The Vocational Teacher Pipeline: 

How academically well-prepared is the 

next generation of vocational teachers? 

 2004

0

Kevin Cramer 

U.S. Department of Education 

Office of the Deputy Secretary 

Policy and Program Studies Service
In the end, the judgments expressed in this report are those of the author. While the 

author was an employee of PPSS in the Office of the Deputy Secretary, this analysis is an 

independent study, as called for by law, and does not necessarily represent the positions 

or policies of the Department of Education. No official endorsement by the U.S. 

Department of Education is intended or should be inferred. 

1
I. Introduction 

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998, known as Perkins 

III, attempted to guide secondary vocational programs in new directions by strengthening

the emphasis on academics in vocational education and incorporating the attainment of

state academic standards as a performance measure for vocational programs. The policy

objectives of Perkins III potentially require new roles and skills for vocational teachers, 

both those seeking entry into the profession and those already employed. 

The purpose of this paper is to examine how well-prepared vocational educators are to 

teach courses and programs that reflect the emphasis on academic skills in the Perkins III 

legislation. The paper examines the academic skills and pedagogical knowledge of 

elementary, secondary and secondary vocational candidates to assess how well-prepared 

vocational candidates are to support and reinforce students' acquisition of academic

skills. The study includes an analysis of 1) the demographic and academic characteristics 

of teacher candidates; and 2) the academic skills and professional knowledge of teacher 

candidates as measured by reading, writing, mathematics and pedagogical knowledge test 

scores on the Praxis assessments. 

II. Research Methods and Data 

The data reported in this study are from more than 200,000 elementary, secondary and 

secondary vocational teacher candidates who completed the Praxis Series assessments for 

teacher certification between 1994 and 1999. The Praxis test takers are primarily college 

students actively seeking entrance to a college of education. This group is a reasonable 

proxy for prospective teachers, more so than measures used in other studies such as high 

school students intending to major in education. 

The Praxis Series is a national Educational Testing Service (ETS) program that provides

tests for states to use as part of their teacher certification process and for colleges and 

universities to qualify individuals for entry into teacher education programs.1

 This

analysis primarily uses data from two of the Praxis Series assessments. The Praxis I 

Academic Skills Assessment measures the basic reading, writing and mathematical skills 

of prospective teachers, and was available in either a paper-based or computer-adaptive 

format during the period of this study. The Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT 7-

12) assessment, which is part of the Praxis II Subject Assessment, uses a case study

approach to measure general pedagogical knowledge for teaching grades 7 to 122

. Test 

 

1

 The Educational Testing Service is one of two testing organizations that offer teacher assessments for 

state teacher certification in the United States. As of fall 1998, 31 states and the District of Columbia

require the passage of Praxis exams for state licensure. National Evaluation Systems, of Amherst, Mass., 

provides licensure testing to nine states and shares licensure testing with ETS in one state. An additional

nine states do not require a test for teacher licensure (Educational Testing Service, 1998). 2 The Principles of Learning and Teaching assessments use a case study approach to measure general

pedagogical knowledge for teaching grades 7 to 12. The tests feature constructed-response and multiplechoice items. 

2
takers were coded as elementary, secondary or secondary vocational candidates based on 

responses to the certification field on the Praxis application, which asks test takers to 

indicate the fields in which they are seeking certification3

. The data in this analysis are

unique in that they provide reasonable estimates of the academic skills and pedagogical 

knowledge of individuals seeking teacher certification; allow for participants to be

identified as candidates for certification in elementary, secondary or vocational fields; 

and were made available for this analysis by the Educational Testing Service and are not 

otherwise available to the public4

. 

 

Like many similar studies, this study has limitations that can affect the interpretation of 

the data and generalization of the findings. First, there does not appear to be a consensus 

in the field about whether a vocational teacher’s academic skills are good predictors of 

their effectiveness as a teacher or the achievement of their students. The majority of

research linking teacher academic skills to student achievement involves teachers in 

academic fields. The importance of academic and pedagogical skills in vocational fields

is unclear, and many practitioners in vocational education argue vocational teachers’

technical skills may contribute more to the success of vocational students. Second, the

study results are not representative of the entire pipeline of teachers because those who 

enter the field through alternative teacher certification programs may not take the Praxis 

exams. Vocational teachers are particularly likely to come into teaching from business

and industry, so the Praxis results may not represent the full set of entering vocational 

teachers. Whether vocational teachers who bypass traditional teacher preparation 

programs and enter the field directly from business and industry have stronger or weaker 

academic skills is unclear. 

III. The Number and Characteristics of Teacher Candidates 

This section describes the demographic and academic characteristics of teacher 

candidates to provide a context for analyzing the reading, writing and mathematics 

abilities and pedagogical knowledge of the next generation of teachers. Information on 

the number of teacher candidates is available for elementary, secondary and vocational 

fields. Demographic and academic characteristics, including age, gender, educational 

attainment and grade-point averages, are available for secondary and vocational fields.5

 

3 Teacher candidates were identified based on responses to the certification field – item #14 – on the Praxis

application, which asks test takers to indicate the fields in which they are seeking certification. Vocational

fields are 101 (agriculture), 104 (business), 105 (cooperative education), 107 (environmental education),

108 (health education), 109 (home economics), 110 (industrial arts), 112 (marketing), 115 (office

technology), 120 (secretarial), 404 (computer and information sciences) and 407 (engineering 

technologies). Secondary teachers were defined as all prospective teachers indicating they were seeking 

certification to teach at the secondary level, not including the vocational certification fields noted above.

Elementary teachers were defined as all prospective teachers indicating they were seeking certification to

teach at the elementary level, not including the vocational certification fields noted above. 4 For confidentiality, the data are aggregated by elementary, secondary and vocational classifications based 

on the responses to the certification field – item #14 – on the Praxis application. 5

 Information on the characteristics of teacher candidates is self-reported by examinees at the time of taking 

the Praxis assessments. 

3
Over the past decade, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of teacher 

candidates. In 1994, just over 30,000 prospective teachers took the Praxis exam for 

teacher candidacy. By 1999, the number of teacher candidates had risen to almost 

44,000, an increase of nearly 50 percent. The increases are likely due to a combination of 

factors, including increases in the student population (National Evaluation Systems, 

1998b) and efforts to reduce class size and student-teacher ratios in elementary education. 

From 1997 to 1999, the number of teacher candidates remained fairly constant at about 

44,000 candidates taking the Praxis each year. 

Despite the large increases in the number of teacher candidates overall, the number of 

vocational candidates has remained fairly constant. Vocational candidates represent a 

small and declining share of candidates, although the actual number of vocational 

entrants may be higher due to alternative routes to certification. In contrast, elementary 

candidates have consistently increased both in number and as a percent of all teacher 

candidates, and secondary candidates increased slightly during the same time period, 

though not in a consistent pattern as seen in Figure 1. 

Figure 1: Number of Test Takers by Intended Field of Teaching

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99

Number of Test Takers

Elementary Secondary Vocational

 

Age 

On average, candidates for certification in vocational fields are slightly older than 

candidates in secondary fields. Vocational candidates are consistently between half a

year and 1.5 years older than secondary candidates, and candidates in both fields have

increased in age over time. Although the average age of vocational and secondary 

candidates appears to be similar, the distribution of ages varies considerably. Vocational 

candidates are more likely to be over the age of 30 – 27.8 percent to 23.3 percent – and 

are much less likely to be under the age of 20 – 6.3 percent to 11.3 percent. The mean

age difference has potential implications for academic testing since, on average,

vocational candidates may have been out of school longer than secondary candidates. 

4
Figure 2: Mean Age of Teacher Candidates from 1994 to 1999

24

25

26

27

28

Mean Age

Secondary Vocational

Secondary 24.60 24.71 24.86 25.01 25.90 26.27

Vocational 25.29 25.39 26.21 26.35 26.76 27.25

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Gender 

Figure 3: The Gender Difference of 

Prospective Teachers in 1998-1999

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

Secondary Vocational

Number of Test Takers

Female Male

In general, females were more likely 

than males to take the Praxis exams for 

teacher certification. This is not 

surprising, considering a higher 

proportion of teachers tend to be 

female. Although the majority of 

candidates in vocational education were 

female at 55 percent, the gender gap 

was considerably smaller than for 

secondary fields, at 63 percent female. 

The absence of a significant gender gap 

in vocational education is likely due to 

the overrepresentation of men in many 

technical fields. 

 

Educational Attainment 

Teacher candidates were asked about the highest level of education they had attained and

their grade-point average at the time of taking the Praxis assessments.6

 A recent study by 

the Educational Testing Service suggests GPAs are meaningful predictors of success on

 

6

 The Praxis data describes the educational attainment of individuals at the time they take the Praxis, which

may not accurately reflect educational levels that candidates will achieve by the time they are certified and 

begin teaching. 

5
assessments of teacher certification, although the biases of self-reported data and the 

variation in policies for graduation and grading across institutions and academic

departments may make GPAs a less reliable measure of academic ability and

achievement.7

 Still, the data suggest that although secondary and vocational candidates 

attained similar levels of education, secondary candidates performed better in their 

undergraduate programs than vocational candidates. 

Candidates seeking certification in secondary and vocational fields attained similar levels 

of education in both 1994 and 1999. Approximately similar proportions of secondary and 

vocational candidates possessed less than a bachelor’s degree at the time of taking the 

Praxis exams in 1994 (78 percent and 77.3 percent) and in 1999 (61.6 percent and 62.2 

percent), respectively8

. Secondary vocational candidates were more likely to possess a 

bachelor’s degree in 1994 (19.6 percent) and in 1999 (32.2 percent) than candidates 

seeking certification in secondary academic fields (17.8 percent in 1994 and 28.9 percent 

in 1999). However, secondary vocational candidates were less likely than secondary 

academic candidates to possess advanced degrees. In 1994, 3.1 percent of vocational 

candidates possessed an advanced degree, compared to 4.2 percent of secondary 

candidates. By 1999, the percentage of vocational candidates possessing an advanced 

degree increased to 6.1 percent. During the same period, the percentage of secondary 

candidates possessing an advanced degree increased to 9 percent. 

Figure 4: Highest Educational Level Attained in 1994

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

less than BA

BA

BA+Credits

MA+

Degree

Percent of Test Takers

Secondary Vocational

 

7

 Gitomer, Latham and Ziomek (1999) examine the issue of whether undergraduate GPAs have any

influence over success on assessments for teacher certification. They found a consistent relationship

between GPA and passing rates, where the top quartile of students almost always pass the assessments, and 

as GPAs decrease, so do passing rates. 8

 The number of test takers receiving less than a bachelor’s degree at the time of taking the Praxis exams in 

1994 and in 1999 reflects students still completing their postsecondary education programs and preparing

to enter postgraduate teaching preparation programs or to go directly into teaching after earning their 

degree. 

6
Figure 5: Highest Educational Level Attained in 1999

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

less than BA

BA

BA+Credits

MA+

Degree

Percent of Test Takers

Secondary Vocational

Overall, vocational candidates were more likely to have lower GPAs than secondary 

candidates, and were significantly less likely to be among students with the highest 

GPAs. In 1999, about half – 52 percent – of vocational candidates had GPAs above 3.0, 

which is a B average and above, compared to 63 percent of secondary candidates; the 

percentages of candidates with GPAs between 3.5 and 4.0, which is an A average, were

17 percent and 26 percent, respectively. Although candidates in vocational and 

secondary fields attained similar levels of education at the time of taking the Praxis exam, 

secondary candidates appear to have performed better in their educational programs. 

Figure 6: Undergraduate GPA in 1999

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Below 1.99

2.00 to 2.49

2.50 to 2.99

3.00 to 3.49

3.50 to 4.00

GPA

Percent of Test Takers

Secondary Vocational

7
IV. The Academic Skills and Pedagogical Knowledge of Prospective Elementary,

his section assesses the academic skills and pedagogical knowledge of elementary, 

eading, writing and mathematics skills are assessed using the Praxis I Basic Skills

ading

tes consistently have the lowest reading scores in each year of the 

Secondary and Vocational Teachers 

T

secondary and vocational teacher candidates. Although the Praxis Series assessments are 

not designed to suggest an absolute score at which prospective teachers will either be

effective or ineffective, the analysis of reading, writing, mathematics and pedagogical 

knowledge scores highlights the variation in the academic abilities of candidates for

teacher certification in elementary, secondary and vocational fields. 

R

assessments. The general pedagogical knowledge of vocational and secondary

candidates for teaching grades 7 to 12 is evaluated using the Principles of Teaching and 

Learning assessment on the Praxis II. The reading, writing and mathematics assessments 

were available in either a paper-based (PPST) or computer-adaptive (CBT) format. 

Re

Vocational candida

study and for the paper-based and computer-adaptive formats. The reading scores for 

vocational candidates were slightly below the scores for elementary candidates, and well 

below the scores for secondary candidates. The scores for all candidates appear to be 

remarkably stable from 1994 to 1999, with scores on the paper-based format varying less 

than one-half point each year and scores on the computer-adaptive format varying less 

than one point each year, on average. The scores also appear to all move together in a 

consistent pattern each year, either all increasing slightly or all decreasing slightly, but 

never moving in opposite directions. The stability of the reading scores over time 

suggests that the observed variation in the scores of elementary, secondary and vocational 

candidates is likely due to fluctuations in the difficulty of the test across years and

appears to systematically affect candidates in the same ways. 

Figure 7: PPST Reading

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99

Elementary Secondary Vocational

Figure 8: CBT Reading

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99

Elementary Secondary Vocational

8
Writing 

The scores from the writing assessment are very similar to the reading assessment, with

vocational candidates consistently having the lowest writing scores in each year of the

study and for the paper-based and computer-adaptive formats. Writing scores for

elementary candidates appear to consistently be slightly above the scores of vocational 

candidates, and secondary candidates consistently have the highest scores. The writing 

scores for all three types of candidates appear to be as stable as the reading scores, with 

scores on the paper-based format varying less than one-half point each year and scores on 

the computer-adaptive format varying less than one point each year, on average. 

Figure 9: PPST Writing

172.0

172.5

173.0

173.5

174.0

174.5

175.0

175.5

176.0

176.5

93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99

Elementary Secondary Vocational

Figure 10: CBT Writing

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99

Elementary Secondary Vocational

Mathematics 

The scores from the mathematics assessment are similar to the scores on the reading and 

writing assessments, with one key difference. Although secondary candidates

consistently had the highest scores, vocational candidates scored slightly higher than 

elementary candidates in each year and for each format of the assessment. Vocational 

candidates may score higher than elementary candidates due to the use of mathematics in 

many fields in vocational education, such as business, accounting, computer technology, 

agriculture, industrial arts and home economics. The mathematics scores for all three 

types of candidates are consistent over time and move together in a consistent pattern 

from year to year. 

9
Figure 11: PPST Mathematics

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99

Elementary Secondary Vocational

Figure 12: CBT Mathematics

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99

Elementary Secondary Vocational

Pass Rates 

Although there are clear differences in the average scores of elementary, secondary and 

vocational candidates, the importance of these differences is less clear. One way to

assess relative score differences is to examine differences in pass rates, since a passing 

score indicates the designated state has certified that a candidate has acquired a level of 

knowledge that is adequate for a beginning teacher in that state. 

States that use the Praxis assessments for teacher certification set qualifying scores – also 

referred to as passing scores – on each of the assessments based on the level of difficulty

of each test over a given period of years. The passing score indicates the level at which a 

state will certify candidates as meeting minimum criteria. Each state determines 

qualifying scores based on the state’s judgment of the minimum required academic

knowledge and skills for beginning teachers, factoring in the current supply and demand 

for teachers in the state. The qualifying scores for each assessment vary considerably

among states, and even within states across a period of years. Therefore, it is difficult to 

compare pass rates across states fairly because of differences in state qualifying scores. 

Data on the pass rates for the reading, writing and mathematical assessments for 

elementary, secondary and vocational candidates was available for the 1998-1999 

assessment year. 

10
Figure 13: Percent Passing the Praxis I 

by Subject and Intended Field of Teaching

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

PPST Reading CBT Reading PPST Writing CBT Writing PPST Math CBT Math

Percent Passing

Elementary Secondary Vocational

Vocational candidates consistently pass the assessments at lower rates than secondary 

candidates, and at lower rates than elementary candidates in reading and writing. The 

pattern of passing scores suggests that vocational candidates may be less likely than 

elementary and secondary candidates to have acquired a level of academic skills that is 

adequate for a beginning teacher.9

Pedagogical Knowledge 

Pedagogy is the art and science of teaching children. Pedagogy refers to the professional 

skills teachers need to impart the specialized knowledge of their field to their students,

and includes the methods and activities used by teachers in the learning process. The 

pedagogical knowledge for teaching grades 7 to 12 of prospective secondary and 

vocational teachers is examined through the Principles of Teaching and Learning 

assessment scores on the Praxis II from 1995 to 1999. The pedagogical knowledge score 

is a measure of a teacher’s understanding of how to incorporate theories of learning and 

development in practice and how to relate the process of teaching to the process of 

student learning. Higher pedagogy scores may suggest that candidates are more likely to 

use a range of teaching skills and techniques and are better able to adjust their 

 

9

 Although these results were consistent for both the paper-based and computer-adaptive formats, the

passing rates did appear to vary slightly between testing formats. Since candidates could elect to take the 

assessments in either format, it is not clear whether differences in scores reflect differences in the relative 

difficulty of the exams or differences in the underlying characteristics of candidates that self-selected to 

take either the paper-based or computer-adaptive exam format. 

11
professional practices to meet the academic and social needs of their students to create 

learning environments where students can succeed. 

Figure 14: Principles of Learning and Teaching (7-12)

162

164

166

168

170

172

174

176

178

180

182

95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99

Secondary Vocational

Vocational candidates consistently score lower than secondary candidates on the 

Principles of Teaching and Learning assessment of pedagogical knowledge. The scores 

for vocational and secondary candidates appear to be consistent over time and move 

together in a consistent pattern from year to year. The variation in pedagogical 

knowledge between secondary and vocational candidates may suggest that vocational 

candidates understand less about the theories of teaching and student learning and about 

how to incorporate the theories in their practice. 

However, the importance of pedagogical skills in vocational fields is unclear, and many 

vocational practitioners argue vocational teachers’ technical skills may contribute more to

the success of vocational students than their academic skills or pedagogical knowledge.10. 

Probability Values and Effect Sizes 

This section presents effect sizes to determine whether the differences in reading, writing, 

mathematics and pedagogical scores between secondary and vocational candidates are 

not only statistically significant, but also practically relevant. Simply stated, are the 

observed differences between secondary and vocational candidates large enough to 

matter in the real world? 

Although the p-values in this analysis indicate there are statistically significant 

differences in the mean reading, writing, mathematics and pedagogy scores of secondary 

 

10 Wenglinsky (2000) also notes that prospective teachers who pursue vocational education may not be a

homogeneous group, as teachers who receive licenses may be professionals from other professions who 

have a high level of technical skills, or low performers who could not meet the requirements of a traditional 

license. 

12
and vocational candidates, the real question of interest is whether the differences are also

meaningful.11 In studies with very large samples, such as this analysis, the probability of

finding a statistically significant result is much higher than in studies with smaller 

samples simply because the p-values reflect the larger sample size. In this case, the effect

sizes provide a much more meaningful indicator of the magnitude of the difference 

between groups, since they are calculated as the standardized difference between two 

means and are independent of sample size.12

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Effect Size

Pedagogical Knowledge

Mathematics CBT

Mathematics PPST

Writing CBT

Writing PPST

Reading CBT

Reading PPST

Figure 15: Effect Sizes for the Difference Between Secondary and 

Vocational Candidates from 1994 to 1999

The effect sizes clearly indicate that there are meaningful differences between secondary 

and vocational teacher candidates. In reading, the effects sizes ranged between .23 and 

.37 between 1994 and 1999, which is a small to medium magnitude of difference. The 

effect sizes in writing were even larger, with effect sizes ranging from .29 to .43. Only 

small effects appeared in mathematics, ranging between .11 and .20. The most notable 

differences between secondary and vocational candidates were in pedagogical 

knowledge, with moderate effect sizes ranging between .24 and .50. 

 

11 Statistical significance is a way of examining the probability that an observed difference could have

occurred by chance, and is expressed in terms of a probability-value – p-value. If the p-value is less than

.05, then there is less than a 1 in 20 chance that the observed difference in sample means occurred by 

chance, which is generally considered to be statistically significant. The p-values for the analyses of 

reading, writing, mathematics and pedagogical scores are all less than .001. 12 Although the effect size is used to calculate the magnitude, or practical significance, of an effect,

interpreting the magnitude is often a matter of judgment. Convention in the field of research suggests that a

small effect size is between .1 and .3, a medium effect size is between .4 and .6, and a large effect size is .7 

and greater. In the social and behavioral sciences, the vast majority of effect sizes fall in the small to

medium range, and effect sizes of .3 and greater are considered to reflect meaningful differences between

groups. Therefore, it is important to interpret the magnitude of these findings as they relate to the

magnitude of findings commonly found in the social and behavioral sciences. 

13
Another way of understanding the differences between candidates for secondary and 

vocational teaching credentials is to examine the percent of one group scoring at or above

the mean for the other group. If there were no differences between the two groups, then 

50 percent of the students in each group would score at or above the mean score of the 

other group. Figure 20 shows the percent of vocational candidates scoring at or above the 

mean of secondary candidates. In reading and in writing, approximately 34 to 35 of 

vocational students scored at or above the mean for secondary students. More simply 

stated, nearly 7 out of 10 vocational candidates scored below the average score for 

secondary candidates. The group differences were much less notable in mathematics, 

where 38 to 40 percent of vocational candidates scored at or above the mean for 

secondary candidates. 

Figure 16: Percent of Vocational Candidates Scoring At or Above

the Mean Score for Secondary Candidates

30

32

34

36

38

40

42

Reading Writing Mathematics

Percent

PPST CBT

From these analyses, we can conclude that the gap between vocational and secondary 

candidates in reading and writing are both statistically significant and of a size that are 

meaningful. On the other hand, differences in mathematical ability, while statistically 

significant, most likely do not reflect a large enough effect to warrant significant attention 

from practitioners or policymakers. 

V. Conclusions and Implications 

The purpose of this study was to examine how academically well-prepared candidates for

teacher certification in vocational education are to teach courses and programs that reflect 

the principles in the Perkins III legislation. After examining the academic skills and 

pedagogical knowledge of elementary, secondary and vocational candidates, it is not

14
clear whether vocational candidates are prepared to support and reinforce students’ 

acquisition of academic skills. Three key findings emerged from the analysis: 

• Candidates for certification in vocational fields are not as academically or 

pedagogically prepared as are candidates for certification in secondary fields;

• Candidates for certification in vocational fields are not as academically prepared

in reading and writing as candidates for certification in elementary education; 

• A potential disconnect may exist between the academic and pedagogical skills of

vocational candidates and the direction of federal policy, which has increasingly 

emphasized the importance of academic skills for vocational students. 

There may be several factors that contribute to these differences, including: 

• Vocational teachers’ job requirements and teacher preparation programs may not 

currently emphasize this new direction of federal policy;

• Prospective vocational candidates tend to be older than other teacher candidates 

and may have been out of school for longer periods of time; 

• Prospective vocational candidates tend to have lower grade-point averages in

college than other prospective teachers, and they may have taken more courses 

that did not emphasize academics. 

This analysis presented data on the reading, writing and mathematics skills and 

pedagogical knowledge of teacher candidates as a proxy for the abilities of prospective 

teachers. However, it is not clear how these abilities translate into effective teaching

practices and student achievement, which is the real question of interest. As stated 

earlier, it is not entirely clear whether academic skills, pedagogical knowledge or

technical expertise is the most important factor in effective teaching practices in 

vocational education. If a teacher’s academic skills do exhibit some influence over the

success of their students, then differences in the abilities of elementary, secondary and 

vocational teachers may lead to differences in the outcomes for students in academic and 

vocational courses of study. However, in order to accurately estimate the relative 

abilities of teacher candidates in different fields, we first need to understand the

characteristics of effective teaching practices in elementary, secondary and vocational 

education. 

15
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