U.S. Department 

of Transportation

Federal Highway 

Administration

 

Bridge Inspector's Reference Manual 

 BIRM

Volume 1

Publication No. FHWA NHI 03-001 

October, 2002 

Revised December, 2006 
 Technical Report Documentation Page 

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No. 

 FHWA NHI 03-001 

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date 

October 2002/November 2006 

Bridge Inspector’s Reference Manual 6. Performing Organization Code 

7. Author (s) Thomas W. Ryan, P.E, Raymond A. Hartle, P.E.,, J. Eric Mann, P.E., 8. Performing Organization Report No. 

 Leslie J. Danovich, E.I.T. 23104 / 106915-HRS 

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) 

Michael Baker, Jr., Inc. 

Airside Business Park, 100 Airside Drive 11. Contract or Grant No. 

Moon Township, PA 15108 DTFH61-02-T-63013 

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered 

Federal Highway Administration Final Manual 

National Highway Institute (HNHI-10) Mar. 2000 - Oct. 2002 

4600 N. Fairfax Drive, Suite 800 Revised Manual 

Arlington, Virginia 22203 Sept. 2005 – Dec. 2006 

15. Supplementary Notes 14. Sponsoring Agency Code

Baker Principle Investigator: Raymond A. Hartle, P.E. 

Baker Project Manager: Thomas W. Ryan, P.E. 

FHWA Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative: Larry E. Jones 

2002 Team Leader, Technical Review Team: John M. Hooks, P.E. 

2006 Team Leader, Technical Review Team: Thomas D. Everett, P.E 

16. Abstract 

This document, the Bridge Inspector’s Reference Manual (BIRM), is a comprehensive manual on programs, procedures, 

and techniques for inspecting and evaluating a variety of in-service highway bridges. It is intended to replace the BITM 90

which was first published in 1991 to assist in training highway personnel for the new discipline of bridge safety 

inspection. BITM 90 replaced BITM 70 which had been in use for 20 years and has been the basis for several training 

programs varying in length from a few days to two weeks. Comprehensive supplements to BITM 70 have been developed 

to cover inspection of fracture critical bridge members, and culverts are now covered in the BIRM. 

The BIRM is a revision and upgrading of the previous manual. Improved Bridge Inspection techniques are presented, and 

state-of-the-art inspection equipment is included. New or expanded coverage is provided on culverts, fracture critical 

members, cable-stayed bridges, prestressed segmental bridges, and underwater inspection. Previous supplemental 

manuals on moveable bridge inspection, and nondestructive testing are excerpted and referenced. These supplemental 

manuals are still valid supplements to BIRM. 

A three-week comprehensive training program on bridge inspection, based on the BIRM, has been developed. The 

program consists of a one-week course, NHI Course No 130054, “Engineering Concepts for Bridge Inspectors,” and a 

two-week course, NHI Course No 130055, “Safety Inspection of In-Service Bridges.” Together, these two courses meet 

the definition of a comprehensive training program in bridge inspection as defined in the National Bridge Inspection 

Standards. The one-week course is optional for technicians, inspectors, or engineers who have an adequate background in 

bridge engineering concepts. 

The catalogue for NHI Courses including the schedule, description and course request form can be found on the National 

Highway Institute web site: www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/home.aspx 

17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement 

Bridge Inspection, Bridge Evaluation, Culvert This report is available to the public from the 

Inspection, Fracture Critical Members, Underwater National Technical Information Service in 

Inspection Springfield, Virginia 22161 and from the 

 Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government 

Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. 

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price 

Unclassified Unclassified 1754 

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

We would like to express appreciation to the following individuals and organizations who contributed to the 

development and review of this training program: 

 Applied Science Associates, Inc. 

Association of Diving Contractors, Inc. (Messrs. Castle, Harter, Hazelbaker, Hux, Maggard, McGeehan, and 

McGovern) 

R. Richard Avent, Ph.D., P.E. (Louisiana State University) 

William D. Domico, P.E. (Figg Engineering Group) 

John W. Fisher, Ph.D. (Lehigh University) 

Robert J. Hoyle, Jr., P.E., S.E. 

Heinz P. Koretzky, P.E. (Pennsylvania DOT-Retired) 

KTA-Tator, Inc. 

John A. Schultz, Jr., S.E. (Hazelet and Erdal, Inc.) 

Frieder Seible, Ph.D., P.E. (SEQAD Consulting Engineers, Inc.) 

Daryl B. Simons, Ph.D., P.E. (Simons and Associates, Inc.) 

Robert K. Simons, Ph.D., P.E. (Simons and Associates, Inc.) 

Special thanks to the FHWA Technical Review Committee: 

John Bargo (2006) Everett Matias (2006) 

Steve Belcher Gary Moss (2006) 

Barry Brecto Raymond McCormick 

Shay Burrows (2006) Curtis Monk 

Milo Cress Claude Napier (2006) 

Shelia Dawadi Larry O’Donnell (2006) 

Doug Edwards (2006) Jorge Pagan 

Thomas Everett (2006) George Romack 

Carl Highsmith (2006) Luc Saroufim (2006) 

John Hooks Lou Triandafilou 

Calvin Karoer (2006) John Thiel 

Greg Kolle (2006) Glenn Washer 

Joe Krolak (2006) 

We would also like to thank the following individuals and organizations for providing information or visual aids for this 

training program: 

 Kathleen H. Almand (American Iron and Steel Institute) 

 American Traffic Safety Services Association 

Bridge Grid Flooring Manufacturers Association 

The D.S. Brown Company 

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute 

Cosmec, Inc. 

Barry Dickson (West Virginia University) 

Dynamic Isolation Systems, Inc. 

Carl Edwards (Maine DOT) 

Elgard Corporation 

Thomas D. Everett (FHWA) 

Exodermic Bridge Deck Institute 

Paul S. Fisk (NDT Corporation) 

Geerhard Haaijer, Ph.D. (American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc.) 

John M. Hanson, Ph.D. (Wiss, Janney, Elster Associates, Inc.) 

Richard P. Knight, P.E. (Dynamic Isolation Systems, Inc.) 

Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development 

Merriman, Inc. 

William R. Mochel, P.E. (Illinois Department of Transportation) 

Pennsylvania Department of Transportation 

Professional Service Industries, Inc.-Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory Division 

Schupack Suarez Engineers, Inc. 

David Severns, P.E. (Nevada DOT) 

Paul W. Verrill (Maine Department of Transportation) 

Watson Bowman Associates, Inc. 

Stewart C. Watson (Stafford/Watson, Inc.) 

Western Wood Structures, Inc. 

Weston Geophysical Corporation 
We would like to acknowledge the authors and contributing staff for BITM 90: 

 Edward J. Adamczyk, P.E 

William J. Amrhein, P.E, 

Dennis R. Baughman, P.E. 

 Robert W. Bondi, P.E. 

 Jeffery J. Campbell, P.E. 

Paul L. Coblentz, P.E. 

Thomas L. Hooks 

Stephen J. Hoyer 

Gerald J. Jones, P.E. 

Guy R. Lang, 

Karen G. Lucci 

Thomas P. Macioce 

Susan Maines-Harrison 

J. Eric Mann, P.E. 

Robert M. Marchak 

Kelly A. McKindley 

Krisha E. Medziuch 

Edward E. Moldovan 

Charles L. Molnar 

Charles M. Schubert, P.E. 

J. Keith Seibel 

John J. Tkacs, P.E. 

Terrence J. Tiberio, P.E. 

Scott D. Vannoy, P.E. 

Terri A. Vojnovich 

 Ruth Williams 

 Kenneth E. Wilson, III, P.E., S.E. 

 Lori A. Wittebort 

 

We would like to acknowledge the authors and contributing staff for BIRM 2002: 

 

 Justin W. Bouscher, P.E 

Jeffery J. Campbell, P.E 

David Chang 

Karen D. Ciccone 

Maureen Kanfoush 

Linda M. Ketterer 

Patrick A Leach, P.E. 

Guy R. Lang, P.E. 

Linda Montagna 

Timothy J. Pintar, P.E. 

Heather Proya 

James Shroads 

William B. Sosko 

Jorge M. Suarez, P.E 

Scott D. Vannoy, P.E 

 Laura E. Volle 

 Kenneth E. Wilson, III, P.E., S.E. 

 

We would like to acknowledge the authors and contributing staff for BIRM 2006: 

 

 Justin W. Bouscher, P.E 

Jeffery J. Campbell, P.E 

Karen D. Ciccone 

Maureen Kanfoush 

Linda Montagna 

Joseph R. McKool, P.E. 

Mary P. Rosick, P.E 

 
Comprehensive 

Bridge Safety Inspection Part II - Safety Inspection of In-Service Bridges 

Training Program BIRM 2006

 TOC-1 

Table of Contents 

List of Figures 

List of Tables 

TOPIC 

 BASIC CONCEPTS - PRIMER 

P.1 Bridge Components and Elements 

P.2 Bridge Mechanics 

P.3 Culverts 

SECTION 1: BRIDGE INSPECTION PROGRAMS

1.1 History of the National Bridge Inspection Program 

1.2 Responsibilities of the Bridge Inspector 

1.3 Quality Control/Quality Assurance 

SECTION 2: BRIDGE MATERIALS

2.1 Timber 

2.2 Concrete 

2.3 Steel 

2.4 Masonry 

 

SECTION 3: FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE INSPECTION

3.1 Duties of the Bridge Inspection Team 

3.2 Safety Practices 

3.3 Traffic Control 

3.4 Inspection Equipment 

3.5 Methods of Access 

SECTION 4: BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORTING 

4.1 Structure Inventory 

4.2 Condition & Appraisal 

4.3 Record Keeping & Documentation 

4.4 The Inspection Report 

4.5 AASHTO Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Elements 

SECTION 5: INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

OF BRIDGE DECKS

5.1 Timber Decks 

5.2 Concrete Decks 

5.3 Steel Decks 

5.4 Deck Joints, Drainage Systems, Lighting and Signs 

5.5 Safety Features 
Comprehensive 

Bridge Safety Inspection Part II - Safety Inspection of In-Service Bridges 

Training Program BIRM 2006

 TOC-2 

TOPIC

SECTION 6: INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

OF COMMON TIMBER SUPERSTRUCTURES

6.1 Solid Sawn Timber Bridges 

6.2 Glulam Timber Bridges 

6.3 Stressed-Laminated Timber Bridges 

SECTION 7: INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

OF COMMON CONCRETE SUPERSTRUCTURES

7.1 Cast-In-Place Slabs 

7.2 Tee Beams 

7.3 Concrete Girders 

7.4 Concrete Channel Beams 

7.5 Concrete Arches and Arch Culverts 

7.6 Concrete Rigid Frames 

7.7 Precast and Prestressed Slabs 

7.8 Prestressed Double Tees 

7.9 Prestressed I-Beams and Bulb-Tees 

7.10 Prestressed Box Beams 

7.11 Concrete Box Girders 

7.12 Concrete Box Culverts 

SECTION 8: INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

OF COMMON STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURES

8.1 Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges 

8.2 Rolled Steel Multi-Beams and Fabricated Steel Multi-Girders 

8.3 Steel Two Girder Systems 

8.4 Steel Pin & Hanger Assemblies 

8.5 Steel Box Girders 

8.6 Steel Trusses 

8.7 Steel Eyebars 

8.8 Steel Arches 

8.9 Steel Rigid Frames 

SECTION 9: INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

OF BRIDGE BEARINGS

9.1 Bridge Bearings 

SECTION 10: INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

OF SUBSTRUCTURES

10.1 Abutments and Wingwalls 

10.2 Piers and Bents 
Comprehensive 

Bridge Safety Inspection Part II - Safety Inspection of In-Service Bridges 

Training Program BIRM 2006

 TOC-3 

TOPIC

SECTION 11: INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

OF WATERWAYS

11.1 Waterway Elements 

11.2 Inspection of Waterways 

11.3 Underwater Inspection 

 

SECTION 12: SPECIAL BRIDGES

12.1 Cable Supported Bridges 

12.2 Movable Bridges 

12.3 Concrete Pipe Culverts 

12.4 Flexible Culverts 

 SECTION 13: ADVANCED INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

 

13.1 Timber 

13.2 Concrete 

13.3 Steel 

13.4 Advanced Asset Assessment 

Appendix A: Sample Inspection Report 

Appendix B: National Bridge Inspection Standards 

Glossary 

Index 
i 

List of Figures 

 Figure 

No.

 Page 

No.

Topic P.1 

Bridge 

Components 

and Elements 

 

P.1.1 NBIS Structure Length................................................ P.1.1 

P.1.1A Major Bridge Components.......................................... P.1.2 

P.1.2 Timber Shapes............................................................. P.1.3 

P.1.3 Timber Beams ............................................................. P.1.4 

P.1.4 Unusual Concrete Shapes............................................ P.1.4 

P.1.5 Reinforced Concrete Shapes ....................................... P.1.5 

P.1.6 Prestressed Concrete Shapes....................................... P.1.6 

P.1.7 Mild Steel Reinforced Concrete vs. Precast 

Prestressed Concrete ................................................... P.1.7 

P.1.8 Concrete Pile Bent....................................................... P.1.8 

P.1.9 Steel Making Operation .............................................. P.1.10 

P.1.10 Common Rolled Shapes.............................................. P.1.11 

P.1.11 Bracing Members Made form Angles, Bars, and 

Plates ........................................................................... P.1.12 

P.1.12 Riveted Plate Girder.................................................... P.1.14 

P.1.13 Riveted Box Shapes .................................................... P.1.14 

P.1.14 Welded I-Beam ........................................................... P.1.15 

P.1.15 Welded Box Shapes .................................................... P.1.15 

P.1.16 Cable Supported Bridges............................................. P.1.16 

P.1.17 Sizes of Bridge Pins .................................................... P.1.17 

P.1.18 Pin Connected Truss Members ................................... P.1.18 

P.1.19 Types of Rivet Heads.................................................. P.1.19 

P.1.20 Shop Rivets and Field Bolts........................................ P.1.20 

P.1.21 Close-up of Tack Weld on a Riveted Built-up Truss 

Member ....................................................................... P.1.21 

P.1.22 Pin and Hanger Connection ........................................ P.1.22 

P.1.23 Bolted Field Splice...................................................... P.1.23 

P.1.24 Bridge Deck with a Smooth Riding Surface............... P.1.23 

P.1.25 Underside View of a Bridge Deck .............................. P.1.24 

P.1.26 Composite Deck and Steel Superstructure.................. P.1.24 

P.1.27 Shear Studs on Top Flange of Girder (before 

Concrete Deck is Placed) ........................................... P.1.25 
ii 

 Figure 

No.

 Page 

No.

P.1.28 Plank Deck .................................................................. P.1.26 

P.1.29 Concrete Deck............................................................. P.1.27 

P.1.30 Steel Grid Deck........................................................... P.1.27 

P.1.31 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Deck....................... P.1.28 

P.1.32 Asphalt Wearing Surface on a Concrete Deck............ P.1.29 

P.1.33 Top View of a Finger Plate Joint ................................ P.1.30 

P.1.34 Top View of an Armored Compression Seal in Place P.1.31 

P.1.35 Strip Seal ..................................................................... P.1.31 

P.1.36 New Jersey Barrier...................................................... P.1.33 

P.1.37 Weight Limit Sign....................................................... P.1.34 

P.1.38 Bridge Lighting ........................................................... P.1.34 

P.1.39 Floor System ............................................................... P.1.35 

P.1.40 Main Supporting Elements of Deck Arch................... P.1.36 

P.1.41 Diaphragms ................................................................. P.1.36 

P.1.42 Cross or X-Bracing ..................................................... P.1.37 

P.1.43 Top Lateral Bracing and Sway Bracing...................... P.1.37 

P.1.44 Three Basic Bridge Types........................................... P.1.38 

P.1.45 Slab Bridge.................................................................. P.1.38 

P.1.46 Timber Beam Bridge................................................... P.1.39 

P.1.47 Prestressed Concrete Multi-Girder Bridge.................. P.1.39 

P.1.48 Girder Floorbeam Stringer Bridge .............................. P.1.40 

P.1.49 Curved Girder Bridge.................................................. P.1.40 

P.1.50 Tee Beam Bridge......................................................... P.1.41 

P.1.51 Adjacent Box Beam Bridge ........................................ P.1.41 

P.1.52 Steel Box Girder Bridge.............................................. P.1.42 

P.1.53 Deck Truss Bridge....................................................... P.1.42 

P.1.54 Through Truss Bridge ................................................. P.1.43 

P.1.55 Concrete Deck Arch Bridge........................................ P.1.43 

P.1.56 Through Arch Bridge .................................................. P.1.44 

P.1.57 Steel Suspension Bridge.............................................. P.1.44 

P.1.58 Cable-stayed Bridge.................................................... P.1.45 

P.1.59 Bascule Bridge ............................................................ P.1.46 

P.1.60 Swing Bridge............................................................... P.1.46 

P.1.61 Lift Bridge................................................................... P.1.47 

P.1.62 Floating Bridge ........................................................... P.1.47 

P.1.63 Culvert......................................................................... P.1.48 

P.1.64 Typical Bearing Showing Four Basic Elements ......... P.1.49 

P.1.65 Concrete Abutment ..................................................... P.1.50 

P.1.66 Concrete Pier............................................................... P.1.51 

P.1.67 Cantilever Abutment (or Full Height Abutment)........ P.1.51 

P.1.68 Stub Abutment ............................................................ P.1.52 

P.1.69 Open Abutment ........................................................... P.1.52 

P.1.70 Solid Shaft Pier ........................................................... P.1.53 
iii 

 Figure 

No.

 Page 

No.

P.1.71 Solid Shaft Pier ........................................................... P.1.53 

P.1.72 Column Pier ................................................................ P.1.54 

P.1.73 Column Pier with Web Wall....................................... P.1.54 

P.1.74 Cantilever or Hammerhead Pier.................................. P.1.55 

P.1.75 Column Bent ............................................................... P.1.55 

P.1.76 Pile Bent...................................................................... P.1.56 

Topic P.2 

Basic 

Mechanics

 

P.2.1 Dead Load on a Bridge ............................................... P.2.2 

P.2.2 Vehicle Live Load on a Bridge ................................... P.2.3 

P.2.3 AASHTO H20 Truck .................................................. P.2.4 

P.2.4 AASHTO HS20 Truck................................................ P.2.4 

P.2.5 AASHTO Lane Loadings............................................ P.2.5 

P.2.6 AASHTO LRFD Loading........................................... P.2.6 

P.2.7 Alternate Military Loading ......................................... P.2.7 

P.2.8 Permit Vehicle............................................................. P.2.8 

P.2.9 Axial Forces ................................................................ P.2.10 

P.2.10 Positive and Negative Moment ................................... P.2.11 

P.2.11 Girder Cross Section ................................................... P.2.12 

P.2.12 Bending Stresses ......................................................... P.2.13 

P.2.13 Shear Forces in a Member Element ............................ P.2.13 

P.2.14 Torsion ........................................................................ P.2.14 

P.2.15 Torsional Distortion .................................................... P.2.15 

P.2.16 Types of Supports ....................................................... P.2.15 

P.2.17 Basic Force Components............................................. P.2.16 

P.2.18 Stress-Strain Diagram ................................................. P.2.19 

P.2.19 Rating Vehicles ........................................................... P.2.25 

P.2.20 Bridge Weight Limit Posting ...................................... P.2.26 

P.2.21 Damaged Bridge Due to Failure to Comply with 

Bridge Posting............................................................. P.2.27 

P.2.22 Simple Span ................................................................ P.2.28 

P.2.23 Continuous Span ......................................................... P.2.29 

P.2.24 Cantilever Span ........................................................... P.2.30 

P.2.25 Cantilever Bridge ........................................................ P.2.31 

P.2.26 Composite Concrete Deck on Steel Beams and 

Prestressed Concrete Beams ....................................... P.2.32 

P.2.27 Integral Bridge ............................................................ P.2.33 

P.2.28 Orthotropic Bridge Deck............................................. P.2.34 

P.2.29 Spread Footing ............................................................ P.2.35 

P.2.30 Pile Foundation ........................................................... P.2.36 
iv 

 Figure 

No.

 Page 

No.

Topic P.3 

Culvert 

Characteristics 

 

P.3.1 Culvert Structure ......................................................... P.3.1 

P.3.2 AASHTO Live Load Spacing for Highway 

Structures .................................................................... P.3.6 

P.3.3 Surface Contact Area for Single Dual Wheel ............. P.3.7 

P.3.4 Distribution of Live Load (Single Dual Wheel) for 

Depth of Cover H........................................................ P.3.7 

P.3.5 Culvert Construction and Installation Requirements .. P.3.9 

P.3.6 Circular Culvert Structure........................................... P.3.10 

P.3.7 Pipe Arch Culvert........................................................ P.3.11 

P.3.8 Arch Culvert................................................................ P.3.11 

P.3.9 Concrete Box Culvert.................................................. P.3.12 

P.3.10 Multiple Cell Concrete Culvert................................... P.3.12 

P.3.11 Frame Culvert.............................................................. P.3.13 

P.3.12 Standard Concrete Pipe Shapes................................... P.3.14 

P.3.13 Typical Stone Masonry Arch Culvert ......................... P.3.15 

P.3.14 Timber Box ................................................................. P.3.16 

P.3.15 Culvert End Projection................................................ P.3.17 

P.3.16 Culvert Mitered End .................................................. P.3.18 

P.3.17 Culvert Skewed End.................................................... P.3.18 

P.3.18 Culvert Headwall ........................................................ P.3.19 

P.3.19 Apron .......................................................................... P.3.20 

P.3.20 Energy Dissipator........................................................ P.3.20 

P.3.21 Factors Affecting Culvert Discharge (Source: 

Adapted from Concrete Pipe Handbook, American 

Concrete Pipe Association)......................................... P.3.22 

P.3.22 Bending Failure Due to High Embankment................ P.3.24 

P.3.23 Cracking of Culvert Due to Foundation Settlement.... P.3.25 

P.3.24 Scour and Undermining at Culvert Inlet ..................... P.3.25 

P.3.25 Debris and Sediment Buildup ..................................... P.3.26 

P.3.26 Approach Roadway at a Culvert Site.......................... P.3.27 

P.3.27 Roadway Over a Culvert............................................. P.3.28 

P.3.28 Slide Failure ................................................................ P.3.29 

P.3.29 Headwall and Wingwall End Treatment on Box 

Culvert......................................................................... P.3.29 

P.3.30 Potential for Tilted Wingwalls.................................... P.3.30 

P.3.31 Skewed End................................................................. P.3.31 

P.3.32 Culvert Headwall ........................................................ P.3.31 

P.3.33 Apron .......................................................................... P.3.32 

P.3.34 Energy Dissipator........................................................ P.3.33 
v 

 Figure 

No.

 Page 

No.

Topic 1.1 

History of the 

National Bridge 

Inspection 

Program 

 

1.1.1 Collapse of the Silver Bridge ...................................... 1.1.2 

Topic 1.2 

Responsibilities 

of the Bridge 

Inspector 

 

1.2.1 Mianus Bridge Failure................................................. 1.2.2 

Topic 2.1 

Timber 

 

2.1.1 Glued-laminated Modern Timber Bridge ................... 2.1.1 

2.1.2 Timber Shapes............................................................. 2.1.2 

2.1.3 Built-up Timber Shapes .............................................. 2.1.3 

2.1.4 Anatomy of Timber..................................................... 2.1.5 

2.1.5 Three Principal Axes of Wood.................................... 2.1.6 

2.1.6 Natural Timber Defects............................................... 2.1.9 

2.1.7 Decay of Wood by Fungi ............................................ 2.1.10 

2.1.8 Mold and Stain on Underside of Timber Deck ........... 2.1.11 

2.1.9 Brown and White Rot.................................................. 2.1.12 

2.1.10 Termites....................................................................... 2.1.13 

2.1.11 Powder Post Beetle ..................................................... 2.1.14 

2.1.12 Carpenter Ants ............................................................ 2.1.15 

2.1.13 Caddisfly Larva........................................................... 2.1.16 

2.1.14 Marine Borer Damage to Wood Piling ....................... 2.1.17 

2.1.15 Shipworms (Mollusks)................................................ 2.1.17 

2.1.16 Limnoria (Wood Louse).............................................. 2.1.18 

2.1.17 Delamination in a Glue Laminated Timber Member.. 2.1.19 

2.1.18 Loose Hanger Connection Between the Timber 

Truss and Floorbeam................................................... 2.1.20 

2.1.19 Fire Damaged Timber Member................................... 2.1.20 

2.1.20 Impact/Collision Damage to a Timber Member ......... 2.1.21 

2.1.21 Wear of a Timber Deck............................................... 2.1.21 

2.1.22 Horizontal Shear Failure in Timber Member.............. 2.1.22 

2.1.23 Failed Timber Floorbeam due to Excessive Bending 

Moment ....................................................................... 2.1.22 

2.1.24 Weathering on Timber Deck....................................... 2.1.23 

 
vi 

 Figure 

No.

 Page 

No.

2.1.25 Bridge Timber Member Showing Penetration Depth 

of Preservative Treatment ........................................... 2.1.24 

2.1.26 Coal-tar Creosote Treated Timber Beams (Source: 

Barry Dickson, West Virginia University................... 2.1.25 

2.1.27 Inspector Performing a Pick Test................................ 2.1.28 

2.1.28 Timber Boring and Drilling Locations........................ 2.1.29 

2.1.29 Tooke Gage Used to Measure Coating Dry Film 

Thickness .................................................................... 2.1.30 

Topic 2.2 

Concrete 

 

2.2.1 Concrete Member with Tensile Steel Reinforcement 

Showing ...................................................................... 2.2.6 

2.2.2 Standard Deformed Reinforcing Bars (Source: 

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute ........................... 2.2.7 

2.2.2 Standard Deformed Reinforcing Bars (Source: 

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (Continued)....... 2.2.8 

2.2.3 Prestressed Concrete Beam......................................... 2.2.10 

2.2.4 Prestressed Concrete I-Beams..................................... 2.2.11 

2.2.5 Post-tensioned Concrete Box Girder........................... 2.2.11 

2.2.6 Structural Cracks......................................................... 2.2.14 

2.2.7 Flexural Crack on a Tee Beam.................................... 2.2.15 

2.2.8 Shear Crack on a Slab Beam....................................... 2.2.15 

2.2.9 Thermal Forces............................................................ 2.2.16 

2.2.10 Crack Comparitor Card............................................... 2.2.16 

2.2.11 Temperature Cracks .................................................... 2.2.18 

2.2.12 Shrinkage Cracks ........................................................ 2.2.18 

2.2.13 Transverse Cracks ....................................................... 2.2.20 

2.2.14 Longitudinal Cracks.................................................... 2.2.20 

2.2.15 Pattern or Map Cracks................................................. 2.2.21 

2.2.16 Light or Minor Scaling................................................ 2.2.22 

2.2.17 Medium or Moderate Scaling...................................... 2.2.22 

2.2.18 Heavy Scaling ............................................................. 2.2.22 

2.2.19 Severe Scaling............................................................. 2.2.22 

2.2.20 Spalling on a Concrete Deck....................................... 2.2.23 

2.2.21 Efflorescence............................................................... 2.2.24 

2.2.22 Honeycomb ................................................................. 2.2.25 

2.2.23 Concrete Column Collision Damage .......................... 2.2.26 

2.2.24 Collision Damage to Prestressed Concrete I-Beam .... 2.2.27 

2.2.25 Overload Damage........................................................ 2.2.28 

2.2.26 Loss of Bond: Concrete/Corroded Reinforcing Bar.... 2.2.29 

2.2.27 Freeze-Thaw Damage on a River Pier ........................ 2.2.30 

2.2.28 Anti-Graffiti Coating on Lower Area of Bridge Piers 2.2.33 
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2.2.29 Inspector Using a Chain Drag..................................... 2.2.37 

Topic 2.3 

Steel 

 

2.3.1 Steel Cables................................................................. 2.3.2 

2.3.2 Steel Plates .................................................................. 2.3.3 

2.3.3 Steel Bars .................................................................... 2.3.3 

2.3.4 Rolled Shapes.............................................................. 2.3.4 

2.3.5 Built-up Shapes ........................................................... 2.3.4 

2.3.6 Steel Corrosion and Complete Section Loss on a 

Stringer Web ............................................................... 2.3.7 

2.3.7 Fatigue Crack at a Coped Top Flange of Riveted 

Connection .................................................................. 2.3.8 

2.3.8 Out-of-Plane Distortion............................................... 2.3.9 

2.3.9 Collision Damage on a Steel Bridge ........................... 2.3.10 

2.3.10 Heat Damage............................................................... 2.3.11 

2.3.11 Paint Wrinkling........................................................... 2.3.12 

2.3.12 Rust Undercutting at Scratched Area.......................... 2.3.12 

2.3.13 Pinpoint Rusting.......................................................... 2.3.12 

2.3.14 Paint Peeling from Steel Bridge Members.................. 2.3.12 

2.3.15 Mudcracking Paint ...................................................... 2.3.13 

2.3.16 Corrosion of Steel ....................................................... 2.3.22 

2.3.17 Fatigue Crack .............................................................. 2.3.22 

2.3.18 Paint Failure on Edge of Steel Truss Member ............ 2.3.23 

2.3.19 Water and Salt Runoff Under Expansion Dam Deck 

Opening....................................................................... 2.3.24 

2.3.20 Corroding Rivet Head ................................................. 2.3.24 

2.3.21 Roadway Spray Zone Damage.................................... 2.3.25 

2.3.22 Color of Oxide Film is Critical in the Inspection of 

Weathering Steel; Dark Black Color is an Indication 

of Non-protective Oxide ............................................. 2.3.26 

2.3.23 Yellow Orange – Early Stage of Exposure or Active 

Corrosion..................................................................... 2.3.26 

2.3.24 Light Brown – Early Stage of Exposure ..................... 2.3.27 

2.3.25 Chocolate Brown to Purple Brown – Boldly 

Exposed and Good Degree of Protection.................... 2.3.27 

2.3.26 Black – Non-protective Oxide .................................... 2.3.28 

Topic 2.4 

Stone Masonry 

 

2.4.1 Stone Masonry Arch ................................................... 2.4.1 

2.4.2 Splitting in Stone Masonry.......................................... 2.4.3 
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Topic 3.1 

Duties of the 

Bridge 

Inspection 

Team 

 

3.1.1 Inspectors Reviewing Bridge Plans ............................ 3.1.3 

3.1.2 Sample Bridge Numbering Sequence ......................... 3.1.4 

3.1.3 Sample Truss Numbering Scheme.............................. 3.1.5 

3.1.4 Traffic Control Operation ........................................... 3.1.7 

3.1.5 Inspection for Scour and Undermining....................... 3.1.12 

Topic 3.2 

Safety Practices 

 

3.2.1 Inspector Wearing a Hard Hat..................................... 3.2.3 

3.2.2 Inspector Wearing a Reflective Safety Vest ............... 3.2.4 

3.2.3 Inspector Wearing Safety Goggles and Gloves .......... 3.2.5 

3.2.4 Inspector Wearing a Life Jacket.................................. 3.2.6 

3.2.5 Inspector Wearing a Respirator................................... 3.2.7 

3.2.6 Safety Harness with a Lanyard ................................... 3.2.8 

3.2.7 Inspection Involving Extensive Climbing................... 3.2.11 

3.2.8 Inclement Weather Causing Slippery Bridge 

Members and Poor Visibility for Motorists ................ 3.2.12 

3.2.9 Proper Use of Ladder .................................................. 3.2.13 

3.2.10 Bucket Truck............................................................... 3.2.14 

3.2.11 Inspection Catwalk...................................................... 3.2.15 

3.2.12 Inspection Rigging ...................................................... 3.2.16 

Topic 3.3 

Traffic Control 

 

3.3.1 Traffic Control Operation ........................................... 3.3.1 

3.3.2 Work Zone .................................................................. 3.3.3 

3.3.3 Inspection Vehicle with Flashing Light ...................... 3.3.4 

3.3.4 Work Area Speed Limit Sign (Regulatory) ................ 3.3.6 

3.3.5 Traffic Control Sign (Warning) .................................. 3.3.7 

3.3.6 Traffic Control Cones ................................................. 3.3.8 

3.3.7 Traffic Control Drums................................................. 3.3.8 

3.3.8 Arrowboard ................................................................. 3.3.9 

3.3.9 Message Board............................................................ 3.3.9 

3.3.10 Use of Hand Signaling Devices by Flagger (from 

Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices 

MUTCD) ..................................................................... 3.3.11 

3.3.11 Flagger with Stop/Slow Paddle................................... 3.3.13 
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3.3.12 Shadow Vehicle with Attenuator ................................ 3.3.14 

Topic 3.4 

Inspection 

Equipment 

 

3.4.1 Tools for Cleaning....................................................... 3.4.1 

3.4.2 Tools for Inspection .................................................... 3.4.2 

3.4.3 Tools for Visual Aid ................................................... 3.4.2 

3.4.4 Tools for Measuring.................................................... 3.4.3 

3.4.5 Rotary Percussion ....................................................... 3.4.6 

3.4.6 Scour Monitoring Collar ............................................. 3.4.7 

3.4.7 Scour Monitoring Collar Schematic ........................... 3.4.8 

3.4.8 Remote Camera........................................................... 3.4.9 

3.4.9 High Speed Underclearance Measurement System .... 3.4.10 

3.4.10 Pen Based Tablet......................................................... 3.4.11 

Topic 3.5 

Methods of 

Access 

 

3.5.1 Inspection with a Ladder............................................. 3.5.1 

3.5.2 Use of a Hook Ladder ................................................. 3.5.2 

3.5.3 Rigging for Substructure Inspection ........................... 3.5.2 

3.5.4 Rigging for Superstructure Inspection ........................ 3.5.3 

3.5.5 Scaffold ....................................................................... 3.5.4 

3.5.6 Inspection Operations from a Barge ........................... 3.5.5 

3.5.7 Climber........................................................................ 3.5.5 

3.5.8 Float (foreground) and Spider (background) .............. 3.5.6 

3.5.9 Bosun Chair................................................................. 3.5.6 

3.5.10 Climbing...................................................................... 3.5.7 

3.5.11 Catwalk ....................................................................... 3.5.8 

3.5.12 Traveler Platform ........................................................ 3.5.9 

3.5.13 Handrail....................................................................... 3.5.9 

3.5.14 Manlift......................................................................... 3.5.10 

3.5.15 Bucket Truck............................................................... 3.5.11 

3.5.16 Underbridge Inspection Vehicle ................................. 3.5.12 

3.5.17 Platform Truck ............................................................ 3.5.13 

Topic 4.1 

Structure 

Inventory 

 

4.1.1 FHWA SI&A Sheet with Element Level Data ........... 4.1.3 

4.1.2 FHWA SI&A Sheet with NBI Data Only................... 4.1.4 

4.1.3 Arizona Structural Inventory and Appraisal Sheet ..... 4.1.5 
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4.1.4 Florida Structural Inventory and Appraisal Sheet....... 4.1.6 

4.1.4 Florida Structural Inventory and Appraisal Sheet 

(Continued) ................................................................. 4.1.7 

4.1.4 Florida Structural Inventory and Appraisal Sheet 

(Continued) ................................................................. 4.1.8 

4.1.4 Florida Structural Inventory and Appraisal Sheet 

(Continued) ................................................................. 4.1.9 

4.1.5 Wearable Computer with Case.................................... 4.1.10 

4.1.6 Inspector Using Wearable Computer.......................... 4.1.10 

Topic 4.3 

Record Keeping 

and 

Documentation 

 

4.3.1 Inspector Taking Notes ............................................... 4.3.2 

4.3.2 Electronic Data Collection .......................................... 4.3.2 

4.3.3 Sample Photo Log....................................................... 4.3.4 

4.3.4 Accident Involving Construction Equipment and a 

Bridge.......................................................................... 4.3.5 

4.3.5 Posted Bridge .............................................................. 4.3.6 

4.3.6 Flood Event ................................................................. 4.3.6 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 .......................................................................... 4.3.8 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.9 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.10 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.11 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.12 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.13 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.14 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.15 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.16 

4.3.7 Example Inspection Form – PENNDOT Form 

D-450 (Continued) ...................................................... 4.3.17 

4.3.8 Core Element Example Inspection Form – Michigan 

Department of Transportation..................................... 4.3.18 
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4.3.9 Framing Plan ............................................................... 4.3.19 

4.3.10 Girder Elevation.......................................................... 4.3.20 

4.3.11 Typical Prepared Culvert Sketches ............................. 4.3.20 

4.3.12 Sample General Plan Sketch ....................................... 4.3.21 

4.3.13 Sample General Elevation Sketch............................... 4.3.21 

4.3.14 Sample Deck Inspection Notes ................................... 4.3.22 

4.3.15 Sample Superstructure Inspection Notes .................... 4.3.22 

4.3.16 Sample Substructure Inspection Notes ....................... 4.3.23 

4.3.17 Sample Span Numbering Scheme............................... 4.3.25 

4.3.18 Sample Typical Section Numbering Scheme.............. 4.3.25 

4.3.19 Sample Structure Orientation Sketch.......................... 4.3.25 

4.3.20 Sample Truss Numbering Scheme.............................. 4.3.26 

4.3.21 Steel Superstructure Dimensions ................................ 4.3.26 

4.3.22 Truss Member and Field Splice Dimensions .............. 4.3.27 

Topic 4.5 

AASHTO 

Commonly 

Recognized 

(CoRe) 

Elements 

 

4.5.1 AASHTO CoRe Element Guide ................................. 4.5.3 

4.5.2 Deck / Slab CoRe Elements for AASHTO “Guide 

for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural 

Elements”, page 9........................................................ 4.5.5 

4.5.3 Superstructure CoRe Elements for AASHTO “Guide 

for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural 

Elements”, page 18...................................................... 4.5.6 

4.5.4 Substructure CoRe Elements for AASHTO “Guide 

for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural 

Elements”, page 18...................................................... 4.5.6 

4.5.5 Other Super/Substructure CoRe Elements for 

AASHTO “Guide for Commonly Recognized 

(CoRe) Structural Elements”, page 18........................ 4.5.7 

4.5.6 Smart Flags for AASHTO “Guide for Commonly 

Recognized (CoRe) Structural Elements”, page 35 .... 4.5.8 

Topic 5.1 

Timber Decks 

 

5.1.1 Plank Deck .................................................................. 5.1.2 

5.1.2 Section of a Nailed Laminated Deck .......................... 5.1.2 

5.1.3 Glue Laminated Deck Panels...................................... 5.1.3 

5.1.4 Stress-laminated Deck................................................. 5.1.4 
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5.1.5 Structural Composite Lumber Deck using Box 

Sections ....................................................................... 5.1.5 

5.1.6 Timber Wearing Surface on a Timber Deck............... 5.1.6 

5.1.7 Inspector Probing Timber with a Pick at Reflective 

Cracks in the Asphalt Wearing Surface ...................... 5.1.8 

5.1.8 Wear and Weathering on a Timber Deck.................... 5.1.10 

5.1.9 Bearing and Shear Area on a Timber Deck ................ 5.1.10 

5.1.10 Edge of Deck Exposed to Drainage, Resulting in 

Plant Growth ............................................................... 5.1.11 

Topic 5.2 

Concrete Decks 

 

5.2.1 Stay-in-Place Forms.................................................... 5.2.2 

5.2.2 Precast Deck Panels (with Lifting Lugs Evident and 

Top Beam Flange Exposed)........................................ 5.2.3 

5.2.3 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Deck....................... 5.2.4 

5.2.4 Fiber Reinforced Concrete .......................................... 5.2.4 

5.2.5 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) Bridge Deck 

Cross-Section .............................................................. 5.2.5 

5.2.6 Shear Connectors Welded to the Top Flange of a 

Steel Girder ................................................................. 5.2.6 

5.2.7 Prestressed Concrete Beams with Shear Connectors 

Protruding.................................................................... 5.2.6 

5.2.8 Spall Showing Deck Reinforcing Steel 

Perpendicular to Traffic .............................................. 5.2.7 

5.2.9 Cathodic Protection..................................................... 5.2.11 

5.2.10 Inspector Using a Chain Drag..................................... 5.2.12 

5.2.11 Underside View of Longitudinal Deck Crack............. 5.2.15 

5.2.12 Deteriorated Stay-in-Place Form................................. 5.2.15 

Topic 5.3 

Steel Decks 

 

5.3.1 Orthotropic Bridge Deck............................................. 5.3.1 

5.3.2 Underside View of Buckle Plate Deck........................ 5.3.2 

5.3.3 Sectional View of Corrugated Steel Floor .................. 5.3.3 

5.3.4 Concrete Filled Grid Deck .......................................... 5.3.4 

5.3.5 Filled and Un-filled Steel Grid Deck .......................... 5.3.4 

5.3.6 Various Patterns of Welded Steel Grid Decks ............ 5.3.5 

5.3.7 Riveted Grate Deck..................................................... 5.3.6 

5.3.8 Steel Grid Deck with Slotted Holes (to eliminate 

welding and riveting) .................................................. 5.3.7 

5.3.9 Schematic of Exodermic Composite Profile............... 5.3.7 

5.3.10 Broken Members of an Open Steel Grid Deck ........... 5.3.11 
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Topic 5.4 

Deck Joints, 

Drainage 

Systems, 

Lighting and 

signs 

 

5.4.1 Formed Joint ............................................................... 5.4.2 

5.4.2 Cross Section of a Formed Joint ................................. 5.4.3 

5.4.3 Finger Plate Joint ...................................................... 5.4.4 

5.4.4 Cross Section of a Cantilever Finger Plate Joint......... 5.4.4 

5.4.5 Supported Finger Plate Joint ..................................... 5.4.5 

5.4.6 Cross Section of a Compression Seal with Steel 

Angle Armoring .......................................................... 5.4.6 

5.4.7 Cross Section of a Sliding Plate Joint ......................... 5.4.7 

5.4.8 Plank Seal.................................................................... 5.4.8 

5.4.9 Sheet Seal.................................................................... 5.4.8 

5.4.10 Strip Seal ..................................................................... 5.4.9 

5.4.11 Schematic Cross Section of a Modular Elastomeric 

Seal.............................................................................. 5.4.9 

5.4.12 Asphaltic Expansion Joint........................................... 5.4.10 

5.4.13 Bridge Deck Drain ...................................................... 5.4.11 

5.4.14 Downspout Pipes and Cleanout Plugs ........................ 5.4.12 

5.4.15 Debris Lodged in a Sliding Plate Joint........................ 5.4.16 

5.4.16 Dirt in a Compression Seal Joint................................. 5.4.17 

5.4.17 Improper Vertical Alignment at a Finger Plate Joint.. 5.4.18 

5.4.18 Failed Compression Seal ........................................... 5.4.19 

5.4.19 Asphalt Wearing Surface Over an Expansion Joint.... 5.4.20 

5.4.20 Support System under a Finger Plate Joint ................. 5.4.21 

5.4.21 Clogged Drainage Inlet ............................................ 5.4.22 

5.4.22 Drainage Trough with Debris Accumulation.............. 5.4.23 

Topic 5.5 

Safety Features 

 

5.5.1 Bridge Safety Feature.................................................. 5.5.1 

5.5.2 Traffic Safety Features................................................ 5.5.3 

5.5.3 Bridge Railing, Transition, Approach Guardrail and 

End Treatment............................................................. 5.5.3 

5.5.4 Acceptable Bridge Rail ............................................... 5.5.9 

5.5.5 Bridge Rail Guide ....................................................... 5.5.9 

5.5.6 Acceptable Transition ................................................. 5.5.10 

5.5.7 Approach Guardrail System........................................ 5.5.11 

 
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5.5.8 W-Shaped Guardrail End Flared and Buried into an 

Embankment ............................................................... 5.5.12 

5.5.9 Unacceptable Blunt Ends ............................................ 5.5.13 

5.5.10 Damaged Steel Post Bridge Railing............................ 5.5.15 

5.5.11 Approach Guardrail Collision Damage....................... 5.5.16 

5.5.12 Erosion Reducing Post Embedment............................ 5.5.16 

5.5.13 Proper Nesting of Guardrail at Transition................... 5.5.17 

5.5.14 Impact Attenuator........................................................ 5.5.18 

5.5.15 Timber Traffic Safety Features ................................... 5.5.18 

Topic 6.1 

Solid Sawn 

Timber Bridges 

 

6.1.1 Elevation View of a Solid Sawn Multi-Beam Bridge. 6.1.1 

6.1.2 Underside View of a Solid Sawn Multi-Beam 

Bridge.......................................................................... 6.1.2 

6.1.3 Elevation View of Covered Bridge............................. 6.1.3 

6.1.4 Inside View of Covered Bridge Showing King Post 

Truss Design ............................................................... 6.1.4 

6.1.5 Town Truss Covered Bridge ....................................... 6.1.5 

6.1.6 Common Covered Bridge Trusses .............................. 6.1.5 

6.1.7 Schematic of Burr Arch-truss Covered Bridge ........... 6.1.6 

6.1.8 Burr Arch-truss Covered Bridge ................................. 6.1.6 

6.1.9 Inside View of Covered Bridge with Burr Arch-truss 

Design ......................................................................... 6.1.7 

6.1.10 Town Truss Design ..................................................... 6.1.7 

6.1.11 Bearing Area of Typical Solid Sawn Beam ................ 6.1.9 

6.1.12 Horizontal Shear Crack in a Timber Beam................. 6.1.10 

6.1.13 Decay in a Timber Beam............................................. 6.1.11 

6.1.14 Typical Timber End Diaphragm ................................. 6.1.12 

Topic 6.2 

Glulam Timber 

Bridges 

 

6.2.1 Elevation View of a Glulam Multi-beam Bridge........ 6.2.1 

6.2.2 Underside View of a Glulam Multi-beam Bridge....... 6.2.2 

6.2.3 Timber Through Truss Typical Section ...................... 6.2.3 

6.2.4 Bowstring Truss Pedestrian Bridge............................. 6.2.4 

6.2.5 Parallel Chord Truss Pedestrian Bridge (Eagle 

River, Alaska) ............................................................. 6.2.4 

6.2.6 Glulam Arch Bridge over Glulam Multi-beam 

Bridge (Keystone Wye Interchange, South Dakota)... 6.2.5 

6.2.7 Glulam Arch Bridge (West Virginia).......................... 6.2.5 
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6.2.8 Typical Glulam Diaphragm ........................................ 6.2.6 

6.2.9 Bearing Area of Typical Glulam Beam ...................... 6.2.8 

6.2.10 Close-up View of Glulam Bridge Showing 

Laminations................................................................. 6.2.9 

6.2.11 Elevation View of Beam of Glulam Multi-beam 

Bridge.......................................................................... 6.2.9 

6.2.12 Decay on Glulam Bridge............................................. 6.2.10 

6.2.13 Typical Diaphragm for a Glulam Multi-beam Bridge 

6.2.11 

6.2.14 Glulam Beams with Numerous Fastener Locations.... 6.2.11 

Topic 6.3 

Stress Timber 

Bridges 

 

6.3.1 Stress-Laminated Timber Slab Bridge Carrying a 

90,000-Pound Logging Truck (Source: Barry 

Dickson, West Virginia University)............................ 6.3.1 

6.3.2 Typical Section of Stress-Laminated Timber Slab 

Bridge.......................................................................... 6.3.2 

6.3.3 Stress-Laminated Timber Slab Bridge........................ 6.3.2 

6.3.4 Glulam Stress-Laminated Timber Slab Bridge........... 6.3.3 

6.3.5 Typical Section of Stress-Laminated Timber Tee 

Beam Bridge (Source: Barry Dickson, West Virginia 

University) .................................................................. 6.3.3 

6.3.6 Elevation View of Stress-Laminated Timber Tee 

Beam Bridge (West Virginia) ..................................... 6.3.4 

6.3.7 Typical Section of Stress-Laminated Timber Box 

Beam (Source: Barry Dickson, West Virginia 

University) .................................................................. 6.3.4 

6.3.8 Stress-Laminated Timber Box Beam Bridge Being 

Erected......................................................................... 6.3.5 

6.3.9 Stress-Laminated Timber K-Frame Bridge................. 6.3.5 

6.3.10 Broken Stressing Rods ................................................ 6.3.7 

6.3.11 Close-up View of End of a Stress-Laminated Timber 

Bridge Showing Laminations...................................... 6.2.8 

Topic 7.1 

Cast-in-Place 

Slabs 

 

7.1.1 Typical Simple Span Cast-in-Place Slab Bridge......... 7.1.1 

7.1.2 Typical Multi-span Cast-in-Place Slab Bridge ........... 7.1.2 

7.1.3 Steel Reinforcement in a Simply Supported 

Concrete Slab .............................................................. 7.1.3 
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7.1.4 Bearing Area: Cast-in-Place Slab................................ 7.1.5 

7.1.5 Shear Cracks in the Ends of a Slab Bridge ................. 7.1.6 

7.1.6 Shear Zone on the Underside of a Continuous Slab 

Bridge Near a Pier....................................................... 7.1.6 

7.1.7 Concrete Slab Tension Zone: Delamination, 

Efflorescence, Rust and Stains.................................... 7.1.7 

7.1.8 Deteriorated Slab Fascia due to Roadway Deicing 

Agents ......................................................................... 7.1.8 

Topic 7.2 

Tee Beams 

 

7.2.1 Simple Span Tee Beam Bridge ................................... 7.2.1 

7.2.2 Typical Tee Beam Cross Section ................................ 7.2.2 

7.2.3 Typical Tee Beam Layout........................................... 7.2.2 

7.2.4 Comparison Between Tee Beam and Concrete 

Encased Steel I-beam .................................................. 7.2.3 

7.2.5 Concrete Encased Steel I-beam................................... 7.2.3 

7.2.6 Tee Beam Primary and Secondary Members.............. 7.2.4 

7.2.7 Steel Reinforcement in a Concrete Tee Beam ............ 7.2.4 

7.2.8 Bearing Area of Typical Cast-in-Place Concrete Tee 

Beam Bridge................................................................ 7.2.7 

7.2.9 Spalled Tee Beam End................................................ 7.2.7 

7.2.10 Deteriorated Tee Beam Bearing Area......................... 7.2.8 

7.2.11 Steel Bearing Supporting a Cast-in-Place Concrete 

Tee Beam .................................................................... 7.2.8 

7.2.12 Shear Zone of Cast-in-Place Concrete Tee Beam 

Bridge.......................................................................... 7.2.9 

7.2.13 Flexure Cracks on a Tee Beam ................................... 7.2.10 

7.2.14 Flexure Cracks in Tee Beam Deck.............................. 7.2.10 

7.2.15 Stem of a Cast-in-Place Concrete Tee Beam with 

Contaminated Concrete .............................................. 7.2.11 

7.2.16 Spall on the Bottom of the Stem of a Cast-in-Place 

Tee Beam with Corroded Main Steel Exposed........... 7.2.11 

7.2.17 Asphalt Covered Tee Beam Deck............................... 7.2.12 

7.2.18 Deteriorated Tee Beam Stem Adjacent to Drain 

Hole............................................................................. 7.2.13 

7.2.19 Deteriorated Tee Beam End Due to Drainage............. 7.2.13 

7.2.20 Collision damage to Tee Beam Bridge Over a 

Highway ..................................................................... 7.2.14 

7.2.21 Components/Elements for Evaluation ........................ 7.2.16 
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Topic 7.3 

Concrete 

Girders 

 

7.3.1 Concrete Deck Girder Bridge...................................... 7.3.1 

7.3.2 Concrete Through Girder Bridge ................................ 7.3.1 

7.3.3 Concrete Deck Girder, Underside View ..................... 7.3.2 

7.3.4 Concrete Through Girder Elevation View .................. 7.3.3 

7.3.5 Steel Reinforcement in a Concrete Through Girder ... 7.3.4 

7.3.6 Bearing Area of a Through Girder Bridge .................. 7.3.6 

7.3.7 Typical Elevation View of a Through Girder Bridge 

with Tension Zones Indicated ..................................... 7.3.7 

7.3.8 Exposed Reinforcement in a Through Girder (under 

hammer) ...................................................................... 7.3.8 

7.3.9 Close-up of an Interior Face of a Through Girder 

with Heavy Scaling Due to Deicing Agents ............... 7.3.8 

Topic 7.4 

Concrete 

Channel Beams 

 

7.4.1 Underside View of Precast Channel Beam Bridge ..... 7.4.1 

7.4.2 Underside View of a Cast-in-Place Channel Beam 

Bridge.......................................................................... 7.4.1 

7.4.3 General View of a Precast Channel Beam Bridge ...... 7.4.2 

7.4.4 Cross Section of a Typical Channel Beam.................. 7.4.3 

7.4.5 Excessive Deflection at Mid-Span.............................. 7.4.6 

7.4.6 Joint Leakage Between Channel Beams ..................... 7.4.7 

7.4.7 Top of Deck View of Precast Channel Beam Bridge . 7.4.8 

7.4.8 Stem Tie-Bolts ............................................................ 7.4.8 

7.4.9 Close-up of Stem Tie-Bolts......................................... 7.4.9 

7.4.10 Close-up of Diaphragm............................................... 7.4.9 

7.4.11 Components/Elements for Evaluation ........................ 7.4.11 

Topic 7.5 

Concrete 

Arches and 

Arch Culverts 

 

7.5.1 Open Spandrel Arch Bridge........................................ 7.5.1 

7.5.2 Multi-Span Closed Spandrel Arch Bridge .................. 7.5.2 

7.5.3 Concrete Through Arch Bridge................................... 7.5.3 

7.5.4 Precast Concrete Arch with Integral Vertical Legs .... 7.5.4 

7.5.5 Precast Segmental Concrete Arch............................... 7.5.4 

 
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7.5.6 Precast Post-tensioned Concrete Arch without 

Spandrel Columns ....................................................... 7.5.5 

7.5.7 Concrete Arch Culvert ................................................ 7.5.6 

7.5.8 Closed Spandrel Arch versus Arch Culvert ................ 7.5.6 

7.5.9 Primary and Secondary Members of an Open 

Spandrel Arch.............................................................. 7.5.7 

7.5.10 Primary Members of a Closed Spandrel Arch ............ 7.5.8 

7.5.11 Open Spandrel Arch Reinforcement ........................... 7.5.9 

7.5.12 Spandrel Bent Cap Reinforcement.............................. 7.5.9 

7.5.13 Reinforcement in a Closed Spandrel Arch.................. 7.5.10 

7.5.14 Spandrel Column Cap Interface.................................. 7.5.13 

7.5.15 Spandrel Bent Tension Zone....................................... 7.5.14 

7.5.16 Deteriorated Arch/Spandrel Wall Interface ................ 7.5.14 

7.5.17 Severe Scaling and Spalling on a Spandrel Column... 7.5.15 

7.5.18 Scaling and Contamination on an Arch Rib Due to a 

Failed Drainage System .............................................. 7.5.16 

7.5.19 Measurements for Closed Spandrel Arches and Arch 

Culverts ....................................................................... 7.5.18 

Topic 7.6 

Concrete Rigid 

Frames 

 

7.6.1 Three Span Concrete Rigid Frame Bridge.................. 7.6.1 

7.6.2 Typical Single-span Rectangular Concrete Rigid 

Frame Bridge............................................................... 7.6.2 

7.6.3 Typical Concrete Frame Culvert................................. 7.6.2 

7.6.4 Typical Concrete K-frame Bridge............................... 7.6.3 

7.6.5 Elevation of a Single Frame........................................ 7.6.3 

7.6.6 Elevation of a K-frame................................................ 7.6.4 

7.6.7 Deflected Simply Supported Slab versus Deflected 

Frame Shape................................................................ 7.6.4 

7.6.8 Tension Reinforcement in a Single Span Slab or 

Beam Frame ................................................................ 7.6.5 

7.6.9 Tension Reinforcement in a Multi-span Slab or 

Beam Frame ................................................................ 7.6.5 

7.6.10 Tension, Shear, and Column Reinforcement in a 

Typical K-frame.......................................................... 7.6.6 

7.6.11 Shear Zones in Single Span and Multi-span Frames .. 7.6.8 

7.6.12 Tension Zones in a Single Span Beam Frame ............ 7.6.9 

7.6.13 Tension Zones in a Multi-span Frame ........................ 7.6.9 

7.6.14 Roadway of a Rigid Frame Bridge with Asphalt 

Wearing Surface.......................................................... 7.6.10 

7.6.15 Longitudinal Joint Between Slab Beam Frames ......... 7.6.11 
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Topic 7.7 

Precast and 

Prestressed 

Slabs 

 

7.7.1 Typical Prestressed Slab Beam Bridge ....................... 7.7.1 

7.7.2 Cross Section of a Typical Voided Slab ..................... 7.7.2 

7.7.3 Prestressed Slab Beam Bridge Reinforcement............ 7.7.3 

7.7.4 Leaking Joint between Adjacent Slab Units ............... 7.7.6 

7.7.5 Exposed Strands in a Prestressed Slab Beam.............. 7.7.7 

Topic 7.8 

Prestressed 

Double Tees 

 

7.8.1 Typical Prestressed Double Tee Beam ....................... 7.8.1 

7.8.2 Prestressed Double Tee Beam Typical Section .......... 7.8.2 

7.8.3 Dapped End of a Prestressed Double Tee Beam......... 7.8.2 

7.8.4 Steel Reinforcement in a Prestressed Double Tee 

Beam ........................................................................... 7.8.3 

7.8.5 Crack Locations for Dapped End Double Tee 

Beams.......................................................................... 7.8.6 

7.8.6 Components/Elements for Evaluation ........................ 7.8.8 

Topic 7.9 

Prestressed 

I-Beams 

 

7.9.1 Prestressed I-beam Superstructure .............................. 7.9.1 

7.9.2 AASHTO Cross Sections of Prestressed I-beams....... 7.9.2 

7.9.3 Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC) Prestressed 

X-beam........................................................................ 7.9.3 

7.9.4 Continuous Prestressed I-beam Schematic ................. 7.9.3 

7.9.5 Continuous Prestressed I-beam Bridge ....................... 7.9.4 

7.9.6 Cast-in-Place Stirrups.................................................. 7.9.4 

7.9.7 Concrete End Diaphragm............................................ 7.9.5 

7.9.8 Prestressed I-beam Reinforcement (Schematic) ......... 7.9.6 

7.9.9 Bearing Area of a Typical Prestressed I-beam............ 7.9.9 

7.9.10 Spalling Due to Poor Concrete.................................... 7.9.9 

7.9.11 Flexure Crack.............................................................. 7.9.10 

7.9.12 Typical Concrete Diaphragm ...................................... 7.9.11 

7.9.13 Leakage of Water at Joint between Spans................... 7.9.11 

7.9.14 Collision Damage on Prestressed Concrete I-beam.... 7.9.12 

7.9.15 Collision Damage Repair on Prestressed Concrete Ibeam: Note Epoxy Injection Ports .............................. 7.9.13 
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Topic 7.10 

Prestressed 

Box Beams 

 

7.10.1 Typical Box Beam Bridge........................................... 7.10.1 

7.10.2 Box Beam Cross Section............................................. 7.10.2 

7.10.3 Box Beams at Fabrication Plant Showing Stirrups 

Extended as Shear Connectors and Extended Rebar 

for Continuity ............................................................ 7.10.3 

7.10.4 Applications for Prestressed Box Beams .................... 7.10.4 

7.10.5 Adjacent Box Beams: Top Flanges Acting as the 

Deck ........................................................................... 7.10.5 

7.10.6 Transverse Post-tensioning of an Adjacent Box 

Beam Bridge................................................................ 7.10.5 

7.10.7 Underside of a Typical Spread Box Beam.................. 7.10.6 

7.10.8 End and Intermediate Diaphragms on a Spread Box 

Beam Bridge................................................................ 7.10.7 

7.10.9 Schematic of Internal Diaphragms.............................. 7.10.7 

7.10.10 Typical Prestressed Box Beam Reinforcement........... 7.10.8 

7.10.11 Spalled Beam Ends ..................................................... 7.10.11 

7.10.12 Exposed Bars at End of Box Beam............................. 7.10.11 

7.10.13 Longitudinal Cracks in Bottom Flange at Beam......... 7.10.12 

7.10.14 Diagonal Shear Crack in Web of Beam ...................... 7.10.12 

7.10.15 Spall and Exposed Reinforcement .............................. 7.10.13 

7.10.16 Joint Leakage and Rust Stain ...................................... 7.10.14 

7.10.17 Close-up of Collision Damage.................................... 7.10.15 

7.10.18 Burlap Fold Depressions in an Early 1950’s 

Prestressed Box Beam................................................. 7.10.16 

7.10.19 Components/Elements for Evaluation ........................ 7.10.18 

Topic 7.11 

Concrete Box 

Girders 

 

7.11.1 Typical Concrete Box Girder Cross Sections ............. 7.11.1 

7.11.2 Cast-in-place Concrete Box Girder Bridge................. 7.11.2 

7.11.3 Multi-cell Girder Post Tensioned................................ 7.11.2 

7.11.4 Cast-in-place Concrete Box Girder Bridge................. 7.11.3 

7.11.5 High Level Casting Formwork on Falsework............. 7.11.3 

7.11.6 At-Grade Formwork with Post-tensioning Ducts ....... 7.11.4 

7.11.7 Box Girder Bridge Construction ................................. 7.11.4 

7.11.8 Basic Components/Elements of a Concrete Box 

Girder .......................................................................... 7.11.5 

 
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7.11.9 Replaceable Deck on a Multiple Cell Cast-in-place 

Box Girder................................................................... 7.11.5 

7.11.10 Primary and Secondary Reinforcement in a Concrete 

Box Girder................................................................... 7.11.6 

7.11.11 Formwork with Post-tensioning Anchorage and 

Spiral Anchorage Reinforcement................................ 7.11.7 

7.11.12 Adjacent Single Cell Boxes with Closure Pour .......... 7.11.8 

7.11.13 Segmental Concrete Bridge......................................... 7.11.8 

7.11.14 Close-up of Segment................................................... 7.11.9 

7.11.15 Cast-in-place Box Girder Segment ............................. 7.11.10 

7.11.16 Box Girder Segment.................................................... 7.11.11 

7.11.17 Balanced Cantilever Method....................................... 7.11.12 

7.11.18 Balanced Cantilever Construction............................... 7.11.12 

7.11.19 Balanced Cantilever Construction............................... 7.11.13 

7.11.20 Span-by-Span Construction (with Erection Truss) ..... 7.11.14 

7.11.21 Span-by-Span Close-up (with Erection Truss) ........... 7.11.14 

7.11.22 Span-by-Span Total Span Erection (Lifting) .............. 7.11.15 

7.11.23 Progressive Placement Construction........................... 7.11.16 

7.11.24 Incremental Launching Method .................................. 7.11.17 

7.11.25 Incremental Launching Overview (Note Temporary 

Pile Bent)..................................................................... 7.11.17 

7.11.26 Bearing Area of a Cast-in-place Box Girder Bridge... 7.11.20 

7.11.27 Box Girder Cracks Induced by Shear.......................... 7.11.21 

7.11.28 Box Girder Cracks Induced by Direct Tension........... 7.11.21 

7.11.29 Box Girder Cracks Induced by Flexure (Positive 

Moment)...................................................................... 7.11.22 

7.11.30 Box Girder Cracks Induced by Flexure (Negative 

Moment)...................................................................... 7.11.22 

7.11.31 Box Girder Cracks Induced by Flexure Shear ............ 7.11.23 

7.11.32 Web Splitting Near an Anchorage Block.................... 7.11.24 

7.11.33 Box Girder Cracks Induced by Torsion and Shear ..... 7.11.25 

7.11.34 Thermally Induced Cracks in Box Girder Flanges ..... 7.11.25 

7.11.35 Thermally Induced Cracks at Change in Box Girder 

Cross Section............................................................... 7.11.26 

7.11.36 Post-Tensioning Tendon Duct..................................... 7.11.26 

7.11.37 Interior Formwork Left in Place ................................. 7.11.27 

7.11.38 Location of Observation Points Across the Top 

Flange.......................................................................... 7.11.28 

7.11.39 Segmental Box Girder Bearings at Intermediate Pier. 7.11.29 

7.11.40 Segmental Box Girder Cracks Adjacent to 

Anchorage Block......................................................... 7.11.30 

7.11.41 Close-up View of Box Girder Shear Keys.................. 7.11.31 

7.11.42 View of Box Girder Joint and Anchorage Block........ 7.11.31 
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7.11.43 Box Girder Interior (End) Diaphragm......................... 7.11.32 

7.11.44 Inside View of Externally Post-tensioned Box 

Girder .......................................................................... 7.11.33 

7.11.45 Components/Elements for Evaluation ........................ 7.11.34 

Topic 7.12 

Concrete Box 

Culverts 

 

7.12.1 Concrete Box Culvert.................................................. 7.12.1 

7.12.2 Multi-cell Concrete Box Culvert................................. 7.12.2 

7.12.3 Loads on a Concrete Box Culvert ............................... 7.12.2 

7.12.4 Precast Concrete Box Culvert ..................................... 7.12.3 

7.12.5 Steel Reinforcement in a Concrete Box Culvert......... 7.12.4 

7.12.6 Precast Box Sections with Post-Tensioning Steel 

Ducts ........................................................................... 7.12.4 

7.12.7 Sighting Along Culvert Sidewall to Check 

Horizontal Alignment.................................................. 7.12.7 

7.12.8 Precast Concrete Box Culvert Joint ............................ 7.12.8 

7.12.9 Cast in Place Concrete Box Culvert Outlet................. 7.12.9 

7.12.10 Spalls and Delaminations............................................ 7.12.9 

7.12.11 NBIS Guidelines Item 62 - Culvert Rating 

Guidelines ................................................................... 7.12.12 

Topic 8.1 

Fatigue and 

Fracture in 

Steel 

 

8.1.1 Silver Bridge Collapse ................................................ 8.1.1 

8.1.2 Mianus River Bridge Failure....................................... 8.1.2 

8.1.3 Load Path Redundant Multi-Girder Bridge................. 8.1.4 

8.1.4 Structurally Redundant Continuous Span Bridge ....... 8.1.4 

8.1.5 Internally Redundant Riveted I-Beam ........................ 8.1.5 

8.1.6 Internally Redundant Riveted Box Shapes ................. 8.1.6 

8.1.7 Patch Plate on Girder Web along Flange Angle ......... 8.1.6 

8.1.8 Non-Redundant Two Girder ....................................... 8.1.7 

8.1.9 Brittle Fracture of Cast Iron Specimen ....................... 8.1.8 

8.1.10 Ductile Fracture of Cold Rolled Steel......................... 8.1.9 

8.1.11 Charpy V-notch Testing Machine............................... 8.1.10 

8.1.12 Groove Weld Nomenclature ....................................... 8.1.12 

8.1.13 Fillet Weld Nomenclature........................................... 8.1.12 

8.1.14 Plug Weld Schematic .................................................. 8.1.13 

8.1.15 Tack Weld ................................................................... 8.1.13 

8.1.16 Types of Welded Joints............................................... 8.1.14 
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8.1.17 Centerline Crack in Steel Slab .................................... 8.1.15 

8.1.18 Shrinkage Cavity in Steel Billet.................................. 8.1.16 

8.1.19 Incomplete Penetration of a Double V-Groove Weld. 8.1.17 

8.1.20 Crack Initiation From Lack of Fusion in Heat 

Affected Zone of Electroslag Groove Weld of a Butt 

Joint............................................................................. 8.1.17 

8.1.21 Web to Flange Crack due to Fillet Weld Slag 

Inclusion...................................................................... 8.1.18 

8.1.22 Crack Initiation From Porosity in Longitudinal Webto-Flange Fillet Weld of Plate Girder.......................... 8.1.18 

8.1.23 Crack Resulting from Plug Welded Holes.................. 8.1.19 

8.1.24 Undercut of a Fillet Weld............................................ 8.1.20 

8.1.25 Overlap of a Fillet Weld.............................................. 8.1.20 

8.1.26 Crack Initiation at Coped Web in Stringer to 

Floorbeam .................................................................. 8.1.21 

8.1.27 Insufficiently Ground Flame Cut of Gusset Plate for 

Arch to Tie Girder Connection ................................... 8.1.21 

8.1.28 Severe Collision Damage on a Fascia Girder ............. 8.1.22 

8.1.29 Applied Tensile and Compressive Stress Cycles........ 8.1.23 

8.1.30 Illustrative Examples of Bridge Details ...................... 8.1.24 

8.1.31 Part-Through Crack at a Cover Plated Flange ............ 8.1.25 

8.1.32 Part-Through Crack Growth at Cover Plate Welded 

to Flange...................................................................... 8.1.26 

8.1.33 Through Crack Growth at Cover Plate Welded to 

Flange.......................................................................... 8.1.27 

8.1.34 Through Crack at a Cover Plated Flange .................... 8.1.27 

8.1.35 Through Crack has Propagated into the Web ............. 8.1.28 

8.1.36 Brittle Fracture – Herringbone Pattern........................ 8.1.28 

8.1.37 Crack Growth at Transverse Stiffener Welded to 

Web ............................................................................. 8.1.29 

8.1.38 Part-Through Web Crack ............................................ 8.1.30 

8.1.39 Through Crack in Web................................................ 8.1.30 

8.1.40 Through Crack Ready to Propagate into the Flange ... 8.1.31 

8.1.41 AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 – Fatigue Categories of 

Bridge Details.............................................................. 8.1.34 

8.1.41 AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 – Fatigue Categories of 

Bridge Details (Continued) ......................................... 8.1.35 

8.1.41 AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 – Fatigue Categories of 

Bridge Details (Continued) ......................................... 8.1.36 

8.1.41 AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 – Fatigue Categories of 

Bridge Details (Continued) ......................................... 8.1.37 

8.1.41 AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 – Fatigue Categories of 

Bridge Details (Continued) ......................................... 8.1.38 
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8.1.41 AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 – Fatigue Categories of 

Bridge Details (Continued) ......................................... 8.1.39 

8.1.41 AASHTO Table 6.6.1.2.3-1 – Fatigue Categories of 

Bridge Details (Continued) ......................................... 8.1.40 

8.1.42 Gusset Plate................................................................. 8.1.42 

8.1.43 Poor Quality Welds Inside Cross Girder..................... 8.1.43 

8.1.44 Intersecting Welds....................................................... 8.1.43 

8.1.45 Cracked Stringer Connection Angle ........................... 8.1.48 

8.1.46 Fracture of a Coped Member ...................................... 8.1.49 

8.1.47 Flange Termination ..................................................... 8.1.50 

8.1.48 Cracked Stringer to Floorbeam Connection Angle..... 8.1.51 

8.1.49 Cracked Stringer to Floorbeam Connection Angle..... 8.1.51 

8.1.50 Out-of-Plane Distortion in Web Gap at End of 

Transverse Connection Plate....................................... 8.1.52 

8.1.51 Crack Near Top Flange at a Diaphragm Connection 

Plate which is on the Opposite Side of the Web ......... 8.1.53 

8.1.52 Cracks at Top of Floorbeam Connection to Girder..... 8.1.54 

8.1.53 Cracks Perpendicular or Parallel to Applied Stress .... 8.1.54 

Topic 8.2 

Rolled Steel 

Multi-Beams 

and Fabricated 

Steel 

Multi-Girders 

 

8.2.1 Simple Span Rolled Multi-beam Bridge..................... 8.2.2 

8.2.2 Continuous Span Rolled Multi-beam Bridge with 

Pin & Hanger .............................................................. 8.2.2 

8.2.3 Rolled Multi-beam Bridge with a Cover Plate............ 8.2.3 

8.2.4 Built-up Riveted Plate Girder...................................... 8.2.3 

8.2.5 Welded Plate Girder.................................................... 8.2.4 

8.2.6 Single Span Fabricated Multi-girder Bridge............... 8.2.4 

8.2.7 Continuous Span Fabricated Multi-girder Bridge....... 8.2.5 

8.2.8 Curved Fabricated Multi-girder Bridge ...................... 8.2.5 

8.2.9 Fabricated Multi-girder Bridge with Pin & Hanger 

Connection .................................................................. 8.2.6 

8.2.10 Combination Rolled Beams and Fabricated Girders... 8.2.6 

8.2.11 Web Insert Plate for Multi-beam................................. 8.2.7 

8.2.12 Fabricated Variable Depth Girder Bridge................... 8.2.8 

8.2.13 Rolled Beam (Primary Member) with Diaphragm 

(Secondary Member)................................................... 8.2.9 

8.2.14 Curved Multi-girder Bridge ........................................ 8.2.10 

8.2.15 Straight Multi-girder Bridge ....................................... 8.2.10 
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8.2.16 Corroded Shear Zone on a Rolled Multi-beam 

Bridge.......................................................................... 8.2.13 

8.2.17 Flexural Zone on a Simple Rolled Multi-beam 

Bridge.......................................................................... 8.2.14 

8.2.18 Flexural Zone on a Fabricated Multi-girder Bridge.... 8.2.14 

8.2.19 Negative Moment Region on a Continuous Rolled 

Multi-beam Bridge...................................................... 8.2.15 

8.2.20 Negative Moment Region on a Continuous 

Fabricated Multi-girder Bridge ................................... 8.2.15 

8.2.21 End Diaphragm ........................................................... 8.2.16 

8.2.22 Intermediate Diaphragm.............................................. 8.2.16 

8.2.23 Collision Damage on a Rolled Multi-beam Bridge..... 8.2.17 

8.2.24 Collision Damage on a Fabricated Multi-girder 

Bridge.......................................................................... 8.2.18 

8.2.25 Field Splice ............................................................... 8.2.19 

8.2.26 Welded Attachment in Tension Zone of a Beam........ 8.2.19 

8.2.27 Out-of-plane Distortion in Web Gap at Diaphragm 

Connections................................................................. 8.2.21 

8.2.28 Web Crack due to Out-of-plane Distortion at Top 

Flange.......................................................................... 8.2.21 

8.2.29 Web Crack due to Out-of-plane Distortion at Bottom 

Flange.......................................................................... 8.2.22 

Topic 8.3 

Steel Two 

Girder Systems 

 

8.3.1 General View of a Dual Deck Girder Bridge.............. 8.3.1 

8.3.2 Through Girder Bridge................................................ 8.3.2 

8.3.3 Through Girder Bridge with Limited 

Underclearance............................................................ 8.3.2 

8.3.4 Through Girder Bridge with Three Girders ................ 8.3.3 

8.3.5 Two Girder Bridge with Girder-Floorbeam System ... 8.3.4 

8.3.6 Two Girder Bridge with Girder-Floorbeam-Stringer 

System......................................................................... 8.3.4 

8.3.7 Two Girder Bridge with GFS System with Stacked 

Floorbeam and Stringers ............................................. 8.3.5 

8.3.8 Underside View of Deck Girder Bridge with Lateral 

Bracing System ........................................................... 8.3.6 

8.3.9 Underside View of Through Girder Bridge with 

Lateral Bracing............................................................ 8.3.6 

8.3.10 Two Girder Bridge with Pin and Hanger Connection. 8.3.7 

8.3.11 Shear Zone on a Deck Girder Bridge.......................... 8.3.10 

8.3.12 Web Area Near Support on a Through Girder Bridge 8.3.11 
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8.3.13 Flexural Zone on a Two Girder Bridge....................... 8.3.11 

8.3.14 Longitudinal Stiffener in Tension Zone on a Two 

Girder Bridge .............................................................. 8.3.12 

8.3.15 Flexural Zone on a Through Girder Bridge ................ 8.3.12 

8.3.16 Lateral Bracing Connection on a Deck Girder 

Bridge.......................................................................... 8.3.13 

8.3.17 Lateral Bracing Connection on a Through Girder 

Bridge.......................................................................... 8.3.13 

8.3.18 Collision Damage to a Two Girder Bridge ................. 8.3.14 

8.3.19 Collision Damage to a Through Girder Bridge........... 8.3.15 

8.3.20 Web Stiffeners and Welded Flange Splice ................. 8.3.16 

8.3.21 Intersecting Welds....................................................... 8.3.16 

8.3.22 Floorbeam to Girder Connection ................................ 8.3.17 

8.3.23 Crack Caused by Out-of-Plane Distortion .................. 8.3.18 

8.3.24 Lateral Bracing Gusset at Floorbeam or Diaphragm 

Connection Plate ......................................................... 8.3.19 

8.3.25 Crack Caused by Out-of-Plane Distortion .................. 8.3.19 

8.3.26 Crack Caused by Out-of-Plane Distortion .................. 8.3.20 

8.3.27 Cracking in Girder Web at the Intersection of 

Horizontal Gusset Plate for Lateral Bracing and 

Transverse Stiffener .................................................... 8.3.21 

8.3.28 Cracked Cantilever Floorbeam ................................... 8.3.22 

8.3.29 Tie Plate for Cantilever Floorbeam............................. 8.3.22 

Topic 8.4 

Pin and Hanger 

Assemblies 

 

8.4.1 Typical Pin and Hanger Assembly.............................. 8.4.1 

8.4.2 Single Pin with Riveted Pin Plate ............................... 8.4.2 

8.4.3 Pin and Hanger Assembly Locations Relative to 

Piers............................................................................. 8.4.2 

8.4.4 Pin and Hanger Assembly........................................... 8.4.3 

8.4.5 Pin Cap with Through Bolt ......................................... 8.4.4 

8.4.6 Threaded Pin with Retaining Nut................................ 8.4.5 

8.4.7 Plate Hanger and Eyebar Shape Hanger Link............. 8.4.5 

8.4.8 Pin Cap, Through bolt and Nut ................................... 8.4.6 

8.4.9 Retaining Nut .............................................................. 8.4.6 

8.4.10 Web Doubler Plates..................................................... 8.4.7 

8.4.11 Design Stress in a Hanger Link (Tension Only) ......... 8.4.8 

8.4.12 Actual Stress in a Hanger Link (Tension and 

Bending)...................................................................... 8.4.8 

8.4.13 Design Stress in a Pin (Shear and Bearing) ................ 8.4.9 

8.4.14 Actual Stress in a Pin (Shear, Bearing and Torsion)... 8.4.9 
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8.4.15 Mianus River Bridge Failure....................................... 8.4.10 

8.4.16 Multi-girder Bridge with Pin and Hanger 

Assemblies .................................................................. 8.4.11 

8.4.17 Ultrasonic Testing of a Pin.......................................... 8.4.13 

8.4.18 Alternate Hanger Link Retaining System ................... 8.4.14 

8.4.19 Pin Measurement Locations........................................ 8.4.15 

8.4.20 Rust Stains from Pin Corrosion .................................. 8.4.16 

8.4.21 Corroded Hanger Plate................................................ 8.4.17 

8.4.22 Bowing Due to Out-of-Plane Distortion of Hanger .... 8.4.18 

8.4.23 Corroded Pin and Hanger Assembly........................... 8.4.19 

8.4.24 Underslung Catcher Retrofit ....................................... 8.4.20 

8.4.25 Stainless Steel Pin and Hanger Assembly................... 8.4.20 

Topic 8.5 

Steel Box 

Girders 

 

8.5.1 Simple Span Box Girder Bridge ................................. 8.5.1 

8.5.2 Curved Box Girder Bridge.......................................... 8.5.1 

8.5.3 Box Girders with Cantilevered Supports for Deck ..... 8.5.2 

8.5.4 Spread Box Girders..................................................... 8.5.2 

8.5.5 Diaphragms – K-Bracing and Plate............................. 8.5.3 

8.5.6 External Diaphragm .................................................... 8.5.4 

8.5.7 Box Girder Access Door ............................................. 8.5.4 

8.5.8 Box Girder Cross Section with Composite Deck........ 8.5.5 

8.5.9 Box Girder Cross Section with Orthotropic Steel 

Plate Deck ................................................................... 8.5.6 

8.5.10 Box Girder Shear Zone ............................................... 8.5.8 

8.5.11 Continuous Box Girders.............................................. 8.5.9 

8.5.12 Field Splice ................................................................. 8.5.10 

8.5.13 Butt Welds in Back-up Bars Ground Out as Retrofit.. 8.5.11 

8.5.14 Non-Redundant Box Girder Bridge ............................ 8.5.12 

8.5.15 Redundant Box Girder Bridge .................................... 8.5.12 

8.5.16 Box Girder Internal Diaphragm Not Attached to 

Flange.......................................................................... 8.5.13 

Topic 8.6 

Trusses 

 

8.6.1 Single Span Truss........................................................ 8.6.1 

8.6.2 Through-Pony-Deck Truss Comparisons.................... 8.6.2 

8.6.3 Through Truss ............................................................. 8.6.2 

8.6.4 Pony Truss................................................................... 8.6.3 

8.6.5 Deck Truss .................................................................. 8.6.3 

8.6.6 Suspension Bridge with Stiffening Truss.................... 8.6.4 
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8.6.7 Arch Bridge with Stiffening Truss ............................ 8.6.4 

8.6.8 Vertical Lift Bridge..................................................... 8.6.5 

8.6.9 Various Truss Designs ................................................ 8.6.5 

8.6.10 Single Span Pony Truss .............................................. 8.6.6 

8.6.11 Single Span Through Truss......................................... 8.6.6 

8.6.12 Multiple Span Pony Truss........................................... 8.6.7 

8.6.13 Multiple Span Through Truss ..................................... 8.6.7 

8.6.14 Continuous Through Truss.......................................... 8.6.8 

8.6.15 Cantilever Through Truss ........................................... 8.6.8 

8.6.16 Cantilever Deck Truss................................................. 8.6.9 

8.6.17 Cantilever Through Truss ........................................... 8.6.9 

8.6.18 Truss Members and Elements ..................................... 8.6.10 

8.6.19 Rolled Steel Shapes..................................................... 8.6.10 

8.6.20 Typical Compression Members .................................. 8.6.11 

8.6.21 Axial Loads in Chord Members.................................. 8.6.12 

8.6.22 Single Span Through Truss – General Elevation 

View ............................................................................ 8.6.12 

8.6.23 Continuous Through Truss.......................................... 8.6.13 

8.6.24 “Imaginary Cable – Imaginary Arch”......................... 8.6.14 

8.6.25 Vertical Member Stress Prediction Method................ 8.6.15 

8.6.26 Vertical Member Stress Prediction Method................ 8.6.16 

8.6.27 Vertical Member Stress Prediction Method................ 8.6.16 

8.6.28 Truss Panel Point using Shop Rivets and Field Bolts. 8.6.17 

8.6.29 Pin Connected Truss ................................................... 8.6.18 

8.6.30 Truss Panel Point Numbering System ........................ 8.6.18 

8.6.31 Deck Truss .................................................................. 8.6.19 

8.6.32 A Pennsylvania Truss, a Subdivided Pratt Truss with 

a Camel Back Top Chord............................................ 8.6.20 

8.6.33 Floorbeam Stringer Floor System ............................... 8.6.20 

8.6.34 Floorbeam Floor System............................................. 8.6.21 

8.6.35 Upper Lateral Bracing................................................. 8.6.21 

8.6.36 Lower Lateral Bracing ................................................ 8.6.22 

8.6.37 Lateral Bracing Gusset Plate and Lateral Bracing ...... 8.6.22 

8.6.38 Sway Bracing .............................................................. 8.6.23 

8.6.39 Sway Bracing .............................................................. 8.6.23 

8.6.40 Portal Bracing.............................................................. 8.6.24 

8.6.41 Pony Truss “Sway Bracing”........................................ 8.6.24 

8.6.42 Truss Design Drawings: Member Load Table............ 8.6.27 

8.6.43 Bottom Chord.............................................................. 8.6.28 

8.6.44 Inside of Box chord Member ...................................... 8.6.29 

8.6.45 Cracked Forge Zone on an Eyebar.............................. 8.6.29 

8.6.46 Cracked Forge Zone on a Loop Rod........................... 8.6.30 

8.6.47 Bottom Chord.............................................................. 8.6.30 
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8.6.48 Welded Repair to Loop Rod ....................................... 8.6.31 

8.6.49 Bowed Bottom Chord Eyebar Member ...................... 8.6.31 

8.6.50 Buckled Lowered Chord Member L0L1, due to 

Abutment Movement .................................................. 8.6.32 

8.6.51 Collision Damage to Vertical Member ....................... 8.6.33 

8.6.52 Buckled End Post and Temporary Supports ............... 8.6.34 

8.6.53 Corroded Floorbeam End and Connection.................. 8.6.35 

8.6.54 Corroded Stringer........................................................ 8.6.35 

8.6.55 Corroded Stringer Connection ................................... 8.6.36 

8.6.56 Corroded Floorbeams and Stringers............................ 8.6.36 

8.6.57 Welded Repair Plate.................................................... 8.6.37 

8.6.58 Coped Stringer ............................................................ 8.6.38 

8.6.59 Clip Angles at Floorbeam and Stringer Connections.. 8.6.38 

8.6.60 Suspended Span Pin .................................................... 8.6.39 

8.6.61 Sewickley Bridge ........................................................ 8.6.40 

8.6.62 Sewickley Bridge with Fracture Critical Members 

Identified ..................................................................... 8.6.40 

8.6.63 Worn and Corroded Pin .............................................. 8.6.41 

8.6.64 Collision Damage to Portal ......................................... 8.6.42 

8.6.65 Lateral Bracing............................................................ 8.6.42 

8.6.66 Sway Bracing with Rust Packing................................ 8.6.43 

8.6.67 Non-critical Elements.................................................. 8.6.44 

Topic 8.7 

Steel Eyebars 

 

8.7.1 Typical Eyebar Tension Member on a Truss .............. 8.7.1 

8.7.2 Eyebar Cantilevered Truss Bridge (Queensboro 

Bridge, NYC) .............................................................. 8.7.1 

8.7.3 Eyebar Chain Suspension Bridge................................ 8.7.2 

8.7.4 Anchorage Eyebar....................................................... 8.7.2 

8.7.5 Collapsed Silver Bridge .............................................. 8.7.3 

8.7.6 Inspection of Eyebars.................................................. 8.7.4 

8.7.7 Retrofit of Eyebars to Add Redundancy ..................... 8.7.4 

8.7.8 Eyebar Connection with Corrosion............................. 8.7.5 

8.7.9 Eads Bridge, St. Louis................................................. 8.7.6 

8.7.10 Forged Loop Rod ........................................................ 8.7.7 

8.7.11 Close-up of the End of a Loop Rod ............................ 8.7.7 

8.7.12 Forged Eyebar ............................................................. 8.7.8 

8.7.13 Eyebar Pin Hole (Disassembled Connection)............. 8.7.8 

8.7.14 Eyebar Dimensions ..................................................... 8.7.9 

8.7.15 Loosely Packed Eyebar Connection............................ 8.7.10 

8.7.16 Tightly Packed Eyebar Connection............................. 8.7.10 

8.7.17 Steel Pin Spacer or Filling Ring.................................. 8.7.11 
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8.7.18 Non-redundant Eyebar Member.................................. 8.7.12 

8.7.19 Close-up of the Forge Zone on an Eyebar (Arrow 

denotes crack).............................................................. 8.7.14 

8.7.20 Bowed Eyebar Member............................................... 8.7.15 

8.7.21 Buckled Eyebar due to Abutment Movement............. 8.7.16 

8.7.22 Non-parallel Eyebar Member...................................... 8.7.16 

8.7.23 Corroded Spacer.......................................................... 8.7.17 

8.7.24 Symmetry at an Eyebar Connection............................ 8.7.18 

8.7.25 Eyebar Member with Unequal Load Distribution....... 8.7.19 

8.7.26 Welds on Loop Rods................................................... 8.7.20 

8.7.27 Welded Repair to Loop Rods...................................... 8.7.20 

8.7.28 Turnbuckle on a Truss Diagonal................................. 8.7.21 

8.7.29 Welded Repair to Turnbuckles.................................... 8.7.21 

8.7.30 Ultrasonic Inspection of Eyebar Pin ........................... 8.7.22 

8.7.31 Fracture Critical Bottom Chord Truss Member: 

Internally Non-redundant Eyebar................................ 8.7.23 

8.7.32 Fracture Critical Top Chord Truss Member: 

Internally Redundant Eyebar....................................... 8.7.23 

Topic 8.8 

Steel Arches 

 

8.8.1 Deck Arch Bridge ....................................................... 8.8.1 

8.8.2 Through Arch Bridge .................................................. 8.8.1 

8.8.3 Tied Arch Bridge......................................................... 8.8.2 

8.8.4 Deck Arch ................................................................... 8.8.3 

8.8.5 Solid Ribbed Deck Arch ............................................. 8.8.3 

8.8.6 Braced Rib Deck Arch, New River Gorge, WV ......... 8.8.4 

8.8.7 Spandrel Braced Deck Arch with Six Arch Ribs........ 8.8.4 

8.8.8 Hinge Pin at Skewback for Spandrel Braced Deck 

Arch (Navajo Bridge).................................................. 8.8.5 

8.8.9 Solid Ribbed Deck Arch Primary Members ............... 8.8.6 

8.8.10 Solid Ribbed Deck Arch Secondary Members ........... 8.8.6 

8.8.11 Elevation View of a Braced Ribbed Through Arch.... 8.8.8 

8.8.12 Through Arch Primary Members................................ 8.8.9 

8.8.13 Through Arch Bracing (Secondary Members)............ 8.8.9 

8.8.14 Tied Arch .................................................................... 8.8.11 

8.8.15 Tied Arch Primary Members ...................................... 8.8.12 

8.8.16 Tied Arch Secondary Members .................................. 8.8.12 

8.8.17 Through Truss Arch Members.................................... 8.8.15 

8.8.18 Solid Ribbed Deck Arch Showing Spandrel 

Columns ...................................................................... 8.8.16 

8.8.19 Hanger Connection on a Through Arch...................... 8.8.17 

 
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8.8.20 Performing Baseline Hardness Test on Fire 

Damaged Arch Cables................................................. 8.8.17 

8.8.21 Floor System on a Through Arch................................ 8.8.18 

8.8.22 Tie Girder Interior ..................................................... 8.8.19 

8.8.23 Partial Depth Diaphragm in a Tied Box Girder .......... 8.8.20 

8.8.24 Bracing Members (New River Gorge Bridge)............ 8.8.21 

8.8.25 Areas Exposed to Traffic ............................................ 8.8.22 

Topic 8.9 

Steel Rigid 

Frames 

 

8.9.1 Typical Rigid K-Frame Constructed of Two Frames . 8.9.1 

8.9.2 Typical Rigid Frame Constructed of Multiple 

Frames......................................................................... 8.9.2 

8.9.3 Typical K-Frame ......................................................... 8.9.2 

8.9.4 Connection Between Legs and Girder Portion............ 8.9.3 

8.9.5 Delta Frame................................................................. 8.9.4 

8.9.6 Bearing ........................................................................ 8.9.4 

8.9.7 Transverse, Longitudinal, and Radial Stiffeners on a 

Frame Knee ................................................................. 8.9.5 

8.9.8 Two Frame Bridge with Floorbeam-Stringer Floor 

System......................................................................... 8.9.6 

8.9.9 Frame Members, Floorbeams, and Stringers .............. 8.9.7 

8.9.10 Lateral Bracing for Frame Legs .................................. 8.9.8 

8.9.11 Lateral Bracing and Diaphragms ................................ 8.9.8 

8.9.12 Stress Zones in a Frame .............................................. 8.9.9 

8.9.13 Dual Frame Rigid Frame – A Fracture Critical 

Structure ...................................................................... 8.9.10 

8.9.14 Multiple Frame Rigid Frame – Not a Fracture 

Critical Structure ......................................................... 8.9.10 

8.9.15 Bearing Area of a Two Frame Bridge......................... 8.9.13 

8.9.16 Flexural Zones............................................................. 8.9.14 

8.9.17 Knee Area: Fatigue Prone Details............................... 8.9.15 

8.9.18 Welded Flange Splice ................................................. 8.9.15 

Topic 9.1 

Bridge Bearings 

 

9.1.1 Three Functions of a Bearing...................................... 9.1.1 

9.1.2 Fixed and Expansion Bearings.................................... 9.1.2 

9.1.3 Elements of a Typical Bridge Bearing........................ 9.1.3 

9.1.4 Lubricated Steel Plate Bearing.................................... 9.1.4 

9.1.5 Bronze Sliding Plate Bearing...................................... 9.1.5 

9.1.6 Self-Lubricating Bronze Sliding Plate Bearing .......... 9.1.6 
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9.1.7 Single Roller Bearing.................................................. 9.1.7 

9.1.8 Roller Nest Bearing..................................................... 9.1.8 

9.1.9 Rocker Bearing............................................................ 9.1.8 

9.1.10 Segmental Rocker Bearing.......................................... 9.1.9 

9.1.11 Segmental Rocker Nest Bearing ................................. 9.1.10 

9.1.12 Pinned Rocker Bearing ............................................... 9.1.11 

9.1.13 Plain Neoprene Bearing Pad ....................................... 9.1.12 

9.1.14 Laminated Neoprene Bearing Pad .............................. 9.1.13 

9.1.15 Lead Core Isolation Bearing ....................................... 9.1.14 

9.1.16 Lead Core Isolation Bearing ....................................... 9.1.14 

9.1.17 Friction Pendulum Bearing ......................................... 9.1.15 

9.1.18 Pot Bearing.................................................................. 9.1.16 

9.1.19 Restraining Bearing..................................................... 9.1.17 

9.1.20 Pin and Link Bearing .................................................. 9.1.18 

9.1.21 UT Inspection of a Pin in a Bearing............................ 9.1.21 

9.1.22 Heavy Corrosion and Excessive Movement on Steel 

Rocker Bearing............................................................ 9.1.23 

9.1.23 Rocker Bearing with Excessive Horizontal 

Movement ................................................................... 9.1.23 

9.1.24 Spalling of Concrete Bridge Seat Due to High Edge 

Stress ........................................................................... 9.1.24 

9.1.25 Bent Anchor Bolt due to Excessive Horizontal 

Movement ................................................................... 9.1.24 

9.1.26 Uplift at Bridge Bearing.............................................. 9.1.25 

9.1.27 Sliding Plate Bearing Inspection Checklist Items....... 9.1.26 

9.1.28 Longitudinal Misalignment in Bronze Sliding Plate 

Bearing ........................................................................ 9.1.26 

9.1.29 Damaged Roller Nest Bearing .................................... 9.1.27 

9.1.30 Rocker Bearing Inspection Checklist Items................ 9.1.28 

9.1.31 Excessive Tilt in a Segmental Rocker......................... 9.1.29 

9.1.32 Frozen Rocker Nest..................................................... 9.1.29 

9.1.33 Angle of Rotation for Pot Bearing .............................. 9.1.30 

9.1.34 Elastomeric Bearing Inspection Checklist Items ........ 9.1.32 

9.1.35 Neoprene Bearing Pad Excessive Bulging.................. 9.1.33 

9.1.36 Lead Core Isolation Bearing ....................................... 9.1.34 

9.1.37 Serious Bearing Condition .......................................... 9.1.35 

9.1.38 Broken Pintle on a Bearing ......................................... 9.1.36 

Topic 10.1 

Abutments and 

Wingwalls 

 

10.1.1 Schematic of Common Abutment Types .................... 10.1.3 

10.1.2 Section View of Less Common Abutment Types....... 10.1.4 
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10.1.3 Full Height Abutment ................................................. 10.1.5 

10.1.4 Stub Abutment ............................................................ 10.1.5 

10.1.5 Open Abutment ........................................................... 10.1.6 

10.1.6 Integral Abutment ....................................................... 10.1.7 

10.1.7 Integral Abutment ....................................................... 10.1.7 

10.1.8 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Abutment (Note 

Precast Concrete Panels)............................................. 10.1.8 

10.1.9 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall Under 

Construction ................................................................ 10.1.9 

10.1.10 GRS Bridge Abutment Developed at the TurnerFairbank Highway Research Center............................ 10.1.10 

10.1.11 View of the Founders/Meadows Bridge Supported 

by GRS Abutments ..................................................... 10.1.10 

10.1.12 Plain Unreinforced Concrete Gravity Abutment......... 10.1.11 

10.1.13 Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Abutment................. 10.1.11 

10.1.14 Stone Masonry Gravity Abutment .............................. 10.1.12 

10.1.15 Combination: Timber Pile Bent Abutment with 

Reinforced Concrete Cap ............................................ 10.1.12 

10.1.16 Steel Abutment............................................................ 10.1.13 

10.1.17 Primary Reinforcement in Concrete Abutments......... 10.1.13 

10.1.18 Secondary Reinforcement in Concrete Abutments..... 10.1.14 

10.1.19 Cheek Wall.................................................................. 10.1.15 

10.1.20 Spread Footing/Deep Foundations.............................. 10.1.15 

10.1.21 Stub Abutment on Piles with Piles Exposed............... 10.1.16 

10.1.22 Differential Settlement Between Different 

Substructure Units....................................................... 10.1.17 

10.1.23 Differential Settlement Under an Abutment ............... 10.1.18 

10.1.24 Crack in Abutment due to Settlement ......................... 10.1.19 

10.1.25 Lateral Movement of an Abutment due to Slope 

Failure ......................................................................... 10.1.19 

10.1.26 Excessive Rocker Bearing Displacement Indicating 

Possible Lateral Displacement of Abutment............... 10.1.20 

10.1.27 Depressed Approach Slab due to Rotating Abutment. 10.1.21 

10.1.28 Erosion at Abutment Exposing Footing...................... 10.1.21 

10.1.29 Rotational Movement of an Abutment........................ 10.1.22 

10.1.30 Rotational Movement at Abutment............................. 10.1.23 

10.1.31 Rotational Movement due to “Lateral Squeeze” of 

Embankment Material................................................. 10.1.23 

10.1.32 Cracking in Bearing Seat of Concrete and Stone 

Abutment..................................................................... 10.1.24 

10.1.33 Deteriorated Concrete in Abutment Backwall ............ 10.1.25 

10.1.34 Deteriorated Stone Masonry Abutment ...................... 10.1.25 

10.1.35 Steel Abutment............................................................ 10.1.26 
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10.1.36 Local Failure in Timber Pile due to Lateral 

Movement of Abutment .............................................. 10.1.27 

10.1.37 Decay in Lagging of Timber Crib Abutment.............. 10.1.28 

10.1.38 Decayed Lagging and Scour of a Timber Pile Bent 

Abutment..................................................................... 10.1.28 

10.1.39 Abutment with Undermining due to Scour ................. 10.1.29 

10.1.40 Inspector Checking for Scour ..................................... 10.1.29 

10.1.41 Typical Wingwall........................................................ 10.1.31 

10.1.42 Straight Wingwall ....................................................... 10.1.32 

10.1.43 Flared Wingwall.......................................................... 10.1.32 

10.1.44 U-Wingwall................................................................. 10.1.33 

10.1.45 Integral Wingwall........................................................ 10.1.33 

10.1.46 Independent MSE Wingwall....................................... 10.1.34 

10.1.47 Masonry Wingwall...................................................... 10.1.34 

10.1.48 Primary Reinforcement in Concrete Cantilever 

Wingwall..................................................................... 10.1.35 

10.1.49 Rotational Movement at Concrete Wingwall.............. 10.1.36 

10.1.50 Deteriorated Concrete Wingwall................................. 10.1.36 

10.1.51 Scour and Possible Undermining of Concrete 

Wingwall..................................................................... 10.1.37 

10.1.52 Roadway Shoulder Erosion Behind Wingwall ........... 10.1.37 

10.1.53 Settlement Cracks at Integral Concrete Wingwalls .... 10.1.38 

10.1.54 Deteriorating Stone Masonry Wingwall ..................... 10.1.38 

10.1.55 Timber Wingwall ........................................................ 10.1.39 

Topic 10.2 

Piers and Bents 

 

10.2.1 Example of Piers as Intermediate Supports for a 

Bridge.......................................................................... 10.2.1 

10.2.2 Solid Shaft Pier ........................................................... 10.2.2 

10.2.3 Column Pier ................................................................ 10.2.2 

10.2.4 Column Pier with Web Wall....................................... 10.2.3 

10.2.5 Column Pier with Web Wall....................................... 10.2.3 

10.2.6 Single Stem Pier (Cantilever or Hammerhead)........... 10.2.4 

10.2.7 Cantilever Pier............................................................. 10.2.4 

10.2.8 Column Bent or Open Bent......................................... 10.2.5 

10.2.9 Concrete Pile Bent....................................................... 10.2.5 

10.2.10 Integral Pier Cap ......................................................... 10.2.6 

10.2.11 Integral Pier and Pier Cap ........................................... 10.2.7 

10.2.12 Integral Pier and Pier Cap ........................................... 10.2.7 

10.2.13 Reinforced Concrete Piers under Construction........... 10.2.8 

10.2.14 Stone Masonry Pier..................................................... 10.2.8 

10.2.15 Steel Bent .................................................................... 10.2.9 
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10.2.16 Timber Pile Bent ......................................................... 10.2.9 

10.2.17 Combination: Reinforced Concrete Column with 

Steel Pier Cap.............................................................. 10.2.10 

10.2.18 Primary Reinforcement in Column Bent with 

Web Wall .................................................................... 10.2.11 

10.2.19 Secondary Reinforcement in Column Bent with Web 

Wall............................................................................. 10.2.11 

10.2.20 Primary Reinforcement in Column Bents................... 10.2.12 

10.2.21 Primary Reinforcement for a Cantilevered Pier.......... 10.2.12 

10.2.22 Two Column Bent Joined by a Web Wall .................. 10.2.13 

10.2.23 Pile Bent...................................................................... 10.2.14 

10.2.24 Collision Wall ............................................................. 10.2.15 

10.2.25 Collision Wall ............................................................. 10.2.15 

10.2.26 Concrete Block Dolphin.............................................. 10.2.16 

10.2.27 Timber Dolphin........................................................... 10.2.16 

10.2.28 Pier Fender .................................................................. 10.2.17 

10.2.29 Fender System............................................................. 10.2.17 

10.2.30 Differential Settlement Between Different 

Substructure Units....................................................... 10.2.18 

10.2.31 Differential Settlement Under a Pier........................... 10.2.19 

10.2.32 Superstructure Evidence of Pier Settlement................ 10.2.20 

10.2.33 Cracks in Bent Cap due to Lateral Movement of 

Bent during Earthquake............................................... 10.2.21 

10.2.34 Pier Movement and Superstructure Damage Due to 

Scour/Undermining..................................................... 10.2.21 

10.2.35 Tipping of Bent due to Scour/Undermining ............... 10.2.22 

10.2.36 Concrete Deterioration due to Contaminated 

Drainage ...................................................................... 10.2.23 

10.2.37 Crack in Concrete Bent Cap........................................ 10.2.24 

10.2.38 Severe Concrete Spalling on Bent Cap ....................... 10.2.24 

10.2.39 Collision Damage to Pier Column .............................. 10.2.25 

10.2.40 Deterioration of Concrete Pedestal Supporting Steel 

Column........................................................................ 10.2.26 

10.2.41 Corrosion and Debris at Steel Pile Bent...................... 10.2.27 

10.2.42 Steel Column Bent ...................................................... 10.2.27 

10.2.43 Steel Column Bent with Cantilever ............................ 10.2.28 

10.2.44 Drilling a Timber Bent Column for a Core Sample.... 10.2.29 

10.2.45 Decay in Timber Bent Cap.......................................... 10.2.29 

10.2.46 Timber Bent Columns in Water .................................. 10.2.30 

10.2.47 Decay of Timber Bent Column at Ground Line ......... 10.2.30 

10.2.48 Timber Pile Bent with Partial “Brooming” Failure at 

First Pile ...................................................................... 10.2.31 

 
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10.2.49 Timber Pile Damage due to Limnoria Marine 

Borers .......................................................................... 10.2.31 

10.2.50 Timber Bent Damage due to Shipworm Marine 

Borers .......................................................................... 10.2.32 

10.2.51 Deteriorated and Missing Stone at Masonry Pier ....... 10.2.33 

10.2.52 Fracture Critical Steel Bent......................................... 10.2.34 

10.2.53 Concrete Dolphins....................................................... 10.2.35 

10.2.54 Steel Fender................................................................. 10.2.35 

10.2.55 Timber Fender System ................................................ 10.2.36 

Topic 11.1 

Waterway 

Elements 

 

11.1.1 Pier Foundation Failure............................................... 11.1.2 

11.1.2 Typical Waterway Cross Section Showing Well 

Defined Channel Depression ...................................... 11.1.4 

11.1.3 Meandering River........................................................ 11.1.5 

11.1.4 Plan View of Rivers .................................................... 11.1.6 

11.1.5 Typical Floodplain ...................................................... 11.1.7 

11.1.6 Hydraulic Waterway Opening..................................... 11.1.7 

11.1.7 Crushed Stone Riprap ................................................. 11.1.9 

11.1.8 Spurs Constructed on Mackinaw River (Illinois 

Route 121)................................................................... 11.1.10 

11.1.9 Guidebanks Constructed on Kickapoo Creek Near 

Peoria, Illinois ............................................................. 11.1.10 

11.1.10 Gabion Basket Serving as Slope Protection................ 11.1.11 

11.1.11 Wire Mesh and Grass Slope Stabilization................... 11.1.11 

11.1.12 Concrete Revetment Mat (Photo Courtesy of CSI 

Geosynthetics)............................................................. 11.1.12 

11.1.13 Concrete Footing Apron to Protect a Spread Footing 

from Undermining....................................................... 11.1.12 

Topic 11.2 

Inspection of 

Waterways 

 

11.2.1 Flood Flow Around a Pier Showing Streamflow 

Velocity....................................................................... 11.2.2 

11.2.2 Streambed Degradation............................................... 11.2.4 

11.2.3 Streambed Aggradation............................................... 11.2.4 

11.2.4 General Scour.............................................................. 11.2.5 

11.2.5 Severe Contraction Scour............................................ 11.2.6 

11.2.6 Severe Contraction Scour at a Multiple-Span Bridge 

Site .............................................................................. 11.2.7 
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11.2.7 Large number of Piers Combine to Reduce the 

Hydraulic Opening...................................................... 11.2.7 

11.2.8 Vegetation Constricting the Waterway ....................... 11.2.8 

11.2.9 Sediment Deposits Within the Waterway Opening .... 11.2.8 

11.2.10 Ice in Stream Resulting in Possible Contraction 

Scour ........................................................................... 11.2.9 

11.2.11 Debris Build-up in the Waterway ............................... 11.2.9 

11.2.12 Local Scour at a Pier ................................................... 11.2.11 

11.2.13 Local Scour at an Abutment........................................ 11.2.11 

11.2.14 Wide Pier..................................................................... 11.2.12 

11.2.15 Long Pier..................................................................... 11.2.12 

11.2.16 Local Scour Due to Streamflow Behavior in Deep 

Water........................................................................... 11.2.13 

11.2.17 Lateral Bank Migration Endangering a Full Height 

Abutment..................................................................... 11.2.15 

11.2.18 Stream Meander Changes ........................................... 11.2.15 

11.2.19 Channel Widening....................................................... 11.2.16 

11.2.20 Scour and Undermining .............................................. 11.2.17 

11.2.21 Pier Settlement due to Scour....................................... 11.2.18 

11.2.22 Probing Rod and Waders ............................................ 11.2.20 

11.2.23 Surface Supplied Air Diving Equipment .................... 11.2.20 

11.2.24 Rapid Flow Velocity ................................................... 11.2.21 

11.2.25 Navigable Waterway................................................... 11.2.21 

11.2.26 Streambed Cross-Section ............................................ 11.2.22 

11.2.27 Streambed Profile........................................................ 11.2.23 

11.2.28 Pile Bent Deterioration Normally Hidden 

Underwater.................................................................. 11.2.24 

11.2.29 Out of Plumb Pier Column.......................................... 11.2.24 

11.2.30 Superstructure Misalignment ...................................... 11.2.25 

11.2.31 Drift Lodged in a Superstructure................................. 11.2.26 

11.2.32 Typical Simple Multi-Span Bridge ............................. 11.2.26 

11.2.33 Failed Riprap............................................................... 11.2.27 

11.2.34 Severe Streambed Degradation Evident at Low 

Water........................................................................... 11.2.28 

11.2.35 Approach Roadway Built in the Floodplain................ 11.2.29 

11.2.36 Stable Banks................................................................ 11.2.29 

11.2.37 Unstable, Sloughing Banks ......................................... 11.2.30 

11.2.38 Sediment Accumulation Redirecting Streamflow....... 11.2.31 

11.2.39 Fence in Stream at Bridge........................................... 11.2.31 

11.2.40 Waterway Alignment 1990 – 2006 ............................. 11.2.32 

11.2.41 Approach Spans in the Floodplain .............................. 11.2.33 

11.2.42 Debris and Sediment in the Downstream Channel ..... 11.2.33 

11.2.43 Upstream Dam ............................................................ 11.2.34 
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11.2.44 Scour at a Pile Abutment............................................. 11.2.35 

11.2.45 Fast Flowing Stream ................................................... 11.2.36 

11.2.46 Scour Rates vs. Velocity for Common Streambed 

Materials...................................................................... 11.2.36 

11.2.47 Typical Misaligned Waterway .................................... 11.2.37 

11.2.48 Typical Large Floodplain............................................ 11.2.37 

11.2.49 Lateral Stream Migration ............................................ 11.2.38 

11.2.50 Parallel Stream Alignment with Abutments ............... 11.2.39 

11.2.51 Rotational Movement and Failure Due to Scour......... 11.2.39 

11.2.52 Exposed Piling Due to Scour ...................................... 11.2.40 

11.2.53 Accelerated Flow Due to Restricted Waterway.......... 11.2.40 

11.2.54 Scour Assessment - Safe ............................................. 11.2.42 

11.2.55 Scour Assessment - Evaluate ...................................... 11.2.43 

11.2.56 Scour Assessment - Fix............................................... 11.2.43 

11.2.57 Culvert Failure Due to Overtopping ........................... 11.2.47 

11.2.58 Culvert Almost Completely Blocked by Sediment 

Accumulation .............................................................. 11.2.47 

11.2.59 Drift and Debris Inside Timber Box Culvert .............. 11.2.48 

Topic 11.3 

Underwater 

Inspection 

 

11.3.1 Schoharie Creek Bridge Failure.................................. 11.3.1 

11.3.2 Liberty Bridge over Monongahela River .................... 11.3.2 

11.3.3 Wading Inspection ...................................................... 11.3.4 

11.3.4 Self-Contained Inspection Diver................................. 11.3.4 

11.3.5 Surface-Supplied Diving Inspection ........................... 11.3.5 

11.3.6 Diver Cleaning Pier Face For Inspection.................... 11.3.6 

11.3.7 Bascule Bridge on the Saint Croix River .................... 11.3.7 

11.3.8 Channel Cross Section (Current Inspection versus 

Original Channel)........................................................ 11.3.9 

11.3.9 Pier Sounding Grid...................................................... 11.3.9 

11.3.10 Permanent Reference Point (Bolt Anchored in Nose 

of the Pier, Painted Orange)........................................ 11.3.10 

11.3.11 Local Scour; Causing Undermining of a Pier ............. 11.3.10 

11.3.12 Flood Conditions: Note Pier Settlement ..................... 11.3.12 

11.3.13 Buildup of Debris At Pier ........................................... 11.3.12 

11.3.14 Movement of a Substructure Unit............................... 11.3.13 

11.3.15 Timber Pile Bent ......................................................... 11.3.16 

11.3.16 Steel Pile Bent............................................................. 11.3.17 

11.3.17 Concrete Pile Bent....................................................... 11.3.17 

11.3.18 Column Pier with Solid Web Wall.............................. 11.3.18 

11.3.19 Cantilever or Hammerhead Pier.................................. 11.3.18 
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11.3.20 Solid Shaft Pier ........................................................... 11.3.19 

11.3.21 Severe Flood-Induced Abutment Scour...................... 11.3.19 

11.3.22 Inspection of Culvert With Limited Freeboard and 

Ice Cover ..................................................................... 11.3.20 

11.3.23 Damaged Protective System ....................................... 11.3.21 

11.3.24 Scour Monitoring Collar ............................................. 11.3.23 

11.3.25 Pier Undermining, Exposing Timber Foundation 

Pile .............................................................................. 11.3.24 

11.3.26 Concrete Deterioration................................................ 11.3.25 

11.3.27 Deteriorated Timber Piling ......................................... 11.3.25 

11.3.28 Deteriorated Steel Piles at Splash Zone ...................... 11.3.26 

11.3.29 Sample Underwater Inspection Form.......................... 11.3.29 

11.3.29 Sample Underwater Inspection Form (Continued) ..... 11.3.30 

11.3.30 Vulcanized Rubber Dry Suit ....................................... 11.3.32 

11.3.31 Full Face Lightweight Diving Mask with 

Communication System .............................................. 11.3.32 

11.3.32 Surface-Supplied Air Equipment, Including Air 

Compressor, Volume Tank With Air Filters, and 

Umbilical Hoses.......................................................... 11.3.33 

11.3.33 Surface-Supplied Diving Equipment Including 

Helmet, or Hard Hat.................................................... 11.3.33 

11.3.34 Pneumofathometer Gauge........................................... 11.3.34 

11.3.35 Surface-Supplied Diver with a Reserve Air Tank....... 11.3.34 

11.3.36 Communication Box System ...................................... 11.3.35 

11.3.37 Surface Communication With Inspection Team 

Leader.......................................................................... 11.3.36 

11.3.38 Access Barge and Exit Ladder .................................... 11.3.36 

11.3.39 Access From Dive Boat .............................................. 11.3.37 

11.3.40 Diver-Inspector with a Pry Bar ................................... 11.3.38 

11.3.41 Cleaning with a Water Blaster .................................... 11.3.39 

11.3.42 Parallel Seismic Testing Equipment ........................... 11.3.40 

11.3.43 Coring Equipment ....................................................... 11.3.41 

11.3.44 Concrete Coring Taking Place .................................... 11.3.41 

11.3.45 Concrete Core.............................................................. 11.3.42 

11.3.46 Timber Core ................................................................ 11.3.42 

11.3.47 Underwater Photographer ........................................... 11.3.43 

11.3.48 Camera with a Clear Box ............................................ 11.3.43 

11.3.49 Underwater Video Inspection ..................................... 11.3.44 

11.3.50 Diving Inside a Cofferdam.......................................... 11.3.45 

11.3.51 Excessive Current........................................................ 11.3.45 

11.3.52 Debris .......................................................................... 11.3.46 

11.3.53 Cleaning a Timber Pile................................................ 11.3.47 

11.3.54 Commercial Marine Traffic ........................................ 11.3.48 
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11.3.55 Alpha (left) and Sport Diver (right) Flags................... 11.3.48 

Topic 12.1 

Cable 

Supported 

Bridges 

 

12.1.1 Golden Gate Bridge..................................................... 12.1.1 

12.1.2 Maysville Cable-Stay Bridge, Built in 2000............... 12.1.2 

12.1.3 Roebling Bridge ......................................................... 12.1.3 

12.1.4 Sunshine Skyway Cable-Stayed Bridge in Tampa 

Bay, Florida................................................................. 12.1.3 

12.1.5 Parallel Wire................................................................ 12.1.5 

12.1.6 Structural Wire Strand................................................. 12.1.5 

12.1.7 Structural Wire Rope................................................... 12.1.5 

12.1.8 Parallel Strand Cable................................................... 12.1.5 

12.1.9 Locked Coil Strand Cross-Section.............................. 12.1.6 

12.1.10 Parallel Wire Testing................................................... 12.1.6 

12.1.11 Parallel Strand ............................................................. 12.1.7 

12.1.12 Cable Wrapping on the Wheeling Suspension 

Bridge.......................................................................... 12.1.7 

12.1.13 Tower Types: Concrete “Portal Tower” and “A-Frame 

Tower”..........................................................................

12.1.8 

12.1.14 Tower Types: Steel “Portal Tower” and Concrete “AFrame Tower” ...............................................................12.1.8 

12.1.15 Three-Span Suspension Bridge Schematic ................. 12.1.9 

12.1.16 Anchor Block Schematic................................................ 12.1.10 

12.1.17 Cable Saddles for the Manhattan Bridge, NYC.......... 12.1.10 

12.1.18 Grooved Cable Band................................................... 12.1.11 

12.1.19 Open Socket Suspender Cable Connection................. 12.1.11 

12.1.20 Cable Vibrations Local System Schematic................. 12.1.12 

12.1.21 Cable Vibrations Global System Schematic ............... 12.1.12 

12.1.22 Wheeling Suspension Bridge – Longest in the World 

When Completed in 1849............................................ 12.1.13 

12.1.23 Cable Tie Damper System .......................................... 12.1.13 

12.1.24 Radial or Converging Cable System Schematic ......... 12.1.14 

12.1.25 Harp or Parallel Cable System Schematic .................. 12.1.15 

12.1.26 Fan or Intermediate Cable System Schematic ............ 12.1.15 

12.1.27 Star Cable System Schematic...................................... 12.1.16 

12.1.28 Single Vertical Plane Cable System............................ 12.1.16 

12.1.29 Double Vertical Plane Cable System .......................... 12.1.17 

12.1.30 Double Inclined Plane Cable System.......................... 12.1.18 

12.1.31 Cable Saddle................................................................ 12.1.19 

12.1.32 Cable Deck Anchorage ............................................... 12.1.20 

12.1.33 Anchor Inspection on Veteran’s Bridge...................... 12.1.20 
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12.1.34 Damper on Cable Stayed Bridge................................. 12.1.21 

12.1.35 Anchor Block Schematic............................................. 12.1.23 

12.1.36 Anchorage Interior of Ben Franklin Bridge................ 12.1.24 

12.1.37 Tape and Rubber Seal Torn Around Cable 

Allowing Water Penetration into Top of Sheath......... 12.1.25 

12.1.38 Form for Recording Defects in the Cable System of 

a Suspension Bridge.................................................... 12.1.26 

12.1.39 Cable-Stayed Bridge ................................................... 12.1.27 

12.1.40 Cable-Stayed Bridge Cables ....................................... 12.1.27 

12.1.41 Cable Wrapping Placement......................................... 12.1.28 

12.1.42 Investigation of Deformed Cable Wrapping............... 12.1.29 

12.1.43 Corrosion of Steel Sheathing ...................................... 12.1.30 

12.1.44 Bulging of Cable Sheathing ........................................ 12.1.30 

12.1.45 Cracking of Cable Sheathing ...................................... 12.1.31 

12.1.46 Splitting of Cable Sheathing ....................................... 12.1.31 

12.1.47 Shock Absorber Damper System ................................ 12.1.32 

12.1.48 Shock Absorber Damper System ................................ 12.1.32 

12.1.49 Cable Tie Type Damper System ................................. 12.1.33 

12.1.50 Tuned Mass Damper System ...................................... 12.1.34 

12.1.51 Neoprene Boot at Steel Anchor Pipe Near Anchor..... 12.1.35 

12.1.52 Split Neoprene Boot.................................................... 12.1.35 

12.1.53 Corrosion of the Anchor System................................. 12.1.36 

12.1.54 Form for Recording Defects in Cable System of a 

Cable-Stayed Bridge ................................................... 12.1.37 

Topic 12.2 

Movable 

Bridges 

 

12.2.1 Movable Bridge........................................................... 12.2.1 

12.2.2 Typical “Permit Drawing” Showing Channel Width 

and Underclearance in Closed and Open Position ...... 12.2.2 

12.2.3 The First All-Iron Movable Bridge in the Midwest 

was Completed in 1859 (Photo on File at the 

Chicago Historical Society) ........................................ 12.2.3 

12.2.4 Center-Bearing Swing Bridge..................................... 12.2.4 

12.2.5 Center-Bearing Swing Span in Closed Position ......... 12.2.5 

12.2.6 Layout of Center-Bearing Type Swing Span with 

Machinery on the Span................................................ 12.2.5 

12.2.7 Bascule Bridge in the Open Position .......................... 12.2.6 

12.2.8 Rolling Lift Bascule Bridge Schematic....................... 12.2.7 

12.2.9 Double-Leaf Rolling Lift Bascule............................... 12.2.8 

12.2.10 Trunnion Bascule Bridge Schematic........................... 12.2.9 

12.2.11 Double-Leaf Trunnion Bascule Bridge....................... 12.2.9 
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12.2.12 Each Trunnion is Supported on Two Bearings ........... 12.2.10 

12.2.13 Trunnion Bascule Bridge Machinery (One Quarter 

Shown) is Located Outside of the Bascule Trusses 

on the Pier ................................................................... 12.2.10 

12.2.14 Multi-Trunnion, Strauss Type Bascule Bridge ........... 12.2.11 

12.2.15 Vertical Lift Bridge Schematic ................................... 12.2.12 

12.2.16 Vertical Lift Bridge Machinery is Located on Top of 

the Lift Truss Span, and the Operating Drums Rotate 

to Wind the Up-Haul (Lifting) Ropes as They 

Simultaneously Unwind the Down-Haul Ropes ......... 12.2.13 

12.2.17 Vertical Lift Bridge Machinery is Located on the 

Towers, and the Rim Gears (and Operating Sheaves) 

are Rotated to Raise and Lower the Bridge ................ 12.2.13 

12.2.18 Vertical Lift Bridge with Power and Drive System 

on Towers.................................................................... 12.2.14 

12.2.19 Open Gearing .............................................................. 12.2.14 

12.2.20 Speed Reducer............................................................. 12.2.15 

12.2.21 Coupling...................................................................... 12.2.15 

12.2.22 Bearing ........................................................................ 12.2.16 

12.2.23 Shoe Type Break......................................................... 12.2.17 

12.2.24 Spring Set Hydraulically Released Disc Break........... 12.2.17 

12.2.25 Low Speed High Torque Hydraulic Motor ................. 12.2.18 

12.2.26 AC Emergency Motor................................................. 12.2.19 

12.2.27 Air Buffer.................................................................... 12.2.19 

12.2.28 Shock Absorber........................................................... 12.2.20 

12.2.29 Typical Air Buffer Schematic ..................................... 12.2.20 

12.2.30 Typical Mechanically Operated Span Lock................ 12.2.21 

12.2.31 Hydraulic Cylinder that Drives Lock Bars.................. 12.2.21 

12.2.32 Concrete Counterweight on a Single-Leaf Bascule 

Bridge.......................................................................... 12.2.22 

12.2.33 Concrete Counterweight on a Vertical Lift Bridge..... 12.2.22 

12.2.34 Closed Span Resting on Live Load Shoes .................. 12.2.23 

12.2.35 Traffic Barrier ............................................................. 12.2.23 

12.2.36 Center Pivot Bearing................................................... 12.2.24 

12.2.37 Balance Wheel in-place over Circular Rack ............... 12.2.25 

12.2.38 End Wedge.................................................................. 12.2.26 

12.2.39 Hydraulic Cylinder Actuator....................................... 12.2.26 

12.2.40 End Wedges Withdrawn and End Latch Lifted .......... 12.2.27 

12.2.41 Circular Lift Tread and Track Castings ...................... 12.2.28 

12.2.42 Rack Casting and Pinion ............................................. 12.2.29 

12.2.43 Rack Casting Ready for Fabrication ........................... 12.2.30 

12.2.44 Drive Pinion ................................................................ 12.2.30 

12.2.45 Trunnion Bearing ........................................................ 12.2.31 
xliii 

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12.2.46 Trunnion Design Drawing........................................... 12.2.31 

12.2.47 Rear Lock Assembly................................................... 12.2.32 

12.2.48 Center Lock Jaws ........................................................ 12.2.33 

12.2.49 Transverse Locks on Underside can be Disengaged... 12.2.34 

12.2.50 Wire Rope ................................................................... 12.2.35 

12.2.51 Wire Rope Sockets and Fittings.................................. 12.2.35 

12.2.52 Drums Wind Up the Up-Haul (Lifting) Ropes as 

they Simultaneously Unwind the Down-Haul Ropes . 12.2.36 

12.2.53 Operator’s House with Clear View of Traffic 

Signals and Lane Gates ............................................... 12.2.38 

12.2.54 Traffic Control Gate.................................................... 12.2.39 

12.2.55 Navigational Light ...................................................... 12.2.40 

12.2.56 Marine Two-Way Radio Console ............................... 12.2.40 

12.2.57 Control Panel............................................................... 12.2.43 

12.2.58 Stress Reversals in Members ...................................... 12.2.44 

12.2.59 Counterweights on Vertical Lift Bridge...................... 12.2.45 

12.2.60 Concrete Bearing Areas .............................................. 12.2.46 

12.2.61 Pier Protection Systems – Dolphins and Fenders ....... 12.2.46 

12.2.62 Cracked Speed Reducer Housing................................ 12.2.49 

12.2.63 Leaking Speed Reducer............................................... 12.2.49 

12.2.64 Hairline Crack Revealed on Shaft from Dye 

Penetrant Test.............................................................. 12.2.50 

12.2.65 Dry Bearing................................................................. 12.2.51 

12.2.66 Open Switchboard....................................................... 12.2.56 

12.2.67 Hydraulic Power Specialists ....................................... 12.2.58 

12.2.68 Example of Notes on Operating Machinery (GearsGeneral)....................................................................... 12.2.60 

12.2.69 Example of Notes on Operating Machinery (GearsTeeth) .......................................................................... 12.2.61 

12.2.70 Example of Notes on Operating Machinery 

(Bearings).................................................................... 12.2.62 

12.2.71 Example of Notes on Operating Machinery 

(Mechanical Elements)................................................ 12.2.63 

12.2.72 Example of Notes on Electrical Equipment (Motors). 12.2.64 

12.2.73 Example of Notes on Electrical Equipment (Limit 

Switch) ........................................................................ 12.2.65 

12.2.74 Example of Notes on Electrical Equipment (Megger 

Insulation Test of the Submarine Cables) ................... 12.2.66 

Topic 12.3 

Concrete Pipe 

Culverts 

 

12.3.1 Concrete Pipe Culvert ................................................. 12.3.1 
xliv 

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12.3.2 Twin Concrete Pipe Culvert........................................ 12.3.2 

12.3.3 Rigid Culvert Stresses................................................. 12.3.3 

12.3.4 Surface Indications of Infiltration ............................... 12.3.9 

12.3.5 Example of Severe Infiltration of Backfill Material 

through Separated Joints ............................................. 12.3.10 

12.3.6 Severe Infiltration of Ground Water through 

Separated Joints........................................................... 12.3.10 

12.3.7 Results of Poor and Good Side Support, Rigid Pipe... 12.3.11 

12.3.8 Minor Longitudinal Crack with Efflorescence ........... 12.3.12 

12.3.9 Severe Longitudinal Cracks with Differential 

Movement and Spalling .............................................. 12.3.12 

12.3.10 Transverse or Circumferential Cracks ........................ 12.3.13 

12.3.11 Spalling Exposing Reinforcing Steel .......................... 12.3.14 

12.3.12 Shear Slabbing ............................................................ 12.3.15 

12.3.13 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.3.16 

12.3.14 Standard Sized for Concrete Pipe (Source: American 

Concrete Pipe Association)......................................... 12.3.18 

12.3.14 Standard Sized for Concrete Pipe (Source: American 

Concrete Pipe Association), continued ....................... 12.3.19 

12.3.14 Standard Sized for Concrete Pipe (Source: American 

Concrete Pipe Association), continued ....................... 12.3.20 

Topic 12.4 

Flexible 

Culverts 

 

12.4.1 Pipe Arch Flexible Culvert.......................................... 12.4.1 

12.4.2 Flexible Culvert Deflection......................................... 12.4.2 

12.4.3 Formula for Ring Compression................................... 12.4.3 

12.4.4 Standard Corrugated Steel Culvert Shapes (Source: 

Handbook of Steel Drainage and Highway 

Construction Products, American Iron and Steel 

Institute) ...................................................................... 12.44 

12.4.5 Checking Curvature by Curve and Middle Ordinate .. 12.4.12 

12.4.6 Surface Indications of Infiltration ............................... 12.4.13 

12.4.7 Surface Hole Above Open Joint.................................. 12.4.14 

12.4.8 Close-Up of Loose and Missing Bolts at a Cusped 

Seam; Loose Fasteners are Usually Detected by 

Tapping the Nuts with a Hammer ............................... 12.4.15 

12.4.9 Cocked Seam with Cusp Effect................................... 12.4.16 

12.4.10 Cracking Due to Deflection ........................................ 12.4.17 

12.4.11 Circumferential Seam Failure Due to Embankment 

Slippage....................................................................... 12.4.18 

 
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12.4.12 Suggested Rating Criteria for Condition of 

Corrugated Metal ........................................................ 12.4.20 

12.4.13 Perforation of the Invert Due to Corrosion ................. 12.4.20 

12.4.14 Invert Deterioration..................................................... 12.4.21 

12.4.15 Differential Footing Settlement................................... 12.4.22 

12.4.16 Footing Rotation Due to Undermining ....................... 12.4.22 

12.4.17 Erosion of Invert Undermining footing of Arch ......... 12.4.23 

12.4.18 Erosion Damage to Concrete Invert............................ 12.4.24 

12.4.19 Excessive Side Deflection........................................... 12.4.26 

12.4.20 Shape Inspection Circular and Vertical Elongated 

Pipe.............................................................................. 12.4.27 

12.4.21 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.4.29 

12.4.22 Bottom Distortion in Pipe Arches............................... 12.4.30 

12.4.23 Bottom and Corners of this Pipe Arch have Settled ... 12.4.31 

12.4.24 Shape Inspection Structural Plate Pipe Arch .............. 12.4.32 

12.4.25 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.4.33 

12.4.26 Arch Deflection During Installation ........................... 12.4.34 

12.4.27 Racked and Peaked Arch ............................................ 12.4.35 

12.4.28 Shape Inspection Structural Plate Arch....................... 12.4.36 

12.4.29 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.4.37 

12.4.30 Shape Inspection Structural Plate Box Culverts ......... 12.4.38 

12.4.31 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.4.40 

12.4.32 Typical Long-Span Shapes ......................................... 12.4.41 

12.4.33 Erosion Damage to Concrete Invert............................ 12.4.42 

12.4.34 Shape Inspection Crown Section of Long Span 

Structures .................................................................... 12.4.43 

12.4.35 Shape Inspection Low Profile Long Span Arch.......... 12.4.45 

12.4.36 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.4.46 

12.4.37 Shape Inspection High Profile Long-Span Arch......... 12.4.48 

12.4.38 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.4.49 

12.4.39 Shape Inspection Long Span Pear-Shape.................... 12.4.50 

12.4.40 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.4.51 

12.4.41 Potential for Differential Settlement in Horizontal 

Ellipse.......................................................................... 12.4.52 

12.4.42 Shape Inspection Long-Span Horizontal Ellipse ........ 12.4.53 

12.4.43 Condition Rating Guidelines....................................... 12.4.54 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association)................................ 12.4.56 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.57 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.58 

 
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12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.59 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.60 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.61 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.62 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.63 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.64 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.65 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.66 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.67 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.68 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.69 

12.4.44 Standard Sizes for Corrugated Steel Culverts 

(Source: Aluminum Association), continued.............. 12.4.70 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association ............................................... 12.4.71 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.72 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.73 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.74 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.75 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.76 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.77 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.78 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.79 

 
xlvii 

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No.

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.80 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.81 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.82 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.83 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.84 

12.4.45 Standard Sizes for Aluminum Culvert (Source: 

Aluminum Association), continued ............................ 12.4.85 

Topic 13.1 

Timber 

 

13.1.1 Pol-Tek Sonic Testing Apparatus ............................... 13.1.2 

13.1.2 Stress Wave Timer ...................................................... 13.1.3 

13.1.3 Ultrasonic Testing Equipment..................................... 13.1.4 

13.1.4 Increment Borer .......................................................... 13.1.5 

13.1.5 Decay Detection Device.............................................. 13.1.6 

Topic 13.2 

Concrete 

 

13.2.1 Portable Hand Held Sonic/Ultrasonic Testing Sensor 

Array System (http://www.ndtcorporation.com) ........ 13.2.2 

13.2.2 Acoustic Emission Sensors ......................................... 13.2.2 

13.2.3 Delamination Detection Machinery ............................ 13.2.3 

13.2.4 The HERMES Bridge Inspector ................................. 13.2.5 

13.2.5 Schematic of Ground Penetrating Radar..................... 13.2.6 

13.2.6 Impact-Echo Testing Equipment ................................ 13.2.7 

13.2.7 Schematic of Thermal Imaging................................... 13.2.8 

13.2.8 Infrared Thermography Testing Equipment................ 13.2.9 

13.2.9 Remote Video Inspection Device................................ 13.2.12 

Topic 13.3 

Steel 

 

13.3.1 LAM System Showing Eight Sensors and Holding 

Magnet.........................................................................

13.3.2 

13.3.2 Detection of a Crack Using Dye Penetrant ................. 13.3.4 

13.3.3 Schematic of Magnetic Field Disturbance .................. 13.3.4 

13.3.4 Radiographic Testing .................................................. 13.3.5 

13.3.5 Robotic Inspection ...................................................... 13.3.6 

13.3.6 Ultrasonic Testing of a Pin in a Moveable Bridge...... 13.3.7 
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 Figure 

No.

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No.

13.3.7 Hand Held Eddy Current Instrument .......................... 13.3.8 

13.3.8 Charpy V-Notch Test .................................................. 13.3.9 

13.3.9 Brittle Failure of Cast Iron Specimen ......................... 13.3.10 

13.3.10 Ductile Failure of Cold Rolled Steel........................... 13.3.11 

Topic 13.4 

Advanced Asset 

Assessment 

 

13.4.1 Installation of Sensors................................................. 13.4.1 

13.4.2 Viewing Real time Data.............................................. 13.4.2 

13.4.3 Strain Gage Used on Hoan Bridge.............................. 13.4.3 

13.4.4 Dynamic Load Testing Vehicle .................................. 13.4.5 

13.4.5 Structural Model.......................................................... 13.4.6 

 
List of Tables 

 Table 

No.

 Page 

No.

Topic 1.1 

History of the 

National Bridge 

Inventory 

Program 

 

1.1.1 Number of Bridges Built Since 1900.......................... 1.1.2 

1.1.2 Federal Funding Levels (1979 – 2003) ....................... 1.1.6 

Topic 2.2 

Concrete 

 

2.2.1 Strength Properties of Concrete (24 Mpa) (3500 psi 

Concrete)..................................................................... 2.2.5 

2.2.2 FHWA’s SHRP Implemented HPC Mix Designs....... 2.2.5 

2.2.3 Crack Width Guidlines................................................ 2.2.17 

Topic 2.3 

Steel 

 

2.3.1 Correlation Between Weathering Steel Texture and 

Condition..................................................................... 2.3.29 

Topic 3.1 

Duties of the 

Bridge 

Inspection 

Team 

 

3.1.1 Sample Inspection Sequence....................................... 3.1.6 

Topic 4.2 

Condition and 

Appraisal 

 

4.2.1 Maintenance Rating Scale........................................... 4.2.10 

Topic 5.5 

Traffic Safety 

Features 

 

5.5.1 NCHRP Report 350 Test Level Index ........................ 5.5.6