Some of the most beautiful pictures of nature have been taken

at a distance of more than 200 miles. From this altitude above

our planet you can see the major weather events and patterns that move across

the globe. The weather may appear

peaceful and uniform, but we know that

on the ground it can be violent and

changing, including climates that vary

substantially from region to region.

The US military encounters all types

of climates as the presence of our forces

extends to regions throughout the

world. Fort Shafter, for instance, is in a

semi-tropical climate and is host to a

number of US Army installations and

facilities. The first permanent military

post in Hawaii, Fort Shafter is located

near the southern coast of Oahu, just north of urban 

Honolulu in the Hawaiian Islands. Only 10 miles from this

Army post is Marine Corps Base Hawaii in Kaneohe Bay,

which is on a peninsula that protrudes from the eastern coast

of Oahu. The base, which is home to many facilities and

vehicles is subjected to a strong tropical marine environment. 4700 miles west of Kaneohe Bay is Kadena Air Base in

Okinawa, Japan. The typical climate in Okinawa consists of

high humidity, and the annual rainfall exceeds 70 inches.

Units at Kadena Air Force Base plan to transition to the 

F-35 (Joint Strike Fighter) when the new airframe enters

operation. 4500 miles northeast of Okinawa is the largest

Air Force installation in Alaska, Elemendorf Air Force Base

(AFB). Just outside Anchorage, which is located in coastal

lowlands and alpine slopes of a nearby mountain range, 

Elemendorf AFB rests in a sub-arctic climate. It is one of the

first homes for the F-22 Raptor. 2800 miles southeast of

Elmendorf is Fort Bliss – the largest military base in the continental US and a heavy armor training facility. Just north of

El Paso, Fort Bliss is located in a semi-arid climate.

All of these climates have a different impact on the equipment, vehicles, facilities and infrastructure owned by the military. In order for our forces to remain effective in their ability to defend our nation they must resist

the effects of the environment as they

operate in all of these climatic conditions. The US Army is testing an array

of materials and coatings for their performance in a variety of environmental

and climatic conditions. This research

program has been ongoing for several

years and the results will continue to

provide the Army with valuable data on

the compatibility of materials in their

intended application environments.

The intent is to be able to design new

weapon systems, equipment and infrastructure that can withstand its operating environment for many years without degradation of

performance, let alone failure.

The key advantage of the Army’s program is that researchers

do not have to travel the 12,000 miles from Oahu to Okinawa

to Alaska to El Paso, which is quite literally almost halfway

around the world, to perform field testing in each of those climates. Instead the Army has established a program in the

Hawaiian Islands which has eight microclimates located within a very short distance of each other. A more detailed

overview of this research program is provided in the feature

article of this issue. 

Our military is facing an ever-changing threat, and our

forces must be able to reach any area on this vast globe; they

must be capable of operating in all climates and environmental conditions to remain effective in their ability to defend our

nation. The Army’s Pacific Rim research and testing program

will help the future force be better equipped to withstand the

harsh effects of virtually any environment and climate to

which they are deployed.

Ben Craig

Editor

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About the Covers: (Front) A materials test rack equipped with a suite of environmental sensors and measurement tools sits on top of an old

lava field downwind from the active Kilauea volcano in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. (Back) Test racks are strategically located 

in several different microclimates within close proximity of each other in the Hawaiian Islands. Photos courtesy of the Hawaii Corrosion

Laboratory and George Hawthorn (background of this page).
INTRODUCTION

The Pacific Theater of Operations (PTO), Figure 1, is the staging

area for many of the US military’s units. This region is also home

to a vast array of assets, which include infrastructure, facilities, equipment, and vehicles

from all of the services and the Coast Guard.

In the state of Hawaii, for example, there are

more than 100 military installations covering

200,000 acres, which is 5% of the land area.

The US Army has the largest holding of 

the services with approximately 150,000

acres.[1] Much of the Army’s materiel is

moved within the PTO from location to 

location and as a result is exposed to the

extreme environments that are present in the region. Material

degradation is often accelerated in these harsh environments.

To reduce the cost of material degradation and to improve

combat readiness, it is important to understand the performance

of materials in such environments. When formalized, this knowledge will lead to the development of best practices and methods

for preserving and maintaining military assets that operate in

these environments. Furthermore, material-environment compatibility can lead to component and system designs that are more

resistant to degradation and thus result in a

longer operating life for the system.

Pacific Rim Environmental Degradation 

Materials Research Program

With the vast array of environments that are

scattered across the PTO and the substantial

number of existing materials and possible

materials combinations, it is an exceedingly

difficult proposition to test each materialenvironment compatibility. However, through

the Pacific Rim Environmental Degradation of Materials

Research Program (PREDMRP) the US Army is taking advantage

of the unique natural wonders of the Hawaiian Islands to accomplish much of this difficult task.

Hawaii is a premier natural laboratory because it has one of the

most spatially diverse climates on Earth, representing that of a

Lloyd H. Hihara

George A. Hawthorn

University of Hawaii at Manoa

Honolulu, HI

Robert T. Zanowicz

US Army Corrosion Office, ARDEC

Picatinny, NJ

Benjamin D. Craig

AMMTIAC

Rome, NY

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3 3

Figure 1. Pacific Theater of Operations.

Figure 2. Examples of Diverse Climates on Hawaii: Alpine (Top Left), Arid/Desert (Top Middle), Industrial (Top Right), Marine (Bottom Left),

Rainforest (Bottom Middle), Volcanic (Bottom Right).
4 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3

miniature continent. Essentially there are several very different types

of micro-climates and environments located within a relatively small

region. The following micro-climates and environments can be

found on the islands (see also Figure 2):

• Marine • Alpine

• Temperate • Volcanic (producing acid rain)

• Rain Forest • Industrial

• Desert • Agricultural

In order to capture the full effects of exposing Army materiel to a

diverse set of climates, such as that found in the PTO, without

expending a vast amount of monetary resources, the Army Corrosion Office (ACO) partnered with the University of Hawaii to set

up testing facilities in the various microclimates readily found on

the Hawaiian Islands.

History of the Program

The ACO, which is located at the Army Research Development and

Engineering Center (ARDEC), initiated the materials testing

research in 2003 as the Pacific Rim Corrosion Research Program

(PRCRP). However, prior to this effort the Army began some precursory work on outdoor and laboratory accelerated testing of materials in 2001.

The PRCRP involved corrosion and climatology research in

Hawaii and regions of the Pacific Theater of Operation. Corrosion

mapping studies of Hawaii’s microclimates, and corrosion studies of

advanced composites, ceramics, ceramer (hybrid ceramic-polymer)

coatings, and advanced electronics were conducted. Correlations

between corrosion in controlled environments in the laboratory and

corrosion in natural outdoor environments were also investigated.

To build on established testing facilities and expertise the ACO

and the University of Hawaii began the follow-on program, the

PREDMRP, in late 2006. The ongoing program is intended to

mitigate long-term corrosion problems through applied research

and the formulation of better test methods, coatings and material

substitutes. The PREDMRP uses both laboratory and atmospheric testing to accurately predict material degradation and achieve

the program objectives.

Overview of Tasks

The PREDMRP aims to reduce corrosion costs by developing 

a better understanding of the relationship between corrosion 

performance in the natural environment and accelerated corrosion tests. This will result in improved screening protocols 

and predictive capabilities such that materials requiring low

maintenance can be identified and effective corrosion protection

strategies can be developed. The PREDMRP also focuses on

developing ways to assess corrosion and coating degradation, as

well as developing novel ceramer coatings that have high resistance to solar degradation.

To accomplish these goals, the program focuses on four primary

areas of research and testing:

• Atmospheric corrosion – effects of solar radiation, specimen

orientation and sheltering

• Corrosion modeling

• Development of corrosion prototype sensors

• Corrosion protection strategies

This comprehensive approach will provide the Army with 1) a

better understanding of the correlation between accelerated corrosion testing and performance in the natural environment for alloys

and advanced materials, 2) predictive capabilities for corrosion

behavior in atmospheric and immersed conditions, 3) the ability to

assess corrosivity in real time with the utilization of sensors, and 4)

strategies to combat corrosion using novel ceramer coatings and corrosion preventive compounds.

Table 1. Testing and Analysis Equipment Used to Study Materials Degradation.

Equipment Purpose

Cyclic corrosion test chamber with fully Performs accelerated corrosion testing including industry-standard accelerated corrosion tests, 

programmable temperature, humidity and such as ASTM B117, GM 9540P and SAE J2334

spray cycle capability

Accelerated weathering chambers Simulates sunlight, rain cycles, temperature and humidity

Dispersive Raman spectrometer Analyzes coatings, polymer matrix composites, ceramics and corrosion products

Optical microscopes, including a scanning A variety of optical microscopes and image analysis software are used to characterize corrosion

probe microscope and surface morphology

Electrochemical quartz crystal nanobalance Studies the growth of oxide films on electrodes

Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer Analyzes coatings, polymer matrix composites and ceramics

with an Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) 

attachment and a Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis 

(TGA) unit

Scanning electron microscope with energy Analyzes microstructure and corrosion morphology and elemental composition of materials

dispersive X-ray and corrosion products

Secondary ion mass spectrometer Obtains chemical profiles of coatings. The data obtained helps to develop an understanding 

of the synthesis of new coatings.

Scanning Kelvin probe Obtains potential profiles over specimens under atmospheric conditions to study corrosion

Scanning vibrating electrode/scanning Studies corrosion currents and pH profiles over corroding sites on specimens immersed 

ion electrode in electrolytes

Nanoindenter Measures mechanical properties of thin ceramer coatings

3D Non-contact profilometer Measures parameters such as maximum pit depth and volume removed due to corrosion

Video Image Enhanced Evaluation of Quantifies damaged areas of corrosion specimens by using a combination of direct and diffuse

Weathering (VIEEW) lighting schemes to maximize the visual contrast between the damaged and undamaged areas 

of a specimen
University of Hawaii Capabilities 

and Facilities

The Army Corrosion Office has established a collaborative research relationship with the University of Hawaii to

leverage the advanced materials testing

and analysis equipment, facilities, and

expertise provided by the university. The

program utilizes materials preparation

equipment, including a convection oven,

drills, a hydraulic press, grinding and

polishing wheels, low speed saws, a sputtering machine and ultrasonic cleaners to

prepare specimens for testing. Table 1

lists some of the testing and analysis

equipment being used to study the

degradation of materials in various environments.

MICROCLIMATES AND TEST SITES

The Pacific Rim program has taken the

established practice of placing atmospheric test racks on an oceanfront beach

and expanded it to include testing in

several aggressive microclimates. Field

testing of materials degradation is performed in various microclimates at several different test sites. These test yards

are comprised of a pair of 4’ x 6’ racks

with a full instrumentation suite,

including sensors for temperature,

humidity, time-of-wetness, solar and

UV radiation, rainfall, wind speed and

direction, chloride deposition, and corrosivity. The test racks contain an array

of coated and uncoated material substrates as well as materials in different

configurations (e.g., galvanic couples).

The test yards are strategically located

at eight sites (rainforest, arid, marine

(two locations), agricultural, industrial,

volcanic – acid rain, and high altitude –

high solar radiation) and are set up to

serve as long-term test beds for future

research projects and programs. The

diversity of climate and environmental

conditions to which the test racks are

exposed allows trends in corrosion data

to be identified.

Alpine Microclimate (High Altitude)

The Earth System Research Laboratory’s Mauna Loa Observatory 

on the Big Island in Hawaii hosts one of the program’s test yards 

(Figure 3). The test racks are located at an elevation of approximately 11,140 feet above sea level, which is in an alpine microclimate, and

they face northeasterly winds. This test site is characterized by high

solar radiation, low temperatures, low humidity and rainfall, and low

time-of-wetness. In addition, it is not entirely uncommon for this

site to experience snowfall during the winter months. During a

recent snow event the access road to the

test site was closed due to heavy snowfall.

Marine Microclimate

Located across from the US Marine

Corps Base in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii, the

Coconut Island test yard (Figure 4) is 25

feet from the shoreline and thus exposed

to a severe marine environment. This site

is characterized by high humidity and

rainfall, low time-of-wetness, and high

deposition rate of chloride ions.

Rainforest Microclimate

Another test yard is located at a University of Hawaii-owned site, Lyon Aboretum on the island of Oahu, which

represents a tropical rainforest microclimate as it receives an average of 165

inches of rainfall each year. The test site

(Figure 5) is located approximately 6

miles from downtown Honolulu and is

characterized by high rainfall, high

humidity, high time-of-wetness, and low

chloride ion deposition rate. Based on

recent findings this microclimate with

high time-of-wetness can be as corrosive

as many saltwater marine climates.

Volcanic Microclimate (Acid Rain)

Another test yard is located on Kilauea

(Figure 6), which is an active volcano in

Volcanoes National Park on the Big

Island of Hawaii. Test racks are located

in the path of the volcanic plume and

near the ocean. This site is characterized

by severe acid rain (primarily sulfuric

and hydrochloric acids) with pH measurements as low as 3.

Arid, Industrial, and Agricultural 

Microclimates

The remaining test sites are located in

agricultural, arid, and industrial microclimates. The arid environment is characterized by a stable, dry climate, which is

found 14 miles from downtown Honolulu. The test yard exposed to industrial

conditions is located in an industrial

complex near refineries and power plants.

Portable Exposure Racks

In addition to the main test yards, the PREDMRP has developed

portable exposure racks (PERs) to test materials performance and

degradation in locations all over the island of Oahu as well as on

Logistic Support Vessels (Figure 7). These portable test platforms

have 13 substrates and 39 coupon specimens that are representative

of many metal alloys that are used in Army items. The PERs are

instrumented with a chloride candle, as well as temperature, relative

humidity, time-of-wetness and corrosion sensors.

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3 5

Figure 3. Materials Degradation Test Yard at the

Mauna Loa Observatory.

Figure 4. Coconut Island Materials Degradation Test

Yard.

Figure 5. Materials Degradation Test Rack in Rainforest Microclimate.

Figure 6. Materials Degradation Test Rack in Volcanic

(Acid Rain) Microclimate.
The University of Hawaii has established an agreement with the

Hawaiian Electric Company and other local, state and federal agencies to apply more than 40 PERs at various locations throughout the

Hawaiian Islands. This will enable the mapping of microclimates

and corrosion effects throughout all regions of the islands.

RESEARCH PROGRAMS

Correlation Studies for Natural Environments

The PREDMRP is focused on four primary tasks, one of which 

is the study of atmospheric corrosion. This task includes several 

subtasks, which are briefly described below.

Specimen Orientation and Cross-Contamination

Under this task the effect of specimen orientation on cross 

contamination of corrosion products is being evaluated. The

premise of this study is that exposure racks which house specimens

of different compositions in certain configurations may be contaminated with byproducts of adjacent materials.

Mapping of Corrosivity

Also being performed under this task is an analysis of the deployment of portable exposure racks. The intent of this subtask is to

characterize the atmospheric corrosivity of environments in which

Army materiel are fielded in the PTO, which will help identify

regions in Hawaii that have a similar corrosivity to other regions of

the PTO. This will determine if materials can be effectively

screened in Hawaii before deployment to other regions of the PTO.

Another objective of this subtask is to build a database linking corrosion behavior of the thirteen metals on the PERs to weather and

environmental data.

Corrosion Behavior of Metal-Matrix Composites

The corrosion mechanisms and corrosion protection strategies of

continuous-fiber/aluminum metal-matrix composites (MMCs)

and particulate-reinforced/aluminum MMCs are also being investigated. The corrosion behavior of these MMCs is being studied in

natural and laboratory environments.

Materials Compatibility

One purpose of this subtask is to mimic corrosion of assembled

components that are comprised of a variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials. The corrosion mechanisms and corrosion protection strategies of aluminum materials that are coupled to

ceramics, ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs), and polymer-matrix

composites (PMCs) are being studied under this task. The influence

of environmental parameters is being investigated, and the behavior

of the material couples in natural environments is being correlated

to their performance in laboratory tests.

Testing Unexploded Ordnance Materials

Corrosion testing of 1040 steels, which are commonly used in

munitions, is being conducted in various soil types. This study will

provide the Army with information that can aid in the cleanup of

buried munitions and unexploded ordnance (UXO).

Corrosion Modeling

The objective of this task is to develop corrosion models that 

accurately predict the occurrence and rate of corrosion in various

environments. The models are being constructed based on 

experimental observations and relevant theoretical corrosion

mechanisms. In this task, corrosion rates predicted by atmospheric models will be compared to actual corrosion rates observed 

on the PERs.

Corrosion models using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are

also being developed under this task to simulate and verify corrosion

mechanisms of aluminum MMCs in immersed conditions. These

corrosion models will be able to address two- and three-dimensional problems so that localized corrosion can be considered. The 

models will account for corrosion currents, pH, and the formation

of corrosion products, and they can be used for other applications

by modifying boundary conditions.

Corrosion Sensors

The objective of the third task in the PREDMRP is to develop and

test prototype sensors in various environments to determine sensor

characteristics. Sensors that have different geometric configurations

are being investigated. In addition, researchers are studying the

response of sensors to electrolytes with various chloride concentrations. The longevity of the prototype sensors is also being evaluated.

Time-of-wetness (TOW) is a critical parameter in corrosion studies and artificial leaf electrical resistance sensors are used to collect

TOW data. The effect of a coating on the drying characteristics of

the TOW sensors is being studied. Since the chloride content of

rainwater may have a significant effect on the output of the sensor,

it may also serve as a chloride indicator. Thus the TOW sensors are

being studied to determine how the effect of chloride concentration

affects the drying characteristics of the sensors.

Corrosion Protection Strategies

In the final task in the PREDMRP, novel ceramer coatings are being

synthesized and evaluated as corrosion barriers. These silane-based

ceramer coatings are being prepared via sol-gel process, and their

chemical, physical, mechanical, and degradation properties and

characteristics are being studied. The primary objective of this

research is to develop a low-temperature curing, environmentally

friendly coating that has reactive functionalities such that it can

bind with a topcoat material. The ceramer coatings can also be used

without additional topcoats. The research in this task will also

include the testing and evaluation of commercial-off-the-shelf corrosion protection compounds in the climatic conditions described

in this article.

CONCLUSIONS

With support from the University of Hawaii, the Army has established a state-of-the-art corrosion laboratory that is co-located with

unique natural microclimate atmospheric testing resources. With this

capability, the Army can support corrosion research, material analysis,

testing and screening of corrosion preventive compounds, material

degradation, and advanced ceramic-polymer coating development

research. This enables the Army to access and interface with other

DoD components in Hawaii and other regions of the PTO. The testing capabilities and resources are also positioned to provide support to

other DoD organizations as well as industry and academia.

The climatic conditions being studied are not confined only to

the PTO but are typically found worldwide in many operational

6 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3

Figure 7. Portable Exposure

Rack on a Logistic Support

Vessel.
http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3 7

Dr. Lloyd H. Hihara is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Hawaii at Manoa (UHM). He is also the director of the Hawaii Corrosion Laboratory, which he established in 2000 to conduct corrosion research in the varied microclimates found in the Hawaiian Islands. He is the principal investigator of the Pacific Rim Environmental Degradation of Materials Research Program. One of his main interests is the correlation between

accelerated corrosion testing in the laboratory to corrosion behavior in natural environments. He also investigates the corrosion of metal-matrix composites, ceramer coatings, micro-electronics, and the compatibility between ceramics, composites, and metals. Dr. Hihara was a recipient of the Guy Bengough Award from the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (2005) and a Presidential Young Investigator Award from the National Science

Foundation (1990). He is also a Boeing Company A.D. Welliver Faculty Fellow (2000). Dr. Hihara received his B.S. (1983) in Mechanical Engineering

at UHM; and a S.M. (1985) in Mechanical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he specialized in the mechanical

behavior of materials. He received a PhD (1989) in Metallurgy from MIT, where he conducted research in the H.H. Uhlig Corrosion Laboratory.

Mr. George A. Hawthorn is a Mechanical Engineer and researcher in the Hawai‘i Corrosion Laboratory at the University of Hawai‘i in Manoa. His

research interests include metal matrix composites (MMCs), corrosivity mapping and atmospheric monitoring. In addition to research, he is responsible

for the design, installation and maintenance of corrosion test sites in Hawai‘i as well as providing technical support to graduate students and researchers.

Mr. Hawthorn is originally from England, where he received certifications in pipe and plate welding and surface-supplied hard hat diving. He worked as

a diver and welder in the construction industry both in the UK and the US for a number of years before embarking on a career in engineering. He received

a B.S. and an M.S. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Hawai‘i at Manoa. Mr. Hawthorn became a US citizen in 2005.

Mr. Robert T. Zanowicz is a Systems Engineer at the Army Corrosion Office, Metallic Materials Technology Branch, located at the Army Armament

Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC), Picatinny Arsenal, NJ. He is the program manager for the Pacific Rim Environmental Degradation of Materials Research Program. Prior to this, he managed a variety of technical programs for the Army and the DoD that include the areas of corrosion abatement and pollution prevention technology. In addition, he has managed international and NATO cooperative armament programs and served

as an engineer to support the Army’s 105 and 155mm towed artillery systems. Mr. Zanowicz has a B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from New Jersey

Institute of Technology (1983) and a M.S. in Management from Florida Institute of Technology (1999). He also completed the Corrosion Fundamentals

and Experimental Methods Course given by Pennsylvania State University and has obtained Lean Six Sigma Green Belt Certification.

Mr. Benjamin D. Craig is a Research Engineer and has been supporting the Defense Technical Information Center’s (DTIC) Information Analysis 

Center (IAC) program for seven years. Previously with the Advanced Materials and Processes Technology IAC (AMPTIAC), Mr. Craig now provides his

research and engineering expertise to the Advanced Materials, Manufacturing & Testing (AMPTIAC’s successor) and Weapon Systems Technology IACs

(AMMTIAC and WSTIAC, respectively), which are operated by Alion Science and Technology. He has authored numerous technical papers, reports,

and presentations. Mr. Craig’s research interests include electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids, blast and penetration resistant materials for

weapon systems and structures, high temperature superconductors, and corrosion prevention and mitigation of military assets. He is currently serving as

the Editor-in-Chief of both the AMMTIAC Quarterly and the WSTIAC Quarterly and is a contributing editor to CorrDefense. Mr. Craig received B.S. and

M.S. degrees in Chemical Engineering from Syracuse University.

theaters. Because of the new reality of military action in the 21st

century, armaments, systems and materiel may be pre-postitioned

and deployed anywhere in the world and might encompass one or

more of these climatic conditions.

The PREDMRP and its predecessor program, the PRCRP, have

already achieved many objectives, including the development and

deployment of a network of atmospheric corrosion test yards. The

array of natural test sites will enable materials to be characterized 

in a broad spectrum of environmental and climatic conditions that

are of interest to the Army. The determination and control of the

corrosion behavior of advanced materials and electronics will be

essential to the development of future combat systems with greater

reliability and durability. The study of new corrosion-resistant 

coatings will help to reduce corrosion failures and costs. The study

of buried munitions will help the Army to understand and reduce

potential corrosion problems. Testing of commercial corrosion 

preventive compounds will aid the Army in screening products for

use in various applications.

When the PREDMRP is complete, the research findings and

developments will be integrated into useable design criteria for the

material developer, system designer, and the end user. There are

many potential benefits of the PREDMRP, including decreasing

life-cycle costs of weapon systems, reducing the associated maintenance and liability costs, and increasing Army readiness by reducing

equipment downtime. Based on the successes of the program, the

Army plans to support future projects including performance of

long-term atmospheric testing of actual Army components.

Historically corrosion in the DoD has been regarded as a maintenance problem to be dealt with after a product is manufactured and

handed off to the warfighter. However, through the research performed under this program corrosion can be addressed in the design

stage instead of relying strictly on costly and repetitive maintenance

procedures that occur throughtout a product’s lifecycle.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Mr. Ryan Sugamoto of the Hawaii 

Corrosion Laboratory for providing many of the photographs in this

article. The authors are also grateful to the following people who

have contributed and assisted throughout the duration of the program: Mr. John Theis, Army Armament RD&E Center, Picatinny

Arsenal, NJ; Dr. Ralph Adler, Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen,

MD; Mr. Carl Handsy, Army Tank-Automotive RD&E Center,

Warren, MI; Mr. Andrew Wood, USARPAC, Ft. Shafter, HI; Ms.

Sheila Randolph, Army Science Advisor, USARPAC, Ft. Shafter, HI;

Mr. Daniel Schmidt, Army Corrosion Office, ARDEC; and Jules

Senske, ARDEC. The authors also gratefully acknowledge the support of Mr. Lance Miyahara, Mr. Alan Ing and Mr. Chester

Tonokawa of the Hawaiian Electric Company; Dr. Jo-Ann Leong,

Prof. Thomas Giambelluca, Prof. Marcelo Kobayashi, Prof. Chittaranjan Ray, Mr. Ray Baker, and Mr. Michael Nullet of the University of Hawaii; Dr. John Barnes of the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration; Dr. David Foote and Dr. Rhonda Loh

of Volcanoes National Park, and Mr. John Repp of Elzly Technology.

REFERENCE

[1] Kelly, J.L., “The Military,” Atlas of Hawaii, Third Edition, ed. by S.P.

Juvik and J.O. Juvic, University of Hawaii Press, 1998.
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and a method to correlate these results to actual life.

Please be kind enoughto supply me withinformation on the

latest technologies to do NDT of pre-stressed concrete pipelines

of diameters ranging from 1m to 3.5m.

I needthe followinginformation about digital radiography:1)its

feasibility duringmaintenance/overhaul of steam generators of

thermal power plants, and 2) data of thermal power plants

which are using this technology.

Do you have information on hydrogen embrittlement data on

4340 and 300M steels? Stress versus embrittlement, baking

time versus hydrogen content, empirical formulas?

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INTRODUCTION

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is another widely applied inspection technology. Ultrasonic methods are an extremely diverse set of techniques based upon the generation and detection of mechanical

vibrations or waves in test objects. The objects that can be tested

are not limited to metals or even to solids.

The methods enabled by ultrasonic technology are often used to

detect and size internal flaws in metals, ceramics and composites,

but they can also be used to assess the integrity of interfacial material bonding, to measure thickness and extent of corrosion, and to

determine physical properties such as the structure, grain size, and

elastic constants of various materials.

The term ultrasonic refers to sound waves of frequency above the

limit of human hearing, approximately 20 kHz. The frequencies

between 1 and 10 MHz encompass the range used for most ultrasonic techniques, although lower and higher frequencies are sometimes used for special applications. Ultrasonic velocity in a material

is a simple function of its modulus and density, and thus ultrasonic methods are uniquely suited to materials characterization studies. In addition, the sound waves are strongly reflected at physical

boundaries where materials properties change, and thus they are

often used for thickness measurements and crack detection.

HISTORY AND RECENT ADVANCEMENTS

The study of ultrasonics originated in the nineteenth century;

however the use of ultrasonic waves for nondestructive testing

(NDT) is more recent, beginning in the late 1920s. Developments since the 1930s enabled ultrasonic techniques to become 

a widely used NDT method. In the years following 1955,

advancements in ultrasonics were rapid and extensive. The rapid

development of instrumentation for ultrasonics, which was

spurred by the technological advances from the 1950s, continues

today. From the 1980s through the present, computers have provided technicians with smaller and more rugged instrumentation

that have greater capabilities.

In recent years, ultrasonic imaging techniques have greatly 

progressed, and the need to extract exact data from UT has led to

the development of more quantitative test techniques.[1] Other

recent advancements, including development of non-contact

techniques for the generation and detection of ultrasonic energy

are evolving around lasers and eletromagnetic tranducers.[2]

Phased array ultrasonics is now available in portable instruments.

With this approach, the timed or phased firing of arrays of ultrasonic elements in a single transducer allows for precise tailoring 

of the resulting ultrasonic waves in the test object.[3, 4]

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES

Ultrasonic inspection is based on introducing beams of ultrasonic

energy (usually 0.1 to 25 MHz high frequency sound waves) 

into materials and determining the resulting perturbations in the

energy in order to detect surface and subsurface flaws in the 

material. The sound waves travel through the material with some

loss in energy (attenuation) and are also reflected at interfaces.

The reflected beam, or in some cases the transmitted beam, is 

then analyzed to determine the presence, size and location of 

flaws and discontinuities.

The basic electronic instrument used in pulsed UT contains a

source of voltage spikes to activate a piezoelectric transducer (the

pulser) and a display mechanism that permits interpretation of the

received ultrasonic acoustic impulses. Figure 1 shows a typical

block diagram of the basic

instrumentation system.

In contrast to light waves 

or x-rays which are a form of

electromagnetic energy, ultrasonic waves are a form of

mechanical energy that consist of oscillations or vibrations of the atoms or

molecules of a material. Ultrasonic sound waves behave

much in the same way as

audible sound: they propagate through solids, liquids and gases

but not through vacuum. The interaction of ultrasonic waves

with materials and flaws can now be successfully modeled using

various simulation techniques.[6]

George A. Matzkanin

H. Thomas Yolken

AMMTIAC techsolutions solutions 65 Austin, TX

A Brief Introduction to Precious Metals

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3

Selecting a Nondestructive Testing Method, Part V: Ultrasonic Testing

9

This edition of TechSolutions is the fifth installment in a series dedicated to the subject of nondestructive testing. 

The previous installments introduced the concept of nondestructive testing and focused on visual inspection, eddy current

testing, and radiographic testing. The current article continues the series and provides a general and informative overview

of the ultrasonic nondestructive testing method. In addition, this article will highlight some of the physical principles,

inspection requirements, and implementation considerations involved in an effective ultrasonic inspection process. Once

the series on nondestructive testing methods is complete, we will combine all of the articles into a valuable desk reference

on nondestructive testing and place it on our website. – Editor

Figure 1. Basic Pulse Echo System

for Ultrasonic Testing. [5]

Timer

Pulser

Display

Horizontal

Vertical Amplifier

Sweep Generator
techsolutions 6

10 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3

Wave Generation and Detection

In most cases, ultrasonic waves for NDT are generated and

detected using piezoelectric transducers that require a couplant

to transfer the ultrasonic waves between the transducer and the

sample. Piezoelectric transducers contain piezoelectric crystals

(e.g., barium titinate, lead zirconate, lead titinate) that change

shape rapidly when an electric current is applied. They also

behave in the reverse by generating an electric field when they

are rapidly stressed and strained. Ultrasonic waves for NDT

can also be generated and detected by several other methods.

One such method utilizes non-contact air-coupled transducers,

which are based on microelectromechnical systems (MEMS)

technology. Another method generates a non-contact pulsed

laser by rapid thermal expansion or ablation at the surface of

the sample, the detection of the generated ultrasonic waves is

accomplished using laser interferometery or air-coupled transducers. In addition, magnetic metals can also be inspected by

ultrasonics using noncontacting electromechanical acoustic

transducers (EMATS) to both generate and detect the ultrasonic waves.[5] Ultrasonic inspection usually detects flaws or

discontinuities by one or more of the following:

• Reflection of sound from interfaces that are materials

boundaries or discontinuities in the material

• Transit time or time of flight of the ultrasonic waves

• Attenuation of the ultrasonic waves

• Features in the spectral response of the transmitted or

reflected signal

Types of Ultrasonic Waves

There are a number of different types of ultrasonic waves,

including: longitudinal waves, transverse or shear waves, surface or Raleigh waves, and Lamb or plate waves. Longitudinal

waves travel through the material with each particle vibrating

parallel to the direction of the wave motion as an alternating

series of compressions and rarefactions; they are the most commonly used type of waves for ultrasonic inspections. Transverse

waves are also used extensively in ultrasonic inspections and 

are analogous to the vibrations of a rope that is shaken rhythmically. The atoms or molecules vibrate up and down in a

plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. 

Surface waves, sometimes used for ultrasonic inspection, travel

along the flat or curved surface of relatively thick parts. Lamb

waves, used in some cases for ultrasonic inspection, propagate

in plates of material that are a few wavelengths thick. Reflections at interfaces depend to a large degree on the physical 

state of the materials at the interface and to a lesser degree 

on the specific physical properties of the materials. Tables 1

and 2 show the main advantages and disadvantages of ultrasonic testing.

INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS

Ultrasonic methods of inspection are applied to measure a 

variety of material characteristics and conditions. They are

applied in the flaw detection mode for the detection of surface

and internal anomalies in test objects. Test objects must 

Table 1. Advantages of Ultrasonic Inspection. [5]

• Superior penetrating power, up to a few meters in many parts and up to 6 meters axially

• High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws

• Greater accuracy in determining the position of internal flaws, estimating their size, and characterizing their orientation, shape and nature

• Only one surface needs to be accessible

• Operation is electronic, which provides almost instantaneous indication of flaws. Suitable for immediate interpretation, automation, 

rapid scanning, in-line production monitoring, and process control

• Volumetric scanning ability to inspect from the front surface to the rear surface of a part

• Nonhazardous operation

• Portability

• Provides a digital output that can be used by a computer to characterize defects and materials properties

Table 2. Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Inspection. [5]

• Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians

• Extensive technical knowledge is required for the proper development of inspection procedures

• Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or not homogenous are difficult to inspect

• Discontinuities that are in a thin layer immediately below the surface are difficult to detect

• Couplants are usually required to provide transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between transducers and parts being inspected

• Physical reference standards are needed, both for calibrating equipment and characterizing flaws
http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3 11

AMMTIAC A DVANCED M ATERIALS , M ANUFACTURING AND T ESTING

support propagation of acoustic energy and have a geometric

configuration that allows the introduction and detection of

acoustic energy in the reflection, transmission or scattered

energy configurations. General process steps include [7]:

1. An ultrasonic transducer is located in contact or in close

proximity to the test object

2. The transducer is energized in a pulsed mode to direct and

propagate acoustic energy into the test object

3. Acoustic energy is transmitted, reflected and scattered

within the test object

4. Energy within the test object is transmitted or redirected

by internal interfaces (test object geometry features or internal

anomalies)

5. Transmitted or redirected energy from the test object is

detected by a transducer located on or near the test object

6. The transmitted or redirected energy is analyzed in the

time and/or frequency domains, and interpretation of the

internal condition of the test object is made by the pattern and

amplitude features.

Special equipment and specialized probes are required to 

perform the inspection. Procedure development, calibration

artifacts and process control are required to assure reproducibility of response in the selected test object. The method is 

a surface and volume inspection process, and procedures are

varied to increase sensitivity and resolution of specific test

object features.

Manual and Automatic Techniques

Depending on the application, the inspection may be performed

manually or automatically. Manual (hand) scanning is performed using instruments that have an oscilloscope type readout. Operator interpretation is made by pattern recognition,

signal magnitude, timing and respective hand-scan position.

There may be significant variations in instrument read-out due

to variations in manual scanning. A permanent record of inspection is not provided by this method.

Automated scanning is performed using an instrumented

scanner that keeps track of probe position and automated 

signal detection (time, phase and amplitude) such that a

response map of the internal structure of the test object can be

generated. Resolution of the system is somewhat dependent on

the fidelity of the scan index and on the filtering and signal 

processing that are applied in signal detection. A scan map

and/or commented report may be generated by automated

ultrasonic scanning and instrumentation systems. The relative

features of manual scan and automatic scan are summarized 

and compared in Table 3.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Equipment Portability

Ultrasonic testing instruments may be grouped into three 

categories. The first category includes manual instruments that

are typically portable send/receive units (there are many commercially available to choose from). The second category

includes customized instruments that are programmed for 

specific industrial applications and are usually not portable

(some of these contain large water baths or “water squirting

systems” and automated scanning devices). Figure 2 shows a

typical large, automated ultrasonic quality control system.

Finally, the third category includes special purpose systems 

that are used typically in the laboratory. Within the past few

years, a new, small, portable, hand-held ultrasound camera has

become available that provides a direct image of the part being

inspected.[8]

Training/Certification

One of the most critical aspects of the UT process is the 

qualification of the testing personnel, because the quality of

the test is highly dependent on the skills and knowledge of the

inspector. Even with highly automated equipment, correct 

procedures including calibration must be carefully followed to

achieve acceptable results. There are a number of commercially available ultrasonic NDT training courses available. In 

addition, the American Society for Nondestructive Testing

(ASNT) has three programs for the qualification and certification of NDT personnel [9]:

1) ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A provides

guidelines to employers for personnel qualification and certification in NDT, and it requires the employer to develop and

implement a written practice for personnel qualification and

certification in NDT.

2) ANSI/ASNT CP-189, Standard for the Qualification and 

Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel, resembles

SNT-TC-1A but establishes specific requirements for the

qualification and certification for three different levels of

ASNT certification. Level I and Level II are specifically 

covered, while Level III references an examination administered by ASNT. It should be noted that CP-189 is a national

Figure 2. Large Automated Quality Control

System Containing

Modular Ultrasonic

Test Component.[5]

(Copyright 2007 

© Reprinted with 

permission from the 

American Society 

for Nondestructive

Testing.)

Table 3. Manual (Hand) vs. Automated Scanning and Inspection. [7]

Manual Automated

Cost of Inspection Low Moderate

Cost of Equipment Moderate High

Operator Skill Requirements High Moderate

Process Control Requirements Moderate High

Process Variance/Margin Requirements Moderate Low

Carriage

Scanning Bridge

Vertical Tubes

Water System

Electronic

Cabinet

Operator

Console

Printer
12 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3

techsolutions 6

consensus standard as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

3) The ASNT Central Certification Program

(ACCP), unlike SNT-TC-1A and CP-189, is a

third party certification process that identifies

qualification and certification attributes for

Level II and Level III NDT personnel. The

ASNT program certifies that the individual

has the skills and knowledge for many NDT

method applications.

In addition to ASNT programs, the Aerospace

Industries Association has promulgated a national consensus standard for certification and qualification of NDT personnel in the aerospace

industries: NAS 410, National Aerospace Standard (NAS) Certification and Qualification of

NDE Personnel. In the international arena, the

International Standards Organization (ISO) has

established international standard ISO 9712,

Nondestructive Testing-Qualification and Certification of Personnel, Third Edition. [10]

Cost

Hand-held, portable UT equipment is generally

low cost (around $10,000) and is intended for

discontinuity detection and thickness gauging.

These instruments provide a video display of the

ultrasonic signals. More elaborate, conventional

transportable UT systems generally cost between

$25K and $30K. Industrial production ultrasonic inspection systems are often modular and offer

multi-channel capabilities. These systems can be

easily optimized for a particular production

requirement through plug-in modules and

changes in computer control software. The initial

cost of a modular system is typically around

$50,000. Other hardware, such as water immersion tanks, water squirting systems, laser sound

generation, and automated scanning systems,

can also substantially add to the cost of the systems (another $50,000 or more).

SELECTED EXAMPLES

Figure 3 shows an inspector examining a composite material that sustained impact damage. The

immersion tank is used for large structures but

can be used for small components as well (Figure

4). The ultrasonic scanning system capable of

high resolution enables precision inspection of a

vast array of specimens while maintaining exacting precision in the inspection area of interest.

Figure 5 shows an aircraft being inspected with 

a portable UT system. A permanent ultrasonic

testing station, as shown in Figure 6, can provide

continued high quality testing capabilities for 

various materials and components.

CONCLUSIONS

Ultrasonic testing is a mature technology with a

strong physics foundation and maturing modeling of inspection results capability. There is widespread availability of user-friendly, affordable,

commercial equipment and complete turnkey 

systems. Ultrasonic testing equipment providers

offer a broad array of equipment types to meet the

needs of users, including: hand-held devices;

portable, computerized multifunction instruments; modular systems for industrial production; and laboratory instruments for R&D. The

following ultrasound sources and detectors can be

chosen to meet inspection requirements: piezoelectric transducers; EMATS; lasers and laser

interferometers; and air-coupled transducers.

Ultrasonic NDT is widely used in manufacturing quality control, manufacturing acceptance testing, and for in-service inspection. It can

be readily applied to metals, composite laminates, ceramics, and polymers to locate and

define discontinuities. It is used to determine

thickness of materials, the quality of adhesively

bonded structures, the mechanical modulus of

materials, and materials characteristics such as

grain size and orientation. Many applications

are found in the petroleum and aerospace/

aeronautical industries, and the method is commonly used in nuclear power plants and on

structural concrete infrastructure.

REFERENCES

[1] Maev, R.G., “New Generation of High Resolution

Ultrasonic Imaging Technique for Material Characterization and NDT,” Proceedings of ECNDT 2006, 9th

European Conference on NDT, Berlin, Germany, 2006,

pp. 1-7.

[2] Blodgett, D.W. and K.C. Baldwin, “Laser-Based

Ultrasonics: Applications at APL,” Johns Hopkins APL

Technical Digest, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2005, pp. 36-45.

[3] Drinkwater, B.W. and P.D. Wilcox, “Ultrasonic

Arrays for Non-destructive Evaluation: A Review,”

NDT&E International, Vol. 39, 2006, pp. 525-541.

[4] Kramb, V., “Use of Phased Array Ultrasonics in

Figure 6. A Materials Engineer

Positions the Ultrasonic 

Transducer for a Scan while a

Computer Specialist Enhances

Scanning and Image Analysis

Capabilities.

Figure 3. An Impact-Damaged

Graphite/Epoxy Specimen is

Positioned for Inspection in

the Immersion Tank for Large

Structures.

Figure 5. Manual Ultrasonic

Inspection of an Aircraft.

Figure 4. A Prototype Composite Airfoil is Aligned for Ultrasonic Inspection. Automated

inspections can be made of

small or large components in

this tank.
Aerospace Engine Component Inspections: Transition from Conventional Transducers,” 16th WCNDT 2004-World Conference on NDT,

Vol. 9, No. 11, November 2004.

[5] Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition, Vol. 7: Ultrasonic

Testing, Technical Editors G.L. Workman and D. Kishoni, American

Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH, 2007.

[6] Thompson, R.B, “Ultrasonic Benchmarking: Past Progress and

Future Goals,” CP700, Review of Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 23, pp. 1529-1536.

[7] Nondestructive Evaluation Capabilities Data Book, 3rd Edition,

NTIAC, DB-97-02, November 1997, http:ammtiac.alionscience.

com/products.

[8] Lasser, M., “A Novel High Speed, High Resolution, Ultrasound

Imaging System,” Composites for the Real World – Proceedings of the

29th International SAMPE Technical Conference, Orlando, FL, 1997,

pp. 179-185.

[9] American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH,

http://www.asnt.org/

[10] International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2005, http://www.iso.org/

[11] Roye, W. and S. Schieke, “Ultrasonic Probes for Special Applications,” Proceedings of ECNDT 2006, 9th European Conference on

NDT, Berlin, Germany, 2006, pp. 1-10.

GENERAL REFERENCES

Zhao, X., T. Qian, Z. Popovic, R. Zane, G. Mei, C. Walsh, T. Paing,

and C. Kwan, “A Wireless Ultrasonic Guided Wave Structural Health

Monitoring System for Aircraft Wing Inspection,” Review of Progress

in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 26B, D.O. Thompson

and D.E. Chimenti, eds., 2007, pp. 1548-1555.

Voillaume, H., D. Simonet, J.-L. Arnaud, P. Barbeau, C. Brousset, T.

Drake, M. Osterkamp, and M. Dubois, “Analysis of Commercial

Aeronautics Applications of Laser Ultrasonics for Composite Manufacturing,” Proceedings of ECNDT 2006, 9th European Conference

on NDT, Berlin, Germany, 2006, pp. 1-8.

Na, J.K., “Ultrasonic Inspection of Thin High Performance Composite Structures,” Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive

Evaluation, Vol. 26B, D.O. Thompson and D.E. Chimenti, eds.

2007, pp. 967-974.

Rose, J., “A Baseline and Vision of Ultrasonic Guided Wave Inspection

Potential,” Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology (Transactions of the

ASME), Vol. 124, No. 3, 2002, pp. 273-282.

Nel, M.D., “Ultrasonic Phased Arrays: An Insight into an Emerging

Technology,” Proceedings of the National Seminar on Non-Destructive

Evaluation, Hyderabad, India, 2006. pp. 369-372.

AMMTIAC A DVANCED M ATERIALS , M ANUFACTURING AND T ESTING

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3 13

Ultrasonic Testing Summary

Discontinuity types • Cracks

(e.g., what types the method can detect) • Holes

• Corrosion

• Impact damage

• Delaminations

Size of discontinuities • Capable of detecting embedded flaws with a surface area of 1.3 mm2

or 0.002 in2

Limitations • Complex geometries and very small components are difficult to inspect

• Detailed inspection procedure

Advantages • Superior penetrating power in all media (solid, liquid, gas)

• High sensitivity

• Locates flaw/discontinuity location accurately

• Only one surface must be accessible to carry out inspection of 

component/system

• Can be used to determine physical properties of materials (e.g., structure, 

grain size, elastic constants, etc.)

• Can be used on metals, ceramics, polymers, composites and laminates

Inspector training (level and/or availability) • Training available through ASNT, ASNI, etc.

Inspector certification required • Strongly recommended that inspection personnel are trained and certified

Equipment • Portable equipment available

• Automated systems capable of inspecting large components available

Relative cost of inspection • Relatively inexpensive equipment costs ($10K - $50K), but larger systems 

and more sophisticated equipment are more costly
14 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3

For a listing of upcoming materials, manufacturing & testing related events, please visit our website: 

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/calendar

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a mature testing method, but at the

same time it is continually being advanced as new technologies and techniques are developed. The

American Society for Nondestructive

Testing (ASNT) recently published

the Third Edition of its handbook on

ultrasonic testing

to capture the

latest advancements in the

rapidly changing

field. As Volume

7 in the Nondestructive Testing

(NDT) Handbook Series,

Ultrasonic Testing covers this widely

used NDT technique in sufficient detail to serve as a useful

technical reference for the experienced testing engineer. Introductory sections on the scientific and technical principles of

the various technologies and techniques are also included to

provide an informative resource to those looking into ultrasonic testing as a possible test method for their inspection

requirements. This 588-page reference book on ultrasonic

testing includes – among several other topics – chapters on

ultrasonic wave generation, propagation, and detection; ultrasonic signal processing; instrumentation for UT; ultrasonic

scanning; ultrasonic characterization of material properties;

UT of advanced materials; metals applications of UT; and UT

in various industrial and aerospace applications. A glossary is

included to provide definitions and descriptions of technical

terms associated with UT.

In terms of manufacturing, ultrasonic testing can be used for

quality control purposes to identify defects in produced materials and components. For example, UT is useful for materials

characterization of mechanical properties, internal discontinuities, microstructure and morphology, and elastic constants.

The ultrasonic testing handbook contains detailed technical

information on nondestructive testing techniques to assess such

material characteristics.

Ultrasonic testing can also characterize and assess material

failures, such as corrosion, radiation damage, embrittlement,

impact damage, fatigue, creep, etc. Metals, ceramics, polymers,

composites, coatings, and laminates can all be tested using

ultrasonic techniques. The handbook provides pertinent reference information for materials and test engineers interested in

performing analyses of such material classes and failure modes

using UT.

The development of the ultrasonic testing handbook was a

collaborative effort with contributions from experts that are

working in this field for academia, industry and government

organizations. The reference therefore gives a comprehensive

overview of the proven and potential applications of UT techniques. Detailed procedural information as well as equipment

and instrumentation calibration methods are included

throughout the book.

The ultrasonic testing handbook, which was published in

2007, is currently available from ASNT. The reference can be

purchased in CD-ROM and/or bound hardcover form from

www.asnt.org.

New Technical Resource for Scientists and Engineers: 

Handbook on Ultrasonic Testing

February 2008

Materials Innovations in an Emerging Hydrogen 

Economy

24-27 February, 2008

Cocoa Beach, FL

http://www.ceramics.org/meetings/hydrogen2008/

2008 SME (Society for Mining, Metallurgy, & 

Exploration) Meeting

24-27 February, 2008

Salt Lake City, UT

http://www.smenet.org/meetings/

March 2008

16th Annual Conference on Quality in the Space and

Defense Industries

3-4 March, 2008

Cape Canaveral, FL

http://www.asq.org/conferences/aviation-space-defense/index.html

TMS 2008 Annual Meeting and Exhibition

9-13 March, 2008

New Orleans, LA

http://www.tms.org/TMSHome.html

PIM 2008 (International Conference on Powder Injection

Molding of Metals, Ceramics, and Carbides)

10-12 March, 2008

Long Beach, CA

http://www.mpif.org/

2008 MRS Spring Meeting

25-27 March, 2008

San Francisco, CA

http://www.mrs.org/s_mrs/index.asp

6th International Conference on Mechanics 

of Time Dependent Materials Conference

30 March – 4 April, 2008

Monterey, CA

http://www.ae.utexas.edu/MTDM08/
http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 3 15

AMMTIAC Directory

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