computed is 3.68 in.-lb./cubic inch shown in column eight and is 

found by averaging 29.41 and 0.00 and multiplying by 0.25. In column 11 is the loading rate ratio 

or (59.82 psi. - 29.21 psi.)/ 0.25 in./in. = 117.65 psi. 

A comparison of the total download energy of 591.91 in.-lb./cubic inches (found by adding all the 

incremental energies) to the loading value of 11 19.49 in.-lb.1 cubic inch shows a ratio of 0.5287 or 

53 percent. The hystersis value is likewise 47 percent which represents the enerm consumed as 

shown at the bottom of the figure 2. Figure 3 shows the stress-strain plot for the AR (as received) 

Number 33 elastic band. Note the similarity to Figure 2. The difference is the scales. Stress rather 

than load and strain rather than displacement are used. Since the same geometry elastic band is 

used for all bands in this experiment, future comparisons will be made with the load-deflection data 

which is collected and recorded data. Above the energy calculation was presented for stress - strain 

values. However, similar findings can be obtained with load - displacement values as follows: (0.50 

Ibs. + 0.25 lbs.)/2 times one inch = 0.375 in. Ibs. The percent hystersis will be the same namely 100 

times (38.06 in.lbs. - 20.13 in.lbs.)/ 38.06 in-lbs. = 47.1%. A siiar approach is used for the 

loading rate ratios. In place of the 117.65 psi. the value of the loading rate ratio is (0.50 lbs. - 0.25 

lbs.)/ one inch or 0.25 1bs.fm. 
C 

Stretchy"Elastic"Bands Ill - 33 with Gina 

Cross section is 0.125 in. by 0.034in. with 2 tendons 

Cross section area = 0.0085 in.Y 

Regular Band AR Condition 

Displm't Load Unload Strain Up Dw lnwk lnwk Work Work Rate Rate 

stress stress UP dw up dw up dw 

inches pounds pounds in/in psi psi in-lb in-lb in-lb in-lb psi psi 

Per Per per per inA3 inA3 inA3 inA3 

4.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

5.00 0.25 0.00 0.25 29.41 0.00 3.68 0.00 3.68 0.00 117.65 0.00 

6.00 0.50 0.25 0.50 58.82 29.41 11.03 3.68 14.71 3.68 117.65 117.65 

7.00 0.50 0.25 0.75 58.82 29.41 14.71 7.35 29.41 11.03 0.00 0.00 

8.00 0.75 0.38 1-00 88.24 44.12 18.38 9.19 47.79 20.22 117.65 58.82 

9.00 0.75 0.38 1.25 88.24 44.12 22.06 11.03 69.85 31.25 0.00 0.00 

10.00 1.00 0.50 1.50 117.65 58.82 25.74 12.87 95.59 44.12 117.65 58.82 

11.00 1.00 0.50 1.75 117.65 58.82 29.41 14.71 125.00 58.82 0.00 0.00 

12.00 1.00 0.50 2.00 117.65 58.82 29.41 14.71 154.41 73.53 0.00 0.00 

13.00 1.13 0.50 2.25 132.35 58.82 31.25 14.71 185.66 88.24 58.82 0.00 

14.00 1.25 0.63 2.50 147.06 73.53 34.93 16.54 220.59 104.78 58.82 58.82 

15.00 1.38 0.63 2.75 161.76 73.53 38.60 18.38 259.19123.16 58.82 0.00 

16.00 1.63 0.63 3.00 191.18 73.53 44.12 18.38 303.31 141.54 117.65 0.00 

17.00 1.75 0.75 3.25 205.88 88.24 49.63 20.22 352.94 161.76 58.82 58.82 

18.00 2.00 0.75 3.50 235.29 88.24 55.15 22.06 408.09183.82 117.65 0.00 

19.00 2.25 0.75 3.75 264.71 88.24 62.50 22.06 470.59205.88 117.65 0.00 

20.00 2.63 0.88 4.00 308.82 102.94 71.69 23.90 542.28229.78 176.47 58.82 

21.00 3.00 1.00 4.25 352.94 117.65 82.72 27.57 625.00 257.35 176.47 58.82 

22.00 3.50 1.50 4.50 411.76 176.47 95.59 36.76 720.59 294.12 235.29 235.29 

23.00 4.38 2.75 4.75 514.71 323.53 115.81 62.50 836.40 356.62 411.76 588.24 

24.00 5.25 5.25 5.25 617.65 617.65 283.09 235.29 1119.49 591.91 205.88 588.24 

% Hystersis = 47.13 

Figure 2 

Collected Data and Computed Values for Elastic Band 33 in AR Condition 
Regular Band 33 Load Displacement Plot 

AR Condition 

6.00 

5.00 

% 4.00 

s 

3 

0 

3.00 

u 

I 

g 2.00 

1 .oo 

0.00 

0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 

Displacement - inches 

Figure 3 

Elastic 33 in AR condition Load Displacement Plot ' 

Elastic 33 in AR Condition Stress - Strain Plot 

700.00 

600.00 

500.00 

.- 

X 400.00 

V) 

300.00 

5 

200.00 

100.00 

0.00 

0.00 1 .OO 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 

Strain - in.lin. 

. Figure 4 

Elastic 33 in AR Condition Stress - Strain Plot 
2. For a selection of bands wiped with a contaminant and tested and compared to the AR elastic 

band, the following: Liquid hand sbap called Cormatic Soap fiom Georgia Pacific, Atlanta, GA 

30306, increased the stress applied at 500 percent strain by forty-one percent, talc caUed Avon Bird 

of Paradise Pefirned Talc fiom Avon Products, Inc., N.Y., NY increased the load about ten 

percent while castor oil fiom CVS or Consumer Value Stores of Woonsocket, RI 02805 decreased 

the load about 20 percent while the Lenox Band-Ade Machine Cleaner fiom American Saw and 

Manufacturing Company of East Longmeadow, MA 01028 decreased the maximum load to 4.50 

pounds or by 14% of the AR band. From figure 5 a plot of the load deflection curves for these 

cases shows the loadiing lines differ markedly with the 'highest curve for the liquid hand soap (S), 

decreasing to talc Cr), the AR band, the Machine Cleaner (BA) and to the castor oil (CO) coated 

band. The total energy under the loadiing curves vary fiom 1182 in.-lb./in.A3 or 106% of the AR 

band for liquid hand soap to 95 percent of the AR band for talc to 75% of the AR for the machine 

cleaner and 761 in.-lb./ib1.~3 or 68 percent of the AR band for the castor oil. From Figure 5 it can 

be seen that after an initial load release the majority of the unloading lines appear to coincide. The 

hystersis values are 52.3, 50.0, 48.8, 47.1, and 43.0 percent respectively for the liquid hand soap, 

talc, machine cleaner, "as-received" and castor oil coatings. 

**** It is noted that no moup runs to select an "average7' or typical stretchy "elastic7' band with a 

given coating have been made. The numbers presented here and the number you obtain will most 

likely be diierent. **** 

Elastic 33 Contaminant Comparison via Load -Displacement Plot 

8.00 

7.00 

6.00 

5. 00 

0' 

a 

a 4.00 

0 

a 

i 

3.00 

2.00 

1.00 

0.00 

0 5 10 15 20 25 

Di.plocement -inches 

. Figure 5 

Elastic 33 Comparison of Contaminants 

(S - hand soap, BA - machine cleaner, CO - castor oil, T - talc, AR - 'as-received' condition) 
3. Application of contaminants when l& on the band prior to testing for 24 hours (one day 

designated by N) change the findings as shown in figures 6A, 6B, 6C, and 6D for the liquid hand 

soap (NS), talc (NT), machine cleaner (NB), and castor oil (NC), respectively. The overnight 

soaking produce new maximum loads which compare to the original maximum loads as follows: 

54% for the hand soap, 104% for the talc, 147% for the machine cleaner, and 88% for the castor 

oil. Hystersis valves for the overnight load-daection data are 44%, 49%, 50%, and 44% for the 

hand soap, talc, machine cleaner, and castor oil, respectively. 

There are some notable items over the 24 hour period. The castor oil and the talc appear to 

maintain their respective impacts. This is interesting because talc is often used to coat a bicycle tire 

tube and its companion tire casings to improve compatibility while castor oil is used to lubricate the 

elastic rubber band used in an elastic rubber band powered model airplane to obtain longer Bights 

by providing more tums in the powering band. For the liquid hand soap, it appears that the canier 

for the soap has dried reducing the impact of this coating on the band. On the other hand, the 

machine cleaner appears to alter the elastic band such that after 24 hour soaking it becomes 

'stronger'. 

Liquid Hand Soap Load - Deflection Plot Comparison 

Original (S) and Overnight (NS) 

Figure 6A 

Elastic 33 Comparison - Hand Soap Original (S) and Overnight (NS) 
Talc Load - Deformafon Plot Comparison 

Original (T) and Overnight (M) 

6.00 

5.00 

4.00 

2 g 3.00 -I-- unbad NT 

d 

-I + unbad T 

2.00 

1.00 

0.00 

0 5 10 15 20 25 

Dispbcemrnt-inches 

Figure 6B 

Elastic 33 Comparison - Talc Original (T) and Overnight (NT) 

Displacement -inches 

and Overnight (NB) 
Displacement - inches 

I 

Figure 6D 

Elastic 33 Comparison - Castor Oil Original (CO) and Overnight (No 

4. To provide added perspective a 1/16, % and 112 inch wide or number 19, 64, and 84 rubber bands 

can be tried with various coatings. The number 19 rubber band has not always attained the 500 

percent elongation which the number 33,61, and 84 bands achieve. It breaks! On the other hand, 

number 19 adds a fourth elastic to the data base. Information on the changes in 'as-received' 

elastic bands of varying cross-section but constant length can be found in-Stretchv "Elastic" Bands 

which is part of NEW UPDATE '97, and changes due to evaluating constant cross-section bands 

of varying length can be found in Stretchv "Elastic" Bands I1 which is part ofNEW UPDATE'98. 

Acknowledgments: 

The author is appreciative of the assistance provided by Mr. Richard DeCele, Mechanical Laboratory 

Technician, in the finding of various rubber bands, selection of load scales, and the recording of data. 

Gina Ferrera, a junior WNEC electrical engineering student, assisted with several trials and made 

helpful suggestions as we prepared and analyzed test findings. 
Bibliography: 

ALAN K. IOURPLUS 

Alan K. Karplus is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Western New England College, Springlield, 

Massachusetts. He has a Bachelor's degree from Tufts College, a Master's degree from Iowa State 

University and a PhD. fkom Colorado State University. He has been involved with the freshman 

engineering program, coordinates the senior mechanical engineering laboratory program, has taught 

Materials Science and supervises ME. Senior Projects. His interests include materials and design. He 

is a member of ASME and ASEE. He has contributed to the National Educators' Workshop and 

ASEE Annual Conference for several years. 
GALVANOSTATIC POLARIZATION CURVES 

FOR TEACHING PURPOSES PART 11 

Carlos E. Umana 

Department of Materials 

School of Mechanical Engineering 

University of Costa Rica 

San Jose, Costa Rica 

Telephone: 506-207-4548 

e-mail caruma @ terraba.fing.ucr.ac.cr 

GALVANOSTATIC POLARIZATION CURVES FOR TEACHING PURPOSES 

PARTII 

Carlos E. Um& 

Departamento de Materiales 

Escuela de Ingenieria Mecikica 

Universidad de Costa Rica 

San Jose, Costa Rica 

KEY WORDS: Activation polarization, Tafel slopes and resistance polarization method 

PRIEREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE: A complete knowledge of the theory and experimental work involved 

in the first part of this experiment (Ref 1). 

A basic course on calculus. 

OBJECTTVES: 

1. To introduce the basic concepts of the polarization resistance method (Ref 2). 

2. To use the polarization resistance method as a way to improve the exactness of the anodic Tafel slope. 

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES: 

All the items listed in the first part (Ref 1). 

Additionally: 

1. A fine carbon steel brush 

2. A brand new soft toothbrush 

3. A stereomicroscope (15X magnification will be enough) 

INTRODUCTION: 

The first part of this experiment was presented at the NEW :Update 98. In this second part polarization 

curves for mild steel are obtained following the same basic stepsBs in the first part but includu3g the current 

range from 1 to 10 pA/cm2. The low range data is used to introduce and apply the polarization resistance 

method. Th~s method consists in plotting on a linear scale the lower anodic and cathodic overpotencial 

values (E) versus applied current density (iawl) in order to obtain graphically the AE/Aiawl slope as E 

approaches zero. This slope value is related with both the anodic and the cathodic Tafel slopes (Pa and PC) 

and the corrosion current density (i-) by the polarization resistance equation as follo~vs: 

Where: %= polarization resistance 

The demonstration of this equation is presented in the Appendix. The polarization resistance method is a 

technique normally used to estimate the corrosion current density without knowing the actual Tafel slopes. 

This is done by assuming common Tafel values. However in this work polarization resistance will be used 
to improve the exactness of the anodic Tafel slope by assuming that the cathodic Tafel slope, the corrosion 

cunent density and the slope (A~lhia,l),,~ are more reliable experimental values than the anodic Tafel 

slope (Ref.2). From equation (1) an expression for Pa is obtained as shown below: 

In this way the main electrochemical techniques used in corrosion evaluation and control are introduced by 

performing simple but well based laboratory experiments. 

PROCEDURJZ: 

The same steps as in the first part except for the following points (the step numbers used here are the former 

numbers used in the procedure of the first part): 

Step 3. To take into account surf= defects and irregularities use a fine carbon steel brush to clean the 

surface before wet grinding with 240-400 grits Sic paper. Use a soft toothbrush to clean irregularities after 

wet polishing with 600 grits Sic paper. 

Control the surface condition by using a stereoinicroscope. 

Each test requires a new working electrode surface or a new specimen. 

Step 1 1. The data sheet is modified to include the lower experimental values. 

Step 17. The open circuit potential E, is not necessarily -520 mv as in the first part. In this case a potential 

of E, = -500 mv was obtained. 

Step 19. It takes around 80 minutes to complete each experiment for the cathodic or the anodic connection. 

An additional step consists in plotting on a linear scale overpotential values (E) versus applied current 

density iawl for the 0-10 @cm2 range in order to obtain the slope (A€ I *. 

EXPERTMENTALRESULTS: 

Table I show the values obtained in one polarization test and Figure 1 presents the cathodic and anodic 

curves and the Tafel extrapolations. 

The corrosion potential is Em, = -500 mv and the cathodic and anodic curve extrapolation corresponding to 

Tafel behavior give a corrosion current density of i,, = 19 pA/cm2. The cathodic Tafel slope is 

PC= -5 12 mvj decade (1 cycle = decade) and the anodic Tafel slope is Pa= 62 mv / decade. 

The overpotential values for low current density range are presented in Table 11. Figure 2 shows a plot of 1 2 these values from which it is graphically determined that (A€ 1 0 = 3x1 0" IR - em . 

Applying equation (2) gives a new value of P, = 176 mv I decade,-which corresponds-to the modified andc 

Tafel slope. The new anodic curve is shown in Figure 1. (Figures 1 and 2 were obtained using MATLAB@ 

with Sitnulink V4.0, The Mathworks, Inc.). 
Table I. Polarization Data Sheet 

TESTN0 3 

RE~CEELECTRODE SCE . 

DATE 08 / 05 / 99 

WORK ELECTRODE Mild Steel Bolt AREA 1 cm2 

AUXILIARY ELECTRODE G-ra~hite AREA 2 cm2 

ELECTROLYTE 20 3 NaCl i lliter DW pH- TEMP. 22 OC 

ELECTROLYTE TREATMENT 

Boiled for 20 minutes, allowed to cool and N7 bubbling to dissolve NaCl 

CATHODIC REACTION Corrosion Potential : Em = -500 mv 

Initial time : 10:45 a.m. Final time : 12:10 p.m. Notes Final Resistance 39.2 KC2 

ANODIC REACTION Corrosion Potential : E- = -500" mv 

No 

]PA 

E mv 

No 

I fl 

Emv 

No 

I @ 

E mv 

No 

Id 

Emv 

1 

1 

-504 

11 

15 

-539 

21 

90 

-855 

31 

450 

-1114 

Initial time: 4:45 p.m. Final time: 6:05 p.m. Notes: Final Resistance 41.1 KQ. *After 87 Minutes 

Id 

Emv 

No 

Id 

Emv 

No 

l lJA 

E mv 

2 

2 

-506 

12 

20 

-557 

22 

100 

-891 

32 

500 

-1126 

15 

-475 

21 

90 

-446 

31 

450 

-414 

3 

3 

-509 

13 

25 

-574 

23 

125 

-936 

33 

600 

-1143 

20 

-470 

22 

100 

-447 

32 

500 

-412 

4 

4 

-510 

14 

30 

-602 

24 

150 

-975 

34 

700 

-1155 

25 

-466 

23 

125 

-442 

33 

600 

-407 

5 

5 

-512 

I5 

35 

-624 

25 

175 

-1008 

35 

800 

-1166 

30 

-463 

24 

150 

438 

34 

700 

402 

6 

6 

-516 

16 

40 

-656 

26 

200 

-1029 

36 

900 

-1177 

35 

-460 

25 

175 

-435 

35 

800 

-398 

7 

7 

-518 

17 

50 

-704 

27 

250 

-1054 

37 

1000 

-1187 

40 

-458 

26 

200 

-432 

36 

900 

-397 

8 

8 

-521 

18 

60 

-740 

28 

300 

-1074 

38 

50 

-454 

27 

250 

-427 

37 

1000 

-395 

9 

9 

-522 

19 

70 

-774 

29 

350 

-1091 

39 

10 - 

I0 

-524 

20 

80 

-815 

30 , 

400 

-1 105 

40 - 

60 

-450 

28 

300 

-422 

38 

70 

-448 

29 

350 

-418 

39 

80 

-446 

30 

400 

-416 

40 
Table IT. Anodic and Cathodic Overpotential for Low Current Density Values 

NOTES TO THE INSTRUCTOR: 

1. Make sure that the aluminum-graphite connector contact suface is clean in order to have good electrical 

contact. 

2. Repeatability requires a perfect control of the parameters involved. Even though it should be noticed 

that Em, f3, and & differ a little fiom the values obtained for the experiment ran in the first part. These 

small changes are acceptable and in no way affect the validity of the experiment as a teaching aid. 

3. It is important to observe by using a stereomicroscope the working electrode area before and after each 

test in order to establish the effect on the surface of each one of the follouing aspects: 

a Cathodic treatment. 

b. Anodic treatment. 

c. The shock wave effect of nitrogen bubbling. 

1 

Cathodic Overpotential / 

rnv 1 

-5044-500) = -4 

-5064-500) = -6 1 

-509-(-500) = -9 

-5 10-(-500) = - 10 

-5 1 2-(-500) = -12 

-5 16-(-500) = -1 6 

-5 1 8-(-500) = -1 8 I 

-52 1-(-500) = -21 

-522-(-500) = -22 1 

-5244-500) = -24 

I 

Current Density / Anodic Overpotential 

pA/ccm2 ! mv 

1 1 1297-(-500) = 3 I 

I 

REFERENCES: 

2 

1. Umaiia, Carlos E.: Galvanostatic Polarization Curves for Teaching Purposes, NASA1 CP-1999-209549, 

National Educators' Workshop: Update 98,1999. 

3. Jones, Denny A.: Principles and Prevention of Corrosion, Second edition, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1996. 

12944-500) = 6 

3 1 -49 1 -(-500) = 9 1 

4 -49 1 -(-500) = 9 

5 I 1 -488-(-500) = 12 

6 

7 

-487-(-500) = 1 3 

-485-(-500) = 15 

8 1 -484-(-500) = 16 

I 

I 

9 / -483-(-500) = 17 

I 

10 / -481-(-500)=19 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: 

The author wishes to thank the Universidad de Costa Rica (Vicerretoria de Investigacion), "La Fundacion de 

la Universidad de Costa Rica para la Investigacion7' (FUNDEVI) and the Ministerio de Ciencia y 

Tecnologia-Conicit for giving financial support to attend the NEW: Update 99. 

The author also wishes to thank Prof Mark Bloomfield for reviewing the grammar and vocabulary and 

Carlos Jimenez for helping in preparing this paper. 

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES: 

The same as in the first part (Ref 1). 

Applied current density (micruAlcmA2) 

Figure 2. Overpotential vs low range applied current density 
APPENDIX Demonstration of the resistance polarization equation 

1 DECADE 

log ic,int log im log &,tot 

Figure A1 . Schematic polarization diagram. 

According to figure Al, the overpotential E will be given by any of the following equations: 

Multiplying both members of equation (Al) and (A2) by 2.3 to convert to natural logarithms, the following 

current density expressions are obtained: 
In the first part of this experiment (Ref. I), it was shown that for a given potential: 

Therefore combining equations A3, A4 and A5 and taking iwl for km1 or iwpl: 

deriving equation (A6) with respect to E: 

as E approaches zero the following expression is obtained: 

where % is the resistance polarization 

Therefore the resistance polarization equation will be given by: 
- BIOGRAPHY 

Carlos E. Umaiia holds a Msc. in Metallurgy and Materials Science from Lehigh 

University (77) and a Mechanical Engineering degree from the Universidad de Costa 

Rica (72). Actually is the head of the Materials Department of the School of 

Mechanical Engineering of the Universidad de Costa Rica, where he has been in 

charge of a course in materials science and technology for twenty years. He has 

worked in industry and has much experience in hard chromium electroplating. As a 

consulting engineer he has dealt with more than thirty cases on failure analysis. 

In the field of materials science and engineering he is very interested in improving the 

teaching aids of basic concepts from a multidisciphry point of view. 
DIGITAL SHEAROGRAPHY AND APPLICATIONS 

Michael Y. Y. Hung 

John F. Dodge Chair Professor 

Mechanical Engineering Department 

Oakland University 

Rochester Hills, Michigan 48309-4478 

Telephone: 248-370-223 8 

e-mail hung@o&and.edu 

Digital Shearography and Applications 

Y.Y. Hung 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Oakland University 

Rochester, Michigan 48309, USA 

Keywords: Shearography, interferometry, speckle pattern, phase determination, 

nondestructive testing, deformation measurement, residual stress measurement, 

steady state vibration, leakage detection, surface profiling, 3-D shape measurement. 

Abstract 

This article reviews shearography and its applications. Shearography is a laserbased technique for bll-field, non-contacting measurement of surface deformation. 

Unlike holography, it does not require special vibration isolation; hence, it is a practical 

tool that can be used in a field/factory environment. Shearography has already received 

considerable industrial acceptance, in particular, for nondestructive testing. In 

nondestructive testing, shearography reveals defects in an object by identifying defectinduced deformation anomalies. Other applications of shearography include strain 

measurement, material characterization, residual stress evaluation, leak detection, 

vibration studies a;ld 3-D shape measurement. 

1. Introduction 

Shearography is an interferometric technique developed to address several 

limitations of holography. Its significant advantages include (1) not requiring a reference 

light-beam, thus leading to simple optical setups, reduced coherence length requirement 

of the laser, and lax vibration isolation; and (2) direct measurement of surface strains 

(first-order derivatives of surface displacements). These distinct advantages have 

rendered shearography as a practical measurement tool and it has already gained wide 

industrial acceptance in nondestructive testing. For instance, the rubber industry routinely 

uses shearography for evaluating tires, and the aerospace industry has adopted it for 

nondestructive testing of aircraft structures, in partiwlar, composite- structures. Other 

zpplications of shearography ificlude: measurement of strains, material properties, 

residual stresses. 3-D shapes, vibrations, as well as leakage detection. 

Three versions of shearography are in existence using (1) photographic recording; 

(2) thermoplastic recording; and (3) digital recording. The photographic version['] uses a 

portrait camera with high-resolution photographic emulsion as the recording media. As 

shown in Figure l(a), a roof-shape prism with a small wedge-angle is placed in front of 

the camera lens to produce a pair of slightly laterally-sheared images of an object. 

Conversely, two neighboring object points are brought to meet in the image plane 

(illustrated in Fig. l(b)) The direction of the sheared images is known as the direction of 

image-shearing. Since the object is illuminated with laser light (light capable of 

interference), the two sheared images interfere with one another, forming a shearographic 

image containing a random interference pattern known as a speckle pattern. 

Shearographic measurement requires sequential recording of two speckle patterns on the 
same photographic plate, one before and another after the object is slightly deformed. 

After being developed and chemically fixed, the photographic plate is optically Fourierfiltered for the reconstruction of a visible fringe pattern that depicts the derivatives of 

displacement with respect to the direction of image-shearing. This technique is also 

known as double-exposure shearography. Since double-exposure shearography requires 

subsequent Fourier filtering, it does not permit real-time applications. Another technique 

known as real-time shearographyP1 eliminates the Fourier filtering process and allows 

object deformation to be observed continuously in real-time. It involves recording of a 

single speckle pattern on a photographic plate before deformation. The photographic 

plate after being processed is returned to the original position in the camera, which serves 

as a filter for the live image of the object. When the object is deformed, a "live" fringe 

pattern is observed behind the plate. It is difficult to practise real-time shearography as it 

requires the precise reposition of the plate after developing. Major drawbacks of using 

photographic recording lies with the laborious and time-consuming wet photographic 

process, and the cost of high-resolution photographic plates has hrther discouraged 

industrial implementation. 

The thermoplastic versioni3] uses a similar optical setup (Figure l), except that the 

photographic plate is replaced by a reusable thermoplastic plate which may be instantly 

processed after recording. This bypasses the inconvenient wet photographic process, but 

Fourier filtering is still required. Hence, the thermoplastic version does not allow realtime measurements. The cost of the thermoplastic plates has deterred industrial use of the 

thermoplastic version. Furthermore, the production of thermoplatic plates of consistent 

quality is very difficult. 

Digital shear~~ra~h~[~' uses video sensors (such as CCD) as the recording media 

and digital processing technology for data acquisition and analysis. In addition to 

avoiding the use of consumables needed in the photographic and thermoplastic versions, 

digital shearography does not rely on Fourier filtering for fringe pattern reconstruction, 

thus enabling real-time measurements and inspection. The cutting edge of digital 

shearography is in direct and automated measurement of phase-changes (and, hence, 

strains) without having to rely on fringe pattern reconstruction. In this chapter, digital 

shearography and its applications will be discussed. 

2. Principles Of Digital Shearography 

2.1 Description Of The Technique 

As illustrated in Figure 2, digital shearography requires the use of a laser point 

source for illuminating the test object and a video image-shearing camera connected to a 

microcomputer for recording and processing. The camera comprises a CCD image sensor 

and a double-refractive prism (a Wollaston prism, for instance) as the image-shearing 

device. The principle of image-shearing using a doubly-refractive prism is illustrated in 

Figure 3. Fig.3(a) shows that a light beam passing through this prism is split into two 

angularly separated beams. Conversely, through the image-shearing device, two nonparallel beams of light scattered from two different object points become nearly collinear, 
and the resulting low spatial frequency of the interference fringes can be resolved with a 

low resolution image sensor such as CCD. This is illustrated in Fig. 3(b). The two 

sheared wavefronts transmitted by the two axes of the image-shearing device, however, 

are orthogonally polarized, hence they will not interfere with each other. To enable 

interference, a polarizer with its ploarization axis oriented at an azimuth of 450 is 

required. As the illuminated object surface is generally optically rough, interference of 

the two sheared wavefronts will result in a speckle pattern embedded in the shearographic 

image. Fig. 4 shows a magnified speckle pattern. 

The speckle pattern is slightly altered when the object is deformed. Practice of 

digital shearography involves digitizing sequentially two speckle patterns of the test 

object, one before and another after it is slightly deformed, into the microcomputer via a 

frame grabber (Figure 2). As will be shown in Section 2.2, the difference of the two 

speckle patterns will enable reconstruction of a visible fringe pattern that depicts 

displacement-derivatives with respect to the direction of image-shearing. The use of a 

frame grabber with on-board processing capability hrther allows real-time Enge pattern 

reconstruction at video rate. Althou h digital shearography may also be achieved using a 

Michelson shearing interferomete+'61, the author has preference for a double-refi-active 

prism, as it is more light efficient; having wider field of view, and it produces higher 

quality fiinges. 

2.2 Principles Of Fringe Formation 

A shearographic image may be mathematically represented as follows. 

where I is the intensity distribution of the speckle pattern received at the imzge plane of 

the camera; & is the intensity of the laterally-sheared images (wnich may be perceived as 

the d.c. term); ,u is the amplitude of modulation of the speckle pattern; and (b is a 

random phase angle. After the object is deformed, the ifitensity distribution of the speckle 

pattern is changed slightly to I?, which is described by the following equation. 

where A denotes phase-change due to surface deformation. Numerically, the difference 

of intensities Id of the two speckle patterns (Eqs. (1) and (2)) yields the following 

equation. 

where Id manifests as a fringe pattern in which the dark fringes correspond to A = 2nn, 

with n = 0,1,2,3, ... being the fringe orders, and the bright fringes correspond to half 
fringe orders. Figure 5(a) shows a. typical shearographic fringe pattern for a fkllyclamped rectangular plate under uniform lateral load when image-shearing is along the xdirection, and Figure 5(b) shows the corresponding fringe pattern when image-shearing is 

along the y-direction. Note that the absolute value of Id is used in the display of the 

fringe patterns, as an image cannot have negative value. 

2.3 Fringe Interpretation 

The phase-change A in Eq. (2) is induced by the change in the relative optical path 

length of light scattered from two neighboring object points, P(x,y,z) and P(x+6x7 y, z), 

considering that the direction of image-shearing is parallel with the x-axis and the amount 

of shearing is 6 x. It may be shown that A is related to the relative displacement (6 u, 

6 v, 6 w) of the two neighboring points as follows. 

where (u,v,w) and (u+6 u, v+6 v, w+6 w) are, respectively, the displacement vectors of 

P(x, y, z) and P(x+6 x, y, z); h is the wavelength of the laser, and A, B, C are sensitivity 

factors that are related to the positions of the illumination point S(xs,ys,zs) and the 

camera O(xo ,yo ,zo ) in the following manner. 

2222 with R~=X~+~~+Z~ and Rs =x, +yS +zs 

It is noted that z = z(x,y) describes the object surface and is not an independent 

variable when surface points are considered. Equation (4) may be rewritten in the 

following form. 

Slight image-shearing gives rise to a small value of 6x. The relative-displacement, 

terms in Eq. (6) may subsequently be treated as the partial derivatives of u, v and w with 

respect to the direction of image-shearing x. Thus, Eq. (6) becomes 
Rotating the image-shearing device (Figure 2) about its optical axis will alter the 

direction of image-shearing, resulting in fringe patterns depicting displacement 

derivatives with respect to the current direction of image-shearing. Hence, if imageshearing is along the y-axis by an amount 6y, Eq. (7) is modified to the following. 

The fringe patterns in Figures 4(a) and 4(b) for a laterally deflected plate therefore 

& & represent, respectively, - and -. Subsequently, it is possible to use a multiple image- & @ 

shearing cameraI71 for simultaneous recording of displacement derivatives with respect to 

x and y. 

2.4 Automated Fringe Phase Determination 

Traditional methods of shearographic analysis rely on the reconstruction of visibls 

fiinges and the correct identification of fringe orders (Eq. (3)). Therefore, only at 

locations where the dark and bright fringes appear can the fringe orders be correctly 

determined; elsewhere the fringe orders are generally estimated using linear interpolation, 

although the fringe-carrier method has been developed to alleviate the uncertainty. The 

following describes an automated process in which the phase-change A is directly 

determined at every digitized points without having to rely on fringe reconstruction and 

fringe order identificaticn. It will be seen that this has constituted a significant advantage 

of digital shearography. 

Perusal of Eqs. (1) and (2) shows four unknowns, namely, L, p, 4 and A ; and by 

superimposing known phases to Eqs. (1) and (2), additional equations are generated to 

solve for these unknowns. This forms the basis of the phase-shift technique for automated 

phase determination in digital shearography. Several methods are available for effecting 

phase shifting: (1) tilting the object, (2) tilting the object beam, (3) translating the imageshearing device, (4) w~vefionts manipulation by polarization, and (5) using a variable 

wave retarder. Among these methods, the author prefers the use of variable wave 

retarder. 

Figure 6 shows an optical layout for phase shifting using a variable wave retarder 

that is made of liquid crystal and controlled by a computer. The wave retarder is placed in 

front of the image-shearing device, and at the same time, its slow and fast axes are 

aligned with the two polarization axes of the image-shearing device. This allows 

manipulation of the phase difference between two sheared wavefronts (see Eq. (9) 

below). Various algorithms for phase determination from multiple phase-shifted speckle 
images are available['], but in this chapter, only the four-frame algorithm is described. 

K Digitizing four speckle patterns of Eq. (I) with a phase-shift increment of - generates 2 

the following four equations. 

13 = k,[l+ ~COS(# + K)] 

The phase distribution 4 is thus determined using the following equation. 

The process is repeated for the deformed speckle pattern of Eq. (2), yielding 

The phase-change distribution A due to deformation is subsequently determined by 

subtracting Eq. (10) fiom Eq. (1 1). However, the computed phase-change A is wrapped 

into the range of - n and + n , and the phase unwrapping algorithm proposed by ~ac~[~~ 

may be used to unwrap the phase. It should be noted that the determination of A is based 

upon the assumption that the random phase 4 remains unchanged during deformation; 

otherwise # cannot be totally cancelled from Eq.(lO) and Eq.(l I). A problem likely to 

encounter during the phase unwrapping process is the presence of noise. The iterative 

noise suppression algorithm["l is found to he very effective in alleviating the problem. 

Figure 7 shows a 3-D phase-change distribution plot for the fringe patterns of Figures 

5(a) and 5(b). 

3. Applications 

3.1 General Surface Deformation Measurement 

a a, av 

Equation (7) contains three displacement derivatives, namely, - - and - so 6%' & 6k 

that three measurements with different sensitivity factors A, B, C, are required to separate 

these displacement derivatives. However, if the geometrical dimensions of the object are 

small compared to the distances of illumination and recording, the sensitivity factors may 

be approximated as follows. 

A= sin a 
where a and p are the angles of illumination made, respectively, with the yz-plane and 

the xz-plane; y is the angle between the illumination beam and the z-axis, which is 

designated as the imaging direction. 

Arranging the optical layout so that /? = 0, the sensitivity factor B becomes zero 

a, and the measurement is insensitive to -. Therefore, the optical system measures the a 

a4 av combination of - and - . Likewise, for an optical layout with a =0, the combination & & 

a, au Cly of - and - is measured. However, it is not possible ta isolate - as the sensitivity a & &' 

factor C can never attain a zero-value. 

Using a similar optical setup, the three displacement derivatives in Eq. (8) may also 

be determined. Thus, three-beam shearography is developed for the measurement of 

general surface deformation['ll. 

3.2 Out-Of-Plane Displacement Measurement 

If the illumination and imaging directions are both made parallel with the z-axis, the 

sensitivity factors A and B attain a zero-value. This optical arrangement, therefore, 

a4 

measures only - The deformation fiinges shown in Figure 5 are obtained with this & ' 

optical arrangement. 

3.3 In-Plane Strain Measurement 

In-plane strains are expressed by the foliowing two nornial surface strain 

components and a shear strain component. 
It is not possible to measure irt.plane displacement derivatives free of out-of-plane 

displacement derivatives with the use of single-beam illumination (Section 3.1). This, 

however, is made possible with dual-beam shearography[lzl. As illustrated in Figure 8, 

the test object is alternately illuminated with two collimated laser beams inclined at equal 

angles with the z-axis (direction of recording), and the orientation of the beams depends 

on the in-plane strain component to be measured. In Figure 8, the directions of the 

illuminating beams are made symmetrical with respect to the yz-plane so that only E~ is 

measured. During measurement, the deformation-related phase-change is determined for 

each illuminating beam using the phase-shift technique described in Section 2.4. With the 

same deformation, the difference of the two phase-changes due to different directions of 

illumination yields EJ:. Figure 9(a) shows the &-fringes of an end-loaded cantilever. 

The theoretical fiinge pattern in Figure 9(b) shows good agreement with the experiment. 

The principle of dual-beam shearography is outlined as follows. The phase-change 

due to illumination from the right-hand side is given by the following equation. 

a4 4, = (g) [(sin a) + (1 + cosa) - 

\ A "I 6k 

With the same deformation, the phase-change due to illumination from the ieft-hand side 

modifies Eq. (14) to the following expression. 

Subtracting Eq. (15) from Eq. (14) yields the difference of phase-change A, due to 

different illuminzting directions. Thus, 

which, with reference to Eq. (13), is related to the normal strain component gx. Should 

the i!luminations be made symmetrical with the xz-plane and the image-shearing 

& & direction parallel with y, the term - in Eq. (16) is replaced by -, which represents ax @ 

I,. In a similar manner, in-plane strain components along any direction may be 

measured through adjusting the orientation of the illuminating beams. With three 

different orientations of illumination, the measurement system is equivalent to a full-field 

strain rosette that enables determination of the complete state of in-plane strain. 
The dual-beam scheme also allow? the out-of-plane displacement derivatives to be 

deduced. This is achieved by adding Eqs. (14) and (15) together, allowing direct 

aw measurement of -, from the phase sum As that is given by: ax 

aw (4z 1 /2)(1+ cos a) (& ) - 

ax 

aw and - may also be determined in a similar manner. @ 

3.4 Comparison of Deformation of Two Different Objects 

The optical arrangement of Fig. 10 can be used to compare the deformation of ;wo 

different objects. In the setup, a point coherent light source simultaneously illuminates 

two different objects ( a test object and a reference object), and a doubly-refractive 

shearing crystal with a large shear is used to bring the images of the two objects to 

combine and interfere in the CCD sensor of the camera. In this arrangement, one object 

serves as a reference for the other. When both objects are deformed, the fringe pattern 

generated depicts the difference of the deformatior~s between the two objects. If only one 

object ( test object) is deformed, the setup measures the surface displacement of the test 

object. Indeed, this yields the same results of holography or electronic speckle pattern 

interferometry (ESPI). The optical setup, however, is greatly simplified. Fig. 11 shows 

a fringe pattern obtained with the this method, which measures the deflection of a 

rectangular plate clamped along its boundaries and objected to a point load at the center. 

3.5 Residual Stress Measurement [13.141 

The use of strain gage rosettes to determine the amount of strain released through 

controlled drilling of a blind hole is a common practice in residual stress measurement. 

This requires mounting of special strain gage rosettes and critical alignment of the drilled 

hole with respect to the positions of the gages. The finite size of the rosette discourages 

measurements close to the boundary of the drilled holes. For small test objects, such as 

those found in microelecttonic packages, bonding of these rosettes is not possible. And 

for materials with low stiffness, strain gages wotlld alter the real structural behavior. 

Shearography, being equivalent to a non-contacting optical strain rosette, has been 

applied to the measurement of residual stresses in plastics and composite^['^]. Figure 12 

shows three fringe patterns, revealing different extent of residual stresses in the test 

structure when it is stress-released using hole-drilling. 

Rapid shearographic residual stress measurement may be achieved using microindentation instead of hole-drilling. An image-shearing device with large shearing is used 

so that the speckle pattern is formed by light wave-fronts emitted fiom two remotely 

located areas on the test object. This is equivalent to comparing the deformation of two 

different areas with one acting as reference to the other. With localized deformation due 
to stress releasing by micro-indentation, the area outside the indentation will hardly be 

affected by the stress-release and, hence, it appropriately acts as a reference surface. 

Thus, this technique measures absolute displacements in the neighborhood of the 

indentation. 

Using micro-indentation, Figure 13(a) shows that, for a test object without residual 

stresses, the fringes are nearly axially symmetrical. However, the presence of residual 

stresses will give rise to an asymmetrical fringe pattern (Figure 13(b)). The directions of 

the principal stresses are those of the axes of symmetry, and the magnitude of the residual 

stresses is related to the degree of deviation from axi-symmetry. As the mechanics of 

stress redistribution due to stress releasing by micro-indentation is highly complex, 

research is currently being conducted to quantitatively determine the residual stresses. 

Nonetheless, this technique provides a quick means of qualitative analysis of residual 

stresses, and may be used in a field/production environment. Moreover, the indentation is 

so small and shallow (only several micrometers depth) that this technique may be 

considered as being non-destructive. 

3.6 Study of Steady-State Vibration 

3.6.1 Time-Integrated ~hearography[*~-"] 

For a test object undergoing steady stzte vibration, the phase-change A in Eq. (2) 

may be described by a sinusoidal fbnction of time. The technique of time-integrated 

shearography is developed for measuring the derivative of vibrational amplitude. The 

optical setup similar to that shown ir. Figure 2 is used except th.at the object is vibrating in 

a steady state manner. In the recording, the CCD sensor of the image-shearing camera 

integrates the intensity of the vibrating object with an integration time longer than several 

vibrational periods. The integrated intensity I, of the speckle patterns is given by the 

following equation. 

8A where - is the derivative of the vibration.! amplitude; K = (z) (l+cosy ) is the 

at \ I? 

sensitivity factor; and Jo is zero-order Bessel .function of the first kind. In deriving Eq. 

(1 8), it is assumed that the vibrational' displacement has only out-of-plane component and 

that the image-shearing direction is parallel with the x-axis. 

Another fiinge pattern with a phase-shift of n being superimposed onto Eq. (18) is 

digitized. Thus, the following equation is obtained. 

l+pcos((+n) 
Taking the difference of Eqs. (17).and (1.8) yields the following equation. 

which readily shows a visible fringe pattern. Dark icringes are formed when the following 

condition is satisfied. 

dA The variable - is determined by equating the argument of the Bessel fbnction to 2 

dA its roots. Figure 14(a) shows a typical fringe pattern, which depicts -, of a rectangular & 

plate vibrating at its fbndamental mode at 152 Hz. The fringe pattern in Figure 14(b) 

dA 

corresponds to - @ 

3.6.2 Stroboscopic Shear~graph~['~l 

An a!ternative method of studying steady state vibration is the stroboscopic 

technique. In stroboscopic shearography, the vibrating object is strobed with the laser 

light such that the exposure of the CCD takes place at the vibrational peak and utilizes a 

low duty cycle (ratio of exposure time to period of vibration). Comparing with a 

reference image taken when the object is stationary, the difference yields a fringe pattern 

depicting the derivative of the vibrating amplitude. Note that time-integrated 

shearogrzphy yields a fringe pattern of diminishing fiinge visibility (because of the 

Bessel hnction moduiation) and its phase cannot be: determined using the phase shift 

technique. The fringe pattern obtained with the stroboscopic technique is of sinusoidal 

form, and hence the phase shift technique can be applied to automate the fiinge phase 

determination ( Section 2.4). Figure 15 shows a sanple result cf stroboscopic 

shearography. 

3.7 Time-Dependent Deformation Measurement 

Time-dependent deformation may be measured by the technique[1g1 which 

continuously digitizes the speckle patterns of a deforming object. The relationship 

between displacement-derivative and time at a point of interest is extracted from the 

time-varying phase-change map that is recorded and stored in the computer memory, and 

the total phase-change is subsequently obtained by integrating the phase-change curve 

with respect to time. For low strain-rates, a commercial video-cassette recorder may be 

used to record the speckle patterns at the speed of 30 frames/sec. For deformation with 

high strain-rates, high-speed shear~gra~h~[~~I is developed using a high-speed digital 

image acquisition system. The image acquisition system used by the author is a Kodak 

EktaPro Model 4540 High Speed Motion Analyzer, which has the maximum frame speed 
of 40,500 frameslsec. After recording, the images can be plaed-back at variable rates 

ranging from 2 frameslsec to 30 frameslsec. The piayback images are then digitized with 

a microcomputer through a fiame grabber. A fringe pattern may also be reconstructed 

from the difference of any two speckle patterns. Besides the measurement of timedependent deformation, high speed shearography has been used for rapid evaluation of 

hermetic seals in microelectronic packageP1l. 

3.8 Nondestructive testing [22,23,24] 

3.8.1 How does shearography detect flaws? 

When a test object containing a tlaw is loaded, strain concentration at the vicinity of 

the defect is induced. If the flaw is not too deeply embedded within the object, the 

induced strain concentration would cause anomalies in the surface strain distribution. 

Subsequently, these anomalies are translated into fringe-anomalies if two speckle 

patterns, taken one before and another after loading, of the object are compared. Thus, 

shearography reveals flaws, both surface and internal, through identification of anomalies 

in the fringe pattern; it also permits non-contacting full-field inspection. 

3.8.2 Shearography rs Ultrasound 

Shexography has found wide apt;lications in nondestructive testing and it has 

already received industrial acceptance as a useful NDT tool, particularly for composite 

structures such as tires and honeycomb structures. It is particularly effective in revealing 

delaminations. Figure 16 shows a comparison of test result obtained using digital 

shearography and C-scan ultrasonic testing on a composite sample. Both techniques 

readily reveal an edge pullout and a delamination. With digital shearcgraphy, the flaws 

are revealed in one second, whilst the ultrasonic technique requires point-by-point 

scanning along the test surface and at the same time, proper fluid coupling between the 

transducer and the test surface is to be ensured. A limitation of shearography, however, is 

the need to apply suitable stress-increments to the test object during inspection, since the 

underlying principle of this technique is based upon changes in the state of the test 

surface. 

3.8.3 Methods of stressing 

The development of shearographic NDT procedlires has therefore essentially 

become the development of a practical means of stressing the object that would readily 

reveal flaws. Ideally, the stress-increment should be similar to the service stresses so that 

flaws that are critical and detrimental to the service life of the object would be revealed, 

and cosmetic flaws that do not undermine the structural integrity of the test object can be 

ignored. This would minimize unnecessary rejects during inspection. En this regard, 

shearography has an advantage over ultrasonic testing, as the latter detects flaws by 

identieing inhomogeneities in the object and does not provide direct information on the 

criticality of the flaws. Exact duplication of the actual stress-increment for shearographic 

testing, however, is generally difficult. Therefore, various practical means of stressing the 

object must be developed. In developing these methods, an important precaution to be 
taken is restricting rigid-body motion of the object during stressing, as excessive rigidbody motion would cause speckles de-correlation, resulting in degradation of fringe 

quality. 

The various methods of stressing developed for holographic NDT[~~] may generally 

be used for shearographic NDT. The methods that are in current use and yet do not cause 

intolerable rigid-body motion of the test object include the use of pressure, vacuum, 

thermal, and acoustical and mechanical excitations. The use of microwave that excites 

water molecules is particularly effective for detecting moisture in plastics and nonmetallic composites, but safety precautions must be taken seriously. The following are 

examples using various stressing methods. 

Figure 17 shows that the use of internal pressurization to reveal two ifiternal cracks 

in a steel pressure vessel. Figure 18 reveals several areas of separation in a large cordreinforced rubber panel using partial vacuum stressing. Figure 19 illustrates successfil 

crack-detection on a composite turbine blade when thermal stressing by heat-radiation is 

used. Figure 20 demonstrates shearographic inspection of adhesive-bonded composite 

assemblies using multi-frequency vibrational excitation[261. A perfectly bonded area 

should appear as dark, and any deviation &om "perfect darkness" is indicative of a weak 

bond, whilst an unbonded area appears as bright. In Figure 16, there are twa bond lines 

and a debond and several weak bond are seen. 

3.8.4 Flaw recognization 

Flaw characterization is a difficult task, as the signature of a fringe anomaly due 

to a flaw depends on the flaw's response to the applied stress. This depends on flaw 

nature, shape, size, location, and the state of applied stress at the location of fl aw. So far, 

only debonds in composite laminates can be characterized with confidence. A simple 

model used to describe a debond is a circular plate clamped along its edges. When partial 

vacuum is applied, the debond behaves as a plate subjected to uniform pressure. The 

contour of the derivative of the plate deflection appears in the form of a butterfly. The 

size of a debond is approximately equal to the size of the butterfly. The depth of a 

debond can be estimated fiom the fiinge density. For debcnds of the same size, the one 

closer to the surface has a higher fringe density and vice versa. This is illustrated in Fig. 

21, which shows four debonds of approximately same size but located at depths of 3,6,9, 

and 12mm from the surface. Notice that the one closest to the surface has the highest 

fi-inge density and vice versa. The plate theory predicts that the deflection derivative is 

inversely proportional to the flexural rigidity of the plate, and the flexural rigidity is 

proportional to the cube of the plate thickness. This means for equal size debonds, the 

density of the tiinges is inversely proportional to the cube of the depth. An in-depth 

analysis of the response of debonds can found in Ref(27,28). 
3.9 Three-dimensional shape measurement 

z z Shearography can be used to measure surface slopes - and - of a three- & 4) 

dimensional object surface, Z(x,y). The following describes three shearographic methods 

for shape measurement. 

3.9.1 Double Wavelength ~ethod['~] 

This method requires the use of a laser of variable wavelength. A diode laser is one 

such laser whose wavelength varies with the controlling current. Using an optical 

arrangement similar to that shown in Figure 2, two speckle patterns of the test surface are 

sequentially digitized, one before and the other after the wavelength of the laser is 

changed incrementally from A to A + SA . The difference of the two speckle patterns 

produces a fringe pattern depicting the derivative of the surface depth Z(x,y) with respect 

to the direction of image-shearing, since the phase-change A is related to the surface 

slope by the following equation. 

where x has been considered as the direction of image-shearing. 

As the surface slope along any direction may be measured through adjusting the 

z z direction of image-shearifig, the - -tenn in Eq. (22) becomes - when the direction of 

t3c 4) 

image-shearing is made parallel with the y-axis. The phase-change A, and hence the 

surface-slope, are automatically determined using the phase shift technique described ir? 

z Section 2.4. Fig. 22(a) shows a fringe pattern depicting - of a light bulb, and Fig. cat 

22(b) is a 3D plot of the Z(x,y) obtained by integrating the slope information of (a). 

3.9,2 Double Refractive Index ~ethod[~'~ 

In the measurement, two speckle patterns are sequentially digitized when the 

refractive index of the medium surrounding the object is changed from n to n +Sn 

between digitization. A fringe pattern depicting the surface slope with respect to the 

direction of image-shearing is formed by subtracting the two digitized images. With 

image-shearing directed along the x-direction and with both the illumination and imaging 

directions along the z-axis, the phase-change A is related to the surface slope by the 

following equation. 
Again, the surface slope in any direction may be obtained by varying the direction of 

image-shearing, and the phase shift technique can be used to automated the phase 

determination. 

3.9.3 Two Source Method [31,321 

In this method, the object is illuminated with a collimated coherent beam in a 

direction oblique to the z-axis. Two speckle patterns are sequentially digitized when the 

illumination beam is slightly tilted between digitization. The fringe pattern resulted from 

subtracting the two digitized images contains information about the partial derivative of 

Z(x,y) with respect to the direction of image-shearing. 

3.10 Detection of Gas Leakage 

The principle of this application is based on the phenomenon that gas leaking would 

change the refractive index of the ambient air around the leak, thus producing a phasechange that manifests as a visible fringe pattern. Figure 23 shows a leakage from the 

valve of a pressure vessel containing helium. It is seen that shearography not only detects 

gas leaks, but also reveals the location of leakage. To enhance the change in refractive 

index during inspection, it is preferable to use gas at the surrounding of the test object 

different from the gas within the object. A good combination is helium and air. 

4. Limitations and Remedies 

Being an optical method, shearography enjoys the desirable features of noncontact and full-field. Although the method is based on interferometric principles, it does 

not require critical optical alignment and extreme environmental stability. However, 

shearography suffers a severe drawback that is inherent in all speckle interferometric 

techliques. This drawback is the limited tolerance to rigid body motion. Excessive rigid 

motior, including object translation and rotation produces a decorrelation of speckle 

patterns and it results in the deterioration of fringe visibility. The conventional speckle 133.341 decorrelation theory predicts that total decorrelation will occur when the rigid body 

translation orthogonal to the line of sight exceeds a speckle size. (A speckle stze is 

approximately 1.2 times the uroduct of the f-number of the camera lens and the 

wavelength of laser light.) The author's experience has found that shearogrrtphy's 

tolerance to rigid bcdy translation is at least an order of magnitude greater th~n that 

theory's prediction. Generally, this tolerance depends on surface nature, surface 

roughness and magnitude of strain. Though more tolerant, decorrelation of speckle 

patterns limits its use for many real-worid applications, especially for large objects as 

excessive rigid body motion due to the deformation of large structures is unavoidable. 

Rigid body translation in shearography may be negated by translating the image sensor or 

digital image shifting in the computer, as reported in Req35). However, decorrelation 

due to rigid body rotation is very difficult to compensate, unless the axis of rotation is 

known. 
One effective method to alleviate the de-correlation problem is to attach the 

shearographic system (camera and illumination) to the test object. This eliminates the 

relative rigid motion (both translation and rotation) between the measurement system and 

the object, and hence only the deformation is measured. Of course, this arrangement 

requires the miniaturization of the shearographic equipment, which can be achieved by 

using a diode laser and a micro-camera. 

5. Conclusion 

A review of shearography and its applications is given in this chapter. Shearography 

is a practical technique and therefore, it has gained rapid acceptance by the industries as a 

useful tool for measurement and nondestructive testi~g. However, this technique is still 

relatively young and its full capability awaits krther exploration. 

6. Acknowledgement 

The research reported in this article was sponsored by a National Science 

Foundation grant (CMS9601778). The author would like to thank Dr. Ken Chong of 

NSF for the support. 

7. References 

1. Hug, Y.Y. "Shearogmphy: A New Optical Method for Strain Measurement and Nondestructive 

Testing", Optical Endeerins, pp.39 1-395, MayIJune, 1982. 

2. Y.Y. Hung, S. Tang and J.D. Hovanesian, "Real-tinie Sh~earography lor Measuring Time-dependent 

Displacement Derivatives.," Ewerimental Mechanics, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp 89-92, (March, 1994) 

3. Hung, Y.Y. and J.D. Hovanesian,"Fast Detection of Residual Stresses in an Industrial Environment by 

Thermoplastic-based Shearography", Proceedings of the 1990 SEM Sprig Corlference on Experimental 

Mechanics, pp769-775, Ahuquerque, New Mexico, June4-6, 1990. 

4. Hung, Y.Y. " Nondesbuctive Evaluation by Electronic Shear~~phy". presented at the 16~ 

Symposiun~ on Nondestructive Evaluation, San Antonio, Texas, April 2 1-23, 1987. Also, "Apparatus 

and Method for Electronic Analysis of Test Object", US Patent 4,887,899 (1989).. 

5. Y.Y. Hung, "A Speckle-Shearing Interferometer", Optical Cor+munications, Vol. i 1,732, 1974. 

6. J.A. Leendertz and J.N. Butters, " An Image Shearing Speckle Pattern Interferometer fcr measwhg 

bending moment.", J. of Physics: E., 168-172, (July 1974). 

7. Hung, Y.Y. and Durelli, A.J. "Simulmeous Measurement of Three Displacement-Derivatives Using a 

Multiple Image Shearing Interferometric Camera", J. of Strain Analysis, Vol. 14, No.3,81-88, 1979. 

8. K. Creath, "Phase-measurement techniques for nondestructive testing", Prdngs of SEM 

Coaference on Holomam Interferometrv and Swkle MetroIonv, 473-478, Baltimore, Maryland, 

November 5-8, (1990). 

9. W.W. Macy, "Two-dimensional Fringe Pattern Analysis", Amlied Optics, 22, 3898, (1983) 
10. Jie Gu, Y.Y. Hung and Fang Chen, "Iteration Algorithm for Computer-aided Speckle Interferometry", 

Ap~iied %tics, Vo1.33, No.23, (August 1994). 

11. K.W. Long " 3-Beam Phase Shift Shearography for Simultaneous Measurement of In-plane and Outof-plane Displacements and Its Applications to Residual Stress Measurements," PhD Dissertation, 

Oakland University, 1996. 

12. Hung, Y.Y. and Wang, J.Q. "Dual-beam Phase Shift Shearography for Measurement of In-plane 

SW Optics and Lasers in Engineering, Vo1.24, No.5-6, pp403-413, (May/June, 1996) 

13. Y.Y. Hung, K.W. Long and J.W. Wang, "Measurement of residual stress by phase shift 

shearography," Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 1997, vo1.27, no. 1, pp.61-73. 

14. Y.Y. Hull& K W. Long, J.D. Hovanesian and R. Hathaway, "Fast detection of residual messes by 

shearography, "Proc. SPIE Industrial Laser Interferometry, Vol. 955, pp.26-35, Detroit, Michigan , 

June 27-28, 1988. 

15. Y.Y. Hung, H.M. Shang, L. Lin, Yubei Zhang and Xinyu Wen "Evaluation of Residual Stresses in 

Plastics and Composites by Sheaography," SAE Paper #1999-01-1254,1999 SAE International 

Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan, March 1-4, 1999. 

16. J.D. Hovanesian, Y.Y.Hung and A.J. Durelli, "New Optical Method to Determine Vibration Induced 

Stains with Variable Sensitivity after Recording," Proceedings of the Conference on Experimental 

Stress Analysis, Smolenice, Czechoslovakia, October 16-18, 1978. 

17. Y.Y. Hung and C.T. Gmen, "Digital Shmography versus TV-Hologpphy for Vibration 

Measurement," Proc. The 15" Bienni~l Conference on Mechanical Vibration and Noise and 1995 

ASME Design Engineering Technical Conferences,Vol. 3, Part C, pp146 1- 1470, Boston, 

Massachusetts, September 17-20, 1995. 

18. F. Chen, C.T. Griffen and Y.Y. Hung, "Stroboscopic Phase Shifting Shearography for Automated 

Vibration Measurement", Proc. The 1 5h Biennial Conference on Mechanical Vibration and Noise and 

1995 ASME Design Engineering Technical Conferences,Vol. 3, Part C, ppl399-1415, Boston, 

Massachusetts. September 17-20, 1995. 

19. Y.Y. Hung, "Electronic shearography for measurement of timedependent deformation " Proc VII Int. 

Congress on Experimental Mechcs, Vo1.2. pp 674-678. Las Vegas. Nevada (June 1992). 

20. Y.Y. Hwg, C.T. Griffen and F. Chen "High Speed Shearography for Measuring Transient 

Deformation and Wbration", Proc VIII International Congress on Experimental Mechanicals, pp206- 

207, Nashville, Tennessee, June 10-13, 1996. 

2 1. Y .Y. Hung and Dahuan Shi "Technique for Rapid Inspection of Hermetic Sds of Microelectronic 

P~ckages Using Shearography," Optid Engineering, Vol. 37(5), pp1406-1409, May. 1998. 

22. Y.Y. Hung, "Shearography: a novel and practical approach to nondestructive testing," J. of 

Nondestructive Evaluation, Vo1.8, No.2, PP55-68, 1989. 

23. Y.Y Hung, "Automated Shearography for Nondestructive Testing and Strain Measurement," Proc af 

SPIE Conference on Nondestructive Eavaluation of Aircraft Airports, Aerospace Hardware and 

Materials, Vo1.2455, pp238-249, Oakland, California, June 6-8, 1995. 

24. Y.Y. Hung, "Computerized Shearography and its Application for Nondestructive Evaluation of 

Composites" Chapter 17, Manual on Experimental Methods of Mechanicai Testing of Composites, 

edited by C.H. Jenkins, published by Society for Experimental Mechanics (1998). 
25. Holoma~hic Nondestructive Testing, edited by R. K. Erf, Academic Press (1974). 

26. Y.Y. Hung, "Automated Nondestructive Shearographic Inspection of Debonds in Composites Using 

Multi-frequency Vibrational Stressing" Proceedings of 1997 SEM Spring Conference, pp98-99, 

Bellevue, Washington, June 2-4, 1997. 

27. H.M. Shang, S.L. Toh, F.S. Chau, V.P. W. Shim and C.J. Tay, "Locating and sizing disbonds in 

glassfibre-reinforced plastic plates using shearography," Transactions ASME, Journal of Engineering 

Materials and Technology, 1991, vol. 113, pp. 99-103. 

28. H.M. Shang, L.M. Tham and F.S. Chau, "Shearographic and holographic assessment of defective 

laminates with bond-lines of different elasticities," Transactions ASME, Journal of Engineering 

Materials and Technology, 1995, vol. 117, no. 3, pp. 322-329. 

29. J.R Huang, H.D. Ford and RP. Tatam, "Slope measurement by two-wavelength electronic 

shearography," Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 1997, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 321-333. 

30. Y.Y. Hung, J.L. Turner, M Taffalian, J.D. Hovanesian and C.E. Taylor, "Optical Method for 

Measuring Contour Slopes of an Object," Applied Optics, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp128-131, 1978. 

3 1. C. J. Tay, F.S. Chau, H.M. Shang, V.P. W. Shim and S.L. Toh, "The Measurement of Slope Using 

Shearography," Optics and Lasers in Engineerin& Vo1.14, pp13-24. 1991. 

32. C.J. Tay, H.M. Shang, A.N. Poo and M. Luo, "On the Determination of Slope by Shearography,'' 

Optics and Lasers in Engineering, Vo1.20, pp207-2 17, 1994. 

33. M.O. Petersen, "Decorrelation and Fringe Visibility: on the limiting behaviour of various electronic 

speckle pattem correlation interferometers," J. Opt. ~oc.' AM, * (1991), 1082-1089. 

34. H.T. Yura, S.G. Hanson, and T.P. Gnun, "Speckle Statistics and Interferometric deccrielation effects 

in complex ABCD optical Systems," J. Opt. Soc, Am., 10. (1993), 3 16-323. 

35. Y.Y. Hung and J.Q. Wang, "Technique for compensating Excessive Rigid Body Motion in NDT of 

Large Structures Using Shearography," Optics and Lasers in Engineering. Vol.26, pp249-258, 1997. 
Figure Legends 

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of photographic shearography. (a) The image-shearing camera 

is equipped with a roof-shape prism which produces a pair of laterally-sheared images. 

(b) Conversely, the roof-shape prism (as shearing device) brings rays scattered fiom two 

neighboring object points to meet and interfere in the image plane. 

Fig 2 Schematic diagram of digital shearography. Note that a double-refiactive prism is 

used as a shearing device. 

Fig. 3 Illustration of the doubly-refiactive prism as a shearing device. (a) One light beam 

is split into two angularly separated and orthogonally polarized beams. (b) Conversely, 

two nonparallel rays scattered fiom two different points on the object are combined and 

become collinear. 

Fig. 4 A magnified speckle pattern (random interference pattern). 

Fig. 5 Fringe patterns depicting the deflection derivatives of a rectangular plate clamped 

along its boundaries and subjected to uniform pressure: (a) & I a, (b) & I a. 

Fig. 6 Digital shearograpliy with phase-shift capability . The phase shift dzvice is a 

computer-controlled variable wave-retarder made of liquid crystal. 

Fig. 7 Three-dimensional plot of : (a) & l a, (b) L+v 1 of the plate deformation of 

Figure 5 obtained by the automated phase determination algorithm. 

Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of dual-beam technique for measuring in-plane strains. 

Fig. 9 Fringe patterns depicting sx, the horizontal in-plane strain component of the 

cantilever beam. (a) result of the dual-beam shearography, jb) theoretical result. 

Fig. 10 Optical arrangement for ccrnparing deformations of two different objects. Note 

that if the reference object is not deformed, the setup is equivalent to ESP1 which 

measures surface displacement: of the test object. 

Fig. 1 1 Fringe pattern depicting the deflection of a rectangular plate using the setup of 

Figure 10 with the reference object not deformed. 

Fig. 12 Fringe patterns depicting three differeat levels of residual stresses in a composite 

panel. 

Fig. 13 Fringe patterns using micro-indentation as a means of stress release. (a) without 

residual stress, (b) with residual stress. 
Fig. 14 Time-integrated fringe patterns depicting (a) dA / 6k and (b) dA I@ , the 

derivatives of vibrational amplitude of a rectangular plate vibrating at its fbndamental. 

mode. 

Fig. 15 Result of stroboscopic shearography of a vibrating plate at 3.07 KHz. (a-b) 

Phase maps before and after unwrapping, (c-d) 2D and 3D display of the amplitude 

derivative with respect to x. 

Fig. 16 Comparison of shearography with C-scan ultrasound. An edge pullout and a 

delamination in a composite panel are revealed by both techniques. Time required: 10 

minutes for ultrasound and 1 second for shearography. Moreover, fluid coupling is 

needed in ultrasonic testing. 

Fig. 17 The use of internal pressurization detects two internal cracks in a steel pressure 

vessel. 

Fig. 18 Fringe pattern reveals several areas of separation in a large cord-reinforced rubber 

panel. The method of stressing is partial vacuum. 

Fig. 19 Detection of a crack on a composite turbine blade using thermal stressing. The 

object was heated with a hair dryer. 

Fig. 20 Shearographic inspection of adhesive-bonded lines in composite assemblies using 

multi-frequency vibrational excitation. There are two bonded lines. Perfect bond lines 

should dark, and any deviation from darkness is indicative of weak bond. 

Fig. 21 Fringe patterns of debonds at the various depths (3mm, 6mm, 9mm and 12 mm). 

Note that the one closest to the surface has the highest fringe density and vice versa. 

Fig. 22 (a) Fringe pattern depicting Z / i3c of a light bulb using the double wavelength 

method, and (b) A 3D plot of the surface shape (2) obtained by integrating the fiinge 

phase of (a). 

Fig. 23 shows a leakage from the valve of a pressure vessel. The escaping gas is helium. 
Camera 

Object 

Photographic 

Plate 

Small angle roof-shape 

Prism 

Photographic 

Plate 

Object Camera 

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of photographic shearography. (a) The image-shearing camera 

is equipped with a roof-shape prism which produces a pair of laterally-sheared imziges. 

@) Conversely, the roof-shape prism (as shearing device) brings rays scattered fiom two 

neighboring object points to meet and interfere in the image plane. 

363 
Video 

Camera 

Test Object 

Fig 2 Schematic diagram of digital shearography. Note that a doubly-refractive prism is 

used as a shearing device. 
Double-refractive 

crystal 

Object 

Double-refractive 

crystal 

Fig. 3 Illustration of the doubly-refractive prism as a shearing device. (a) One light beam . 

is split into two angularly separated and orthogonally polarized beams. (b) Conversely, 

two nonparallel rays scattered from two different points on the object are combined and 

become collinear. 
Fig. 4 A magnified spde paam (random interference pattm) of digital shemogaphy. 
Fig. 5 Fringe patterns depicting the deflection derivatives of a r lar plate clamped 

along its boundasies and subjected to uniform pressure: (a) av 1 a, (b) & / a . 
Shearing 

- 

~~~i~~ Polarizer 

Liquid f 

Test Object Crystal 

]AI Crabber 

Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of digital shearography with phase-shift capability. The phase 

shift device is a computer-controlled variable wave-retarder made of liquid crystal. 
Fig. 7 Three-dimensional plot of : (a) & / a, (b) & / + of the plate deformation of 

the ikinge patterns of Fig. 5 obtained by the automated phase determination algorithm. 
X / Illumination 

Device - Yolam 

Test object\ \ 

Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of dual-beam shearography for measuring in-plane strains. 

370 
Fig. 9 F~nge patterns depidng &, the horizontal in-plane strain component ofthe 

. (a) result of& dwl-krem shwogaphy, @) rBaeor&cd result. 
Laser Light Source 

~est object 

Fig. 10 Optical arrangement for comparing deformations of two different objects. Note 

that if the reference object is not deformed, the setup is equivalent to ESP1 which 

measures surface displacement of the test object. 

372 
Fig. 11 Fmflge pattern depicting the deflection of a r lar plate clamped along its 

boundaries ad subjected to a point load at its center, obtained by the s.etup of Fig. 10 

with the referen~e object not deformed. 
Medium 

Residual Stress 

Fig. 12 Shearographic finge paaews depiding three dif6erent levels ofresidual stresses 

in a conraposite panel. 
Fig. 13 Fringe pateems using Hlic~o-indenmion as a means of stress re1 

residual stress, @) wit%l residual stress. 
Fig. 14 Time-intented finge patterns depiaing (a) d4 / ad (b) dA / , the 

defivatives of ~bra~ond afnpli~de of a re 

mode. 
Fig. 15 Result of stroboswpic sheaogpaphy of a ~brating plate at 3.04 

Phwe mps before and afier uwmapping, (~d) 2D and 3D display of the mplibde 

de~vative ~~ respea to x. 
Fig. 16 Comp&son of sheaogaphy Gkh C-scan ulmound. h &ge pu1Iout md a 

delmination in a composite pmel are serveded by bofi ta~ques. Time reqe3.54: 10 

minutes for dmomdi md 1 swond Bbs shwowphy. Mormver, Buid coupling is 

nedd in &e uBtraso~c; testing. 
Fig. 19 Fringe pattern revealing two internal cracks in a steel vessel. The means of 

stressing is internal pressurization. 
Fig. 18 F~nge paam revm1s seved areas of sqsation in a lwge wrd-reidor~ed 

mbber panel using pdal vacuum messing. 
Fig. 19 illudmtes deedon of a mck on a mmposite mbim blade using themd 

stressing. The objea was heated with a h& wer. 
Fig. 20 Result of shearographic inspection of adhesive-bonded lines in composite 

assemblies using multi-fiquency vibrational excitation. There are two bonded lines. 

Perfect bond lines should appear dark, and any deviation from darkness is indicative of a 

weak bond. 
Fig. 21 Fmnge paaems due to debornds at the various depths (3 6mwrg 9- ad 

12-1. Note that the one closes to the s&ace has the ~ghea finge deaasiw ad vice 

versa. 
Fig. 22 (a) Ffinge paam dqiding 62 1 dc of a light bulb usiflg the double wave1ene 

method. @) A 3D plot of the shape (Z) ob~ned by integfating / of (a). 
Fig. 23 shows a lewe from the valve of a preswe vessel. Tlae escaping gas is helium. 

LARCTM RP46 POLYMIDE 

LOW COST HIGH TEMPERATURE TECHNOLOGY 

Ruth H. Pater 

NASA Langley Reseearch Center 

Composites and Polymers Branch Materials Division 

Research and Technology Group 

Mail Stop 226 

Harnpton, Virginia 2368 1-2 199 

Telephone 757-864-4277 

e-mail r.h.pater@larc.nasa.gov 

LARC~~ RP46 Polyimide 

Low Cost High Temperature Technology 

The LARC" RP46 polyimide was developed in 1991 at NASA Langley Research 

Center as an ultra-high-performance composite matrix resin for use in aircraft 

engine components, as well as a more environmentally friendly alternative to 

commercially available high temperature matrix resins. The LARc~~ RP46 

polyimide is prepared with non-toxic 3,4'-oxyldianiline(0DA). This chemistry has 

led to several improved performance characteristics over similar high 

temperature polyimides. These improvements include 

700°F use temperature 

Significantly less moisture absorption 

0 Better chemical corrosion resistance 

Greater microcracking resistance 

Higher structural durability 

The 700°F use temperature LARc~~ RP46 is 150°F higher than that of commonly 

used PMR-type high temperature resins. In addition, it features significantly less 

moisture absorption and is therefore less susceptible to moisture induced 

damage. It also has better corrosion resistance to chemicals, greater 

microcracking resistance, and higher durability with regard to structural integrity. 

The fabrication costs for Langley Research Center RP46 polyimide technology are 

expected to be significantly lower than similar because most of the rigid handling 

regulations established by the Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration(0SHA) can be eliminated because of the use of non-toxic 3,4'- 

oxyldianiline(0DA). The LARC~~ RP46 polyimide technology is easy to process, 

with a cure cycle very similar to that of other commercially available PMR-type 

resins. 

Commercial Uses 

Langley Research Center RP46 polyimide technology can be used as a highperformance, high-temperature-resistant composite, adhesive, molding, coating 

material, foam, or film. Potential applications include high temperature printed 

circuit boards, wire coating, and molded hardware. 

Benefits 

Low cost 

Easy to process 

Non-toxic 

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SHEET STEELS 

USED IN STAMPING AND DRAWING 

Harvey Abramowitz 

Department of Engineering 

Purdue University - Calumet 

2200 169th Street 

Harnmond, Indiana 46323 

Telephone: 2 19-989-2473 

e-mail harveya@calurnet.purdue.edu 
Harvey Abrmo~b 
PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE 

a Stress - Strain Curves 

Tensile Testing - Experimental 

Helpful, but not necessary 

Use of Dial Calipers, Micrometers 

PC's 

Spreadsheet Software 
EQUIPMENTISUPPLIES 

a Samples 

Various Types 

Micrometer 

Dial Calipers 

Tensile Tester 

with extensometer - 50% 

RulerIStraig ht Edge 

Marker 
DDS 

EDDS 

HF 

INTRODUCTION 

TO 

SHEET STEELS 

SHEET STEELS TESTED 

Deep Drawing Steel 

Extra Deep ~rawin'g Steel 

High Strength Formable 

Bake Hardenable 
STEEL CHEMISTRIES (Typical) 

/ Product DDS EDDS 

Element 

C 10.005 0.003 

I t I 

N b-Ti Ti Stab 

max 

alone 
STEEL PROPERTIES 

Product 

Property 

YS(ksi) 

TS(ksi) 

%EL 

n bar 

6-1 2% 

r bar 

DDS 

24 

43 

46 

0.24 

1.9 

EDDS 

20 

44 

48 

0.27 

2.0 

HF 

27 min 

49 min 

34 min 

0.23 

1.6 

BH 

44 min 

55 min 

---------- 

---------- 

---------- 
STEEL APPLICATIONS 

DDS 

OUTER PANEL 

Quarter Panel 

Side Panel Outer 

INNER PANEL 

Rear Floor 

Fuel Tanks 
STEEL APPLICATIONS 

EDDS 

OUTER PANEL 

Quarter Panel 

Side Panel Outer 

High Roof 

INNER PANEL 

Quarter Inner 

Dashboard 

a Wheelhouse 
STEEL APPLICATIONS 

HF 

OUTER PANEL 

Hood Outer 

Tail Gate Outer 

Quarter Panel 

INNER PANEL 

Cross Member 

Reinforcement 
STEEL APPLICATIONS 

BH 

Appliances 
TRUE STRESS --TRUE STRAIN CURVE 

strength coefficient 

strain hardening \ j exponent 

true stress true strain 
TRUE STRESS - TRUE STRAIN CURVE 

log o = K + n log E 

with 

(1 + e) and E = ln(1 + e) "=I \ / 

engineering stress engineering strain 

ASTM E 646 
PLASTIC STRAIN RATIO, r 

width thickness 

ASTM E 517 
Table 50-1. Approximate Values for Plastic-Strain 

Ratio of Sheet Steels* 

Steel Rm 

Hot-Rolled SbSet .-j - 1.0 

DQ Sheet -1.2 

DQ SK Sheet -1.6 

Tin-Mill Products Generally less 

than 'cold-rolled 

sheet. 

- 0.0 

- +0.4 

- +0.6 

Generally less than 

cold-rolled sheet 

and approximately 

zero. 
TENSILE TEST 

PROCEDURE 

Measure and mark gage length 

Place in tensile tester 

Run test 

ASTM E 8 

Analyze data 


DETERMINATION OF n-VALUE (6-1 2%) 

DDS 

' r 

-+ DDS - Setl - #2 

- Linear (DDS - Set1 - #2) 

4.7 - 

4.69 - 

4.68 - 

4.67 - 

V) 

V) 

W 

% 4.66 - W 

3 

4.65 - 

CJ) 

- 0 

4.64 - 

4.63 - 

4.62 - 

4.61 

-1.25 

log TRUE STRAIN 

I I I 

-1.15 -1.05 -0.95 -0.85 
DETERMINATION OF n-VALUE (I 

DDS 

4.74 

4.73 - 

4.72 - 

a 4.71 - U) 

tj 

w 4.7 - 3 

F 

cn 

-O 4.69 - 

4.68 - 

4.67 - 

4.66 , 1 1 1 1 

-1.1 - 1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 

log TRUE STRAIN 



DETERMINATION OF n-VALUE (10-20%) 

EDDS 
TENSILE TEST 

HIGH STRENGTH FORMABLE 

#I 

60000 

50000 

40000 

n 

iii 

9 

2 30000 

3 

6 

20000 

10000 

0 I I I I I I I 1 

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 

STRAIN (INIIN) 

- 
0.2% YIELD STRENGTH 

HIGH STRENGTH FORMABLE 

#I 

45000 - 

40000 - A 

A e w a * w A Y v w 

35000 - 

30000 - 

I I I I 1 

0.000 I 

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 I 

0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 

STRAIN (INIIN) 
DETERMINATION OF n-VALUE (6-1 2%) 

HIGH STRENGTH FORMABLE 

#I 

4.80 

4.79 - 

4.78 - 

$ 4.77 - 

Ut 

E 

6 

w 4.76 - 

2 

I03 

,o 4.75 - 

4.74 - 

4.73 - 

4.72 

log TRUE STRAIN 

y = 0.1964~ + 4.974 

I 1 1 

-1.25 -1.15 -1.05 -0.95 -0.85 

L 

+ HSF #1 

-Lines (HSF #I) 

RESULTS 

/ Property 

Product 

offset YS 

(ksi) 

K (ksi) 

(6-1 2 %) 

DDS I EDDS / HF BH 

K (ksi) 

(1 0-20%) 

Notes: (a) () values from company, (b) ------ not taken , 

(c) * * heated at 1 OO°C for I h or 100°C for I h 

+ 170°C for 20 min 

79 80 91 -------- 

( --------- I 
CON-CLUSIONS 

0 Automotive sheet steels introduced to 

students 

Mechanical properties were measured 

and compared favorably with published 

values 

YS, TS, %El, n-Value 

Properties of different steels compared 
FUTURE ADDITIONS 

a r - Value 

Hardness 

Superficial (HR30T) 

Microhardness 

Ductility 

Olsen Cup Test 

Microstructure 

EVERY-DAY OBJECTS AND CLASS 

DEMONSTRATION IN MATERIAL SCIENCE CLASS, 

DESIGNED TO HELP STUDENTS LEARN 

Neda S. Fabris 

Mechanical Engineering Departnilent 

California State University, Los Angeles 

5 1 5 1 State University 

Los Angeles, California 90032 

Telephone 2 13-343-52 18 

e-mail nfabris@calstatela.edu 

Every-Day Objects and Class Demonstration in Material Science Class, 

Designed to Help Students Learn 

Neda S. Fabris, 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, 

California State University, Los hgeles 

Los Angeles, California 90032-8 153 

Key Words: Material Structure, Properties, Testing 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Basic Chemistry Course, Enrollment in First Materials Class 

Objective: To facilitate students' learning process, memorizing and visualiition of threedimensional concepts. 

Equipment: 

Styrofoam balls, piano wires, coat hangers, artistsf nondrying clay, tricot cloth, striped cloth 

scraps, rubber band, chalk pieces, silly putty, small objects made fiom different material and 

using different manufacturing processes, 

Introduction: 

Based on my experience of teaching 27 different classes, Materid Science or Engineering 

Materials classes require more facts to be remembered and more different concepts to understand 

than any other engineering class in the mechanical engineering curriculum. 

In order to facilitate students' learning, I have applied for the Caiifornia State University 

institutional grant and in 1994-95 received "Innovative Instruction Award" in the form of four 

units of released time and limited fbnding for student assistant support and supplies. For my 

project I collected samples, made models and developed a set of simple experiments that can be 

brought to the classroom and/or used in laboratories to demonstrate different properties of 

engineering materials. 

I organized the material according to chapters 1-11 and chapter 18, of the textbook: The Science 

and Engineering of Materials by Donald ~skeland,' that we cover in "Materials Science and 

Engineering," the sophomore class for mechanical and civil engineering students. Most other 

science and engineering books are organized in a similar way so the examples and 

demonstrations explained in this paper can be used by instructors teaching brn other textbooks 

in almost the same order. Also, I am using several simple examples and associations that help me 

and hopefblly my students, to remember the large number of terms, laws and relations. In this 

paper, I summarize the content of my "magic boxn for Chapter 1 through Chapter 6 and share 

some examples that I use to make teaching interesting and help students learn. While some 

demonstrations are new, others are adapted &om presentations firom other Materials educators. 
The Chapters in the following text refer to chapters in Askelands' Material Science and 

Engineering of ~aterials' book. 

Chapter 1.: Introduction to ater rids 

Chapter overview: In this chapter materials are gronped into different categories and ttre 

relationship between material structures, processing and environment on the properties of 

materials is briefly described. The basic guideiines for material selection are also outlined. 

To illustrate different types of material, I have collected and organized materiai hm five 

groups: 

a Metals: steel (nail), aluminum (pan), copper (plate), brass (key), solder (wire) silver 

(spoon) gold (jewelry) and others 

b. Ceramics (substrate for electronics components, ceramic cup, cha& clay, brick). 

c. Polymers: 1. Thermoplastics: polyethylene, (plastic bag, squeeze bottles), polyvinyl 

chloride (pipe, floor tile), polypropylene (piece of carpet, rope) polystyrene (Styrofoam - 

egg cartons and food container), 2.Thermosetting: phenolics (piece of Bakelite) epoxy, 

polyester (piece of clothing) 3. Elastomers (rubber band) 

d. Semiconductors (wafers used to make sexniconductor chips), chips in integrated circuit. 

e. Composite (piece of wood, concrete, plywood, fiberglass, glass fiber composite, rapid 

prototyping composite, piece of honeycomb panel) 

The objects are common objects found around the house, at trade shows and exhibits, and tours 

of companies. Also, for homework I assign students to bring objects Giom home made fiom each 

category of materials not shown in the class. Often these are scrap parts that students willingly 

donate to my collection. 

Students are able to observe, touch, and weigh each material while their properties are discussed 

in class. Also, different manufacturing processes are introduced by the examples selected, i. e. 

pieces produced using different methods are exhibited: material cut, drawn, welded (aluminumhoneycomb), glued (paper-honeycomb), and rnanufhctured using electro-discharge machining, to 

name a few. 

The optical, thermal, electrical and acoustic properties of the materials are illustrated with 

selections of the different materials. Acoustic properties are discussed using wire coat hangers 

and strings adapted &om ~avie?. By attaching string to the ends of coat hangers, it is easy to 

demonstrate the amplification of the sound in the more dense media Hitting the coat hanger 

against the wooden surface (door) while the end of fhe rope is stuffed in the ears greatly 

amplifies the sound and resembles the ringing of metallic bells. 

Memory Tip: Remember good heat conductors are also good electrical conductors. Good 

pots have copper bottoms! 

Chapter 2: Atomic Structure. 
This chapter is an overview of the material covered in chemistry class. The whole chapter is 

covered in one class period. To illustrate covalent bonding, a model of silica (SiOz) is made using 

Styrofoam balls and piano wires. Similarly, ionic bonding is illustmd using a crystaUographic 

model of sodium chloride made &om di&rmt sizes bf ~t~rofoam balls and piano wires. Also, 

students are asked to sort samples of different matexAs presented in Chapter 1 accofiiing to their 

bond energies presented in this chapter. I use my box ofdiffkmt materials to ask students which 

one has a higher coefficient of thermal expansion. I write their answers on the bod By going 

through atomic bonding and binding energy, we discuss the reasoning for low and high 

coefficients of thermal expansion and compare our findings with the students' estimate at the 

beginning of the class. 

Memory Tip: To remember which ion is positive, cation or anion, I remind students that 

anion sounds like "onionw and you cry when yon slice onions: therefore anions have to be 

negative! 

Chapter 3: Atomic Arrangement 

The crystallographic structure of different materials is illustrated using several models made of 

Styrofoam balls and piano wires. Points, directions, and planes in the crystals are much easier to 

comprehend if they are explained using the three-dimensional models than if drawn on the twodimensional black board. Spatial presentation always represents problems to students, and 

different color models are the best visual aid possiile. The largest amount of space in my "magic 

box" is occupied by crystallographic models. 

Memory Tip: Planes are two-dimensional so their brackets are also "two-dimensional" 

(curved). Lines are straight so their brackets are made from straight lines. Planes and 

normal to planes have the same Miller indices. 

Chapter 4: Imperfection in the Atomic Arrangement 

The best way to illustrate the influence of imperfedions in the crystallographic structure on the 

properties of materials is by simulating the dislocation movement, grain boundary influence and 

atomic slip with pieces of cloth. For example, the movement of dislocation can be illustrated by 

pushing the "bump" in a heavy cloth (like moving the heavy rug an the floor), or trying to move 

the "run" in nylon stocking. The strength of materials with small grain size can be illustrated 

with a piece of cloth made of the many pieces sewn in different directions and tom. 

Surface tension can be easily explained with pieces of glass and water in between them. Also, 

throwing chalk on the floor can explain the energy absorbed in the creation of surfaces; throwing 

silly putty or piece on the floor can illustrate the energy absorbed in deformation. 

To explain Schimid's Law, I make a model fbm the non-hardening clay, cut it with the ruler 

under an angle with respect to its axis and stick pencib into it to represent the line of loading, 

slip line and normal to the plane. On such a hand-made model, it is easy to explain angles h 

(between the slip direction and the applied force) and 4 (between the normal to the slip plane and 

the applied force). 

To illustrate the grain boundary strengthening, I use two pieces ofcloth one made hm one 

piece, and the other sewn &om different pieces. I compare the stitches with grain boundaries and 
different directions of threads to crystal directions. 

In this chapter I ask my students several fk and eclncationai questions: 

1. Why does water on a hot stove form a ball, whilecm a cold stove it makes fiat 

puddle?(surface energy) 

2. Why does baking soda absorb odors in the diiggator? 

3. If I throw two pieces of chalk from the same height, made from the same material and the 

same length but one with two times larger correction than the other, which one is going to 

break into more pieces assuming they both breakperpendicular to their axis? Students 

have to equate the potential energy with the eaergy needed to break the bonds and create 

a new surface (Answer: both should break into aa equal number off pieces). 

4. I ask students what will be easier to tear one sweatshirt or one "cowboy's" shirt with 

many stitches and directions of threads? 

Memory Tip: Remember my demonstrations and questions asked. 

Chapter 5: Atomic Movement in Materials 

Similar to the previous chapter, atom movement can be =re easily explained on threedimensional crystallographic models made fiom Styrofm models, especially interstitial 

diffusion and the effect of the size of atoms. Samples of carburized material are collected to 

illustrate the practical applications of diffbsion. Also, examples of bonded diffision (sintered 

materials) are collected. To illustrate the time-temp&turediffUsion process, I use an exampie 

fiom my own experience, while working at Bell Labommy on the accelerating testing of goldplated contacts, i.e. testing at higher temperature to simulate the effect of twenty-year diffusion 

in a work environment. 

.Memory Tip: Remember if you pour sugar water on aa unsweetened cake, sugar will 

diffuse, and the whole cake will become sweet, but first the surface of it! Grated cheese (or 

chocolate) when heated will diffusion bond before they melt. Grains grow at a high 

temperature because the big grains absorb small, just tike big fish eat small fish! 

Chapter 6: Mechanicai Testing and Properties 

Although all mechanical and civil engineering students art required to take material testing 

laboratory in their junior year, this is the first class where they are exposed to this important 

aspect of engineering practice. In this class, I demonstratemany mechanical properties 

performing small experiments with simple objects. 

1. Rubber band can illustrate elasticity, piece of clay plasticity, piece of "silly putty" creep. 

2. Bending of the paper clip can illustrate fatigue prspesties of materials; 

3. Twisting the chalk can illustrate the fracture of bfle materials; 

4. Pulling the piece of elastic cloth (tricot) can ihsttate the axial and longitudinal strains; 

Sketched square on the piece of cloth inclii 45 angle with respect to the axis of pull 
can illustrate presence of shears in tension. Decrease in the width of the tricot illustrates 

Poisson effect. 

5. Slow and fast deformation of "sifiy putty" cah show iduace of strain rate on 

material properties. 

In addition to ail these experiments, I have collected many specimens that are bmken in strength 

material laboratory to better explain the necking of the materid, toughness testiug and brittle 

hture. Artist's nondrying clay is also very handy here: you can fast fabricate "tension" or 

"compression specimen" to illustrate the way the specimen is loaded, the effm of friction in 

compression, as well as how hardness, impact and fatigue testing are pe~ormed. 

Using an elastic ball (rubber), a ball made hm silly putty and a clay bba, I iItantrate the effect of 

hardness on bouncing the ball. I then relate that to the measurement of the hardness using 

~clerosco~e~ where the roles are inverted: indenter is rigid while the dace tested is softer and 

has a different hardness! 

Memory Tip: Remember all tests are made from the necessity to compare different 

materials! Scientists did not develop equations to predict practical properties of real 

materials, so we engineers have to rely on testing. Remember the toughest gay in the class 

is not one who is the strongest but one who can take the most "beating". @Inis definition of 

toughness I got from one junior high school student during an "Open housew 

demonstration.). Than I ask them who is the tough teacher? The answer is often "You." It 

is true, I give them a lot of work, and they have to put lot of energy in this dtss to get a 

good grade. 

REFERENCES: 

1. Askeland R.A., The Science and engineer in^ of Materialsp Third Edition, PWS Publishing 

Company , 1994 

2. Spiegel, F.Xavier: "Five Experiments in MatwiaIs Science for Less than f 10.00", NASA 

Conference Publication 3 15 1, November !991, pp. 263-265 

3. Kalpakjian S.: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials. Third Edition, Addison 

Wesley 1997 

Neda Saravan ja Fabris, is Professor of MechanicaI Engineering Department at CaIifomia State 

University Los Angeles (CSULA). She has Bachelois degree fiom University of Sarajevo, 

Bosnia and Herzegovina, MS and PhD. fmm Illinois Institute of Technology 0, Chicago Ill. 

She taught at the University of Sarajevo, at UT, University of Illinois, and at CSULA (hm 1979 

till present). She was Research Fellow in Aachen, Germany in 1966-67 and member of Technical 

Staff Bell Telephone Laboratory, in NappervilIe IU.1976-1979. She teaches in the area of 

mechanics, materials and design and has developed four classes in manufacturing and 

automation. Her research activity and publications are in tool wear, self-excited chatter in metal 

cutting, cutting of honey-combs, and teaching methodology and recruitment of women in 

engineering. She has contributed to the National Educators' Workshop and ASEE Annual 

Conference for several years. 

ENGINEERING PLAN BEHIND THE 

ULTRA LIGHT STEEL AUTO BODY 

AND 

MSIICARS '98 

OVERVIEW 

Darryl Martin 

and 

Samuel K. Errera 

American Iron and Steel Institute 

2000 Town Center 

Suite 320 

Southfield, Michigan 48075- 1 199 

Telephone 248-945-4760 

e-mail martin@autosteel.org 

Telephone 248-945-4770 

en-eras@autosteel.org 


CARS FACTS 

+ 705 Pages of Text, Figures, Procedures, Eguations & Tables 

+ Over 3,000 Hyperlinks , 1 

P 

W 

+ 82 Steel Materials Specified 

+ 20 Different Material Properties 

+ 35 Automated Design Procedures 

+ 215 Design Eauations 

+ 31 Nominal Section Properties 

+ 19 Effective Section Proberties 

+ 45 Megabytes of Information on CD 
AUTOMOTIVE STEEL DESIGN PROCEDURES 

+ Straight Linear Members 

6 

cn + Gunred Members 

4 Surface Elements 

+ Connections 

FFECTIUE WIDTH 

+ Uniformly Compressed Stiffened Elements With 

or Without Circular Hole 

e 

q + Webs and Stiffened Element With Stress 

Gradient 

+ Unstiff ened Elements in Com~ression 

+ Uniformly Compressed Elements With Edge 

Stiffeners or Intermediate Stiffeners 

+ Eff ectlue Thickness of Curved Elements 
SECTION PROPERTIES 

+ Nominal Pro~erties Include: 

Area 

Centroid Location 

Moment of Inertia [local, Princi~al Axesl 

Section Modulus [Local, Principal Axesl 

Radius of Gyration 

Shear Center Location 

a Shear Coeff lcient 

Torsional Properties Including TorsionIWar~ing 

Constants 

+ Effective Pro~erties Include A11 Excel: 

Torsion & Shear Properties 
CAPACITY - -- 

+ Flexural Strength 

4 Lateral Buckling Strength in Flexure 

' 

ti 

a + Flexural Ca~acity of Cylindrical Members 

+ Axial Ca~acity of Concentrically Loaded 

Com~ression Members 

+ AKial Ca~acity of Cylindrical Members 

+ Combined Axial Load and Bending of Member 

+ Torsion o Member 
WEB STRENGTH 

+ Strength of Webs for Shear Only 

t 

0 

+ Strength for Combined Bending and Shear 

+ Transverse Load Web Ca~acity for Beams 

With Single Webs and Highly Restrained 

Webs 
GURUED MEMBERS 

+ Webs in Plane of Curvature 

+ Curved Circular Tubular Members 


LOCAL BUCKLING OF COMPRESSION ELEMENTS 

- 1 

I. .-.z. .,: ,7 , . ) ,.. . .<. --- ~7;~: . t 

G ;- >, -- /r - < *.-"/. 

I ' [ ... n .\ ( 

E Unstiffened Compression Flange Stiffened Compression Flange 

-. . 

- A 

Section A-A 

+ One Dimensional Structural Members Collapse When Buckling Stress 

Is Reached. 

+ Two Dimensional Plates With Large WIT Ratios Do Not Collapse but 

Experience Local Buckling and Post Buclling Strength. 

EFFECTIVE WIDTH 

+ It Is Assumed That the Total Load Is Carried by an Effective 

Width "b: 

+ The Effective Width Is Calculated So That the Sum of the 

Areas of the Two Rectangles Eauals the Area Under the 

Cuwe. 

HOOD OUTER PANEL 

Geometric Pro~erties 

Material Properties: 

E .= 203,000 MPa = 29,500 ksi 

Fy = 186MPa = 27 ksi 

Fyd = 298 MPa = 43.2 ksi 

Structural Requirements: 

Pcr 2 53.4 N - 12 1b 

W 2 26,560 N-mm = 235 in-lb 

K - >47.3 Nlmm = 270 Iblin 
HOOD OUTER PANEL 

The hood outer casc study is entered via*thc Design Espert by selecting integrity of Surf~ce Elements. 

thcn 311swenng Ycs to Dent Resistance. The prognm ~vill then ask Enter Design Procedure 3.31. to 

u luch the answer should be Yes. This brings up the following panel. the moduius should come up as 

dcfault (if unlts arc set right) enter the Fyd value and mention that this value came a table in the ASDM 

hit OK. 

The folloiiing is the nes input panel and the values should be entered as shown (have someone in class 

call out input numbers). Once input is complete hit OK to continue. ' 

Larger whngasiar pane! dimedonr . . f-2 - .- . 7.620OEi-02 

Rf - 5.715QEiO3 

Answer the follo\ving panels as shown then hit OK. K is actuaiiy less than the required vdue at 42.84 N 

vs 47.3 N. but the answer has to be Yes to continue the procedure (point this out). 
By answering 'No' to the hst panel this mill step back in the procedure to the Design Procedure Data 

Input pdnl to allo~v parameters to be change that would lnlprove the result. Chan. ae the thickness to 

0.hn and repeat the procedure as above. Now all values are well above the requirements and thus there 

3 EquatlcavTnnd Anal+ is a need to optimize to save mass. Lave the procedure as is and hit button 

on the tool bar and go through list and select equation 3.3.4-10 Critical oil canning load 

Enter this equation and first display the equation by hitting the View button and point out that t is to the 

power 4. therefore it has a large influence on the Critical load for oil canning. 
HOOD 08 :TER PANEL 

Closc rllc causrion pancl out 2nd proceed with thc Trcnd .Analysis using the input &:l; shown : 

Hit the solve button and take a look at the trend graph full window to pick off a good point. 

Trend Analysis - Equation 3.3.4-10 
HOOD OUTER PANEL 

.%SO by iooking at thc nurncrical rmtlts a morc accme number can bc detcrmincd A gaugc of 0.735mm 

gves a Pcr of 43.23 N. a gauge of 0.74 mm gives 54.1 N however for supply reasons the engineer may be 

forcd to go as high as 0.75 rnm for the final gauge. 

Close out the Trend Analysis and return to the &si9 procedure which should be rviliting for an answer to 

the is Pcr > required value question. Answer No. thus returning to the Design Procedure Data Input panel 

and change the gauge from 0.8 mm to 0.75 rnm and run die procedure as before noting for the class the 

valucs at each stage. The values should now bc 47.77 N/mm for K. just ovcr the rbcqirement of 47.3 

&refore the engineer would stay with the 0.75mm gauge. a3410 N-mm for W. well over the requirement 

and 55.95 N for Fcr just over the requirement. 

The Hood Outer Panel case study is now complete therefore answer Yes to the last =el and the flow 

chart will show Finish. 

FOUR DOOR LOWER B-PILUR 

- Seat Belt 

Retractor 

0.03 --------__ ----------_-_ in 1 I 

I Y Outside of car 

X Rearward in car 

Material Properties: Structural Requirements: 

k = 203,000 MPa = 29,500 ksi Ixx 2 466,180 mmA4 = 1.12 inA4 

Fy = 175 MPa = 25 ksi lyy 1 208,120 mmA4 = 5.00 inA4 

Mx+< 1,627Nm =1,20Oft-lbs 

(Mx load simulates quasi static side door intrusion test FMVSS 214.) 
FOUR DOOR LOWER 'B' PILLAR 

Retractor 4 ;/- 

Y Outside 

of car 

Rearward in 

car 

MATERIAL PROPERTIES: STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS: 

E = 203,000 Mpa ( 29,500 ksi ) Mx t- <= 1600 Nm ( 1200 ft - lb ) 

Fy = 175 Mpa ( 25 ksi ) Lxx >= 4.66E+5mrnA4(1.12inA4) 

Iyy >= 2.08 E+6 mmA4 ( 5.00 inA4) 

Mx + load is due to quasi static side door intrusion test FMVSS 214. 
FOUR DOOR LOWER 'B' PILLAR 

Y Outside I of ear 

Rearward in 

car 

Return flange added around hole to stiffen section. 
FOUR DOOR LOWER %' PILLAR 

The 'B' pillar case stu* is begun by making sure the units and thc default material is set the correctly. 

Material LD 19 should be used for this case stu4. Once these are set bring in the first 'B' pillar section by 

selecting Mew Database on the File menu and under the sub-directon. user select file bgillar.ids. hit OK. 

There is then a need to select Get section in the same menu and select Section 1. the baseline section dl 

come lap on the screen as shown belo\ql. There is also an actual 'B' pillar that should be sho\v to the class 

and it should then be explained that the intent is to package a seat bell retractor in the base of the pillar. 

Explain that first the baseline section should be checked to make sure it currently meets the requirements. 

Also zoom-in to one of the areas were the welds are to sho~v the section is welded. Return section to full 

screen then enter the -&alysis menu and perform a Nominal Property. Single Calculation analysis. Show 

results summary which should have the following results. which are well above the Ixs and 1-w section 

PrOIaert4' Requirements. mer OK and close results using File menu. do not save results. 
FOUR DOOR LOWER bB9 PILLAR 

The 5.m section will now return to the sceeen. "The section proppries are however only one par2 dtbe 

. the other king the bending moment capacity. To do this there is a need to calculate the f:B&ve 

on properties under the MY + moment. save them and move over the Design Key to calculate the 

kmding moment capaci~". Using the Analysis menu perfom an EffecPive Property. Single Calda~can 

analysis and enter M[>; + in the panel as shown then enter OK to continue. 

The section will then come on the screen highlighting the effective portion of the section. 
FOm DOOR LOWER 'BB' PILLAR 

This shows the material that is to be removed for the retractor is ineffective for this load case and &us an 

be moved without any immediate concerns. kowever there is still thc need to check the current capacity 

Pry jfiast saving the results using Save Results Bs in the file menu and typing in an appropriate filename. 

Minimize GAS down to the toolbar and bring back up Design Key. select Hew Design and select the 

procedure 3.1 -G9 as shown. 

Hit OK and enter that procedure and select from the appropriate director_r. the just saved GAS file. Answer 

No to the first panel question Cylindrical tube ? and fill in the following panel as shown . 

Hit OK and then answer the nex? two panels as shown on the following page. 
FOUR DOOR LOWER 'BIB' PILLAR 

The Elastic section modulus is coming from the Effective Section calculation from GAS and this value 

should be accepted by hitting OK. 

This then leads to the Mu (bending moment capacity) being calculated at 1671 Nm whicli is just above the 

structural requirement thus the baseline section is ok. Once this is complete move back to the GAS 

module and close out results if they are open. Then using Get section retrieve the second 'B' pillar section 

with the hole for the retractor added and proceed as above to calculate Nominal Properties. Single 

Calculation. This will show that the Ixx is now 460450 mmA4 which is below the structural requirement, 

because of this the bending moment capaciq will not be calculated at this point. this is not necessary until 

the requirement for Lxx is met. 

It should then be mentioned that a return flange around the hole was suggested pull up the third section 

using the steps stated above and perform the Nominal Propem, Single Calculation again. Look at the 

results summary and show that Ixx is now above the requirement at 48 1680 mmA4. 

Because of this move on to the Effective Property. Single Calculation. as with Section 1. by closing out the 

Nominal results and follcrwing the steps detailed above. Once again save these results in an appropriate 

file and move over to the Design Key module. Repeat the same procedure as before in the Design Key and 

show that result of 1621 Nm is above the requirement of 1600 Nm. 
MST ONLINE: THE DESIGN OF AN INTERNET 

GATEWAY FOR EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES IN 

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 

S. Raj Chaudhury 

Matthew Sanders 

Curtiss Wall 

and 

James A. Jacobs 

Norfolk State University 

700 Park Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23 504 

Telephone: 757-823-238 1 

e-mail srchaudhury@nsu.edu 
Matthew Sanders and S, Raj Chauawy 
MST-Online : the design of an internet gateway for educational resources in 

Materials science and Technology 

S. Raj Chaudhury, Matthew Sanders, Curtiss Wall and James Jacobs 

Norfolk State University 

700 Park Avenue 

Norfolk, VA 23504 

schaudhury@nsu. edu 

http://vigyan.nsu.edu/mstonline 

Abstract 

MST-Online is a web site that is being designed with an eye to the future of internet 

technologies and the future needs of materials science educators and students. With the 

support of NASA Langley Research Center, this project is combining the traditional 

collection of useful links with actual content adapted especially for this purpose fiom a 

variety of sources. Textbook resources are being provided (Jacobs and Kilduff) as an 

overview to different types of materials. Valuable, out-of-print references such as 

Elizabeth Wood's manual on single crystals and Laue difiaction are being digitized for 

easy access. In addition, Java applets are being collected and showcased for applications 

of visualization to the study of materials science. In this talk we shall present our overall 

design philosophy and methodology and discuss features of the growing website. 

Page Contents 

1 Porositt and Densitvj IStlucture. Bondine. and Propei-tiesj [R;l'ear Rosistnnce] 

[Stress CIoncentrations and Fracture Toughness] [Desipning Ceramics1 [Ceramic Processino] 

Nature of Ceramics 

Ceramics are loosely defined as crystalline solids composed of metallic and norbnetallic materials. They 

are inorganic materials; that is, they do not contain carbon and are derived from mineral sources. 

Ceramics are crystal structures made of metallic ions. Bonding is either partially or completely ionic. 

Vaiiabies involved are (1) the magnitude of the electrical charge on the ions, and (3) the relative size of 

the ions. The crystal must be neutral; that is, all the cation positive charges must be balanced by an equal 

number of anion negative charges. The oxidation state or oxida!ion number designates the number of 

electrons an atom loses or gains or otherwise uses in joining with other atoms in compounds. The total of 

the oxidation states of all atoms in a molecule or formula unit is zero. Na has an oxidation state of + 1 ; C1 

has an oxidation state of -1. When they join to form the compound expressed by the formula unit NaCI, 

Deir oxidation states must add up to 0. 

Some of these ceramics are intermetallic compounds. Originally, ceramics were clay-based materials. 

The word ceramic comes from the Greek keramos, meaning "burnt earth." Glass, a rigid liquid with an 

amorphous molecular structure, is sometimes classified as a ceramic. Silicon carbide, a very popular 

ceramic, does not meet the definition of a ceramic material given above. Ceramics are inexpensive 

compared with competing materials. Consisting primarily of forms of silicon, aluminum, and oxygen, the 

 no st abundant elements in the earth's crust, ceramics can be produced at less cost than that of competing 

metal-alloy components. Further, many, if not all. of the strategic minerals, including cobalt, that are 

needed to produce sophisticated metal alloys, such as the superalloys presently used in high-temperature 

applications, are not found in the United States. AerMet 100, is one such recently developed superalloy 

steel. What sets ceramics apart is their set of properties common to nearly all forms: (1) extreme 

hardness, (2) heat resistance, (3) corrosion resistance, (4) low electrical and thermal conductivity, and (5) 

low ductility. or brittleness. Table 7- 1 is a comparison of these and other properties of ceramics with 

chose of metals. Table 7-2 provides an additional con~parison of the properties of ceramics and those of 

competing materials. 

Table 7-2 

The Knoop hardness cubic boron nitride (CBN) is 5000 k, oImm2; that of diamond, the hardest known 

material, is about 7500 kg/mm2. Partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ), to be discussed in Inore detail later, 

can withstand a pressure of 75,000 psi for about 3000 hours without any appreciable effect. Its 

coefficient offriction alpha with steel is only 0. 17 at room temperature, and its coefficient of thermal 

expansion has vely nearly the same value between 00 and 10000C. 
4id 

Page Contents 

[Polvmerizationj 

What is a "Polymef 

The word Polymer comes from the Greek llpo~yil meaning many, and "rneros", parts or units. A polymer is a chainlike 

nulecule made up of smaller units "tnoiiomers'!. The "monomers". made up of atoms, bond together covalently to from a 

7olymer that usually has a carbon backbone. 

Nature .T. . 4 VIY r" .+ . .,. zdt '. -2 *,J n 3 

~olynlers can include many type of indusirial rnateriafi. as seen in Figure 6-2 page 327 (below). 

Figure , '+I : 

The basic markup of polymers consists of smaller units "mas" joined together either naturally or synthetically to produce 

lolymers or rnacroniolecules. The initi&+tep in polymer production is ahved by petrochemist or petrochpical 

:n@neeis. engineering technicians and engineering technologist, or other 66th chistry in their education and-training. This 

nitlal step involves breaking down-raw inaterials such as crude oil, wal, limestone, salt, natural gas, and air-With 

:eliuiose plastics. the raw materia1 is cpttoaor wood; however, they"ar~not broken down, as are most ather polymers 

ngredients. W~ether it be the cracking of eatural gas, distillation of coal or &de oil, or the esterification of cot'ton or 

xood. processing the basic organic (carba-base) raw materials yields the element carbon together with hydrogen. Other 

Jasic elements are also obtained in tile initial stage. including oxygen, nitrog&, silicon. tluorine. chlorine. and sulfur. 

- .- . g; .", 

Polymer iloften used as a synonym:&r "plpt~. but many biologicafJnil in&&ic molecules are alsb&lym~f?~ll 

~lastics are polymers, but not all polymers arexpl$shs. Plastic more commonly ;ef&iao the way a material beha& hder 

~pplied forces. or behaves when it melts and flo~. CoCommercial polymers are foqed through chemical reactions in large 

vessels under heat and pressure. Other ingredients are-hdded to control how the p~lyrn~is fonned and to produce the 

>roper molecular length and desired properties.~This,chanical process is called l'polymerhation". A "hoinopoly~ner" 

.esults from polymerizing only one kind of monomer. A "copoly~ner" results from using different monomers. 

lomopolymers have the same repeating unit wye copolymers (which can be random, block, or graft) can vary have 

liSferent ~lu~llbers of repeating units. A "terpolyfler" results from using three different monomers. 

6ack"Home Next '" 

\ 

Reproduced by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc. 

From James A. qacobs & Thomas F. Kildilffs 

Engineering MateriaIs Tectnology, 1997 pgs. 323-433 
Composites 

Page Contents 

[Del elo~~ment of Composites] [Constituents of Fiber-Reinforced Compositesl 

[Fiber] [Matrix] 

INTRODUCTION 

A composite materid or composite is a complex solid material composed of two or more materials that, 

311 a macroscopic scale, form a useful material. The composite is designed to exhibit the best properties 

3r qualities of its constituents or some properties possessed by neither. The combining of the two or more 

:xisting materials is done by physical means, as opposed to the chemical bonding that takes place in the 

llloys of monolithic solid ma- terials. A true composite might be considered to have a matrix material 

:ompletely sur- rounding its reinforcing material in which the two phases act together to produce charac- 

.eristics not attainable by either constituent acting alone. Note that the insoluble phases or main 

zonstituents in a composite do not lose their identity. This is not true of solids, which are metallic alloys 

3r copolymers whose phases are lost to the naked eye because these phases are formed as a result of 

~atural phenomena. In other words, steel is a multiphase metal alloy but is not considered a composite. A 

aetallic alloy of A1 and Cu, with the addition of A1203, is considered a dispersion-strengthened copper 

:omposite in which a dilute copper/aluminum alloy powder is exposed to an oxidizing environment and 

:he aluminum is oxidized within the copper matrix. The-aluminum oxide particles are inert and act as 

inhibitors of dislocation movement and thus strengthen the alloy at high temperatures. By adding 

iiobium (1 0%) to this same extruded composite in the form of a uniformly distributed powder, even 

greater hardness and strength are produced with only a minimal reduction in electrical conductivity. Two 

shase alloys are not considered composites by some because their phases are not formed in separate 

xocesses but originate in a single manufacturing process. 

f he above discussion reveals that the definition of a composite is still somewhat arbitrary. A broad 

jefinition of composite materials includes the naturally occurring composites, such as wood. as well as 

:he synthetic or human-made composites. A recent example of the development of con~posites in the 

nedical field is cited. A mineral paste composed of monocalcium phosphate monohydrate. 

~lpha-tricalcium phosphate, and calcium carbonate, dry mixed, to which a sodium phosphate solution is 

3dded to foiln a paste, is surgically implanted into acute bone fractures and hardens within ten minutes 

.ifter injection. This paste holds fractured bones in place while the native bone remodeling process 

.-eplaces the implant with living bone. This process causes the in-situ formation of the mineral phase of 

mne. Attaining a compressive strength greater than that of long bones, the paste's tensile strength of 

ibout 2.1 MPa is comparable to long bones. This new material eliminates the need for heavy and 

.incomfortable casts. 

In answer to the question, Why use composites? one can reply, in part. as follows: 
Page Contents 

[Phase] [Phase DiapramsJ 

NATURE OF METALS 

Metals have been useful in humanity through the ages because they are "strong" when sub-jected to the 

sxternal forces encountered under service conditions, yet they become "soft" enough to yield to a 

nachine cutting tool or to a conlpressive shaping force. Above a certain temperature, they meit and 

3econle liquids capable of being shaped by casting. Only in recent times have we realized that the 

xoperties of all types of solid materials, includ- ing metals, arise from their atomic architecture, that is, 

From the manner in which their atoms arrange themselves into a crystalline order, from the number and 

:ypes of imperfections found in this structure, and from the bonding forces that keep the collection or 

structure of atoms bound or joined together. 

The "softness" quality of metals can be explained by an understanding of the atomic structure and 

metallic bond of the metal atoms to form a crystalline structure. We recall that the electrons in the 

aetallic bond are free to move about their positive ions in an electron cloud or gas, which acts to glue or 

~ond the ions together. This free movement, within limits, also allows for the movement of the atoms 

~nder the influence of an external load. This slight movement, visible only under the most powerful 

aicroscopes, is called elastic deformation or elastic strain. Once the external force, such as a bending 

Force, is removed. the internal electrical forces that cause the atoms to move will decrease, allowing the 

xoms to return to their normal position; they leave no sign of ever being moved. If you bend a piece of 

ipring steel such as a machinist's rule or vegetable knife, it will return to its original shape, thus 

xperiencing elastic deformation. 

If you were not careful and applied too much external force by excessively bending the rule or knife, the 

ltoms might move too far from their original positions to be able to move back again when you released 

:he external force. Consequently, the rule or knife would be permanently bent and no longer fit for use. 

This pennanent deformation is known as plastic flow, plastic slip, plastic deformation, or permanent set. 

When automakers stanlp out a metal car body fiom low-carbon steel in a huge die press, they use this 

softness quality of metals. The tenn cold working (defined later) is applied to this stamping operation 

~nd many other metalworking processes that produce plastic deformation in a metal. Cold-working 

 pera at ions include rolling, heading, spinning, peening, bending, pressing, extruding, drawing, and others. 

The microstructure of metals can be modified in a number of ways. By now we know that this last 

jtatement can be interpreted to mean that. through advances in metals technology, we can affect the 

ltomic structure of metals in a precise, controlled manner in the design of metal alloys with the desired 

x-operties. 111 this module we classify, for lea~l~ing purposes, the basic methods orchanging a metal's 
Figure 5-9 Unary phase diagram for water 

1 I 

273.1 6 

Temperature (K) + 

Back 

Reproduced by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc. 

From James A. Jacobs & Thomas F. Kilduff's 

Engineering Materials Tectnology, 1997 pg. 223 
o Material Science and Engineering Education Fo~-unl 

e Matelials Researcl~ Science and Engineering Center at Arizona State Universitv 

o Cal pol^ hlaterials E~~ainee~ina Department 

Composites Manufacturing Science Laboraton; at the Univcrsitv of Delatvare 

o Center fbr hlaterials Science Jar]-les Madison Universitv 

The Conlposite Materials Research Group at the University of h'fississippi 

0 'I'he Materials Systems Laboratory at MIT 

Xew k'ork State ColIege .of Ceramics 

hlaterials \Vorld Module 

Science hextwavt 

National Academv of Engineering 

Materials Science Library 

FI-anlili1.1 Institute Scence Museum 

Snlithsonian Institutio 

National Geographic 


FS- 1997-08-3 1 -Law 

August 1997 

The Advanced Stitching 

Machine: 

Making Composite Wing Structures Of The 

Future 

Stitc 

Development Center--a n&v Boeing facility that will produce low-cost composite w>ng structures. 

From the World War I1 image of "Rosie the Riveter" bolting together war planes to the jets flying 

overhead today, Americans have always associated metal airplanes with strength. However, aircraft 

designers today are turning to composite materials to meet the growing challenge of maintaining safety 

and economy for commercial air travelers. Anticipating this challenge, NASA and Boeing have joined 

forces under the NASA Advanced Composites Technology (ACT) program to make large composite 

airplane structures a reality. 

VISIO-PLASTIC MODELING OF METAL 

FORGING AND EXTRUSION 

Ghassan T. Kridli 

Department of Industrial and 

Manufacturing Systems Engineering 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Dearborn, Michigan 48 128-1491 

Telephone: 3 13-593-5467 

e-mail gkridli @ umich.edu 

Visio-Plastic Modeling of Metal Forging and Extrusion 

Ghassan T. Kridli 

Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Dearborn, Michigan 481 28-1 491 

Abstract 

Visio-plastic modeling is a technique that uses soft materials, such as plasticine, 

to demonstrate material flow, and to study the strain distribution in plane strain 

and axisymmetric upset forgings and extrusions. This technique is a useful tool 

that can be used during die design, especially in the case of progressive dies. 

Due to the low stress requirements necessary to cause deformation in plasticine, 

testing dies are inexpensive to machine and may be machined in short periods of 

time. 

During the experiment, plasticine strips of equal thickness and of two different 

colors, are stacked with alternating color, so as to represent the initial shape of 

the forging stock or extrusion billet. The plasticine is then placed in the die and 

formed. Sections of severe deformation and material folding may be observed. 

Strain can be evaluated by comparing the initial and final strip thicknesses at 

different regions in the formed piece. 

Keywords 

Extrusion, visio-plastic modeling. 

Prerequisite Knowledge . 

An understanding of the fundamentals of metal plasticity and the basics of the 

extrusion process and its limitations. 

Objectives 

The objectives of this experiment are to physically model the extrusion process 

and to visually identify the flow path taken by different sections of the starting 

billet. In addition, it demonstrates: (a) the effects on the material flow of die 

parameters such as the die half angle and the extrusion ratio; and (b) failures 

that may be associated with the process. 

Equipment and Materials 

1. A visio-plastic forming press (schematically represented in Figure 1) with a 

tempered glass cover that allows for material flow visualization during 

forming. 

2. Plasticine modeling material in at least two colors, that can be sliced into 3.0 

in. x 0.75 in. x 0.25 in. billets. These may be purchased at hobby stores. 

3. A miter box to slice the plasticine into the desired thickness. 
4. Talcum powder to be used as a lubricant and to prevent the plasticine from 

sticking to the walls of the miter box. 

5. PVC forming dies that have been machined to a shape and geometry so as 

to produce the desired flow effects (i.e., dead metal zone, extrusion defects, 

etc.) 

6. A digital camera to record flow patterns 

7. Safety goggles. 

Figure 1. Schematic of the visio-plastic extruder 

Introduction 

Visio-plastic modeling is a visual technique in which a soft material, such as 

plasticine, is used to model material flow and strain distribution patterns for 

conditions of plane strain, axisymmetric extrusion, or forging. This technique is 

similar to etching a grid pattern on a metallic billet and observing the distorted 

grid during and after deformation. Plasticine is selected because of its low yield 

strength, which allows for the use of inexpensive manually driven presses and 

dies made of PVC. Pearson and Parkins (1960) reported that plasticine could be 

used effectively in modeling the flow of hot metals. 

Both internal and external defects in extruded pieces are generally affected by 

die half angle and extrusion ratio. The most severe internal defect is a centerline 

burst, also called a "chevron" crack, an arrowhead crack, OF a cuppy core 

(Hosford and Caddell, 1993). Centerline bursts occur under low cross-sectional 

reductions and large die half angles for plane strain extrusion. This defect is 

caused by a high level of hydrostatic tension near the mid-plane (Hosford and 

Caddell, 1993). These internal cracks affect the in-service mechanical properties 

of extruded components, and they are important in predicting form conditions 

under which they occur. External defects are usually in the form of: (a) piping, 
which occurs at the back face of the billet (in contact with the ram), or (b) 

enfolding of the oxidized layer at the back face of the billet. In this 

demonstration, only external type (b) defects will be modeled. 

The demonstration also models the effects of friction, and die shape and 

geometry of the flow of materials during extrusion. The technique also 

demonstrates the need to use progressive die extrusion or forging. 

Billet Preparation 

To prepare the billet, talcum powder is sprinkled in the miter box to prevent the 

plasticine from sticking to it. Two plasticine blocks of different colors are sliced in 

the miter box into strips of equal thickness (i.e., 0.25 in.) The width of the miter 

box should represent the desired width of the starting billet (in this case 3 in.). 

The billet is then prepared by stacking the sliced strips in the form of transverse 

bands of alternating colors as shown in Figure 2(a). This billet layout is 

appropriate for demonstrating the strain distribution for sliding between the billet 

and the container. For the case where sticking between the billet and container 

walls occurs (i.e., material shearing), the billet is prepared by stacking square 

bars (0.75 in. x 0.25 in. x 0.25 in.) of clay in a checkered pattern, as shown in 

Figure 2(b). 

Procedure 

1. Four type A billets [Figure 2(a)], and one type B billet [Figure 2(b)] are 

prepared. 

2. Safety glasses are to be worn. Even though the press is covered with 

tempered glass and manually operated, the students need to protect their 

eyes in the event of glass failure. 

3. Using the PVC die with a 90' half angle, an A type billet is extruded; talcum 

powder is used as a lubricant. The different stages of material flow into the 

die are observed and videos of the formation of the dead metal zone, and 

the steady state flow are taken. An image at the end of the punch stroke is 

recorded. Students are to write down their observations. 

4. Using the PVC die with a 45' half angle, an A type billet is extruded; again, 

talcum powder is used as a lubricant. The different stages of material flow 

into the die are observed and videos of the formation of the dead metal 

zone, and the steady state flow are taken. An image at the end of the punch 

stroke is recorded. Students are to write down their observations. 

5. A strip of plasticine of a third color is added to the last A-type billet so as to 

represent an oxidized layer of material. The billet in the die with a 45' half 

angle is extruded, and the students observe the flow of the oxidized layer 

into the extruded component. 

6. The 90' half angle die is cleaned with alcohol to remove all traces of the 

lubricant; the last type A billet, and also the type B billet are extruded under 

dry conditions. Videos of the flow of these tow billets are taken and the 

images are compared. 

7. The students are to comment on their observations. 
Figure 2. Composite billet (a) rectangular strips, and (b) checkered blocks 

Summary 

The exercise provides a visual tool to demonstrate material flow during extrusion 

and upset forging. It shows the effects of the process parameters (die half angle 

and extrusion ratio) on the formed part. The effect of forming speed can also be 

investigated by using rate sensitive modeling materials. 

References 

1. Hosford, W. F., and Caddell, R. M., Metal Forming, 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall, 

1993. 

2. Pearson, C. E. and Parkins, R. N., The Ektrusion of Metals, 2nd edition, John 

Wiley & Sons, 1960. - 

Biographical Information 

Ghassan T. Kridli is an Assistant Professor of Industrial and Manufacturing 

Systems Engineering at the University of Michigan-Dearborn. He received his 

Bachelor's and Master's degrees in Mechanical Engineering from the University 

of Miami, and his Ph.D. from the University of Missouri-Columbia. He teaches 

manufacturing related courses and supervises manufacturing senior design 

projects. His interests include manufacturing process simulation, and light 

weight material processing and characterization. He is .a member of SME, 

ASME, and TMS. 
CORPORATE PARTNERSHIPS: 

WIN-WIN-WIN 

David H. Devier 

Industrial & Engineering Technologies 

Owens Community College 

P. 0. Box 10,000 

Toledo, Ohio 43699 

Telephone: 4 19-66 1-7459 

e-mail ddevier 63 owens.cc.oh.us 
David H. De~er 
CORPORATE PARTNERSHIPS: WIN-WIN-WIN 

David H. Devier, Ph.D. 

Industrial & Engineering Technologies 

Owens Community College 

Toledo, OH 43699 

INTRODUCTION 

As we approach the turn of the twenty-first century in America we find a dynamic 

educational environment at all levels. The demands on educational institutions, kindergarten 

through adult, are higher than ever before. The types of work available to entry level workers 

today are considerably different than just a generation ago. The low skill-high paying factory 

jobs of the past are no longer easily attainable to young workers, or displaced workers for that 

matter. Today, more than ever before, entry level workers must have special skills to be 

employable in any position which offers high compensation. The only work remaining for the 

unskilled and under skilled work force is in the service and raw labor sector which offers 

compensation at only the minimum way level. 

This is true for the types of positions which historically did not require advanced college 

training such as auto mechanics and diesel technicians. Today one cannot learn on the job the 

high tech skills required to diagnose and repair a $30,000 sport utility vehicle or trouble shoot an 

electronic problem on a $100,000 farm tractor. The days of the backyard mechanic who can 

walk into an auto dealership and sign on as a technician are gone. Now these dealers demand 

entry level employees who already have the required skills and corporations are demanding that 

the dealers have certified, well trained workers for all warranty work. 

To make matters more difficult, the young people of today do not generally see such 

positions as auto technicians as desirable while at the same time the demand for such workers is 

overwhelming. There in lies the focus of the corporate programs which have been developed at 

Owens Community college and other two year institutions. The goal of each program is to meet 

the demand for hgh skilled entry level employees for occupations where it is difficult to fill the 

positions. 

The corporate partnerships bring together the corporation, such as John Deere or General 

Motors, the dealerships, and the college to recruit, support, and train the students. Most 

programs are full two-year associate degrees with summer internships at the dealerships. The 

remainder of this paper will discuss the details of the Owens Community College corporate 

partnerships and make suggestions for similar endeavors at other institutions. 

OCC CORPORATE PARTNERSHIPS: 

The Industrial & Engineering Technologies Division at Owens Community College is 

made up of more than twenty major programs ranging fiom traditional mechanical and electrical 
Corporate Partnerships 

Page 2 

engineering technologies through auto and diesel technician programs. The seven corporate 

partnership programs are housed in the Transportation Technologies Department (auto and 

diesel) and include John Deere Agricultural Equipment, Caterpillar Construction Equipment, 

Mitsubishi-Caterpillar Towlifi, General Motor ASEP, Ford ASSET, Freightliner, and WilliamsDetroit DieseVAllison. While there are differences among the programs, the general approach is 

the same. The curriculums for each are a specialized version of the general auto or diesel 

technician associate degrees. In each case, there is corporate and dealer involvement ranging 

fkom cash contributions to equipment,tool gifts and loans to off term internship employment of 

students. Some of the programs such as the ASEP, ASSET, and John Deere are widely known as 

national programs with sites aromd the U.S. On the other hand, programs such as the two 

Caterpillar endeavors and Williams-Detroit DiesellAllison are unique to Owens Community 

College. In all cases, the goal is the same - establish win-win-win-win (corporation-dealerscollege-students) situations where the corporations and dealers acquire skilled workers, the 

college provides much needed training and the students gain employment in well paid, high 

skilled jobs. The various programs at Owens have been implemented during the late 1980's and 

throughout the 1990's. The most recent being the Mitsubishi-Caterpillar Towlift program 

initiated for the Fall of 1998. 

HOW TO ESTABLISH A CORPORATE PARTNERSHIP 

The process of establishing a corporate partnership is multifaceted. The first step is to 

determine what the needs are of a given corporate-dealer group. Generally, the basic need is for 

well trained, entry level service technicians who have a solid background in the given product 

line, i.e., John Deere ag, Caterpillar construction, etc., and the desire to pursue a career in the 

field. 

This relationship between the corporation, the dealers, and Owens Community College 

may begin in any number of ways including the corporation contacting the college, the dealer(s) 

corning to the college, or the college reaching out to make the contact. The history of the 

programs at Owens is that once the first successful program was created the others came along 

based on the similar needs of other corporation-dealership groups. 

Once the initial contact has been made, the second step is to pull together all the 

interested parties in an ad hoc advisory cowttee. These parties include corporate management, 

dealership personnel, and college administrators and faculty. At these first meetings, a strong 

commitment must be voiced by all concerned because the total success of the program is based 

on the sincere interest of each party. If even one of the subgroups such as the dealers lack this 

deep commitment, the program will not develop. Generally, an official agreement is developed 

and signed off on by all parties to insure this commitment and outline the responsibilities of each. 

Confidentiality will not permit the inclusion of an example agreement here, but suffice it to say 

that it includes an outline of what each party will provide and/or do throughout the life of the 

program. 
Corporate Partnerships 

Page 3 

After the formal agreement has been signed, additional meetings are held with a select 

group of college faculty and administrators, corporate training/education personnel, and 

dealership techniciadservice personnel to determine the curriculum outline and courses, as well 

as, the equipment, tools, and training aid requirements of the developing program. The 

curriculum begins with one of the current college auto or diesel outlines and modifications are 

made as needed. For instance, all programs have an engines course, but the given corporate 

program will require work on the engines related to that product line. New courses may need to 

be developed such as electric motor operation and maintenance for the Mitsubishi-Caterpillar 

Towlift program. 

The final pre-program step is the finalization of the kick-off and student recruitment 

activities. The college plans and hosts an official kick-off event where corporate and dealer 

personnel meet with college officials to act-out the signing of the agreement, show corporate 

product, etc., for the news media. There is a news release sent to all the local media in the 

location of all the dealers to facilitate recruitment. 

The recruitment phase is the most important element to the success of the program, 

because simply stated - no students - no program. The dealers must accept the lead in this 

process, because they are recruiting future employees and generally they are high school students 

fiom the schools in their area. It will not work to have an Owens admission counselor visit a 

school in an area where no dealerships exist and attract students into a given program. It is well 

known that two-year college students generally do not want to relocate after college. The Owens 

responsibility in this process is to facilitate student enrollment and advising and help with 

financial aid and housing. Many times, an Owens faculty member or administrator will attend a 

recruitment event at a dealership. 

Figure 1, outlines a Corporate Partnership Startup Check Sheet which will serve to 

identify the various steps in the process in more detail. 
Corporate Partnerships 

Page 4 

Inform relevant College departments of company/dealer intent to collaborate 

Initial discussions with companyldealer interested 

Initial tour of facility for company/dealer management 

Determine minimum number of students to justify program 

Tentative commitment from companyldealer to proceed - estimate likely enrollment 

Brief College Relations on activity 

Form advisory committee to provide guidance on curriculum and other issues such as 

curriculum, financial aid, and equipmentltools. 

Discuss need for student housing 

Determine what equipment and or sofhvare companyldealer will provide and what College will 

provide 

Obtain commitment from companyldealer for needed enrollment 

Determine if companytdealer is willing to provide financial aid 

College submits program proposal to state higher education governing board 

Decide who monitors field experiences, if they are required 

Agree on when to start program 

Determine need for instructor training 

Formal companyldealer and college approval (of all above issues) to proceed 

Submit any required new course information, i.e., catalog, schedule, etc. 

Request assistance fiom public relations units of college and company 

Purchase orders for required start up lab equipmentlcomputers 

Kickoff held 

Promote at dealerships - line up students 

Administer assessment testing to sponsored students 

Register students - begin program 

Conduct regular advisory committee meetings to continuously improve 

Figure 1 

Corporate Partnership Startup Check Sheet 
Corporate Partnerships 

Page 5 

It may be necessary to submit information to the State Board of Regents for Higher 

Education for formal prograxn approval if the new program is considerably different than 

currently approved programs. New courses and the new program outline need to be submitted 

for the college catalog and various publications. Facilities may also need to be 

developed/modified to incorporate the new program. This is an. area where early discussions by 

the college faculty and administration will head off problems. 

SUMMARY: 

Corporate partnerships are an excellent way for any two-year college to provide much 

needed training to serve the needs of industry and students. It goes almost without saying that 

there must be a sincere commitment on the part of all parties. If anyone of the three; corporation, 

dealers, or college fail to do their part, then the partnership will not be successful. The most 

important element is the recruitment of students by and with the dealers. It is almost impossible 

to attract students to the program without the dealer involvement. Faculty currency is also an 

important element and here the corporation must help to provide the specialized training 

required. The specialized equipment, tooling, software, etc., must also be provided by the 

corporation and dealers on a lend-lease agreement. 

In conclusion, let it be said that corporate partnerships at two-year colleges are an 

excellent opportunity to serve the needs of the community and broaden the scope of 

programming. The results are effective programs which challenge the college faculty, increase 

enrollment, expand student employment opportunities, and serve industries' needs. 
Dr. David H. Devier is Dean, Industrial and Engineering Technologies, Owens Community 

College, Toledo, Ohio. Prior to assuming this position, he was Chair and Professor, Department 

of Technology, Ohio Northern University, Ada, Ohio. He has twenty-two years of teaching and 

adminstrative experience in technical higher education 
A SIMPLE EXPERIMENT FOR DETERMINING 

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS 

P. K. Mallick 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

University of Michigan-Dearbom 

Dearborn, Michigan 48 128 

Telephone 3 1 3-593-5 1 1 9 

e-mail pkm@umich.edu 

and 

Subrata Sengupta 

A Simple Experiment for Determining Elastic Properties of Polymers 

P. K. Mallick 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

University of Michigan-Dearborn 

Dearborn, MI 48 128 

Key Words: Modulus of Elasticity, Poisson's Ratio, Hooke's Law, Internal Pressure 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Knowledge of mechanics of materials, including Hooke's 

Law that describes the stress-strain relationship in two-dimensional loading conditions. 

Objective: The objective of this paper is to describe a simple experiment for 

determining the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of polymers using Hooke's Law 

for a two-dimensional stress condition. 

Equipment: 

1. One 2-liter soft-drink bottle 

2. A bicycle pump 

3. Two strain gages 

4. Pressure gage 

5. Miscellaneous items, such as rubber stopper, brass tube, etc. 

6. Two portable strain indicators (one may also work) 

Introduction: 

Modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio are the two most basic material properties that 

describe the elastic response of a structure subjected to external loads. In general, they 

are determined using a uniaxial tension test with either a solid round specimen or a flat 

rectangular specimen. The flat rectangular specimen of the shape shown in Fig. 1 is 

preferred for polymers. They are either machined from extruded sheets or injection 

molded to the dimensions specified by the ASTM Standard D-638. An extensometer is 

used to measure axial (longitudinal) strain, which is then used to plot the axial stress vs. 

axial strain diagram. The modulus of elasticity of the material is determined from the 

initial slope of the elastic portion of this diagram. To determine the Poisson's ratio, the 

transverse strain must also be measured. For a flat specimen, either a transverse 

extensometer or a transverse strain gage is used to determine the transverse (or widthdirection) strain. The Poisson's ratio is calculated from the slope of the transverse stain 

vs. axial strain diagram. 

In most engineering programs, students in courses on mechanics of materials, mechanical 

properties of materials or mechanical design conduct uniaxial tension test and determine 

tensile properties of materials, including modulus of elasticity. However, the Poisson's 

ratio is usually not determined, since it requires additional instrumentation to measure the 

transverse strain. 
This principal objective of this paper is to show the application of Hooke's Law in 

determining the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of a material. In this 

experiment, a 2-liter plastic soft drink bottle is strain gaged and internally pressurized 

using a bicycle pump. The pressure-strain data are used to calculate the modulus and 

Poisson's ratio of the polymer used in the soft drink bottle. 

Theory 

The Hooke's law describes the strain-stress relationships, which for a linear elastic 

isotropic material under a biaxial stress condition (Fig. 2) are given by the following two 

equations: 

En, = (l/E) [oyy - v om] 

where, om and o, = normal stresses in the x and y directions, respectively 

cm and E~ = normal strains in the x and y directions, respectively 

E = modulus of elasticity 

v = Poisson's ratio 

Solving Equation (1) and Equation (2) simultaneously gives the Poisson's ratio: 

Exx on, - En, om 

v = ....................... 

&xu oxx - En, on, 

Knowing the Poisson's ratio, the modulus of elasticity E can be determined using 

Equations (1): 

The Hooke's Law, given by Equations (1) and (2), is taught in the first course on 

Mechanics of Materials and is included in all textbooks on this subject. However, the 

application of Hooke's law is seldom demonstrated in laboratory experiments. 

Experiment 

The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 3. It consists of a 2-liter soft drink bottle 

positioned horizontally inside a protective plastic shield. Strain gages are mounted at the 

mid-length of the bottle, one in the axial (x) direction and the other in the hoop (y) 

direction (Fig. 4). A bicycle pump is used for increasing the internal pressure inside the 

bottle. The bottle mouth is sealed with a hollow rubber stopper and a brass tube passing 
through the rubber stopper carries air fiom the bicycle pump to the inside of the bottle. 

Two strain indicators are used, one fdr the axial strain (E,) measurement and the other 

for the hoop strain (E,) measurement. 

The steps in this experiment are as follows: 

1. Increase the pressure in steps of 5 psi. 

2. Read both hoop and axial strains on the strain indicators at each pressure increment. 

3. Do not exceed 30 psi. 

4. After reaching 30 psi, reduce the pressure in steps of 5 psi and read strains at each 

pressure value. 

5. Plot hoop strain vs. pressure and axial strain vs. pressure for both increasing pressures 

as well as decreasing pressures. 

6. Assuming a thin-walled closed-ended tube to represent the bottle, calculate hoop 

stress and axial stress using the following equations; 

where, om= axial stress 

o, = hoop stress 

p = internal pressure 

r = internal radius 

t = wall thickness 

7. Using Equations (3) and (4), calculate the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of 

the bottle material. 

Results 

Hoop and axial strain data fiom an actual laboratory test conducted by a student in 

Applied Mechanics in Design (ME 260) are shown in Fig. 5. Both strains increased 

linearly with increasing internal pressure and, although not shown, they returned back to 

zero along the same pressure-strain line as the internal pressure was released. This 

indicates that the bottle material remained in the elastic state. The outer diameter of the 

bottle is 4.33 in. and the wall thickness is 0.014 in. Based on these dimensions, the hoop 

stress and the axial stress at the highest internal pressure of 30 psi are calculated as 

4609.2 and 2304.6 psi, respectively. Both these stresses are tensile in nature and, since 

there are no shear stresses in bottle wall, these are also the principal stresses. The von 

Mises equivalent stress is 3991.7 psi and using the maximum distortion energy theory of 

yielding, it can be shown that the material in the bottle wall did not yield. 

Using the data at 30 psi and Equations (3) and (4), the Posison's ratio (v) and the 

modulus of elasticity (E) of the polymer used in the soft drink bottle are determined as 

0.299 and 0.745 x 10~~si, respectively. For a more accurate determination of v, an Excel 

spreadsheet may be set up to plot (E, o, - E, o,) vs. (E, o, - E, 0,). The slope of this 
plot is the Poisson's ratio v. The modulus of elasticity can then be .determined using 

Equation (4). 

Conclusions 

This paper has described a simple test method to determine the modulus of elasticity and 

Poisson's ratio of polymers. It also demonstrates the use of Hooke's Law to students who 

have learned the principles of Hooke's Law in their mechanics of materials course. The 

test equipment is very simple .and it does not involve a testing machine. One obvious 

limitation is that the test can only be performed with bottles or closed-ended tubes that 

can act as pressure vessels. The other limitation is that the bottle material may not be 

isotropic, since many plastic bottles are manufactured using a process called stretch blow 

molding. As a result of this particular processing method, the polymer molecules may be 

somewhat oriented in the axial direction, making the bottle material non-isotropic. 

Equations (1) and (2) assume isotropy. 

Fig. 1 : 

Typical 

tensile test 

specimen 

Fig. 2: 

Biaxial 

stresses 

defined 
Fig. 3: Photograph of the biaxial test arrangement 
Fig. 4: A close up view of the strain gaged bottle 
Pressure vs. Strains 

I 

I 0 10 20 30 40 

Pressure (psi) 

Fig. 5: Hoop strain and axial strain vs. internal pressure in the soft drink bottle wall 
Biography 

P. K. Mallick is a professor of mechanical engineering and the director of the 

Interdisciplinary Programs at the University of Michigan-Dearborn. He is also the 

director of the Center for Lightweight Automotive Materials and Processing. He 

received his Ph. D. in mechanical engineering fiom the Illinois Institute of Technology in 

1974. His teaching and research interests are mechanical properties, design and 

processing of polymers, composites and other lightweight materials. He is the author of a 

textbook, Fiber reinforced Composites, co-author of a reference book Composite 

Materials Technology and editor of the recently published Composites Engineering 

Handbook. He is a fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and a 

recipient of the university's outstanding faculty research award in 1997. 
THE MATERIALS EDUCATION LIBRARY: 

SHARING EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES VIA 

THE WORLD WIDE WEB 

Darcy J. M. Clark 

Materials Science and Engineering Department 

University of Michigan 

H. H. Dow Building 

2300 Hayward Street 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104-2136 

Telephone: 734-764-3377 

e-mail darcyc @ engin.urnich.edu 

The Materials Education Library: 

Sharing Educational Resources via the World Wide Web 

Darcy J. M. Clark 

Materials Science and Engineering Department 

University of Michigan 

Ann Arbor, MI 48 104-21 36 

Keywords : World Wide Web, Multimedia 

Prerequisite Knowledge Required : Some experience with the use of a web browser (such as 

Netscape Communicator or Microsoft's Internet Explorer 4, is assumed. 

Objective : The Materials Education Library (MEL) is an online library of multimedia content 

for materials educators. It's main objective is to promote the sharing of educational content 

amongst the materials education community. The objective of this article is to demonstrate how 

the MEL operates, e.g. how do you get content out of the library, how do you contribute your 

own content ? 

Equipment and Materials : 

Hardware 

1. A relatively modem personal computer capable of running a web browser (e.g. an 

Apple Mac 7x00 or a Pentiurn PC or better) 

2. An internet connection (modem or ethernet) 

SofhYare 

Netscape Communicator (3.0 or greater, 4.x recommended) 

or 

Microsoft Internet Explorer (3.0 or greater, 4.x recommended) 

Optional(but recommended) 

1. Apple Quicktime 3.0 or greater 

Introduction 

The Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) both have enormous potential to change how 

educational resources are developed and distributed. Indeed the WWW was first developed to 

enable more efficient exchange of scientific information between geographically-separated 

researchers. Capitalizing on this capability, the Materials Education Library (MEL) is a website 

that provides mechanisms for the sharing of educational resources amongst materials educators. 

Content within the library can be searched by keyword or media format and used within 

multimedia lectures (e.g. via Netscape or Powerpoint). This content can be rated online, 

providing users with valuable information from their peers about the useability and educational 
useEulness of individual objects with the library. Content can be contributed to the library by 

simply filling out an online form. 

Resources already available in the library include (but are not limited to) images, animations and 

java applets for use in course websites. Links to many external resources such as simulation 

software and materials-related websites are also cataloged. A prototype catalog of in-class 

demonstrations has also been developed. 

For a more in-depth coverage of the philosophies and motivations behind the development of the 

MEL, the reader is referred to previous articles 

Procedures 

1. Accessing the site 

To access the site, open the following address with your preferred web browser : 

(see Figure 1 ., label A) 

2. Basic Site Nwigation 

A : type address here 

B : 

Menu 

bar 

rn 

I C : main content window B 

B 

6 

a 

Figure "8 Basic layout of the MEL website 
The MEL utilizes a fiarnes-based layout in order to simplifjr navigation throughout the site. The 

menu bar (label B in Figure 1 .) on the right side of the screen allows the user to jump to one of 

six main areas. These main areas contain sub-areas that are listed and described below : 

Homepage 

Home - go to the MEL front page 

About - about the site 

Talks and Papers - some links to talks and papers about the MEL 

Help 

Credits 

Resources 

List All - list every resource within the library 

Search - search using criteria such as keyword and media class 

Develop - some tips on producing content for the library 

Contribute - fill-out form for contributing content to the library 

Evaluate - instructions on contributing peer review 

Index - by Format : this section allows quick access to content by media format 

Webpages 

Digital Text 

Digital Video 

Digital Animation 

Digital Image 

etc, etc. . . . . 

Index -by Subject : this section allows quick access to content by subject 

Atomic Bonding 

Case Studies 

Ceramics 

Composites 

Corrosion and Degradation 

Crystallography 

etc, etc. . . . . 

Demonstrations - a prototype in-class demo database 

AddaDemo 

Search 

List All 

Community - a bulletin board for online discussions and a member listing 

Discussions 

Members 
3, Findhg co~te~t 

There are a number of ways to find content within the MEL. The menu bar on the right side of 

the screen (see label B in Figure 1 .) provides a very quick way to find content by either subject 

or media format. By clicking the "Index - by Subject" button, you can select fPom a number of 

sub-areas within the materials science field (e.g. Composites, Crystallography, Defects etc..). By 

clicking the "Index - by Format" button, you can search for multimedia content by its media 

format (e.g. images, websites, java applets, animations etc..). 

For Tier-grained' searching of the library, use the "search" facility found under the "Resources" 

button in the menu bar. As shown below in Figure 2., it is possible to combine search criteria. 

animation in the subject area that deals with unit cells. 

504 
Once you have entered your search criteri~ into the form, press the "Find Objects" button on the 

lower part of the screen. Objects that match the criteria are returned as shown in Figure 3. By 

clicking the underlined object name, you can preview objects (see Figure 4.). 

Figure 3. The search criteria shown in Figure 2. returns the following resources. By clicking on the 

underlined object name, you can then examine the object (shown in Figure 4.) 

Figure 4. By clicking the object name (as shown in Figure 3.), we can preview the object. In this case, 

FCCrotate.mov is a Quicktime movie showing the rotation of an FCC unit cell while changing from a 

ball-and-stick to hard sphere representation. 
To obtain detailed information about a particular object, click the "details" button (see Figure 4.). 

This detailed information includes important authorship and copyright information. 

To download an object for use in Powerpoint or your own websites, press the "download" button 

(instructions on how to download and then subsequently use content in your own class 

presentations are provided in section 5). 

To peruse any contributed peer comments about the object, press the "reviews" button 

(instructions on how to contribute your own feedback are detailed in section 4). 

To preview the object in a full screen mode, press the ''full screen" button. To close the object 

window, press the "X" button on the far right of the screen. 

4. Peer Review 

An important concern of educators using the WWW for teaching is the quality of online content. 

Unlike books or journals, peer review of content before publication online is not part of the 

typical modus operandi. However it is most definitely possible to incorporate significant peer 

review mechanisms into web publications. The MEL accomplishes this by allowing users to both 

peruse and contribute peer review regarding individual objects within the library. This feature is 

enabled by pressing the "reviews" button (shown in Figure 4.), which both brings up any peer 

review comments as shown below in Figure 5., and prompts you for your own feedback about 

the content in question. 

5. Using content 

Objects that are actually contained in the library (including images, animations and movies) can 

be downloaded to your personal computer and incorporated into your own websites or 

Powerpoint presentations. Obviously external content referenced in the library (including 

websites, textbooks and CD-ROMs) will not be able to used in this way. Clicking the 

"download" button (shown in Figure 4.) brings up the following instructions and dialog boxes. 
Figure 6. (a)-(d) Steps involved in downloading content from the library to your local machine. Content 

can then be incorporated into your own WWW or Powerpoint presentations. Make sure you save the 

content as 'source' as shown in 6(d). 

Once you have the downloaded object on your local machine, it is very simple to embed this 

object into your own Powerpoint presentations, as shown in Figure 7., by using the "Insert / 

Movies and Sounds / Movie From File" command. Images can be utilized in a very similar 

fashion by using the "Insert / Picture / From File" command sequence. 
Figure 7. Incorporating downloaded content from the MEL into your own Powerpoint presentations, by the 

"Insert I Movies and Sounds I Movie From Filen command (note: Microsofi Powerpoint 98 for MacOS is 

shown). 

6. Contributing Content 

So far we have only examined how content can be found and used, and briefly covered how the 

peer review mechanism works. In this section we will detail how to contribute your own 

educational content to the MEL. Suitable content might include images, animations, short 

Quicktime movies or archived (.zip, .hqx or .bin) Java applets. Other suitable content includes 

interesting web sites, textbooks and CD-ROMs. The value of the MEL to educators can only 

grow if there is an active group of contributors to the library. 

There are 4 basic steps involved with becoming a contributing member of the MEL. If you want 

to contribute your own content to the server, follow steps a through d. If you are hosting your 

won content within your own web space, then follow steps a,b and d. If you simply adding a 

reference to textbook, CD-ROM or an external web site, then you can jump to part d. 

a. Sign up as a member 

b. Decide to host content locally or on the MEL server ? 

c. Transfer files to MEL server (if necessary) 

d. Add contributed content to the MEL database 
a Sign up as a member 

Becoming a member is accomplished by clicking the "Community" button in the main menu (see 

Figure 1 .), and then by ciicking the "Members" sub-area. On this page a complete list of 

members is shown. By clicking the "Add Yourself' button on this page, you will be presented 

with a form to fill out, containing a few contact information fields and a short questionnaire. The 

purpose of the questionnaire is to identify members who want to contribute to the library. Those 

who do will then receive an email with instructions on how to contribute their original content to 

the MEL server. By signing up as a member, you will also receive semi-regular email updates on 

the latest contributed content. 

b. Decide to host content locally or on the M;EL server ? 

The choice between storing your content on your own web server space or on the MEL server is 

completely dependant on the you, the contributor. Most educators will have web server space 

assigned to them by their respective institution. As space is limited on the MEL server, then the 

hosting your content within your own web space is the preferred option. Contact your local 

systems administrator for assistance with this. If you do decide to host your own content locally, 

then jump to section d. 

c. Transferring content to the MEL server (iynecessary) 

If you want to transfer your content to the MEL server, then the following instructions address 

this. Each contributing member will receive a username and a password via email that will allow 

them to use the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to transfer files to the MEL server. There are 

numerous FTP clients available for all platforms 6. Using your chosen FTP client, open a 

connection to the MEL server at this address : msewww2.enein.umich.edu, using the username 

and password that was provided to you. Once you have a connection, you will see a list of 

directories. Open the directory that corresponds to your account and upload your content. Verify 

the success of the upload by opening the following address in your web browser : 

htt~://msewww2.enPin.umich.edn/contrib/t , replacing 

your@,email.edu with your own email address, and content with the filename of your content 

(e.g. image.gif, movie.mov or archive.zip). 

d Add contributed content to the MEL database 

Once you have uploaded your content to either your local server or the MEL server, then you can 

add the relevant meta-data that describes your content to the MEL database. Under the 

"Resources" menu (see Figure I.), there is a "Contribute" menu item. You will be first asked for 

the name of your content - this name will be checked against the existing database for 

duplicates. If all goes well, you will be presented with a fill-out form that prompts you for 

information about your contributed content. Enter the URL of your content into the URL field, 

and complete the various other fields. Be sure to enter an accurate, yet succinct description of 

your content into the "description" field. This will help MEL users find your content when 

searching using appropriate keywords. 
Figure 8. Entering your content into the MEL database. 

7. Protowpe Demonstratiion Database 

In-class demonstrations can be a key component in making materials science classes interesting 

for students. Many such demonstrations and experiments have been presented at previous NEW 

workshops. The prototype demonstration database is briefly presented here as a possible way of 

widening the publication audience and increasing the accessibility of a collection of interesting 

and informative demonstrations and experiments for materials science. Access the demo 

database by pressing the "Demonstrations" menu item (see Figure 1 .). The demo database is 

designed and can be utilized in the same manner as the rest of the MEE site. 

8. Ca~mclusiom 

The &EL is very much a work in progress. The concepts it embodies are very dependent on the 

idea of an active community of members/users. To date most users have been content to simply 

'use' content from the library, but the future success of the depends on a continual growth 

of the content contained in the library. 
References 

1 Journal of Metals (Electronic Edition) Volume 50 (5), 1998. URL : 

http://www .tms.or~~pubsljournals/JOM/9805/Clarkl 

2. Shared Educational Resource Development for Materials Science and Engineering, J. Mater. 

Ed., volume 20, numbers 1 and 2 (1 998). 

3. Netscape Communicator, URL: http:llhome.netsca~e.com/computin~/download/ 

4. Microsoft Internet Explorer, URL: httI,://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/default.htrn 

5. Apple Quicktime, URI;: http://www.apple.com/quicktime/ 

6. Downloadable FTP clients for PC and MAC, URL: ~//www.tucows.com~ftp95.html and 

URL: http://www.allmacintosh.com/ftpmac.html 

Biographical Information 

Darcy Clark is a Research Investigator at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, MI), Materials 

Science and Engineering Department. He has a Bachelor's degree and Ph.D fi-om the University 

of Queensland (Brisbane, Australia). His work deals with the application of technology and new 

media to the process of teaching materials science. For more information, please visit this URL : 

htt~://w ww-~ersonal.engin.umich.edu/-darc yc/Work/. 

TEACHING THE PRINCIPLES OF MATERIALS 

SCIENCE USING OUR NATURAL SURROUNDINGS: 

SPIDER SILK 

Robert J. Scheer 

Composite Materials Engineering 

Winona State University 

Winona, Minnesota 55987-58 38 

Teaching the Principles of Materials Science using our Natural 

Surroundings: Spider Silk 

Robert J. Scheer 

Assistant Professor 

Composite Materials Engineering 

Winona State University 

Kev Words: Biomimetics, spider silk 

Prereauisite Knowledge: None 

Objective: To help students incorporate new concepts in materials science into their 

knowledge base using their understanding of our natural surroundings. 

Euuipment: None 

Materials: sample of spider silk, sample of KevlarB, 16-long rubber bands of equal 

length, 20-one inch (1") lengths of craft sticks, 40-small binder clips, rubber cement, 

and test frame (see instructions) 

Introduction: 

Nature has evolved many materials that have properties superior to those developed by 

humankind. Among the most widely studied of these are the abalone shell, spider silk, 

bone, and wood (or trees). Using these materials, the concepts of toughness, elasticity, 

and "intelligence" can be investigated and understood. 

Tree and bone growth occurs in response to external stimuli (intelligent materials). As 

tree trunks and bones are strained a corresponding growth occurs to compensate for or 

neutralize the increased strain (Woodward et. al.). This is evidenced by larger growth 

rings on trees and by denser mineral deposits on bone. 

Abalone shell and spider silk exhibit extraordinary specific mechanical properties. 

Considering that these materials are manufactured in an aqueous environment at 

moderate temperatures, we could learn a great deal from the study of them. 

This demonstration/workshop hopes to increase students' understanding of the 

concepts of stiffness and toughness using simple models and the example of spider silk. 

Background 

Spider dragline silk is nature's high-performance fiber. Its combination of tensile 

strength and elasticity gives the silk a higher energy to break than that of other natural 

or synthetic fibers. See properties listed in Table 1. It is a semicrystalline material made , 

of amorphous flexible chains reinforced by strong and stiff crystals. The crystals are 
made of hydrophobic polyalanine sequences arranged into beta-pleated sheets. The 

amorphous part is attributed to oligopeptide chains rich in glycine. 

Table 1. Important mechanical properties of engineering materials. (Tirrell, Hinrnan) 

Silk properties are routinely modulated by orb spiders, which can spin up to seven 

distinct fiber types having mechanical properties ranging from low modulus and highly 

extensible "elastomers" to high modulus and high toughness "filaments". Such broad 

functionality is often achieved by seemingly subtle changes in amino acid sequence, 

composition, and mechanical processing (O'Brien, Simmons). Figure 1 is a two 

dimensional representation of one accepted way in which spider's achieve a variety of 

properties in their silks. 

Material 

Dragline silk 

KevlarB 

Rubber 

Tendon 

Finure 1. Three models representing hard (crystalline) and soft (amorphous) regions of 

different types of spider silks. (A) represents the stiffest silk showing the most 

crystalline regions, (B) represents the middle stiffness silk showing and 

intermediate number of crystalline regions, and (C) represents the 

lowest stiffness silk showing the fewest number of crystalline 

regions. (O'Brien et. al., Thiel, Simmons) 

Strength (MPa) 

1000-4000 

4000 

1 

1000 

Elasticity (%) 

35 

5 

600 

5 

Energy to Break (kJ/kg) 

100 

30 

80 

5 
Demonstrations 

1. Have the students handle and stretch the spider web, rubber bands and KevlarB. 

Review the mechanical properties of each one. 

2. Place five rubber bands in the test fixture and have the students apply a tensile load 

to "feel" its properties. Describe this as the low modulus, high elasticity spider silk. 

3. Attach 8 sets of "crystals" to the rubber bands. Distribute them evenly throughout 

the structure. Have the students apply a tensile load to "feel" its properties. Describe 

this as the intermediate modulus, medium elasticity spider silk. 

4. With a new set of rubber bands, attach 12 sets of "crystals" to the rubber bands. 

Distribute them evenly through the structure. Have the students apply a tensile load to 

"feel" its properties. Describe this as the high modulus, high elasticity spider silk. 

S~ecial Instructions: 

This test frame is designed to allow simple attachment of the five rubber bands and 

application of a tensile load. 

"Crystals" are attached by aligning the rubber bands, placing rubber cement on one side 

of two craft stick segments, and binding them to two or three adjacent rubber bands. 
References: 

Berenbaum, M.R. "Spin Control." The Sciences, Sept-Oct 1995, v35, n5, p13. 

Colgin, M.A. and R.V. Lewis. "Spider silk: a biomaterial for the future." Chemistry and 

Industry. 18 December 1995, pp1009-1012. 

Fox, D. "The Spinners." New Scientist, 24 April 1999, pp38-41. 

Hinman, M.; Z. Dong; M. Xu and R. Lewis. "Spider Silk Proteins." in Mat. Res. Soc. 

Symp. Proc. Vol. 292, eds C. Viney, S.T. Case and J.H. Waite. 1993 Materials 

Research Society: Pittsburgh, PA. 

kwis, R. "Unraveling the weave of spider silk: One of nature's most wondrous chemical 

structures is being dissected so that it can be used in human inventions." BioScience, 

Oct 1996, v46, n9, p636. 

Lipkin, R. "Artificial Spider Silk." Science News, 9 March 1996, v149, pp152-153. 

O'Brien, J.P.; S.R. Fahnestock, Y. Termonia and K.H. Gardner. "Nylons from Nature: 

Synthetic Analogs to Spider Silk." Adv. Mater. 1998, v10, n15, pp1185-1195. 

Osaki, S. "Spider Silk as Mechanical Lifeline." Nature, 5 Dee. 1996, v384, p419. 

Seidel, A.; 0. Liivak, and L.W. Jelinski. "Artificial Spinning of Spider Silk." 

Macromolecules 1998, v31, pp6733-6736. 

Shen, Y.; M.A. Johnson and D.C. Martin. "Microstructural Characterization of Bombyx 

mori Silk Fibers." Macromolecules 1998, v31, pp8857-8864. 

Simmons, A.H.; C.A. Michal and L.W. Jelinski. "Molecular Orientation and TwoComponent Nature of the Crystalline Fraction of Spider Dragline Silk." Science, 5 

January 1996, v271, pp84-87. 

Termonia, Y. "Molecular Modeling of Spider Silk Elasticity." Macromolecules 1994, 

~27, ~~7378-7381. 

Thiel, B.;D. Kunkel; K Guess and C. Viney. "Composite Microstructure of Spider 

(Nephila Clavipes) Dragline." in Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol, 330, eds M. Alper, 

H. Bayley, D. Kaplan and M. Navia. 1994 Materials Research Society: Pittsburgh, PA. 

Tirrell, D.A. "Putting a New Spin on Spider Silk." Science, 5 January 1996, v271, p39. 

Vollrath, F. "Spider Webs and Silks." Scientific American. March 1992, pp70-76. 

Woodward, S.C. and T.N. Salthouse "The Tissue Response to Implants and its 

Evaluation by Light Microscopy." in Handbook of Biomaterial Evaluation, ed. Von 

Recum. 1986. (Woolf s Law explained) 
SIMPLE CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATIONS 

IN CHEMISTRY AND MATERIALS SCIENCE 

John B. Hudson 

Materials Science and Engineering Department 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 

Troy, New York 12180 

Telephone: 5 18-276-6447 

e-mail hudsoj @ rpi.edu 

Simple Classroom Demonstrations in Chemistry and 

Materials Science 

John B. Hudson, Materials Science and Engineering Department, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 

Troy NY 12180 

Abstract 

Six classroom demonstrations developed for a freshman level course in Chemistry and Materials 

Science are described, and the message to be drawn from each is presented. 

Key Words 

Conservation of energy, atomic vibrations, polymer structure, glass transition, diffusion, heat 

treating. 

Introduction 

1 

At Rensselaer, all engineering freshmen take a two-semester course sequence, Chemistry of 

Materials, that combines material traditionally taught in freshman general chemistry and beginning 

materials science. This course sequence is taught in an interactive studio mode, which combines 

the presentation of new material, student problem solving and laboratory work in two, two-hour 

class sessions per week. In the process of developing this sequence, we have developed a large 

number of classroom demonstrations that are used to illustrate points relevant to topics covered in 

class. In the material that follows, I will describe a number of these demonstrations, and show 

how they relate to an understanding of the chemical and physical principles involved. 

In all cases, we have tried to keep the demonstrations as simple as possible, and use materials that 

are cheap and readily available. 

Conservation of Energy 

Near the beginning of the first semester, we review basic principles, including both the concept of 

conservation of energy, and the fact that all energies are relative, requiring a reference point in 

order to specie a numerical value of energy. To demonstrate this, we use a ball of glazier's 

putty, about an inch in diameter. The ball is first placed on a desktop, which is taken as our 

reference "zero of energy". Students are then asked about the potential energy of the ball when it 

is held either above or below the table top. This leads in to the concept of decreasing potential 

energy when electrons are bound to a nucleus, or chemical bonds are formed. For example, the 

ground state potential energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is -13.4 eV relative to a free 

electron. The putty ball is then raised above the desk top, and students are asked "Has the energy 

of the balI increased?" (Yes - its potential energy is higher.) "Where did the energy come fi-omy7 

(The instructor did work on the ball - energy transfer from instructor to ball.) The ball is next 

dropped back onto the table top, and students are asked "Did the energy of the ball change while 
it was dropping?" (No - energy was converted fiom potential to kinetic.) and "Is the energy aRer 

the ball lands lower than before it was dropped?'(Yes - it has no kinetic energy relative to the 

table top, and its potential energy has decreased.) Finally, the students are asked "Where did this 

energy go?". This will generate a range of answers - heating of the ball or table, generation of 

sound waves, deformation of the ball or table. 

When this discussion is finished, two concepts should be clear to the students: 

1. All energy values are relative to some arbitrary reference energy. 

2. Energy can'neither be created or destroyed, only changed fiom one form to another. 

Dependence of Atomic Vibration Frequency on Mass and Bond Strength 

This demonstration is used as part of a module on infrared spectroscopy, which is discussed as 

part of our study of chemical bonding. This demonstration uses a model constructed from a piece 

of 2x4; six styrofoam balls, two at 1 .SWdiameter, two at 2" diameter, and two at 3 "diameter (more 

or less); twelve 112" hex nuts and 6 pieces of 0.040" diameter molybdenum wire. (High strength 

steel would do - I just happened to have some molybdenum wire of the right stiffness around.) 

The model constructed is shown in Figure 1 below. It consists of the six foam balls, each 

Foam balls 

Mo or steel 

Figure 1 

Demonstration of effect of atomic mass and bond strength on atomic vibration frequency. The 

styrofoam balls contain stainless steel hex nuts to reduce the resonant frequency to a readily 

observable value 

containing one or more of the hex nuts, mounted on a piece of the wire, with the other end of the 

wire inserted in a hole in the 2x4. The nuts are recessed into the balls by carving out appropriate 

sized holes The nuts are glued directly onto the wires using epoxy glue, and the balls then glued 

over the nuts. Six combinations of wire length (which represents bond strength - short wire = 

strong bond) and number of hex nuts (which represent atomic mass) were used. The wire and nut 

combinations I used are: 
Short wire (about 3") - Long wire (about 6") 

1 nut 1 nut 

2 nuts 2 nuts 

3 nuts 3 nuts 

These combinations give a wide range of resonant frequencies, all of which are low enough for 

the motion to be readily visible by students in the classroom. The various frequencies, which are 

given by the harmonic oscillator expression 

relating the frequency, v, to the force constant, f, and the mass, my can be demonstrated by 

tweaking the balls, one at a time. This will show that the short wire, 1 nut combination has the 

highest natural frequency, while the long wire, 3 nut combination has the lowest. You can also 

demonstrate the concept of energy absorption at the resonant frequency by rhythmically shaking 

the whole 2x4 at various frequencies and watching the various balls respond. 

At the end of the demonstration, the students should understand that: 

1. Vibrational fiequency increases as bond strength increases. 

2. Vibrational frequency decreases as atomic mass increases. 

Model of a High Molecular Weight Linear Polymer 

This demonstration is used at the beginning of our study of polymers, and is intended to give 

students a feeling for just how long a polymer chain is, relative to its diameter. It consists of a 

string of wooden or plastic beads, held together with a strong string. This is basically a model of 

linear polyethylene, with each bead representing a single CH, unit. To represent a polymer with a 

molecular weight of 100000 Daltons requires about 7000 beads, so fairly small beads should be 

used. We used 3/16" diameter plastic beads and monofilament nylon fishing line. In the 

demonstration, the string of beads is put in a large wide mouth jar or beaker, taking care to avoid 

tangles. At the start of the demonstration, one end of the chain is removed from the jar, and 

allowed to drop to the floor, pulling the rest of the chain out of the jar. Depending on the length 

of the chain, this will take from one minute to several minutes. When all of the chain has fallen 

fiom the jar, it can be picked up, to emphasize the flexibility of the chain, and the extent to which 

segments of the chain become entangled. You can keep talking about polymers while this is going 

on, to emphasize the amount of time required. 

The points made by this demonstration are: 

1. Polymer molecules are long. 

2. Linear polymers such as polyethylene are very flexible 
3. Polymer chains are easily entangled, making it hard to produce single crystal polymers. 

Solid State Diffusion by a Random Walk Process. 

This demonstration is used in connection with the study of solid state diffusion, specifically in 

connection with diffusion in a crystalline solid by a vacancy mechanism. It requires a 6x10 grid of 

squares on an overhead transparency, 29 pennies, 30 large washers, and a means of generating 

random numbers, such as a hand calculator. At the start of the demonstration, the transparency is 

put on an overhead projector, with the pennies and washers arranged as shown in Figure 2. 

Figure 2 

Setup to demonstrate atom migration in a solid by a random walk process 

The point of using washers, with a hole in the middle, is that they are more easily distinguished 

from the pennies than other size coins would be. Begin the demonstration by marking an "x7' in 

the vacant square. This will enable you to show how far the vacancy has migrated in the course 

of the demonstration. Appoint one student to generate random numbers using the calculator. 

Multi digit numbers can be used one digit at a time. As the student calls out the numbers, move 

the pennies and washers as follows: 

Random Number Direction of Vacancy Motion 

1 or2 UP 

3 or 4 Down 

5 or 6 Left 

7 or 8 Right 

9 or 0 Disregard 
As an additional rule, ignore any motion that would move the vacancy out of the grid. 

You will find that this is a very inefficient process, as often the result of a given step will be to 

reverse the action of the previous step, but in time you will see both vacancy migration and mixing 

across the penny-washer interface. At the end of the demonstration, mark the site where the 

vacancy has ended up. Then remove the pennies or washers to indicate how far the vacancy has 

moved in the course of the demonstration. At this point, the concept of a random walk may be 

introduced, along with the formula for the average displacement (x) as a fbnction of time (t) and 

diisivity (D) shown below: 

The points to be made by this demonstration are: 

1. Random motion of a vacancy can lead to net displacement of both vacancies and atoms, 

even in the absence of a chemical driving force (cf. self diffusion.) 

2. The only thermodynamic driving force involved is the change in entropy associated with 

the mixing of different atomic species. 

3. This is a very inefficient process. The average displacement of the vacancy is very small 

compared to the sum of the lengths of the individual steps. 

Glass Transition Temperature of an Elastomer 

This demonstration requires a racquet ball, a flask of liquid nitrogen and a pair of tongs. To 

demonstrate the properties of the ball at room temperature, drop it or throw it against some hard 

surface, and observe the bounce. Then chill the ball in the liquid nitrogen, remove it with the 

tongs, and again drop or throw it against a hard surface. This time, if you throw hard enough, the 

ball will shatter. (Dropping is probably safer, but throwing is more spectacular - this is a good 

demonstration for waking people up.) 

Make sure that the surface you throw against is both strong and rigid, as the frozen ball can 

damage surfaces such as drywall or plaster, and the energy absorbing qualities of carpeting will 

not lead to fracture of the ball. To show that the change induce by freezing is reversible, another 

ball may be frozen and than allowed to warm up, then thrown to demonstrate the reversibility of 

this effect. A variant on this demonstration is to drop the cold ball from a relatively low height and 

to observe how the sound the ball makes and the amount of bounce change as it warms through 

the glass transition temperature. 

The change in behavior can be explained in terms of the restricted mobility of the polymer chains 

that make up the ball as the temperature is lowered. You can also cite the Challenger space 

shuttle disaster in 1985 as a practical consequence of using an elastomer below its glass transition 

temperature. Other examples of polymers that show very different behavior at room temperature 

are polyethylene (above T, at room temperature) and polystyrene (below T, at room 

temperature). 
Students should understand from this dempnstration that: 

1. Polymer mechanical behavior is strongly temperature dependent. 

2. Restricted molecular motion at low temperature makes polymers brittle. 

3. The glass transition temperature of a polymer depends on its molecular structure. 

Age Hardening in an Aluminum Alloy 

This demonstration can be used either as part of a discussion of solid state reaction kinetics 

(precipitation reactions) or in connection of the study of heat treating of non-ferrous alloys. The 

apparatus used is shown in Figure 3. It consists of two pieces of an age-hardenable aluminum 

alloy, such as 6061, each about 1" by 6" by .030" thick, mounted on a piece of 2x4. One piece of 

the aluminum should be optimally heat treated for maximum hardness, the other klly annealed to 

be as soft as possible. The difference in behavior can be shown by holding the 2x4 over the 

overhead projector so that the aluminum alloy strips are seen edge on. Hold the strips over a 

reference mark on the surface of the overhead projector. One at a time, bend each strip down to a 

second reference mark, then release it. Note the diierence in springback between the hardened 

sample (little or no permanent deformation) and the annealed sample (much permanent 

deformation). Make the point that the two samples are identical in composition, and were cut 

from the same sheet of material. They differ only in their thermal history. After the 

r n 

Annealed 

AI alloy I I I 1 zg strip I strip 

. 

I I I I 

L,-J C,,J 

2x4 

Figure 3 

Apparatus used to demonstrate the age hardening of an aluminum alloy 

demonstration, pass the sample assembly around the classroom, so that the students can see for 

themselves the difference in yield point. At the end of class, retrieve the sample, and show the 

class that the annealed sample is now much harder than at the start of the demonstration. This 

leads into a discussion of other hardening mechanisms, and the concept of work hardening. 

Points illustrated by this demonstration are: 
1. Mechanical properties of metal alloys can be markedly aEected by thermal history. 

2. Formation of very small precipitate particles has a strong strengthening effect; the large 

particles formed in the annealing process are ineffectual. 

3. Plastic deformation is another effective way to increase the strength of metal alloys. 

Acknowledgment 

The glass transition temperature demonstration was first suggested by Professor Linda Schadler 

of the Materials Science and Engineering Department at Rensselaer 
John B. Hudson is Professor of Materials Engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. His 

areas of research interest include chemical reactions a surfaces, instrumentation for surface 

analysis and nanocrystal growth. In recent years he has been actively involved in the 

modernization of the undergraduate curriculum in Materials Science and Engineering at 

Rensselaer, and has developed studio techniques for the teaching of basic courses in Chemistry 

and Materials Science. He is also the author of textbooks on Surface Science and 

Thermodynamics. 
ARTIFACTS IN X-RAY DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENTS 

Bruce J. Pletka 

Ruth I. Schultz Kramer 

and 

Edward A. Laitila 

Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering 

Michigan Technological University 

1400 Townsend Drive 

Houghton, Michigan 4993 1 

Telephone: 906-487-2639 

e-mail bjpletka @ rntu.edu 
Bruce J. Plelka 
Artifacts in X-Ray Diffraction Experiments 

Bruce J. Pletka, Ruth I. Schultz Kramer and Edward A. Laitila 

Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering 

Michigan Technological University 

Houghton, MI 4993 1 

Abstract 

An experiment is described in which alloys within the Pb-Bi system are prepared and 

used to demonstrate that non-equilibrium structures can be obtained even when slow 

cooling rates (i.e., furnace cooling) are employed from the liquid state. The nonequilibrium structures occur for alloys on the Pb-rich side of the phase diagram. These 

alloys are then used to demonstrate that improper preparation of specimens can lead to 

erroneous conclusions regarding the microstructure present within a specimen. Two 

different etches are used to prepare the alloys for examination with optical microscopy 

and x-ray diffraction. X-ray diffraction experiments performed after using these different 

etches reveal dramatically different relative amounts of the phases that exist in the 

microstructure. Observations of the specimens using optical and scanning electron 

microscopy show that this artifact results from differential etching of the phases within 

the microstructure. 

Key Words: X-Ray Diffraction, Artifacts, Non-Equilibrium Structures 

Prerequisite Knowledge: An understandmg of phase equilibria and x-ray diffraction 

principles. 

Objectives: To examine the non-equilibrium structures that can form in material systems 

and to demonstrate that improper specimen preparation can lead to artifacts in material 

characterization experiments such as x-ray diffraction. 

Equipment and Materials: 

1. Lead and bismuth of 99.999% purity, a balance to weigh out various alloy 

compositions in the Pb-Bi system, crucibles, and furnace to melt the alloy< 

2. Metallographic facilities to prepare the alloys for microscopic examination and x-ray 

diffraction experiments. This should include preparing and applying different etches to 

the specimens. 

3. Optical microscope. 

4. X-ray diffractometer. 

Safety Precautions: The use of the etchants and x-ray diffraction equipment require that 

the students be properly informed of the hazards of preparing and using etchants and the 

safety issues involved in using equipment that produces x-rays. 

Introduction: 

X-ray diffraction experiments are performed often in undergraduate laboratory courses to 

demonstrate how this technique can be used to determine the identity of various phases 

present in the microstructures of materials, establish solvus phase boundaries, and other 

structural characteristics. However, improper preparation of specimens can lead to 

erroneous conclusions regarding the microstructure present in a specimen. We have 

developed an experiment to demonstrate this effect by using different etches to prepare 

the surfaces of specimens that will be examined using x-ray diffraction and optical 

microscopy techniques. 
Specimens within the Pb-Bi system are used in this experiment because Pb and Bi are 

low melting elements (melting temperatures of 327.5 and 271.4"C, respectively) which 

makes it easy to prepare any desired composition. In addition, the Pb-Bi system contains 

two invariant reactions as shown in Fig. 1: a peritectic reaction at 184OC on the Pb-rich 

side of the phase diagram and an eutectic reaction at 125OC on the Bi-rich side of the 

phase diagram. We have found that alloys with bulk compositions passing through the 

eutectic reaction isotherm (i.e., compositions greater than 41.8 wt% Bi) display structures 

predicted for equilibrium cooling when specimens are either furnace or air cooled from 

the liquid state. Alloys with bulk compositions less than about 41.8 wt% Bi, however, 

exhibit non-equilibrium structures that are not predicted by the phase diagram even when 

furnace cooled from the liquid state. This results because an incomplete reaction of the 

peritectic takes place and significant coring in the solid produces a dramatically expanded 

freezing range. It can be seen from the phase diagram in Fig. 1, that only a Pb-rich solid 

solution should be present at room temperature in alloys containing less than about 17 

wt% Bi under equilibrium cooling conditions. Because of the expanded freezing range, 

eutectic liquid is still present when solidification is completed (even under furnace 

cooling conditions) for compositions with as little as 5 wt% Bi. As a result, an essentially 

100 wt% Bi phase (the terminal phase on the Bi-rich side of the phase diagram) is present 

in these alloys as part of the the eutectic microconstituent, which is composed of the Bi 

phase along with the intermediate P phase (Pb7Bi3). 

Fig. 1 The Pb-Bi phase diagram [I]. 
Based upon the different solidification behavior of the Pb-rich and Bi-rich alloys, we 

typically perform two distinct laboratory experiments using this alloy system. The first 

set of experiments involves preparing alloys which have bulk compositions greater than 

41.8 wt% Bi. These alloys solidify with structures composed of proeutectic Q or Bi along 

with the eutectic microconstituent as shown in Fig. 2 for a hypereutectic alloy. The 

microstructures in these alloys can be readily interpreted in terms of equilibrium cooling. 

This allows the students to gain confidence in using the phase diagram, and the concepts 

of cooling paths and the lever rule to predict the microstructures which should occur in a 

given composition on cooling from the liquid state. 

A second laboratory exercise involves examining alloys on the Pb-rich side, typically 

ranging from 5 to 35 wt% Bi. These alloys undergo sufficient coring and an incomplete 

peritectic reaction on solidfication so that non-equilibrium microstructures result as 

discussed previously. We use this second set of alloys to demonstrate that nonequilibrium cooling can lead to structures not predicted by the phase diagram (although 

the phase diagram can still be used to interpret their development) and to show that errors 

can be induced in x-ray diffraction experiments if improper specimen preparation occurs; 

namely, utilizing an etchant that attacks one (or more) of the phases present in the 

microstructure much more aggressively than the other phases. 

Fig. 2 Typical microstructure of a Pb-84 wt% Bi alloy which is composed of 

primary Bi (the light phase) dispersed in a Pb7Bi3 (dark phase) plus Bi eutectic 

microconstituent. Marker bar equals 500 pm. 

Procedure: 

The samples are prepared by first weighing out the proper amounts of Pb and Bi to form 

the desired composition and placing the charge material in crucibles. The crucibles are 

placed in a furnace which is -100°C higher than the liquidus temperature; after the 

charges have become molten, the crucibles are removed from the furnace and the liquid 

alloy is stirred to insure homogeneity is achieved in the melt. The crucibles are allowed 

then to air cool or are placed back in the furnace and allowed to furnace cool (making 
sure the alloy has time to re-equilibrate at the furnace temperature). After solidification 

is completed, the samples are removed from the crucible and sectioned into two pieces. 

Metallographic specimen preparation of Pb-rich samples is conducted by alternately 

abrading the sample surface and then chemically etching to remove deformation and 

embedded abrasive. Wet grinding using 120,240,320,400, and 600 grit Sic smears the 

lead to fill in the scratches produced during each grinding step. This deformed layer is 

removed by lightly etching in 75% acetic acid- 25% Hz02 (30%). As the surface 

becomes pitted from loosening of the coarse abrasive, the specimen is re-ground at 600 

grit for several seconds to fill the pits, then re-etched until all the coarse abrasive is 

removed. It is necessary to repeat this step several times to prevent over etching of the 

Pb-rich phases, which are aggressively attacked by the etchant, yet to successfully 

remove the abrasive. Coarse polishng with 6 pm diamond on nylon and etching with 4% 

nital is alternated until the surface is free of diamond. The final polish is produced by 

alternately polishing with 0.05 pm A1203 and etching with 4% nital. The same 

procedure was used for the Bi-rich specimens, except the only etchant used was 4% nital. 

In our experiment, two different etchants are utilized. As discussed in the polishing 

procedure, the final etch used on the specimens is a 4% nital solution. This etchant 

attacks all the phases at roughly the same rate. An examination of the microstructures is 

then performed to illustrate that the structures obtained in the specimens are not predicted 

by the phase diagram. (The students had been instructed to determine what the 

equilibrium microstructures should look like prior to coming to the laboratory session.) 

For example, as discussed earlier, the microstructure of a Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy should be a 

single phase Pb solid solution. Fig. 3, however, contains three phases; coarse dendrites of 

lead (light) are surrounded by a darker phase, which is the intermediate Pb7Bi3 phase, and 

some Pb7Bi3 plus Bi eutectic is included in the interdendritic regions (identifiable by the 

presence of the white Bi phase). 

Fig. 3 The microstructure of a Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy after air cooling and etching 

with 4% nital. If this alloy was soliQfied under equilibirum conditions, the 

microstructure should consist of only a lead solid solution. However, three 

Qstinct microconstituents are present as described in the text. Scale = 100 pm. 
When it is obvious to the students that the structures in these alloys are not what they 

prelcted, we then discuss how x-ray diffraction can be used to determine the identity of 

the phases and that this information can be used in conjunction with their microstructural 

observations to determine what phases and microconstituents are present in the structure. 

X-ray diffraction patterns are obtained by performing scans between 28 angles of 25-40". 

This range of 28 angles is selected because the only three equilibrium phases that can 

occur in this system are the terminal Pb-rich solid solution and Bi phases and the 

intermeQate phase of Pb7Bi3. The students are instructed to look up the d spacings for 

these three phases and to determine the'28 angles for the two most intense peaks of each 

phase using the alphabetical index provided by the Joint Committee on Powder 

Diffraction Standards (JCPDS). The two most intense peaks for Pb and Bi and three of 

the five most intense peaks for the Pb7Bi3 phase occur in the angular range of 25-40" 20. 

A step scan is used in obtaining the diffraction patterns; a counting time per step of 5 

seconds and a step size of 0.03" 28 are utilized to insure that statistically valid data are 

obtained. 

A typical lffraction pattern for the Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy that was obtained using the 4% 

nital etch is shown in Fig. 4. The peak positions and relative peak intensities for the Pb, 

Bi and Pb7Bi3phases are included on the pattern, and it can be seen that the two most 

intense peaks in Fig. 4 correspond to Pb, although the peak positions are slightly shifted 

with respect to the JCPDS data. The shift in peak positions allows us to spend some time 

discussing how putting solute atoms of different size into a solvent can cause expansion 

or contraction of the solvent unit cell. The peak positions for the Pb solid solution are 

shifted to lower 28 angles compared to pure Pb, indicating that the unit cell has expanded 

when Bi was added. (This conclusion is based on the Bragg law, h = 2dsin8. If the d 

spacing for a crystallographic plane increases, the Bragg angle for that plane must 

decrease in order to satisfy the Bragg law for a given wavelength of radiation.) These 

shifts in peak position are in agreement with data in the literature which show that the 

lattice parameter of the Pb-solid solution increases as Bi is added 121. Much less intense 

peaks for the Pb7Bi3 phase also are present in the pattern. The difference between the 

predicted and experimental relative peak heights of both phases is due to texture 

(orientation) andlor grain size effects being present in the sample. 

The same specimen was then etched for five seconds using 75% acetic acid- 25% H202 

(30%), and the diffraction scan was repeated on the same region of the specimen. The 

resulting diffraction pattern, shown in Fig. 5, now contains peaks corresponding to the Bi 

phase. In addition, the intensity of the Pb solid solution and Pb7Bi3 phase peaks have 

decreased and increased, respectively, compared to Fig. 4. In fact, the relative peak 

heights in Fig. 5 suggest that only a small amount of the Pb-rich phase is present in the 

microstructure. (This comparison can be made because Pb and Bi are adjacent to one 

another in the periodic table and would have similar atomic scattering factors.) The 

diffraction pattern in Fig. 6, obtained after etching for an additional 5 seconds with acetic 

acidfhydrogen peroxide, shows that the Bi peak heights have increased even more when 

compared to the other two phases and that the peak heights of the Pb solid solution have 

decreased dramatically compared to those same peaks in Fig. 4. 

A more quantitative evaluation of the change in peak height for the various phases as a 

function of etch typehime was obtained by determining the area under the peaks. The 

relative peak areas for the phases present in Figs. 4-6 are given in Table 1. It is clear that 
2-Theta - Scale Michigan Technological University 12-Aug-1999 17:04 

Fig. 4 Typical x-ray diffraction pattern after etching a Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy with 

4% nital. 

2-Theta - Scale Michigan Technological University 12-~ug-1999 17:06 

Fig. 5 X-ray diffraction pattern of the same Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy after etching 5 

seconds with acetic acidJhydrogen peroxide. 
Fig. 6 X-ray diffraction pattern of the Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy after etching for a total 

of 10 seconds with acetic acidlhydrogen peroxide. 

the peak areas increase for the Bi phase either as the acetic acidfhydrogen peroxide etch 

is used or the time for that etch is increased while the peak areas decrease for the Pb solid 

solution phase. The peak areas for the Pb7Bi3 phase increase when the acetic 

acidlhydrogefi peroxide etch is first used but then decrease in intensity with further 

etching time. Thus, the x-ray diffraction data indicate that the apparent amount of the Bi 

phase in the microstructure increases while that of the Pb-rich phase decreases as the 

specimen is etched with acetic acidhydrogen peroxide. 

Table 1 Relative Areas Under the Peaks for the Various Phases in Figures 4-6 

Approximate Peak 

Angle (28) and 

Phase Type 

27.2 - Bi 

Area under Peak 

4% Nital Etch 

N.D." 

Area under Peak 

Acetic Acid/H.P. 

5 seconds 

261 

Area under Peak 

Acetic Acid/H.P. 

10 seconds 

403 
Discussion of the Artifact Observed in the X-Ray Diffraction Patterns: 

The x-ray diffraction data indicate that the apparent amount of the Bi phase in the 

microstructure of the Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy increases while the amounts of the other two 

phases decrease as the specimen is etched with acetic acidlhydrogen peroxide. This 

result can be explained if one or more of the phases is being etched more rapidly than the 

other phases, which-causes the various phases to exist at "different levels" within the 

microstructure. 

Fig. 7 shows a sketch in which the three phases exist at different levels in the 

microstructure. Assume that the Pb solid solution phase is attacked more aggresively 

than the other two phases and that the Bi phase is attacked the least. When a bulk 

specimen is placed in the x-ray 'diffractometer, the specimen position relative to the x-ray 

optics of the diffractometer is fixed using the top the specimen. That is, the specimen is 

placed on top of a substance like clay in the specimen holder, and a glass plate is pressed 

on the specimen surface until the plate contacts the sides of the holder. Thus, the focal 

plane of the specimen is fixed by the "highest features" in the specimen. When x-rays are 

scattered from this surface, those x-rays scattered by the Bi (far left in Fig. 7) can reach 

the x-ray detector unimpeded. X-rays scattered from the Pb7Bi3 or the Pb solid solution 

phases will either not satisfy the x-ray optics for they do not lie in the focal plane andlor 

the x-rays scattered beneath the focal plane are absorbed by phases lying closer to the 

surface; the latter situation is depicted for a x-ray scattered from the Pb solid solution 

phase on the right hand side of the figure. Another way of thinking about this effect, is 

that with continued etching using acetic acidfhydrogen peroxide, more Bi is exposed to 

the x-ray beam in the focal plane, effectively increasing the "apparent volume fraction" of 

the Bi with respect to the other two phases. 

Focal 

Fig. 7 Schematic figure of the three phases lying at different levels in the 

microstructure. In this figure, it is assumed that the Bi is attacked the least by the 

etchant and the Pb solid solution is attacked the most. 
The differential etching of the phases was verified by examining the Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy 

with optical microscopy after etching with acetic acidlhydrogen peroxide, changing the 

focus, and imaging the same area again. Fig. 8(a) was obtained by bringing into focus 

the four Bi particles present in this field of view. (It should be pointed out that the 

density of Bi particles in this figure is not representative of the distribution in the alloy.) 

The darker intermediate phase and the lighter Pb solid solution are not in focus in this 

image. Fig. 8(b) is a micrograph of the same area but the light Pb solid solution was 

brought into focus so that the four Bi particles in the micrograph are now underfocused 

relative to the Pb solid solution. These micrographs illustrate qualitatively that the phases 

are attacked at a different rate by the acetic acid/hydrogen peroxide etch, consistent with 

the sketch in Fig. 7. 

Fig 8. Optical micrographs taken of the same area but changing the focus 

between (a) and (b). The four Bi particles are in focus in (a) whereas the Pb solid 

solution phase is in focus in (b). These observations support the contention that 

the Bi is not attacked as aggressively as the Pb-rich phases. Marker bar is equal 

to 50 pm. 
Futher evidence of this differential .etching attack was obtained by taking stereo pair 

micrographs in a scanning electron microscope. A micrograph was taken and then the 

specimen was tilted 10' towards the secondary electron detector where a second 

micrograph of the same area is obtained. A stereo pair originally taken at a magnification 

of 500X is shown in Fig. 9 of a specimen etched with acetic acidhydrogen peroxide for 

20 seconds. When these stereo pairs are viewed under a stereoviewer, it becomes very 

evident that the Pb solid solution is attacked the most while the Bi is attacked the least. 

Fig. 9 SEM stereo pair micrographs of a Pb- 5 wt% Bi alloy etched for 20 

seconds with acetic acidhydrogen peroxide. A Bi particle is in the upper left of 

the micrograph. The lighter phase adjacent to it is the Pb7Bi3 intermediate phase 

and the darker phase on the right hand side of the micrograph is the Pb solid 

solution. Marker bar equals 50pm. 

A word of caution in performing these experiments, is that etching for too long with 

hydrogen peroxidelacetic acid can cause the relative Bi peak heights to decrease in 

intensity with respect to the Pb-rich phase peaks as shown in the x-ray diffraction pattern 

in Fig. 10. This is apparently caused by the etchant attacking the Pb-rich phases that lie 

under the Bi phase causing the Bi to be removed from the sample surface. Indications of 

this effect were detected from the presence of holes observed on the surface of the 

specimen using optical microscopy. 

In summary, examining a series of alloys in the Pb-Bi system allows the students to 

observe the equilibrium structures obtained on cooling Bi-rich alloys while also gaining 

an appreciation of the non-equilibrium microstructures that can result from incomplete 

phase reactions and extended freezing ranges on solidifying Pb-rich alloys. More 

importantly, etching Pb-rich alloys with a 4% nital and then an acetic acidlhydrogen 

peroxide solution demonstrates how selective etching of one (or more) phase(s) in a 

multiphase microstructure can lead to erroneous interpretation of the microstructures in 

x-ray diffraction experiments. 
Fig. 10 X-ray diffraction pattern of the Pb-5 wt% Bi alloy after etching for a total 

of 20 seconds with acetic acidlhydrogen peroxide. Notice the change in the 

relative peak heights for the Bi and Pb7Bi3 phases compared to those in Fig. 6. 

References 

1. T.B. Massalski, editor in chief, Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams (ASM, Metals Park, 

OH, 1986). 

2. W.D. Pearson, A Handbook of Lattice Spacings and Structures of Metals and Alloys 

(Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1964). 
BRUCE J. PLETKA 

Bruce J. Pletka is a Professor of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering at Michigan 

Technological University. He has a bachelors degree in Metallurgical Engineering from 

Cleveland State University and obtained his M.S. and PhD degrees in Ceramic Science 

from Case Western Reserve University. HIS research interest include examining the 

structure-properties of materials, particularly ceramics. More recently, he has become 

involved with the powder processing of metals and ceramics with an emphasis on 

mechanical alloying of metallic alloys. He has taught a variety of undergraduate courses 

including ones dealing with materials characterization. 

RUTH I. SCHULTZ KRAMER 

Ruth Krarner is a Scientist in the Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering 

at Michigan Technological University. She holds a B.S. in geology from the University 

of Oregon and a M.S. in geology from Michigan Tech, and her interests are in 

microscopy and characterization. She teaches electron microscopy and microprobe 

laboratories, a course in ore characterization methods, and supervises the metallographic 

and optical microscopy laboratories. 

EDWARD A. LAITILA 

Edward A. Laitila is an EngineerIScientist in the Department of Metallurgical and 

Materials Engineering at Mchigan Technological University. He has a Associate in 

Applied Science degree in Electrical Engineering Technology, a Bachelor of Science 

degree in Electrical Engineering, and is currently completing a Master of Science degree 

in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, all from Mchigan Technological University. 

He has 15 years experience in x-ray diffraction and materials characterization and is 

heavily involved in laboratory teaching in addition to training users in the operation and 

various data analysis techniques used in x-ray diffraction. 
THE ADVANCED JMATERIALS AND 

PROCESSING EDUCATION CENTER 

D. Clark 

A. Ghosh 

J. F. Mansfield 

X. Pan 

and 

K. Worth 

Department of Materials Science and Engineering 

University of Michigan 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48 109-2 1 36 

e-mail rsgold@engin.umich.edu 

The Advanced Materials and Processing Education Center 

R.S. Goldman, D. Clark, A. Ghosh, L.P. Kendig, J.F. Mansfield, K. McIntyre, X. Pan, 

and K. Worth 

Department of Materials Science and Engineering 

University of Michigan 

Ann Arbor, MI 48 109-21 36 

We are developing a state-of-the-art Materials Education Facility, the Advanced 

Materials and Processing Education Center (AMPEC) by expanding our current 

laboratory capabilities and incorporating the latest in computer technology. AMPEC 

includes modern facilities for metallsgraphy, microscopy, heat treatment, mechanical 

testing, scanning electron microscopy, and injection molding. In the past year, we have 

added a number of undergraduate facilities, including a Workstation Center, an X-ray 

Facility, a Scanning Probe Microscopy Facility, and an Electronic Properties Laboratory. 

In this talk, I will discuss the new laboratory modules we have begun to incorporate into 

our undergraduate curriculum, particularly in the area of electronic, magnetic, and optical 

materials. I will also discuss some of our Euture plans, include the addition of both a 

Dielectric Measurements Laboratory and a Casting Facility. 

PREVIEW OF NEW:UPDATE 2000 

Richard E. Lee 

National Composites Center 

200 Composites Drive 

Kettering, Ohio 45420 

Telephone: 937-297-9453 

e--1 teamelks @ ix.netcom.com 
Rehard E, Lee 
























USCAR LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY STUDY 

GENERIC VEHICLE LCA 

J. L. Sullivan, Ford 

R. W. Williams, GM 

Susan G. Yester 

DaimlerChrysler Corporation 

800 Chrysler Drive 

Auburn Hills, Michigan 48326 

S. Hentges, APC 

S. Pomper, AA 

S. Chubbs, AISI 
Susan G. Yest,, 
m 

w Wrn USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory A 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

LCA - Why 

Need to assess the overall environmental performance of 

vehicles 

- Want to quantify environmental burdens over a vehicle's entire life 

cycle 

- Life Cycle Assessment is the tool of choice 

* Consistent with US Automaker efforts to improve the 

environmental performance of vehicles 

It is highly visible internationally 

IS0 is attempting to standardize it 

Maybe used for Ecolabeling 
I 

I I-, a USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGEA AMERICA 

Objective 

- To assess the cradle to grave environmental performance of 

vehicles 

- Conduct an LC1 for an entire vehicle, in this case, the generic 

family sedan. 

- An LC1 quantifies energy and material flows over a product's life 

cycle 

- Due to immaturity, an LCIA is not considered at this time 

Use of Results 

- To serve as a benchmark for future vehicles, eg. PNGVs 

- To communicate with the public and private sector 

- Not intended for material comparisons 

- It is stressed that cost and performance must also be considered. 
: u USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory BHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Brief History of .USAMP/LCI Efforts 

Conducted a Scoping and Project Definition study to 

define a suitable life cycle project. 

- Initiate development of a methodology 

- Decided to conduct a generic vehicle LC1 

Preliminary Modeling stage 

- Methodology completed 

- OEM data need identified 

Each industry group participant to conduct its own LC1 

Conduct a final roll-up study for the generic vehicle 
: u sn! USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory -~ ~- -91 - - SHAIIING TFCHNOLOGV FOR A STRaNGEfl AMERICA 

USAMP Life, Cycle Study Outline 

* The generic family sedan is an entire vehicle comprised of 

components from the Taurus/Lumina/Intrepid vehicle lines 

Have our major materials suppliers provide the most up to 

date LC1 material production information, i.e. for 

aluminum , plastics, and steel 

- Invite AA, AISI, and APC to join the project. 

OEMs to pool their data 

- Use available data on appropriate vehicle lines 

Acquire remaining LC1 data from existing databases 

Use available recycling data; sources include AAMA and 

VRP 
91 

USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

I 

WNLIFA~RINQ SCRAP 

WINTENANCE REPAIR 

ACTlVmES ACTNINES 

RUBBER 

:&%& 

:A%% :&$pm I - Material (non-energy ) Flow I 

I 

7 + Conceptual LC1 Framework ; 

a [*notes outpub king the gmeric vehicle system bound8,r , , System Boundary 

I 

I 

I * I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

t 

I 

GENERIC VEHICLE PRODUCT SYSTE~ 
USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Vehicle Sub-system Layout 

Each OEM wanted to keeps its own parts organization code 

proprietary. 

Hence, the USAMP code was developed 

The USAMP organizational code divides the vehicle into 7 

vehicle systems: 

- Powertrain 

- Suspension 

- Body 

- Interior 

- HVAC 

- Electrical 

- Fluids 

They are further sub-divided into 19 sub-systems and 77 subsubsystems, and 644 discrete parts 
I r - USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Data Gathering 

Material suppliers provide data on 4 types of steel, 3 types 

of aluminum, and 5 types of plastics. 

The OEMs gather data on: 

- Alternator 

- Brakes .-.a 

- Forgings 

- Glass 

- klectronics - Iron Casting 

- Engine - Plastics Molding 

- Transmissions - Stamping 

- Aluminum Casting - Vehicle Assemblv .I 

The vehicle is characterized by 74 materials weighing 

1532 Kg. 

- Lifetime drive distance is 120,000 miles 

I - mL USAMP - Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 
1, USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventorv 

SHARING rECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Ancillary Materials Modeled in the Generic Vel~icle Lij2 Cycle 

Acetic Acid Glacial Methanol (CF130H) 

Acetotle (CH3COCH3) Metl~yl Ethyl Ketone (MEK, CH3COCH2CH 

Acetylene Mineral Spirits 

Adipic Acid (~IOOC(CH~)~COOM) n-Butanol (CH3CH2CH2CH20H) 

Aluminum Oxide n-Butanol 

Ammonia (NH3 with C02 recovery, 100%) 11-Butoxy Propanol (C4H90(CH2)30H) 

Argon (Ar) Naphtha 

Bauxite (A1203) Nitrogen (N2) 

Benzene (CGH6) Oil 

Carbon Black Oxygen (02) 

Carbon Dioxide (C02) Petroleum Distillate 

Cardboard Phenol (C6HSOH) 

Chlorine (C12) Phenolic Resin 

Coke Potassium Chloride (KCI) 

Diethylene Glycol (HOCH2CH20CH2CH20H) Propylene Oxide (CH3C2H30) 

Diisopropanol Amine Sand 

Dolomite (Crude) Silica 

Ethylene Glycol (HOCH2CH2OH) Sodium Carbonate 

Ethylene Oxide Sodium Chloride (NaCI, Chlorine Use) 

Feldspar Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH, 100%) 

Formaldehyde . Sodium Sulfate 

Glycol Monobutyl Ether (C4H90CH2CH2OH) Solder Alloy 

Hydrochloric Acid (HCI, 100%) Solder Flux 

Iron Ore Styrene (CGH5CHCN2) 

Isopropyl Alcohol Sulfuric Acid (H2S04, 100%) (1) 

Kaolin Titanium Dioxide (Ti02, 100%) 

Litne Toluene (CGHSCH3) 

Limestone Wood (55% Dry): Supply 

Melamine Formaldehyde Resin Xylene (CGH4(CH3)2) 
: w cJ1 USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Form of Results 

Results of the study and the model can be expressed in the 

following ways: 

- Overall 

- by subsystem 

- by life cycle stage 

- by material 
: I c81 USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECt4NOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMEAlCA 

LCI of tire Generic Velricle (Raw Materials Use) 

Elr virorrmetrtal Flow Units Generic Materials Ma~iifnctirrirrg Use & E-0-L 

Velricle . Production & Assembly Operation 

Inflow 

(r) Bauxite Rich Soil kg 222 222 

(r) Bauxite (Al,O,, in ground) kg 32 32 0.0026 0.02 

(r) Chromium (Cr, in ground) kg 0.91 0.9 1 

(r) Coal (in ground) kg 2,473 997 618 848 11 

(r) Copper (Cu, in ground) kg 23 23 

(r) Ilmenite (FeO.TiO,, in ground) kg 0.97 0.32 0.65 9.9 E-05 

(r) Iron (Fe, in ground) kg 1,443 1,440 0.38 3. 0.045 

(r) Lead (Pb, in ground) kg 3 3 13 0.26 20 

(r) Limestone (CaCO,, in ground) kg 44 1 182 9 5 162 2.0 

(r) Manganese (Mn, in ground) kg 24 23 0.76 

(r) Natural Gas (in ground) kg 1,775 458 216 1,098 2.2 

(r) Oil (in ground) kg 16,255 402 87 15,731 3 5 

(r) Olivine (in ground) kg 8.3 8.3 0.0032 

(r) Perlite (SiO,, in ground) kg 2.4 2.3 0.056 

(r) Platinum (Pt, in ground) kg 0.0015 0.00 15 

(r) Pyrite (PeS,, in ground) kg 13 13 4.3 E-05 

(r) Rhodium (Rh, in ground) kg 2.9 E-04 2.9 E-04 

(r) Sulfur (S) kg 0.10 0.08 0.022 4.0 E-05 

(r) Tin (Sn, in ground) kg 0.48 0.067 0.41 

(r) Tungsten (W, in ground) kg 0.012 0.01 1 6.8 E-04 

(r) Uranium (U, in ground) kg 0.043 0.014 0.0089 0.02 2.5 E-04 

(r) Zinc (Zn, in ground) kg 18 18 - 1.0 E-04 4.3 E-04 

Iron Scrap kg 243 200 0.05 43 

Natural Rubber kg 25 8.8 16 

Raw Materials (Iron Casting Alloys) kg 12 12 

Raw Materials (unspecified) kg 16 6.2 9.2 0.32 

Steel Scrap kg 474 428 -1.0 E-03 46 

Water Used (total) Liter 76,834 . 59,556 9,8 17 7,457 4.0 
: w cY USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SI4ARING TECI-iNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

LCI of the Generic Velricle (Outflows arid Energy Use) 

Err viroirmental Flow Units Generic Materials Marritfacturirtg Use & E-0-L 

Vehicle Production & Assenrbly Operation 

Outflow 

(a) Dust and Particulates g 53,483 26,430 8,235 18,572 247 

(a) Carbon Dioxide (CO,, fossil) g 59,05 1,700 4,40 1,500 2,56 1,990 5 1,944,900 143,273 

(a) Carbon Monoxide (CO) g 1,942,190 63,776 5,914 1,87 1,820 683 

(a) Sulfur Oxides (SOX as SO,) g 133,146 30,3 19 14,917 87,595 3 15 

(a) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx as NO,) B 253,924 12,619 8,295 232,204 806 

(a) Non-Methane Hydrocarbons g 256,043 12,059 7,348 236,465 170 

(a) Methane (CH,) g 65,366 11,359 5,534 48,330 144 

(a) Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) g 725 277 10 43 1 5.7 

(a) Hydrogen Fluoride (HF) g 113 5 9 1.1 5 2 0.7 1 

(a) Lead (Pb) g 115 5 0 1.2 64 0.015 

(w) Dissolved Solids g 7,684 4,526 1,118 2,023 17 

(w) Suspended Solids g 74,3 13 2,77 1 2,450 69,034 5 8 

(w) Heavy Metals (total) 8 39 2 9 7.5 3.1 0.0013 

(w) Oils and Greases g 7,599 118 516 6,957 7.4 

(w) Other Organics g 79 76 0.37 2.4 2.2 E-04 

(w) Phosphates (as P) g 15 7.2 7.8 0.42 1.6 E-05 

(w) Ammonia (as N) g 2,354 115 17 2,220 1.9 

Waste (total) kg 4,2 1 1 2,438 3 86 1,060 326 

Waste (municipal and industrial) kg 414 2 1 5 6 4 1 296 

Energy Reminder 

E (HHV) Total Energy MJ 961,486 82,734 39,212 837,378 2,164 

E (NHV) Fossil Energy MJ 955,410 78,988 38,408 835,866 2,147 

E (HNV) Non-Fossil Energy MJ 6,079 3,745 803 1,515 16 

E (IIHV) Process Energy MJ 928,609 68,642 36,686 822,535 746 

E (HHV) Feedstock Energy MJ 25,534 16,246 95 1 8,337 

E (HHV) Transportation Energy MJ i 1,033 1,355 1,574 6,686 1,418 
: I cw USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOCOGY FOR A STRONGER AMmlCA 

Ferrous Material Use per Vehicle Subsystem 

Vehicle Sri bsystem 

Material Units Total Body Electrical Fluids HVAC Interior Porvertrairt Srispensiott 

Ferrite (Fe) kg 1.5 1 .5 

lro~i (lie) kg 2 5 25 

iron (Fe, cast) kg 138 96 42 

Steel (cold rolled) kg 175 46 8.9 6.0 5 1 4 1 22 

Steel (EAF) kg 232 47 3.1 0.10 7.1 70 105 

Steel (galvanized) kg 597 546 1.9 5.1 2.2 4 2 0.35 

Steel (hot rolled) kg 197 82 5.3 110 

Steel (stainless) kg 3 2 0.23 1.2 30 

Total: kg 1,397 72 1 15 12 60 309 279 

Non-Ferrous Material Use per Vehicle Subsystem 

Velricle Sitbsvstem 

Material Units Total Body Electrical Fluids HVAC Interior Powertrain Suspension 

Aluminum (automotive, cast) kg 71 0.0068 2.2 5.2 6 1 2.7 

Alun~int~rn (automotive, extruded) kg 22 0.0033 11 3.1 7.6 

Aluminum (automotive, rolled) kg 5.6 0.89 4.7 

Brass kg 8.5 0.43 1.1 6.9 

Chromium (Cr) kg 0.91 0.91 

Copper (Cu) kg 18 0.68 12 4.4 

Lead (Pb) kg 13 13 0.28 

Platinum (Pt) kg 0.0015 0.00 15 

Rhodium (Rh) kg 2.9 E-04 2.9 E-04 

Silver (Ag) kg 0.0034 0.0034 

'Tin (Sn) kg 0.067 0.0045 0.063 

Tungsten (W) kg 0.011 0.01 1 

Zinc (Zn) kg - 0.32 0.32 

Total: kg 1 

140 1.9 28 19 3.1 85 2.9 
' I 

u *mw - USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SI-IARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Plastic Material Use per Vehicle Subsystem 

Vehicle Svbsystenr Material Units Total Body Electrical Muids HVAC Interior Powertraitt Suge~tsion 

ARS-PC kg 2.9 0.01 5 0.40 2.5 (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene 

Polycarbonate blend) 

Acctal kg 4.7 2.6 0.38 0.045 1.0 0.52 0.18 

Acrylic Resin kg 2.5 2.5 

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene kg 9.8 0.74 3.5 1.3 2.5 1.7 

(ABS) 

Epoxy Resin kg 0.77 0.14 

PA 6-PC kg 0.47 0.63 0.47 (Polyamide Polycarbonate blend) 

Phenolic Resin kg 1.1 0.0045 1.1 0.0052 

Polyamide (PA 6) kg 1.7 0.10 0.77 0.68 

kg 

0.13 Polyatnide (PA 66) 10 0.32 0.16 3.1 3.8 2.1 0.95 

Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) kg, 0.37 0.37 

Polycarbonate (PC) kg 3.8 1.6 1.6 0.0091 0.51 0.052 

Polyester Resin kg I I I I 

Polyethylene (PE) kg 6.2 4.1 1.5 0.62 

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) kg 2.2 0.65 0.045 

26 

1.2 0.27 

Polypropylene (PP) kg 3.9 0.46 8.4 

kg 

12 1.2 0.1 1 

Polypropylene (PP, foam) 1.8 1.8 

Polystyrene (PS) kg 0.0067 0.0067 

Polyurethane (PUR) kg 35 13 0.026 3.9 

kg 2 1 

18 0.58 

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 3.5 0.43 5.3 10 0.16 

PP-EPDM 

0.9 1 

kg 0.10 0.10 

(Polypropylene 

Ethylene Propylene Diene 

Monomer blend) 

PPO-PC (Polyphenylene Oxide kg 0.026 0.026 

Polycarbonate blend) 

PPO-PS (Polyphenylene Oxide kg 2.2 2.2 

Polystyrene blend) 

6.6 7.8 
I - I 

91 USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Fluid Material Use per Vehicle Subsystem 

Vehicle Subsystem 

Material Units Total Body Electrical Fluids HVAC Inferior Powerirain Suspertsiort 

Automatic Transmission Fluid kg 8.6 8.6 

Engine Coolant kg 9.3 

Engine Oil (SAE low-30) kg 3.9 

Gasoline kg 64 64 

Refrigerant kg 0.91 0.91 

Total: kg 87 87 

Other Material Use per Vehicle Subsystem 

Vehicle Subsvstem " 

Material Units Total Body Electrical Fluids HVAC Interior Powertrain Suspension 

Carpeting kp; 11 0.44 11 

EP~M - 

(Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) 

Fiberglass 

Glass 

Paper 

Rubber 

Rubber (extruded) 

Sand 

Sulfuric Acid (H2S04, 100%) 

Tire 

Wood 

Total: 
USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICD, 

r 

Total Energy (Materials) by System (82,733 MJ) 

----- 

-------- 

-- --- 

---- ---- 

-- 

Body Electrical Fluids HVAC Interior Powertrain 

I 

Suspension 

I 
: u %mm USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FOA A STRONGER AMERICA 

Carbon Dioxide Emissions (5.9 E+O7 g Total) 

Materials Manufacturing Use End of Life 

Methane Emissions (6.5 E+04 g Total) 

Materials Manufacturing Use End of Life 
: w -.Ir!* USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING IECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMmlCA 

Results Summary 

In its life cycle, the generic family sedan: 

- consumes 961 GJ of energy 

- consumes 46,000 pounds of hydrocarbon 

- generates 130,000 pounds of carbon dioxide 

The operational stage: 

- consumes 86% of the LCE 

- generates 87% of the LC-CO,, 94% of LC-CO, 90% of LC-NOx 

and 62% of LC-SOX 

- others 

The production stage: 

- consumes 14% of the LCE 

- generates 65% of particulates and 34% of LC-SOX 
Comparison to Previous Work 

a Percentage of total 

b Results adjusted to 120,000 miles lifetime distance. 

c Gasoline fuel production burdens have been added to the operational life cycle stage 

d Adjusted for gasoline energy content for a full tank. 

Study 

Generic Vehicle 

Sullivan & Hu 

Schuckert et alb 

* Differences in E, (34 GJ) are due to different he1 production and 

vehicle he1 efficiencies 

* E,, equal to 80.8 becomes 106.8 when an offal burden energy, a 

corrected E,,,, and vehicle weight adjustments are applied. 

For energy, the two studies are in good accord 

* However, the generic vehicle study is much more comprehensive. 

Vehicle 

mass (Kg) 

1532 

1395 

1040 

Fuel Efficiency 

23.6 

24.3 

29.1 

E, 

1 18.Zd 

80.8 

70 

EO, 

821.9 (86.0%)8 

788 (89.1%) 

612 (89.7%)" 

Ern", 

16.6 

15.5 

---- 

Eta, 

957 

884 

682 
: u USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SkqARING TECHNOLOGY FOR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Results Reliability 

For energy, hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide , and carbon 

monoxide, they are quite good. 

For NO,, SO,, and particulates, they are also expected to 

be quite good 

For other emission, they are expected to be good estimates 

Results reliability generally depends on category, system 

or the material in question 
: I USAMP -- Life Cycle Inventory 

SHARING TECHNOLOGY FDR A STRONGER AMERICA 

Gratitude 

The OEMs want to thank our Material Industry Partners 

for their support in this endeavor. 

- They are: Aluminum Association, American Iron and Steel 

Institute, and the American Plastics Council 

- This study was about the generic family sedan and not aluminum, 

plastics, or steel. 

In cash and sweat equity, this study cost around $2.7 

million to complete. 

The project is the first of its kind: 

- It is a landmark study. 

- Four competing industry groups successfully worked together, 

agreed on a methodology and procedures, and published results. 

- Many of the results apply to other product systems 
USE OF A WEBSEM 

(REMOTE SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE) 

TO CHARACTERIZE AUTOMOTIVE 

WEAR DEBRIS 

Stephen K. Kennedy 

RJ Lee Group, Inc. 

350 Hochbereg Road 

Monroeville, Pennsylvania 15 146 

Telephone: 724-325- 1776 

e-mail www.rjlg.com 

and 

Michael Gaston 

West Greene High School 

RD 5, Box 36B 

Waynesburg, Pennsylvania 1 5370 

USE OF A WEBSEM (REMOTE SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE) 

TO CHARACTERIZE AUTOMOTIVE WEAR DEBRIS 

Stephen K. Kennedy, Ph.D., PG 

RJ Lee Group, Inc. 

350 Hochberg Road 

Monroeville, PA 15 146 

e-mail: skennedy@rjlg.com 

and 

Michael Gaston 

West Greene High School 

RD 5, Box 36B 

Waynesburg, PA 15370 

Key Words 

wear debris, oil filter, scanning electron microscope 

Objectives 

To illustrate characterization of wear particulate in automotive oil filters through the use of a 

remote scanning electron microscope. 

Materials and Equipment 

Used automobile oil filter from vehicle with known mileage 

Large diameter pipe cutter 

Razor blade knife 

Hexane and 250 rnl beaker 

Hood, gloves and protective eyewear 

Tweezers 

Ultrasonic bath 

Vacuum filtration system with polycarbonate filters 

WEBSEM access 

Introduction 

Wear debris particulate is present in a wide variety of systems, (e.g., lubricating, cooling, 

hydraulic). Analysis of such particulate can be used in an ongoing program of wear monitoring 

to predict or prevent failure (in the field or in the designhesting stage), or can be used in postfailure determination of probable cause. Particle size and morphology help to assess mode of 

wear, and particle composition can assist in the identification of the component undergoing wear. 

Images obtained using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) can be used to characterize such 

features. In addition, the SEM with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) is capable of 

determining elemental composition and can be used to identify source of debris. This model is 

relevant for use in education because modern SEMs are simple to use with point and click 
interfaces, and students regard them as fun to operate. Furthermore, the Internet now permits the 

SEM to be operated from distant locations. 

This laboratory model was developed as a cooperative exercise for high school and voc-tech 

students, and illustrates one example of using the SEM to characterize debris in automotive oil 

filter. This model can be modified to examine debris in other systems. 

The Scanning Electron Microscope 

How it works: 

The SEM rasters a focused beam of electrons in an area resulting in the emission of secondary 

and backscattered electrons which can be used for imaging, and characteristic x-rays which can 

be used to determine elemental composition. Secondary electrons are ejected from inner shells 

of specimen atoms and images produced by them have a three dimensional aspect. 

Backscattered electrons are beam electrons that elastically rebound from the specimen. The 

brightness in backscattered electron images is proportional to the average atomic number and 

these images are useful for general phase differentiation. That is, a carbon-rich particle will 

appear relatively dark and an iron-rich particle will appear significantly brighter. The ejection of 

secondary electrons is accompanied by the emission of x-rays whose energy is directly related to 

the specific electronic configuration of the atoms in the sample and so are characteristic of the 

specimen elemental composition. The elements are identified using an energy dispersive 

spectrometer (x-ray analyzer). The combination of imaging and spot chemical analysis allows 

the size, morphology and composition of particulate to be determined. 

Availability: 

Although prevalent in research laboratories of academia and industry, few SEMs are available 

for student use. Universities generally reserve their use for faculty and graduate student 

research, and such instruments are very rare in colleges and high schools. Many of today's 

SEMs are digital and can be made amenable to remote operation. Remote access to the SEM (as 

well as other high cost digital instruments) would result in distributing the cost over a large 

number of users making it affordable to a broader number of potential users. One such 

instrument with remote capabilities is the RJ Lee Instruments PERSONAL SEM@ (or PSEM@) 

and will be described for illustrative purposes. 

In the remote mode, the SEM is referred to as the "host" and the "client" observes and controls 

the SEM using a personal computer connected by phone modem or higher rate line to the host. 

After dialing up the IP address for the host, the client logs in. At the host location, the sarnples 

are loaded into the sample chamber and the SEM is turned on and ready for operation. The 

client will see a screen where the left side contains controls and the right side shows the SEM 

image. The magnification and field location are selected and displayed on the left image. When 

the cursor is moved onto the left image, a rubber band box appears on that image and the 

contents of that box is displayed on the right image. The size and location of the rubber band 

box is controlled using the mouse. When the cursor is moved onto the right image, the EDS 

mode is activated. A point and click starts the collection of an EDS spectrum. Peaks are 

identified and labeled using keyboard commands. Images can be saved and later downloaded to 

the client. 
An alternative to actual or remote access to the SEM is to review off-line the data that were 

collected on-line. Using available programs, particle images can be inspected to characterize 

size and morphology. Spectra with peaks labeled can be reviewed. Alternatively, unlabeled 

spectra may be provided and the student will be required to identify the elemental composition. 

Background 

Wear debris particles displaying a variety of morphologies and compositions are presented as 

examples in Figure 1. In each illustration, a low magnification image (100 to 230x) is shown in 

the upper left, a higher magnification image (280 to 2000x) is shown in the upper right, and an 

EDS elemental spectrum is shown below. Figure 1A and 1B are gold debris from a slip ring 

assembly. Figure 1C and 1D are lead and copper debris from a hydraulic break assembly. 

Figure 1E and 1F are from a common oil reservoir of a large construction tractor showing wear 

debris from a steering and transmission assembly respectively. 

Experimental Procedure 

The following tasks are performed by groups of two or three students. Data and/or samples can 

be archived to provide a data base from which additional conclusions can be derived. 

Sample Preparation: 

Use the large diameter pipe cutters to open the oil filter at the end near the threads. Use a razor 

blade knife to remove a small portion of the paper filter material; say 1 cm x 10 cm. Measure the 

area of the oil filter sample. Under a laboratory hood and using gloves and eye protection, place 

the filter sample in a 250 ml beaker with about 50 ml of hexane. Agitate using tweezers and an 

ultrasonic bath if available. For this experiment, we are only interested in the larger particles so 

carefully decant the hexane leaving the deposited particulate. Rinse several times until the 

hexane remains clear. Using vacuum filtration, filter the solvent through a pre-weighed 

polycarbonate filter. After the filter has dried weigh it to determine the weight of the particulate. 

Calculate the weight of particulate matter per unit area of oil filter. Mount the polycarbonate 

filter on an SEM stub and coat with carbon. 

Sample Analysis: 

Place the sample into the SEM using the backscattered electron imaging mode and select a field 

for analysis. For each particle in the field, measure its size and describe its general morphology. 

Collect an EDS spectrum, identify the elements present and summarize the composition. Save 

representative images and spectra as shown in Figure 2. Tabulate all data. Randomly select 

another field and repeat the analysis. Continue until a specified number of particles have been 

analyzed. 

NOTE: If the available SEM has automated analysis capabilities (such as computer controlled or 

CCSEM), you may easily characterize 1000 particles in an hour or two. 

Interpretation: 

Group the particles into compositional classes such as those described in Figure 2. Figure 2A is a 

field view. Figure 2B is a 100 micrometer particle containing sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, 

magnesium, zinc, oxygen and carbon. This general particle type contains a variable amount of 
carbon and comes in another morphology (Figure 2C). Metallic iron, lead and tin are shown in 

Figures 2D, 2E, and 2F respectively. Compare results among all student groups and modify the 

classification as needed. Combine results and determine the mean and standard deviation for 

particle size for each compositional group. Determine the number of particles per unit area of 

original oil filter sample for each compositional group. 

Compare results for the filters for cars of various ages. Does the number or size distribution 

correlate with age? Relate the data to specific automotive components. 

CCSEM Results 

The manual SEM analysis is repetitive, relatively slow, but amenable to automation. The sample 

was analyzed by computer controlled methods (CCSEM). In this analysis, the particles larger 

than 5 micrometers were sized and imaged, and the EDS composition was determined. A total of 

1492 particles were characterized in 2 hours and 15 minutes. A summary distribution by 

compositional class is given in Table 1 and a size distribution is given in Table 2. 

Table 1 - Summary distribution by compositional class 

Classes # Number % Wt % 

C/S/Ca/P 566 36.46 51.15 

C-rich 

S/Ca/P 

Si-rich 

Fe Metal 

P/Ca/Mg 

Ca/S 

Misc . Fe-bearing 

Pb Metal 

Sn-rich 

Zn Metal 1 0.06 0.01 

Totals 1492 100.00 100.00 

Table 2 - Mass Percent by Average Diameter (microns) 

Classes ass % 7.8 15.6 31.0 62.5 100.0 125.0 >>> 

C/S/Ca/P 51.2 0.3 7.6 38.9 41.3 11.9 0.0 0.0 

C-rich 22.8 1.6 9.1 33.2 44.4 11.8 0.0 0.0 

S/Ca/P 6.6 0.1 13.6 47.7 38.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Si-rich 2.2 0.8 17.2 57.6 24.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Fe Metal 5.3 2.4 17.8 67.7 12.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 

P/Ca/Mg 2.9 1.6 20.7 53.7 24.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Ca/S 2.5 0.2 5.3 33.6 60.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Misc. 3.6 0.8 16.1 30.7 52.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 

~e-bearing 1.2 2.1 24.2 73.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Pb Metal 1.8 2.5 22.6 74.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Sn-rich 0.0100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Zn Metal 0.0 0.0100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Totals 100.0 0.8 10.2 41.2 39.1 8.8 0.0 0.0 
figure 1 - Example wear debris 

603 

TEENAGED MATERIALS SCIENCE 

Joanna Mirecki Millunchick 

Department of Materials Science and Engineering 

University of Michigan 

2300 Hayward Street 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48 109-2 136 



One week day program on the University of Michigan campus for 7th 

and 8th grade girls interested in engineering, science and technology. 

Main activities 

- Ethics in Science 

- Web page design 

- Career Panels 

Focus groups 

- Physics Aerospace Physics Genetics 

- Materials Chemistry Biology Medicine 

m 

a Sponsored by - Women in Science and Engineering 

- Center for the Education of Women 

- GM Foundation 
Purpose: To introduce Materials Science to teens 

Approach: Demonstrate how Materials issues 

impact their daily lives 

Day One: 

- Introduction 

2 

0 

- Glass Labs 

a Day Two: Materials Science of Sports 

- Materials Issues in Sporting Equipment 

- Hot Air Balloon Demo 

- Bouncing Balls 

a Day Three: Materials Science of Make Up 

- Materials lssues in Cosmetics 

- Nail Polish Formulation 

- Testing of Commercial Products 

Materials Issues in Sporting Equipment 

- Questions for discussion: 

What is the function of different kinds of sporting equipment? 

What materials fit that function? 

- Examples: 

Softball bats 

Skis 

Balls 

. Protective gear 

2 

rU Hot Air Balloon Demo 

- Set up, inflate, and fly a hot air balloon! 

Keith Mclntyre- Wind Drifters Inc. 
a Materials Issues in Cosmetics 

- Questions for discussion: 

What is the function of different kinds of cosmetics? 

What materials fit that function? 

- Demos: 

Miscibility 

Surfactants 

Emulsions 

- Colloids 
Nail Polish Formulation 

Supplies: 

- Nitrocellulose 

- Butyl Acetate 

- Pigment 

- Beakers 

- Mortar and Pestle 

- Eye droppers 

2 - Bottles 

Testing of commercial vs homemade nail polish 

- Adhesion tests 

- Wear tests 

- Examination under the SEM 

Examination of Commercial Cosmetics 

- Lipstick 

- Mascara 

- Foundation 
a WISEICEW Facilitators 

- Cinda Sue Davis 

- Margaret Krasnoff 

a Materials Science Personnel 

- Laraba Kendig, Instrument Analyst 

- Keith Mclntyre, Facilities Engineer and Balloon Pilot 

- Harald Eberhart, Master Glass Blower 

- Kevin Worth, Computer Systems Specialist 

- Mike Johnson, Graduate Student 

- Chris Reilly, Graduate Student 

- Ruth Cleveland, Graduate Student 

-- Karmen Lappo, Undergraduate Student 

INTRODUCTION TO EMSET2 

James A. Jacobs 

Norfolk State University 

700 Park Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504-8060 

Telephone 757-823-8 109 

e-mail j aj acobs@nsu.edu 

Alfred E. McKenney 

5 16 Fairfax Way 

Williamsburg, Virginia 23 1 8 5 

Telephone 757-22 1-0476 

e-mail aem26Jprodigy.net 

Matthew Sanders 

(student) 

Norfolk State University 

700 Park Avenue 

Norfolk, Virginia 23504-8060 
James A, Jacobs 
Introduction to EMSETZ 

I Gettina Started 

Additional Resources 

Experiments & Demonstrations 

Twelve Years of Experiments and Demonstrations from the National Educators' Workshops 

(Main) 1 
I . Structure, Testing & Evaluation 

4. Ceramics 

5. Composites 

6. Electronic & Optical Materials 

7. Materials Curriculum 
EXPERIMENTS AND DEMONSTRATIONSN STRUCTURE, 

TESTING AND EVALUATION 

MEASUREMENT OF SPRINGBACK ANGLE IN SHEET BENDING 

J. Hilden, K. Lewis, A. Meamaripour and Guna Selvaduray San Jose State University 

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON WETTING ANGLE 

Richard Brindos and Guna Selvaduray - San Jose State University 

TRANSPIRATION COOLING EXPERIMENT 

Kyo D. Song and Heidi R. Ries - Norfolk State University and 

Stephen J. Scotti and Sang H. Choi - NASA Langley Research Center 

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS TO THE DETERMINATION OF CORROSION 

RATES FOR METALS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 

R. B. Griffin, L. R. Cornwell, and Holly E. Ridings - Texas A&M University 

EXPERIMENTS SHOWING DYNAMICS OF MATERIAL INTERFACES 

Robert F. Benjamin - Los Alamos National Laboratory 

FROM RUGS TO DEMONSTRATIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS CLASS 

Neda S. Fabris - California State University 

HYSTERESIS LOOPS AND BARKHAUSEN EFFECTS IN MAGNETIC MATERIALS 

Luke Ferguson and Thomas Stoebe - University of Washington 

ELASTICITY, PLASTICITY AND ANELASTICITY: DEMONSTRATIONS. 

F. Xavier Spiegel - Spiegel Designs 

RELAXATION AND RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS 

Daniel W. Koon - St. Lawrence University 

THE EFFECT' OF SURFACE FINISH ON TENSILE STRENGTH 

Julie Chao, Selene Currotto, Cameron Anderson, and Guna Selvaduray - San Jose State 

University 

A MAGNETIC DILEMMA: A CASE STUDY 

F. Xavier Spiegel - Spiegel Designs 

TENSILE TEST EXPERIMENTS WITH PLASTICS 

Michael G. Thorogood - Norfolk State University 

A "PROBLEM BASED LEARNING" APPROACH TO -ON AND REFRACTION 

Amy Wilkerson, Donna Self, Waldo J. Rodriquez, and Heidi R. Ries -Norfolk State Univ 
EXPERIMENTS AND DEMONSTRATIONS IN COMPOSITES 

COMPOS~ OF GLASS FIBER WITH EPOXY MATRIX 

Ping Liu and Tommy L. Waskom - Eastern Illinois University 

STRENGTH TESTING OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS 

John and Eric Cadwell and Steven Piippo - Richland High School 

EFFECTIVENESS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD IN DETECTING 

DELAMINATION DEFECTS IN THICK COMPOSITES 

Glen C. Erickson - Ground Systems Division and 

W. Richard Chung - San Jose State University 

COMPOSITES: FIBERGLASS HAND LAMINATING PROCESS 

James A. Nelson - Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratories 

THE ASSESSMENT OF METAL FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERIC COMPOSITES 

Wenchiang R. Chung, San Jose State University 

SIMPLE STRESSED-SKIN COMPOSITES USING PAPER REINFORCEMENT 

L. R. Bumell - Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories 

FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS 

Harvey A. West and A. F. Sprecher - North Carolina State University 

COMPOSITE COLUMN OF COMMON MATERIALS 

Richard J. Greet - University of Southern Colorado 

CONTINUOUS UNIDIRECTIONAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES: 

FABRICATION AND TESTING 

M. D. Weber, Pennsylvania State University, F. X. Spiegel, Loyola College, and Harvey 

A. West, North Carolina State University 

USING TEMPLATEBOT-WIRE CUTTING TO DEMONSTRATE MOLDLESS 

COMPOSITE FABRICATION 

Mario J. Coleman 

FABRICATION AND EVALUATION OF A SIMPLE COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL 

BEAM 

Myron J. Schmenk - Miami University 

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS 

H. Richard Thornton and L. R. Cornwell - Texas A&M University 
Ping Liu and Tommy L. Waskom 

School of Technology 

Eastern Illinois University 

Charleston, IL 6 1920 

Key Words: Epoxy, glass fiber, laminate. 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Thermoset plastics, polymeric matrix composite, reinforcement fibers. 

Objective: 

1. Understand the concept of composite materials by combining two or more different 

materials to obtain a new material. 

2. Examine the process of making composites using the simplest method: hand lay-up. 

Equipment and Materials: 

I. Fiberglass 

2. Scissors 

3. Epoxy resin (two part kit) 

4. Paper measuring cups, 4-6 oz. 

5. Brush (1 in.) 

6. A polyethylene sheet, 8 x 36 in. 

7. Acetone 

8. Disposable stirring sticks 

9. Plastic gloves 

Introduction: 

Polymeric matrix composites have found wide applications in products such as airplanes and 

even fishing rods. Epoxy is the most often used matrix and glass fiber is the most economical 

reinforcing fibers on the market. Glass fiber reinforced epoxy matrix composites are popular 

composites used for such products as racing boats. 

In this experiment, students used a simple hand lay-up method to make the composite. 

Students are encouraged to apply their innovative ideas to make the material with the highest specific 

strength. 
Procedure: 

!!! Wear Safety goggles before the experiment. 

1. Cut five 2" x 30" fiberglass strips with scissors. 

2. Weigh the batch of strips to be used in the composite, 

3. Approximately 2 oz of epoxy resin is needed for this experiment. Follow the directions on the back 

of the resin can, measure the ingredients into a paper cup. Thoroughly mix contents with a stirring 

stick for 3-5 minutes. 

4. Place a polyethylene sheet on table top to protect the table. 

5. Pour a small amount of resin onto the polyethylene sheet surface. Note: resin does not stick to 

polyethylene. Spread with brush to an area of 2" x 30". 

6. Place one fiberglass mat on the resin. 

7. Dip brush into resin. Paint the resin into the fiberglass mat by gently stroking the brush over the 

fiberglass. Begin brushing in the middle, and stroke toward the outer edges. The fiberglass will 

absorb the previously poured resin. Apply only enough resin with the brush to saturate the fiberglass. 

8. Place second fiberglass mat (dull side up) onto the first layer. Apply resin with brush, working 

from the center out to prevent air bubbles. Add only enough resin with the brush to wet or saturate 

the fiberglass. 

9. Repeat the process with each additional fiberglass laminate. 

10. Upon completion, place brush into empty cup 

1 1. Cover the fiberglass laminate with a polyethylene sheet. Apply a flat weight onto the laminate 

using books, wood or metal slab. 

12. Observe the contents of the cup and brush to verifL that the resin is curing. The cup will feel 

warm from an exothermic reaction that is taking place. An odor will be increasingly noticeable as a 

chemical reaction occurs. 

13. Clean the brush with acetone. Discard the cup and clean the table top 

14. Let the composite cure until rigid. 

15. Measure a final weight of the composite, record the weight in a log book. 
Instructor9s Notes on Competition Rules: 

1. Each group will submit three specimens for the competition. 

2. The laminated specimen will be tested for cantilever bending strength, 

3. Load will be applied by pouring sand into a bucket until the specimen is bent to break. The 

maximum load will be recorded for each specimen. 

4. The maximum load will be divided by the weight of the specimen, to obtain specific loading 

capacity (or specific strength) for each specimen. 

5. The average of the three results in terms of specific loading capacity will be used for each team. 

6. The score for each group was used as follows. 

First place: 100 

Second place: 9 5 

Third place: 9 0 

Fourth place: 8 5 

No show: 0 

Supplier: 

1. Most of the consumables can be purchased from the following vendor: 

Industrial Arts Supply Co. (IASCO) 

5724 West 36th Street 

Minneapolis, MN 5541 6-2594 

1-800-328-4827, Ext. 2662 

2. Acetone can be purchased from any painting store or paint department at Wal-Mart. 

3. Polyethylene sheets and stirring sticks (craft department) are available at Wal-Mart. 

References: 

1. A. B. Strong, Fundamentals of Composite Manufacturing, Society of Manufacturing 

Engineers, Dearborn, MI (1 989). 

2. Materials Science and Technology Handbook, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, pp 8.1 -8.1 1. 

Laboratory 

Manual 

Dr. Jack Kayser 

Lafayette College 

1997 
INDEX 

Experiment Topic Page 

1 Properties of Metals in Tension 3 

2 Evaluation of Bolts and Bolted Connections 6 

3 Flexural Beam Test 10 

4 Compressive Strength of Columns 13 

5 Evaluation and Testing of Welded 

Connections 16 

6 Material Properties of Balsa Wood 20 

7 Selecting Proportions for Normal 

Weight Concrete 24 

Mixing, Testing and Casting of 

Fresh Concrete 

9 Mechanical Properties of Concrete 4 1 

10 Batching and Testing of Mortar Specimens 46 

11 Testing and Evaluation of Coarse 

Aggregate 50 
Experiment 1: Properties of Metals in Tension 

References: 

ASTM E-6 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Methods of Mechanical Testing 

ASTM E-8 Standard Test Methods of Tension Testing of Metallic ~ate'ials 

"Structural Steel Design LRFD Method," Jack McCormac, 2nd Ed., Section 1-7 

Description: 

Two of the most important items involved in the engineering of a structure are the deflections 

the structure will under o when loaded, and the amount of load the structure can take before 

failing. These two fun f amental measures of performance depend upon the behavior of the 

material the structure is composed of. 

This experiment examines the behavior of metals in tension. Steel, aluminum, and cast-iron 

specimens will be tested. The following outline describes the properties which will be 

studied. 

1. Stress-Strain Diagram: A plot of the stress-strain values which were recorded during a 

tension test. The plot will be created using the. data file which was down loaded from the 

Instron computer, modified and plotted using Quattro. 

2. Ductilitv Based on Reduction of Area: The ability of the material to deform plastically. It 

is calculated as the ratio of the change in cross sectional area due to rupture divided by the 

original cross sectional area. Units of percent. 

3. Ductilitv Based on Elongation: Another way of measuring the ability of a material to 

deform plastically. It is calculated as the ratio of the change in gage length due to rupture 

divided by the original gage length. Units of percent. 

4. Tensile Strength: The maximum tensile stress that can be applied to a specimen. It is 

based on the ratio of ultimate load divided by the original cross section. Units of ksi. 

5. Modulus of Elasticitv: The ratio of stress over strain in the linear elastic region of the 

stress-strain diagram. Units of ksi. 

6. Yield Strength: The stress level beyond which the material will ermanently deform. In 

some materials this limit is defined by using the 0.002"P' strain o F fset. Units of ksi. 

7. Modulus of Resilience: The energy absorbed by a specimen when it is loaded to its 

proportional limit. It is the area under the stress-strain diagram from zero to the 

proportional limit. Units of ksi. 

8. Modulus of Toughness: The energy absorbed by a specimen when it is loaded to the point 

of rupture. It is the area under the stress-strain diagram from zero to the point of rupture. 

Units of ksi. 
Name: 

Date: Section: 

Experiment 1 Data Sheet 

Specimen 1 

Material: 

Initial Diameter: 

Gage Length: 

Material: 

Initial Diameter: 

Gage Length: 

Final Diameter: 

Final Gage Length: 

Specimen 2 

Final Diameter: 

Final Gage Length: 

Specimen 3 

Material: 

Initial Diameter: Final Diameter: 

Gage Length: Final Gage Length: 

Specimen 4 

Material: 

Initial Diameter: Final Diameter: 

Gage Length: Final Gage Length: 

Experiment 1, Sheet 1 of 1 
,. EMSET CD ROM 

EXPERMEWS IN MA TER&US'SCIENGE, EENGINEEHNG & TECHNOLOGY 

ISBN: 0-13-648486-7 

James A. Jacobs 

A Multimedia Tool of Laboratory Experiments and Classroom Demonstrations 

FEATURES: 0 Over 200 laboratory experiments and classroom demonstrations which you can modify to suit your 

teaching objectives, environment, and students' needs. 

Access to instructional aids developed by hundreds of materials educators and industry specialists in 

the field of materials science, engineering and technology. 

Provides students with "hands-onY'activities that cover the full range of materials science and 

technology: topics such as woods, metals, and emerging technologies including processing and 

structures of advanced composites and sol-gel ceramics. 

Flexibility: emphasis is placed on low-cost, multi-concept exercises in recognition of the many 

settings in which materials education occurs. 

The CD-ROM allows you to read, navigate, search for other experiments/docurnents, print, and edit. 

CATEGORIES OF EXPERZMENTS: 

TESTING & EVALUATION, POLYMERS, METALS, CER4MCS. COMPOSITES, ELECTRONIC 

MTEUS & U4TERlALS CURRlCULUM 

A BONUS CD OF VIDEO CLIPS: 

A bonus CD provides video segments on selected concepts. 

STM & AFM MICROSCOPY, POLYmRS, CEmMCS, AND COltZPOSlTES 

PLATFORMS SUPPORTED: 

This CD-ROM can be used on Windows and Macintosh platforms. Acrobat Reader and QuickTime 

software is included on the disk for Windows 3x, Windows 95 and Macintosh. The disk may be used on 

other platforms provided the appropriate software is installed. 

TO ORDER A ~OPX 

Call: 1 (800) 947-7700 OR Visit our web site: www.prenhaIl.com 

OR simpZyfSI1 out and mail this to: 

Prentice Hall, Order Processing Dept. 

200 Old Tappan Road, Old Tappan, NJ 07675 

Date 

P.O. Number Tax Exempt Cert No. 

BILL TO: SHIP TO: 

Account No. Cust Key No. 

Name Name 

Dept Dept 

SchooVOrg SchooUOrg. 

Address Address 

City City 

State. Zip State, Zip 

CD-ROM Price: $150.00 4 

A METHOD FOR THlE MEASUREMENT OF 

MAGNETOSTRICTION IN FIERROMAGNETIC 

ALLOYS 

0. Garcia-Hernandez 

R. Galindo 

K. L. Garcia 

and 

R. Valenzuela 

Institute for Materials Research 

National University of Mexico 

P. 0. BOX 70-360 

Mexico 045 1 0 

Telephone: 525-622-4653 

e-mail monjaras@servidor.unam.mx 

A Method for the Measurement of Magnetostriction in Ferromagnetic Alloys 

0. ~arcia-~ernindez', R.~alindo~, K.L. Garcia and R. ~alenzuela"* 

National University of Mexico P.O. Box 70-360, Mexico D.F., 045 10 Mexico 

'~nstitute for Materials Research, 2~aculty of Chemistry 

Key Words: Ferromagnetism, Magnetostriction 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Have the basic notions about magnetically ordered materials (ferromagnetism), magnetization, magnetic hysteresis, domains, domain walls. 

Objective: To obtain ferromagnetic hysteresis loops, observe the effects of mechanical stresses on 

them, and thereby understand the interaction between magnetic and elastic energies; finally, to evaluate 

the magnetostriction constant. 

Equipment: 

1. A standard oscilloscope (we used a HamegB HM-205-3). 

2. Two primary coils 150 hrns each; for our experiments, they were solenoids 2 cm diameter and 14 

cm long, made of 85 mrn copper wire. 

3. Two secondary coils 600 turns each; they were directly coiled on the primary coils, and made of 85 

mm copper wire. 

4. Electronic components to fabricate an integrator circuit, as follows: an integrated circuit IC p A 741 

CN, a 0.33 p f capacitor, and resistors of 1 MM, 6.8 kM, 15 kQ, 560 Q, and 50 M; all of them with 

a dissipation of 0.25 W, except for the latter, which has a dissipation energy of 100 W. 

5. A weight and pouly system to apply tensile stress on measuring samples. The system here detailed 

is planned for ferromagnetic materials with the shape of ribbons. The sample is clamped on its two 

ends; one end is fixed to the table, and the other one is clamped to a wire which, through a pulley, 

allows the addition of weights to control the tensile stress. The sample should be placed within one 

of the coil systems in order to apply simultaneously the magnetic field and the tensile stress. 

6. A Variac to control the electric current flowing through the primary circuit. 

7. Micrometer or vernier caliper. 

8. A photographic camera with a tripod to obtain images of hysteresis loops fiom the osciloscope 

screen. 

9. The use of the OriginTM program is recommended for plotting and slope calculations. However, due 

to the usual small number of points, all plots and calculations can easily be made by hand. 

Introduction: 

The magnetization process, i.e. the change of magnetization state of a ferromagnetic material from the 

demagnetized state (M = 0) to the maximum magnetization value (saturation magnetization, Ms) under 

a magnetic field, H, involves a change in the dimensions of the sample. These changes are very small 

(usually a few parts per million), but they can be important in many aspects. For instance, the most 

common manifestation of this phenomenon is the "humming" from transformers, where the core is 

submitted to an ac current that magnetizes and demagnetizes it (at a rate twice the current frequency). 
Since the core dimensions change with the change in magnetization state, it "vibrates" at twice the 

current frequency. These vibrations can easily be heard near a transformer. 

The saturation magnetostriction constant, A, quantifies these changes, and is defines as: 

where Lo is the initial length of the sample in the demagnetized state, and L the length in the 

magnetically saturated state, both in the same direction than the applied field, as shown in Fig. 1. A, is 

adirnensional and can be positive when the material stretches during magnetization; or negative, when 

it shows a contraction in the field direction. 

A simple model to explain magnetostriction is to recall that ferromagnetic materials involve the 

presence of atoms with incomplete 3d orbitals, since these orbitals have unbalanced spins, as well as 

the possibility of strong interactions leading to magnetic order. Due to the spin-orbit coupling, the 

orientation of spins and that of 3d orbitals is related. When a change in direction occws (as a 

consequence of an applied field), the change in orientation of 3d orbitals is associated with an increase 

in length, as shown in Fig. 2. To explain a negative magnetostriction constant, this model can also be 

used, simply by changing the spin orientation to the minor axis direction. The magnetoelastic energy 

can be calculated [I] as the work done by rotating the magnetization vector by an angle 8 against the 

opposition of a tensile stress o as: 

In most ferromagnetic materials, the total magnetic energy is reduced to a minimum by the formation 

of domains, separated by domain walls to retain all the magnetic flux inside the sample, Fig. 3 (a). 

Domains disappear when a strong magnetic field is applied, leading to the saturated state, Fig. 3 (b). 

The magnetization process, from 3 (a) to 3 (b), involves the displacement of domain walls to promote 

the growth of domains with the same orientation than the applied field, and the decrease of domains 

with the opposite orientation. This process involves some energy dissipation, since domain wall 

displacements proceed by spin rotations and this needs energy. Also, any structural defect in the sample 

represents an obstacle to domain wall movement, and energy is needed to displace domain walls 

through them. Domain wall displacement is therefore an irreversible process, leading to hysteresis 

loops. Here, the magnetization value depends on the path followed; the hysteresis loop is described in 

one direction. The total energy needed to describe the hysteresis loop is simply the area encompassed 

by the loop, or 

In the demagnetized state, there are domains in all the orientations that compensate each other (the 

global magnetization is zero), and therefore the differences in length associated with the orientation in 

3d orbitals also compensate each other. However, when the sample is saturated, there is no longer 

compensation since all spins are oriented in the same direction, and the expansion due to the assymetry 

in 3d orbitals becomes additive, producing a macroscopic increase in length. 
Basis of the Measurement: 

Since the expansion due to magnetization is *small (A, typically ranges between lo-* to 10-3, a direct 

determination of magnetostriction constant is difficult. An alternative method consists in the 

measurement of hysteresis loops under different values of applied stress. If all the other parameters are 

kept constant, the differences in loop area, A, depend only on the magnetoelastic energy, and therefore 

can be evaluated by 

The magnetostriction constant can then be determined from measurements of hysteresis loop area as a 

function of applied stress. 

Electric Circuit 

The electric circuit is shown in Fig. 4 and is formed by a Variac connected to the mains Cf= 60 Hz); a 

high dissipation resistor (1 k!2) in series provides a voltage proportional to the current, which is 

connected to the X-axis of the oscilloscope. The sample is placed inside a primary coil (solenoid with 

150 turns). An identical primary coil is connected in series. A secondary coil (600 turns, on the primary 

coil) "receives" the magnetic flux produced by the sample (and the primary coil) and feeds this voltage 

into an integrator circuit (741 OpAmp), which in turn, is connected to the Y-axis of the oscilloscope, 

Fig. 5. The secondary coil is also connected to another secondary coil in phase opposition, to 

compensate the effects of empty coils and have only the sample effects. All the component values are 

indicated in Fig. 4. 

To calculate the abolute values of magnetic field, H, (X-axis in the oscilloscope) and magnetic 

induction, B, (Y-axis of oscilloscope), we use the following equations: 

Where np is the number of turns in the primary coil, vp is the voltage across the series resistor R in the 

primary circuit, and S is the length of the coil; R and C are the resistor and capacitor, respectively, in 

the integrator circuit, V, is the integrated voltage, n, is number of secondary coil turns, t is the sample 

thickness and its x width. 

Preparation: 

Once all the electric connections have been done, fix the one end of the sample to the support on the 

table, Fig. 5. Then, place it in one of the primary-secondary coil systems. The sample should have a 

maximum length of 12 cm, in order to be completely contained within the coil system. At the other end 

of the sample, fix the plastic wire to apply the tensile stress. 

A first step is to fur the applied field level to have a magnetized state close to saturation. This is easy to 

monitor on the oscilloscope, when the ends at maximum field show a quasi-horizontal line. 
Procedure: 

1. Fix a convenient level of applied field. A low field leads to a magnetized state far fiom saturation, 

producing an incomplete change of dimensions in the sample. On the other hand, an excessive field can 

produce heating on the dissipation resistors in the primary coil circuit. As a simple rule of thumb, the 

quasilinear part should not be larger than the width of the loop. 

2. Adjust the X- and Y- axis gain of the oscilloscope to have the hysteresis loop on most of the screen, 

to facilitate loop area measurements. Register these values as Gx and G,. 

3. Take a photo of the o = zero loop (see Fig. 6) 

4. Put a small weight on the pulley system to apply a stress on the sample and observe the loop. If the 

change is not noticeable, add another weight. 

5. When you obtain a small but noticeable change in the loop, take another photo (see Fig. 6). Register 

the weight. 

6. Add some more weight, and repeat the process. Be careful with weights, since samples can fail and 

weights fall! 

7. Usually, four to five points are enough to find a clear linear behavior and determine the slope. 

8. On photo prints, measure the loop areas (a simple method: carefily cut the loop and weight it in a 

balance; the area can then be callibrated by weighing a 1 cm2 square cut fiom the same paper). 

9. Plot the area values as a function of applied stress; calculate the stress in each point by taking into 

account that the force depends on the weight and the gravity (F = wg, where F is the force produced by 

a weight w with a gravity constant g), and the cross-section area (thickness t by width x), o = wgltx (see 

Fig. 7. In this case, we used a negative magnetostriction material, since the slope is negative). 

10. Calculate the magnetostriction constant fiom the slope, as A, = 2 A I 3 o , and transform this value 

into absolute units by taking into account Eqs (5) and (6). Use always the SI unit System, where 

magnetic field His given in Alm, magnetic induction B in T (or wb/m2) 

Comments 

The presented system was conceived to measure amorphous alloys in ribbon shape but it can easily be 

used to measure laminated cores, as far as they fit into the coils. For ceramic magnetic materials such 

as ferrites, measurements under tensile stress are not feasible because these materials fiacture very 

easily. They can be measured under compression only, which changes considerably the sample holder. 

References 

[I] B.D. Cullity. Introduction to Magnetic Materials (Addison Wesley, 1972), p. 267. 
Raul Valenzuela 

Raul Valenzuela is Professor of Materials Science at the 

Institute for Materials Research, National University of Mexico. 

He has a bachelor degree (Chemical Engineering) fi-om the 

National University of Mexico, a Master's degree (Ceramic 

Engineering) fi-om the Ecole Nationale SupCrieure de CCramique 

de Shvres, France, and a Ph.D. (Materials Science) fiom the 

UniversitC de Paris VI, France. He has been involved in research 

on magnetization processes in ferrites and amorphous alloys, 

and teaching in the Materials Science program at the University 

of Mexico, supervising M. Sc. and Ph. D. Projects. He is the 

author of the book "Magnetic Ceramics", edited by Cambridge 

University Press (1994). He is a member of MRS.and is 

currently coordinator of the new graduate program on Materials 

Science and Engineering at the National University of Mexico. 
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of increase in length of a ferromagnetic sample upon the application of 

a magnetic field H. 
Fig. 2. Simplified model for the increase in length with magnetization, based on 3d orbitals. 
Fig. 3. Magnetic structure, a) in the demagnetized state, showing the domain structure, and.b), in the 

saturated state, under a strong applied field. 
magnet.ca4 Page 1 

magnet .ca4 

Im*:91 

1000K 

.560K .33u 

Fig. 4. Layout of the electric circuit. 
fixture 

Fig. 5. Layout of the system to apply tensile stress. 
Fig. 6. Change of hysteresis loops of a VitrovacB 2605 SC ribbon at a) o = 0, b) o = 16.3 MPa, and c) 

(T = 26.13 MPa. 
Fig. 7. Results obtained on the VitrovacB 2605 SC ribbon when plotting the loops area as a function of 

applied stress. 
CORKING AN OPEN-ENDED TANK 

Edward L. Widener 

School of Technology 

Mechanical Engineering Technology 

Purdue University 

1417 Knoy Hall, Room 145 

West Lafayette, Indiana 47907- 13 17 

Telephone: 765-494-752 1 

e-mail elwidener@tech.purdue.edu 
Edward L. Wdener 
Edward L. Widener 

Mechanical Engineering Technology 

Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN 47907 

Key Words: Storage Tanks, Air Pollution, Volatile Emissions, Topology 

Prerequisite Knowledge: Basic math (arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry) and physics 

(buoyancy, capillarity, evaporation). 

Objective: To promote creative problem-solving. To see more than one path to a solution. To 

cope with inadequate information. To recognize an optimal solution, considering constraints of 

time, cost or accuracy. To meet accreditation criteria for design skill. 

Equipment and Materials: 

1) Containers (cans, pans, bowls, beakers, or jars). Try several sizes between 2 to 8" 

diameter (say 5-20 cm) and 1 to 6" tall (say 3 to 15 cm). 

2) Liquids (water or milk). Pour into container, enough to float corks off bottom. 

3) Floats (several dozen corks, disks, or spheres). Try several sizes, between '/4" - 1" 

diameter (say 5 to 25 mm). Punched paper holes (6 mm dia) will float. Puffed cereals 

(foam balls) like ~ekse's Corn puffs or Kellogg's Fruit-Loops, which are oily & thus 

water-resistbt. 

4) Ruler (US or SI) to measure containers and floats. 

Note that bottle corks (2 cm diax 5 cm lg.) may be cut 1 cm long (makes 5 floats). 

All floats (in a given container) should be the same size (diameter, shape). 

Introduction: Here is an open-ended problem, solvable by multiple approaches. Assume your 

boss needs a quick, cheap answer to an EPA mandate for only 10% uncovered area. You must 

find the Open-Area of any Solvent-Tank, subject to Evaporation, after covering the Surface with 

small Corks in close-packed Pattern. The tank diameters are unknown. All corks are the same, 

but much smaller than any of the tanks. You try several experiments with specific tanks and 

floats. Then try a general geometric approach, select a simple "unit-cell", and find the minimal 

open area is under 10%. 

Procedure: 

1) Tank Shapes - A thin, shallow reservoir has large perimeter, excess surface, but small 

volume. A tall, narrow cylinder has less perimeter, smaller surface, and relatively more 

volume. Select a small bowl of milk, sprinkle some cereal-balls, and note the natural 
ccclose-packing~~ of balls. Surface tension at first will cause 3-ball groups to form, then 

stirring leads to hex-cell clusters. This 7-ball pattern repeats until liquid is "covered". 

Fruit-Loops, with "flowers" in hex-cell shapes, are more convenient (for counting the 

floats); but sugary cereals may crumble or draw flies. 

2) Floats - Cork spheres are preferable to cereals, but harder to find. Cork cylinders (boles) 

are an acceptable substitute, but they float like logs in a pond. Rectangles cannot cover as 

efficiently as circles. So a popular confection, originally paste fiom the marsh-mallow 

plant, comes to mind. 

3) Miniature marshmallows, floating in a cup of cocoa, are also truncated cylinders. Each 

cylinder should float upright, with center-of-gravity below center-of-bouyancy. So, cut 

each cork in half, then into fourths. The larger the container, the more corks needed to 

cover, but with less edge-effect. Then, since all dimensions are known, count all the 

disks, calculate the disk-areas, and then subtract fmm the total tank area. Although 

tedious and complicated, this suggests that open-area can be reduced to 10%. 

4) Common Cents - Instead of packing floats inside a given tank, a graphical ploy involves 

starting with 2-cents and circumscribing with a "circle template" (or compass). Continue 

with 3-cents (encircling a triangle), then 4-cents (encircled square), 5-cents (encircled 

body-centered square), 6-cents (enclose larger triangle), 7-cents (enclose hex-cell), 8- 

cents (double square), 9-cents (5+4), 10-cents (5+5), 12-cents (4+4+4), 13-cents (7 + 6), 

etc. Measure the enclosing diameter @), measure the cent diameter (d), count each set of 

cents (times area of a cent), and figure the open-area (a). Then, plotting the % openarea (y-axis) vs Dld ratio (x-axis) should produce a curve, which approaches a limit (dA 

about 10%). This is a dimensionless plot, independent of units. 

5) Calculus - To find a minimum value for this curve, get an equation for Area Difference 

(dA) as a function of Dld, set it equal to zero, as Dld approaches infinity, and integrate. 

However, this confuses most novices needlessly and is certaidy time-consuming. 

6) Unit Cell Solution - Simply recognize each hex-cell is composed of &equilateral 

triangles. An equilateral triangle contains 3-segments of a cork (60-degree arc). Eureka! 

Each side of our triangle is twice the radius of our cork. So calculate the triangle's area, 

subtract half a circle's area, and find dA to several decimal places. 

7) Assume diameters, pi, and dA all have 

the same significant figures. Assume 

edge-effects can be ignored. 

References: 

1) Conway, John H., Sloane, N.J.A., et al, "Sphere Packings, Lattices & Groups", SpringerVerlag Inc., New York, NY, 1998 

2) Rafson, Harold (ed.), "Odor & VOC Control Handbook", McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 

NY, 1998 

3) Jacobs, James A., & KilduE, Thomas F., "Engineering Materials Technology", 3* ed., 

Prentice-Hall Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1997, pp 184,402 (Volatile Organic Compounds). 

4) Deganno, E. Paul et al, "Materials & Processes in Manufacturingy', 7' ed., Macmillan 

Co., New York, NY, 1988, p 972 (Chemical Cleaning). 

5) "Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary" 2nd ed., G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, MA, 

1956, p 185 (Cork Oak, quercus suber). 
6) Richardson, Teny L. & Lokensgard,-Erik, "Industrial Plastics", 3" ed., Delmar Inc. 

(In), Albany, NY, 1997, p 1 0 1 (Foaming/Flowing Polymers). 

7) Parker, Sybil P. (ed.), "Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms", 5& ed., McGrawHill Inc., New York, NY, 1994, p 2043 (Topography, Topology). 

Biography: 

Prof. Widener has taught at Purdue University since 1978, 

concentrating on mechanics, materials, recycling, and 

communicating. Ed was in Malaysia from April 1995 - June 1996, 

teaching Metals Lab for new technology teachers. Memberships 

include ASEE, ASM, ASME, ISA, TAPPI. A registered P.E. in 

New York and Indiana, he was ABET accreditation visitor fiom 

1983- 1990; and NSF lab-grants reviewer in 1989 and 1990. 

Between 1974-1 977, he had night classes in Indianapolis, IN 

(ruPUI) and Danville, IL (Jr. College). Degrees from Purdue are 

BS '49 (physics) and BS '5 1 (ME); MSEM '62 (Hydraulics) is 

from University of Kansas. Between 1 952- 1978, Ed was a process 

or project engineer for Continental Group, Baker-McHenry-Welch, 

Kimberly-Clark, E.I. DuPont, Union Carbide, and U.S. Steel. In 

WWII, he was U.S. Navy S llc, aboard light-cruisers Vicksburg 

and Astoria. 



MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY: 

CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATION 

Richard B. Griffm 

and 

Lance Terrill 

(student) 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Texas A&M 

College Station, Texas 77843 

Telephone 409-845-9779 

e-mail rgrif%in@mengr. tarnu.edu 
Richard B. Griffin 
Measurement of Viscosity: Classroom Demonstration 

Dr. Richard Griffin, Faculty 

Lance Terrill, Student 

Department of Mechanical Engineering 

Texas A&M University 

College Station, TX 77843 

Key Words: Material science, Thermally activated process, Viscometer, Viscosity 

Prerequisite Knowledge 

Freshmen chemistry, physics, thermally activated processes, mechanical behavior 

of crystalline solids. 

Objective 

To demonstrate viscous behavior. To determine the activation energy for a 

thermally activated process. 

Equipment 

1. Rotational Viscometer with spindles. The one used in this demonstration is a ColeParmer 98936-20125 Rotational Viscometer. 

2. Three glass 600 rnl standard beakers. 

3. Digital thermometer. 

4. Stopwatch. 

5. Heater or refrigerator. 

6. Three insulating containers to keep the fluids at preset temperature. 

7. Spreadsheet computer program. 

8. 1200 ml glycerin or other moderately viscous test fluid. 

Introduction 

Texas A&M University has been part of a National Science Foundation Coalition 

for more than six years. During this time period, a series of sophomore engineering 

courses have been developed that are built around the use and application of conservation 

principles.19 27 In an effort to provide students with some hands-on experience, several 

laboratory and demonstration experiments have been developed. In 1998, we reported on 

a four-point bend experiment that had been developed and used in the cla~sroom.~ 

Similarly in 1998 at the ASEE meeting in Seattle, Washington, we presented a poster 

describing the development of a 1-D thermal conductivity experiment.5 Additionally, we 

are developing a remote experiment facility for use by the students in the classroom. 

Currently, we have a tension and a torsion experimenta6 

The sophomore sequence consists of five courses: mechanics, thermodynamics, 

materials, continuum mechanics, and an introduction to electrical engineering. The 

experiments mentioned above have been used in the materials and the continuum 

mechanics course. This is an effort on the faculties' part to integrate course material, 

which is one of the Foundation Coalition's thrusts. 
One of the concepts that stude~tstruggle with is the idea of viscoelastic 

behavior. Generally, they are comfortable with elastic behavior, and for many of them 

they have a reasonable idea of how a component made from metal is suppose to behave. 

However, when discussing plastics and the idea of a material relaxing under a strain or 

continuing to elongate under a load is not quite so intuitive. In an effort to increase the 

understanding of this behavior, a viscosity experiment was developed. The approach is to 

use a rotational viscometer and to measure the viscosity of the test fluid at several 

different temperatures. 

The educational objective is to measure the viscosity of a fluid at several 

temperatures and to calculate the activation energy associated with the process. 

Procedure 

The process involves setting up the viscometer, and selecting the correct 

rotational speed and spindle for the solution and temperature range of interest. The 

solutions, contained in 600 ml beakers, are at a known temperature. A thermocouple has 

been attached to the spindle guard; this is shown in Figure 1. The spindle is lowered into 

the solution, and the viscosity is read from the digital readout located on the front face of 

the viscometer. 

Figure 1. Beaker containing the glycerin, spindle, and thermocouple. 

Glycerin or glycerol was chosen as the test fluid for two reasons. First, it fit the 

range of the viscometer that was available. Second, it was clear and the students can see 

the test being conducted. The measured viscosity of glycerin has been taken from the 69" 

edition of the handbook of Chemistry and Physics and several of the values are shown in 

Table 1 .7 

Table 1. Viscosity values for glycerin. (Ref. 7) 
For glycerin, the test was conducted at room temperature or below to stay within 

the Cole-Parrner Rotational Viscometer's range of 3 - 90,000 Poise(P). 

Measurements may be made at any spindlelspeed combination, however for 

accuracy, it is best to follow the suggested combinations in the instruction manual for the 

viscometer. In the example glycerin experiment, spindlelspeed combinations other than 

the suggested ones were used for thoroughness, however this is not necessary for a 

demonstration. 

Demonstration 

Place the viscometer on a level surface and adjust the legs of the viscometer until 

the bubble level on the top of the instrument shows that it is level. Prepare the 

viscometer by attaching the spindle guard and connecting the instrument to an 

appropriate power source. The setup is shown in Figure 2. 

Figure 2. R .otational viscometer showing the setup. 

Fill three beakers with 400 ml of glycerin per beaker. Certainly more than three 

test temperatures may be used, but for time considerations and convenience only three 

temperatures were used during the classroom demonstration. Refrigerate one at O°C, one 

at 10°C, and leave the last one at room temperature. As soon as possible before the 

experiment, remove the beakers from the refrigerators and place in an insulating holder. 

The beakers may also be placed in a water bath chilled to the desired temperature before 

testing, if the demonstration site is very far from a refrigerator. 

Turn the "spindle" and "RPM dials to the appropriate settings. These are located 

on the instrument For glycerin over the temperature tested, the R2, R3 and R4 spindles 

were used and the results are shown in Table 2. 
Table 2. Test temperature, spmdle speed and spindle used during the test. 

Because of the considerable overlap between the ranges of the R2 and R3 

spindles, their use is alternated for some of the testing temperatures. Note that it is 

important to measure the fluid temperature immediately before each data value is 

measured. 

Attach the appropriate spindle to the viscometer (left-hand threaded screws), and 

lower it into the glycerin sample up to the fluid level notch on the spindle. Take care to 

ensure that there are no bubbles trapped beneath the spindle and that the spindle is in the 

center of the beaker. 

Turn the viscometer on. Readings should begin immediately, but wait 30 seconds 

to record the data. The speed may be changed during instrument operation. When the 

desired values are obtained, turn off the viscometer and change the spindle or fluid. 

Record the values under the appropriate column of the spreadsheet. 

A double dashed line on the dial of the instrument indicates a viscosity value out 

of the range of the viscometer. Recheck the speed and spindle dials to ensure that a 

mistake has not been made. 

In the current classroom computers are available for the students to use, and Excel 

is an easy way for the students to plot the data and determine the activation energy. 

Results 

The values that were obtained during the experiment are listed in Table 3. 

Table 3. Viscosity data for glycerin obtained using a rotating viscometer. 

Temperature (K) 

273 

278 

279 

280 

282 

283 

284 

296 

Temperature (C) 

0 

5 

6 

7 

9 

10 

11 

23 

Viscosity (P) 

92.5 

57.5 

50 

41.5 

38.1 

32 

30 

9.45 

1 /T (1 /K) 

0.00366 

0.00360 

0.00358 

0.00357 

0.00355 

0.00353 

0.00352 

0.00333 

In Viscosity 

4.527 

4.052 

3.91 2 

3.726 

3.640 

3.466 

3.401 

2.246 
The data may be plotted as viscosity vs. temperature on a Cartesian coordinate 

graph or a natural logarithm of viscosity vs. inverse temperature graph to help evaluate 

the activation energy. 

The following plot, shown in Figure 3, is a Cartesian plot of the data collected 

that illustrates the exponential nature of the relationship between viscosity and 

temperature. 

6 

Temp (deg C) 

Figure 3. A plot of the data obtained during the viscosity experiment with glycerin. 

The following plot, Figure 4, is the natural logarithm of viscosity vs. inverse 

temperature plot that shows a linear correlation between the data. This is an excellent 

example for the students to observe a thermally activated process or a process that can be 

described using the Arrhenius equation.8 

rl='qoe (QRT) 

Rate or viscosity 

?lo- constant or pre-exponential term 

Q- activation energy 

R- gas constant 

T- temperature (K) 

The slope of the line shown in Figure 4 may be used to determine the activation energy, 

and it is determined to be 15,900 callmol. 
5 

4.5 

4 

- 3.5 

- 3 

2.5 

.- 

a 2 

= 1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

0.0035 0.00355 0.0036 0.00365 0.0037 

lrr (KA-1) 

Figure 4. Arrhenius plot of the viscosity data 

As a comparison, calculating the activation energy for the data shown in Table 1 

gives an activation energy of 15,700 calm01.~ 

Conclusion 

A viscosity experiment was developed for use in the classroom. The results obtain 

from the experiment for glycerin compares favorably with published data. The data fit an 

Arrhenius equation or thermally activated process and the activation energies were in 

close agreement. 

Acknowledgement 

The authors would like to thank the National Science Foundation for their support 

through the Foundation Coalition, Director Karen Friar, University of Alabama. Project 

NO. NSF EEC-922 1460. 

References 

' Griffin, R. B., Everett, L. J., Keating, P., Lagoudas, D., Tebeaux, E., Parker, D., Bassichis, W. and 

Barrow, D., "Planning the Texas A&M University College of Engineering Sophomore Year Integrated 

Curriculum," Fourth World Conference on Engineering Education, Oct. 95, St Paul, MN, vol. 1 pp. 228- 

232. 

* Griffin, R. B., Everett, L., and Lagoudas, D., "Development of a Sophomore Year Engineering Program 

at Texas A&M University," FIE, Pittsburgh, PA, Nov. 1997. 

Glover, C., "Conservation Principles and the Structure of Engineering," McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 

1996. 

Griffin, R. B., Cornwell, L. R., Yapura, C., Krishnan, S., and Hallford, J., "Use of a Four-Point Bend 

Apparatus to Determine the Modulus of Elasticity," National Educators Workshop Update 98, Brookhaven, 

NY, 1-4 November, 1998. 

Griffin, R. B., Ragupathi, P., Johnson, E., "Development of a Thermal Conductivity Experiment for Use 

in Class," ASEE, Seattle, WA, 1998. 

Yapura, C. L. Richard Griffin, R. B., Lagoudas, D. L., "Mechanics of Materials Experiments Via the 

Internet," National Instruments Week, Austin, TX, Aug. 1999. 

Handbook of Chemistry and Phvsics, Weast, R. C., ed., 69" edit., CRC Press, Inc., 1988. 
"The Science and Design of Engineering Materials," Schaffer, Saxena, Antolovich, Sanders, & Warner, 

Irwin (McGraw Hill), Chicago, 1995. 

Biographical Information 

Richard Griffin has been at Texas A&M in Mechanical Engineering since 1977. His 

research area is aqueous corrosion, and he received a NACE Technical Achievement 

Award in 1992. For the past five years, he has been a member of the Sophomore TeamFoundation Coalition that developed the core engineering science courses, which have 

been adopted at Texas A&M University. 

Lance Terrill is an undergraduate student in Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M 

University. We met during a materials science class and Lance has helped me for the past 

nine months. For the fall semester, he is working as a co-operative education student. 

THE ROLE OF PLASTICS IN THE AUTOMOBILE 

Bruce Cundiff 

Director of Automotive 

American Plastics Council 

1800 Crooks Road, Suite A 

Troy, Michigan 48084 

e-mail bcundiff@ameriplas.org 





.c.l, 

Rl 

E 

a 

C'3 

fir 

a 

fir 

i! 

2 

cwO 

a 

aJ 

L4 






Bruce T. Cundiff 

Director of Automotive 

American Plastics Council 

Automotive Learning Center 

Bruce Cundiff joined the American Plastics Council (APC) April 15,1998, as Director of 

Automotive, replacing the retiring A1 Maten. He directed the highly successful startup of 

APC's new Automotive Learning Center, located in Troy, MI. The overall goal of this 

new facility is to become a center of knowledge and expertise on the current and future 

use of plastics for automotive applications. 

Bruce joined the APC after having nearly 32 years' experience in plastics manufacturing, 

research, finance, product management, and marketing with the DuPont Company. In 

1986, he relocated from Wilrnington, DE to the Detroit area as a Senior Marketing 

Programs Manager, where he focused on selling and marketing plastics to the automotive 

industry. 

Bruce has a BSME and an MS in Industrial Administration (Krannert School of 

Management) from Purdue University. 

I REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE I Form Approved 

OM6 NO. 0704-0188 I 

Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data source 

gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the%ollection of information. Send mnts regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of th 

collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Se~ces, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports. 1215 Jeffersc 

Davis Highway, Suite 1204. Arlington. VA 222024302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188), Washington, DC 20503. 

1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 12. REPORT DATE 13. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED I October 2000 I Conference Publication 

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS 

National Educators' Workshop: Update 99 

Standard Experiments in Engineering, Materials Science, and Technology WU 251-10-01-01 

compiled by Ginger L. F. Arrington, James E. Gardner, James A. Jacobs, 

John E. Fillion, and P. K. Mallick I 

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION 

REPORT NUMBER 

NASA Langley Research Center 

Hampton, VA 2368 1-2199 L-18010 

9. SPONSORINGrrmONrrORlNG AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC 20546-0001; 

Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA 23504; 

Department of Defense, Washington, DC 20301-1000; 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Auburn Hills, MI 48326 

University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48128 

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 

10. SPONSORlNGmRONlTORlNG 

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER 

I Arrington and Gardner: Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA; Jacobs; Norfolk State University, Norfolk, VA 

Fillion: DaimlerChrysler, Auburn Hills, MI; and Mallick: University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI. 

12a. DlSTRlBUTlONlAVAllABlLrrY STATEMENT 12,b. DISTRIBUTION CODE 

Unclassified-Unlimited 

Subject Category 23 Distribution: Standard 

Availability: NASA CASI (301) 621-0390 

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words) 

This document contains a collection of experiments presented and demonstrated at the National Educators 

Workshop: Update 99, held at DairnlerChrysler, Auburn Hills, Michigan, from October 31-November 3, 1999. 

14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES 

Materials; Experiments; Education 706 

16. PRICE CODE 

A99 --- - 

17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 

OF REPORT OF THIS PAGE OF ABSTRACT OF ABSTRACT 

Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified I UL 

USN 7540-01 -280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89) 

Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18 

298-102