Carbon Sequestration

Technology Roadmap and Program Plan - 2004

Developing the Technology Base and 

Infrastructure to Enable Sequestration as a

Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Option

April 2004

Office of Fossil Energy . .

U.S. Department of Energy • National Energy Technology Laboratory
 

i 

A MESSAGE TO OUR STAKEHOLDERS

Carbon sequestration continues to be one of the key technologies being pursued as a possible option to 

stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The United States Department of Energy’s 

(DOE) Sequestration Program remains committed to our leadership role in developing the technology 

base and infrastructure that would be required for future commercial deployments of carbon sequestration 

systems, if needed. The following are some highlights from the past year: 

 Core R&D Program. The Core R&D Program 

continued to make great strides toward meeting 

programmatic goals. Numerous technologies in the area 

of CO2 capture are showing substantial potential for cost 

reduction and many of these technologies are 

approaching pilot-scale testing in the next few years. 

Sequestration field tests are progressing toward injection 

of small quantities of CO2 into a saline formation and 

unmineable coal seam over the next two years. 

Terrestrial sequestration projects are conducting 

reforestation experiments on hundreds of acres of 

previously unproductive reclaimed mine lands. 

Substantial progress has occurred in the area of 

monitoring, mitigation & verification with the 

development/refinement of technologies to better 

understand storage stability, permanence, and 

characteristics of CO2 migration. Non-CO2 GHG mitigation concepts are entering the field testing 

stage of their development and many new breakthrough concepts have been added to the Program’s 

research portfolio. More detail on latest Core R&D developments can be found in an updated project 

portfolio document which is available from the following weblink: 

http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequestration/pubs/Carbon%20Sequestration%20Project%20Portfolio.pdf

 Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF). On June 25, 2003, Secretary Abraham and 

representatives from thirteen countries and the European Union signed the charter for the CSLF, “a 

framework for international cooperation in research and development for the separation, capture, 

transport, and storage of carbon dioxide.” The CSLF has held several meetings and is pursuing a 

range of collaborative activities among the charter countries. Additional information on the CSLF 

can be found at the following weblink: http://www.cslforum.org/

 Regional Partnerships. On August 16, 2003, following a competitive solicitation, Energy Secretary 

Spencer Abraham named seven Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships. The seven 

partnerships, comprised of state agencies, universities, and private companies, are identifying CO2

sources and potential sinks in their regions and are beginning to develop the infrastructure and 

framework for future deployment of sequestration technologies. Additional information on the 

Regional Partnerships can be found at the following weblink: 

http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequestration/partnerships/

"Carbon sequestration has 

rapidly grown in importance to 

become on of the 

Administration's highest 

priorities. Our activities and 

our plans bear out the 

determination with which we 

are perusing the promise of 

carbon sequestration." 

Secretary Spencer Abraham 

(November 2003)
 

ii 

 Breakthrough Concepts Research. Over the past two years the Sequestration Program has been 

working with the National Research Council (NRC)/National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in an 

effort to bolster the high-risk/high-reward portion of the research portfolio. A joint workshop was 

held with prominent scientists to identify priority research areas, and in May 2003 the DOE 

announced a “Novel Approaches to Greenhouse Gas Management” solicitation for revolutionary and 

innovative research projects in the area of carbon capture. A competitive solicitation was conducted 

with support from the NRC/NAS, and seven awards were made in February 2004. The projects are 

varied and range from CO2 conversion in underground formations to CO2 capture with novel 

materials, such as ionic liquids and microporous metal organic frameworks. Additional information 

on the novel approaches awards can be found at the following weblink:

http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/press/2004/tl_novelapproaches_sel.html

 Program Environmental Impact Statement (PEIS). On October 31, 2003, Rita Bajura, Director of 

the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), authorized the Carbon Sequestration Program 

to conduct an assessment of the environmental impact of programmatic activities. A PEIS was 

deemed necessary under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). NETL has begun the PEIS 

process and is planning a series of public scoping meetings to be held in May and June of 2004. The 

PEIS is expected to require two to three years to complete. Additional information on the PEIS can 

be found at the following weblink: http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequestration/eis/ 

Interaction with our stakeholders is critically important to the Sequestration Program. In 2004 the Program 

plans to engage stakeholders through the Third National Conference on Carbon Sequestration, Annual Project 

Merit Review Meeting, Regional Partnerships, the monthly carbon sequestration newsletter, conferences, and 

many other smaller outreach efforts. Through a cooperative partnership of industry, academia, and 

government, we have the best chance of success in developing viable carbon sequestration options. 

This document is being updated annually to offer the latest snapshot of the DOE Sequestration Program. It is 

both a roadmap and a program plan. The roadmap portion identifies priority RD&D pathways, and the 

program plan presents the course of action to pursue these pathways. Public participation is strongly 

encouraged, and we invite readers to examine this document carefully and provide feedback to the contact 

persons listed at the back of this document. 
 

1 

Figure 1. CO2 Intensity of GDP and 

CO2 Emissions in the United States 

-

1

2

3

1980 1990 2002 2012 2025

CO2 Emissions 

(billion metric tons carbon)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

CO2 Intensity 

(kg carbon eq per $ GDP)

“. . . there is a growing realization that 

existing energy technologies, even with 

substantial improvements, cannot meet the 

growing global demand for energy while 

delivering the emissions reductions 

necessary to stabilize atmospheric GHG 

concentrations. We need to develop and 

deploy globally "transformational" 

technologies—that is, revolutionary 

changes in the technology of energy 

production, distribution, storage, 

conversion, and use. Some examples 

include carbon sequestration, hydrogen, and 

advanced nuclear technologies.” 

Harlan Watson 

U.S. State Department, Senior Climate 

Negotiator

CHAPTER1 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND

THE ROLE OF CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Global emissions of CO2 from human activity 

have increased from an insignificant level two centuries 

ago to over twenty-four billion tons per year in 2003. 

Roughly half of the anthropogenic emissions are 

absorbed into oceans, forests, and other natural sinks, 

but the other half accumulates in the atmosphere, where 

the concentration of CO2 is currently 379 ppm, 

33 percent above pre-industrial levels, and rising at a 

rate of more than 1 ppm per year. 

CO2 is a natural and important component of the 

atmosphere—animals exhale CO2 and plants absorb it 

through photosynthesis. Also, CO2, water vapor, and 

other gases exert a “greenhouse” effect that traps heat 

within Earth’s ecosystem and which has, thus far, 

maintained the planet’s temperate climate. Most 

scientists, including the Intergovernmental Panel on 

Climate Change (IPCC), recognize a danger that even a 

modest increase in the atmosphere’s GHG effect could 

put the global climate out of balance and cause 

significant negative consequences for human health and welfare. It might be prudent to avoid continued 

increases in atmospheric GHG concentrations, but the cost to do so would be too high with existing 

technology. Effective policy must weigh the economic impacts of GHG emissions mitigation with the 

uncertainty surrounding the timing and severity of climate change impacts. 

The response endorsed by the United States is to develop 

new technologies that provide energy services and 

economic prosperity while reducing GHG emissions. An 

appropriate metric to gauge progress for such an approach 

is the GHG intensity of economic activity (kg of CO2

emitted per $ of GDP). Figure 1 shows that, through 

normal technology progress, the CO2 intensity of the U.S. 

economy decreased by 30 percent between 1980 and 2002. 

However, strong economic growth overwhelmed those 

gains, and the absolute emissions rate increased by 15 

percent over the same time period. Atmospheric 

stabilization will require the average GHG intensity to be 

reduced at a rate faster than economic growth. 

Fundamentally, there are three ways to reduce GHG 

emissions. The first is to use less energy while 

accomplishing the same economic work, either through more efficient machines, conservation, or simply being 

smarter about energy use. The second is to utilize carbonless energy sources, such as wind, solar, and nuclear, 

or reduced carbon energy sources, such as substituting natural gas for coal. Carbon sequestration is emerging 

as an important third option for greenhouse gas mitigation. Sequestration entails the capture and storage of 
 

2 

CO2 and other greenhouse gases that would otherwise be emitted to the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases 

can be captured at the point of emission, or they can be removed from the air. The captured gases can be 

stored in underground reservoirs, absorbed by trees, grasses, soils, and algae, or converted to rock-like solid 

minerals called carbonates. Options are also being explored to enhance dissolution of CO2 in oceans; 

however, these options are still far from being considered viable due to the uncertainty regarding their 

potential environmental impacts. 

The Sequestration Program has developed scenarios for domestic GHG emissions over the next fifty years. 

These scenarios help to quantify the potential need for advanced carbon sequestration technologies to stabilize 

greenhouse gas concentrations. The top line on the left graphic in Figure 2 is a reference case GHG emissions 

scenario. It contains significant technology development for low or no-carbon fuels and improved efficiency, 

but no direct incentives for GHG emissions reduction. The lower line in Figure 2 is an emissions stabilization 

scenario. It contains accelerated improvement in GHG intensity through 2012 and then gradually reduced 

emissions thereafter toward a goal of stabilizing emissions at the 2001 level. The emissions reduction 

requirement, which equals the gap between the two scenarios, grows to 5,300 million metric tons of carbon 

dioxide per year by 2050. Emissions stabilization is a first step toward atmospheric concentration 

stabilization. Atmospheric concentration stabilization will require emissions to be reduced to 80-90 percent 

below current levels. 

The right side of Figure 2 shows the contribution of various mitigation options needed to meet the gap under 

the emissions stabilization scenario. The contribution of each option has been estimated using an internal 

planning model that is based on cost/supply curves. The categories, “CO2 capture and storage” and “Hydrogen 

with sequestration” are directly dependent on research conducted by the DOE Sequestration Program. 

Together, they account for 45 percent of total emissions reduction in 2050 under the emissions stabilization 

scenario. Terrestrial ecosystems and non-CO2 GHG emissions control, which are being pursued by the DOE 

Sequestration Program in concert with other public and private partners, contribute another 15 percent. 

Clearly, carbon sequestration technology will play a pivotal role should GHG stabilization be deemed 

necessary. 

Figure 2. U.S. GHG Emissions Scenarios . . . and Technologies to Fill the Gap 

-

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

2004 2012 2025 2050

GHG emissions reduction (MMmtCO2/yr)

Hydrogen w/ sequestration

CO2 capture and storage

Non-CO2 GHGs

Forestation and Agriculture

Efficiency and Renewables

Reductions rely directly 

on sequestration R&D

Reductions partially 

reliant on sequestration 

R&D

Reductions do not 

depend on 

sequestration R&D, but 

do include pow er plant 

- efficiency gains

3,000

6,000

9,000

12,000

15,000

1990 2010 2030 2050 2070 2090

U.S. GHG Emissions

MMmtCO2eq/yr

reference case GHG 

emissions scenario

GHG emissions 

stabilization at the 

2001 level

by 2050 the gap 

equals 

5,300 MMmtCO2/yr 
 

3 

CHAPTER 2 CARBON SEQUESTRATION

TECHNOLOGY ROADMAP AND PROGRAM PLAN

Recognizing the importance of carbon sequestration, the 

U.S. DOE established the Carbon Sequestration Program in 

1997. The Program, which is administered within the Office of 

Fossil Energy by the National Energy Technology Laboratory, 

seeks to move sequestration technologies forward so that their 

potential can be realized and they can play a major role in 

meeting any future greenhouse gas emissions reduction needs. 

The Program directly implements the President’s Global 

Climate Change Initiative (GCCI), as well as several National 

Energy Policy goals targeting the development of new 

technologies, and market mechanisms. It also supports the 

goals of the Framework Convention on Climate Change and 

other international collaborations to reduce greenhouse gas 

intensity and greenhouse gas emissions. 

The Sequestration Program encompasses all areas of carbon 

sequestration, including CO2 capture from utility and industrial 

point sources and the atmosphere; CO2 storage in geologic 

formations, terrestrial ecosystems (as carbon), and oceans; technologies, techniques, and systems to track the 

fate of CO2 in storage; and CO2 conversion to either fuels or benign solids through biological or chemical 

means. 

The roadmap and program plan is presented in three sections: 

A. Core R&D is the laboratory, pilot plant, and field work aimed at developing new technologies and new 

systems for GHG mitigation. It includes: 

 CO2 capture 

 Sequestration/storage 

 Monitoring, mitigation & verification (MM&V) 

 Breakthrough concepts 

 Non-CO2 GHG control 

B. Infrastructure Development sets the groundwork for future carbon sequestration deployments. This 

section is focused on the seven recently-awarded Regional Partnerships. 

C. Program Management discusses the program’s approach to R&D management: industry/government 

partnerships, cost-sharing, education and outreach, environmental activities, and resource requirements. 

Table 1 is a top-level roadmap for core R&D and infrastructure development. 

VISION STATEMENT 

To possess the scientific 

understanding of carbon 

sequestration options, and to 

provide cost-effective, 

environmentally-sound 

technologies that ultimately 

lead to a reduction in 

greenhouse gas intensity and 

stabilization of 

overall atmospheric 

concentrations of CO2.
4

Table 1. Top-level Carbon Sequestration Roadmap 

Goals Pathways Metrics for Su

2007 

CO2 Capture Lower the capital cost and energy 

penalty associated with capturing CO2

from large point sources. 

• Membranes • Advanced Scrubbers • CO2 Hydrates • Oxy-fuel Combustion 

50% reduction in cost of avoided CO2 emissions from power plants 

compared to 2002 technology (based on pilot-scale performance). 

Dteleof 

Sequestration/ Storage 

Improve understanding of factors affecting CO2 storage permanence and 

capacity in geologic formations, terrestrial ecosystems and possibly the deep oceans. Develop field practices to optimize CO2 storage. 

• Hydrocarbon bearing geologic 

formations 

• Saline formations • Tree plantings, silvicultural 

practices, and soil reclamation 

• Increased ocean uptake 

Field tests provide improved understanding of the factors affecting permanence and capacity in a broad range of CO2 storage 

reservoirs. 

DC

30D

trsc

Monitoring, Mitigation, &Verification 

Develop technologies and methodologies to accurately measure the amount of CO2

stored in terrestrial ecosystems and geologic formations. Develop the capability to address any leaks of the stored CO2 from various 

repositories. 

• Advanced soil carbon 

measurement 

• Remote sensing of above-ground 

CO2 storage and leaks 

• Detection and measurement of 

CO2 in geologic formations 

• Fate and transport models for 

CO2 in geologic formations 

Demonstrate advanced CO2

measurement and detection technologies at sequestration field tests and commercial deployments. 

M95

crreMthse

Breakthrough Concepts 

Develop revolutionary approaches to CO2 capture and storage that have the 

potential to address the level of reductions in greenhouse gas emissions consistent with long term atmospheric stabilization. 

• Advanced CO2 capture • Advanced subsurface 

technologies 

• Advanced geochemical 

sequestration 

• Novel niches 

Laboratory scale results from 1-2 of the current breakthrough concepts show promise to reach the goal of a 10% or less increase in the cost of energy, and are advanced to the pilot scale. 

Tpopo

st

Non-CO2 

GHGs 

Develop technologies to mitigate fugitive methane from energy systems. 

• Minemouth ventilation • Landfill gas recovery 

Effective deployment of costeffective methane capture systems. C

leR

Infrastructure Development 

Develop the infrastructure required for wide scale deployment of sequestration concepts that are tailored to opportunities within specific regions of the United States and involve citizens, companies, and governments from those areas. 

• Sequestration atlases • Project implementation plans • Regulatory compliance • Outreach and education 

Phase I Regional Partnerships have developed action plans and completed regional atlases. Phase II partnerships begin pursing action plans and validation of sequestration concepts. 

Phstanse
 

5 

CO2 CAPTURE GOALS 

By 2007, show progress toward 

longer-term cost and efficiency 

goals for both pre- and postcombustion CO2 capture, based on 

pilot-scale demonstration of new 

technology. 

By 2012, develop, to the point of 

commercial deployment, systems 

for direct capture and sequestration 

of greenhouse gas emissions from 

fossil fuel conversion processes 

that protect human and ecosystem 

health and result in less than a 10% 

increase in the cost of energy 

services for gasification-based 

processes and a increase of less 

than 20% for combustion-based 

processes. 

By 2018, develop, to the point of 

commercial deployment, systems 

for direct capture and sequestration 

of greenhouse gas and criteria 

pollutant emissions from fossil fuel 

conversion processes that result in 

near-zero emissions and approach 

no net cost increase for energy 

services, net of any value-added 

benefits. 

A. CORE R&D

CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE 

CO2 capture is the separation of CO2 from emissions sources or 

the atmosphere and the recovery of a concentrated stream of CO2

that is amenable to sequestration or conversion. 

Near and mid-term efforts are focused on capture of CO2 from 

point sources, which can be broken into three broad categories: 

(1) flue gases from the combustion of fuels in air, (2) synthesis 

gases from oxygen-fired gasification, and (3) vents of highly-pure 

CO2 from various industrial processes. Each is described below. 

Combustion. Air combustion is the traditional process for 

utilization of fossil fuels. Automobile engines, combustion 

turbines, and almost all coal and natural gas fired power plants 

operate on air combustion technology. CO2 is exhausted from a 

conventional air-fired combustion system at near atmospheric 

pressure and in concentrations ranging from 3-15 volume%. The 

state-of-the-art technology for post-combustion CO2 capture from 

flue gas is aqueous amine absorption. As a strong and selective 

chemical absorbent, amines are effective at capturing CO2 from 

the dilute, low-pressure flue gas. However, they require 

significant energy for regeneration and deliver CO2 at low 

pressure—the steam and electric load for amine-based CO2

capture from a traditional pulverized coal power plant can increase 

the amount of coal consumed per net unit of power generated by 

40 percent. 

A different approach is to burn the fuel in oxygen rather than air 

and, thus, exhaust highly pure CO2 (greater than 90 percent) which 

requires no separation. Currently, there are no commercial oxygen 

combustion power plants in operation. This is mainly due to the 

high cost of oxygen, which is produced by condensing air at 

cryogenic temperatures and then recovering oxygen by distillation. 

Another barrier to oxygen combustion is energy loss due to the large quantity of CO2 exhaust that must be 

recycled to the oxygen boiler to maintain the combustion temperatures at a level that is compatible with boiler 

materials. 

Gasification. In a gasification process, a carbonaceous fuel is thermally decomposed in the absence of oxygen 

to form a hydrogen-rich “synthesis gas” which can be converted to electrical energy through a variety of 

means (e.g., combustion turbine, electrochemical cell, or combined cycle). This synthesis gas contains 40-60 

volume% CO2 at pressures of several 100 psi, thereby, making it highly amenable to CO2 capture before 

combustion or conversion. The state-of the-art for CO2 capture from synthesis gas is a process involving 

liquid glycol solvent. The glycol is highly effective and can be used to capture both CO2 and H2S. However, 

the CO2 is released at near atmospheric pressure and requires compression from 14-20 psi up to 2,000 psi, 

resulting in considerable increases in cost (but to a lesser extent than combustion processes). 
 

6 

THE CARBON 

SEQUESTRATION 

PROGRAM PORTFOLIO 

A compendium of research project 

summaries, technical journals, 

planning documents, and other 

information pertinent to DOE’s 

Carbon Sequestration Program has 

been assembled into a searchable 

PDF file. The “Program Portfolio” 

contains everything that interested 

parties need to know about carbon 

sequestration! Copies are available 

for download on the NETL 

website. 

http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequ

estration/index.html

CD versions of the portfolio can be 

requested via email: 

Sequestration@netl.doe.gov

Anthropogenic CO2 Vents. Natural gas processing, ethanol and 

hydrogen production, cement manufacture, and a number of other 

industrial processes vent a nearly pure stream of CO2 to the 

atmosphere as a normal part of their operation. These vents 

represent the lowest cost source of anthropogenic CO2 and will 

likely be the first sources to be utilized for geologic sequestration 

deployment. In fact, the first marquee geologic sequestration 

project, at the Sleipner saline formation under the North Sea off 

the coast of Norway, utilizes a previously vented stream of CO2

from an offshore natural gas processing platform 

(http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequestration/pubs/mediarelease/SleipnerFa

ctSheet4-19-02.pdf ). Additionally, the Canadian Weyburn enhanced 

oil recovery project, which began injection in 2001, uses a high 

purity CO2 vent stream from the Dakota Gasification Facility 

located in North Dakota, United States 

(http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequestration/pubs/mediarelease/mr101102.pdf). Importantly, there are many instances in which the 

advanced CO2 capture technologies developed for flue and syngas 

streams can be applied to processes that vent CO2 to increase vent 

pressure and decrease compression cost. This will lower the 

energy penalty and increase the net amount of emissions avoided 

through capture and storage. 

Capture R&D 

The Sequestration Program is funding a relatively large number 

of CO2 capture research projects at the laboratory to pilot scale. The range of technologies being explored 

includes liquid chemical absorbents, solid chemical absorbents, physical sorbents, solvents, membranes, 

hydrates, and combinations and hybrids of these options. Table 2 presents a synopsis the CO2 capture 

technology pathways and supporting research efforts. 

CO2 capture efforts are focused on technologies that can offer a 90 percent or greater reduction in CO2

emissions per net kWh or other unit of process output. Systems with that level of reduction will provide 

facilities that will support the concept of atmospheric greenhouse gas stabilization and will not require 

retooling in later years should more stringent GHG emissions limits come about. Technologies outside of the 

Sequestration Program are being pursued within the private sector, particularly retrofit technologies for air 

combustion power plants that offer a 30-60% reduction in CO2 emissions per kWh at a low cost per unit of 

CO2 capture. Such efforts compliment Sequestration Program activities and will likely serve as logical 

transition technologies to lower carbon intensity fuel conversion. 

Although there are ample, high-purity CO2 vent opportunities for the near term, CO2 capture research efforts 

are aimed at enabling broad deployment that goes beyond these “low hanging fruit” near-term opportunities. 

Power plants represent roughly 40% of anthropogenic GHG emissions in the United States and roughly three 

quarters of total large point-source emission sources. Therefore, power plants are a natural focus for the 

Program, and the program’s cost goal for capture is stated in terms of a percent increase in cost of electricity. 

The technologies being developed for capture are also applicable to a wide range of industrial sources, such as 

boilers, with minimal to no modification. 

Technology progress to date is encouraging. Table 2 and the following paragraphs provide some examples, 

but are not intended to reflect the entire portfolio of projects. A complete description of all capture projects 

can be found at the following weblink: 

http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequestration/pubs/Carbon%20Sequestration%20Project%20Portfolio.pdf
 

7 

For post-combustion capture, The University of Texas at Austin has developed an evolutionary improvement 

in solvent-based technology for capture of CO2 from flue gas. The improved process uses a highly reactive 

solvent which absorbs CO2 three times faster than monoethanolamine (MEA) and requires as much as 40 

percent less energy per unit of CO2 captured. This integrated system for CO2 capture is undergoing pilot plant 

testing. (http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj280.pdf) 

Fluor Daniel, which has been funded by the Sequestration Program via the CO2 Capture Project (CCP), also 

recently introduced an advanced amine CO2 capture system for pulverized coal (PC) power plants, which 

involves aggressive heat integration that consumes only 1,700 Btu of low-pressure steam for each pound of 

CO2 captured. By comparison, state-of-the-art amines in 2001 used 3,100 Btu/lb of CO2. 

(http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj185.pdf) The DOE Program is supporting development of 

several regenerable dry sorbent technologies for post combustion capture, and early lab-scale results indicate 

that some have potential to consume less energy than conventional aqueous amine processes. 

(http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj198.pdf)

The integration of oxygen transport membranes (OTM) into oxy-fired boilers is being jointly developed by 

Praxair and Alstom Power. Using the heat generated in the furnace to produce steam will yield an economic 

advantage for boiler operation and CO2 recovery. Boiler efficiency improvement is 14 percent compared to 

conventional boilers, including allowance for power associated with oxygen production. A conceptual design 

for a pilot scale (0.15-0.30 MW) boiler has been developed. 

(http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj197.pdf)

For Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) power plants, a higher CO2 partial pressure in the product 

gas stream opens up a broader range of technology options. Especially promising is the Hydrate Separation 

Process, a proprietary process being developed by SIMTECHE, LANL, and Nextant, which removes CO2

from a shifted synthesis gas stream by forming CO2 hydrates. The process concept has been demonstrated in 

a continuous-flow bench-scale unit, and further process development is underway that will lead to the 

construction of a pilot plant. Preliminary testing and analysis shows potential for capture cost 50 percent 

lower than comparable state-of-the-art systems. (http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj196.pdf)

Also promising are concepts that integrate syngas water gas shift (WGS) reaction with CO2 capture. The 

removal of CO2 drives the thermodynamics of the shift reaction towards H2 production and enhances overall 

system performance. Using leveraged funds from the Carbon Sequestration Program, the CCP has developed 

palladium membrane technology that integrates CO2 separation with WGS. Laboratory-scale tests indicate 

that the new membrane could lower the capital cost of CO2 capture by 50 percent and the energy penalty by up 

to 75 percent compared to a gasifier system using the state-of-the-art Selexol process for CO2 capture. The 

Program’s R&D portfolio contains other promising capture technologies. For example, polymeric membranes 

and high-temperature sorbents have the potential to exhaust CO2 at several hundred pounds pressure, which 

would greatly lower the overall cost of capture and compression. 

(http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj185.pdf) 
8

Table 2. CO2 Capture 

Technology Roadmap Supporting Progra

Current 

State of the Art 

Priority Research 

Pathways 

Cross Cut 

Pathways 

R&D 

Highlights 

Air Combustion Flue gas (10-15 psi, 12-

18 vol% CO2) is scrubbed with aqueous 

amine, which is regenerated with lowpressure steam diverted from a steam turbine. Captured CO2 is produced at 10-

15 psi. Cost of capture with current amine technology > $70/tonne of avoided CO2

(decreases plant eff. from 40% to 24%), equivalent to a > 80% increase in COE for new construction. 

Chemical sorbents:  Aqueous amines  Solid amines  Ammonium carbonates  Alkali carbonates 

Lithium-containing oxides 

Oxycombustion Cryogenic O2 production. 

Minimum CO2 recycle is 5 lb CO2 per lb 

coal burned. 90% purity CO2 is produced 

from the boiler at 10-15 psi. Oxygen combustion requires roughly three times more oxygen per kWh of electricity than gasification. 

Oxygen transport membranes CFB designs without recycle Chemical looping 

IGCC Prior to H2S removal, syngas is 

shifted to convert CO to CO2 and H2. H2S 

and CO2 removed from shifted syngas (50 

psi, ~40 vol% CO2) via glycol solvent in a 

single tower. Rich solvent flashed to recover CO2 at 10-15 psi. Cost of capture 

with current glycol technology is > $25/ton of CO2 avoided (plant efficiency reduced 

from 43% to 37%), equivalent to a > 25% increase in COE for new construction.

Physical sorbents:  Selexol  Rectisol  Carbon Membranes:  Ceramic  Polymer  Hybrid organic/ceramic  Electrochemical Other separations: 

Water/CO2 hydrates 

Integrated CO2 separation with 

WGS 

Heat integration 

Improved gasification or combustion efficiency 

Lower-cost oxygen 

Advanced gas/liquid contacting 

Integration of CO

2 capture with NOx/SOx/Hg/PM control 

Palladium membranes: Laboratory scale testing shows potential for 50% cost reduction below state of the art glycol. Improved high-reactivity solvent shows promise of reducing energy requirements by up to 40% Engineering study shows that a combination of advanced heat integration, amines, and gas/liquid contacting has potential to reduce the net heat load for amines by 50%. Integration of OTM in furnace shows promise of improving the performance of oxy-fuel combustion. Laboratory-scale testing of new sorbents shows potential for 40% reduction in steam load per ton CO2 captured compared to stateof-the-art amine. 

Use of CO2 hydrates shows 

promise of significantly reducing the cost of CO2 capture from 

syngas. 

2r

r252252p2cris
 

9 

GEOLOGIC 

SEQUESTRATION GOALS 

2007 Conduct a CO2 ECBM field 

test where coal permeability is 

maintained at 90% of its initial 

value to mitigate the negative 

effects of coal swelling. 

2008 Develop an understanding of 

trapping mechanisms across oil 

reservoirs, coal seams, and saline 

formations. 

2009 Initiate at least one largescale demonstration of CO2 storage 

(>1 million tons CO2/year) in a 

geologic formation to demonstrate 

the capability to (1) predict 

compatibility to CO2 injection and 

approximate storage capacity, and 

(2) achieve enhanced CO2 trapping. 

2012 Achieve CO2 storage 

capacity prediction precision of 

±30%. 

SEQUESTRATION /STORAGE 

Sequestration/Storage is defined as the placement of CO2 into a 

repository in such a way that it will remain sequestered (or stored) 

for hundreds to thousands of years. Storage includes three distinct 

sub-areas: geologic sequestration, terrestrial sequestration, and 

ocean sequestration. Geological and terrestrial are near-term 

sequestration options. Ocean sequestration is not yet considered a 

viable sequestration approach due to the uncertainty regarding 

potential environmental impacts. Each of these sequestration 

areas is discussed below. Table 3 presents a synopsis of the CO2

storage pathways and supporting research efforts. 

Geologic Sequestration 

Geologic sequestration is the storage of CO2 in a range of 

underground geologic formations. The three primary types of 

formations, oil and gas reservoirs, unmineable coal seams, and 

saline formations, represent different challenges and opportunities 

for CO2 storage as discussed below. 

Oil and gas reservoirs. CO2 can be injected into depleted oil and 

gas reservoirs and essentially replace the reservoir volume of the 

produced oil and/or gas. That such reservoirs have held crude oil 

and natural gas securely over geologic time frames bodes well for 

the permanence of CO2 storage in them. Alternatively, CO2 can be 

injected into a depleting oil reservoir, that is, a reservoir that is still 

producing oil but which is declining and nearing the end of 

production. Typically, primary oil recovery and secondary 

recovery via a water flood produce 30-40% of a reservoir’s original oil in place (OOIP). Supercritical CO2 is a 

strong hydrocarbon solvent that can be injected into a depleting reservoir to recover an additional 10-15% of 

the OOIP. A portion of the injected CO2 remains in the reservoir, thus the link to sequestration. Historically, 

enhanced oil recovery (EOR) field operations have been focused on minimizing the amount of CO2 that 

remains sequestered per barrel of oil recovered. The current industry average is 2,000 scf of CO2 or less per 

barrel. A credit for CO2 storage would shift the economics and alter field practices to optimizing CO2 storage. 

Unfortunately not all depleted oil reservoirs are candidates for CO2 EOR, nevertheless, numerous opportunities 

exist.

As a sequestration option, depleting oil reservoirs that are amenable to CO2 EOR provide a value-added 

benefit in terms of revenues from enhanced oil production which can partially offset the cost of CO2 capture. 

The CO2 storage capacity of domestic oil and gas formations has been estimated at roughly 150 billion metric 

tons of CO2, , roughly 30 years worth of U.S. emissions (Advanced Resources International, presentation at the 

meeting of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 2003). Depleting oil reservoirs cannot meet all 

potential greenhouse gas reduction needs, but they provide a good early opportunity at relatively low cost. 

R&D in this area is focusing on investigating the trapping mechanisms for CO2 and developing reservoir 

management tools and strategies that simultaneously maximize CO2 sequestration and oil recovery. 

 

Unmineable coal seams. Unmineable coal seams are coal seams that are too deep or too thin to be mined 

economically. All coals have varying amounts of methane adsorbed onto pore surfaces, and wells can be 

drilled into unmineable coal beds to recover this “coal bed methane” (CBM). In fact, CBM is the fastest 

growing source of natural gas in the United States and accounted for 8 percent of domestic production in 2002. 

As with oil reservoirs the initial CBM recovery methods, dewatering and depressurization, leave a fair amount 

of the CBM in the reservoir. Additional CBM recovery can be achieved by sweeping the coalbed with 
 

10 

nitrogen. CO2 offers an alternative to nitrogen. It preferentially adsorbs onto the surface of the coal, releasing 

the methane. Two to three molecules of CO2 are adsorbed for each molecule of methane released, thereby, 

providing an excellent storage sink for CO2. The maximum domestic capacity for CO2 ECBM has been 

estimated at 90 billion metric tons CO2, 40 billion metric tons of which is in Alaska (Advanced Resources 

International, presentation at the meeting of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 2003). Like 

depleting oil reservoirs, unmineable coal beds are a good early opportunity for CO2 storage. 

Coal swelling is a potential barrier to CO2 ECBM. It has been observed that when coal adsorbs CO2, it swells 

in volume. In an underground formation swelling can cause a sharp drop in permeability, which not only 

restricts the flow of CO2 into the formation but also impedes the recovery of displaced CBM. Laboratory tests 

and field studies have improved our understanding of coal swelling. Work is underway toward minimizing the 

negative effects of coal swelling on CO2 ECBM. 

Saline formations. Saline formations are layers of porous rock that are saturated with brine. The potential 

CO2 storage capacity of domestic saline formations is enormous compared to oil reservoirs and coal beds and 

potentially represents centuries worth of CO2 emissions storage. However, much less is known about saline 

formations than is known about crude oil reservoirs and coal seams. 

Many uncertainties and knowledge gaps exist for saline formations. R&D is directed toward the following: 

sequestration capacity; seal integrity; and reservoir properties such as faults, permeability and porosity. Saline 

formations also offer a unique characteristic in that they contain minerals that could react with injected CO2 to 

form solid carbonates. These carbonate reaction mechanisms are being investigated as a potential pathway to 

ensure no CO2 migration outside the reservoir and permanent storage. Carbonate formation can also 

potentially have negative effects by plugging the formation in the immediate vicinity of an injection well. 

R&D is seeking to understand all the factors and characteristics of saline formations and harness this 

information to enhance CO2 injection and storage in these formations. 

Field experiments are central to the program’s geologic sequestration efforts. Figure 3 shows the robust 

portfolio of geologic sequestration field tests. The tests are in various phases of development and encompass 

depleted oil reservoirs, unmineable coal seams, and saline formations. Significant knowledge is being 

acquired with respect to identifying viable formation candidates; predicting CO2 flow in a reservoir; estimating 

CO2 storage capacity; and understanding CO2 trapping mechanisms. 

With the exception of the EOR project at Weyburn Oil Field in Canada and the Sleipner Gas Field in the North 

Sea, the field tests supported by the program are relatively small-scale (several thousand tons of CO2, 

equivalent emissions to one days’ worth from an average coal-fired power plant). Lessons learned from these 

small field tests will be applied to any future, larger-scale tests. 

The program undertakes careful planning and preparatory work before CO2 injection begins. The baseline 

reservoir condition is assessed, reservoir models are developed to predict behavior of injected CO2, any 

necessary permits are obtained, infrastructure (e.g., injection wells, MM&V equipment, and CO2 delivery) is 

established, and actions are taken to protect the environment. Each field tests has a strong modeling 

component, and serves as a venue for testing the capability of MM&V technologies and approaches. These 

models help us to understand what is happening during a field test and to correctly interpret data from MM&V 

equipment. With experience from field tests, the models will enable researchers to correlate measurable 

characteristics of a geologic formation to CO2 storage capacity and permanence. 
11

Figure 3. Geologic Sequestration Field Tests Supported by the Sequestration Program 

2

(2) TIFFANY UNIT, SAN JUAN BASIN, NM 

Lead: Burlington Resources, Advanced 

Resources International 

Phase: Post-injection Formation: Unmineable coal seam Scale: 280,000 tons CO2 over 6 years Highlights: Developed improved 

understanding of coal swelling and ability to predict CO2 storage capacity. 

5

(5) NEW HAVEN

Lead: American ElPhase: Pre-injectioFormation: Saline Scale: TBD Highlights: Injectio

permeability in tarstorage capacity in 

6

(6) FRIO, TX 

Lead: University of Texas Bureau of Economic 

Geology 

Phase: Pre-injection, Summer 2004 injection planned Formation: Saline Scale: 3,000 tons CO2 over 3 months Highlights: Plan to test MM&V technology and chemical 

and mineralization effects of CO2 on reservoir seal. 

4

(4) CEN

BASIN

Lead: CPhase: 

planned 

FormatScale: 2Highlig

horizon

producfeet of 

3

(3) WEYBURN, CANADA. 

Lead: ENCANA. Phase: Injection began in 2001 Formation: Depleting oil reservoir Scale: 20 MM tons CO2 over 15 yrs Highlights: Demonstrating use of seismic 

to monitor CO2. Testing performance 

of multiple MM&V technologies. 

1

(1) WEST PEARL QUEEN, NM 

Lead: Strata Production Phase: Post-injection Formation: Depleted oil field Scale: 2,200 tons CO2 over 42 days Highlights: Tested tracer and seismic 

MM&V; examining alternative CO2

trapping mechanisms. 
 

12 

TERRESTRIAL 

SEQUESTRATION GOAL 

By 2008, develop to the point of 

commercial deployment systems 

for advanced indirect sequestration 

of greenhouse gases that protect 

human and ecosystem health and 

cost no more than $10 per metric 

ton of carbon sequestered, net of 

any value-added benefits. 

TERRESTRIAL 

SEQUESTRATION FIELD 

TESTS 

The Virginia Polytechnic Institute 

and State University and its 

corporate partners, Mead-Westvaco 

Corporation, Plum Creek Timber 

Company, and Pittston Coal 

Company, are working on restoring 

sustainable forests on mined lands 

in Virginia, West Virginia, and 

Ohio. They are classifying, 

mapping, and inventorying three 

40-acre reclaimed strip mine sites 

in the southern Appalachians. 

Terrestrial sequestration testing 

will determine the biological and 

economic potential of reforesting 

these sites. Trees were planted in 

March 2004. 

The University of Kentucky and 

project partners are studying 

terrestrial sequestration via low 

compaction surface mine 

reclamation techniques and the 

production of high value trees. 

Researchers are studying the 

effects of tree species and mixtures 

of species, as well as mine soil 

depth and type, on the rate of 

carbon sequestration. In 2003, 

over 150 acres were planted, with 

an additional 150 acres planned for 

2004.

Terrestrial Sequestration 

Terrestrial sequestration is the enhancement of the uptake of 

CO2 by plants that grow on land and in freshwater and, 

importantly, the enhancement of carbon storage in soils 

where it may remain more permanently stored. Terrestrial 

sequestration provides an opportunity for low-cost CO2 

emissions offsets. Early efforts include tree-plantings, no-till 

farming and other agricultural practices, and forest 

preservation. More advanced research includes the 

development of fast-growing trees and grasses and 

deciphering the genomes of carbon-storing soil microbes. 

Responsibility for terrestrial sequestration research is shared 

by many Federal agencies, and the program coordinates 

activities in this area with the DOE Office of Science, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Agency, 

and Department of Interior Office of Surface Mining. The 

scope of terrestrial sequestration options addressed in the core 

R&D Program is limited to the integration of energy 

production, conversion, and use with land reclamation. 

Specifically, this involves the reforestation and amendment of 

damaged soils, when possible, using solid residuals from coal 

combustion. Field demonstrations focus on improving the 

carbon storage of previously or abandoned mined land and 

optimizing land management practices. Current projects 

include a large-scale demonstration of reforesting recently 

mined lands in Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky and a 

smaller-scale demonstration integrating terrestrial 

sequestration with energy production by employing the use of 

coal combustion by-products. Together these projects will 

demonstrate effective sequestration on over 720 acres of 

previously mined land in Appalachia.

Ocean Sequestration 

Compared to terrestrial ecosystems and geologic formations, the 

concept of ocean sequestration is in a much earlier stage of 

development. Ocean sequestration has huge potential as a carbon 

storage sink, but the scientific understanding to enable ocean 

sequestration to be considered as a real option is not yet 

available. A small level of funding is provided to leading 

researchers in this area to develop the necessary scientific 

understanding of the feasibility of ocean sequestration. Work is 

focused on understanding the mechanisms of CO2 uptake in the 

ocean and assessing the environmental impacts of CO2 storage. 

The Program is also funding laboratory experiments aimed at 

learning more about the basics of CO2 behavior in an ocean 

environment and also the formation and behavior of CO2

hydrates and collaborating with other Federal agencies.
13

Table 3. Sequestration/Storage 

Technology Roadmap Supporting Program Ac

Current 

State of the Art 

Priority Research 

Pathways 

Cross Cut 

Pathways 

R&D 

Highlights 

Ens

eco

Geologic Sequestration 32 million tons of CO2 per year are 

injected into depleting oil reservoirs in the U.S. as a part of enhanced oil operations, 10% is from anthropogenic sources. Typical CO2 storage rate is 

2,000 scf of CO2 per bbl oil recovered. 

With sustained favorable crude oil prices, interest in CO2 EOR is high. 

Since 1998, CO2 has been injected into 

a saline formation underlying the Sleipner natural gas production field in the North Sea at rate of one million tons CO2 per year. 

Depleting oil & gas reservoirs Unmineable coal seams Saline formations Depleting gas reservoirs Organically-rich shales 

Capability to predict CO2 storage capacity 

Enhanced CO2 trapping 

Preservation of formation integrity, 

permeability 

Five geologic sequestration field tests in various stages of development (see Figure 3). Preliminary results indicate significant CO2 trapping at some EOR fields. Better understanding of coal swelling has been achieved. A CO2 ECBM field test at Tiffany 

NM demonstrated recovery of 1 scf of CBM per 3 scf CO2 sequestered. 

2007 Condu

where coal p90% of its innegative effe2008 Develomechanisms seams, and s2009 Initiate demonstratio

tons CO2/yeademonstrate compatibility 

approximate achieve enha2012 CO2 st

precision of ±

Terrestrial Sequestration There are currently over 20,000 acres of forestland in the United States dedicated specifically to sequestering CO2. There are tens of thousands of additional forests being studied to determine their potential to sequester CO2. The United States has 1.5 million acres of land damaged by past mining practices. 

Integration of terrestrial sequestration and fossil-based energy systems Soil reclamation using CCBs or other solid residuals Tree plantings to offset greenhouse gas emissions Optimizing silvicultural practices for degraded lands. 

Enhanced carbon transfer 

from plant to soil 

Field projects will demonstrate effective sequestration on over 720 acres of previously mined land in Appalachia, which includes Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia. 

2007, develobest practice carbon sequeunproductive By 2008, devcommercial dadvanced indgreenhouse gecosystem heper metric toany value-ad

Ocean Sequestration No commercial deployments. Unknown ecosystem impacts. Enormous potential. 

Ocean injection 

Deep injection technology 

Use of hydrates to increase permanence 

Ocean fertilization 

Enhanced 

Understanding 

& 

Speculative 

Technologies 

High pressure, low-temperature water tank used to demonstrate effect of phases on hydrate buoyancy. Monteray Bay Aquarium continues investigating all aspects of CO2

hydrate formation near ocean floor. 

Improved scioption. 
 

14 

USING AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS TO 

MEASURE CARBON SEQUESTRATION 

IN FORESTS 

Working with the Nature Conservancy and a 

team of technology developers, DOE is funding 

the development of Multi-Spectral 3-

Dimensional Aerial Digital Imagery 

(M3DADI) for terrestrial sequestration 

MM&V. Dual cameras and laser attached to an 

airplane create a three-dimensional image of a 

forest plot. From correlations, these modeled 

images are used to estimate the amount of 

carbon sequestered. Subsequent flyovers can 

be used to detect small changes and help 

operators identify trouble spots. The 

technology has been demonstrated and is now 

being verified in several large forestation 

projects by comparison to conventional 

sampling methods. 

MM&V GOALS 

By 2006 develop instrumentation and 

measurement protocols for direct sequestration 

in geologic formations and for indirect 

sequestration in forests and soils that enable the 

implementation of wide scale emissions 

accounting and trading schemes. 

By 2010 develop instrumentation and protocols 

to accurately measure, monitor, and verify both 

carbon storage and the protection of human and 

ecosystem health for carbon sequestration in 

terrestrial ecosystems and geologic reservoirs. 

MM&V systems should represent no more that 

10% of the total sequestration system cost.

MONITORING, MITIGATION, AND 

VERIFICATION (MM&V) 

MM&V is defined as the capability to measure the 

amount of CO2 stored at a specific sequestration site, 

monitor the site for leaks or other deterioration of 

storage integrity over time, and to verify that the CO2

is stored in a way that is permanent and not harmful to 

the host ecosystem. The title and scope of this area 

has been revised to include “mitigation.” Mitigation 

capability will provide a response to CO2 leakage or 

ecological damage in the unlikely event that it should 

occur. It is likely that all large scale sequestration 

deployments will have a mitigation plan in place 

before operations begin. MM&V standards and 

protocols are being developed to ensure permanence, 

to ensure that the risk of any leakage is minimal, and 

should it occur, leakage can be safely mitigated. 

MM&V can be broken into three broad categories: 

Subsurface, Soils, and Above-ground. Subsurface 

MM&V involves tracking the fate of the CO2 within 

the geologic formations underlying the earth and 

possible migration to the surface. This area also 

encompasses developments to mitigate leakage, 

should it occur. Soils MM&V involves tracking 

carbon uptake and storage in the first several feet of 

topsoil and tracking potential leakage pathways into 

the atmosphere from the underlying geologic 

formation. This area is especially challenging due to 

the difficulty in detecting small changes in 

concentration above the background emissions (~370 

ppm) that already exist in the atmosphere. Aboveground MM&V is specific to terrestrial sequestration 

and involves quantification of the above-ground 

carbon stored in vegetation. The Sequestration 

Program is developing instrumentation, detailed 

computer models and protocols for each of these 

areas. Table 4 presents the roadmap for MM&V, 

including R&D highlights from the research portfolio. 
15

Table 4. Monitoring, Mitigation, and Verification 

Technology Roadmap Supporting Program 

Current 

State of the Art 

Priority Research 

Pathways 

Cross Cut 

Pathways 

R&D 

Highlights 

Enable 

em

Soils MM&V Current on-the-ground measurements are accurate within 5-30% and can cost as little as $3 per CO2 offset. 

Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) Inelastic Neutron Scattering Soil Carbon Analyzer 

Complete construction and testing of person portable LIBS Complete calibrations of scanning system 

Subsurface MM&V 3D seismic can detect CO2 with a 

resolution of 4 meters thickness. 

Monitoring and Detection Devices 

Surface to borehole seismic Micro-seismic Cross well electromagnetic Electrical resistance  tomography CO2 tracers 

Surface leak detection 

Modeling Mineralization Concepts for Leakage Mitigation 

Completed Phase I MM&V activities for Weyburn EOR project Completed tracer test activities at West Pearl Queen field in New Mexico Completed preliminary MM&V strategy for CO2

injection project in the Frio Saline Formation Completed a microgravimetric survey of Sleipner Utsira saline formation 

2006 Aptechnologsequestraapplicatio2008 An 95% of C

ecosystem representtotal sequ2012 An 95% of Creservoir no more tsequestra

Above-Ground MM&V Traditional field practices provide fairly accurate estimates of aboveground carbon, but these methods are time consuming and labor intensive. New technologies are needed to evaluate terrestrial storage on regional scales. 

Multi-Spectral 3-Dimensional Aerial Digital Imagery (M3DADI) 

CO

2/carbon fate and transport models 

Protocols for using advanced MM&V technologies in commercial systems 

Risk analysis protocols 

Completed flyovers of the Delta National Forest in Mississippi to measure carbon storage 
 

16 

CHEMICAL LOOPING 

Chemical looping is a 

“breakthrough” approach to fossil 

fuel conversion that has received 

significant attention. In a chemical 

looping process, oxygen for 

combustion is delivered to the fuel 

via a redox agent rather than by 

direct air or gaseous oxygen, 

providing the potential for highefficiency fuel conversion and 

venting a high-purity CO2 exhaust at 

pressure. The challenge is to 

identify an oxygen transfer material 

with a combination of desirable 

chemical and physical properties. 

Alstom Power and other private 

sector firms are researching 

chemical looping concepts. 

BREAKTHROUGH CONCEPTS 

Breakthrough Concepts R&D is pursuing revolutionary and 

transformational sequestration approaches with potential for 

low cost, permanence, and large global capacity. These 

concepts are very speculative but have the potential to provide 

“leap frog” performance and cost improvements compared to 

existing technologies. 

CO2 conversion is an important part of the portfolio for 

Breakthrough Concepts. CO2 can be converted into benign 

solids to provide permanent storage or back to a hydrocarbon 

fuel to provide a regenerable energy system using carbon as the 

energy source. A guiding principal is to mimic and harness 

processes found in nature, for example, photosynthesis and 

mollusk shell formation. 

During the past year, the Sequestration Program continued a 

partnership with the National Research Council (NRC)/

National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to bolster R&D efforts in 

Breakthrough Concepts. A workshop hosted by DOE and NRC 

produced the following four priority areas: 

 Advanced sequestration techniques 

 Advanced subsurface technologies 

 Advanced geochemical methods for sequestering carbon 

 Novel niches 

The collaboration with the NRC/NAS was a big success; a solicitation produced over one hundred proposals. 

A committee from NRC/NAS reviewed the pool of proposals and provided DOE with a screening assessment. 

DOE closely evaluated the proposals and awarded contracts in March 2004 to the seven projects described in 

Table 5. 
 

17 

Table 5. Recently-Awarded Breakthrough Concepts Research Project 

Area Title Description 

Hydrogen Selective 

Silica Membrane 

Develop a new method for making extremely thin, high-temperature, 

hydrogen-selective silica membranes [University of Minnesota] 

Dual Function 

Membrane 

Develop a membrane that will use both pore structure and an amine 

chemical adhered to the membrane to achieve higher CO2 selectivity 

than is possible using pore size alone. 

[University of New Mexico, T3 Scientific] 

Ionic Liquids Conduct basic research into the use of ionic liquids (organic salts that 

are liquid at room temperature and exhibit unusual properties) for CO2

capture. [University of Notre Dame] 

Advanced CO2 

Capture 

Microporous Metal 

Organic Frameworks 

(MOFs) 

Search for novel microporous metal organic frameworks (MOFs) 

suitable for CO2 capture. MOFs are hybrid organic/inorganic structures 

at the nano scale to which CO2 will stick. [UOP LLC, University of 

Michigan, Northwestern University] 

Carbonate Sediments 

Below the Sea Floor 

Using laboratory-scale simulations, study the potential of calcium 

carbonate sediments to absorb injected CO2 at the elevated pressures 

and temperatures found in subsea formations. [Harvard University, 

Columbia University, Carnegie-Mellon University, University of 

California at Santa Cruz] 

Advanced 

Subsurface 

Technologies Mineral Carbonation Study the chemistry and kinetics of the CO2 carbonation reaction in 

olivine and other commonly occurring minerals. Investigate the use of 

sonic frequencies and other methods to enhance the reaction. [Arizona 

State University] 

Novel Niches 

Microbial CO2

Conversion 

Create strains of microbes that feed off CO2 and produce salable byproducts, such as succinic, malic, and fumeric acids. [University of 

Georgia] 

NON-CO2 GREENHOUSE GAS CONTROL 

Because non-CO2 greenhouse gases (e.g., methane, N2O, and high global warming potential gases) can have 

economic value, emissions can often be captured or avoided at relatively low net cost. The Sequestration 

Program is focused on fugitive methane emissions where non-CO2 greenhouse gas abatement is integrated 

with energy production, conversion, and use. Three projects are currently being funded: 1) minemouth 

ventilation methane mitigation [http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj248.pdf] 2) impermeable 

membranes for landfill gas recovery [http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj199.pdf], and 

3) separating the nitrogen methane streams to enable more methane recovery from landfills and coal mines 

[http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/factsheets/project/Proj253.pdf]. The Sequestration Program is also working with the 

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to assess the role that non-CO2 greenhouse gas 

emissions abatement actions can play in a nationwide strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions 

intensity. The EPA and DOE are working jointly to identify priority areas for research and development. 
 

18 

B. REGIONAL PARTNERSHIPS

In 2003, the DOE awarded seven regional carbon sequestration 

partnerships. These partnerships are teams comprised of state 

agencies, universities, and private companies with the goal of 

evaluating and pursuing opportunities for carbon sequestration 

deployment. Each partnership is focused on a specific region of the 

country, and its efforts pertain to the local ecosystem, the local 

geology, and the types of CO2 emissions sources and sinks found in 

the region. Together the seven partnerships will form a network of 

capability, knowledge, and infrastructure to enable carbon 

sequestration technology to play a major role, if needed, in a national 

strategy to mitigate GHG emissions. 

The seven partnerships were awarded after a vigorous competitive 

process. The competition motivated the awardees to assemble robust 

teams and to offer an average 39 percent cost share. The partnerships 

will be conducted as a two phase process. The first phase, which is ongoing in 2003 and 2004, is a planning 

stage. During that stage, sources and potential sinks will be identified and assessed. Regulatory and 

performance requirements for future deployments will be determined. Action plans will then be developed 

leading to the validation of all sequestration concepts investigated by the partnerships. After the Phase I 

activities are completed, a Phase II solicitation will be issued. Phase II will focus on implementing regional 

action plans and validating all concepts in the field, as appropriate. Phase II is still in the planning stages and 

any details at this stage are subject to change. It is estimated that each Phase II project would be funded in the 

range of $3,000,000 to $5,000,000 per year. Phase II is anticipated to be an eight year initiative and the 

The Partnerships Achieved an 

Average Cost-Share of 36% 

DOE 

$13.0 M

Partnership 

$7.2M

Figure 4. Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships 

 

 

West Coast 

Saskatchewan Manitoba

Big Sky

Illinois

Basin

Southwest 

Plains

Midwest

Southeast

West Coast 
 

19 

A NATIONAL 

SEQUESTRATION NETWORK 

The Program is working to foster 

coordination and information 

sharing among the Regional 

Sequestration Partnerships. As a 

start, representatives from all seven 

partnerships attended a kick-off 

meeting held on November 9, 

2003, and presented their plans and 

initial findings. 

Up-to-date information concerning 

the partnerships, as well as links to 

individual partnerships web pages, 

can be found on the NETL website 

at: 

http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequ

estration/partnerships/

number of potential Phase II projects will be dictated by future 

programmatic budget constraints. It is expected that the regional 

carbon sequestration partnerships will become self-sustaining 

after Phase II, should a carbon constrained scenario be necessary. 

Each regional partnership will produce the following four 

discreet products during Phase I. Note that though the 

framework is consistent, each partnership has tailored its efforts 

to suit the opportunities for sequestration within its region. 

1. Regional Carbon Sequestration Atlases 

These atlases will show all the point sources of CO2

emissions in a region, overlain on the geologic 

formations that have potential for CO2 storage. The CO2

point sources will be characterized according to volume, 

CO2 concentration, contaminants, pressure, and other 

criteria so that its suitability for CO2 capture may be 

assessed. Similarly, geologic formations will be 

characterized according to type, estimated CO2 storage 

capacity, as well as potential for value-added byproducts associated with CO2 storage (e.g., enhanced oil 

recovery and enhanced coal bed methane recovery). The 

objective of the atlases is to clarify which CO2 emissions 

sources are amenable to capture and located near 

potentially favorable geologic repositories. The atlases will also document and characterize 

opportunities for terrestrial sequestration. Regional atlases will optimize source and sink locations, 

otherwise, the pipeline infrastructure for sequestration could prove cost prohibitive. 

 

2. Regional Project Implementation Plans

Each partnership will identify the most promising sequestration projects in its region. The priority 

projects can be either terrestrial and/or geologic sequestration. Each partnership will craft a rationale 

for the project selections and perform cost/benefits analyses. The partnership will develop a projectlevel plan for regulatory compliance and public outreach and education, and will identify MM&V 

requirements for each project. These priority projects will serve as the basis of each partnership’s field 

validation proposal. 

3. Action Plan for Regulatory Compliance 

These plans will identify the national and local environmental regulations that may impact future 

sequestration deployments in each partnership region. Each partnership will identify the areas of 

increased understanding, sequestration technology performance metrics, MM&V capability, and risk 

assessment requirements needed to address and comply with environmental regulations. The 

partnerships will also address liability aspects to sequestration and proposed plans to handle these 

issues. The partnerships’ action plans will identify expected timelines for regulatory permitting, 

reporting requirements, and parties that are responsible for various requirements associated with 

projects in that region. 

4. Action Plan for Public Outreach and Education 

Engaging people in the regions is a critically important role for each of the partnerships. Each 

partnership will produce a plan that sets forth methods for public engagement and tools for stakeholder 

education. The plans will also note any regulatory requirements for public outreach. 
 

20 

IGCC with CO2 Capture Base Case

Gasifier

800 Psig Coal 

3,800 ton/day

O2

3,100 ton/day

2-Stage 

Selexol Unit

Sulfur

104 ton/day

Raw Syngas

771,560 lb/h

H2 30%

CO 40%

CO2 10%

PM 

Removal

12% Syngas Recycle

105oF

700 Psia

487 MW

(400 MW Net)

Combustion & 

Steam Turbine 

Island

H2O

1,600 ton/day

Flue Gas

4,800,000 lb/h

Air + Steam Recy.

4,300,650 lb/h

Source: Evaluation of Innovative Fossil Fuel 

Power Plants with CO2 Removal, EPRI, 1000316

Water Gas

Shift

Steam

3,500 ton/day

Shifted Syngas

822,303 lb/h

H2 55%

CO 1%

CO2 39%

Fuel Gas

118,600 lb/h

70oF

695 Psia

Saturator

CO2

Comp.

CO2

645,000 lb/h

70oF

25 Psia

CO2

105oF

2,200 Psia

Syngas

Cooling

7

IGCC with CO2 Capture Base Case

Gasifier

800 Psig Coal 

3,800 ton/day

O2

3,100 ton/day

2-Stage 

Selexol Unit

Sulfur

104 ton/day

Raw Syngas

771,560 lb/h

H2 30%

CO 40%

CO2 10%

PM 

Removal

12% Syngas Recycle

105oF

700 Psia

487 MW

(400 MW Net)

Combustion & 

Steam Turbine 

Island

H2O

1,600 ton/day

Flue Gas

4,800,000 lb/h

Air + Steam Recy.

4,300,650 lb/h

Source: Evaluation of Innovative Fossil Fuel 

Power Plants with CO2 Removal, EPRI, 1000316

Water Gas

Shift

Steam

3,500 ton/day

Shifted Syngas

822,303 lb/h

H2 55%

CO 1%

CO2 39%

Fuel Gas

118,600 lb/h

70oF

695 Psia

Saturator

CO2

Comp.

CO2

645,000 lb/h

70oF

25 Psia

CO2

105oF

2,200 Psia

Syngas

Cooling

7

C. PROGRAM MANAGEMENT

The DOE is dedicated to achieving the 

Sequestration Program goals and to utilizing 

the Program funds as effectively as possible. 

This is achieved through cooperative and 

collaborative relationships both 

domestically and internationally, 

competitive solicitations, analysis and 

project evaluation, project merit reviews and 

proactive public outreach and education. 

These activities support and enhance the 

R&D being conducted in the laboratory and 

the field. Following are management 

highlights. 

Public/Private Partnerships 

Public-private partnerships and cost-shared 

R&D are a critical part of technology 

development for carbon sequestration. These relationships draw on pertinent capabilities that the oil and gas, 

coal, electricity supply, refining, and chemical industries have built up over decades and a technical knowledge 

base shared with the national laboratories, federal and state geological surveys, and academia. The program 

prefers to engage industry through competitive solicitations, which bring forward the companies and 

researchers with the best ideas and strongest capabilities and also challenges companies to offer significant 

cost-share, leveraging Federal dollars. Colleges and universities, private research institutes, national 

laboratories, and other federal and state agencies also play a significant role in technology development. 

Separate competitive solicitations are directed towards these institutions to spawn innovative, breakthrough 

concepts. About one-fourth of the Carbon Sequestration Program funding is allocated to university-led 

research efforts. 

In-House R&D at NETL 

The Carbon Sequestration Science Focus Area (CSSFA) at NETL conducts science-based research and 

analysis in areas related to carbon sequestration using in-house facilities and resources at NETL. The CSSFA 

has been successful in fostering formal and information collaborative relationships with industry and academia 

in these high-risk research endeavors. The CSSFA also provides NETL with a scientific understanding of the 

underlying technologies and, thus, enhances its effectiveness in implementing the carbon sequestration R&D 

portfolio.

Systems Analyses 

Systems analyses and economic modeling of potential new processes are crucial to providing sound guidance 

to R&D efforts, which are investigating a wide range of CO2 capture options. The project evaluation effort 

includes two interrelated areas. First is the conceptual scale-up (using sound engineering principles) of novel 

CO2 capture technologies from bench/pilot scale to commercial scale. 

Second is the development of computer models to evaluate the 

performance and economics of these conceptual designs. Ongoing 

systems analyses are performed on NETL in-house R&D (CSSFA) CO2

capture technologies, as well as processes being developed through our 

Core R&D projects and outside the Program. Since the majority of new 

CO2 capture technologies are still at a bench scale level of development, 

a scaled up conceptual design is first generated with emphasis on mass 

and energy balances. Based on available data and/or engineering 

estimates, each system is optimized, and “what-if” scenarios are 

Figure 5. Carbon Sequestration Program Budget ($million) 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
 

21 

CARBON SEQUESTRATION 

LEADERSHIP 

FORUM PARTNERS 

Australia 

Brazil 

Canada 

China 

Colombia 

European Commission 

Germany 

India 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

Norway 

Russian Federation 

South Africa 

United Kingdom 

United States 

evaluated to identify barriers to deployment and help the process developers establish system performance 

targets. The current portfolio of systems analyses includes both pre- and post-combustion CO2 capture 

technologies, such as wet scrubbing (advanced amines, aqueous ammonia), solid regenerable sorbents 

(pressure swing and temperature swing regeneration), and membrane-based separations. 

Modeling

A comprehensive economic model is needed that will enable different options for CO2 capture to be 

systematically evaluated, including pipeline and geologic storage costs. Carnegie Mellon University has 

developed a model, called the Integrated Environmental Control Model-Carbon Sequestration (IECM-CS). 

The focus of this model is current commercial technologies, such as amine-based CO2 capture, Selexol-based 

CO2 capture, shift conversion, pipeline transport, and geologic storage. 

The model is capable of establishing a common set of performance 

metrics and evaluating the overall cost of CO2 sequestration. To 

complement the CMU model, NETL and Science Applications 

International Corporation are developing a computer model based 

technique for evaluating new and developing CO2 capture and 

sequestration technologies. Technologies that have been modeled range 

from ideas at a conceptual stage to processes evaluated at an advanced 

pilot scale. With existing studies as a starting point, other technologies in 

the portfolio will be evaluated to continually assess their potential 

technical and economic merit. 

Coordination with other Domestic RD&D Activities 

The Program cooperates and collaborates with relevant domestic RD&D efforts. For example, the Program’s 

longer-term research efforts are coordinated with DOE’s Office of Science, the National Science Foundation, 

and within the academic research community. In geologic sequestration, the program is collaborating with 

RMOTC and in terrestrial sequestration, collaborative opportunities are being pursued with the United States 

Department of Agriculture and Department of the Interior. 

International Collaboration 

On February 27, 2003, President Bush directed Secretary of 

Energy Spencer Abraham and Under Secretary of State for 

Global Affairs Paula Dobriansky to initiate the formation of the 

Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF), an 

international climate change initiative that will focus on 

development of carbon capture and storage technologies as a 

means to accomplishing long-term stabilization of greenhouse 

gas levels in the atmosphere. Scientific and technological 

information gathered from participating countries will be 

aggregated, summarized, and distributed to all of the Forum's 

participants. Joint projects will be identified by member 

nations with the Forum serving as a mechanism for bringing 

together government and private sector representatives from 

member countries.

The Carbon Sequestration Program achieves informal 

international collaborations that complement the CSLF through 

a variety of mechanisms, including formal bilateral and 

multilateral agreements, less formal cooperation agreements, 

and coordination of funding by different governments and the 

private sector. The International Energy Agency's Greenhouse 

Gas Research and Development Programme (IEA/GHG), 
 

22 

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE 

CURRICULUM 

Recognizing the complexity of the 

Global Climate Change issue and the 

need to improve understanding of it 

among the public, the Carbon 

Sequestration Program has funded a 

Global Climate Change curriculum for 

middle school students. Developed by 

the Keystone Center, the ten-day 

curriculum uses a variety of interesting 

and engaging activities to educate 

students on a range of topics including 

greenhouse gas science, the implications 

of day-to-day energy use choices, and 

the role of technology in mitigating 

GHG emissions. Group games, 

debates, and activities encourage 

children to consider the trade-offs 

among economics, social equity, and the 

environment. The curriculum consists 

of a detailed set of lesson plans, 

teaching tools, activity and experiment 

descriptions and background materials. 

A test group of teachers will be trained 

with the curriculum and implement it 

during the 2004-2005 school year. 

which is funded by 18 members, including the European 

Union, Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Norway, and eight 

private sector sponsors, is one venue for collaboration. 

The Program is also engaged with international entities 

through its participation in the CO2 capture project (CCP). 

The CCP is a consortium of eight major energy companies, 

the European Union, and Norway. The Program has 

supported consortium research in the areas of CO2 capture 

and geologic sequestration. Through participation in the 

CCP, the Program has been able to significantly leverage its 

funds and also develop a relationship with highly capable 

partners. 

Education and Outreach 

The notion of capturing and sequestering carbon dioxide 

and other greenhouse gases is relatively new, and many 

people are unaware of its role as a greenhouse gas reduction 

strategy. Increased education and awareness are needed to 

achieve acceptance of carbon sequestration by the general 

public, regulatory agencies, policy makers, and industry 

and, thus, enable future commercial deployments of 

advanced technology. The following activities highlight the 

program’s education and outreach efforts: 

 Carbon Sequestration webpage at the NETL site 

 Monthly sequestration newsletter 

 The Sequestration Technology Roadmap and 

Program Plan, revised annually 

 The National Conference on Carbon Sequestration, held annually in the late spring in the 

Washington, DC, area 

 Educational curriculum on global climate change and GHG emissions mitigation options 

In addition the program management team participates in technical conferences through presentations, panel 

discussions, breakout groups, and other formal and informal venues. These efforts expose professionals 

working in other fields to the technology challenges of sequestration and also enable examination of some of 

the more detailed issues underlying the technology. 

As with any new technology, there are environmental issues associated with carbon sequestration that need to 

be explored, understood, and addressed. The level of uncertainty is higher for some sequestration options than 

for others. A significant portion of the Program's R&D portfolio is aimed at an improved understanding of 

potential environmental impacts. In concert with R&D, the Program seeks to engage NGO's and federal, state, 

and local environmental regulators to raise awareness of what the Program is doing in this area, and the 

priority it places on systems that preserve human and ecosystem health. Some of the Program’s R&D projects 

have their own outreach component. For example, the cost-shared project with the Nature Conservancy on 

monitoring, mitigation, and verification in terrestrial ecosystems has helped the program to engage nongovernmental organizations and the environmental community. Also, the Regional Partnerships will enhance 

technology development but also engage regulators, policy makers, and interested citizens at the state and 

local level. Successful outreach entails two-way communications, and the Program will consider concerns 

voiced at outreach venues and continually assess the adequacy and focus of the current R&D portfolio. 
 

23 

Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement 

Many pilot and pre-commercial scale research activities are regulated under the National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA), a procedural regulation that requires environmental impact assessments of varying levels 

of rigor. NETL has conducted a review of the requirements under NEPA, and in October, 2003, Rita Bajura, 

Director of NETL, issued a determination stating that “preparation of a programmatic environmental impact 

statement (PEIS) constitutes the appropriate level of environmental review for implementing the Sequestration 

Program.” The PEIS will assess the environmental effects of current and potential future initiatives, including 

field tests, regional partnerships, and core R&D. Ultimately, it will help define the scope and direction of 

future Program activities. 

Resource Requirements 

Figure 5 shows the estimated resources needed to pursue the opportunities identified in the Program plan and 

to achieve the Program’s goals. The base Program funding is estimated at roughly $55 million per year, with 

slightly more between 2006 and 2010. The Regional Partnerships require an initial investment but are 

structured to become self-sustaining by 2013. 

-

50

100

150

200

250

300

2001-2005 2006-2010 2011-2015 2016-2020

5-year period Federal R&D Investement, 

millions of dollars

Regional Sequestration

Partnerships

Base Sequestration R&D

Program

Figure 5. Funding Requirements of the Carbon Sequestration Program 
 

24 

If you have any questions, comments, or would like more information about DOE’s 

Carbon Sequestration Program, please contact the following persons: 

SCOTT KLARA 

National Energy Technology Laboratory 

Office of Coal and Power Systems 

Office of Fossil Energy 

(412) 386-4864 

Scott.Klara@netl.doe.gov

LOWELL MILLER 

Office of Coal and Power Systems 

Office of Fossil Energy 

(301) 903-9451 

Lowell.Miller@hq.doe.gov

SARAH FORBES 

National Energy Technology Laboratory 

Office of Coal and Power Systems 

Office of Fossil Energy 

(304) 285-4670 

Sarah.Forbes@netl.doe.gov

BOB KANE 

Office of Coal and Power Systems 

Office of Fossil Energy 

(202) 586-4753 

Robert.Kane@hq.doe.gov

JAY BRAITSCH 

Office of Coal and Power Systems 

Office of Fossil Energy 

(202) 586-9682 

Jay.Braitsch@hq.doe.gov

or visit our web sites at: 

http://www.netl.doe.gov/coalpower/sequestration

http://www.fe.doe.gov/coal_power/sequestration/

NATIONAL ENERGY TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY

626 Cochrans Mill Road 

P.O. Box 10904 

Pittsburgh, PA 15236-0940 

3610 Collins Ferry Road 

P.O. Box 880 

Morgantown, WV 26507-0880 
National Energy 

Technology Laboratory

626 Cochrans Mill Road

P.O. Box 10904

Pittsburgh, PA 15236-0940

3610 Collins Ferry Road

P.O. Box 880

Morgantown, WV 26507-0880

Printed in the United States on recycled paper

April 2004

Customer Service: 1-800-553-7681

Website: www.netl.doe.gov