NASA

Technical Memorandum 104788

Johnson Space Center

Research and

Technology

Annual Report 1993
About the cover...

The illustration is composed of images that represent some of NASA's

recent technical and scientific achievements--achievements that are a

direct result of NASA's goal of using research and exploration involving

humans to define and develop opportunities for research and technology

that yield economic and intellectual benefits. The images for the cover

were selected by Dr. Kumar Krishen; the illustration was created by artist

Vicki Cantrell of the Management Services Division.
Foreword

The mission of the Johnson Space Center (JSC) is

to advance the national capability for human

exploration and utilization of space. Together with

industry and academic institutions that support us,

we overcome the challenges of distance and hostile

environments to advance knowledge, inspire

humanity, and broaden the human experience.

As the lead center for U. S. human space flight

programs, we design, develop, and test spacecraft

and associated systems for human space flights,

select and train astronauts and mission specialists,

and participate in medical, life sciences,

technology, and engineering experiments. JSC

conducts advanced research and development

projects in medical and life sciences, materials

technology, robotics and automation,

communications and data processing, propulsion

and power, avionics, guidance and control, human

support, and software and computer technology.

Our strategic goals include strengthening and

enhancing NASA as a recognized world-class

technical and scientific organization through space

research and exploration involving humans and by

defining and developing opportunities for research

and technology applications that yield economic

and intellectual benefits. We emphasize dual

development opportunities and provide interfaces

to commercial entrepreneurs to facilitate beneficial

development, while maintaining focus on specific

technical challenges required by NASA space

programs.

I believe that sharing research and technology

accomplishments through this report, and initiating

and continuing collaborations with other NASA

centers, government agencies, academia and

research communities, and industry is crucial to our

strategy. Our goal is to be responsive to the needs

of our partners in industry, academia, and

government and to provide relevant returns to the

American people. In this regard, your comments

and suggestions will be highly appreciated and

should be mailed to Mr. Hank Davis, Director of

Technology Transfer and Commercialization,

NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX

77058, (713) 483-0474.

Carolyn L. Huntoon

Director

Research and Technology Annual Report 1993 iii

Introduction

Recently, NASA identified five strategic

enterprises in its Strategic Plan. These were:

Mission to Planet Earth (MTPE), Aeronautics,

Human Exploration and Development of Space

(HEDS), Scientific Research, and Space

Technology. Each of these enterprises addresses a

specific need.

Together with other global efforts, NASA's MTPE

will provide information on Earth resources and the

environment. These data will enable a model to be

built of the way humans and other organisms affect

the Earth's environment. NASA also works

closely with U.S. industries, universities, and other

Government agencies to promote U.S. preeminence

in aeronautics. Sustained NASA advances in

aeronautics and technology are needed to help

assure the Nation's future competitiveness in

industry. The HEDS enterprise is devoted to

gaining knowledge and deriving terrestrial benefits

through the exploration, use, and development of

space. Specific areas of interest include

transportation, the survey and characterization of

space and planets, and living and working in space

and on other planets. The Scientific Research

enterprise looks into ways to acquire knowledge

about the universe, matter, and the evolution of

life. It achieves this by studying the space

environment and the effect of that environment on

biological and physical processes. The Space

Technology enterprise deals with technological

advances and their application to the space and

commercial sectors. New techniques and

technologies derived from space research can

significantly contribute to the international

competitiveness of U.S. industries. Through

working with U.S. industries and with other

Government agencies to develop dual-use

technologies, NASA plans to help stimulate the

national economy.

NASA's aims are, of course, those of the Johnson

Space Center (JSC). JSC's mission is to boldly

expand human presence in space and, in so doing,

to provide opportunities to invest in America's

future and to benefit all humankind. By

overcoming the challenges of distance and hostile

environments, JSC expands the frontier of space,

advancing knowledge, inspiring humanity, and

broadening the human experience. JSC uses the

unique environment and resources of space to

achieve both economic and intellectual benefits.

This Center primes the engine of commerce to

open the frontier of space to the full range of

human activities. JSC's strategic goals include

strengthening and enhancing the Center into a

recognized world-class technical and scientific

organization for the conduct of space research and

human exploration and defining and developing

opportunities for research and technology

applications that will yield substantial economic

and intellectual benefits. As part of its strategy to

carry out these goals, JSC continues to develop inhouse projects--such as flight hardware design,

development, test, and evaluation projects; Space

Shuttle and Space Station flight experiments;

human factors research; and space science

research--that support the five NASA enterprises

and in turn provide more hands-on experience and

reinvigorate all JSC technical and administrative

organizations.

In these endeavors, JSC emphasizes dualdevelopment opportunities. Such opportunities

provide an interface to commercial entrepreneurs

that facilitates the commercialization of

technologies while maintaining a focus on specific

technical challenges required by NASA space

programs. JSC's general thrust, therefore, is to

develop partnerships with industry, academia, and

Government--partnerships that will support and

encourage private enterprises in the utilization and

commercialization of space technology.

This report summarizes JSC's Research and

Technology Operating Plan (RTOP) program

accomplishments for 1993. Through this report

JSC communicates its accomplishments, both

inside and outside the Agency, as well as informs

Headquarters' program managers and their

constituents of significant results that show

promise for future Agency programs. Although not

inclusive of all research and technology efforts, the

report does present a comprehensive summary of

JSC projects in which substantial progress was

pAGE I_ INTENTIONALLYBLANK

NOT FF.__,FD

ResearchandTechnology Annual Report 1993 V
made. The principal investigators' (PIs) and the

technical monitors' (TMs) names appear at the

beginning of each project description. These are

followed by the appropriate JSC mail code or by

company or university affiliations. Funding

sources and technology focal points are identified

in the index.

This report is organized in four sections as follows:

The Life Sciences section contains descriptions of

projects aimed at understanding at a fundamental

level the effects of space environment on humans

and developing countermeasures for those that

cause adverse effects. Knowledge of how

microgravity affects biological systems has been

significantly advanced through results obtained

from the 1991 Spacelab Life Sciences (SLS-1)

mission, the 1992 international Spacelab (IML- 1

and SL-J) missions, and the 1993 Spacelab Life

Sciences (SLS-2) mission. Results from the SLS-1

mission indicate that space flight produces an

increase in heart rate, heart size, and cardiac

output--presumably in response to the initial

increase in central blood volume caused by fluids

shifting from the lower extremities toward the

torso. Ground-based activities in microbiology and

water treatment this year are contributing to the

technology required to monitor, service, and

decontaminate the Space Shuttle's water system

during flight. This is particularly important for

spacecraft that will be used for long missions,

during which long-term microbial contamination

and biofihn formation in the water storage and

distribution systems are likely. A bioreactor

system was developed that incorporates a phasecontrast microscope coupled to automated image

analysis. This system enables the biofouling

process to be monitored and allows candidate

chemical treatments to be evaluated. Groundbased cell culture systems are being expanded for

use as models to study the biological effects of

radiation to estimate the risk of radiation exposure

during space missions and habitation. Progress

continues in understanding the physiological

changes associated with space travel and in

developing potential countermeasures for

deleterious effects. Significant progress was made

during 1993 in the scoping of energy expenditure

during space flight. As a result, more accurate

food patterns are being implemented for Shuttle

flights.

Highlights of the Solar System Sciences section

include: (1) fabrication of instrumentation to detect

volatiles in the soil of planetary surfaces; (2) two

studies related to detecting and analyzing orbital

debris; (3) two separate studies to spectroscopically

detect water and organic material on asteroids;

(4) the use of a tether to generate electricity and

remote charge from a spacecraft in Earth orbit;

(5) a study of synthetic soils to enable the growth

of plants in space; and (6) the fabrication and

testing of a radiation dosimeter for inclusion on a

Russian spacecraft to Mars.

The Human Support Technology section contains

a variety of disciplines ranging from biomechanics

to intelligent computer programs that will aid in

training astronauts and mission controllers. The

common goal of all these disciplines is to make

crewed space flight safer and more efficient. The

common theme of the work in this area is to use

computerization to increase the productivity of

humans in space. Two projects this past year

supported repair of the Hubble Space Telescope

(HST). One of these projects incorporated a virtual

environment to train over 150 members of the

flight team in generating task analysis reports. The

second project produced a virtual reality

environment of the HST to train astronauts and

mission control personnel.

The objective of Space Technology development

at JSC is to enhance the performance of human

spacecraft systems and to enable efficient human

exploration and development of space. JSC

continued to make excellent progress in regenerative life support technology by concentrating

efforts on establishing ground-based test-beds and

analytical models for demonstrating the feasibility

of combining physiochemical and biological

components into an integrated life support system.

A broad spectrum of programs is being pursued in

robotics systems and advanced automation

technology. Tasks under way in dexterous on-orbit

grasping and manipulation will provide new

capabilities for Space Shuttle Orbiter and

vi Research and Technology Annual Report 1993
international SpaceStationroboticservicingand

maintenance.Twoadvancedautomation

technologytaskshavebeenundertakento increase

theefficiencyof spacecraft groundsupport

operations.Thesetasksincludethedevelopment of

anexpertsystemformanagingorbitalrendezvous

dynamics,andanew,innovativeapproachtorealtimemodelingof spacecraft systemsinwhichthe

effectsofoperatingprocedurescanbemodeledas

panof afailuremodesandimpactsanalysis.

Curtailmentof spacetechnologyresourcesinthe

shorttermisreflectedthroughthereducednumber

ofprojectsinthisarea.

SeveralJSCorganizationshaveprovidedsupportin

developingthisreport.Mostnotably,contributions

weremadebytheCenterOperations,Information

Systems,SpaceandLife Sciences, Mission

Operations,andEngineeringDirectorates.

Schedulingof thisreportprovidesaformidable

challengebecausemostoftheworkwasto be

completeduringDecember1993.The

contributorsare,therefore,commendedfortheir

timelyresponse.

Thecolleagueslistedbelowcoordinatedspecific

sectionsof thisreportandprovidedthesummaries

precedingtheirsections.Detailedquestionsshould

bedirectedtome,tothesectioncoordinators, orto

thePIslistedintheindex.

StevenGonda,Ph.D.(codeSD)

LifeSciences

Phone:713-483-8745

BarbaraWoolford(codeSP)

HumanSupportTechnology

Phone:713-483-4701

ThomasSullivan,Ph.D.(codeSN)

SolarSystemSciences

Phone:713-483-0681

RobertRied,Ph.D.(codeEA)

SpaceTechnology

Phone:713-483-6606

RcsearchandTechnologyAnnualReport1993 vii

Contents

Section I

I-3

I-6

Life Sciences

Summary

Significant Tasks

Section II

11-3

11-6

Human Support

Technology

Summary

Significant Tasks

Section III Solar System

Sciences

111-3 Summary

111-6 Significant Tasks

Section IV Space Technology

IV-3 Summary

IV-6 Significant Tasks

Section V Technology

Transfer

Index

Research and Technology Annual Report 1993 ix

Section I

Life Sciences

Summary

Life Sciences Summary

NASA's Lead Center for Life Sciences, JSC,

continues to develop resources and conduct scientific investigations that will serve as the

underpinnings of the human space program.

Knowledge of how microgravity affects biological

systems has been significantly advanced through

the results obtained from the 1991 Spacelab-Life

Sciences (SLS- 1) mission, the 1992 international

spacelab (IML-1 and SL-J) missions, and continues

with the successful completion in 1993 of the

Spacelab-Life Sciences (SLS-2) mission.

The SLS-2 package of experiments was assembled

to provide a cohesive set of investigations on

physiological function in microgravity. The 14

interrelated experiments aboard SLS-2 test scientists' current hypotheses of the way various

physiological systems (cardiovascular, cardiopulmonary, fluid-electrolyte, endocrine,

hematological, musculoskeletal, and vestibular)

respond to weightlessness. SLS-2 will compare the

physiological changes measured in humans and in

rodents to discern differences and similarities in the

adaptive processes of two different species.

Results from the SLS-1 mission indicated that

space flight produces increases in heart rate, heart

size, and cardiac output, presumably in response to

the initial increase in central blood volume caused

by fluids shifting from the lower extremities

toward the torso. Mechanisms still not understood

cause the kidneys and the endocrine system to

reduce the quantity of fluids and electrolytes,

leading to a reduction of blood volume and decreases in both heart volume and exercise

performance.

The upcoming Shuttle-Mir Program represents a

new era of international collaboration in space.

Astronauts and cosmonauts will work together on

the U.S. Space Shuttle, and later on the Russian

Mir Space Station, to address environmental and

medical sciences issues on a long-duration space

platform. Environmental monitoring aboard Mir

will provide important information about the

environmental changes that occur during the

habitation of a spacecraft, perhaps the ultimate

closed system, over a period of 7 years. The first of

three phases in this program, consisting of multiple

Shuttle flights to Mir, will provide valuable test qlata

that will greatly reduce technical risks associated

with building and operating the international Space

Station, as well as providing unique opportunities

for extended investigational activities. The second

phase combines U.S. and Russian hardware to create

a new, advanced orbital research facility. The third

phase represents completion of the construction of

the international Space Station, which will then

support a permanent human presence. Russian and

U.S. scientists are working together to develop

integrated studies in disciplines spanning metabolism, cardiopulmonary function, sensory-motor and

neuromuscular function, behavior, environmental

health, radiation biology, and basic biology.

Ground-based activities in microbiology and water

treatment this year are contributing to the technology required to monitor, service, and decontaminate

the Space Shuttle's water system during flight. This

is particularly important for spacecraft that will be

used for long missions, in which long-term microbial contamination and biofilm formation in the

water storage and distribution systems are likely. A

bioreactor system was developed that incorporates a

phase-contrast microscope coupled to automated

image analysis; this system enables the biofouling

process to be monitored and allows candidate

chemical treatments to be evaluated. Several

chemical modalities were evaluated, and treatment

with iodine and ozone were found to be more

effective than hydrogen peroxide in removing

biofilm.

Ground-based cell culture systems are being expanded for use as models to study the biological

effects of radiation and to estimate the risk of

radiation exposure during space missions and

habitation. The Radiation Biology Laboratory at

JSC is using an in vitro human epithelial-cell culture

model to quantify the relationship between the

relative biological effectiveness of charged particles

for oncogenic transformation and the linear energy

transfer of these particles. Exposing normal human

epithelial cells to heavy ions was observed to induce

neoplastic transformation and the formation of 3-D

tumor spheroids.

Life Sciences 1-3
Microgravity affords a uniqueenvironment in

which mammalian cells, cultured under the appropilate conditions, form tissue-like structures that

mimic the structure and function of tissue formed

in vivo. Bioreactor systems designed at JSC can

provide a similarly quiescent environment by

simulating some of the physical aspects of

microgravity. Human colonic carcinoma cells

cultured in the JSC bioreactor on Earth have

formed three-dimensional tissue-like structures and

showed enhanced growth factor production.

Progress continues in understanding the physiological changes associated with space travel and

in developing potential countermeasures for

deleterious effects. A noninvasive method of

determining energy expenditure, based on the use

of stable (nonradioactive and nontoxic) isotopes of

hydrogen _H) and oxygen (180), was found to be

useful for measuring energy expenditure during

space flight. The Space Shuttle cuisine can now

be selected based upon patterns of carbohydrate,

fat, and protein intake before, during, and after

flight.

The following articles provide more information

about these and other significant advances in life

sciences research and technology.

1-4 Life Sciences
Section I

Life Sciences

Significant Tasks
Optical Measurement of Bacterial

Adhesion in Water Supply Lines

TM/PI:

Ph

Reference:

D.L. Pierson, Ph.D./SD4

D.W. Koenig, Ph.D./KRUG

S.K. Mishra, Ph.D./KRUG

LS 1

Spacecraft for use in long missions with humans

must have water systems that can deliver water of

acceptable quality for consumption and hygienic

uses over the anticipated lifetime of the craft. Of

major concern for such systems is the control of

long-term microbial contamination and biofilm

development in the water storage and distribution

systems. Biofdms can harbor pathogens as well as

microbial strains having resistance factors that

could negatively influence crew health.

The means by which spacecraft water systems are

disinfected may encourage the development of

resistant strains. In fact, bacteria have been present

in potable water from the Space Shuttle that are

resistant to iodine. Thus, an alternative

remediation method is needed to disinfect and

remove biofilms from spa_ water systems.

Colonization events and the physiological parameters that will influence bacterial adhesion must be

understood to achieve this goal. The limiting

factor in developing this technology is the ability to

monitor both adhesion events and the effect of

biocides on sessile bacteria on a continuing basis.

The primary objective of this project is to assess

the adhesion characteristics of bacteria isolated

from the potable Water systems aboard space

shuttles using solid substrates such as glass,

stainless steel, and carbon composites. The physiology of sessile bacteria also will be examined to

identify any unique characteristics associated with

adhesion that affect biocide resistance, production

of toxic metabolites, or pathogenicity. Later

studies will focus on ascertaining the effect of

microgravity on biofilm characteristics.

Sessile organisms usually are monitored by direct

enumeration of viable bacteria, indirect enumeration using fluid frictional resistance measurements,

colorimeteric viability measurements, or electrical

measurements. The method developed in this

project uses automated image analysis to monitor

the microbe-to-surface attachment process in real

time. This method allows description of the

ongoing attachment process as well as direct

assessment of biocide efficacy against biofilms.

We combined a continuous flow bioreactor with an

optical viewing chamber to allow direct enumeration of sessile microbes (fig. 1). The bioreactor

provides a constant source of bacteria to the

attachment chamber. Downstream from the

fermentor and before the attachment chamber, a

series of additional ports allows introduction of

treaUnent chemicals and other test compounds.

The biofouling process is monitored by phasecontrast microscopy coupled to automated image

analysis (fig. 2). This approach allows the

biofouling process and subsequent chemicai

challenges to be videotaped.

The bioreactor controls pH, temperature, and

dissolved oxygen (DO), thus providing a uniform

bacterial inoculation to the view chamber. Control

of volume, mixing, pH, and temperature will allow

the system to mimic the many types of environmental scenarios expected within the water systems

of spacecraft.

The first experiments will be conducted with

iodine-resistant strains of Pseudomonas isolated

from Shuttle missions. Other organisms that may

be used are Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Klebsiella,

Salmonella, Streptococcus, and bacterial strains

isolated from the operating simulated spacecraft

water system test bed in the JSC Water and Food

Analytical Laboratory and the Regenerative Life

Support System facility at JSC.

This technology is designed to assess the adhesion

characteristics of test organisms and to study the

effects of various biocides, enzymes, and

biopenetrants on biological deposition. Another

goal is to characterize the physiological changes

that occur when ceils attach to substrates, how

these changes correlate to biocide performance,

and how attachment affects metabolite production

and cell pathogenicity. The long-term goal of this

project is to describe novel deposition-control

measures that will be environmentally safe and

compatible with closed spacecraft environmental

and life support systems.

I-6 Life Sciences
Pump

Growth Medium

III L

Figure 1. Continuous bacterial attachment system.

Microscope SIT Cam CameraController

Row Chamber/Optical Cell

Optical Storage

Device

ARGUSImageProcessor

Video Monltor

I

Adhesion Rate

Elapsed Time

FrameGrabber/ImageProcessor

Figure 2. Image processing system.

Life Sciences I-?
Cardiovascular Response to

Sympathomimetic Drugs During

Head-Down Bed Rest: The

Effects of Dietary Sodium and

Hydration Status

TM/PI: Peggy A. Whitson, Ph.D./SD4

Ph W. Jon Williams, Ph.DJSD4

Charles A. Stuart, M.DJ

University of Texas Medical

Branch, Galveston, TX

Reference: LS 2

Adaptation to microgravity involves several

physiological changes that may compromise

cardiovascular function upon return to the

gravitational environment of Earth. Cardiovascular

dysfunction is thought to contribute to orthostatic

intolerance (the tendency to become dizzy or faint)

after landing. The precise mechanisms are not well

understood, but a space-related reduction in plasma

volume may be a major contributing factor. In the

absence of gravity, blood shifts from the lower

extremities toward the chest and head. This fluid

shift stimulates pressure sensors in the heart and

arteries, which interpret this change as "excess"

fluid volume. The "'excess" volume is then

excreted by the kidneys or redistributed, effectively

reducing total plasma volume.

To better understand these physiological changes,

we studied the effects of salt consumption on

cardiovascular function during 21 days of headdown bed rest (an analog of microgravity).

Subjects consumed a diet containing either normal

amounts of sodium (2-4 g/day, n = 6) or high

amounts of sodium (10 g/day, n = 5). The normal

amount of water in the blood (plasma volume) was

measured from dilution of radiolabeled serum

albumin. Urine output was measured throughout

the study. Cardiovascular function was tested by

recording heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac

output during the infusion of one of two drugs,

phenylephrine 0_E) or isoproterenol (ISO). PE

constricts blood vessels, resulting in increased

blood pressure. ISO acts directly on the heart and

blood vessels to increase heart rate and decrease

blood pressure.

PE or ISO was infused in an increasing, stepwise

fashion. At each infusion step, heart rate, blood

pressure, and cardiac output were measured and

these measurements were used to calculate total

peripheral resistance (TPR), an index of bloodvessel constriction. Statistical analysis revealed

that the vascular response to PE was increased

throughout bed rest in the normal-salt subjects but

not in the high-salt group. The TPR response to

ISO was unchanged in the normal-salt group but

exaggerated in the high-salt group. In the normalsalt group, urine output declined, and plasma

volume was maintained; in contrast, subjects that

ate the high-salt diet excreted more urine and lost

more plasma volume during bed rest. From these

studies, we conclude that:

• Vascular supersensitivity to PE during bed rest

(present in the normal-salt but not the high-salt

group) may reflect a change in function or

density of alpha receptors on the peripheral

blood vessels, a decrease in carotid-baroreflex

function or both if subjects are well hydrated.

The normal vascular response to PE in the

high-salt group may be related to their low

plasma volume. The exaggerated response to

ISO in this group also could be related to low

plasma volume, changes in beta receptors on

the peripheral blood vessels, or both.

• Subjects who consumed normal amounts of

salt during bed rest maintained their plasma

volume, probably by decreasing their urine

output. The high-salt group lost both plasma

volume and larger amounts of water through

urine. Thus, dietary sodium can significantly

affect hydration status, which in turn can affect

the cardiovascular system.

• Manipulating dietary sodium and hydration

status may prove to be effective in controlling

postflight orthostatic intolerance in astronauts.

These studies have provided physiological and

pharmacological evidence of a change in

cardiovascular function during 21 days of headdown bed rest. Dietary sodium had significant

effects on hydration status and cardiovascular

response to sympathomimetic drugs.

Characterizing the mechanisms by which these

changes appear may contribute to our ability to

I-8 Life Sciences
minimizeorthostaticintoleranceafterspaceflight.

Futurestudieswill focusonthehormonalcontrol

of hydrationandelectrolytestatusandtheir

contributionstocardiovascular function.

8O

r._ 70

6O

Z

50

40

3O

20

10

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r-----i CONTROL n=6

HIGH SALT n=5

t

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m

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Y,j_.

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PRE BED REST POST

Figure 1. The pressor response to infusionof PE was significantly (* = p < 0.05) exaggerated inthe

normal-salt group (open bars) but not in the high-salt group (hatched bars) during 21 days of

head-down bed rest. The pressor response to PE infusion was also significantly (1"= P <

0.05) different between the two groups.

Life Sciences 1-9
0

r_

r,j

==

5O

4O

30

2O

10

0

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

[---1 CONTROL n=6

HIGH SALT n=5

T

* VS PRE

t VS CONTROL

4

PRE

t I I"

4- 4-

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Figure 2. The depressor response to infusion of ISO was significantly (* = p < 0.05) exaggerated in the

high-salt group (hatched bars) but not in the normal-salt grou_-(_pen bars) during 2.:1days of

head-down bed rest. The depressor response to ISO infusion was also significantly (1 = P <

0.05) different between the two groups.

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Figure 3.

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3000

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Plasma volume was significantly decreased (* = p < 0.05) in the high-salt group (hatched

bars) but not in the normal-salt group (open bars) after 21 days of head-down bed rest.

1-10 Life Sciences
Simulated Microgravity Improves

Production of Colonic Growth

Factors

TM/Ph

Ph

Reference:

G. F. Spaulding, M.DJSD4

T. J. Goodwin, M.AJSD4

J. M. Jessup, M.DJNew

England Deaconess Hospital,

Boston, MA

LS 3

Microgravity may allow mammalian cells to be

cultured in vitro such that the tissue-like structures

formed mimic the structure and function of tissue

formed in vivo. We sought to determine whether

growth factor production by human colonic cells

cultured in simulated microgravity is enhanced

relative to conventional monolayer tissue cultures.

If so, then actual microgravity may be even more

advantageous for producing tissues in culture.

For this study, microgravity was simulated through

the use of a rotating-wall vessel (RWV) designed

by the JSC Biotechnology Program. This fluidfilled, zero-head-space clinostat can suspend

particles with less shear stress than is possible in

conventional cultures. In earlier studies, we

confirmed that human colonic carcinoma cells

cultured with human fibroblasts in an RWV formed

masses that were morphologically similar to the

same carcinoma grown in vivo in athymic nude

mice (Goodwin, TJ., et al., In Vitro Cell Devel.

Biol. 28A:47-60, 1992). We also showed that

freshly isolated human colorectal adenocarcinoma

cells, when implanted in the wall of the large bowel

of athymic nude mice, release soluble factors that

selectively stimulate proliferation of goblet cells in

the colonic mucosa overlying the tumor implants

(Hostetter, R.B., et al., Surg. Forum 39:168-170,

1988). Goblet cells, which produce mucin, are

easily distinguished from other mucosal epithelial

cells.

In the present study, we encapsulated saline

(0.15M phosphate buffered), tissue culture medium

(alpha MEM with 10% fetal calf serum) or

conditioned culture medium into liposomes (1 ml

of concentrated liquid in 60/_M of CGP 19,835 A

lipids [Ciba-Geigy]) (table 1). India ink, epidermal

growth factor (EGF), basic fibroblast growth factor

(FGF), or gastrin were incorporated in liposomes as

controls. Medium was conditioned by HT29, HT29KM, or normal human fibroblasts that had been

cultured in an RWV or in roller bottles (table 1).

Liposomes were used to provide sustained release

of suspected growth factors.

We injected 0.05 ml aliquots of 6/_M liposomes in

PBS into the cecal submucosa of BALB/c mice.

Five days later the mice were killed and their

colons harvested, irrigated with saline, and each

cecum fixed in formalin. Paraffin sections were

then stained with hematoxylin and eosin and the

cell morphology coded. Forty crypts that were

sagitally sectioned over the liposomes were

counted per treatment group.

Fresh medium did not stimulate any changes in

crypt cell height or number compared to saline

controls. In contrast, India ink caused acute

inflammation and increased crypt height, number

of crypt ceils and goblet cells per crypt without

increasing the percentage of goblet cells. Media

conditioned by HT-29 or HT29KM also increased

crypt height, the number of cells per crypt, and the

absolute number of goblet cells per crypt compared

to saline controls. However, media from RWV

cultures (Experiments 1 and 3) selectively

increased the percentage of goblet cells, whereas

media from roller bottle cultures (Experiment 2)

increased only the total number of crypt cells.

These effects apparently resulted from factors

released by the carcinoma cells, because media

conditioned by human fibroblast cultures in an

RWV had no effect on crypt height or cell number

(Experiment 3). Purified growth factors (EGF,

FGF, or gastrin) increased crypt height or cell

number but did not increase the number of goblet

cells (Experiment 4).

Cultivating established human colon carcinoma

cells in the RWV produced a factor that selectively

increased the number of goblet cells in normal

mouse cecal epithelium. Similar cultures in roller

bottles had a nonselective trophic effect. EGF,

bFGF, and gastrin are known to stimulate both

hypertrophy and hyperplasia in normal colon

mucosa in both rodents and humans. However,

purified EGF, bFGF, or gastrin did not selectively

Life Sciences I-11
expand the goblet cell subset at concentrations that

were trophic for colonic mucosa. Since freshly

isolated human colon carcinomas have the same

effect on goblet cells as the RWV HT-29 colon cell

line cultures did (Hostetter, R.B., et al., Surg.

Forum 39:168-170, 1988), the low-shear-stress

environment in the RWV may be better than

conventional culture systems for isolating novel

growth factors. We propose that actual microgravity may provide an excellent opportunity for

the isolation of novel growth factors.

Table 1. Conditioned-Media Effects on Goblet-Cell Proliferation in Mouse Cecal Mucosa

# Goblet % Goblet

Liposome Crypt # Crypt Cells Cells

Contents Height a Cells b per Half per Half

Crypt c Crypt d

Experiment 1 Saline 33.6 ± 0.9 36.3 ± 1.1 3.0 ± 0.2 8.7 ± 0.5

(RWV) India Ink 76.1 ± 2.1 * 66.9 ± 2,5* 5.3 ± 0.4* 8.0 ± 0.6

Medium 32.2 ± 0.8 35.3 ± 0.9 3.8 ± 0.2 10.9 ± 0.6

HT-29

Medium 44.8 ± 0.9* 42.5 ± 1.3" 5.7 ± 0.3* 13.6 ± 0.8*

Experiment 2 Saline 66.2 ± 2.8 32.1 ± 1.5 5.1 ± 0.3

(Roller Bottles) Medium 74.2 ± 2.1 33.1 + 0.9 3.6 ± 0.2

HT-29

Medium 93.2 ± 2.3* 47.4 ± 1.0" 7.9 ± 0.3*

Experiment 3

(RWV)

Experiment 4

Saline 58.5 ± 1.3 28.7 ± 0.7 6.0 ± 0.2

Medium 64.4 ± 1.4 33.4 ± 1.3 6.5 ± 0.3

Fibroblast

Medium _ 56.9 + 1.0 30.3 ± 0.7 5.6 ± 0.3

HT29KM1 _:

Fibroblast

Medium 90.9 ± 1.7* 33,0 + 1.4 9.8 + 0.6*

16.4 ± 1.1

11.0 ± 0.7

16.7 ± 0.7

21.2 ± 0.9

19.5 ± 0.6

18.5±1.1

25.6 ± 1.4"

Saline 54.0 ± 2.1 23.3 ± 0.9 5.2 ± 0.4 23.1 ± 1.8

EGF 1/Jg 80.1 ±2.4* 36.4±0.8* 5.2±0.3 14.8±1.0

bFGF 1 pg 69.2 ± 2.4* 29.2 ± 1.1 4.3 ± 0.3 15.3 ± 1.0

Gastrin 1 pg 71.2 ± 2.0* 34.9 ± 1.1 * 5.1 ± 0.4 14.5 ± 1.0

*Indicates significant difference from saline controls at p< 0.01 by ANOVA and Scheffe F test.

Mice Were 6 weeks old in Experiment 1 and 9 weeks old in Experiments 2-4.

aMean + SEM of the height of sagittally sectioned crypts (in 1/250 mm) formed over submucosal

liposomes.

bMean + SEM of the total number of cells in one-half of a sagittally sectioned crypt.

cMean + SEM of the number of goblet cells per half crypt.

_Goblet cell number divided by the number of cells per half crypt for each individual crypt (Mean + SEM).

I- 12 Life Sciences
Evaluation of Methods for

Removing Biofilms in Spacecraft

Potable Water Systems

TM/Ph R.L. Sauer, P.EJSD4

Ph D.L. Pierson, Ph.DJSD4

J.R. Schultz, Ph.DJKRUG

D.T. Flanagan/KRUG

R.J. Bruce/KRUG

M.H. Huls/KRUG

Reference: LS 4

The need to recycle water in future spacecraft to

avoid launch and resupply penalties will increase

the potential for microbial contaminants to enter

and proliferate in the water system. The ability of

iodine, which is currently used to disinfect potable

water on the Space Shuttle, and other disinfectants

to control microbial growth and biofilm formation

during long missions needs to be evaluated.

Methods of servicing and decontaminating the

water system in flight may be needed to extend the

life of the water system and to protect the health of

crews.

The objective of this project was to evaluate

chemical methods of killing and removing biofilms

developed within a simulated spacecraft water

system. Treatments evaluated included 25 and 250

mg/L of iodine, 5 mg/L of ozone, and 3% hydrogen

peroxide.

A schematic of the water system test-bed, which

consists of two parallel stainless steel systems, is

shown in figure 1. Both systems are identical

except that the make-up water to one system is

iodinated by passing it through an iodinated ion

exchange resin called a microbial check valve

(MCV). Each system has several sampling ports

and biofilm coupon manifolds.

A coupon manifold containing 21 coupons was

installed on the outlet of the noniodinated system

(CM-5 in fig. 1). The effluent from this system

contained about 105 colony-forming units (CFU)

per 100 mL of water. After biofilm developed, the

coupons were withdrawn in sets of 4 and installed

in a treatment manifold (fig. 2) and exposed to the

various treatments. Coupons were withdrawn

periodically and subjected to microbial and

scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis.

Bacterial enumeration involved sonicating a

segment of a coupon in 5 mL of distilled water,

filtering the water, and then culturing the filter on

an R2A media. Since this technique determines

only whether bacteria are viable, another coupon

segment was examined by SEM to determine

whether the biofilm had been removed. Coupons

were treated for SEM by immersing the terminal

segments into 0.5% glutaraldehyde in phosphatebuffered water to fix the biofilm. Coupons were

then washed with phosphate buffer, dehydrated

with a graded series of ethanol solutions, and then

critical-point-dried. The dried coupons were then

mounted and coated with gold be.fore being

examined with a JEOL JSM-T330A scanning

electron microscope.

A Fischer 500M ozone generator was used to

produce ozone. Ozone concentrations were

measured by ultraviolet absorption spectrometry at

258 nm. Iodine concentrations were determined by

absorption spectrometry at 460 nm.

Microbial analysis results from the coupons treated

with 25 mg/L iodine are presented in table 1.

Iodine at this concentration killed all attached

bacteria after 1 hr of contact. Scanning electron

micrographs of coupons after 0 and 24 hr (fig. 3

and 4), however, showed no significant decrease in

the amount of matter attached after 24 hr. The

results at 250 mg/L of iodine are similar, indicating

that increasing the iodine concentration does not

remove more of the biof'dm. Similarly, treatment

with 5 mg/L of ozone also killed the attached

bacteria, but did not remove the biofilm.

Initial runs with a 3% hydrogen peroxide solution

resulted in significant bubble formation. Further

work was halted due to requirements to keep gas

formation in the potable water systems at a

minimum.

This work has shown that iodine and ozone can be

used to kill bacteria in biofilms that have developed

on water system surfaces. These chemicals,

however, do not seem to remove significant

amounts of the attached matter, implying that

further work should be aimed at preventing biofilm

development within water systems.

Li_Sciences 1-13
Table 1. Bacterial Enumeration After Treating Coupons With a 25 mg/L

Iodine Solution

Exposure Time Incubation Time

(hrs) 3 Days 7 Days 14 Days

0 188" TNTC**

0.5 0 1

1 0 0

2 0 0

2 (spare) 0 0

4 0 0

TNTC

1

0

0

0

0

21 Days

TNTC

1

0

0

0

0

*units are CFU/5 mL of water

**too numerous to count

U

m

BCM-Q

OJl= UM UV

IqLlrBII M

¢U - COtll=Oa m

- MfCIk04NAL ,f_HflCK VAL_

_l - S,UiM.mgG PC4_T

- IIOLENOID VALV!

_. OtlEI_ VALVE

IODINATIID

Figure 1. Biofilmtest-bed apparatus.

1-14 Life Sciences
TREATMENT

SOLUTION

ON/OFF

BALL VALVE ell 0

O

N

S

QO

METERING

vALVE

m,,-

GRADUATED

CYUNDER

Figure 2. Biofilm remediation test apparatus.

Figure 3. Scanning electron micrograph of

electropolished side of coupon before

treatment with a 25 mg/L iodine

solution.

Figure 4. Scanning electron micrograph of

electropolished side of coupon after

4 hr of treatment with a 25 mg/L

iodine solution.

Life Sciences 1-15
A Simulated Space Diet: Effects

on Energy Metabolism and

Doubly Labeled Water (DLW)

Calculations

TM/Ph

Ph

Reference:

H.W. Lane, Ph.D./SD4

E.K. Gibson, Jr., Ph.D./SN2

R.J. Gretebeck, Ph.D./SD4

R.A. Sockl/LESC C-23

D.A. Schoeller, Ph.D./Dept of

Medicine, University of

Chicago

LS 5

Exposure to microgravity induces physiological

and biochemical changes that may interfere with

crew health and functioning in space. The nearuniversal weight loss associated with flight has

been hypothesized to be due to inadequate

consumption of food and fluid. Among the factors

identified as possibly contributing to reduced food

intake in space is the diet provided.

We are studying the effect of the Space Shuttle

cuisine on energy metabolism (and the means by

which it can be measured), aerobic capacity, and

strength. Energy utilization can be measured by

giving subjects water that has been labeled with

two stable (nonradioactive) isotopes, 2H

(deuterium) and 180 ("heavy oxygen"). Both

isotopes occur naturally and are nontoxic at the

levels used. The disappearance of the isotopes

from urine and saliva samples are recorded over a

period of days. CO 2 production is calculated from

the disappearance of ISO, corrected for water

turnover (from the disappearance of 2H), and

converted to energy expenditure in joules. This

method has been used successfully in both healthy

and hospitalized humans.

The potable water available on the Space Shuttle--

and thus the water used for food rehydration--is

also enriched in 2H and 180, although the amounts

present are much less than those in the dose given

for calculating energy expenditure. We sought to

determine whether this "background" enrichment

would affect the use of DLW for calculating energy

expenditure. To this end, we fed 12 female

subjects Space Shuttle foods and water enriched

with typical Shuttle background levels of 2H and

180 for 28 days, and measured body composition, __

energy intake, aerobic capacity, and strength

before, during, and after this period. One group of

subjects was given the DLW dose on day 1, and the

other on day 14. We also calculated energy

expenditure (EE) using intake balance (IB)

techniques for comparison.

Figure 1 illustrates the effect of consuming the

"Shuttle water" on background 180 and 2H for one

subject over a 14-day period. In the first group

(DLW water dose on day 1), energy expenditure

calculated from DLW with no correction for

background isotope changes was 43.4 percent

lower than that calculated from the IB method (fig.

2). Next, we adjusted the calculations to correct

for the expected isotopic background. Corrected

EE from DLW was 6.4 percent higher than EE

from IB. When the changing isotopic background

from the second group (DLW dose on day 14) was

used for correction, EE was 4.2 percent greater

than IB calculations. These results show that the

DLW method can be used successfully in subjects

who consume isotopically enriched water, and that

background isotope changes can be corrected

without control subjects or time-dependent

estimates of changing background.

As for the Shuttle foods, all subjects consumed the

same amounts of energy before, during, and after

the Shuttle food period. However, their relative

intake of carbohydrate increased, and those of fat

and protein decreased accordingly (fig. 3). This

pattern resembles that of crews from the SLS-1,

STS-45, and STS-47 missions. Moreover, neither

body weight, body composition, strength, nor

aerobic capacity changed during the Shuttle food

period (fig. 4), suggesting that the Shuttle food

itself probably does not contribute to the shifts in

these measures noted during and after Space

Shuttle missions.

1-16 Life Sciences
70-

60  ̧

,o,

==.

_o

10

0

EFFECT OF CONSUMING SIMULATED ORBITER

WATER ON BODY WATER ENRICHMENT

Oxygen-18

2 4 8 8 10 12 14 16

Time (days)

Figure 1. Effect of consuming simulated orbiter water on body water enrichment.

ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING A 14 DAY SHUTTLE FOOD DIET: INTAKEBALANCE COMPARED TO THREE DLW TECHNIQUES

-t8111111

2

"O

= 4_-

_ 3000"

I_ 2000 -

¢-

I¢I 1000"

0" T 1" T

Intake- DLW DLW DLW

balance no correction ModeJed CorrecUon control subject

correction

Figure 2. Energy expenditure during a 14-day shuttle food diet: intake balance compared

to three DLW techniques.

Life Sciences 1-17
Q

P

O1

L

era

_6

i8i_

G)

I1.

Figure 3.

• Before

[] l)udng

[] After

:

Carbohydrate Protein Fat

r

+

*Slgnlglcant dlfference (p<O.05)

Macronutrient intake before, during, and after consuming a shuttle

food diet.

,°35 t

E 20-

m

(I) 15-

Q.

0 10-

5-

Figure 41

I I I

Before During After

Aerobic capacity before, immediately after, and five weeks after

shuttle diet consumption.

1-18 Life Sciences
Radiogenic Transformation of

Human Epithelial Cells: Relative

Biological Effectiveness (RBE),

Growth Properties and

Chromosome Studies

TM/PI:

Ph

Reference:

Chui-hsu Yang, Ph.DJSD4

Kerry George/SD4/KRUG

Laurie M. Craise/Lawrence

Berkeley Laboratory, UC

LS 6

During long, remote space missions, crewmembers

will be exposed to health hazards associated with

unique aspects of the space environment.

Protecting crews from one of these hazards,

ionizing space radiation, must be considered

carefully to ensure the success of space

exploration. Sources of radiation in space include

the inner trapped proton belt, the outer electron

belt, galactic cosmic rays, and charged particles

from solar particle events. These forms of

radiation are different from gamma rays and

neutrons in terms of energy absorption and

ionization pattern. Significant data have been

obtained on the biological effects of gamma rays

and neutrons from atomic bomb survivors;

however, no radioepidemiological data exist on the

biological effects of charged-particle radiation on

humans. The biological risks from energetic

charged particles thus must be estimated from

experiments using animals and cultured cells.

The induction of cancer is an important delayed

effect of radiation. The Radiation Biology

Laboratory at JSC has used systematic, quantitative

methods to study the relationship between the RBE

of charged particles for oncogenic transformation

and the linear energy transfer (LET) of these

particles.

The RBE-to-LET relationship for the induction of

Harderian tumors in mice (fig. 1) is similar to that

for oncogenic cell transformation. The peak RBE

for inducing Harderian tumors, however, is roughly

four times greater than that required to transform

cells. Some investigators have suggested that this

difference in RBE is related to the ability of one

heavy ion to traverse through many cells in the

body. The maximum cross section of a heavy-ion

path, calculated from initial slopes of dose-response

curves, is about 100 mm 2,which is close to the

geometric nuclear area of the cell. This interesting

result suggests that all DNA in the nucleus could be

the target for carcinogenesis. Since diploid

mammalian cells contain about 1,000,000 genes,

and since less than 100 genes have been identified

as important for cancer formation, these results

indicate that one heavy ion traversing through the

body could hit targets in more than 10,000 cells.

Alternatively, heavy ions could have promotional

effects, killing many cells in the tissue where they

hit thus allowing transformed cells to proliferate.

Promotion is known to be an important step in

carcinogenesis; moreover, high-LET heavy ions can

be very effective in killing ceils.

Because the dose rate from radiation exposure in

space is low (< 1 rem per day), it is important to

study similarly low dose rates of gamma rays and

charged particles. We determined the RBE of

charged particles with various LET relative to lowdose-rate gamma rays in mouse embryonic cells.

Figure 2 shows the RBE and LET relationship for

immediate plating, delayed plating, and low dose

rate. The high RBE for low-dose-rate gamma rays

was due in part to the inability of mammalian cells

to repair oncogenic damage induced by particles

with such high LET.

We also studied neoplastic transformation in human

epithelial cell cultures. Exposing mammary

epithelial cells to heavy ions produced several

transformants, which formed colonies in soft agar

and produced small nodules in athymic nude mice.

When cultured on Matrigel, a synthetic substance

resembling basement membrane, these

transformants formed spheroids (fig. 3) rather than

the multicellular 3-D structures typical of

nontransformed cells. These results tend to confhma

that heavy ions can transform normal human

epithelial cells into tumor cells.

Because certain chromosomal aberrations are

associated with the formation of particular tumors in

humans, we also assessed the chromosomal

integrity of these transformants using a

chromosomal "painting" technique. To date,

studies of chromosomes 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 13, 15, 17,

and 18 have revealed no differences between

nontransformed and transformed cells. Additional

analyses are in progress.

Life Sciences 1-19
5O

4O

3O

RBE 2O

10

0

-10

RBE vs. LET Relationship for Carcinogenesis

I • I ! I !

o Cell Transformation

• Initial Slope (Harderian Tumor)

V 25% Tumor /

/

Prevalence /

//oa.

--f

J I 1 • I I

kO-2 lO-I 10-1 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4

LET (keV/pm)

lOs

Figure 1. The relationship between

RBE and LET for charged

particles in the oncogenic

transformation of mouse

embryonic cells (C3H 10T1/2)

and in the induction of

Harderian gland tumors in

mice.

Figure 2. The relationship between RBE

and LET for gamma rays and

charged particles in the

oncogenic transformation of

mouse embryonic cells

(C3H10T1/2). Confluent cells

were exposed to gamma rays

or charged particles and were

plated either immediately or 1

day after irradiation.

RBE

3o

25

2o

15

10

RBE vs. LET for Neoplastic Transformation

I I i i I I

0

V

Immed. Plating

Delayed Plating V

Low Dose Rate 11

--ara //

--5 I I t I I i

10-7 10-1 lO-i 10 I 10 2 10 3 10 4

LET (keV/pm)

lOs

1-20 Life Sciences
Figure 3. Human mammary epithelial cells, transformed by charged-particle radiation, formed

spheroids after 10 days of growth on Matrigel.

Life Sciences 1-21

Section II

Human Support

Technology

Summary

Human Support Technology

Summary

The Human Support Technology section includes a

variety of disciplines ranging from biomechanics to

intelligent computer programs to aid in training

astronauts and mission controllers. The common

goal of all these disciplines is to make crewed

spaceflight safer and more efficient.

Two projects this past year supported the Hubble

Space Telescope repair. These are the Task

Analysis Report Generation Tool which incorporated a virtual environment to train over 150

members of the flight team and the Intelligent

Computer-Aided Training project which also

produced a virtual reality environment of Hubble.

With the proliferation of work stations and stand

alone systems, the effective coordination of knowledge is essential. To help address the need for

effective knowledge coordination, "Cooperating

Expert Systems" presents "midware."

Analysis of in-flight data is also important to

provide improved efficiency in future flights.

Three papers addressed this: The first, "Development of PVAT - A Video Analysis Tool for

Microgravity Posture Evaluations," studied neutral

body posture in zero-g. The second, "Human

Factors Studies Aboard STS-57/SpaceHab-01 ,"

studied posture, translation, lighting, and sound

levels aboard SpaceHab. And the third, "Human

Workload Analysis," used results from neutral

buoyancy studies to analyze the timeline for

Hubble.

Human-Computer Interface to Medical Decision

Support Systems for Space addresses problems that

are common to all decision support systems,

including anchoring and the effect of new evidence

on anchoring.

Two papers on biomechanical modeling complete

the section. "Development of a Rapid Algorithm

for Human Computer Model Reaching" and

"Development of a Full Body Dynamic Human

Strength Model," both describe graphical modeling

of human biomechanics.

The common theme of all these papers is that

computerization can increase the productivity of

humans in space.

Human Support Technology 1]-3

Section II

Human Support

Technology

Significant Tasks

PlWCQ_ I_C,E I_/1_ K NOT FILMED
Task Analysis Report Generation

Tool (Target)

TM: Robert T. Savely/PA

PI:

Reference:

Christopher J. Culbert/PT4

Christopher J. Ortiz/PT4

HST 1

TARGET represents a new approach that blends

graphical process flow modeling capabilities with

the function of a top-down reporting facility

(fig. 1). Since NASA personnel frequently perform

tasks that are primarily procedural in nature,

TARGET models mission or task procedures and

generates hierarchical reports as part of the process

capture and analysis effort. Historically, capturing

knowledge has proven to be one of the greatest

barriers to the development of intelligent systems.

Current practice generally requires lengthy

interactions between the expert whose knowledge

is to be captured and the knowledge engineer who

is responsible for acquiring and representing this

knowledge in a useful form. Although much

research has been devoted to the development of

methodologies and computer software which aid in

capturing and representing certain types of

knowledge, procedural knowledge has received

relatively little attention. TARGET also permits

experts to visually describe procedural tasks in a

common medium for knowledge refinement by the

expert community and knowledge engineer,

facilitatir_g knowledge consensus. Systems such as

TARGET have the potential to profoundly reduce

the time, difficulties, and costs of developing

knowledge-based systems for the performance of

procedural tasks. TARGET has also found uses in

such diverse areas as total quality management and

documentation of operational procedures.

During FY93 the TARGET application was

completely redesigned, redeveloped and delivered

as TARGET, version 1.5. The primary goal for the

redesign of TARGET was to rewrite and rehost the

! . •

apphcatlon on the Windows, Macintosh, and Sun

X-Windows platforms. The application, which is

graphical in nature, can now be compiled on a

variety of systems with little change to the source

code. This goal was achieved in TARGET version

1.5 by using a new off-the-shelf product called

XVT which provides application portability.

During the rehost effort several new features were

added to the original version. The original version,

TARGET version 1.0, which was released during

FY91 on the Microsoft Windows platform, has

over 177 registered users within the government.

TARGET version 1.0 became available to the

general public through COSMIC in August 1993.

TARGET was used initially to analyze the repair

procedures for the various tasks that were part of

the Hubble Space Telescope maintenance mission.

These procedures were then incorporated into a

virtual environment that was used to train over 150

members of the flight team. The main sources for

the information which was used included the EVA

Checklist STS-61 Flight Supplement and the

Weightless Environment Training Facility training

videos. The activities of both astronauts were

decomposed and incorporated into two training

modules consisting of tasks related to the solar

arrays, rate sensor units, wide field/planetary

camera and the corrective optics space telescope

axial replacement. TARGET provided the

preliminary procedural schemas that enabled

further development within the virtual environment

(fig. 2).

During the same time period, version 1.5 of

TARGET was used to support procedural

knowledge acquisition for the intelligent computeraided training (ICAT) conduct-of-fire trainer for

the National Guard. TARGET was used to capture

the interaction between instructors, tank

commanders and gunners. It was also used to

codify the initial break down of basic surgical

techniques to aid in the development of future

virtual environment ICAT systems for surgical

training.

Toward the end of the FY93, an effort was initiated

to add a rule generator to the application to create

C language integrated production system rules

from simple decision trees. Successful

demonstration was accomplished during the first

quarter of FY94.

1I-6 Human Support Technology
Die Edit Font

3a.4 TC: Announce GUNNER BATTLESIGHT

Converge @ 5.0

3a.l Target type? <Truck>

3a.5 TC: AnnounceGUNNER BATTLESIGHT

Converge @ 5,0

3a.I Target type? <Troops>

3a.6 TC: Announce GUNNER BATTLESIGHT I

Converge @ 5.0

Converge @ 5.0

4b,0(o) TC: Say main gun near target for

-JU

r_

I

Figure 1. Graphic and textual task representation in TARGET.

Figure 2. In this virtual reality scenario, a hand acts in the right foreground as the wide

field/planetary camera hovers over its protective enclosure, with the Hubble

Space Telescope in the background temporarily stationed in the STS-61 cargo

bay.

Human Support Technology II27
Intelligent Computer-Aided

Training (ICAT)

Ph Robert T. Savely/PA

Dr. R. Bowen Loftin/

University of HoustonDowntown

Reference: HST 2

Training of NASA astronauts, flight controllers,

and other ground support personnel has historically

required extensive on-the-job and/or simulatorbased training for individuals to acquire the

knowledge and skills necessary for acceptable

performance and/or certification. Current fligh-t

rates and the loss of experienced personnel to

retirement and transfer severely reduce the ability

of traditional training approaches to produce an

adequate number of trained personnel.

Workstation-based, intelligent computer-aided

training (ICAT) systems can deliver intensive

in training astronauts, flight controllers, and other

ground support personnel in the operation of those

systems that are part of the commercial middeck

augmentation module also known as SpaceHab.

The SpaceHab module is an Orbiter quarter bay

payload that was developed by McDonnell Douglas

Space Systems Company for SpaceHab, Inc. Its

purpose is to support commercial microgravity

experiments during a series of at least six flights.

SHIFT addresses training in all SpaceHab and

Orbiter systems used by the SpaceHab module.

These include the caution and warning,

communications and closed-circuit television,

electrical power, and environmental systems.

Based on a refinement of the general ICAT

architecture (reported in the 1991 RTAR), SH1Fr

replaces the single system trainer normally used to

prepare astronauts for similar missions. SHIFT is a

unique ICAT application since it was developed

concurrently with the systems for which it delivers

training. This posed real challenges for the

training to large numbers of trainees, independent development team as they received, often daily,

of integrated simulations. Such systems can changes to systems design and training

significantly reduce the amount of on-the-job and/ requirements. . Design and development of SHIFT

or simulator-based training necessary to achieve began in early November 1991, and the first

acceptable levels of performance, modules we___delivered forcrew training in July

ICAT systems bring artificial intelligence, training

technology, simulation, and other software

technologies to bear on the problem of training.

The role of artificial intelligence in ICAT systems

is to model the behavior of both experts and

novices kJ the performance of a complex task. In

addition, the expertise of a trainer is modeled and

used to determine the feedback given in response to

trainee errors, and to design increasingly

challenging simulations to meet training goals.

Thus, the efforts of both an expert in the task and

an expert trainer are simultaneously applied to each

trainee. Such systems offer increasedetTiciency

and reduced cost in training and provide uniform

and verifiable training, enhancing safety and the

probability of mission success.

During FY93 the SpaceHab Intelligent

Familiarization Trainer (SHIFT)--the first

components of which were delivered in FY92--

was completed and used for training in support of

STS-57 (SpaceHab-01). SHIFT is intended for use

1992. Final delivery of all SHIFT elements needed

for mission training occurred in January 1993. A

complete description of the SHIFT capabilities can

be found in the 1992 RTAR.

During FY93 the Software Technology Branch

greatly expanded its efforts in applying virtual

environment (also known as virtual reality)

technology to training. Beginning in May 1993,

members of the training technologies team

constructed a complete model of the Hubble Space

Telescope, as well as relevant Orbiter and payload

elements, to suppori the training of the flight team

• for STS-61. Engineeri-ng drawings were used to

obtain the data necessary to model all telescope and

payload elements (fig. 1). ICAT technology was

used in a limited way to provide additional help to

those using the system. Crew procedures

documents and extensive study of videotapes of the

Weightless Environment Training Facility training

activities were used to incorporate procedural

knowledge of all major tasks into the virtual

II-8 Human Support Technology
environment.Objectidentificationandprocedural

"nextsteps"werealsoavailableto traineesthrough

theintegrationof ICATtechnologywiththevirtual

environment(fig. 2). Trainingwiththissystem

wasinitiatedinSeptember1993.Resultsof this

activity(completedinDecember1993)will be

reportedintheFY94RTAR.

In additiontothespecificvirtualenvironment

trainingapplicationdetailedabove,thetraining

technologiesteamalsobeganexploringtheuseof

hapticdisplays(tactile,force,andthermal)in

virtualenvironments.A testbedtOevaluatehaptic

displaysfromindustryandacademiawasdesigned

andwill beusedinFY94to performdetailed

studiesthatwill determinetheeffectivenessof the

currentechnologyandthetechnologygapsthat

mustbefilledfor hapticdisplaysto becomeuseful

componentsof virtualenvironments.

Thecontinuinglackof powerfulandaccessible

development toolsforthecreationandmaintenance

of complexvirtualenvironmentswasaddressed

duringFY93.Ahigh-levelsoftwaredevelopment

toolwasdeliveredinprototypeform.Thistool

wasbasedontheuseof theCLIPS(Clanguage

integratedproductionsystem)andCOOL(CLIPS

objectorientedlanguage),productsof theSoftware

TechnologyBranch.Thetoolsupportsthe

descriptionof virtualobjectattributesand

relationshipsthroughCOOL.Userinteractions

withobjectsandtheresultingbehaviorsare

describedbymeansof CLIPSrules.Thistool

promisestomakeamajorcontributiontothe

furthermaturationandwiderapplicationof virtual

environmenttechnologybygreatlyexpandingthe

numberofpersonnelwhocanquicklyand

convenientlydevelopandmodifycomplexvirtual

environments.

In summary,FY93sawthecompletionof the

SHIFTICATproject,thecontinuedrefinementof

thegeneralICATarchitecture,thefirstlargescale

applicationof virtualenvironmenttechnologyin

training,andthefurthermaturationof virtual

environmenttechnologyasanadjunctoICAT

technology.

Figure 1. View of wide field/planetary camera (WF/PC) handhold parked on the

temporary parking fixture (TPF) in the Shuttle cargo bay.

Human Support Technology II-9
Figure 2. In this virtual environment, a trainee's hand is shown in right foreground/

right as WF/PC hovers over its prolectFve enclosure, with the Hubble Space

Telescope temporarily stationed in the Shuttle cargo bay.

II-lO Human Support Technology
Cooperating Expert Systems

Ph Christopher J. Culbert/PT4

Reference: HST 3

The purpose of the cooperating expert systems

(CoopES) project is to define and develop

guidelines, methodologies, and tools for distributed

cooperating systems and to apply them to develop

and deliver software and techniques for appropriate

customers at JSC.

Previous CoopES research has focused on various

models of cooperation. Two prototypes were

developed based on hierarchical and peer-to-peer

architectures. This work resulted in the

development of significant expertise in developing

cooperating expert systems, a number of reusable,

distributed computing software components

(several of which have been used in other projects),

and functional demonstration software. The 1991

and 1992 RTAR outline some of the details of this

work.

With the current trend away from centralized,

mainframe-based computing to distributed,

network-based software, the experience gained

through the CoopES project has proven to be a

valuable asset. In FY93 the project applied this

expertise in developing distributed system

prototypes to introduce network-based data sharing

into the JSC Mission Control Center (MCC)

through the real-time data system (RTDS) project.

Although the project focused primarily on MCC

communications, the system provides general data

sharing capabilities.

RTDS technology development projects have

resulted in the development of specialized, realtime tools for some disciplines (groups of flight

controllers who are responsible for specific Shuttle

subsystems). Software has been developed which

helps controllers monitor Shuttle telemetry. It runs

on networked Unix workstations, independent of

the operational flight consoles, and has succeeded

in introducing technologies, such as window-based

user interfaces, graphical presentation of telemetry,

and automated, rule-based data analysis, into the

MCC without disturbing operational console

software.

However, the distributed nature of the networked

workstations has not yet been fully exploited.

Disciplines depend on cooperation with each other

to resolve many issues, and this dependence

translates into (1) communication on the voice loop

to pass conclusions from one discipline to another,

and (2) manual data entry of the conclusions into

support software. To reduce this reliance on the

voice loop, some positions diagnose subsystems

other than their own. The result is duplication of

effort, dilution of the disciplines' exclusive

responsibility for their associated subsystems, and

occasionally contradictory conclusions.

To address these problems, the CoopES team

developed the data sharing system (DASH).

DASH provides a mechanism through which

existing RTDS support applications may share data

with each other via the existing network. This

system can be incorporated into existing

application code with minimal effort. It supports

variable-length and aggregate data exchange

between exporting and importing applications, and

involves two simple application program interfaces

(APIs) which can be called by applications wanting

to export or import data. As such, DASH

represents a middleware product aimed at

coordinating data sharing between producer and

consumer applications. DASH acts as an

intermediary between the applications, the

operating system and the network software.

Programmers writing a producer or consumer

application do not need to know anything about the

DASH system, but only about the APIs calls in

their code. A producer may export data to any

number of interested consumers, and a consumer

may import data from any number of producers

using the system.

Figure 1 illustrates the relationships between

various processes which make up the DASH

system. In this figure, elements of the DASH

system proper are represented as white rectangles.

The shaded rectangles denote externally developed

software. The relationships between the processes

are depicted by one- and two-sided arrows. The

one-sided arrows denote client/server relationships

in which a client initiates contact with a server.

(The arrow points to the server.) The two-sided

arrows denote peer-to-peer relationships in which

Human Support Technology II- 11
bothpartiescontacteachother.Forbothtypesof

relationship,informationwill generallyflowboth

directions.

DASHiscomposedof severalclassesof processes

whichimplementtheAPIssemantics.Publishers

makedataexportedbyproducersavailabletoso

calledsubscribers.Thesesubscriberslocatethe

publisherassociatedwithrequesteddataandpass

thedataontointerestedconsumers.Therecanbe

manyproducers,consumers, publishers,and

subscribers.Theseprocessesmayresideat

arbitrarynetworklocationsduetothepresenceof a

networkregistrationservicewhichactsasa

"processdirectory"andtherebyprovidesnetwork

locationtransparency.

Therearetwoimportantpointswhichneedtobe

madeaboutDASHanditsincorporationasa

humansupporttechnologyintheMCC. First,with

thehugeinvestmentsinflight controllertraining,

thecurrentworkloadoncertifiedflight controllers,

operational console software, and the safety

requirements of Shuttle missions, flight controllers

are generally reluctant to embrace a new

technology if it represents an appreciable departure

from the current approach to mission operations.

This fact must be recognized when designing

systems for this environment. Much thought has

been put into the DASH API to simplify its

integration with existing RTDS applications and to

familiarize controllers with the benefits of

electronic data sharing. Second, a middleware

product such as DASH is a prerequisite to large

scale inter-application cooperation. It lays the

foundation for this by providing a common tool for

all developers to use regardless of whether their

system is a small procedural monitoring system or

a complex expert system.

A significant accomplishment for DASH has been

its successful demonstration in the MCC, where it

is used to communicate electrical bus states from

the bus loss smart system to the configurable realtime analysis system (CRANS). It has also been

used to transmit Shuttle remote manipulator (RMS)

data from the RMS decision support system to a

version of CRANS used for failure impact and

procedure analysis. DASH is also being used to

share data between the task analysis/report

generation tool knowledge acquisition software and

the C language integrated production system expert

system shell.

Future work in this area will include the

development of APIs for programs written in

languages other than C or G2; migration to nonUNIX platforms; the addition of communications

mechanisms other than transmission

communication protocol and user datagram

protocol, as well as other robustness enhancements;

and the possible integration of DASH concepts into

the telemetry data acquisition programs in the new

Consolidated Control Center.

NetworkRegistrationService

publisher subscriber

producer consumer

. Figure 1. The simplest DASH configuration--one consumer and one producer.

II- 12 Human SupportTechnology
Development of PVAT--A Video

Analysis Tool for Microgravity

Posture Evaluations

TM: Frances E. Mount/SP34

PI: Tim McKay/LESC

Mihriban WhitmoreJLESC

Reference: HST 4

The knowledge on how humans live and work in

space is necessary for planning missions. The

ability of crewmembers to sustain quality

performance determines mission success.

Although factors affecting productivity are

generally recognized, there is a need for a weI1

defined, quantitative methodology to investigate

the impact of behavioral factors on crew

performance, operations and scheduling, and

design parameters. It is important to understand the

effects of microgravity on human performance.

This information can help engineers design and

modify the microgravity environment to optimize

crew safety, comfort, and productivity. One factor

of interest is microgravity posture, which can be

impacted by the interaction of the operator with the

physical environment. There is a need to identify

and further quantify the relationship among the

work activities, working posture, and workplace

design so that postural stress can be quantified and

the specific causes of awkward posture identified.

Several systems have recently been developed for

measuring working posture. However, most of

these systems require that specific reference points

be identified prior to classifying the working

posture. These types of tools are ideal when the

analyst has control of the data collection

procedures. Unfortunately, strict control over

microgravity working posture data collection is not

always possible or feasible because of hardware,

flight, and schedule timeline limitations.

The primary means of obtaining microgravity

working posture data has been through video

downlinks and recordings, including

supplementary in-flight and postflight

questionnaires. Observational analysis of footage

for various Shuttle missions has revealed that

important, if not critical, information (e.g., general

postures, duration, frequency, and design issues)

can be extracted if a uniform methodology is

devised. In response to this need, the posture video

analysis tool (PVAT) was developed by the Human

Factors and Ergonomics Laboratory (HFEL) at

JSC. The purpose of PVAT is to provide a

structured and controlled methodology for

extracting and classifying microgravity working

postures from video footage, particularly for

nonexperimentally controlled footage (i.e., not

recorded specifically for experimental analysis).

The goal of PVAT is to identify potential design

problems which may affect microgravity working

posture and human performance. Such information

could then be used to help focus attention on

design issues requiring more rigorous ergonomics

and human factors evaluation. It should be noted

that PVAT does not obviate the need for the

traditional techniques of data collection and

assessment. On the contrary, PVAT has been

developed as an intermediate system to help reduce

the massive amounts of data. The data is then

analyzed with off-the-shelf systems such as ARIEL

system, Motion Analyzer, or Vision 3000 for

further quantification of the critical working

postures.

PVAT is an interactive Macintosh menu and button

driven SuperCard TM software prototype consisting

of several input and output screens. The objective

of PVAT is to provide the analyst with a

predefined set of options associated with

microgravity postural assessments and human

performance issues. Prior to the video analysis

process, the analyst must first define the

assessment parameters. These parameters are

entered using keyboard and pulldown menu

selections from the PVAT setup screen (fig.r'll).

For reference purposes, the analyst can enter the

particular video footage title, video camera location

(if known), task description, and the analyst's name

(Rater). The Rater information may also be used to

determine inter- and intra-rater reliability.

Shown in figure 1, the remaining input parameters,

subject code, camera view, posture description,

posture classification and rating scale, are

considered to be the more critical entries. Subject

code is an identifier entered by the analyst to

clarify which subject is being observed from the

Human Support Technology I]- 13
video footage. This is important since tasks

performed in microgravity often require two or

three crewmembers. Camera view is a pulldown

menu selection input that helps describe the camera

position at the time of recording. To access the

menu, the analyst simply clicks and holds the

mouse down over the entry field. Six view options

are listed in the camera view menu (top, bottom,

front, left side, fight side, angle) as well as another

option. The importance of this entry is that certain

postural positions and movements may be better

ascertained given different camera views. Such

information could then be used to justify additional

video view coverage for future missions.

Postural description and classification both refer to

the target assessment behavior. As with the camera

view entry, the postural description input is made

via a pulldown menu. The options available are

grouped into three sections. The first set of options

describe the overall posture most often observed in

microgravity, i.e., neutral body, horizontal, vertical,

and transverse. The second group of options may

be selected as an additional descriptor variable to

the first category (e.g., neutral body - neck) or as

the only option (e.g., neck). In either case, the

analyst is given the freedom to choose between the

two categories or to enter an altogether different

descriptor using other.

The postural classification entry is divided into two

parts (fig. 1). Inputs to these fields are made by

selecting two options from any one of the A

through E pulldown menu. The selections made

will be the target behavior associated with the

postural description, e.g., neck flexion versus neck

extension. To further describe the target posture, a

rating scale option is included. Once analysts have

selected the postural classification, they must

specify how they will rate the target behavior. The

rating scale input is made via a pulldown menu. At

the moment, there are two scale rating options

"mild/severe" and "slow/fast," as well as "other."

For this prototype version, the rating is performed

using a 3-point scale where the midpoint represents

neutral.

Once all these entries have been completed, the

analyst presses the Set Startup button to initialize

the program. A control box resembling a stop

watch and a blank data screen appear as depicted in

figure 2. Other features of the PVAT prototype

include the ability to use the keyboard number pad

to input the rating values associated with each

posture classification, a terminology and

definitions library, a small animation illustrating

selected posture classifications, on-line help print

report capability, and basic data reduction

summaries, (i.e., frequency and duration). Once

the setup is complete, analysts may begin

monitoring the selected video footage and making

their posture classification ratings directly into

PVAT. Each posture classification rating is stored

and time stamped automatically. Having

completed theassessment process, analysts can

then summarize the data in terms of posture

classification frequency and overall duration.

Posture is an important aspect of workload and a

potential limitation on time and/or effectiveness of

an operator's performance (Corlett, et al.,

Ergonomics, 1979). PVAT provides the initial step

in identifying limiting microgravity postures and

related workstation design concerns. Furthermore,

it may provide analysts with supporting data to

specify adequate microgravity posture or safe

duration for certain microgravity postures

perceived as potentially dangerous.

Future plans are to conduct usability testing of

PVAT, to finalize the design, and to make it

available for human factors engineers. Plans have

been made to use PVAT for the human factors

microgravity evaluations conducted on board

Shuttle and KC-135 reduced gravity aircraft. It is

also anticipated that PVAT will be applicable in a

host of industries with little or no modification. It

can contribute to various aspects of workplace

design such as training, task allocations, procedural

analysis, scheduling of timelines, and hardware

usability evaluations. In addition, a video analysis

paradig m for use in human factors microgravity

evaluations will be developed and documented for

future reference.

II- 14 Human Support Technology
Startup

Yideo Title Task Description

IGPWSStudy (KC-135)

Camera Location

IFrontCabin

Rater

IKent

Body Orientation

I

I

Subject Code Other

IIrl I

Body Movement & Rating Level

Neutral Body I .............................. !

Bodu Part

. ............................ Neck

Camera Vie,#

KC- 135 Flightstudylookingatfinemotor

manipulationandobjecthandlinginside

Gloveboxmockup.

FlightDay I (March 1993)

Flex/Extend 1 ......t

L........................ M!]d:_ve_e...................... !

......................................................................... !

@

@

Behaviors & Activities

Twist

, I................ L.e..ft....S.!_d..e .............. ! .........................................................................I

i

0

Setup

Figure 1. PVAT setup screen.

-D- Output _ _"

Press Start

1:41:17 I Flex Mild

1:41:28 Extend Severe , Twist

1:41:37 Nominal

Flex

C) Ilild

0 Severe

Extend [ Nominal ]

C) Mild ( Unsure ]

C) Severe (Clear Last)

Behaviors / I

Activities I

Twist II II II I

II II II I

Figure 2. PVAT output screen.

Human Support Technology 1]- 15
Human Factors Studies Aboard

STS-5 7/SpaceHab.01

TM:

PI:

Reference:

Frances E. Mount/SP34

Susan Adam/SP34

Tim McKay/LESC

Mlhriban Whltmore/LESC

HST 5

A collection of human factors studies was

conducted by the Human Factors and Ergonomics

Laboratory (HFEL) aboard STS-57 to investigate

human capabilities and limitations in microgravity.

Most of the experiments were performed within the

SpaceHab module, which provides a shirt-sleeve

working environment for the completion of

scientific evaluations. The SpaceHab module

occupies approximately one-fourth of the payload

bay and contains storage space equivalent to 50

middeck lockers. A tunnel links the module to the

middeck. The human factors studies performed

focused on neutral body posture, translation,

lighting, sound, and the use of electronic

procedures.

In the neutral body posture study, 26 anthropometric body measurements were taken of the six

The findings suggest that construction of several

composite postures or a range of postures may be

more constructive for design purposes than any

single neutral body posture definition.

The primary focus of the translation study was the

evaluation of transfer times and strategies of

crewmembers moving through the 9.6 foot

SpaceHab tunnel. Video cameras were placed in

view of the tunnel entrances and interior.

Crewmembers were videotaped moving through

the SpaceHab tunnel in the course their regularly

scheduled work, early and late in the mission.

Crewmembers recorded translation times and

strategies via an electronic questionnaire.

Overall the translation time early in the mission

was greater than the translation time late in the

mission, as expected. The equipment transfer time

was slightly greater than the crew translation time,

especially when the equipment was sensitive or

large in volume. The crew found the design of the

tunnel entrance and the placement of handholds to

be acceptable. They did not use their feet during

the tunnel translation. It was observed that both

hands were used to drag the body, with arms

stretched out to their sides when no equipment was

transferred. However, hand push-offs were done

crewmembers prior to the flight. The crew beneath the body when carrying objects. : _ i_

represented 5th to 90th percentile statures. Th_ i ..... _....... : ......... ..... :i_ •

posture evaluation was performed late in the

mission in the middeck of the Orbiter. Two video

cameras and one still camera were placed in fixed

locations to capture all body segments and limb

angles. During each test session, the crew donned

shorts, tank tops, and blindfolds and were

instructed to assume a relaxed posture that was not

oriented to any work area or task. Crew postures

were recorded as they were rotated 360* in 45*

increments. Posture data were compared with the

postures identified in NASA-STD-3000 (ManSystems Integration Standards).

Results showed that not a single crewmember

exhibited the typical neutral body posture specified

in NASA-STD-3000. Two extreme postures were

exhibited by the crew (fig. 1):

• A pitched-forward posture, with an extreme

bend at the knees

• An elongated, almost standing posture

The lighting evaluation represented the first time

that systematic light intensity measurements were

taken on the Orbiter during a mission. The crew

used an exposure meter to measure the in-flight

light levels on the middeck, flightdeck, and

SpaceHab module.

All light levels met the required brightness ratios

and were rated as acceptable by the crew; however,

on occasion, sun shafting through the aft and

overhead windows washed out the normal

illumination and caused glare on the monitors and

electronic displays. Additionally, some

crewmembers noted that areas along the SpaceHab

outer walls were noticeably dimmer than the

general or central areas when the auxiliary lights

were not in use.

The objective of the sound study was to evaluate

current Orbiter and SpaceHab acoustic conditions.

Ten noise measurements were completed by the

II-16 Human Support Technology
crewintheflightdeck,middeck,andSpaceHab

module(fig.2).

Acousticlevelswereapproximately63dBAonthe

flightdeckand62dBAonthemiddeck.Sound

levelsintheSpaceHabmodulevariedwidelyand

wereinconclusiveduetomeasurement problems

encountered; theyareestimatedtohavebeeninthe

63- 66dBArange.All measureswerewithinthe

acousticspecificationof 68dBA. Crewcomments

werecollectedviaquestionnaire.Significant

variabilitywasfoundintheratings,demonstrating

thatsusceptibilitytonoiseishighlyindividualistic.

Overall,missiontaskswerenotsignificantly

impactedbynoise;however,noiselevelsdid

necessitateheuseof earplugsduringsleep.The

abilitytoconcentrate, relax,andcommunicate

verballywerealsoreduced.Fatigueandheadaches

duetonoiselevelswerecitedbysome

crewmembers. Whilethreecrewmembersfound

thenoiselevelsacceptableforthecurrentmission

length,onlyonebelievedit tobeacceptablefor a

sixmonthmission.

Theelectronicproceduresstudysoughttodefine

humanfactorsrequirementsforelectronic

proceduresinspaceenvironments.A computerbasedtasksimulatingaspacecraft controltaskwas

completed by one crewmember using first paper

and then computer procedures (fig. 3).

The computer procedures were completed more

rapidly and were preferred by the crewmember.

Procedures with voice input were attempted with a

soldering task, but technical problems prevented

completion of that portion of the test. Results

suggest that computer procedures could be used in

the future in place of paper procedures to increase

productivity and access to information. More work

remains to be done regarding the application of

voice input technology.

Data collected from these human factors

evaluations will be used in the development of

human factors design standards. In addition, where

applicable, recommendations for improvements in

Orbiter hardware design, training requirements,

procedure definition, and timeline development

will be provided to NASA. Issues requiring further

work will be proposed for study on future missions.

Figure 1. Two extreme neutral body postures exhibited on STS-57.

ORIGINAl, PAGE

BL,_LTK A,_4_ WHITE I_L3T_I_c",4

Human Support Technology 11-17
Figure 2. The STS-57 commander takes a sound

measurement in the SpaceHab.

|!

t I

=

Figure 3. Crewmember performing electronic procedures task.

II-18 Human Support Technology
Human Workload Analysis

TM: Barbara Woolford/SP3

PI: Manuel Diaz/LESC

Reference: HST 6

Future manned space missions will represent

unprecedented expansion of civilization into the

solar system. The Space Station will permit crews

to live and work in Earth orbit for 90-day intervals,

and perhaps longer. Lunar outposts will demand

that crews work routinely in a harsh extraterrestrial

environment, conducting scientific experiments

and eventually supervising complex operations

such as resource utilization. The proposed mission

to Mars will involve outbound and return flights of

a combined duration of one to three years,

including time spent working on the planetary

surface. As spaceflight becomes increasingly

complex and of longer duration, astronauts are

likely to encounter greater workloads. Human

performance under various workload conditions,

critical to the success of spaceflight, has only

recently begun to be studied systematically.

The need to assess workload becomes even more

critical in a Shuttle mission such as STS-61 which

repaired and serviced the Hubble Space Telescope

(HST) in December 1993. A committee review

done before the mission stated that the mission was

achievable but risky because of the growing

workload, tight schedule, and management

complexity. The independent panel noted that the

timeline for EVA was "very tight, having grown

25% in the period of our review, and continues to

grow." Indeed, any additional component failures

would have required additional tasks to have been

added. The list of repairs grew to fill an l l-day

flight, with at least 5 consecutive days of EVAs by

alternative pairs of astronauts, making it by far the

most ambitious Shuttle EVA plan.

To date no attempts have been made to assess the

workload imposed by tasks during intravehicular

(IVA) or extravehicular activities (EVA), and yet

of all activities performed by humans in

microgravity, those performed outside the

pressurized modules are the most dangerous.

Clearly, there is a requirement to develop

methodologies for workload measurement and a

need to identify points during a mission that may

result in excessive workload.

The human workload analysis project initiated in

1992 seeks to advance current understanding of

mental workload in microgravity through the use of

computer simulation and performance modeling

techniques. The Crew Interface Analysis section

completed an initial evaluation of the usefulness of

these techniques through an analysis of the remote

manipulator system (RMS) deployment on STS-37.

In a more comprehensive evaluation, models of the

wide field/planetary camera (WF/PC) replacement

during the STS-61 HST servicing mission were

developed.

The work involved the development of a workload

component scale of IVA/EVA tasks and translation

of the scale to reflect points during HST servicing

that could result in excessive workload. The scale

is depicted in table 1.

Table 1. Workload Component Scales

ScaleValue Task

Motor Processes

0.18 DiscreteActivation

0.49 Translation

0.52 Ingress/Egress

0.60 RestrainedManipulation

0.65 CompensatoryTracking

0.69 TranslationWithEquipment

1.10 UnrestrainedManipulation

Visual Processes

0.28 Confirmation

0.30 Discrimination/Identification

0.47 Comprehension

0.49 StatusMonitoring

0.61 Alignmentand Orientation

Mediation Processes

0.24 AlternativeSelection

0.49 Estimationcalculation

0.65 PlanFormulation

0.78 ProblemSolving

Auditory Processes

0.53 Comprehension

0.58 Discrimination

Human Support Technology 1I-19
It wasbelievedthatthedrivingforceforthis

missionwasexcessiveworkload,possiblyleading

tofatigueandexhaustion.Examinationof the

pointsduringHSTservicingthatresultedin

excessiveworkloadleadtorecommendations

concerningthe

• Expectation of degraded performance

• Need to change task allocation across

crewmembers

• Need to expand the timeline

° Need to increase the number of EVAs

Figure 1 depicts accumulated motor workload

estimates for each crewmember during each phase

of WF/PC replacement. Figure 2 presents

workload as a ratio of scale values and phase

completion time. Initial results suggest that phase

2 (installation of WF/PC I into the temporary

parking fixture) and phase 4 (installation of WF/PC

II into the HST) were the most demanding activities. Installation of WF/PC II was anticipated to be

particularly demanding due to the frequency and

duration of activities requiring manipulation of WF/

PC II. Also, more effort was predicted to be

required of extravehicular activity crewmember 1

(EV1). This may be due to a lack of portable foot

restraints.

Although the preliminary results are quite rudimentary in nature, it is believed that the methodology

described provides an objective approach for

evaluating the workload that astronauts are likely to

encounter in EVAs. Ultimately, the methodology

developed during this program of investigation will

lead to a number of products that will be applied to

future task network simulations of the workload

likely to be experienced during future EVA activities, including

• Validated workload component scales for rating

the visual, auditory, motor, and mediation

components of workload

° Methods for evaluation of the workload

imposed by concurrent EVA tasks

° Strategies for reducing workload during EVA

25

20

Workload

Scak_ 15

10

EV 1

EV 2

1 2 3 4 5 6

WFPC Replacement Phase

Figure 1. Accumulated motor workload.

11-20 Human Support Technology
1.0

Workload/

Minute

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

EV 1

EV 2

1 2 3 4 5 6

WFPC Replacement Phase

Figure 2. Accumulated motor workload per minute.

Human Support Technology II-21
Development of a Rapid Algorithm

for Human Computer Reaching

PI:

Reference:

James C. Malda/SP34

Abhllash K. Pandya/LESC

Mlchael Goldsby/L.ESC

Ann M. Aldrldge/LESC

HST 7

The Graphics Research and Analysis Facility

(GRAF) at NASA JSC has developed a rapid

algorithm for computing realistic human reaching.

The method of determining arm joint angles from

the posture of the hand is a simple look-up table

approach. This approach is extremely fast and

always gives a solution if one exists. The algorithm

has been applied to an anthropometrically correct

human model and used in a 3-D computer graphics

system and a virtual reality ('dR) system.

To generate our look-up table, all the arm joints of

the compute_ figure were exercised through their

range of motion. This generated vast amounts of

data relating the position and orientation of the palm

to the joint angles necessary to achieve these

postures. This data was organized into a grid of

positions, with a grid of orientations for each

position. Various methods were used to prune the

redundant data initially contained in this table. A

strength criterion, which assumes that the human

body uses maximum strength as the preferred

position for the joint chain, was used initially to

prune the solution set. For EVA motion, we also

considered looking at joint postures closest to

neutral body posture for pruning the data.

This reach look-up table application was installed in

the PLAID 3-D interactive graphic system used in

the GRAF lab. The user can "fly" the end effector

using keyboard commands, and the look-up table

fills in the joint angles to produce an accurate reach.

Reaching is a complicated task, usually involving

the entire body and not just the arms. The challenge

is to reproduce an accurate reaching motion for the

computer figure. Consider a scenario with an EVA

crewmember attached to a portable foot restraint

(PFR). With his feet constrained, this EVA figure

must reach by moving his legs and waist as well as

his arms. To move the waist as an "end effector, "a

separate look-up table of leg motions was generated.

The user can then "fly" the waist as well as the

arms to get motion with the PFR constraint. This

application allows computer animations to be

generated with greater realism and speed.

Formerly, human motion for animations was

guided by providing commands to control each

joint individually, a tedious procedure which often

produced unnatural motion (fig. 1).

GRAF has also incorporated this human reach

model into a VR system. In our system the motion

of the subject can be monitored using 4 magnetic

trackers: one on the back to determine motions of

the torso; one on each palm to determine posture of

the hands; and a fourth on the head to monitor head

motion for viewing purposes (figs. 2 and 3). The

tracker on the back is processed first. Translation

motions of the tracker are used to move the figure's

waist position forward and backward. If the figure

is constrained to a PFR, a look-up table determines

the joint angles necessary to keep the feet attached

to the PFR. Orientation of the tracker is used to

rotate the waist until the computer figure has the

correct back orientation. With this new body

orientation, the tracker on the head is processed to

determine the neck motion necessary to give the

correct viewing direction. The trackers on the

hand are used to get a position and orientation in

space relative to the shoulder of the computer

figure. Our arm look-up table algorithm is used to

give solutions for the joint angles needed to obtain

these postures.

The advantages of the look-up table are

• That a solution, if one exists, is always

obtained

• Many criteria such as strength, posture, or task

dependencies may be applied to select the

correct set of solutions

• It is very fast (three orders of magnitude faster

than the inverse kinematics routine used in our

lab)

The one disadvantage is that the resolution of the

solution is dependent on the table size, and even

with moderate resolution, the table size may be

enormous (e.g., a 2-inch resolution requires 1.2

million data points). We are looking at ways of

interpolating between data points to improve

resolution and at ways of representing the data in a

II-22 Human Support Technology
morecompactform.Variousothertechniques

suchasneuralnetworksandfuzzylogicarealso

beingexplored.In thehopeof furtherincreasing

therealismof thesolutions,alook-uptablewill be

constructedusingdatacollectedbytrackingthe

actualmovementsof humansubjectsinsteadof

arbitrarilyexercisingjointsinthecomputerfigure.

A comparisonoftheresultsfrominversekinematic

solutions,armmotiontracking,andlook-uptable

solutionswill bedone.

Figure 1. Old method of animating human motion in which commands were provided to control

each joint individually.

Human Support Technology II-23
Tracker

1

,_ Tracker

3

Tracker

2

Tracker

4

Figure 2. Positions of the 4 magnetic trackers used to monitor the figure's motion.

\

¥

Motion of Lower Torso.

Monitored by Magnetic

Tracker on Back.

Foot Restraint

Figure 3. Translation motions of the tracker on the figure's back.

II-24 Human Support Technology
Development of Full Body

Dynamic Human Strength Model

Ph James C. Maida/SP34

Abhilash K. Pandya/LESC

Ann M. Aldridge/LESC

Reference: HST 8

Planners, engineers, astronauts, and researchers

who are concerned with "man-in-the-!oop"

activities are relying on the computer models of

humans and their environments as one of the tools

available to assist them in solving human fit and

function problems. A full-body human strength

model which allows strength predictions of a

variety of tasks would be an important part of this

modeling system.

A human arm strength model based on empirical

data has been developed at the Graphics Analysis

and Research Facility (GRAF) (Pandya, et al.,

NASA TP 3207, June 1992) (Pandya, et al., NASA

TP 3206, June 1992). In a previous effort, the

shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints were characterized in terms of maximum isolated torque, position,

and velocity in all rotational planes using a Lido,

Inc., dynamometer. A ratchet wrenching task was

modeled. In the modeling process when a joint

motion occurred, the axis direction, angle, and

speed of motion were mapped to an appropriate

joint torque polynomial (derived from the collected

data) and a torque value was returned. Based on

the anthropometrics of the arm and the isolated

joint torques generated for a ratchet wrenching

motion, a force vector computation was done to

derive the final torque at the ratchet center. Results

indicate that forces derived from a composite

motion of joints (ratcheting) can be predicted from

isolated joint measures. Efforts are currently

underway to systematically extend the database of

strength information used by this model to

encompass all major joints of the body. In

addition, more complex motions are being

collected to further test and validate the strength

model.

Isolated joint strength measures were taken for the

ankle, knee, hip, shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints

for 15 subjects. The isokinetic velocity ranges

were chosen so they were within the range of the

multi-joint motions.

Previous validation of the strength model was

based on isokinetic (constant velocity) motions.

Typical motions in the real world involve isotonic

motions (constant mass) with variable velocities.

Kinematic and torque data were collected for each

subject for three different ratchet wrenching tasks

using the LIDO multi-joint II dynamometer. Task

one involved ratchet wrenching in the frontal plane

with the fight hand initially at face level moving

through a 60* range. Task two was also in the

frontal plane; however, the initial position of the

fight hand was at chest level. Task three involved

ratchet wrenching in the sagital plane with the axis

of rotation at the height of the right greater

trochanter. These tasks were collected using

isotonic loads of 5, 15, 25, and 35 lbs and also in

an ioskinetic mode at 120°/see. A force plate was

used to determine the ground reaction forces during

each task. Prior to performing these tasks, each

subject had 2-cm diameter retroreflective balls

attached to the right foot, ankle, hip, shoulder,

elbow, wrist, and hand. Each task was videotaped

using two video cameras simultaneously to enable

3-D motion analysis. This video data was

digitized, transformed, and smoothed using the

Ariel performance analysis system (APAS). The

3-D coordinates of each joint were obtained for one

repetition of each load and speed. Joint ranges,

angular velocities, and angular accelerations were

determined for each joint. In addition, the speed

of the actuator/ratchet arm was determined for the

isotonic loads, since this was not known. This data

will be used to further validate the strength model.

When a multi-joint motion occurs in the model,

each joint angle and instantaneous velocity will be

extracted from the motion analysis data, the

appropriate force function (from the isolated joint

measures) will be invoked, and the torque values

returned. The force will then be computed at the

end effector of interest and propagated into the

modeled environment.

The data collection and transfer has been initiated.

The modeling programs to compute the endeffector forces are in place. Figure 1 shows one of

the validation tasks to be modeled.

Human Support Technology II-25
=

Figure 1. Human model doing a ratchet wrenching operation in the frontal plane.

11-26 Human Support Technology
Human-Computer Interface to

Medical Decision Support

Systems for Space

TM: Frances E. Mount/SP34

Ph Jurine A. Adolf/LESC

Steven J. Wolf/LESC*

Reference: HST 9

Providing medical care to crewmembers in orbit is

an important aspect of any space mission. As

missions become longer and more complex,

crewmembers will become increasingly

independent of Earth-based support facilities due to

uncertain communication with ground experts and

improbable medical emergency rescues from a

distance (e.g., lunar/Mars). Reliance on

sophisticated health care delivery systems will

become inevitable. In addition to a complete and

accurate database of medical knowledge,

crewmembers must be able to access the correct

information in a timely manner. Therefore, the

human-computer interface (HCI) is crucial to the

overall success of medical decision support

systems (DSS). Research is being conducted by

the Human Factors and Ergonomics Laboratory

(HFEL) personnel in the JSC Flight Crew Support

Division to improv e the design of HCIs to medical

DSS.

After identifying several important HCI issues,

HFEL personnel focused on diagnostic decisionmaking errors for a variety of reasons: relatively

little research has been done, there were roots in

psychological-based theory, and demonstrations of

biases in medical environments have been reported.

While a DSS could assist the health care provider

at the points where decision making fails by

eliminating biases, it may also contribute to

systematic errors such as anchoring. Anchoring is

the phenomenon in which the decision maker

latches on to a starting point and does not make

sufficient adjustments when new data are

presented. In fact, anecdotal evidence suggests that

anchoring may have been encountered when the

Navy fielded a new diagnostic DSS on their

submarines.

In a series of landmark papers in the field of

cognitive psychology, Kahneman and Tversky

demonstrated anchoring by asking subjects to

estimate a proportion by starting at a random

number and making adjustments. The f'trst HFEL

experiment replicated those results, shown in

figure 1. The slopes of both lines in figure 1 were

nearly the same, indicating comparable anchoring.

Once the phenomenon had been confirmed with a

basic decision task, HFEL personnel dissected the

interaction between the user and DSS into several

components. By analyzing each of these

co_nponents, the HFEL hopes to fully understand

the decision-making error.

The second experiment extended the f'n'st

experiment by including an examination of the

level of expertise of a subject domain. It was

proposed that more knowledgeable users would

anchor less because they would be able to rely on

their own judgments more so than naive users.

Figure 2 shows the anchoring results for subjects

classified as novices, intermediates, and experts.

Although all subjects anchored, preliminary results

do not show any significant differences between

levels of expertise. A follow-up experiment will be

done to ensure an accurate operational definition of

expertise. Also in this second experiment, a

trustworthy starting point was provided to the

subjects. It was hypothesized that more trust

Would result in more anchoring. Comparing the

results of both experiments in figure 3, a more

trustworthy starting point did dramatically increase

the anchoring effect. Additional experimentation

on sequential decision making, expertise level vs.

trustworthy sources, and medical domain

knowledge will be done. In fact, the next planned

experiment will examine the effects of anchoring

over many sequential decisions, just as a physician

may make several differential diagnoses until the

correct one is found. After all components have

been examined, HCI design solutions that eliminate

or reduce the effects of this anchoring bias will be

developed.

* No longer with LESC

Human Support Technology 11-27
100

80

60

Subject's

Response

40-

2O

I l ' ' I

O " • I

0 20 40 60 80

Starting Point (Anchor)

00

----o--- Original

Replication

Figure 1. Comparison between Kahneman and Tverksy's original and the HFEL's

replicated experiment.

100

80

Subject's

Response

60

4O

2O

----o-.-- Expert

Intermediate

_ = Novice

20 40 60 80

Starting Point (Anchor)

100

Figure 2. Anchoring effects for three knowledge levels.

]]-28 Human Support Technology
100

80

6O

Subject's

Response

4O

2O

0 l i I ,

0 20 40 60 80 100

Starting Point (Anchor)

----o--- Random Number

"- Trustworthy

Person

Figure 3. Comparison between HFEL experiments 1 and 2: source

of anchor differs.

Human Support Technology II-29

Section III

Solar System

Sciences

Summary

Solar System Sciences

Summary

Research at JSC in Solar System Sciences during

FY93 covered a number of disciplines, was broad

in scope, and varied in its relationship to science as

a centerpiece of the missions of today and the

future.

Highlights of the work this past year include

1) fabrication of instrumentation for the detection

of volatiles in the soil of planetary surfaces, 2) two

studies related to detecting and analyzing orbital

debris, 3) two separate studies to spectroscopically

detect water and organic material on asteroids,

4) the use of a tether to generate electricity and

remove charge from a spacecraft in Earth orbit,

5) a study of synthetic soils to enable the growth of

plants in space, and 6) the fabrication and testing of

a radiation dosimeter for inclusion on a Russian

spacecraft to Mars.

Exploration of planetary surfaces includes

assessment of the composition of surface materials.

Global characterization of Mars will require small

instrument packages landed at selected sites

through the Mars Environmental Survey (MESUR)

program in the late 1990s. The Thermal Analyzer

for Planetary Soils (TAPS) offers a specific

implementation for the generic thermal analyzer/

evolved-gas analyzer (TA/EGA) function included

in the MESUR strawman payload. The purpose of

the TA/EGA is to identify volatile-bearing minerals

in Martian soils, including water-bearing clays,

carbonates, nitrates, and sulfates. During FY93,

the TAPS Mark-2 sensor test bed was assembled

and used to validate in-house designs for sample

collectors, sensors, and circuits.

Impactor residues in materials exposed on the Long

Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) are being

studied to establish the nature and abundance of

meteorites and debris in low Earth orbit (LEO), and

also the effect hypervelocity impacts will have on

spacecraft. Exposed in LEO for 69 months, LDEF

continues to provide a wealth of information. New

techniques were developed for the study of

impactor residues in craters on LDEF surfaces.

Our understanding of the LEO particulate

environment, including the composition of

interplanetary dust particles and space debris, and

critical information on its high-velocity interaction

with spacecraft, is growing. These results will be

useful to spacecraft engineers and planetary

scientists.

Knowledge of orbital debris is broken into two

size regimes. Knowledge of debris smaller than

,-_0.1 cm comes from studies such as above. The

USSPACECOM maintains a catalog of objects

larger than ~10 cm diameter, including debris,

intact satellites, and rocket bodies. No statistically

significant measurements of the debris

environment in the range of 0.1 cm to 10 cm

existed prior to 1990.

The Haystack radar has periodically observed

debris in LEO since 1990. The measurements

improve the estimate of the debris flux at Space

Station altitudes. The Haystack measurements

have reduced the uncertainty in the 1-cm-diameter

debris environment. The project is now

transitioning to monitoring trends and identifying

sources of new debris. This will be greatly aided

by the addition of the Haystack Auxiliary radar.

This new radar will allow cm-size debris flux

measurements resulting from satellite breakups.

A long-term goal of space exploration is the

expansion of humans into space. The resources

required to support this include water for life

support. The identification of solar system objects

as sources of water represents a significant step

toward using in situ resources for survival.

Aqueous alteration of the near-subsurface material

on asteroids and some satellites is part of the

history of the Solar System. We unravel this

history by observing the spectral properties of an

object's surface. Aqueous alteration was

discovered when an infrared feature indicating

hydroxl (OH) and water in silicates was identified

in the spectra of many asteroids. Additional

evidence was provided by an absorption indicative

of an Fe 2+- Fe 3÷charge transfer transition. The

quick identification of water has implications for

both ground- and space-based research.

Spacecraft near a planet or asteroid could survey

Solar System Sciences 111-3
the surface for water. Spacecraft in low Earth orbit

could survey all known asteroids for the purposes

of future exploration.

Other spectral observations made this year

identified porphyrins (ring-shaped, planar organic

molecules) in the spectrum of the asteroid 2 Pallas.

The identification of features in the reflectance

spectra of solar system bodies provides clues to the

conditions that formed or altered these objects.

The presence of porphyrins on 2 Pallas places a

maximum on the temperature experienced by that

asteroid.

A new technique for dissipating electrical charge

from spacecraft was tested with the Plasma Motor

Generator (PMG). The Delta II rocket launched in

June 1993 carded the PMG as a secondary

payload. The PMG was the second in a series of

three tether application payloads that are part of the

Flight Demonstration Program sponsored by the

Office of Space System Development. A low-cost

experiment developed at JSC, the PMG assessed

the effectiveness of using hollow cathode

assemblies to deploy an ionized gas to "ground"

electrical currents to space. The PMG also

demonstrated that electricity can be generated, and

that thrust and drag can be induced, by a moving

tether in Earth's magnetic field.

Plants are considered an important part of

regenerative life support systems for long-duration

missions. In addition to supplying food, plants can

regenerate air by converting CO 2 into 0 2 and can

convert waste water into potable water. The

microgravity of space presents several problems for

plant growth, however, such as providing a

favorable root medium. To address this, a

productive, synthetic soil, termed zeoponic plant

growth substrate, has been developed for

experiments on the Shuttle. The latest research on

zeoponic substrates suggests that they can supply

plant growth nutrients for long periods with only

the addition of water. Zeoponics also has great

potential for terrestrial applications.

Radiation presents a significant risk to astronauts

during long-term stays in space. The only realistic

method of decreasing this risk to an acceptable

level is through added shielding. The shielding

required is sensitive to the uncertainties in the

estimated biological dose. This, in turn, is driven

by our knowledge of the radiation environment and

secondary particle production cross-sections. An

instrument designed to directly measure the

physical and biological radiation dose in space

between Earth and Mars as a function of shielding

depth was built and has been tested on two Shuttle

flights.

111-4 Solar System Sciences
Section III

Solar System

Sciences

Significant Tasks

PRt_CIO_G PAGE _f.ANK N__T FH.I_Fi,
Thermal Analyzer for Planetary Two different sample collector mechanisms

_fselected from among those designed in 1992 were

Soils (TAPS): An In Situ 11

Instrument for Mineral And

Volatile Element Measurements

on Planetary Surfaces

Ph James L. Gooding/SN2

Reference: SSS 1

Exploration of planetary surfaces includes

assessment of the chemical and mineralogical

compositions of surface materials. Global

characterization of Mars will include small

instrument packages landed at selected sites

through the Mars Environmental Survey (MESUR)

program in the late 1990s.

TAPS offers a specific implementation for the

generic thermal analyzer/evolved-gas analyzer

(TA/EGA) function included in the MESUR straw

man payload; applications to asteroids and comets

are also possible. The purpose of the MESUR

TA/EGA is to identify volatilerbearing minerals in

Martian soils, including water-bearing clays,

carbonates, nitrates, and sulfates.

The baseline TAPS is a single-sample differentialscanning calorimeter (DSC), backed by a

capacitive-polymer humidity sensor, with

integrated sampling mechanism. After placement

on a planetary surface, TAPS acquires 10-50 mg of

soil or sediment and heats the sample from ambient

temperature to 1000-1300 K. During heating, DSC

data are taken for the solid, and evolved gases are

swept past the water sensor. Through groundbased data analysis, multi-component DSC data are

deconvolved and correlated with the water-release

profile to quantitatively determine the types and

relative proportions of volatile-beating minerals.

The rapid-response humidity sensors also achieve

quantitative analysis of total water. After

conclusion of soil analysis operations, the humidity

sensors become available for meteorology.

During FY93, the TAPS Mark-2 sensor test bed

was assembled and used to validate in-house

designs for sample collectors, DSC sensors, and

circuits. Prototype hardware is shown in figure 1.

built and tested: the "sweeping scoop" and the "ice

cream scoop." Each mechanism was driven by a

small DC motor that is compatible with the TAPS

packaging design goals for MESUR. The sample

collector tests were conducted using simulated

Mars soils comprised of fine sand and silt fractions

that were sieved from Cheto, Arizona bentonite.

Both collectors successfully acquired samples

during numerous tests, although results from the

sweeping scoop were preferred over those of the

ice cream scoop.

A DSC sensor was constructed by combining a

small electrical resistance heater with a temperature

sensor. The furnace was constructed by wrapping

Pt-Rh wire around the outer circumference of a

5-ram-diameter, fiat-bottomed cup made from

sintered, high-purity aluminum oxide. A separate

Pt resistance temperature detector was attached,

with refractory cement, to the bottom of the cup to

facilitate temperature measurement. The DSC

heater/sensor design successfully achieved thermal

cycling over the 300-1300 K temperature interval

at rates of 5-10 K/min in accordance with TAPS

design goals. Each of several assemblies supported

more than 20 heat/cool cycles without a failure.

Design goal maximum temperature was achieved

using a low-voltage DC power supply of the

general magnitude that is likely to be available on

the MESUR lander. Although the integrated power

consumption is significantly greater than our

design goal, the instantaneous power draw is only

about a factor of two greater than our goal. We

expect that design upgrades of the heater/sensor

assemblies will permit greater electrical efficiency.

The Mark-2 sensor test bed (fig. 1) was constructed

to include two DSC heater/sensor assemblies and

two capacitive-polymer humidity sensors. Two of

the DSC heater/sensor assemblies described above

were placed in active and passive locations,

respectively. One assembly was installed in the

sweeping scoop sample collector and the other was

installed, in a permanently empty condition, within

the chassis block. The two units thereby served as

the "sample DSC" and "reference DSC" sensors,

respectively. The two humidity sensors, which

I_-6 Solar System Sciences
wereretainedfromtheearlierMark-1testbed,

wereinsertedintothemanifoldsuchthatthe

"samplewater"sensorwouldcontactthegaseous

effluentfromthe"sampleDSC"sensorwhilethe

"referencewater"sensorwouldbeexposedonlyto

drypurgegas.Electronicsforthewatersensors

wereretainedfromtheMark-1testbedbutnew

electronicswerecreatedforthenewDSCsensors.

Usingthelatterdesign,simultaneousDSCand

EGAdatawerecollectedsuccessfullyusing

syntheticgypsumasthetestsample(fig.2).

In FY94,acompleteTAPSMark-3brassboard

instrumentwill beproducedforreviewby

NASAHQfor possibleselectionasthebasisof the

designandconstructionof theMESURTA/EGA

flightinstrument.

Thedehydrationdoubletpeakisnotresolvedunder

theseoperatingconditionsbuttheDSCandEGA

dataarewellcorrelated.TheDSCsignal

comprisesrawvoltageonly;withcalibrationas

differentialpower,theintegratedpeakcorresponds

toanabsolutequantityofgypsum.TheEGA

signalisexpressedasuncalibratedpercentrelative

humidity;withcalibration,theintegratedpeak

correspondstoanabsolutequantityof water.

Figure 1. TAPS Mark-2 sensor test bed. The edge length of the metallic chassis block is 10

cm. The sweeping scoop sample collector appears in the open position; the lightcolored inner lining is the DSC furnace/sensor assembly. Pipes and cables

represent purge-gas, electrical, and data utilities that will be self-contained in the

Mark-3 brassboard. NASA JSC file photograph $93-046085.

Solar System Sciences 1II-7
Figure 2.

TEMPERATURE (C)

20 40 60 80 100 120 1#0 160 180

0.20 ......... 100

>_ TAPS Mork-2 Sensor Testbed

-_ 0.15 40 mg gypsum _ I 80

E_ heated 50 = C/rain ,eir_ 1 -_

}J__"O___ 0,100.05 65 cm3Ar/minDsc ./_ii_ "" _ ' 60O_4-0_3

• \ _.._..f -1

o.oo _'- -EtA / "'

............. _ ' ' ' ' =' 0

300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460

TEMPERATURE (K)

Simultaneous DSC/EGA data. acquired by the TAPS Mark-2 sensor test bed. during the

thermally induced dehydration of synthetic gypsum:

CaSO,.2H_O(,) --> CaSO,(,) + 2 H20(_)

m-8 Solar System Sciences
Backscatter M6ssbauer

Spectrometer (BaMS) for

Extraterrestrial Surfaces

PI:

Reference:

Richard V. Morris, Ph.DJSN4

Tad D. Shelfer, Ph.DJNRC

SSS 2

Instrumentation to provide in-situ mineralogical

and elemental analyses is a primary concern for

future spacecraft missions which land on solid

planetary objects, such as the Moon, Mars, and

asteroids. These analyses will provide the

fundamental data required to characterize and

identify surface components and provide insights

into their creation and subsequent modification

over time. In terms of its abundance, mineralogical

importance, and multi-valent nature, the element

iron provides a wealth of diagnostic information

about naturally occurring materials.

It is for these reasons that we are developing a

miniature prototype BaMS. A flight instrument

based on our design would be capable of in-situ

measurement of the distribution of iron among its

oxidation states, its distribution among iron-bearing

mineralogies, and its concentration in solid

materials. The backscatter geometry we have

chosen, shown schematically in figure 1, also

allows X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) to be

performed simultaneously without additional

hardware. A combined BaMS/XRF instrument

would provide iron mineralogy and elemental

composition without the need for sample

preparation in a single compact, relatively simple,

rugged package.

Our focus in this instrumentation project has been

directed toward three main objectives: 1) minimize

the physical parameters of mass, volume, and

power requirements; 2) maximize the quality of

the data while minimizing the time needed for data

acquisition; and 3) build a library of data from

standard mineralogical samples, laboratory

analogues, and extraterrestrial samples (Martian

meteorite and lunar specimens).

We have achieved the first objective of this project

by designing and constructing a working laboratory

quality BaMS instrument which surpasses our

target goals of mass < 500 g, volume < 300 cm 3,

and power < 2 watts. These goals were established

with a flight-qualified space instrument in mind.

Highlights of this design include the world's

smallest loudspeaker-type Mrssbauer drive, four

PIN (positive-intrinsic-negative) photo-diodes for

radiation collection, and a transputer-based

multichannel analyzer system.

We are currently finishing our efforts toward

maximizing signal-to-noise ratios while

minimizing data collection time. This is a complex

issue involving many parameters. Our goal for this

portion of the project is to provide laboratory

quality spectra with our miniaturized instrument

and to provide quick (< 1 hour) mineralogical

identification of iron-bearing phases.

In summary, the high sensitivity to mineralogical

variations of the iron-bearing phases and the

requirement for no sample preparation make BaMS

ideally suited for in-situ analysis of planetary

surface materials. It is suitable for prospecting for

oxygen-rich iron-bearing minerals on the Moon or

for use in sample return missions where it is

necessary to perform sample discrimination.

M Drive

//DelEIDr Electronics

PIN Diode

Rock orsoil sample I

Alurrinum

"- Chassis

Figure 1. Cross sectional and end views of the

BaMS instrument.

Solar System Sciences 11I-9
Radar Measurements of the

Orbital Debris Environment

P.I. Gene Stansbery/SN3

Reference: SSS 3

Orbital debris is increasingly important for the

design of spacecraft operating in low Earth orbit

(LEO). The Haystack radar has been periodically

observing debris in LEO since October 1990.

Knowledge of the orbital debris environment

before 1990 was broken into two size regimes. For

objects larger than about 10 cm diameter, the

USSPACECOM maintains a catalog which

includes debris as well as intact satellites and

rocket bodies. The catalog is maintained by the use

of ground-based radars. The 10-cm limit is

somewhat arbitrary, but is mainly the result of the

radars having relatively long wavelengths (70 cm

or longer).

Knowledge of debris smaller than 4). 1 cm comes

from analysis of surfaces exposed to space and

returned to Earth. The size limit of these data

result from limitations of the area exposed and the

length of time in orbit. No significant

measurements of the debris environment in the

range of 0.1 to 10 cm existed before the Haystack

measurements.

The measurements from Haystack have addressed a

requirement to improve the estimate of the debris

flux at Space Station altitudes, nominally 350-450

km. Requirements for protection of the Space

Station are based on NASA's orbital debris model

(Kessler, DJ., SSP 30425, Rev. A, 1991) which

has a large uncertainty. The Haystack

measurements have reduced the uncertainty of the

1-cm debris to :t.50%. The project is now

transitioning to its long-term goals of monitoring

trends in the debris environment and identifying

sources of new debris. The latter goal will be

greatly aided by the addition of the Haystack

Auxiliary (HAX) radar, now undergoing testing.

The Haystack radar was only available during fixed

times of the year, but the HAX radar will be

available year-round. This will allow examination

of new satellite breakups, the amount of debris

associated with each breakup, and its dispersion

over time.

The Haystack and HAX radars are located in

Tyngsboro, Massachusetts and are operated by

M.I.T. Lincoln Laboratory for the U.S. Air Force

and other elements of the Department of Defense.

Operation for NASA is provided through a

Memorandum of Agreement between NASA and

USSPACECOM.

The Haystack radar is a high-power, X-band,

monopulse tracking radar with very high sensitivity

(Armstron, G.R., et al., DARPA report

ESD-TR-77-124, November 1977). A pulsed,

single frequency waveform has been selected for

use. Single pulse signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) on a

1 m 2 target at 1000 km is 56.8 dB. Objects as

small as 1 cm in diameter can be observed at over

1000 km.

For debris observations, the radar is operated in a

staring, or beam park mode in which the antenna is

pointed at a specified elevation and azimuth while

objects randomly pass through its field of view.

This provides a fixed detection volume critical to

the measurement of the debris flux. By not

tracking individual objects, a precise measure of its

orbit is sacrificed. However, position in the radar

beam and rough orbital elements can be

determined. A Processing and Control System

records data in a rotating buffer which is saved

only when the signal exceeds a threshold above

system noise. In this way, many hours of

observation can be performed with a practical

amount of recording.

Orbital debris data has been collected with the

radar directed vertically and at low elevation

angles. With the radar directed vertically, it can

only detect orbits with inclinations between 42 °

and 138 ° . To sample orbits of lower inclination,

the antenna was directed due south at low elevation

angles. At an elevation of 10 °, the radar can

sample orbits as low as 28 ° inclination at 500 km

altitude. This increases the slant range to an

altitude and reduces the sensitivity of the radar.

Calibration of the radar is a major concern for data

collection. Two types of calibrations are

performed using calibration spheres of known size.

The first is an absolute calibration performed by

tracking a sphere at the center of the radar beam.

m-lo Solar System Sciences
Second,therelativesensitivityof theantenna

patternismeasuredbyscanningaroundthesphere

asit movesacrossthesky.However,spheresonly

returnradarintheprimarypolarization.Thus,no

truecalibrationexistsfortheorthogonal

polarizationchannel.NASAisplanningtodeploy

orbitingdipolesfromanupcomingSpaceShuttle

flightforcalibrationof theorthogonalpolarization

channel.

OrbitaldebrisdataaretransmittedtoJSCvia

9-track,6250-bpitapes.Thedataareprocessedon

aSiliconGraphics,Inc.computerbyateamof

NASAandcontractorpersonnel.

Inthebeamparkmode,consideranorbitingobject

passingthroughtheradarfieldof view.Thekey

stepindataprocessingisdeterminingthelocation

ofanobjectforeachradarpulse.Fromthese

locations,itsmotioncanbeusedtoestimateorbital

elements.Also,signalstrengthcanbeaugmented

bytherelativeantennagain,determinedbythe

antennapatterncalibrationdiscussedabove.Thus,

thereturnedsignalstrengthcanbeestimatedasif

theobjectwereatthecenterof theradarbeam.

The radar cross section (RCS) is determined by

applying the absolute radar calibration.

A study was done to develop a size estimation

model to relate RCS to physical size. Thirty-nine

"representative" debris objects were selected from

two hypervelocity impacts of simulated satellites

conducted by the Department of Defense. The

RCSs of the objects were measured at an RCS

radar range for all orientations. At each

orientation, the frequency of the radar was stepped

from 2.0 to 18.0 GHz. For debris sizes much

smaller or larger than the wavelength, the scaling

curve approaches the Rayleigh or optics region

curves, as expected. In the resonance region, the

curve deviates from the optical curve such that, for

a given RCS, the object is smaller than predicted

by the optical approximation.

A radar performance model (RPM) was developed

to relate the flux of objects passing through the

radar beam to the number of objects detected by

the radar. The RPM uses a straightforward, brute

force approach. It initially calculates the trajectory

of an object through the center of the radar beam.

The model considers 12 points along the trajectory

spaced appropriately to be the individual radar

return pulses. The model calculates the SNR of

each of the 12 points corrected for the antenna gain

at that point. It then integrates the SNR and

calculates the probability of detection (Pd) for the

trajectory. The Pa is calculated assuming Swerling

2 scintillation statistics for sizes in the optical

scattering regime, Swerling 1 statistics in the

resonance regime, and Swerling 0 statistics for the

Rayleigh scattering regime. The model repeats the

Pd calculations for many parallel trajectories

stepping away from beam center toward the edge

of the beam. The RPM then calculates the average

Pd and the beam edge-to-edge distance. The RPM

repeats this calculation for object sizes from 1 mm

to 10 m diameter in 1 dBm steps. For 90 °

elevation data, there is no variation in average P_ as

a function of orbital inclination. However, at other

elevations, an altitude slice of the beam gives an

ellipse. Therefore, objects with different

inclinations will have different corrections and

edge-to-edge distances. The program then

calculates the debris flux that would pass through

the beam as a function of size, altitude, and

inclination from the NASA debris model. It uses

the appropriate Pa and edge-to-edge distance and

calculates the expected detection rate.

Figure 1 compares the measured debris size and

altitude distributions with the results of the RPM

using the NASA debris model. Looking at the

altitude distribution, Haystack detects about 40

times the catalog flux. The USSPACECOM

catalog contains about 7000 objects. Therefore, a

simple ratio of the Haystack flux to the catalog flux

would indicate that there are about 280,000 objects

visible to the radar.

The main difference between the measured and

modeled size distributions occurs between 3 cm

and 2 m in diameter. The debris model in this size

range is based, in part, on data collected by

telescopes. The sizes of debris detected by

telescopes was determined by comparing optical

brightness with RCSs reported for those objects

correlated to cataloged satellites and debris. Most

catalog RCSs are derived from measurements made

by the FPS-85 radar located at Eglin AFB. It is

known that, between 1983 and 1990, all Eglin

RCSs were biased by nearly 3 dB toward larger

Solar System Sciences Ill-11
sizes(Henize,K.G.etal.,M.I.T.Lincoln

LaboratoryreportSTK-206,Vol. 1,March1993).

Consequently, all cataloged objects were modeled

too large by a factor of 1.4. Since the results of the

optical observations used in the model were ratioed

to the Eglin RCS, these objects were also too large

in the model. Consequently, there is a need to

reduce the modeled size of debris in this range.

In addition to the direct measurements of debris in

the 0.6- to 10-cm-diameter size range, the Haystack

results have provided the high fidelity

measurements which allow examination and

improvement of the debris model. The new HAX

radar will provide even more capability by

allowing immediate centimeter-size debris flux

measurements resulting from new satellite

breakups.

t00,0 I

,_ 10.0[

I,o

u

001

0.00]

SIZE DISTRIBUTION - 3_-I000 km

_IOI4TEI) _ZM - COrdITE hOT IJ_ING |0. _. _ 90 _GPlEE DATA

, ...... "I , , ,, ....I ........ i .......

--HA_TkCK DATA

---_DICT_

\

J i r .... _ , , = .... * i , ,, ....

OOJ O t 1,0

O] k)4ETER (ml

iO.O

w

_O.O

I.D

0.!

0.0!

0._I "

0

ALTITUDEDISTBIBUTION

TOTAL DATA COLLECTED - 90 DEGREES - h'_ COLLECTED - 345.9

, I I

...... CITILI_ _l,OI _rr_FJ_ -'_

i'2

.....: L .....

i ,'..i...... L;--,--:

, i , , , , I , * , ,

500 tOO0 1.500

ALl ITUDE {kml

Figure 1. Distribution of orbital debris as measured by Haystack by size and altitude.

I11-12 Solar System Sciences
Composition and Structural State

of Space Debris and

Interplanetary Dust Particle

Impact Residues Recovered From

Long Duration Exposure Facility

(LDEF) Impact Craters

PI: M.E. Zolensky, Ph.D./SN2

F. H6rz, Ph.D./SN4

R. Bernhard/LESC

R.A. Barrett/I.ESC

Reference: SSS 4

Impactor residues in materials exposed on the

LDEF satellite are being characterized to establish

the nature and abundance of meteoritic and orbital

debris materials in the low Earth orbit (LEO)

environment, and also the effect hypervelocity

impacts will have on spacecraft. The LDEF

satellite, exposed in LEO for 69 months before

recovery by the Space Shuttle in January 1990,

continues to provide a wealth of information on

space exposure effects. In this study, new

techniques were developed for the study of selected

impactor residues in shallow craters in gold plates

and aluminum surfaces from LDEF experiments.

A detailed structural and compositional analysis of

several of these impactor residues was performed

utilizing transmission electron microscopy, energy

dispersive spectroscopy, and electron diffraction.

The immediate goal of this continuing work has

been to (1) broaden our understanding of the LEO

particulate environment, (2) provide critical

information on high-velocity particulate

interactions with spacecraft (data not obtainable in

the laboratory), (3) determine the effects of the

impact process on impactor mineralogy, (4)

determine mineral composition of chondritic

interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) and space

debris, (5) determine the provenance of debris

particulates in LEO, and (6) compare impactor

residues to chondritic IDPs collected from the

stratosphere and Earth's polar caps. These results

will be immediately useful to spacecraft engineers

and planetary scientists. Additionally, the

techniques developed here will find immediate use

in diverse fields of materials science.

Optical scanning of LDEF experiment and frame

surfaces is being conducted at JSC to locate and

document impacts as small as 30/_m in diameter.

Following optical identification, these impacts are

inspected by scanning electron microscopy/energy

dispersive X-ray analysis to identify those features

which contain appreciable impactor residues.

Based upon the bulk composition of these residues,

and using criteria developed at JSC, we have made

a preliminary discrimination between space debrisand micrometeoroid-containing impact features. In

addition, this data is being input into the Meteoroid

and Debris Special Investigation Group Database,

which documents all LDEF meteoroid and debris

results, and is accessible to interested investigators

(Bernhard, R. P., et al., NASA TM 104759).

Residues from the interior of several craters in

LEO-exposed gold experimental plates were

removed with a tungsten needle, mounted in

EMBED-812 epoxy, and ultramicrotomed into

90-nm-thick sections using a diamond knife. The

sections were placed on carbon-coated copper grids

and observed by transmission electron microscopic

techniques using JEOL 100CX and 2000FX

analytical electron microscopes. Chemical

analyses of crystalline areas were performed with a

PGT System 4 energy-dispersive X ray (EDX)

spectrometer and reduced with the PGT dedicated

software and LINK EDX system and software.

The structural states of all analyzed materials were

assessed by electron diffraction, which proved to

be a critical step, considering the noncrystalline

nature of many materials observed.

We examined the mineralogy of residues from

three impact features: numbers 102, 121, and 295.

Impact residue 102 has very finely divided

clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene [(Ca, Mg,

Fe)(Mg, Fe)Si2Or] with an unequilibrated

composition, showing abundant evidence of intense

shock, these being planar deformation features,

mosaicism, and, in some instances, evidence of

recrystallization (120 ° grain intersections) (fig. 1).

The residue matrix consists of vesicular,

ferromagnesian, silicate glass. Spherical bodies of

Fe-Ni (i-Cr) metallic glass and pyrrhotite abound

locally, particularly at grain boundaries. All of the

glasses probably formed during the impact event.

Solar System Sciences Ili-13
Impactresidue121containsfragmental grainsof

equilibratedolivine[(Mg,Fe)2SiO4]orthopyroxene,Fe-Nimetallicglass,andabundant

silicateglass.Theolivineandpyroxenegrains

showevidenceof shock(seeaboveforcriteria).

Impactresidue295containshocked,fragmental,

equilibratedolivineandorthopyroxene, Fe-Ni

metallicglass,andsilicateglass.

Despitepreviousexpectations, theseresiduesretain

sufficientmineralogical,structural,andchemical

informationtopermitdeterminationsof impactor

originstobemade.Forexample,impactor102

wasprobablyagrainfromanouterbeltasteroid,

basedonthecompositional rangeofthepyroxene

grains.Themetallicglassesencounteredamong

theresiduesdeserveadditionalattention(Bradley,

J.,etal.,MVA Report02N0180542), sincethese

materials,notknownfromnature,havepotentially

significanteconomicpotential.Metallicglasses

havehithertobeenfabricatedonlybyspin-cooling

techniques; theiroccurrenceamonghighly-shocked

impactoresiduesuggestsotherpossible

fabricationtechniques.

_5

Metallic Glass_

Figure 1. A transmission electron microscope image of a portion of

the interplanetary dust particle impactor residue from

LDEF impact 102. Evidence of shock recrystallization are

the 120° grain intersections between individual pyroxene

domains. Spherical bodies of Fe-Ni (:L-C0metallic glass

and pyrrhotite abound locally, particularly at grain

boundaries (some metallic glass bodies are arrowed).

111-14 Solar System Sciences
A Cheaper, Faster, Better Way to

Detect Water of Hydration in Solar

System Bodies

PI: Faith Vilas/SN3

Reference: SSS 5

One long-term goal of space exploration is the

expansion of humans into space. The resources

required to support humans in space include

meeting the two basic needs of survival-- air to

breathe and water to drink. The identification of

specific solar system objects as sources of water

represents a significant step toward using in situ

resources for survival. Many objects in the outer

solar system have icy material on their surfaces

(e.g., Callisto, Iapetus, comets). These objects

would obviously be a good source of water when

human explorers reach the outer regions of the

solar system. First, however, humans must

traverse the inner part of the solar system and cross

the asteroid belt. While some ice has been

suggested in the surface material of 1 Ceres, as a

rule one does not expect ice in large quantities in

the main belt asteroid population.

The action of aqueous alteration (the alteration of

material by its interaction with liquid water,

probably formed by melting of ice) of the nearsubsurface material on the asteroids and probably

some satellites in the solar system is part of the

formation history of the solar system. We unravel

this history through observing the spectral

properties of an object's surface material. Some

asteroids are believed to have undergone aqueous

alteration based upon their low amount of reflected

light and neutral broadband colors. A definitive

indication of aqueous alteration came when the

broad infrared (IR) absorption feature having a

minimum near 3.0/_ m, indicating structural

hydroxl (OH) and interlayer and adsorbed water

(H20) in clay silicates, was identified in the spectra

of many dark asteroids. Additional compositional

evidence was provided by an absorption feature

centered near 0.7 pm, indicative of an Fe 2+- Fe 3+

charge transfer transition in oxidized iron in clay

silicates in the spectra of some dark asteroids and

primitive carbonaceous meteorites (fig. 1). Among

the 13 asteroids that have been observed in both

visible and IR spectral regions showing the 0.7-/_m

ferrous/ferric iron absorption, 11 objects also have

the 3.0-,um water of hydration absorption.

Problems arise when trying to compile data to

study the aqueous alteration history of the solar

system, or the availability of water in minerals as a

possible space resource. IR observations directly

address the question of the availability of water of

hydration in clay silicate materials, but the

limitations of available IR astronomical

instrumentation and the strong background signal

limit the asteroids that can be observed to only the

brightest asteroids.

Is there a quick method of finding water of

hydration in the surface material of asteroids that

does not rely upon IR observations? If one

assumes that (1) the presence of clay silicates

indicates the presence of water of hydration in the

surface material of the asteroid, and (2) the feature

centered at 0.7 jum is due to the Fe z+- Fe 3÷charge

transfer transition in oxidized iron in clay silicates,

then the presence of the 0.7-/_m absorption feature

in the high resolution spectrum could serve the

purpose of identifying hydrated water in minerals.

The long integration times necessary to produce

high-quality, high-resolution spectra sufficient to

identify the absorption feature preclude this from

being a quick look method of determining its

presence.

The solar system can, however, be sampled

extensively by applying a simple technique using

filters in the visible/near IR spectral region

developed for asteroid studies in the early 1980s.

The 0.7-/_m absorption feature has a lower

wavelength edge near 0.57/_ m, a minimum

reflectance near 0.70/_m, and an upper reflectance

edge near 0.83 _um; this varies slightly among

asteroid spectra. The passband for the 0.550-/¢m

filter is concentrated primarily in a spectral region

that does not contain the absorption feature. The

0.701-jum filter is centered at the minimum of the

absorption feature. In order to delineate this

feature in a high resolution charge coupled device

(CCD) spectrum, a simple linear continuum

defined by a linear least squares fit to the points in

the spectrum is removed from the spectrum. Any

weak absorption features present remain. This

Solar System Sciences III-15
removestheeffects of slope on the spectrum. This

same technique can be applied to the broadband

photometry. The photometric values are expressed

as relative reflectance with R0__ = 1.000. The

background slope is first removed from the

photometry. If the 0.7-/_m feature is present, then

Ro.7o/R0.550< 0.990. If the feature is absent, for

whatever known asteroid type, then the calculated

value above is z 0.990. Multicolor photometry of

589 asteroids acquired in this earlier program can

now be used to search for water of hydration.

The quick identification of a feature indicating

hydrated water has some strong implications for

both ground-based telescopic research and spacebased missions. The emergence of CCD

spectroscopy as a method of observing faint

asteroids incorporates the advantage of the

improved responsivity of a CCD in the same

spectral range, plus the advantage of obtaining a

spectrum across the same range simultaneously. A

CCD could be used with a much lower dispersion

element to sample very faint asteroids quickly with

a strong signal-to-noise ratio.

It is easy to incorporate a filter centered near 0.7

jum in the suite of filters chosen for spacecraft

missions such as the Clementine missions to the

Moon and near-Earth asteroids (the 0.55-/_m filter

is a standard in astronomy and likely to be present).

The identification of water remains one of the

significant problems in space resource utilization.

Spacecraft in orbit around or flying past another

planet or asteroid would be able to survey the

surface material for water of hydration. Spacecraft

that would remain, for example, in low Earth orbit

could survey all known asteroids for the purposes

of future exploration.

1.15

o

i 1.05

" I " I • I " I " I

'i

U.

II1

AN • I • ! • I • I • I •

0.95

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

WAVELENGTH (l_m)

Figure 1. Spectra of three dark asteroids taken on two separate nights showing the

0.7-pm Fe2*- Fe a÷absorption feature due to oxidized iron in clay silicates. A

linear continuum has been removed. Broadband photometricvalues at 0.550

and 0.701/Jm (created using a program that simulates the filters in the earlier.-

asteroid photometry program) show the placement of the 0.550- and 0.701 -pro

filters with respect to the absorption feature.,

III-16 Solar System Sciences
Porphyrins in the Surface Material

of Asteroid 2 Pallas

P.l.: Falth VIIas/SN3

Reference: SSS 6

Spectral observations of the diffuse sunlight

reflecting from the top ~1 mm of the surface

material of a typical planetary regolith can provide

a remote sensing probe of the surface mineralogical

composition. In the blue and ultraviolet spectral

regions, high resolution reflectance spectra have

not been obtained until recently. These spectra

allow scientists to resolve features seen in laboratory spectra of extraterrestrial materials such as

meteorites and of terrestrial rock samples. The

identification of different features in the reflectance

spectra of solar system bodies provides clues to the

conditions that formed or altered these objects.

Porphyrins are planar, ring-shaped organic molecules consisting of four pyrrole sub-rings linked

by methine bridges (fig. 1). The wide radius of the

porphyrin ring interior, and the availability of free

electrons from two of the pyrrolic nitrogens,

frequently leads to the chelation of bivalent metal

ions. The relative ease with which the arrangement

of peripheral alkyl and other substituents may be

modified results in a variety of naturally occurring

porphyrin structures.

A wide variety of nickel (II) and vanadyl (II)

complex porphyrin structures have been isolated

from oil shales and other organic-rich sedimentary

deposits in abundances generally less than 100 I-tg/g.

The majority of these are derived from chlorophyll

precursors with additional contributions from

heme-related compounds. An analytical search of

meteorites in the late 1960s revealed nickel porphyrins at very low concentrations in the four

carbonaceous chondrites Orgueil (CI1) (0.0100 Ixg/g),

Cold Bokkeveld (CM2) (0.0010 I.tg/g), Murray

(CM2) (0.0030 _g/g), and Mokoia (CV3)

(0.0005 ,edg).

Spectra of porphyrins are dominated by an intense

absorption band (millimolar extinction coefficient

-100-500 mL/M-cm) located near 0.40 I.tm commonly referred to as the Soret band. Considerably

less intense absorption bands are located in the

0.50- to 0.65-pm range. The Soret band is sensitive to the conjugation pathway of the porphyrin

ring, while the weaker bands are most strongly

affected by structure type in the case of

metalloporphyrin complexes.

We have identified a Soret-like band at 0.405 lxm

with a full spectral width of 0.02 p,m in the reflectance spectrum of asteroid 2 Pallas at an ~3 sigma

level of confidence. The spectrum of 2 Pallas is

compared with laboratory spectra of samples of the

Green River Shale and the meteorite Orgueil in

figure 2. The Green River Shale sample contains

nickel porphyrins at a concentration of at least

5 lxg/g. This is the first time a plausible porphyrin

feature has been seen in the spectrum of an extraterrestrial body.

A lower limit for the average porphyrin concentration of the surface material of Pallas was calculated

using a semiempirical model developed for interpretation of geologic reflectance spectra. The

calculation assumes that surface conditions are

very favorable for the detection of porphyrin

absorption bands (e.g., fine particle sizes [< 44 I.tm]

and low specular reflectance [< 2.6%]) and that the

shape of the continuum does not reduce the apparent intensity of the band. Using the albedo value of

Pallas, the feature is calculated to be consistent

with a concentration of -15 Ixg/g nickel porphyrins

in the surface material of Pallas.

The significant question of how porphyrins could

have formed on the surface of Pallas remains.

Abiotic synthesis of porphyrins in the solar system

is within the realm of possibility as porphyrins

have been produced in the laboratory from methane, ammonia, and water by the action of electric

discharges. The presence of lightning would not be

completely unexpected in the history of carbonaceous chondrites since the flash heating of dust by

lightning in a cool nebular region is proposed as

one method by which many chondrules are formed.

The presence of the porphyrins on 2 Pallas places a

constraint on the maximum temperature experienced by that asteroid. We conservatively estimate

this temperature to be 573K. This is based on the

temperature at which vanadium and nickel bonds

cleave in crude oils, assuming that most or all

vanadium and nickel in crude oils is bound in some

Solar System Sciences III-17
type of porphyrin complex. Sedimentary porphyfins are destroyed at temperatures considerably

lower than 573K over geologic time scales.

Figure1. The skeletal structure of a porphyrin

showing the pyrrole sub-rings joined by

methine bridges.

ing

Methine Bridge

=E

Z

z

0

u

1.i

1.0

z

W

u 0.9

Z

u

%'.3

_ ",,. /

_ S f

° o •

',v" ;

I

J

............ Orgueil

...... Shale

I I , | i 1 "

0.4 0.5

WAVELENGTH (pro)

Figure 2. Reflectance spectra of asteroid 2

Pallas, the carbonaceous

chondrite Orgueil, and the Green

River Shale containing nickel

porphyrins. The asteroid

spectrum has been smoothed

once with a 5-pt running box

average. A background

continuum has been removed

from each spectrum.

Ill- 18 Solar System Sciences
Plasma Motor Generator (PMG)

TM:

Ph

Reference:

Christine A. O'NeilI/SN3

Suzanne G. Sawyer/SE3

James E. McCoy, Ph.DJSN3

M. Grossi, Ph.DJSmithsonian

Astrophysical Observatory

M. Dobrowolny, Ph.DJIFSI of

Italy

R. Chris Olsen, Ph.DJ

University of Alabama

R. Jerry Jost, Ph.D/System

Planning Corp.

Patrick S. Jones/LESC

SSS 7

A new technique for dissipating electrical charge

from spacecraft was put to the test this past year

with NASA's PMG. The Air Force Delta II rocket

launched in June 1993 carried a Navstar Global

Position Satellite (GPS) as its primary payload and

the PMG as the secondary payload (fig. 1).

The PMG was the second in a series of three Deltalaunched tether application payloads that are part

of the Flight Demonstration Program sponsored by

the Office of Space System Development. The

PMG, a low-cost experiment developed at JSC,

assessed the effectiveness of using Hollow Cathode

Assemblies to deploy an ionized gas to "ground"

electrical currents by discharging the energy to

space. The PMG also demonstrated the theoretical

prediction that electricity can be generated, and that

thrust and drag can be induced.

In order to understand the operation of an

electrodynamic tether system, the Earth can be

thought of as a giant magnet, a principle used for

direction-finding with a magnetic compass, if a

copper wire is placed in orbit around the Earth, it

will move through the Earth's magnetic field and a

voltage will be induced in the wire. The wire will

function like the armature in an electrical generator

or motor, and the Earth itself will act as the

magnetic pole-piece and frame against which the

resulting forces on the "armature" wire react. If an

electric current is allowed to flow through the

tether wire by grounding it to space at both ends,

the wire conductor will experience a mechanical

force. This force can be either thrust or drag,

depending on the direction of the current flow.

A spacecraft can build up an electrical charge while

moving in orbit either due to natural phenomena or

due to operation of high power electrical devices

on the spacecraft. Typically, this type of electrical

buildup is not seen with the Shuttle in low Earth

orbit. It is, however, seen among satellites in

geosynchronous orbit that are exposed to magnetic

storms from solar events. It can also occur with

large spacecraft using high electrical power

loads--like a Space station. In all such cases, the

electrical charge buildup is due to an imbalance

between electron or ion currents reaching the

spacecraft from its surrounding space environment

and the total current leaving the spacecraft due to

operation of electrical devices. To eliminate this

charge buildup, the spacecraft needs to complete an

additional circuit path between itself and the

surrounding environment (the ionosphere), thereby

"grounding" itself to the ionosphere.

One experimental system capable of producing

spac¢craft charging is the electrodynamic tether.

Its basic principle of operation involves collection

of current by a spacecraft at one end to be driven

by substantial voltages to another spacecraft at the

opposite end of the tether wire. This requires the

use of techniques for spacecraft grounding at each

end and provides a good method for testing the

performance of such grounding devices. The PMG

experiment used a 500-m wire as an electrodynamic tether to test the hollow cathode "plasma

contactors" as grounding devices and to study

electrodynamic tether behavior.

Once the Delta's third stage separated to take the

GPS to its semisynchronous orbit, leaving the

second stage behind, a spring ejected the 27-kg Far

End Package (FEP) on an electrodynamic tether

wire. The FEP spooled out, trailing the little

"spacecraft" to a distance of about 500 m from the

second stage. The Near End Package (NEP) stayed

fixed to the rocket body and used the stage's

remaining power for the experiment (fig. 2). The

deployment device was developed by JSC and

Tether Applications, Inc. The deployer, which

weighed only 11 kg, used a passive "spinning reel"

concept with no moving parts.

Prior to release of the FEP, plasma contactors were

energized, releasing ionized xenon gas from

]/4_inch-diameter cathode tubes on each of the

Solar System Sciences III-19
packages.This gas created a plasma ball, or pocket

of ionized gas, that served as the "ground" for

electrical charges carried through the tether. The

FEP collected an electrical charge as it moved

through space. The charge moved through the

tether to the NEP which allowed it to dissipate into

space. A series of tests were conducted to better

understand the performance of the Hollow Cathode

Tubes. During "motor" operations, the direction of

current flow was reversed to collect a charge at the

NEP and release it at the FEP. Voltage and current

generated by movement of the conducting tether

through the Earth's magnetic field were also

measured.

A combination of onboard instrumentation and

ground-based sensors were used to evaluate the

performance of the flight demonstration.

Observations from about 10 ground-based radars,

magnetometers, and optical sensors provided

independent evaluations of the overall PMG

performance from both the dynamics and plasma

interaction standpoints.

GPS

Sl_cacrlfl

Third-Stage Motor SeflarlUon Clamp Bands ,_ _

Second-Stage Nnlskld and Support Trusi ___,_ _ rtach Fitting

iirogen 5pheri\ _

__ pAu spi. r._l.

S--__ "_ Guidance Electromcs

Interstage __ "_ _ Plasnll Motor Generalor

17 f7

\ J

Figure 1. PMG location

on Delta II

second stage.

=_

Figure 2. PMG hardware: NEP, with spool, and

FEP mounted on the Delta second

stage.

I1-I-20 Solar System Sciences
Zeoponic Plant Growth

Substrates

Ph Doug Ming/SN4

Don Henninger/EC3

Reference: SSS 8

Plants are being considered as an important

component of regenerative life support systems for

long-duration missions (e.g., Space Station,

planetary outposts). In addition to supplying food,

plants have the capability to regenerate air by

converting CO 2 back into 02 and, through

evapotranspiration, to convert waste water into

potable water. However, the microgravity

environment of space presents several problems for

plant growth. One problem is providing a

favorable root medium. Nutrient delivery systems

(i.e., hydroponic systems) are complex and require

pumps and sophisticated control and monitoring

systems. It would be desirable to develop a

substrate that provides the plant essential elements

in a static watering system which eliminates the

circulating pumps and monitoring systems required

for hydroponic systems.

To address this need, a highly productive, synthetic

soil (or substrate) has been developed for plant

growth experiments on the Shuttle. The synthetic

soils have been termed zeoponic plant growth

substrates. Zeoponics is defined as the cultivation

of plants in zeolite mineral substrates that contain

essential plant-growth nutrients. Zeolites are

crystalline, hydrated minerals that contain loosely

bound ions (e.g., Ca 2÷,K ÷, Mg 2÷)within their

crystal structures. Zeolites have the capability to

freely exchange some of their constituent ions with

ions in solution without change to their structural

framework. In addition to zeolites, the zeoponic

plant growth substrates developed at JSC also

consist of a synthetic calcium phosphate mineral

(i.e., apatite). This synthetic apatite has several

essential plant growth nutrients incorporated into

its structure (e.g., Ca, Mg, S, P, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B,

Mo, C1). The substrate (consisting of the zeolite

and synthetic apatite) has been designed to slowly

release these plant growth nutrients into "soil"

solution, where they become available for plant

uptake. A zeoponics system is illustrated in figure 1.

The objective of this research was to develop

zeoponic substrates wherein all plant growth

nutrients are supplied by the plant growth medium

for many growth seasons with only the addition of

water. The substrate has been designed to be

incorporated into a Shuttle flight experiment

(ASTROCULTURE TM ) in collaboration with the

Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and

Robotics. The ASTROCULTURE TM experiment is

scheduled to fly on several Shuttle flights in FY94-

95.

Wheat plants have been successfully grown in

zeoponic substrates. Dry weight production of

wheat was highest in the zeoponic substrates, as

compared to control substrates which were watered

with nutrient solutions (fig. 2). These substrates

have adequately supplied all of the plant growth

nutrients for extended growing seasons. For

example, the zeoponic substrates provided either

adequate or slightly higher amounts of the primary

nutrients required for plant growth (fig. 3). The

latest research on zeoponic substrates suggests that

the substrate has the capability to slowly supply

plant growth nutrients for long periods of time with

only the addition of water.

Zeoponic plant growth substrates have numerous

possibilities for terrestrial applications. The

technology has captured the attention of

commercial greenhouse and nursery companies.

JSC is currently working on transferring the

technology to the private sector.

SolarSystcm Sciences 111-21
Water_o

" Synthetic c,

_4 Apatite ._ :

Mn Cu Fe MoO 4

t Nutrient Uptake ]

• ]

By Plants ]

Zeolite J

Exchange Sites

t

K NI_ -N J

l Soil Air _ pH BufferH

Figure 1. Dynamic equilibria for a zeoponic system. Plant growth nutrients are slowly released from

ze011-t-_ir_erals and synthetic al_at;{e.- The reactions in s0Hs0iuti6n (i.e_,hut?i-entrelease) are

driven toward the root-soil interface by the uptake of nutrients by the plant.

Figure 2.

DRY MATTER PRODUCTION

20

18

1614

"-- 12

_ 6

a 4

2

0

///////////

///////////

///////////

//I////////

///////////

///////////

///////////

..... /////

t///. .///_

..... i///,

..... /////

San_g C_A

C_g C_A

First Harvest

(45 days)

'_ Second Harvest (90 days)

Sand/Hg = Sand Substrate watered with Hoagland's solution

Cp/Hg = Clinoptilolite Substrate watered with Hoagland's solution

Cp/SA = Clinoptilolite/Synthetic Apatite Substrate watered with deionized H20

Cp/NA = Clinoptilolite/Natural Apatite Substrate watered with deionized H20

Wheat plants have been successfully grown in zeoponic substrates in controlled environment

plant growth chambers. Hoagland's solution (Hg) is a nutrient solution most commonly used

in hydroponic systems. The dry matter production (i.e., biomass production) was highest in

the zeoponic substrates (Cp/SA and Cp/NA) as compared to the control substrates (i.e.,

Sand/Hg and Cp/Hg) after 90 days of continuously cropping wheat.

=

T

III-22 Solar System Sciences
PLANT ANALYSIS: PRIMARY NUTRIENTS

,l.l

3=

5

4

3

2

1

0

Nitrogen

3""21 /./1

/'/1 //I

/1'1 /.11

/./1 /./1

/.11 ,1../!

/.."3 /1"1

/./1 /,'q

//1 //1

Sand/Hg

Cp/Hg

//

l/

//

/1

l/

l/

f/

,,F/

f /

C_a

f1 --

II

II

f/"

,..,-f

,i.,.,

//1

//1

C_A

2.5

2

1.5

Phosphorous

°:1

Sand/Hg

Cp/Hg

\XI

\XI

\XI

\XI

\_J

\XI

\XI

\NI

\\l

\NI

\NI

cp/sa

\xI

\XI

\XI

\XI

\NI

\NI

\Nl

\_j

\X!

\Nl

CpmA

.iJ

3=

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Potassium

\NI

\\1

\_,,j

\NI

\-,j

%',J

\-.j

\-,.j

\'N

Sand/Hg Cp/Sa

\NI

\NJ

\NI

\',,j

\_J

\'.,j

C_g C_A

D irst Harvest

(45 days)

Second Harvest (90 days)

Sand/Hg = Sand Substrate watered with

Hoagland's solution

Cp/Hg = Clinoptgolite Substrate watered with

Hoagland's solution

Cp/SA = Clinoptilolite/Synthetic Apatite

Substrate watered with deionized

H20

Cp/NA = Clinoptilolite/Natural Apatite Substrate

watered with deionized H20

Figure 3. Zeoponic substrates adequately supplied the primary nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, and

potassium) required for plant growth after continuously cropping wheat for 90 days. Similar

trends were observed for the other essential plant growth nutrients. These data suggest that

zeoponic substrates will slowly release plant growth nutrients for many growing seasons with

only the addition of water.

Solar System Sciences nI-23
InterMars Tissue Equivalent

Proportional Counter

Ph Gautam Badhwar/SN

Reference: SSS 9

Radiation presents a very significant risk to

astronauts during a long-term stay in space. The

only realistic method of decreasing this risk to an

acceptable level is by added shielding. The amount

of shielding required to stay below a fixed

percentage of excess cancer risk is, however, very

sensitive to the uncertainties in the estimated

biological dose. These uncertainties are largely

driven by uncertainties in the knowledge of the

radiation environment and secondary particle

production cross sections. It is simply not practical

to measure all of the needed cross sections and

their energy dependence. An alternative is to

directly measure the physical and biological dose

as a function of shielding depth in space. An

instrument designed to do this on the Russian Mars

94 mission was built and has been tested on two

Shuttle flights.

The new instrument is shown in figure 1. It

consists of a cylindrical detector 1.8 cm in length

and 1.8 cm in diameter that is enclosed in tissue

equivalent plastic. The detector uses low pressure

propane gas and is typically operated around -640

volts. The signal is run into two very low-noise

amplifiers that differ in gain by a factor of about

50. The voltage output from each amplifier is

pulse-height analyzed in a 256 channel ADC

(analog-to-digital converter). The root mean

square noise of the entire system is ~130 electrons

at room temperature. The lower level discriminator

was set at 0.4 keV/mm. The instrument covered a

y range of 0.4 to 1250 keV/mm. The energy

resolution is 0.1 keV/mm below 20 keV/mm and

5 keV/mm above 20 keV/mm. The full lineal

energy spectrum is recorded every minute on a

8.192 MByte flash memory. In addition, absorbed

dose is computed onboard the instrument and

recorded either every 2 or 20 seconds, depending

upon the dose rate. Engineering data, such as the

detector bias voltage, various other operating

voltages, currents, and temperature, are recorded

every 10 minutes to provide a measure of the

overall health of the instrument. Also, a measure

of the gain stability of the electronics and any shift

in the lower level discriminator is obtained every

8 hours using a calibrated voltage from an internal

stable pulse generator. The instrument is housed in

an aluminum box that is thermally and vibrationally isolated from the detector box by specially

compressed Nomex felt pads. Extensive thermalvacuum tests have established that the detector

system will function properly from -50 ° to +70 ° C

with a gain shift of less than 2.5%. Vibrational

tests have established that, at the location of the

detector, the vibrational loads were less than 2 g's

even when the input g-load was 9.8 g's. The whole

shroud, with detector inside, is covered with a

thermal blanket and mounted on an attached

payload carrier to the top inside starboard wall of

Shuttle bay two, which is located toward the

forward part of the Shuttle.

Figure 2 is a plot of the measured dose rate with

mission elapsed time for the STS-51 mission. The

spikes are passes through the South Atlantic

Anomaly and the generally quiet period is the time

when the detector measures the galactic cosmic

radiation. Figure 3 shows the comparison of the

measured and calculated integral GCR lineal

energy spectrum. Table I gives a comparison of

the measured dose and the calculated dose

equivalent using the International Council on

Radiation Protection (ICRP-60 or ICRP-26)

definition of the quality factor.

We have developed a high resolution tissue

equivalent proportional counter for the Russian

Mars 94 mission. The instrument was tested in two

Shuttle flights. Results show that, given an

accurate input GCR spectrum, the radiation

transport model can yield fairly accurate (± 15%)

dose and dose equivalent for moderate shielding

thickness. These results also show that there are

significant differences in the model and observed

LET spectra, however.

III-24 Solar System Sciences
Table I

Comparison of Measured and Calculated Doses

STS-56 (57 ° x 160 nm)

Location Dose Dose Equivalent Quality Remarks

mGy/day mSv/day Factor

Payload (TEPC) 113.1 481.7 4.26 ICRP-60

GCR Model 94.6 400.4 4.27 ICRP-60

Albedo 14.0 34.0 2.43 ICRP-60

Total (Model) 108.6 434.4 4.00 ICRP-60

(TE PC/Model) 1.04 1.11 i .07 ICRP-60

Dloc2 (TEPC) 138.3 414.0 2.99 ICRP-26

GCR Model 102.0 358.0 3.51 ICRP-26

Albedo 8.0 12.0 1.50 ICRP-26

Total (Model) 110.0 370.0 3.36 ICRP-26

(TE PC/Mode I) 1.26 1.12 0.89 IC R P-26

STS-51 (28.5 ° x 160 nm)

Payload (TEPC) 46.0 177.9 3.87 ICRP-60

GCR Model 34.5 120.0 3.48 ICRP-60

Albedo 14.0 34.0 2.43 ICRP-60

Total (Model) 48.5 154.0 3.18 ICRP-60

(TEPC/Model) 0.95 1.16 1.22 ICRP-60

0.075 PLASTIC_.JJ_0.O3S STAINLESS STEEL

IL,_I

_,_ 0.OO1_ ANODE WIRE

I _ I ,'-INDIUM WIRE SEAL

FILL TUBE -__

I I

Figure 1. A schematic of the payload bay

tissue equivalent proportional

counter.

Solar System Sciences m-25
g

3

2

i

1

o l_±

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

MISSION ELAPSED TIME (minutes)

Figure 2. Dose rate versus mission elapsed time.

14O0O

¢1

I-i

Z

¢1

t_

10 4 --_ i ,,,,,1[ ' ' '''"1 • ' '_"1 ' '''_'

_.... / Model + Albedo STS-56

lO' _ !.. O_,=.d i CCR

10 2 " Model :,.'_ \ _ _ ; "

101 Albedo

100

10"I _\ !0.2

N

\

10-3 . _ !

|

104 10° 101 102 103

Lineal Energy Transfer (Tissue, keV/#m)

lO4

lO3

102

10_

10o

10-I

10-2

10-3

lo"

Figure 3. Integral lineal energy Sl:_ctrum for a 57 ° inclination flight. Solid

lines are HZETRN model calculations.

11"I-26 Solar System Sciences
Section IV

Space

Technology

Summary

Space Technology Summary

The overall objective of these research and

technology efforts is to enhance the performance

of human spacecraft system s and to enable more

efficient human exploration and development of

space. The FY93 space technology resources for

human spaceflight were invested in (1) direct crew

support projects such as life support, active thermal

control, and extravehicular activity and (2) indirect

crew and operations support projects associated

with automation and robotics.

JSC continued to make excellent progress in

regenerative life support technology, concentrating

efforts on establishing ground-based test-beds and

analytical models for demonstrating the feasibility

of combining physiochemical and biological

components into an integrated life support system.

The results of these efforts include modeling of

plant growth chamber investigations, large-scale

plant growth investigations, and regenerative

systems. Additionally, JSC received approval to

initiate a phase C/D program for a water

electrolysis flight experiment and began

development of an engineering model for the

experiment. In active thermal control technology,

development of an Ultralite fabric reflux tube

(UFRT) radiator concept for enhanced thermal

management continued. The FY93 effort

emphasized optimization of the UFRT geometry,

materials, and fabrication techniques. In the EVA

area, an electronic cuff checklist for subsequent

inflight evaluation on the Space Shuttle flight STS64 in FY94 was developed.

A broad spectrum of programs is being pursued in

robotics systems and advanced automation

technology. Tasks underway in dexterous on-orbit

grasping and manipulation will provide new

capabilities for Space Shuttle Orbiter and

international Space Station robotic servicing and

maintenance. Included in this set of tasks are

(1) the flight demonstration of a dexterous

magnetic end-effector for the Shuttle remote

manipulator system, establishing an alternative to

the present cable-snare design; (2) the development

of a set of flight experiment dexterous manipulator

hardware, based on the flight telerobotic servicer

program hardware, to be demonstrated in the

Orbiter payload.bay; (3) the development and

demonstration of design concepts for fault

tolerance within robotic manipulators through

multiple levels of mechanical redundancy; and

(4) the evaluation of advanced technology for

manipulation andgrasping targets and proximity

detection systems.

Two advanced automation technology tasks have

been undertaken to increase the efficiency of

spacecraft ground support operations. These tasks

include the development of an expert system for

managing Orbital rendezvous dynamics, and a new,

innovative approach to real-time modeling of

spacecraft systems in which the effects of operating •

procedures can be modeled as part of a failure

modes and impacts analysis.

Three decades of investment in space for the

security and welfare of the United States has

achieved significant successes: economic

stimulation of the country through technological

advancements, and major direct and indirect

contributions to winning the cold war. The direct

factors include opening up the flow of information

(and the information age) through communication

satellites, while the indirect factors include

demonstrating the unparalleled capability of our

advanced democratic society and a positive vision

for our youth. These accomplishments have been

made possible by the high-leverage investment in

people, facilities, and a foundation of space

technology. Curtailment of space technology

resources will be obvious in the short term only in

reports. Longer term accomplishments will reflect

the level of today's investment.

pR_,CltC'4_ FAGE BLANK NOT FFLMED

Space Technology IV-3

Section IV

Space

Technology

Significant Tasks

P_GE BLANK NOT FILMED
Regenerative Life Support

Systems (RLSS) Test Bed

Modeling and Analysis

Ph Marybeth EdeerVEC7

Reference: ST 1

The RLSS test bed modeling and analysis work has

been a multiyear effort by McDonnell Douglas

Aerospace (MDA) to accurately model plant

growth and the chamber support systems of the

RLSS test bed: the Variable Pressure Growth

Chamber (VPGC) and the Ambient Pressure

Growth Chamber (APGC). At the beginning of

FY93, models for all of the support systems of the

individual chambers had been developed (thermal,

lighting, nutrient delivery, atmospheric

conditioning, etc.) as well as a model of lettuce

growth based on data from the VPGC. These

models were developed in CASE/A (Computer

Aided Systems Engineering and Analysis tool.) In

FY93, three specific tasks were undertaken.

The first task was to upgrade the condensing heat

exchanger model of the VPCK2 so that the model

more accurately predicted the performance seen in

the chamber. To accomplish this task, it was

necessary to model the heat and mass transfer

across the condensing heat exchanger separately,

instead of using a combined heat and mass transfer

coefficient, as was done previously. The separate

heat and mass transfer coefficients were calculated

from test data provided to MDA from previous

chamber testing. The resulting model can very

accurately predict- the performance seen in the

chamber and has been used as a predictive tool to

determine the feasibility of increasing the light

levels (and thus the heat load to be removed) in the

chamber.

The second task was to develop a model of wheat

growth in the APGC. In previous years, a model of

lettuce growth in the VPGC was developed by

running a designed experiment during a lettuce

crop cycle. In that experiment, air velocity, carbon

dioxide (CO 2) concentration, light level, and

temperature were varied according to a BoxBehnkin experimental design. The plants'

response to the changing environmental conditions

was measured by their change in CO 2 assimilation

rate and evapotranspiration rate. The effect of the

plant aging was taken into account by running a

baseline set of conditions every day and measuring

the change in rates as a function of age. For the

wheat growth model, a Box and Wilson, or central

composite experimental design, was used. This

type of design was chosen because it contains three

portions: factorial, centerpoint, and optional axial.

The axial portion allows the user to get two-way

interactions if the factorial portion indicates that

interdependence of the factors exists. Also, the

axial portion is tested with one factor at its limiting

value so that the resulting model can be validated

over a much wider range of data. This is especially

usefuljn systems like ours where the maximum

temperature and dew point cannot be achieved

simultaneously due to thermal limitations but can

be achieved ode at a time. For the wheat growth

model, CO 2 concentration, temperature, vapor

pressure deficit, and air velocity were varied

according to the Box and Wilson design throughout

the course of a wheat crop. The measured

variables were the evapotranspiration rate and the

CO 2 assimilation rate, which were also used to

predict biomass accumulation and oxygen

production. The experimental matrix was repeated

once a week for the last 7 weeks of the test to

incorporate the effects of plant aging into the

model as well as the plant's response to the

changing environmental parameters. The data that

were collected were provided to MDA and the

wheat growth model was developed. The wheat

growth model was then incorporated into the

existing APGC model and checked out.

The third task in FY93 was to develop a model of

the solid amine water desorbed CO 2 removal

subsystem (SAWDII) and determine the best way

to integrate this physicochemical subsystem with

the chamber control systems and a human input

while maintaining the desired conditions for plant

growth. The existing CASE/A model of the

SAWD II was modified to better predict

performance data for the subsystem. Once this was

done, the SAWD II model was incorporated into

the VPGC model to evaluate integration issues.

Since the SAWD II works best if it runs

continuously instead of being repeatedly turned on

and off, the most important issue was how the

SAWD II should be integrated with the chamber.

IV-6 Space Technology
Onepossibilitywastointegrateit in suchaway

thatthesubsystemcouldswitchbetween

processingambientairandchamberair,depending

ontheconcentrationof CO2withinthechamber,as

shownin figure1. Theconcernwas_at the

chamberCO2concentrationwoulddeviate

markedlyfromthedesiredsetpointof 1000ppm

CO2. As shown in figure 2, when the SAWD II

switches to ambient air because the chamber air

concentration has dropped below the desired set

point, the chamber CO 2 concentration rises

significantly because the plants can not remove

enough CO 2 to handle the person loading being

placed on the system. Alternately, if the SAWD II

always draws air from the chamber and the

chamber control systems make up CO 2 when the

SAWD II removes too much, the concentration of

CO 2 in the chamber remains much closer to the

desired set point, as shown in figure 3. Thus, the

results of the modeling that suggest that the best

way to integrate the control systems for the SAWD

II and the VPGC would be to have the SAWD II

always drawing air from the chamber atmosphere.

PLANT

CHAMBER

4------

J

C02 BLEED

SAWD

AMBIENT

CHAMBER AIR PROCESSING

FACILITY

CONTROL

COMPUTER SAWD "IDLE" MODE

SAWD CO2 LEVEL CONTROL

Figure 1. SAWD II/VPGC integration schematic.

Space Technology IV-7
1800.0

1700.0

1800.0

1500.0

1400.0

i 1300.0

1200.0

1100.0

1000.0

900.0

eoo.o .I, ,.l,w, I o.w.w,w I ,wl,,,g I .,loolo I ,o,_J,, I ,,m,, .... I ,,,

336.00 338.00 340.00 342.00 344.00 346.00 348.00 350.00 352.00 354.00 356.00 358.00

Time (hours)

Figure 2. Chamber CO2 concentration during crop day 15 with SAWD II configured as in figure 1.

A

E

d_.

v

2

=l

2

¢b.

¢1.

J

o

;=;

J

1800.0

1700.0

1800.0

1500r0

1400.0

1300.0

1200.0

1100.0

1000,o

900.0

eoo.o _ ..... I.. ..... I ....... I ....... I ....... I ....... I ....... I. .... f ....... I ....... I ....... I..

336.00 398.00 340.00 342.00 344.00 346.00 348.00 350.00 352.00 354.00 356.00 358.0(

Time (hours)

Figure 3. Chamber CO 2 concentration with SAWD II continually drawing from chamber atmosphere.

IV-8 Space Technology
Advanced Life Support Systems

Integration

Ph Terry O. Tri/EC3

Reference: ST 2

The advanced life support Systems Integration

Research Facility (SIRF) Project is a key part of

the Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology

(OACT) Regenerative Life Support Program,

whose goal is to develop life support technologies

and perform extended testing of these technologies

in response to future human exploration mission

requirements. The SIRF Project is using the Crew

and Thermal Systems Division's (CTSD's) 6-meter

chamber to integrate and test these life support

technologies. The project will provide the systemlevel integration, operational experience, and

performance data necessary to confidently proceed

with the design, development, fabrication, and

testing of a regenerative physicochemical life

support system, including thermal control, required

for future human space exploration mission

scenarios. Trade studies, analyses, integration, and

long-duration testing both with and without human

test subjects will be performed in the 6-meter

chamber to evaluate technology readiness and

bridge the gap between existing subsystems,

sensors, and control and monitoring methods and

the actual development of an integrated

physicochemical regenerative Iife support and

thermal control system for human space

exploration.

The life support and thermal control functions of

SIRF have been allocated to three major systems:

the air revitalization system (ARS), the water

recovery system (WRS), and the thermal control

system (TCS). These systems and the subsystems

which comprise them have an integrated control

system, which can provide process as well as

supervisory control functions. The operations of

the ARS, WRS, and TCS are supported by facility

systems designed to perform necessary interfacing

functions, such as external gas supply and venting.

A major facility support system is the human

interface to the WRS, which provides for the

collection of multiple waste water streams for

distribution to the appropriate subsystems of the

WRS.

As shown in figure 1, the upper level of the threelevel 6-meter chamber is a sealed control volume

from which the ARS draws an air stream for CO 2

removal and reduction, O 2 generation, and trace

contaminant removal. Simulated metabolic inputs

of CO 2, water vapor, and heat are provided to the

control volume by means of the facility's unique

human atmospheric simulator (HAS). The middle

level of the SIRF chamber is reserved for the ARS

subsystems and the internal TCS components,

which interface with air circulation ducting

originating from the upper level control volume.

On the lower level of the chamber reside the WRS

subsystems and the human interfaces for collection

of waste water streams.

During FY93, the primary project activities

involved buildup of test support equipment for the

ARS subsystems, performance testing of individual

ARS and TCS subsystems, design of the WRS and

waste water collection provisions, and development

of the SIRF integrated controller. During the first

quarter, a test series totaling 28 days of around-theclock performance testing of the AlliedSignal FourBed Molecular Sieve (4BMS) CO 2 removal

subsystem was initiated after it was succeSpace

Stationully installed in the second level of the 6-

meter chamber. Controlled inlet conditions to the

4BMS were provided by the facility HAS during

performance testing. During the first quarter, upon

delivery of the required hardware and software,

development of the SIRF integrated controller was

initiated. A succeSpace Stationul integrated test

with the controller and the 4BMS was completed

during the fourth quarter of FY93, paving the way

for subsequent subsystem integration activities.

Also during the first quarter, the Sabatier CO 2

reduction subsystem (CRS) and the water

electrolysis oxygen generator subsystem (OGS)

were received from Hamilton Standard. Facility

support equipment buildup for performance testing

of these two subsystems neared completion at the

end of FY93, in support of testing the CRS and

OGS during the first quarter of FY94. Individual

Space Technology IV-9
performancetstingandintegratedtestingofboth

theCRSandOGSwill becompletedinCTSD's

room2007lab,afterwhichbothsubsystemswill be

movedtothesecondlevelof the6-meterchamber

andintegratedwiththe4BMS. Subsystem

performancetstingof theTCScondensingheat

exchanger(CHX)wasalsocompleteduring

FY93.A 3-dayseriesof CHXperformancetsts

wascarriedoutduringthethirdquarter,followed

bydatareductionandanalysisactivities.During

thefourthquarterof FY93,thefirstphaseof

constructionof thenew6-meterchambercontrol

room,whichwill beusedinsupportof theSIRF

project,wascompleted.Subsequent outfittingof

thecontrolroomwill takeplaceinFY94.

6-METER CHAMBER

(Control Room

Located Remotely)

jjt t

Water

Gas Gas Supply Support

&Ans_,_ __ Sy ste ms

Panels

I II III

Figure 1. Schematic of the SIRF 6-meter chamber configuration.

IV- 10 Space Technology
Extravehicular Mobility Unit

Electronic Cuff Checklist

Development

PI: Jose A. Marmolejo/EC5

Reference: ST 3

Because extravehicular activity (EVA) missions

have grown in complexity, the amount of information required by the EVA astronaut has also grown.

At JSC a project is underway to demonstrate that

an electronic cuff checklist could replace the

current paper procedural checklist. This paper cuff

checklist is limited to 25 3.5-inch by 4.5-inch

sheets (50 pages including-frlbnt and back) of text

and simple graphics, cumbersome to use, and timeconsuming to assemble. Proper configuration

management control of it is difficult.

The electronic checklist currently under development is expected to improve astronaut EVA

productivity by providing a portable, self-contained

information display system which Will allow the

crewmember to have ready access to a much larger

database. This database is even capable of being

modified on-orbit.

The electronic checklist consists of an off-the-shelf

liquid crystal display, touch screen (for screen

selection), driver electronics (including

microcontroller, memory, and serial data programming port), and battery pack enclosed in an

aluminum frame protected thermally by soflgoods.

Access to the memory contents is accomplished via

the touch screen through a unique sextant screen

protocol. Worn over the space suit arm assembly_

(as is the current paper cuff checklist), the electronic cuff checklist provides easy access to text

and graphics databases of greater than 500 pages.

To accommodate the data requirements of various

Shuttle EVA mission tasks, this database is both

reprogrammable and expandable through a serial

data port. Software training tools have been

developed to allow efficient creation of pages and

loading of the checklist database. The additional

benefit of better configuration management control

can be achieved by an access-controllable electronic database.

The current year's activities include the development and crew test of a functional prototype

(fig. 1), which is scheduled to be tested in manned

vacuum environment in late 1993. Also planned

are flight unit tests during an intravehicular flight

experiment and during an actual EVA in fiscal year

1994 (currently planned for STS-64, September

1994).

Accomplishments to date include breadboard/

prototype models and various engineering design

trades with valuable inputs provided from the crew,

Flight Crew Support Division, Mission Operations

(Flight Data File and EVA Crew Systems), and

Crew and Thermal Systems division (EVA Equipment Branch) personnel.

Figure 1. Electronic cuff checklist

Phase I ground test article

with sextant screen.

Space Technology IV- 11
Electrolysis Performance

Improvement Concept Study

(EPICS)

PI: Sandra Foerg/EC3

Reference: ST 4

Work began in 1991 to develop a flight experiment

with the objectives of demonstrating and validating

the static feed electrolyzer (SFE) concept in

microgravity and investigating ways a microgravity

environment may improve SFE performance. If

this Shuttle middeck experiment is succeSpace

Stationu], the results can be used to improve SFE

process efficiency for such activities as life support, propulsion, energy storage, and space

manufacturing. The space environment is needed

for this experiment because the SFE process has

not been operated in microgravity, data on gas and

liquid transport in microgravity are very limited,

and one-g test results are compromised by buoyancy and by gravity-affected fluid configuration

within the electrolysis cells. A lower cell voltage

operation may result from microgravity effects on

the distribution of liquidelectrolyte, the gas/liquid

interfaces with the cell, and the capillary forces on

fluids within the pores of the electrodes and the

electrolyte matrix.

be self-contained in the experiment. A single onactuator of the experiment is all that is needed by

the operator. The experiment is designed to be

compatible with the weight, power, and heat

rejection capability of two standard middeck locker

spaces (fig. 1).

The major milestones completed in FY93 include

initiation of Phase C/D of the program after

approval by the Non-Advocate Review Board,

completion of the Preliminary Design Review, and

initiation of the engineering model development.

The planned milestones for FY94 include the Phase

0/1 Flight Safety Review and the Payload Integration Plan Review, the completion of the

engineering model development and testing, the

Critical Design Review, and the flight hardware

fabrication and assembly. The EPICS flight

experiment is expected to be ready for flight in

early 1995.

Table 1. Vehicle Conditions and EPICS

Operating Conditions

Vehicle Conditions

Middeck Total

Pressure, kPa (psia)

Middeck

Temperature, K (F)

Table 1 provides the vehicle conditions and the

EPICS operating conditions as they are now

planned. The experimental hardware consists of a

mechanical/electrochemical assemb]y (M/EA) and

control/monitor instrumentation (C/MI). The M/ Nominal Operating Conditions

EA is composed of three separate, self-contained

integrated electrolysis units (IEUs), ancillary Number of IEUs 3

components, and the supporting structure. Each Current Density,

IEU is made up of an integrated electrolysis cell, a mAJcm2 (ASF)

thermal control plate, and 0 2 and H 2 accumulators. Operating Pressure, The integrated electrolysis cell consists of an

kPa (psia) electrolyzer cell core and a recombiner cell core

(fuel cell concept) to enable the experiment to be Nominal Operating

self-contained. The C/MI controls the operation of Temperature, K (F)

the experiment via the M/EA components and

provides for monitoring and control of critical

parameters and storage of experimental data. The

experiment is designed for independent operation,

requiring only electrical energy, and cabin air for

cooling. The water supply for the electrolysis will

101.3 ± 1.4 (14.7 ±0.2)

292 tO 300 (65 to 80)

34 to 137 (32 to 129)

114 ± 13 (16.6 ± 1.9)

331 (135)

IV-12 Space Technology
o:=1(o ]Io....

,@@ @

• i - J

I

f

_t _ - - _ ,_

0 e.Eexm_._sPL_rOm,_Nez LROVeUL_NT eONeEP'r s'nJoY.(

t_.

L

d

{

Figure 1. EPICS flight experiment hardware packaging.

Space Technology IV-13
Ultralite Fabric Reflux Tube

Radiator

Ph Patrlcla A. Petete/EC2

Reference: -ST 5

The Bubble Membrane Radiator Project was

initiated in March 1988 to continue development of

promising thermal management concepts for space

applications. The initial concept studied, the

bubble membrane radiator, is designed for space

thermal management on missions such as a longduration planetary probe during which lowtemperature heat rejection would be required for

cooling the habitat and scientific equipment. Work

on the second phase of development for the bubble

membrane radiator was finished during FY92 with

the completion of the Steady-state Condensation

with Rotational Acceleration Boundary Layer

Examiner (SCRABLE) code and materials

compatibility testing that was conducted with

Oregon State University.

Work was refocused during FY92 from the bubble

membrane radiator concept to fabrication and _ "

testing of Ultralite fabric reflux tubes (UFRTs)

because of a need for heat rejection concepts that

take advantage of low gravity environments.

Development, optimization, and testing of UFRTs

continued in FY93 under two tasks: measurement

of radiative properties and development of UFRT

tough metal technology. Both were completed in

FY93. Tflree additional tasks were initiated in

FY93: (1) fabrication of the tough metal tubes,

(2) heat transfer optimization, and (3) analyses

follow-on.

The radiative properties mesurement involved life

testing of a UFRT and wicking tests at Oregon

State University. Vacuum chamber testing of a

UFRT at moderately low vacuum and temperature

included an accelerated life test at a steady-state

power input of 78 W and two subsequent start-up

and shutdown tests. The life testing succeSpace

Stationully demonstrated continuous operation over

a period of 800 hours. Tests to determine the

wicking capability of five different materials were

also completed. The data will be reviewed in

FY94, after which time the wicking material will

be selected.

A new cluster mill for fabricating liners was

developed under the tough metal technology task.

The new duster mill was designed in FY92 and

fabricated during FY93. It will allow the

fabrication of liners with diameters as small as

1.27 cm out of materials tougher than copper. The

testing of this new cluster mill is scheduled for

FY94.

The primary goal of Task 1, the first added in

FY94, was to fabricate new UFRTs with an

improved design. A search was conducted for a

better liner material than copper, which was used in

the first UFRTs. Titanium was selected due to its

greater strength and lower weight. Battelle has had

previous experience with fabricating titanium parts

and has confidence in its selection for the new

UFRTs. One UFRT (fig. 1) was succeSpace

Stationully fabricated of titanium during FY93, and

additional ones will be fabricated in FY94.

Task 2 for FY94 involved evaluations of UFRT

tests conducted in FY92 to validate and/or

recornme_rnpr0ved performance. Several

improvements to the test procedure were

recommended, along with some design changes to

the UFRTs. One example of a design change is to

improve the heat transfer by decreasing the

evaporator wall thickness. These changes will be

incorporated in the next series of tests as funding

permits.

Additional analyses were started under FY94 Task

3 on data collected during the thermal vacuum test

conducted at JSC in FY92. The analysis centered

on frozen start-up characteristics and on

temperature variations between the evaporator and

condenser outer surfaces. These analyses will

continue into FY94.

Plans for FY94 include (1) selection of wicking

material, (2) testing of the new cluster mill,

(3) fabrication of titanium liners, (4) implementation of design changes identified under Task 2,

and (5) analyses follow-on. Testing of the tough

UFRT will be done if additional funding becomes

available.

IV-14 Space Technology
Silicon Carbide

Overwrap

Fabric Attachment

Rings

End Port/_

Completed Ultralite

Fabric Reflux

Tube with Check Valve

Nextel Evaporator _

Wick ==_

Figure 1. Ultralite fabric reflux tube radiator.

SpaceTechnology IV-15
Regenerative Life Support

Systems

Ph Donald L. Henninger/EC3

Reference: ST 6

The Regenerative Life Support Systems (RLSS)

Project is concerned with the development of

systems which will recycle the air, water, and

wastes and produce food-use plants for longduration missions. The envisioned system will

combine physicochemical and biological

components to form an integrated life support

system.

Two major test bed facilities were built: the

Variable Pressure Growth Chamber (VPGC),

completed in FY91, and the Ambient Pressure

• APGC Facility Verification Lettuce Crop I (fig. 1)

Test Duration: 30 days. Planted December 14,

1992; harvested January 13, 1993.

Cultivar: "Waldmann's Green" leaf lettuce.

Seeding density: 84 seeds m-2.

Performance of the chamber's engineering

systems was verified with the physiological

loading from a lettuce crop.

• APGC Facility Verification Lettuce Crop II

Test duration: 30 days. Planted February 8,

1993; harvested March 10, 1993.

Cultivar: "Waldmann's Green" leaf lettuce.

Seeding density: 84 seeds m-2.

The crop was grown as a replicate to the Facility

Verificafibn Crop i t0 provide a measure of the

Growth Chamber (APGC), completed at the end of variability of crop peff0_ance over test

FY92. The APGC was designed to serve as an

ambient pressure control for tests performed in the

VPGC at reduced atmospheric pressures. In

addition, the APGC includes several design

improvements, based on crop tests in the VPGC.

This new facility provided the capability to

perform large-scale testing with higher plants at

ambient atmospheric pressure using a fluid delivery

system configurable for hydroponics or solid

support substrate operation. In the In'st quarter of

the fiscal year, functional testing of the facility

systems was completed and the first facility

verification crop test was initiated. During the

balance of FY93, three crop tests were conducted

in the APGC. These tests demonstrated the growth

of higher plants in a closed, controlled environment

for use as a component of an integrated RLSS. The

tests were performed to obtain scientific and

engineering data characterizing crop growth and

test bed performance over the full cycle of each

crop, from seed to maturity, using the Crew and

Thermal Systems Division's newly developed

hydroponics system. Biological test data included

CO 2 uptake, O 2 production, evapotranspiration,

biomass production, and trace contaminant

generation. Unique characteristics of each crop test

follow.

...._, except the Ieve] of photosynthetic

lighting was reduced by 60% during the first 4

days of the test to improve seedling emergence

through the hydroponics lid assembly.

• APGC Wheat Growth Model Development Test

(fig. 2)

Test Duration: 79 days. Planted April 19, 1993;

harvested July 7, 1993.

Cultivar: "Yecora Rojo" hard red spring wheat.

Density: 2000 seeds m-2.

Plant physiological and facility performance data

were obtained to develop a wheat growth

model. The model is based on a Box-Wilson

(central composite) experimental design and

was incorporated as a component in the CASE/

A APGC and VPGC facility models. Air

temperature, vapor pressure deficit (dew point

temperature), CO 2 concentration, and air

velocity were systematically adjusted to

determine the effects on CO 2 utilization and

transpiration (as measured by condensate

collection). Data from a total of 272 test points

collected over the course of the test were used

in development of the model.

IV-16 SpaceTechnology
PreliminaryresultsforthethreecroptestsareshowninTable1.

Table I. Crop Test Results

Parameter

Hydroponics

Lettuce Crop I

Hydroponics Wheat Model

Lettuce Crop II Development

Yield Component Fresh Leaves Fresh Leaves Dry Grain

Production (Kg) 64 62 5.7

Yield (Kg m-2) 5.6 5.5 0.5

Harvest Index* 86% 87% 38%

* Percent of total biomass that is edible

Figure 1. View of APGC with mature

30-day-old lettuce crop.

Figure 2. Internal view of wheat

crop within the APGC one

week before harvest.

Space Technology IV-17
Dexterous End Effector Flight

Demonstration

PI: Leo G. Monford/ER4

Reference: ST 7

The dexterous end effector (DEE) is a flight

demonstration of the ability of five new elements

of technology to assist the Shuttle robotic

manipulator system (RMS) in dexterous and/or

automatic tasks. The main technology

development is the force torque sensor (FTS).

Three of the other developments support the FTS

demonstration: the targeting and reflective

alignment concept (TRAC), the magnetic end

effector (MEE), and the carrier latch assembly

(CLA). The fifth development, added during

FY93, is AUTO TRAC, which utilizes some of the

elements of the other DEE equipment.

The b'TS provides visual feedback to the RMS

operator of the forces exerted by the RMS. This

feedback is in the form of digital and analog

displays on the aft flight deck TV monitor or,

alternately, on the screen of the payload general

support computer (PGSC). Thus the operator may

be able to perform dexterous tasks such as pin-inhole insertion, electrical connector mating, module

changeout, or structure erection.

TRAC allows precise alignment of the RMS to the

payload or alignment between movable payload

elements. Because TRAC is essentially a flat

mirror, target space/weight requirements for

accurate payload alignment are less than those of

other six-axis targets. In addition, TRAC separates

the cues for pitch and yaw alignment from those

for X, Y, Z, and rotation, thus improving the

operator's ability to interpret and control.

AUTO TRAC is a system for automatic targeting.

It uses a mirror target with several retro-reflectors

and a TV camera with flashing LEDs near the

camera lens. The target can be recognized in the

camera scene, and an algorithm operating on the

scene calculates the position and attitude of the

target. The AUTO TRAC hardware is compatible

with TRAC.

The MEE is a system of electromagnets, which

allows magnetic, fault-tolerant grappling of

payloads. The fault tolerance is achieved by

redundancy in power, controls, and magnet coils.

In addition, the MEE is inherently highly reliable,

low cost, and low maintenance because it contains

few moving parts.

The CLA extends the fault tolerance capability of

magnetics to the berthing or docking of payloads

and spacecraft. Mechanical latches are provided

for long-term holding, but holding during the

berthing or docking is done by magnetics alone.

The overall objective of the DEE task is to

demonstrate these five technology developments in

the Space Shuttle environment. The detailed

objectives are as follows:

• Demonstrate that the RMS has increased

dexterity through the use of a force and

torque sensing device. This includes safely

performing tasks requiring constrained

motion.

• Demonstrate the feasibility of magnetic

grappling on orbit through the use of a

magnatic attachment tool (MAT) that can be

picked up by the RMS.

• Demonstrate TRAC as a precise method of

determining the position of the RMS for

close-tolerance operations and as an effective _

camera target for assembling structures on

orbit.

• Simulate Space Station erection activities

using the RMS and DEE hardware for

insertion, removal, and rotation tasks.

• Simulate an MST insertion activity using the

RMS and DEE hardware and a module

servicing tool (MST) receptacle.

• Demonstrate the use of a magnetic holding

device to temporarily stow hardware on

orbit.

• Obtain data to determine the control

resolution of the RMS in several modes of

operation on orbit.

• Use the payload bay targeting camera to

demonstrate automatic recognition of the

target and determination of the target attitude

and position vectors by computer analysis of

the target scene.

IV- 18 Space Technology
Theapproachfortheprojectisto develop spacecompatible hardware which can be flown as a

Shuttle flight experiment, meeting all of the

applicable Space Shuttle Program requirements for

payloads.

The following work was accomplished during

FY93:

• All of the experiment operations were

demonstrated in the Manipulator

Development Facility or in the DEE Lab

with prototype hardware.

• The flight equipment was 99% assembled.

• All environmental testing was completed.

• The structural analysis and test correlation

was 99% completed.

• All required thermal analysis and test

correlation was completed.

• Detailed planning was developed and the

flight rules, mission timeline, malfunction

procedures, and cargo system manual were

baselined.

• All Payload Integration Plan (PIP) Annex

data were developed and delivered to the

book managers.

• The Phase III payload safety review was

completed.

• A PIP change to add a payload bay targeting

camera was processed, and the equipment

was designed and fabricated in the last

5 months of FY93.

Future work will be the completion of assembly,

completion of the analysis, verification analysis

review, final testing, shipment to KSC, integration

onto the Orbiter, STS-62 flight support, and

de-integration. All work on this task will be

completed in FY94.

Space Technology IV-19
Flight Telerobotic Servicer

Manipulator Technology Capture

PI: John Chladek/ER4

Reference: ST 8

NASA's Office for Advanced Concepts and

Technology (OACT) was tasked with capturing the

technologies that went into the design, analysis,

and development of the flight telerobotic servicer

(FTS) after it was canceled from the Space Station

Freedom Program. The FFS flight manipulator

mechanism was almost ready for assembly at

Martin Marietta Astronautics (MMA), the majority

of flight components having been delivered by the

subcontractors. To complete the manipulator

assembly would allow testing of the high risk item,

the flight manipulator. The characterization of its

performance in space environments would also

serve as part of the technology capture. This task

has several team players: MMA to complete

assembly of the flight manipulator, JSC's

Automation and Robotics Division to receive the

manipulator and perform environmental

characterization tests, and Langley Research

Center's (LARC's) Information Systems Division

to continue to develop and refine the robotic

control system. JSC added the objective of

retaining the flight heritage of the manipulator for

possible flight use in an Orbiter flight experiment

or operational use.

The FTS manipulator system developed for the

Space Station required a high-performance, safe,

fault-tolerant dexterous mechanism that could

operate reliably and survive 30 years in space. The

original FTS was designed to provide telerobotic

assistance to enhance crew activity and safety and

reduce crew extravehicular activity. Tasks

foreseen included orbital replacement unit

changeout, Hubble Space Telescope servicing,

Gamma Ray Observatory refueling, and several in

situ Space Station servicing and maintenance tasks.

Operation of the FrS was planned to evolve from

teleoperation to fully autonomous execution of

many tasks. The manipulator properties were to

allow positioning control to one thousandths of an

inch, with zero actuator backlash over a

temperature range of -50 to +95 °C, and were to

include impedance control and inertial decoupling.

Safety and reliability requirements were developed

to allow a 30-year life in space with minimum

maintenance.

The first spaceflight of the FTS manipulator system

was to be in the Orbiter payload bay to demonstrate

several candidate tasks and verify manipulator

performance parameters. The system had to meet

the safety requirements for hazardous payloads for

operation in the Orbiter payload bay during the

demonstration test flights prior to Space Station

use. These initial tasks included unlocking a Space

Station truss joint, mating/demating a fluid

coupling, contact following of a contour board,

demonstrating peg-in-hole assembly, and grasping

and moving a mass.

The flight manipulator system assembly,

integration, and tests were completed at MMA,

with a NASA acceptance test in July 1993.

Integration of the flight end-of-arm tooling, a

parallel jaw gripper, and the wrist camera and

lights was completed in October of 1993. This

system integration effort was continued to better

prepare for a possible flight experiment dexterous

Orbiter servicer system (DOSS) proposed by JSC

to NASA Headquarters.

Lessons learned from the FTS program were many.

The wide range of Space Station FFS mission

tasks, combined with the goal of evolution toward

full autonomy, forced several extremely demanding

requirements that influenced the development cost

and schedule of the manipulator system. Some of

these requirements seemed excessive to the

telerobotics community, but they were created to

accommodate an open-ended evolution that was

not to be impeded by functional limitations. A

recommendation to remedy the possible impacts

from such ambitious requirements is to better

analyze candidate robotic tasks and to thoroughly

define system operational requirements for mission

safety.

JSC and LaRC provided the technical and

managerial monitoring of the flight manipulator

integration and development at MMA. JSC

developed environmental characterization test

plans for the flight manipulator and subsystems at

JSC after MMA's completion of the manipulator

z

IV-20 SpaceTechnology
arm. JSC also involved Orbiter safety, reliability,

and quality engineering (SR&QE) staff in the

ongoing development decisions at MMA in order

to retain the flight heritage of the manipulator.

LaRC monitored the manipulator internal control

system software development at MMA, and

received the hydraulic manipulator test bed

(HMTB) in November of 1992. This system

provides a kinematic duplicate of the flight arm

with control responses that closely mimic the flight

system. LaRC will use this system for control

system refinement and to provide task assessments

for the proposed flight experiment.

Development and integration of the flight actuators

and controllers in FY93 resulted in the completion

of the flight FTS manipulator at MMA. An

acceptance test was performed on July 28, 1993,

that demonstrated to JSC and LaRC the assembled

manipulator operating on an air bearing table at

MMA (fig.l). Some unique tuning of the joint

servos had not been accomplished, so performance

of the manipulator was not tested to specifications.

In lieu of the joint servo tuning, further component

testing and integration of the end-of-arm-tooling

(gripper) and wrist camera onto the manipulator

was accomplished (fig. 2). This additional

integration work on the flight manipulator system

was pursued to provide an earlier awareness of any

integration problems, as a means of risk mitigation

prior to costing a possible flight experiment.

Proposals were submitted to NASA Headquarters

research and flight program calls for flight

experiments. These proposals included multicenter

participation by JSC, LaRC, and Jet Propulsion

Laboratory (JPL) in demonstrating robotic

technologies developed by the OACT p_'ogram,

including those applicable to ground control and

operational capabilities.

A planning session was held by the JSC Orbiter

community and the DOSS team, composed of JSC,

LaRC, JPL, and MMA. They reviewed the

technical and operational aspects of the DOSS

concept for application to a flight experiment and

for use as an Orbiter resource in payload servicing

and payload bay contingencies. To support the

DOSS concept, significant systems engineering

was accomplished to determine a method for the

DOSS to operate on the end of the Shuttle remote

manipulator system from ground control and the aft

flight deck. Remote teleoperation of the HMTB at

LaRC was accomplished from the JSC SPACE

STATION control station mockup via the TeleRobotic Interconnect Protocol (TelRIP) connection

with LaRC. TelRIP, a data distribution

mechanism used to control telerobot systems with

networked computers, is used extensively at JSC

and also at other NASA centers.

Figure 1. FTS manipulator on air bearing table.

Space Technology IV-21
Figure 2. End-of-arm tooling (gripper) and wrist camera & lights.

IV-22 Space Technology
Fault Tolerant Robotics

PI: John Chladek/ER4

Reference: ST 9

NASA's development effort in fault tolerance for

robotic systems includes a research grant to the

University of Texas at Austin. A program was

created for developing fault-tolerant reconfigurable

manipulator architectures and adaptive control

concepts. This research effort is to enhance three

new areas in robotics: the development of a faulttolerant manipulator joint module which is compact

and scalable in size, the design of various sizes of

these scalable modules that can be readily tailored

into a reconfigurable manipulator architecture to fit

the application, and the development of

sophisticated decision-making system controls to

drastically improve the failure tolerance capability

at the individual joint level and to intelligently

utilize any excess redundancy available in the

manipulator system. Control of such

configurations will require continuing research into

using adaptive control techniques for rejecting

disturbances caused by component failure.

Space-based robotic systems, operating in an

environment where the costs can be high and

consenquences serious, must employ failure

tolerance to ensure safety and mission success. To

meet the requirements for acceptance by mission

managers concerned about success and safety risks,

the operational limitations and constraints currently

imposed on robotic systems must be minimized.

Research continues in safe and reliable control and

operations of robotic systems which could

transparently absorb drastic control or

electromechanical failures. This ability would

effectively eliminate the current operational

restrictions imposed on space robotic systems due

to their risk of producing uncommanded motion by

component or control failures. Full incorporation

of such advanced concepts would also allow task

continuation with full coordinated control while

accommodating a failure in the system.

The purpose of this project is to demonstrate that

multiple levels of fault tolerance for space or other

high risk robotic applications can be provided by

standard, scalable, modular manipulator joint

configurations with adaptive controls that readily

allow intelligent use of the redundant degrees of

freedom (DOF) available in such manipulator

systems. The extra DOF in space-based

manipulators provide enhanced dexterity,

operational usefulness, and multiple level tolerance

to failures for assured long duration use. Extensive

future work will be required on controls for these

extra-DOF manipulator systems. A sophisticated

decision-making package utilizing hybrid and

adaptive controller synthesis for reacting to internal

disturbances (failures) continues in development,

and will be. incorporated to dramatically improve

the active fault tolerance capability of robotic

systems.

The approach is to provide structural redundancies

or alternative capabilities that allow up to four

levels of fault tolerance in a modular manipulator

architecture. The first level is in the dual actuator

module (prime mover) with independent servo

controllers. This becomes a common building

element. The second level is redundant mechanism

structures, either parallel or serial. The third level

of fault tolerance uses active criteria-based

decision-making software in a fault tree structure

for controlling the first two levels of fault tolerance

capabilities during disturbances (failures). The

fourth level is accomplished by duality of the entire

mechanism system, including its control.

The manipulator architecture under concentrated

study contains excess redundancy in a series of

mechanism joints, with duality in each servo

control module. The reason for this arrangement is

that in space the otherwise detrimental effects of

gravity are not present. There are a few remaining

single txfints of failure in the dual-servo-joint

modules that could disable the joint, even though

the number is significantly reduced due to the

duality. The excess serial redundancy architecture

would allow a failed joint to be rigidized, while the

remaining operational joints provide the dexterity,

end point control, and arm pose control to complete

the task objectives.

These developments are demonstrated in test-bed

configurations to evaluate the fault tolerance and

control responses in actual mechanism structures.

One such test-bed is composed of a four-legged,

Space Technology IV-23
sixteen-motor, four-gimbal mechanism prototype.

The mechanism will be capable of fault recovery at

several levels, both mechanical or electrical, and

will be able to demonstrate three levels of fault

tolerance. Accomplishments in the first year

(FY90) included the development of a compact,

scalable dual-actuator fault-tolerant servo module,

which forms the first level for modular fault

tolerant manipulator systems. Second year (FY91)

efforts provided characterization tests of the dualactuator servo module, the overall design of the

multilevel test-bed, and the development and

evaluation of a prototype 2-DOF gimbal module as

a common element in the mechanism test-bed.

Third year (FY92) accomplishments included

redesign optimization of the dual-actuator servo

module design based on performance tests and

space environmental considerations, analysis and

experimental tests of actuator controllers capable of

responding to internal actuator failure transients,

development of a dynamic simulation of the

actuator module to test control strategies that

minimize internal fault transients, and studies to

determine comparative benefits of various adaptive

control methods to the field of fault-tolerant

robotics.

Accomplishments in FY93 included evaluation

testing of the dual-actuator servo mechanism and

completion of the yoke assembly for the 2-DOF

knuckle, one of the common elements for the

multilevel test-bed. On adaptive controls development, time regulation and torque distribution

algorithms were successfully applied to serial and

parallel fault-tolerant manipulators, and hybrid

algorithms that employ sliding mode control have

been succeSpace Stationully simulated.

IV-24 Space Technology
Special Purpose Dexterous

Manipulator Emulation and

TechnolOgy Integration

Evaluation

PI:

Reference:

LeBarlan Stokes/ER6

Reginald B. Berka/ER4

ST 10

The special purpose dexterous manipulator

(SPDM) emulator has been designed as a test-bed

for evaluating advanced robotic technologies in a

simulated Space Station (SS) environment.

Robotic technologies developed at the NASA

research centers are being transferred to this

facility, where their performance relative to the SS

baseline performance will be assessed. SS

maintenance tasks will be executed with and

without these advanced technologies to assess SS

performance enhancement.

The SPDM emulator, also known as the facility for

automated robotic maintenance of Space Station

(ARMSS), is designed as a high fidelity SS

maintenance simulator. Two Robotics Research

1607 manipulators emulate the SPDM arms. Like

the SPDM arms, these commercial manipulators

have 7 degrees of freedom and approximately a

2-meter reach. The SPDM's three dimensional

motion capability is modeled using two X/Y towers

and a mobile pre-integrated truss (PIT) segment.

The towers move along a rail and the manipulators

are mounted on plates that travel up and down each

tower. The PIT segment rotates about its long axis

and can be moved in a plane with the tower/rail

system. Combined, these degrees of freedom

permit the manipulators full access to all six faces

on the PIT.

The PIT segment contains faces from two separate

SS mission build (MB) segments, MB4 and MB2,

and provides a comprehensive robotic testing

environment. On each face, Orbiter replacement

units (ORUs) are attached to the inside of

triangular and rectangular doors. Both the doors

and ORUs are robot-compatible. The manipulators

acquire and install the ORUs using parallel

grippers, force/torque sensors, and torque drives

modeled after the SPDM end effector design. An

on-orbit lighting simulator is also used in the

ARMSS facility and consists of a set of highpowered lamps, curtains, and supporting structure

that provide controlled lighting for the portion of

the PIT where the manipulators are working.

The baseline facility (fig. 1) Was Completed in

FY93 and the process of technology transfer is

underway. Robotic technologies from both Jet

Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and Goddard Space

Flight Center (GSFC) are being evaluated using

this facility. JPL's surface inspection software has

been transferred to JSC and demonstrated, and

plans have been made to fully integrate the surface

inspection hardware into the ARMSS facility. The

operator control station (OCS) software from JPL

has been integrated with the ARMSS facility and

has been used to perform ORU changeout tasks in

the ARMSS facility with robot commands

originating at JPL. Testing of OCS will soon be

completed and transferred to JSC. A highresolution version of the JPL flat target is

scheduled to be tested in the ARMSS facility in the

first quarter of FY94. A version of GSFC's

capacitance sensor was fabricated at JSC and is

now being evaluated in the ARMSS facility.

Special antennas have been developed for using the

sensor in a subcarrier installation task which will

be evaluated in the first quarter of FY94.

Figure 1. SPDM emulator.

Space Technology IV-25
Rendezvous Expert System

Ph H.K. Hiers/ER2

Reference: ST 11

The objective of the Rendezvous Expert System

Project was to develop workstation application

software to assist the Rendezvous Guidance and

Procedures Officer (RGPO) and backroom support

personnel in their flight control duties at the

Mission Control Center (MCC). This year the

3-year project, funded by the Office of Space

Systems Development, Advanced Programs, was

completed. Implementation of this software, called

the Rendezvous Operations Software System

(ROSS), was closely coordinated with the Mission

Operations Directorate Trajectory Operations

Branch (DM4). Periodic laboratory demonstrations

gave the user the opportunity to critique the design

and assess development progress.

The RGPO is the flight controller responsible to the

Mission Flight Director for onboard rendezvous

operations and procedures in the flight control

room of MCC. The RGPO monitors ROSS and the

standard MCC displays and makes recommendations to the Flight Director concerning Shuttle

guidance, navigation, and procedures during

Shuttle missions when a rendezvous or proximity

operation with another spacecraft is planned. The

standard MCC displays present data in a textual

format which requires careful attention to ensure

correct interpretations of the data. ROSS has

added a significant level of automation to the

previous labor-intensive MCC mode of operation.

The use of ROSS would save an estimated 2.5

work year equivalents in training, simulation, and

mission support for six rendezvous missions.

ROSS, implemented in the generic X Windows

programming environment, runs on a concurrent

(Masscomp) 6600 workstation in MCC. The initial

version of ROSS was used for mission support

during the STS-49 Intelsat rescue in May 1992,

One benefit to that_mission was that the ROSS

time-to-node processor was used to optimize

Orbiter plane control, resulting in reaction control

system fuel savings. Since STS-49, ROSS has

been used routinely in support of rendezvous

missions.

In the MCC operational configuration, the ROSS

workstation receives real-time telemetry data via

the real-time local area network (LAN) and certain

mission operations computer (MOC) data on

demand via the general purpose LAN. The ROSS

then presents these data in specialized X Window

displays (fig. 1) for monitoring the progress of the

rendezvous.

The FY93 ROSS development consisted of

window management improvements, enhancement

of existing applications, and addition of five new

applications. Examples of these updates include

user-selectable screens configured for mission

phases; a three-dimensional representation of

Orbiter attitude; the addition of atmospheric drag

effects to the Orbiter/target relative motion plots;

an alarms display panel containing up to 24 userprogrammable alarm conditions; and a new

application, NAVCON, to monitor convergence of

the onboard navigation with planned rendezvous

profile. The final version of ROSS was delivered

to MCC in September 1993.

IV-26 Space Technology
Figure 1. Rendezvous operations software system (ROSS) display.

Space Technology IV-27
Integrated Support for Failure

Impact and Procedure Analysis

Ph Jane T. Malin, ER2

Reference: ST 12

Diverse fault management tasks are performed in

ground operations, both during missions and in

mission preparation. Support is needed beyond

expert systems for real-time monitoring and fault

detection. The goal of the Failure Impact and

Procedure Analysis (FIPA) Project has been to

develop approaches and concepts for integration of

distributed computer systems to support a more

complete set of these tasks. The project has

focused on malfunction procedure analysis and

failure impact assessment by Space Shuttle payload

deployment and retrieval system (PDRS) flight

controllers and how these tasks can be supported

by integration with monitoring and fault detection

systems.

The project was funded only in FY93. A study was

done of the FIPA tasks of PDRS flight controllers

and candidate systems for supporting these tasks,

including systems currently in use and advanced

technology systems. The objective was to identify

types of systems that would need to be integrated.

Data-flow diagrams ofthe FIPA tasks were

developed, and intelligent system automation

technology requirements were developed and

prioritized. Figure 1 shows the major FIPA tasks

and intelligent system technology support

candidates. Concepts developed in this study are

being used in the FY94 NASA Headquarters Code

C Space Propulsion Robust Analysis Technology

(SPRAT) Project.

The next objective was to learn about integration

issues by building the first link in the FIPA

structure of support systems shown in figure 1.

A prototype was developed that linked two

preexisting PDRS support applications: (1) a realtime monitoring and fault detection support

application, DEcision Support SYstem (DESSY),

built in a commercial expert system development

environment (G2); and (2) an off-line application

for identifying relevant malfunction procedures and

failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) data,

built in a government-furnished system (CRANS).

An electronic representation of a ground

malfunction procedure was also developed in

CRANS to identify electronic procedures issues.

Integration of the systems required several layers

of functionality. The base layer is data

communication software for distributed systems,

ported from the JSC Cooperating Expert Systems

Project. Above that layer, software was developed

to synchronize and manage information transfer, to

translate from DESSY to CRANS representations,

and to manage conflicts between DESSY

information and manual inputs to CRANS. There

are critical context assumptions in the procedures

and FMEAs that are not explicit. The electronic

procedures support making these implicit

assumptions explicit.

New approaches were developed to integrate the

on-line and off-line tools. For CRANS to identify

relevant FMEAs and procedures, real-time alarm

information from telemetry must be supplemented

with persistent situational context information. By

analyzing real-time data, DESSY builds a snapshot

of Fault Situation Data to support further off-line

analysis by flight controllers.

IV-28 Space Technology
Fault and Health Management Process

Identify Related Diagnosis and

Correction Information

- Procedures

- FMEAs

- SchemaUcs (Table Look-Up)

Procedure or

Modify Procedure for

Mission Situation

(FY94SPRATCodeC RTOP)

G2-Crens Prototype

(FY93 FIPA Code D RTOP)

Monitor Operations and

Detect Failures

DESSY for RMS End Effector

- G2 expert system

Failure Situation Data

l

Identify Related Diagnosis and

Correction information

IGUANTU for RMS End Effector

-CRANS spreadsheet

Monitor Execution of

Procedure Blocks

- Test and Diagnosis

Identify Failures and

Causes of Failures

Determine Effects of

Degraded System

(FY94 SPRAT Code C RTOP)

Hazards and Discrepancies_

Configuration Problems,

Loss of Redundancy,

Remaining Operations, Capability,

Schedule Changes

Monitor Execution of

Procedure Blocks

- Correction Actions

*MBR - Model-Based Reasoning

"PBR- Plan-Based Reasoning

Figure 1. Intelligent fault management automation.

Space Technology IV-29

Section V

Technology

Transfer
The following is a summary of the Johnson Space

Center (JSC) Technology Utilization (TU) FY93

activities and accomplishments. These activities

center on two of the TU Office's major on-going

responsibilities: (1) New Technology Reporting

and (2) Applications Engineering Projects.

New Technology Reporting

The New Technology Reporting process starts

when NASA and/or contractor employees report

their innovations to the TU Office. These

innovations, called New Technology Reports

(NTR), are recorded and used as a basis for articles

in NASA Tech Briefs. Each NTR is evaluated by

the JSC Legal Office for patentability and by the

TU Office for possible publication in NASA Tech

Briefs. Innovations chosen for publication in Tech

Briefs are issued a monetary award. The TU Office

also monitors each NTR to assure that the

innovation is not published until intellectual

property rights have been protected. Software

innovations are also evaluated and indexed in the

Computer Software Management and Information

Center's (COSMIC) catalog where they are offered

for sale to the public. Yearly, all JSC technologies

that have been used by the commercial sector to

develop and market a product or service are

published in Spinoff.

New Technology Reports Reviewed and Selected

for Publication

During FY93 the TU Office received 169 NTRs.

Also in 1993, the office selected 68 articles for

publication; those 68 articles represent 159

innovators. The following 62 articles were

published in the 1993 NASA Tech Briefs.

January 93, Volume 17, No. 1

Disk Valve for Cryogenics

Lightweight Right-Angle Valve for Cryogenics

Fail-Safe Pressure Plug

Dummy Cell Would Improve Performance of

Fuel-Cell Stack

February 93, Volume 17, No. 2

Pressurized Shell Molds for Metal-Matrix

Composites

Energetic Atoms Would Etch Photoresists

Anisotropically

Program Computes Flows of Fluids and Heat

Deployable Debris Shields for Space Station

March 93, Volume 17, No. 3

Flexible Weighting-and-Matching Scheme for

Incomplete Data

Phase Detector for Rectangular Waveforms

Improved Statistical Model of 10.7-cm Solar

Radiation

In Vitro, Matrix-Free Formation of Solid Tumor

Spheroids

Making Porous Zirconia for Heat Pipes

Mechanism Guides Hatch Through Hatchway

Simulation of Fluctuating Geomagnetic Index

Shape-Memory-Alloy Release Mechanism

Easy-to-Use Connector

April 93, Volume 17, No. 4

Bag for Formulating and Dispensing Intravenous

Solution

Unit-Dose Bags for Formulating Intravenous

Solutions

Solute-Filled Syringe for Formulating

Intravenous Solution

May 93, Volume 17, No. 5

Monatomic Oxygen Makes Materials

Biocompatible

Fiber-Coupled Acoustic-Optical-Filter

Spectrometer

Augmented Computer Mouse Would Measure

Applied Force

Device for Perception of Polarization

June 93, Volume 17, No. 6

Indium Foil Serves as Thermally Conductive

Gasket

Digital Electronic Still Camera

Protecting Spacecraft-Insulating Tiles Against

Meteoroids

1⁄2

V-2 Technology Transfer
Synthesizing Friction in a Force-Reflecting Hand

Controller

Inflatable Habitat Structure

Program Helps in Analysis of Failures

Neural-Network-Development Program

July 93, Volume 17, No. 7

Test Would Quantify Combustion Oxygen From

Different Sources

High-Performance Water-Iodinating Cartridge

Kinetic Tetrazolium Microtiter Assay

Flexible Sandwich Diaphragms Are Less

Permeable

Microwave Pretreatment for Hydrolysis of

Cellulose

August 93, Volume 17, No. 8

Software or Graphical Representation of a

Network

Balloonlike Shields Against Fast Projectiles

General-Purpose Graphics-Library Program

Optimization of a Computational Grid

September 93, Volume 17, No. 9

Droplet Evaporator for High-Capacity Heat

Transfer

Low-Fatigue Hand Controller for Remote

Manipulator

Instrumented Pneumatic-Impact Tester

High-Emittance, Low-Absorbance ThermalControl Coating

Compact Circuit Preprocesses Accelerometer

Output

Instrumented Glove Measures Positions of

Fingers

Microstrip-Transmission-Line Shock-Front

Sensor

October 93, Volume 17, No. 10

Low Gravity Improves Welds

Stitched Conductive Threads for Monitoring

Composite Parts

Generating AC with Rotating Solar Cells

November 93, Volume 17, No. 11

Simulating Orbital Operations of Spacecraft

Pump Propels Liquid and Gas Separately

Improved Nystrom Integrators

Multishock Shields Containing Aluminum Mesh

Quantitative Tester and Reeonditioner for Hand

and Arm

Chemical Strips Anodic Film From Aluminum

December 93, Volume 17, No. 12

Program Helps Simulate Neural Networks

Fluorescent-Antibody Measurement of CancerCell Urokinase

Suppressing Oscillations in a Poppet Valve

Thermal-Radiation Program

Automated Estimation of Software-Development

Costs

Synchronizing a Television Camera With an

External Reference

Tech Brief Conference

In 1993 NASA, together with NASA Tech Briefs

magazine and the Technology Utilization

Foundation, sponsored the Tech 2002 conference

and exposition. The JSC TU Office booth featured

two major technologies: Ice Detection and

Thickness Measurement and Failure Environment

Analysis Tool. This conference was held during

National Technology Transfer Week at the

Baltimore Convention Center in Baltimore,

Maryland. JSC sponsored 11 of the conference

papers. These 11 papers were subsequently

published by the TU Office and made available to

industry.

Spinoffs

The following 10 commercial applications of JSC

technologies were featured in NASA's annual

magazine Spinoff.

1. Special "Cool Suit" designed to alleviate some

of the symptoms of Multiple Sclerosis patients

based upon Apollo space suit cooling

undergarment technology.

Technology Transfer V-3
2. Rotating bioreactor cell culture apparatus for

growing tissue that otherwise will not grow

outside the human body, developed by the

Shuttle Bioreactor Program.

3. Heart imaging system based upon MultiWire

Gamma Camera technology originally planned

as a Skylab flight experiment for monitoring

the health of astronauts.

4. Water filter for home use based upon

technology developed to sterilize the drinking

water on Apollo spacecraft.

5. Airline operations software based upon CLIPS

(C Language Integrated Production System),

developed in support of astronaut and flight

controller training.

6. Human Factors model for general use by

designers of human operated systems based

upon technology funded by NASA at the

University of Pennsylvania.

7. Security system using CLIPS (C Language

integrated Production System), developed in

support of astronaut and flight controller

training.

8. Risk assessment system based upon FEAT

(Failure Environment Analysis Tool)

technology, developed for use in spacecraft

design and development.

9. Computer seminar artificial intelligence

training using NETS (Neural Network

Development Tool), developed in support of

astronaut and flight controller training.

10. Software for management of dairy heads based

upon CLIPS (C Language Integrated

Production System), developed in support of

astronaut and flight controller training.

Application Engineering Projects

Application Engineering Projects (AEP) are

projects designed to develop a specific commercial

application from a JSC technology. AEPs can

result from technologies identified in the NTR

process, from the needs of industry as outlined in

Problem Statements, or from concepts of technology innovators. These projects may involve some

combination of other government agencies, universities, hospitals, and companies. The AEP process

consists of five phases: project identification,

evaluation and selection, project preparation,

prototype development, and product commercialization.

During the project preparation phase, the TU

Office works between the commercial partner and

the NASA technologist to help identify the rights

and responsibilities of each party and document

them in a Space Act Agreement. Most often this is

one of the more difficult portions of the AEP

process. To reduce misunderstandings and speedup this activity, in FY93 the TU Office worked

with the JSC Legal Office and generated a generic

example of a Space Act Agreement. This example

was successfully used in the initiation and negotiation of Space Act Agreements for several

subsequent projects. It has also been submitted to

NASA Headquarters and several other NASA

centers for their common use.

The TU Office presents its AEPs at several expositions during the year, such as the Technology 2002/

2003 conferences and the Space Technology Hall

of Fame. JSC received a number of 1993 Hall of

Fame awards for its participation in two past,

multi-center projects: Liquid-Cooled Garments and

Physiological Monitoring Instrumentation.

NASA JSC, in cooperation with many other

organizations, planned and executed the Dual-Use

Space Technology Transfer Conference and

Exhibition at JSC during February 1-3, 1994.

More than 150 papers, representing current NASA

technology development projects, were presented

during the 3-day symposium. There were more

than 35 exhibits and over 300 registered participants. It is estimated that attendants at the exhibit

hall exceeded 600. The proceedings of this conference will be published as a NASA conference

publication.

V-4 Technology Transfer
DuringFY93,theAEPOfficeworkedwith10

specifictechnologyprojects.Eightdifferent

technologieswereselectedfromfourseparate

JSCdirectorates.Adescriptionof theseprojects

follows.

Rotating Wall Cell Culture (RWCC)

Technology

This technology can be used to grow ceils of all

types, including delicate normal human cells. The

devices are horizontally rotating cylinders filled

with a cell culture medium. The horizontal rotation

creates simulated weightlessness for cell particles

that are free to associate with each other and form

complex structures. Oxygen is delivered by

diffusion through a central oxygenator membrane.

This membrane allows the vessel to operate

without creating air bubbles that would cause

destructive turbulence.

The TU Office negotiated and awarded a contract

with SYNTHECON, a small Texas company, for

the design of a culture vessel that improves usage,

size, and manufacturability of this technology's

product. The company has sold several of these

vessels to hospitals and research institutes.

Ice Detection and Thi'ckness Measurement

This project applies JSC's antenna technology to

public safety via ice detection on commercial

aircraft wings and highway bridges. It uses a

small, lightweight microstrip patch antenna as a

sensor element of a Maxwell bridge to measure

water/ice thicknesses. The antennas are

electromagnetically strobed and their output

parameters processed and interpreted by software

algorithms prior to being sent to a monitor. The

antenna can be attached to most surfaces and its

measurements transmitted to a central location.

During FY93, the TU Office negotiated and

awarded a contract with Raton Technology

Research for a prototype of this system. To date,

Raton has designed the system and will soon

submit the prototype to JSC for test and evaluation.

Subsequently, the instrument will be transferred to

the FAA for final evaluation and certification.

ICE IS PRESENT

DETECTION OF ICE ON HIGHWAY BRIDGE

Technology Transfer V-5
Early Language Intervention System (ELIS)

This project uses Think C, C++, Intelligent

Computer-Aided Training (ICAT), and CLIPS

(JSC-developed but not patented) software to

provide children and youths with disabilities an

equal opportunity (as specified by U.S. Mandate)

to improve their language skills. The software will

also include fuzzy logic attributes that aid teachers

in state-of-the-art instructional strategies.

Education research has indicated that using

computers with speech output capabilities to teach

emerging language skills can significantly increase

the language skills of young children with

disabilities. A number of computer programs for

teaching isolated language concepts and

vocabulary are available for use with children

learning initial language skills. Although these

programs provide a stimulating content for learning

and a thorough and consistent plan for training,

they do not adjust the content of the lesson based

on the responses of the child, nor are they sensitive

to the unique needs and learning styles of

individual children. The effectiveness of these

programs is, therefore, dependent upon the ability

of the educator to make the needed software

available at the appropriate moment. The clinical

judgments that thi s process demands are critical to

successful outcomes. The ELIS resolves these

issues.

Early in FY93, the TU Office identified, defined

and initiated this partnership between JSC and

Laureate Learning Systems (a leading software

developer in the area of improving handicapped

children's language skills). By mid-year, the TU

Office had gotten a Space Act Agreement

negotiated and signed. The project plan indicates

that Laureate will purchase a license for use of

ICAT and CLIPS and that the resulting tutoring

devices will be evaluated and validated in the

Oregon State Educational System and marketed to

all elementary school and educational systems

throughout the U.S. Currently, the first prototype

has been developed and is being evaluated along

with the other Laureate products.

V-6 Technology Transfer
ContextualALarm ManagementSystem

(CALMS)

One of the challenges to integrating medically

fragile children into the classroom environment

successfully is developing effective monitoring

technology. Monitors must function reliably and

provide appropriate alarms that notify the teachers

of impending problems without disrupting the

classroom or providing confusing information.

Since teachers are not health professionals with a

detailed knowledge of the support technology used

by these children, the alarms must specify the

problem so that attempts to remedy it are well

directed and panic is avoided.

The CALMS project applies JSC's CLIPS and

fuzzy knowledge technology to the development.of

a single-alarm management system that integrates

the alarms of several individual devices for alerting

a teacher or care-provider to a problem. This

system will also provide basic guidance and

instructions on a visual display.

In FY92, the TU Office identified and defined this

partnership but initiation was not started until

FY93. This was due to multiple negotiations over

the terms Of the Space Act Agreement. Finally in

mid-FY93, the TU Office got final signatures on

the agreement.

This project combines the technologies of three

JSC directorates and the commercial expertise of a

U. S. medical manufacturer. During the life of the

project a prototype will be developed, tested in the

operating room of a major medical center,

clinically evaluated in a hospital environment,

evaluated in the Oregon State Department of

Education classrooms, and finally made available

to schools and hospitals throughout the U.S.

Currently, the prototype management alarm system

software has been developed and the clinical

testing protocols defined.

THE CALMS CONCEPT

Laser Eye Surgery Pointing Control

This technology eliminates eye motion aberrations

that are present during laser eye surgery and does it

at a reasonable cost. The system uses a JSC

developed (U.S. Patent 5,029,220) joint Fourier

transform correlation invention to correlate actual

images with reference images and effectively

remove the involuntary eye jitters so that a laser

surgeon can photocoagulate the eye structure

exactly and avoid collateral damage.

JSC has teamed with Pinnacle Imaging, Inc., and

the U. S. Army Missile Command to develop this

technology for NASA, military, and commercial

use. During FY93, aSpace Act Agreement was

signed with Pinnacle and a license agreement was

negotiated. Pinnacle is currently soliciting funding

from its sponsors to cover the large costs of this

complex prototype system.

Technology Transfer V-7
Microwave Measurement for Two-Phase Flow

This project also uses JSC's antenna technology.

In this case, two sets of antenna are mounted in a

pipe, one set is downstream from the other and

senses the mixture of fluids flowing. A computer

performs statistical analysis on e_ich of these

antenna parameter sets and makes comparisons and

analysis.

Currently, this technology has no commercial

partner; however, it is f'mding numerous industrial

applications. For example, it would be of great

economic benefit to the oil and gas industry to have

an instrument that can identify and meter the raw

production components as they are being drawn

from the well-head in frontier areas, such as the

deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico, where

conventional systems are unsuitable.

Another example is in the food processing industry.

The National Food Processors Association has to

measure the time individual food particles remain

in the sterilization processor as they flow to the

canning operations. This technology, with

modification, is being considered for use by the

food processing industry.

A third example is in the pulp/paper industry where

a need exists for a sensor that can continuously

measure the amount of dispersed air/gas in pulp/

paper process waters and/or a sensor to

continuously measure the height of air/water foams

present above the pulp/paper process waters.

And last, the medical industry has application for a

sensor that can measure the time volume of urine

excreted from a patient.

Multi-Fluid Flow Measurement

Content

Flow

Direction

//_-- Probes

"oo .: o.oo"o°

O.o.-5¢ .o,

oo°,o',kZ3o o. °]D° o , ¢.._.%o

• • o• • -o° _-o o_ . o_-_" o0

v • • • oOO • 0 0 v -

Oo o00O•OO•o0 0_0 IDO dh o .° O0

;..Og:l.K. o

°,o " _-,"o "°,o "O,_o° ,,O,o o',

Artificial Intelligence for Adult Literacy

Training (ALT)

The ALT uses artificial intelligence (AI),

Intelligent Computer-Aided Training (ICAT), and

fuzzy logic in designing, developing, and

producing a computer-based, multimedia

instructional package. This application of expert

systems in the diagnosis and evaluation of reading

problems is a significant advancement over current

computer-assisted instructional systems.

The ALT team is developing a simulation program

called "finding a friend a job" that will be

distributed to literacy centers on CD-ROM. Adult

literacy students begin the program by selecting a

friend they will help find a job from photographs

displayed on the computer screen. They listen to

four people describe their job interests and needs.

Then the literacy students work through each phase

of the simulation--from reading job ads to find one

that "fits" their friend to completing a job

application and getting ready for an interview. At

each stage of the job hunting process, the literacy

students must read text (such as job ads) and make

decisions. When they need help, students can call

on an electronic support system that helps them

select a reading strategy and work through the

material they do not understand. The support is

provided by sound (in English or Spanish), and is

supported by visuals on the screen.

The.ALT project team consists of JSC, the

National Institute of Corrections, and the

University of Houston. Several commercial

partners are being considered to market the final

product(s). "

Litera

 City

V-8 Technology Transfer
Virtual Visual Environment Display for Medical

Education (VIVED)

This technology was initiated by JSC developing a

prototype of a helmet-mounted stereo visual system

for application to real-time part-task simulation and

astronaut training in docking and extravehicular

activity maneuvers. In full development, this

technology will create a high-fidelity learning

environment that, in effect, places the student

inside the body with the ability to move while

observing his or her surroundings. The graphics

for these virtual displays are based on digitized

anatomical images from computerized axial

tomography (CAT) scans, magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI), and anatomical specimens. JSC

has developed software that combines with these

graphics to provide the ability to observe and

interact in difficult areas of clinical anatomy. The

first prototype of the VIVED will be a

computerized visual module. This module will

provide students at all levels of medical and allied

health education with a simulation of a wrist, arm

or human skull cavity. The release of new chip

architectures by industry will make the technology

affordable to medical educators.

The University of Texas Medical Branch, the

Galveston Independent School District, and the

Harris and Eliza Kempner Foundation have joined

NASA to develop this project. Even though there

is much interest in this technology and its

applications, no company has yet stepped forward

and offered to co-fund further development.

Monocional Antibodies for Cancer Diagnosis

JSC has developed new monoclonal antibodies for

different cellular products. Selected monoclonal

antibodies can now be developed to identify and

quantitatively measure secretions associated with

cells which are metastatic and actively invading

healthy tissue. The monoclonal antibodies can also

be used to establish diagnostic tests for small

numbers of human cells, tissue specimens, and

tumor biopsies from patients.

As part of the follow-on research, new molecularspecific antibodies have been developed with

Baylor College of Medicine. There are more than

15 major cancer centers and at least 10 commercial

laboratories in the United States that provide

cytometry testing of tumor biopsies as a fee-forservice business. Once the JSC quantitative test for

urokinase is established, it has been estimated that

at least one-half of all tumor tests would also

include an assay for uPA.

Neither the TU Office nor any of their support

services have been able to find a commercial

partner for this technology; however, many

companies have sent letters of inquiry and the

American Cancer Society has shown great interest

in the technology.

Technology Transfer V-9

Index

I ,
%=
Note:

Index

Life Sciences (LS)

LS1 Optical Measurement of Bacterial Adhesion in Water Supply

Lines

Funded by:

TM/PI:

PI:

Task Performed by:

199-04-11-35

D.L. Pierson, Ph.D JSD4

D.W. Koenig, Ph .D JKRUG

S.K. Mishra, Ph.D JKRUG

Johnson Space Center

KRUG Life Sciences

LS 2

Cardiovascular Response to Sympathomimetic Drugs During

Head-Down Bed Rest: The Effects of Dietary Sodium and

Hydration Status

Funded by:

TM/PI:

PI:

Task Performed by:

199-18-11-01

Peggy A. Whitson, Ph.D JSD4

W. Jon Williams, Ph.D JSIM

Charles A. Smart, M.D JUniversity of Texas

Medical Branch, Galveston, TX

Johnson Space Center

University of Texas Medical Branch at

Galveston

LS 3 Simulated Microgravity Improves Production of Colonic

Growth Factors

Funded by: 674-23-01-05

TM/PI: G.F. Spaulding, M.D JSD4

PI: TJ. Goodwin, M.A./SIM

J .M. Jessup, M.D JNew England Deaconess

Hospital, Boston, MA

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

New England Deaconess Hospital

LS 4

Evaluation of Methods for Removing Bioffims in Spacecraft

Potable Water Systems

Funded by: 199-04-11-18

TM/PI: R.L. Saner, P_EJSIM

PI: D i.. Pierson, Ph.D JS134

J.R. Schultz, ph _3 JDRUG

D.T. Flanagan/KRUG

R J. Bruce/KRUG

M.H. Huls/KRUG

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

KRUG Life Sciences

Technical Monitor (TM)

Principal Investigator (PI)

P_ _C,E BLANK ['K)T FTL_WO

Index
LS5

LS 6

A Simulated Space Diet: Effects on Energy Metabolism and

Doubly Labeled Water (DLW) Calculations

Funded by: 106-30-02-45

TM/PI: H.W. Lane, Ph.DJSD4

PI: E.K. Gibson, Jr.,/SN2

R J. Gretebeck, Ph.D JSD4

R.A. Socki/LESC C-23

D.A. Schoeller, Ph.DJUniversity of Chicago

Johnson Space Center

University of Chicago

Task Performed by:

Funded by:

TM/PI:

PI:

Task Performed by:

Radiogenic Transformation of Human Epithelial Cells:

RBE, Growth Properties and Chromosome Studies

199-04-11-92

Chui-hsu Yang, Ph.D./SD4

Kerry George/SD4/KRUG

Laurie M. Craise/Lawrence Berkeley

Laboratory, UC

Johnson Space Center

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, UC

Human Support Technology (HST)

HST 1 Task Analysis Report Generation Tool (Target)

Funded by: 967-20-20-06

TM: Chris Culbert/PT4 and Robert Savely/PA 1

PI: Christopher J. Ortiz/PT4

Huyen Anh Ly/PT4

Tim Saito/LinCom Corp.

Dr. Bowen Loftin/University of HoustonDowntown

Sean McRae/University of Houston

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

University of Houston

LinCom Corporation

lIST 2

Intelligent Computer-Aided Training (ICAT)

Funded by: 967-20-20-06

PI: Robert T. Savely/PA 1

Dr. R. Bowen Loftin/University of HoustonDowntown

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

University of Houston-Downtown

LinCom Corporation

4 Index
HST 3

HST 4

HST 5

HST 6

HST 7

HST 8

Cooperating Expert Systems

Funded by: 967-20-20-08

PI: Christopher J. Culbert/PT4

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

LinCom Corporation

Development of PVAT - A Video Analysis Tool for

Microgravity Posture Evaluations

Funded by: 199436-11-33

TM: Frances E. Mount/SP34

PI: Mihriban Whitmore/LESC

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

I_x_kheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Human Factors Studies Aboard STS-57/SpaceHab-01

Funded by: 199-06-11-39

TM: Frances E. Mount/SP34

PI: Tim McKay/LESC

Task performed by: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Human Workload Analysis

Funded by: 199436-11-34

TM: Barbara Woolford/SP3

PI: Manuel Diaz/LESC

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Development of Rapid Algorithm for Human Computer

Model Reaching

Funded by: 199-06-11-32

PI: James C. Maicha/SP34

Abhilash K. Pandya/LESC

Michael Goldsby/LESC

Ann M. Aldridge/LESC

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Development of Full

Funded by:

PI:

Task Performed by:

Body Dynamic Human Strength Model

199-06-11-32

James C. Maida/SP34

Abhilash K. pandya/LESC

Ann M. Aldridge/LESC

Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Index 5
HST 9

Human-Computer Interface to Medical Decision Support

Systems for Space

Funded by:

TM:

PI:

Task Performed by:

199-06- I 1-35

Frances E. Mount/SP34

Jurine A. Adolf/LESC

Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Solar System Sciences (SSS)

SSS 1

SSS 2

SSS 3

SSS 4

Thermal Analyzer for Planetary Soils (TAPS): An In Situ

Instrument for Mineral And Volatile Element Measurements

on Planetary Surfaces

Funded by: 186-30-21 - 11

PI: James L. Gooding/SN2

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Backscatter Miissbauer Spectrometer (BaMS) for

Extraterrestrial Surfaces

Funded by: 157-30-10-02

PI: Richard V. Morris, Ph.D JSN4

Tad D. Shelfer, Ph.D_-RC

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Radar Measurements of the Orbital Debris Environment

Funded by: 967-30

P.I. Gene Stansbery/SN3

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Composition and Structural State of Space Debris and

Interplanetary Dust Particle Impact Residues Recovered

From Long Duration Exposure Facility 0LDEF) Impact

Craters

Funded by: 506-43-61-01

PI: M.E. Zolensky, Ph.DJSN2

F. H6rz, Ph.D./SN4

R. Bernhard/LESC

R.A. Barrett/LESC

Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Task Performed by:

=

6 Index
SSS 5

SSS 6

SSS 7

SSS 8

SSS 9

A Cheaper, Faster, Better Way to Detect Water of Hydration

in Solar System Bodies

Funded by: 196-41-03-02

PI: Faith Vilas/SN3

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Porphyrins in the Surface Material of Asteroid 2 Pallas

Funded by: 196-41-03-02

PI: Faith Vilas/SN3

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

RPI

University of Arizona

Plasma Motor Generator (PMG)

Funded by: 967-30

TM: Christine A. O'Neill/SN3

Suzanne G. Sawyer/SE3

PI: James E. McCoy, Ph.D JSN3

M. Grossi, Ph.D JSmithsonian Astrophysical

Observatory

M. Dobrowolny, Ph.D fIFSI of Italy

R. Chris O1sen, Ph-D AJniversity of Alabama

R. Jerry Jost, Ph.D JSystem Planning Corp.

Patrick S. Jones/LESC

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Zeoponic Plant Growth Substrates

Funded by: 199 -61-31-06

PI: Doug Ming/SN4

Don Henninger/EC3

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Dual, Inc.

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

lnterMars Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter

Funded by: 199-45-11-65

PI: Gautam B adhwar/SN31

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Battelle

Index 7
Space Technology (ST)

ST 1

ST 2

ST 3

ST 4

ST 5

ST 6

Regenerative Life Support Systems Test Bed Modeling and

Analysis

Funded by: 199-61-61-21

PI: Marybeth Edeen/EC7

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

McDonnell Douglas Aerospace

Funded by:

PI:

Task Performed by:

Advanced Life Support Systems Integration

593-41

Terry O. Tri/EC3

Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

AlliedSignai

Hamilton Standard

Life Systems Inc.

Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) Electronic Cuff

Checklist Development

Funded by: 506-71/906-21

PI: Jose A. Marmolejo/EC5

Task Performed By: Johnson Space Center .

PI:

Task Performed By:

Electrolysis Performance Improvement Concept Study

(EPICS)

Funded by: 506-74-62 (FY93)

236-99-02-13 (FY94)

Sandra Foerg/EC3

Johnson Space Center

Life Systems, Inc.

Funded by:

PI:

Task Performed by:

Ultralite Fabric Reflux Tube Radiator

593-41-51

Patricia A. Petete/EC2

Johnson Space Center

Battelle

Pacific Northwest Laboratory

Regenerative Life Support Systems

Funded by: 199-61

PI: Donald L. Henninger/EC3

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

8 Index
ST7

ST 8

ST 9

ST 10

ST 11

ST 12

Dexterous End Effector Flight Demonstration

Funded By: 967-30-30-01

PI: _o Monford/ER4

Task Performed By: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Flight Telerobotics Servicer (FTS) Manipulator Technology

Capture

Funded B y: 470-01-11-02

PI: John Chladek/ER4

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Fault Tolerant Robotics

Funded By: 506-59-62-01

PI: John Chladek/ER4

Task Performed by: Iohnson Space Center

University of Texas at Austin

Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator Emulation and

Technology Integration Evaluation

Funded By: 586-02-11-01

PI: LeBarian Stokes/ER6

Reginald B. Berka/ER4

Task Performed By: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Rendezvous Expert System

Funded By: 967-20-20-04

PI" H.K. Hiers/ER2

Task Performed by: Johnson Space Center

Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Company

Integrated Support for Failure Impact and Procedure

Analysis

Funded By: 967-20-20-05

PI: Jane T. Malin/ER2

Task Performed By: Johnson Space Center

The MITRE Corporation

Index 9
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE FormApproved

OMB No. O704-O188

Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response; including thetime for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources,

gathering and maintaining the date needed, and completing and reviewft_g the collection of information. Send comments regardin I this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection

of information, |nctuding suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headq_rters Services, Directorate for information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway,

Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302, and to the Office of Management ar_l Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-018B), Washington, DC 20503.

1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave Blank) 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

Apr/94 Technical Memorandum, Fiscal Year 1993

• 5. FUNDING NUMBERS 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

JSC Research & Technology 1993 Annual Report

6. AUTHOR(S)

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S} AND ADDRESS(ES)

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Houston, Texas 77058

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration _

Washington, D. C. 20546-0001

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION

REPORT NUMBERS

S-758

10. SPONSORING/MONITORING

AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

NASA TM- 104788

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Unclassified/Unlimited

Available from National Technical Information Service

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, VA 22161

(703) 487-4600 ' Subject Category 99

12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

Johnson Space Center research and technology accomplishments during fiscal year 1993 are described and principal researchers

and technologists are identified as contacts for further information. Each of the four sections gives a summary of overall

progress in a major discipline, followed by detailed, illustrated descriptions of significant tasks. The four disciplines are Life

Sciences, Human Support Technology, Solar System Sciences, and Space Systems Technology. The report is intended for

technical and management audiences throughout NASA and the worldwide aerospace community. An index lists project titles,

funding codes, and principal investigators.

14. SUBJECT TERMS

Research Projects, Research and Development, NASA Programs, Technology Utilization, Space

Technology Experiments

17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF REPORT

Unclassified

18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF THIS PAGE

19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

OF ABSTRACT

NSN 7540-O1-280-5500

Unclassified Unclassified

15. NUMBER OF PAGES

137

16. PRICE CODE

20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT

Unlimited

Standard Form 298 (Rev 2-89)

Prescribed by ANSI Std, 239-18

29E1-102

=