Report to the Congress:

COCAINE 

AND 

FEDERAL SENTENCING POLICY

UNITED STATES SENTENCING COMMISSION

May 2007
COCAINE

AND

FEDERAL SENTENCING POLICY

Ricardo H. Hinojosa

Chair

Ruben Castillo

Vice Chair

William K. Sessions III

Vice Chair

John R. Steer

Vice Chair

Dabney L. Friedrich

Commissioner

Michael E. Horowitz

Commissioner

Beryl A. Howell

Commissioner

Benton J. Campbell

(ex officio)

Edward F. Reilly, Jr.

(ex officio)
i 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 

OVERVIEW ...............................................................................................................1 

A. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1 

B. CURRENT PENALTY STRUCTURE FOR FEDERAL COCAINE OFFENSES......... 2 

1. Two-Tiered Penalties for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

 Trafficking ...................................................................................................2 

2. Simple Possession of Crack Cocaine...........................................................4 

3. Crack Cocaine Penalties Compared to Other Major Drugs of Abuse .........4 

C. RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................................6 

D. RECENT COMMISSION ACTION.........................................................................9 

E. ORGANIZATION...............................................................................................10 

CHAPTER 2 

ANALYSIS OF FEDERAL SENTENCING DATA ................................................11 

A. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 11 

1. Background................................................................................................12 

B. OFFENSE AND OFFENDER CHARACTERISTICS ..............................................14 

1. Demographics ............................................................................................15 

2. Offender Function......................................................................................17 

3. Wholesalers................................................................................................22 

4. Drug Quantity ............................................................................................24 

5. Aggravating Conduct.................................................................................31 

a. Weapon Involvement........................................................................31 

b. Violence ............................................................................................36 

c. Protected Individuals and Locations.................................................39 

6. Role Adjustments.......................................................................................39 

7. Criminal History ........................................................................................44 

8. Safety Valve...............................................................................................49 

9. Sentences Relative to the Guideline Range ...............................................50 

10. Overview of Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Sentencing..................60 

CHAPTER 3

FORMS OF COCAINE, METHODS OF USE, EFFECTS, DEPENDENCY, 

PRENATAL EFFECTS, AND PREVALENCE.......................................................62 

A. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................62

B. POWDER COCAINE AND CRACK COCAINE MANUFACTURING,

PURITY, AND DOSES .......................................................................................62 

C. COCAINE’s EFFECTS, ADDICTIVENESS, AND METHODS 

OF ADMINISTRATION ...............................................................................63

D. PRENATAL COCAINE EXPOSURE...............................................................68

1. Introduction ...............................................................................................68 

2. Effects ........................................................................................................68 
ii 

3. Prenatal Exposure to Other Substances .....................................................69 

E. TRENDS IN DRUG USE.............................................................................. 72 

1. Introduction................................................................................................72 

2. Use Trends .................................................................................................72 

3. Social Costs................................................................................................76 

CHAPTER 4

TRENDS IN DRUG TRAFFICKING PATTERN, PRICE AND USE.....................83 

A. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................83

B. DRUG TRAFFICKING .................................................................................83

C. DRUG TRAFFICKING RELATED VIOLENCE ................................................86

D. COCAINE PRICES AND PURITY .......................................................................90 

 1. Cocaine Prices.........................................................................................90 

 2. Powder Cocaine Purity ...........................................................................96 

Chapter 5

STATE SENTENCING POLICY AND POSSIBLE EFFECT ON FEDERAL 

PROSECUTORIAL DECISIONS ............................................................................98 

A. STATE COCAINE SENTENCING POLICIES .......................................................98 

 1. Alabama ...............................................................................................99 

 2. Arizona...............................................................................................100 

 3. California ...........................................................................................100 

 4. Iowa....................................................................................................101 

 5. Maine .................................................................................................101 

 6. Maryland............................................................................................102 

 7. Missouri .............................................................................................102 

 8. New Hampshire .................................................................................102 

 9. North Dakota......................................................................................102 

 10. Ohio....................................................................................................103 

 11. Oklahoma...........................................................................................103 

 12. South Carolina ...................................................................................103 

 13. Virginia ..............................................................................................104 

B. INTERACTION OF PROSECUTORIAL DECISIONS AND STATE PENALTIES ..107 

Chapter 6

CASE LAW DEVELOPMENTS............................................................................115 

A. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................115 

B. UNITED STATES V. BOOKER..........................................................................115 
iii 

APPENDICIES 

APPENDIX A 

SENTENCING DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY ...................... A-1 

A. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... A-1

B. SENTENCING COMMISSION FISCAL YEAR DATAFILES ........................... A-1

C. 2000 DRUG SAMPLE.............................................................................. A-1 

D. 2005 DRUG SAMPLE.............................................................................. A-2 

1. Offender Function Definitions..................................................... A-2 

 2. Cocaine Wholesalers......................................................................... A-5 

 3. Geographic Scope ............................................................................. A-8 

APPENDIX B 

SUMMARY OF PUBLIC HEARINGS ON COCAINE

SENTENCING POLICY ............................................................................. B-1 

A. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... B-1

B. FEDERAL JUDGES .................................................................................. B-1 

C. LAW ENFORCEMENT ............................................................................. B-2 

D. CRIMINAL DEFENSE PRACTITIONERS .................................................... B-5 

E. MEDICAL/SCIENTIFIC/TREATMENT COMMUNITIES................................ B-9 

F ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH COMMUNITIES......................................... B-13 

G. COMMUNITY REPRESENTATIVES AND INTERESTED PARTIES .............. B-17 

APPENDIX C 

SUMMARY OF WRITTEN PUBLIC COMMENT ON COCAINE 

SENTENCING POLICY ............................................................................. C-1 

APPENDIX D 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT ANALYSIS .............. D-1 

APPENDIX E 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT ANALYSIS FOR 

CRACK COCAINE AMENDMENT 

A. CRACK COCAINE GUIDELINE AMENDMENT........................................... E-1 

B. IMPACT ANALYSIS .............................................................................. E-18 
iv 

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1: Trend in Number of Powder Cocaine and Crack 

Cocaine Offenders............................................................................ 12 

Figure 2-2: Trend in Prison Sentences for Powder Cocaine and Crack 

Cocaine Offenders............................................................................ 13 

Figure 2-3: Trend in Proportional Differences Between Average 

Cocaine Sentences............................................................................ 14 

Figure 2-4: Most Serious Function for Powder Cocaine and Crack 

 Cocaine Offenders............................................................................ 19 

Figure 2-5: Most Serious Function for Powder Cocaine Offenders............... 20 

Figure 2-6: Most Serious Function for Crack Cocaine Offenders ................ 21 

Figure 2-7: Geographic Scope of Powder Cocaine and Crack 

 Cocaine Offenses ........................................................................ 22 

Figure 2-8: Median Single Largest Wholesale Quantity by Conduct 

 for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders.................... 23 

Figure 2-9: Most Common Function for Powder Cocaine and Crack 

 Cocaine Wholesalers................................................................... 24 

Figure 2-10: Distribution of Drug Trafficking Guideline (USSC §2D1.1) 

 Base Offense Levels for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

 Offenders .................................................................................... 25

Figure 2-11: Median Drug Weight for Powder Cocaine and Crack 

 Cocaine Offenders ...................................................................... 27 

Figure 2-12: Powder Cocaine Offenders Exposed to Mandatory Minimum 

 Penalties for Each Offender Function......................................... 28 

Figure 2-13: Crack Cocaine Offenders Exposed to Mandatory Minimum 

 Penalties for Each Offender Function......................................... 29 

Figure 2-14: Average Length of Imprisonment for Powder Cocaine and 

 Crack Cocaine Offenders for Each Offender Function .............. 30 
v 

Figure 2-15: Weapon Involvement for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

 Offenses ...................................................................................... 32 

Figure 2-16: Offender Weapon Involvement and Weapon Enhancements 

 for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses...................... 33 

Figure 2-17: Trends in Weapon Enhancements for Powder Cocaine and 

 Crack Cocaine Offenses.............................................................. 35 

Figure 2-18: Statutory and Guideline Weapon Enhancements Applied to 

 Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses for Each 

 Offender Function....................................................................... 36 

Figure 2-19: Offense Conduct of Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

 Offenders .................................................................................... 37 

Figure 2-20: Violence Involvement in Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

 Offenses ...................................................................................... 38 

Figure 2-21: Trend in Application of Aggravating Role Adjustment 

 (USSG §3B1.1) in Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

 Offenses ...................................................................................... 40 

Figure 2-22: Trend in Application of Mitigating Role Adjustment 

 (USSG §3B1.2) in Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

 Offenses ...................................................................................... 41 

Figure 2-23: Application of Role Adjustments for Each Offender Function 

 for Powder Cocaine Offenders ................................................... 42 

Figure 2-24: Application of Role Adjustments for Each Offender Function 

 for Crack Cocaine Offenders ...................................................... 43 

Figure 2-25: Criminal History Category Distribution for Powder Cocaine 

 and Crack Cocaine Offenders..................................................... 44 

Figure 2-26: Criminal History Category for Each Offender Function 

 for Powder Cocaine Offenders ................................................... 45 

Figure 2-27: Criminal History Category for Each Offender Function 

 for Crack Cocaine Offenders ...................................................... 46 
vi 

Figure 2-28: Criminal History Categories for Drug Quantity- 

 Based Offense Levels for Powder Cocaine Offenders ............... 47 

Figure 2-29: Criminal History Categories for Drug Quantity- 

 Based Offense Levels for Crack Cocaine Offenders.................. 48 

Figure 2-30: Within Guideline Range and Out-of-Range Sentences for 

 Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses ........................... 51 

Figure 2-31: Rates of Within-Range and Out-of-Range Sentences for 

 Powder Cocaine Offenses........................................................... 52 

Figure 2-32: Rates of Within-Range and Out-of-Range Sentences for 

 Crack Cocaine Offenses.............................................................. 53 

Figure 2-33: Rates of Within-Range and Government Sponsored 

 Below-Range Sentences for Powder Cocaine and 

 Crack Cocaine Offenses.............................................................. 54 

Figure 2-34: Rates of Within-Range Sentences for Each Offender 

 Function for Powder and Crack Cocaine Offenses..................... 55 

Figure 2-35: Rates of Above-Range Sentences for Each Offender 

 Function for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses ...... 56 

Figure 2-36: Rates of Government Sponsored Below-Range Sentences 

 for Each Offender Function for Powder Cocaine and 

 Crack Cocaine Offenses.............................................................. 57 

Figure 2-37: Distribution of Government Sponsored Below-Range 

 Sentences for Each Offender Function in Powder 

 Cocaine Offenses ........................................................................ 58 

Figure 2-38: Distribution of Government Sponsored Below-Range 

 Sentences for Each Offender Function in Crack 

 Cocaine Offenses ........................................................................ 59 

Figure 2-39: Rates of Other Below-Range Sentences for Each Offender 

 Function for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses ...... 60 

Figure 3-1: Trends in Reported Drug Use in Past 30 Days Among 

 12th Grade Students..................................................................... 73 
vii 

Figure 3-2: Trends in Reported Drug Use in Past 30 Days Among 

 12th Grade Students Within the Past Six Years........................... 74 

Figure 3-3: Trends in Reported Cocaine Use in Past 30 Days Among 

 12th Grade Students..................................................................... 75 

Figure 3-4: Reported Past Month Drug Use Among 18-25 Year Olds ......... 76 

Figure 3-5: Trends in DAWN Emergency Room Episodes and 

 Drug Mentions ............................................................................ 78 

Figure 3-6: Trends in Drug Treatment Admissions (Primary Drug)............. 79 

Figure 3-7: Median Percentage of Male Arrestees Who Tested Positive 

 for Any Illicit Drug..................................................................... 81 

Figure 3-8: Median Percentage of Male Arrestees Who Self Reported 

 Any Illicit Drug Use (Past Seven Days)..................................... 82 

Figure 4-1: Trends in Crack Cocaine Substance Abuse Treatment 

 Admissions by Age Group 1992-2005 ....................................... 88 

Figure 4-2: Trends in Average Age at Sentencing of Powder Cocaine 

 and Crack Cocaine Offenders..................................................... 89 

Figure 4-3: Powder Cocaine Price Trends Modified Average 

 Powder Cocaine 1998-2005........................................................ 91 

Figure 4-4: Powder Cocaine Price Trends Modified Average 

 Powder Cocaine Gram 1998-2005.............................................. 92 

Figure 4-5: Crack Cocaine Price Trends Modified Average 

 Crack Cocaine 2001-2005 .......................................................... 93 

Figure 4-6: Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Price Trends 

 Modified Average Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

1998-2005 ................................................................................... 94 

Figure 4-7: Powder Cocaine Average Purity Trends 1998-2005 .................. 95 

Figure 4-8: Powder Cocaine Average Purity and Price Per Kilogram 

 1998-2005 ................................................................................... 96 
viii 

Figure 4-9: Powder Cocaine Average Purity and Price Per Ounce 

 1998-2005 ................................................................................... 97 

Figure 4-10: Powder Cocaine Average Purity and Price Per Gram 

 1998-2005 ................................................................................... 97 

Figure A-1: Offender Conduct for Wholesale Classification.......................A-6 

Figure A-2: Basis for Wholesale Classification When Most Common 

 Function is Net Wholesaler.......................................................A-7 
1

Chapter 1

OVERVIEW 

A. INTRODUCTION 

This is the United States Sentencing Commission’s fourth report to Congress on 

the subject of federal cocaine sentencing policy.1

 The Commission submits this update 

pursuant to both its general statutory authority under 28 U.S.C. §§ 994-95 and its specific 

responsibility to advise Congress on sentencing policy under 28 U.S.C. § 995(a)(20).2

 

Congress has not acted on any of the various statutory recommendations set forth in the 

Commission’s prior reports and expressly disapproved the Commission’s guideline 

amendment addressing crack cocaine penalties submitted on May 1, 1995. 

Against a backdrop of renewed congressional interest in federal cocaine 

sentencing policy,3

 the need to update the Commission’s prior reports has become more 

important. The Supreme Court’s decision in United States v. Booker4 has given rise to 

litigation and resulted in differences among federal courts on the issue of whether, and 

how, sentencing courts should consider the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio.5 Congressional 

enactment of a uniform remedy to the problems created by the 100-to-1 drug quantity 

ratio, as opposed to the employment of varied remedies by the courts, would better 

 

1 United States Sentencing Commission [hereinafter USSC or Commission], 2002 REPORT TO 

CONGRESS: COCAINE AND FEDERAL SENTENCING POLICY (May 2002) [hereinafter 2002 

Commission Report]; USSC, 1997 SPECIAL REPORT TO CONGRESS: COCAINE AND FEDERAL 

SENTENCING POLICY (as directed by section 2 of Pub. L. No. 104–38) (April 1997) [hereinafter 

1997 Commission Report]; USSC, 1995 SPECIAL REPORT TO CONGRESS: COCAINE AND 

FEDERAL SENTENCING POLICY (as directed by section 280006 of Pub. L. No. 103–322) (February 

1995) [hereinafter 1995 Commission Report]. 

2 See 28 U.S.C. § 995(a)(20) (authorizing the Commission to “make recommendations to 

Congress concerning modification or enactment of statutes relating to sentencing, penal, and 

correctional markers that the Commission finds to be necessary to carry out an effective, humane, 

and rational sentencing policy”). The Commission’s duties and authorities are fully set forth in 

chapter 58 of title 28, United States Code.

3

 A number of members of Congress have requested that the Commission update the information 

in its prior reports and bills have been introduced recently addressing federal cocaine sentencing 

policy. See, e.g., S. 3725, 109th Cong. (2006) (“Drug Sentencing Reform Act of 2006”), 

introduced by Sen. Sessions (co-sponsored by Sens. Pryor, Cornyn, and Salazar); H.R. 79, 110th

Cong. (2007) (“Powder-Crack Cocaine Penalty Equalization Act of 2007”) introduced by Rep. 

Bartlett; H.R. 460, 110th Cong. (2007) (“Crack-Cocaine Equitable Sentencing Act of 2007”) 

introduced by Rep. Rangel.

4

 United States v. Booker, 543 U.S. 220 (2005). 

5

 See Chapter 6. 
2

promote the goals of the Sentencing Reform Act, including avoiding unwarranted 

sentence disparities among defendants with similar criminal records who have been 

found guilty of similar criminal conduct. 

Federal cocaine sentencing policy, insofar as it provides substantially heightened 

penalties for crack cocaine offenses, continues to come under almost universal criticism 

from representatives of the Judiciary, criminal justice practitioners, academics, and 

community interest groups, and inaction in this area is of increasing concern to many, 

including the Commission.6

 The Commission submits this update as a continuation of its 

efforts to work with the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government and 

other interested parties to foster change in federal cocaine sentencing policy. It is the 

Commission’s firm desire that this report will facilitate prompt and appropriate 

legislative action by Congress. 

B. CURRENT PENALTY STRUCTURE FOR FEDERAL COCAINE OFFENSES

1. Two-Tiered Penalties for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

Trafficking 

The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 19867

 established the basic framework of statutory 

mandatory minimum penalties currently applicable to federal drug trafficking offenses. 

The quantities triggering those mandatory minimum penalties differed for various drugs 

and, in some cases including cocaine, for different forms of the same drug. A detailed 

legislative history of the 1986 Act, both as it pertains to major drugs of abuse generally 

and to cocaine specifically, is set forth in the Commission’s 2002 Report.8

 In establishing the mandatory minimum penalties for cocaine, Congress 

differentiated between the two principal forms of cocaine – cocaine hydrochloride 

[hereinafter referred to as powder cocaine] and cocaine base [hereinafter referred to as 

crack cocaine] – and provided significantly higher punishment for crack cocaine 

offenses.9

 As a result of the 1986 Act, federal law10 requires a five-year mandatory 

 

6

 See Appendix B (Summary of Public Hearings on Cocaine Sentencing Policy); Appendix C 

(Summary of Written Public Comment on Cocaine Sentencing Policy). 

 

7 Pub. L. No. 99–570, 100 Stat. 3207 (1986) [hereinafter 1986 Act]. 

8 USSC, 2002 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 4-10.

9 The heightened statutory mandatory minimum penalties provided in 21 U.S.C. § 841 apply to 

“cocaine base,” which is undefined in the statute but interpreted by some courts to be broader 

than crack cocaine, and to include, for example, coca paste. In 1993, the Commission narrowed 

the definition for purposes of guideline application to focus on crack cocaine, which the 

Commission believed was Congress’s primary concern. Specifically, the Commission added the 

following definition to the notes following the Drug Quantity Table in USSG §2D1.1(c): 

“‘Cocaine base,’ for purposes of this guideline, means ‘crack.’ ‘Crack’ is the street name for a 

form of cocaine base, usually prepared by processing cocaine hydrochloride and sodium 

bicarbonate, and usually appearing in a lumpy, rocklike form.” USSG, App. C, Amend. 487 
3

minimum penalty for a first-time trafficking offense involving five grams or more of 

crack cocaine, or 500 grams or more of powder cocaine, and a ten-year mandatory 

minimum penalty for a first-time trafficking offense involving 50 grams or more of crack 

cocaine, or 5,000 grams or more of powder cocaine. Because it takes 100 times more 

powder cocaine than crack cocaine to trigger the same mandatory minimum penalty, this 

penalty structure is commonly referred to as the “100-to-1 drug quantity ratio.” 

 When Congress passed the 1986 Act, the Commission was in the process of 

developing the initial sentencing guidelines. The Commission responded to the 

legislation by generally incorporating the statutory mandatory minimum sentences into 

the guidelines and extrapolating upward and downward to set guideline sentencing ranges 

for all drug quantities. Offenses involving five grams or more of crack cocaine or 500 

grams or more of powder cocaine were assigned a base offense level (level 26) 

corresponding to a sentencing guideline range of 63 to 78 months for a defendant in 

Criminal History Category I11 (a guideline range that exceeded the five-year statutory 

minimum for such offenses by at least three months). Similarly, offenses involving 50 

grams or more of crack cocaine or 5,000 grams or more of powder cocaine were assigned 

a base offense level (level 32) corresponding to a sentencing guideline range of 121 to 

151 months for a defendant in Criminal History Category I (a guideline range that 

exceeded the ten-year statutory minimum for such offenses by at least one month). Crack 

cocaine and powder cocaine offenses for quantities above and below the mandatory 

minimum penalty threshold quantities were set proportionately using the same 100-to-1 

drug quantity ratio.12

Because of the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio, the sentencing guideline penalties 

based solely on drug quantity (i.e., the base offense level provided by the Drug Quantity 

Table in the primary drug trafficking guideline, USSG §2D.1.1 (Unlawful 

Manufacturing, Importing, Exporting, or Trafficking (Including Possession with Intent to 

Commit These Offenses); Attempt or Conspiracy)) are three to over six times longer for 

crack cocaine offenders than for powder cocaine offenders with equivalent drug 

quantities, depending on the exact quantity of drug involved. As a result of both the 

statutory and guideline differentiation between the two forms of cocaine, as well as other 

factors examined in Chapter 2, the resulting sentences for offenses involving crack 

cocaine are significantly longer than those for similar offenses involving powder cocaine 

for any quantity of drug. 

_________________________________ 

(effective Nov. 1, 1993). As a result of the amendment, the guidelines treat forms of cocaine base 

other than crack cocaine (e.g., coca paste, an intermediate step in the processing of coca leaves 

into cocaine hydrochloride) like powder cocaine. 

10 See 21 U.S.C. § 841(b).

11 Defendants with no prior convictions or minimal prior convictions are assigned to Criminal 

History Category I. 

12 See generally 1995 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, ch. 7 (providing a more thorough 

explanation of how sentences are determined under the federal sentencing guidelines). 
4

2. Simple Possession of Crack Cocaine 

Congress further differentiated between powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

offenses, and between crack cocaine and other drugs, in the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 

198813 [hereinafter the 1988 Act]. The 1988 Act established a mandatory minimum 

penalty for simple possession of crack cocaine, which is the only federal mandatory 

minimum penalty for a first offense of simple possession of a controlled substance. 

Under current law, possession of five grams or more of crack cocaine triggers a 

mandatory minimum sentence of five years in prison; simple possession of any quantity 

of any other controlled substance (except flunitrazepan) by a first-time offender – 

including powder cocaine – is a misdemeanor offense punishable by a maximum of one 

year in prison.14 In other words, an offender who simply possesses five grams of crack 

cocaine receives the same five-year mandatory minimum penalty as a trafficker of other 

drugs. In order to account for the new statutory mandatory minimum in the guideline for 

simple possession offenses, the Commission added a cross reference to the drug 

trafficking guideline for offenders who possess more than five grams of crack cocaine. 

(See USSG §2D2.1(b)(1) (Unlawful Possession, Attempt or Conspiracy)). 

 

3. Crack Cocaine Penalties Compared to Other Major Drugs of Abuse 

In addition to being more severe than powder cocaine penalties, crack cocaine 

penalties generally are more severe than penalties for the other drugs of abuse that 

comprise the federal caseload. In the overwhelming majority of federal drug cases, the 

primary drug type is cocaine, heroin, marijuana, or methamphetamine.15 With the 

exception of methamphetamine-actual, which is discussed in more detail below, the 

threshold quantities that trigger the mandatory minimum provisions set forth in current 

law are greater for these drug types than for crack cocaine. For heroin, for example, 100 

grams and 1,000 grams trigger the five-year and ten-year mandatory minimum penalties, 

respectively. For marijuana, 100 kilograms (or 100 marijuana plants) and 1,000 

kilograms (or 1,000 marijuana plants) trigger the five-year and ten-year mandatory 

minimum penalties, respectively.16

 Congress did not establish mandatory minimum penalties for methamphetamine 

offenses until the 1988 Act. Under the 1988 Act, ten grams and 100 grams of actual 

methamphetamine triggered five-year and ten-year mandatory minimum penalties, 

 

13 Pub. L. No. 100–690, 102 Stat. 4181 (1988). 

14 See 21 U.S.C. § 844. Simple possession of flunitrazepan carries a statutory maximum penalty 

of three years imprisonment but does not have a statutory mandatory minimum penalty. 

15 See USSC, 2006 Sourcebook of Federal Sentencing Statistics 104 (February 2007). 

16 See 21 U.S.C. § 841.
5

respectively; and 100 grams and 1,000 grams of a mixture or substance containing 

methamphetamine triggered five-year and ten-year mandatory minimum penalties, 

respectively. The Commission responded by incorporating these mandatory minimum 

thresholds in the same manner it had previously used for other drugs, including powder 

cocaine and crack cocaine. 

 Congress stiffened the penalties for methamphetamine offenses in the 

Methamphetamine Trafficking Penalty Enhancement Act of 1998.17 This legislation cut 

in half the relevant threshold quantities such that five grams and 50 grams of 

methamphetamine-actual trigger five-year and ten-year mandatory minimum penalties, 

respectively; and 50 grams and 500 grams of methamphetamine-mixture trigger five-year 

and ten-year mandatory minimum penalties, respectively. The Commission again 

responded by incorporating these mandatory thresholds into the guidelines in its usual 

manner for drug offenses. 

 Obvious comparisons are drawn between the current federal penalty scheme for 

methamphetamine and cocaine, in part because penalties for both drugs vary depending 

on the form of the drug and in part because the mandatory minimum threshold quantities 

for crack cocaine and methamphetamine-actual are the same. Nevertheless, important 

differences in their penalty structure remain. For crack cocaine offenses, the threshold 

quantities are triggered by the weight of any mixture or substance that contains crack 

cocaine, regardless of the purity of the mixture or substance. Any additives to powder 

cocaine or impurities created in the manufacturing process of crack cocaine count toward 

the weight of the drug for purposes of both triggering the mandatory minimum and 

determining the guideline sentencing range. By contrast, for methamphetamine-actual, 

the threshold quantities are triggered solely by the weight of pure methamphetamine. 

 Thus, to the extent crack cocaine is impure,18 quantity-based penalties for crack 

cocaine remain more severe than for methamphetamine-actual. However, the effect of 

this particular differential treatment is significantly muted by the manner in which the 

guidelines treat “ice.” Ice is a mixture or substance, crystalline in structure, containing dmethamphetamine hydrochloride that is typically 80 to 90 percent pure. In response to a 

directive in the 1990 Crime Control Act,19 the Commission amended the guidelines to 

treat a mixture or substance containing d-methamphetamine hydrochloride as 

methamphetamine-actual if the mixture or substance is at least 80 percent pure.20 

Therefore, crack cocaine that is at least 80 percent pure will be accorded the same 

guideline penalties based on drug quantity alone as ice. 

 

17 Pub. L. No. 105–277, Division E, 112 Stat. 2681 (1998), codified at 28 U.S.C. § 841. 

18 See Chapter 4 for discussion of crack cocaine purity. 

19 Pub. L. No. 101–647, § 2701, 104 Stat. 4912 (1990).

20 See USSC Guidelines Manual App. C Amend 370 (1991).
6

 Another perhaps more important distinction between crack cocaine and 

methamphetamine penalties is that, unlike for crack cocaine offenses, there are a number 

of guideline sentencing enhancements, or specific offense characteristics (SOCs), 

specifically targeted at aggravating conduct or harm associated with methamphetamine 

offenses. For example, the Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control Act of 199621

directed the Commission to focus specifically on environmental hazards posed by 

methamphetamine manufacturing laboratories and to enhance the penalties for 

environmental offenses associated with methamphetamine manufacture and trafficking. 

The Commission responded by adding an enhancement of two offense levels that applies 

if the offense involved the importation of methamphetamine or its manufacture from 

chemicals the defendant knew were imported unlawfully.22 Similarly, in the 

Methamphetamine and Club Drug Anti-Proliferation Act of 2000,23 Congress expressed 

continued concern with the problems and risks associated with domestic 

methamphetamine production, commonly known as “meth labs,” and specifically 

directed the Commission to provide enhancements for methamphetamine offenses that 

create a substantial risk of harm to the environment, human life, and minors or 

incompetents. In response, the Commission adopted a graduated sentencing 

enhancement of up to six offense levels for methamphetamine manufacturing offenses 

that create a substantial risk of such harms.24 In contrast, there are no guideline 

sentencing enhancements that pertain specifically to crack cocaine offenses.

C. RECOMMENDATIONS

In updating its assessment of federal cocaine sentencing policy, the Commission 

carefully considered the purposes of sentencing set forth in the Sentencing Reform Act of 

1984, specifically the factors set forth in 18 U.S.C. § 3553(a), the objectives of the 1986 

Act, and the factors listed in the 1995 legislation disapproving sentencing guideline 

penalty equalization at powder cocaine levels.25 The Commission thoroughly examined 

 

21 Pub. L. No. 104–237, §§ 301, 303, 110 Stat. 3099 (1996). 

22 See USSC Guidelines Manual App. C Amend 555 (1997); USSG §2D1.1(b)(4).

23 Pub. L. No. 106–310 (2000). 

24 See USSC Guidelines Manual App. C Amend 608 (2000); USSG §2D1.1(b)(8). On April 18, 

2007, the Commission promulgated an amendment that provides additional sentencing 

enhancements to address two new offenses created by the USA PATRIOT Improvement and 

Reauthorization Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109–177, 21 U.S.C. § 865 (Smuggling 

methamphetamine or methamphetamine precursor chemicals into the United States while using 

facilitated entry programs) and 21 U.S.C. § 860a (Consecutive sentence for manufacturing or 

distributing, or possessing with intent to manufacture or distribute, methamphetamine or premises 

where children are present or reside). This amendment becomes effective November 1, 2007, 

absent congressional action to the contrary. 

25 See Pub. L. No. 104–38, 109 Stat. 334 (1995), requiring the Commission to consider several 

factors, specifically: 
7

the results of its own extensive data research project, reviewed the scientific and medical 

literature, considered written public comment and expert testimony at public hearings that 

included representatives of the Executive Branch, the Judiciary, the medical and 

scientific communities, state and local law enforcement, criminal justice practitioners, 

academics, and community interest groups, and surveyed state cocaine sentencing 

policies. 

Current data and information continue to support the core findings contained in 

the 2002 Commission Report, among them: 

_________________________________ 

(1) high-level wholesale cocaine traffickers, organizers, and leaders of criminal 

activities generally should receive longer sentences than low-level retail cocaine 

traffickers and those who played a minor or minimal role in such criminal 

activity; 

(2) if the Government establishes that a defendant who trafficks in powder 

cocaine has knowledge that such cocaine will be converted into crack cocaine 

prior to its distribution to individual users, the defendant should be treated at 

sentencing as though the defendant had trafficked in crack cocaine; and 

(3) enhanced sentences generally should be imposed on a defendant who, in the 

course of a drug offense – 

 

 (i) murders or causes serious bodily injury to an individual; 

(ii) uses a dangerous weapon (including a firearm); 

(iii) involves a juvenile or a woman who the defendant knows or should 

know to be pregnant; 

(iv) engages in a continuing criminal enterprise or commits other criminal 

offenses in order to facilitate the defendant’s drug trafficking activities; 

(v) knows, or should know, that the defendant is involving an unusually 

vulnerable victim; 

(vi) restrains a victim; 

(vii) distributes cocaine within 500 feet of a school; 

(viii) obstructs justice; 

(ix) has a significant prior criminal record; 

(x) is an organizer or leader of drug trafficking activities involving five or more 

persons.
8

 (1) The current quantity-based penalties overstate the relative harmfulness of 

crack cocaine compared to powder cocaine. 

 (2) The current quantity-based penalties sweep too broadly and apply most 

often to lower level offenders. 

 (3) The current quantity-based penalties overstate the seriousness of most 

 crack cocaine offenses and fail to provide adequate proportionality. 

(4) The current severity of crack cocaine penalties mostly impacts minorities. 

Based on these findings, the Commission maintains its consistently held position that the 

100-to-1 drug quantity ratio significantly undermines the various congressional 

objectives set forth in the Sentencing Reform Act. 

Determining the appropriate threshold quantities for triggering the mandatory 

minimum penalties is a difficult and imprecise undertaking that ultimately is a policy 

judgment, based upon a balancing of competing considerations, which Congress is well 

suited to make. Accordingly, the Commission again unanimously and strongly urges 

Congress to act promptly on the following recommendations: 

(1) Increase the five-year and ten-year statutory mandatory minimum 

threshold quantities for crack cocaine offenses to focus the penalties 

more closely on serious and major traffickers as described generally in 

the legislative history of the 1986 Act.26 

(2) Repeal the mandatory minimum penalty provision for simple 

possession of crack cocaine under 21 U.S.C. § 844. 

(3) Reject addressing the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio by decreasing the 

five-year and ten-year statutory mandatory minimum threshold 

quantities for powder cocaine offenses, as there is no evidence to 

justify such an increase in quantity-based penalties for powder cocaine 

offenses.27

 

26 The Subcommittee on Crime of the House Committee on the Judiciary generally defined 

serious traffickers as “managers of the retail traffic, the person who is filling the bags of heroin, 

packaging crack cocaine into vials . . . and doing so in substantial street quantities” and major 

traffickers as “manufacturers or the heads of organizations who are responsible for creating and 

delivering very large quantities.” See H.R. Rep. No. 99-845, pt. 1, at 11-12 (1986). In the 2002 

Commission Report, the Commission concluded that increasing the five-year mandatory 

minimum threshold quantity to at least 25 grams, resulting in a drug quantity ratio of not more 

than 20 to 1, would provide a penalty structure for crack cocaine offenses that would more 

closely reflect the overall penalty structure established by the 1986 Act. USSC, 2002 

COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 106-07. 

27 In the 2002 Commission Report, the Commission suggested that if, in Congress’s judgment, 

penalties for powder cocaine offenses should be increased, specific sentencing enhancements 
9

In addition, the Commission recommends that any legislation implementing these 

recommendations include emergency amendment authority for the Commission to 

incorporate the statutory changes in the federal sentencing guidelines. Emergency 

amendment authority would enable the Commission to minimize the lag between any 

statutory and guideline modifications for cocaine offenders. 

D. RECENT COMMISSION ACTION

The Commission’s strong desire for prompt legislative action notwithstanding, the 

problems associated with the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio as detailed in this report are so 

urgent and compelling that on April 27, 2007, the Commission promulgated an 

amendment to USSG §2D1.1 to somewhat alleviate those problems. The Commission 

concluded that the manner in which the Drug Quantity Table in USSG §2D1.1 was 

constructed to incorporate the statutory mandatory minimum penalties for crack cocaine 

offenses is an area in which the federal sentencing guidelines contribute to the problems 

associated with the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. 

 

The amendment, which absent congressional action to the contrary will become 

effective November 1, 2007, modifies the drug quantity thresholds in the Drug Quantity 

Table so as to assign, for crack cocaine offenses, base offense levels corresponding to 

guideline ranges that include the statutory mandatory minimum penalties (as opposed to 

guideline ranges that exceed the statutory mandatory minimum penalties). 28 

Accordingly, pursuant to the amendment, five grams of crack cocaine will be assigned a 

base offense level of 24 (51 to 63 months at Criminal History Category I, which includes 

the five-year (60 month) statutory minimum for such offenses), and 50 grams of cocaine 

base will be assigned a base offense level of 30 (97 to 121 months at Criminal History 

Category I, which includes the ten-year (120 month) statutory minimum for such 

offenses). In order to partially address some of the problems that are unique to crack 

cocaine offenses because of the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio, crack cocaine quantities 

above and below the mandatory minimum threshold quantities will be adjusted 

downward by two levels.29

Having concluded once again that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio should be 

modified, the Commission recognizes that establishing federal cocaine sentencing policy, 

as underscored by past actions, ultimately is Congress’s prerogative. The Commission, 

therefore, tailored the amendment to fit within the existing statutory penalty scheme by 

_________________________________ 

targeting more culpable offenders would promote sentencing proportionality to a greater degree 

than could be accomplished simply by raising the quantity-based penalties for powder cocaine 

offenses. USSC, 2002 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 110-11. 

28 See supra pp. 2-3. 

29 The amendment also includes a mechanism to determine a combined base offense level in an 

offense involving crack cocaine and other controlled substances. 
10

assigning base offense levels that provide guideline ranges that include the statutory 

mandatory minimum penalties for crack cocaine offenses. 

The Commission, however, views the amendment only as a partial remedy to 

some of the problems associated with the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. It is neither a 

permanent nor a complete solution to those problems. Any comprehensive solution 

requires appropriate legislative action by Congress. It is the Commission’s firm desire 

that this report will facilitate prompt congressional action addressing the 100-to-1 drug 

quantity ratio. 

E. ORGANIZATION

 The organization of the remainder of this updated report is as follows: 

Chapter 2 analyzes Commission data on federal cocaine offenses and 

offenders. Appendix A explains the methodology used in this chapter. 

Chapter 3 describes the forms of cocaine, methods of use, effects, 

dependency potential, effects of prenatal exposure, and prevalence of 

cocaine use. 

Chapter 4 describes trends in cocaine trafficking patterns, price, and use. 

Chapter 5 reviews state sentencing policies and examines the interaction 

of state penalties with federal prosecutorial decisions. 

Chapter 6 reports recent case law developments relating to federal cocaine 

sentencing. 

Appendices B and C summarize public hearing testimony and written 

public comment on cocaine sentencing policy. 

Appendix D presents sentencing and prison impact information on a 

variety of modifications to the penalty levels for crack cocaine offenses. 

Appendix E sets forth the guideline amendment promulgated on April 27, 

2007, and presents the sentencing and prison impact information for the 

amendment. 
11

Chapter 2 

ANALYSIS OF FEDERAL SENTENCING DATA 

A. INTRODUCTION

 This chapter presents an analysis of key data about cocaine offenses collected by the 

Commission and updates and supplements much of the data presented in Chapter 4 of the 

2002 Commission Report. This analysis demonstrates that the major conclusions of the 2002 

Commission Report remain valid. 

• The majority of powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenders perform lowlevel trafficking functions, although there has been an increase since 2000 in 

the proportion of cocaine offenders identified as performing a wholesaler 

function. 

• The majority of powder cocaine offenses and crack cocaine offenses do not 

involve aggravating conduct, such as weapon involvement, bodily injury, and 

distribution to protected persons or in protected locations. However, the 

proportion of cases involving some aggravating conduct has increased since 

2000 for both types of cocaine offenses. 

• Certain aggravating conduct occurs more often in crack cocaine offenses than 

in powder cocaine offenses, but still occurs in a minority of cases. 

 Historically, sentence lengths for crack cocaine offenses have exceeded those for 

powder cocaine offenses. This chapter examines the offense conduct and offender 

characteristics that have contributed to this trend. The data in this chapter are derived from 

the Commission’s Fiscal Year 1992 through 2006 datafiles (hereafter, 1992 - 2006) and 

special coding and analysis projects consisting of random samples of both the 2000 and 2005 

Fiscal Year datafiles (hereafter, 2000 Drug Sample and 2005 Drug Sample, respectively).30 

Relevant data in the Commission’s Fiscal Year datafiles include information on drug type 

and quantity, guideline applications, sentences imposed, and sentences relative to the 

guideline range. Data in the 2000 and 2005 Drug Samples supplement the Fiscal Year data 

with information on offender characteristics and offense conduct collected from the narrative 

offense conduct sections of the Presentence Reports, as adopted by the sentencing courts. 

 

30 The random sample of the Fiscal Year 2005 datafile was collected for the Commission’s 

quinquennial series of drug coding projects and consists of a 25 percent random sample (2,570) of 

powder cocaine (1,398) and crack cocaine (1,172) cases sentenced after the date of the decision in 

Booker (i.e., January 12, 2005 through September 30, 2005). Data on trends and analyses of the 

overall powder cocaine and crack coaine offender populations use the Fiscal Year 2005 and Fiscal 

Year 2006 datafiles rather than the 2005 datafile in order to use the most current data available. 
12

1. Background

 Powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses together historically have accounted for 

about half of the federally-sentenced drug trafficking offenders, approximately 11,000 in 

2006. In 1992, powder cocaine offenses comprised 74 percent of the 8,972 cocaine offenses 

and crack cocaine offenses accounted for 26 percent of the cocaine offenses. By 1996, the 

total number of cocaine offenses decreased slightly to 8,705 and approximately half of 

cocaine offenses were powder cocaine and half were crack cocaine offenses. This even 

distribution of types of cocaine has remained consistent through 2006, with 5,744 powder 

cocaine offenses and 5,397 crack cocaine offenses sentenced in that Fiscal Year. (See Figure 

2-1). 

 Federal crack cocaine offenders consistently have received substantially longer 

sentences than powder cocaine offenders, and the difference in sentence length between 

these two groups of offenders has widened since 1992. As Figure 2-2 shows, this increase 

largely results from an overall decline in average sentences for powder cocaine offenses (99 

months in 1992 to 85 months in 2006), while the average sentences for crack cocaine 

offenses remained stable during the same period (124 months in 1992 and 122 months in 

2006). This difference steadily increased between 1992 and 1997 and leveled out from 1997 

through 2004 (Fig. 2-2). Figure 2-3 combines the average sentence data provided in Figure 

2-2 and displays the percent difference between powder cocaine sentences and crack cocaine 

DRAFT

5,744

6,671

6,120

5,016

4,293 4,628

4,350

4,666

4,865

5,241 5,243

5,778 5,880

5,225

5,464

5,397

2,301

3,440 3,490

3,568

4,355

4,415 4,633

4,917

4,706 4,795 4,936

5,191

4,666

5,033

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine

Number of Offenders

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this figure. This figure excludes cases with missing 

information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06.

Figure 2-1

Trend in Number of Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders 

FY1992-FY2006
13

sentences for the same period. Between 1997 and 2004, the difference in average sentence 

was relatively stable, with crack cocaine sentences between 49.4 percent and 55.8 percent 

longer than powder cocaine sentences. In 2005 and 2006, the difference in average sentences 

narrowed somewhat with crack cocaine sentences 44.2 percent and 43.5 percent higher than 

powder cocaine sentences, respectively. 

As detailed throughout this chapter, these changes in average sentences are 

attributable to, among other things, changes in drug quantities involved, the occurrence of 

certain aggravating factors in the offenses, the impact of certain changes in statutory and 

guideline sentencing policy (e.g., the enactment of the “safety valve” sentence reduction for 

some non-violent offenders),31 and the criminal history of offenders.

 

31 USSG §5C1.2 (Limitation of Applicability of Statutory Minimum Sentences in Certain Cases) 

allows the court to sentence qualifying offenders below the quantity-based statutory mandatory 

minimum penalty. In order to qualify for the safety valve, the defendant must not have more than one 

criminal history point, must not have used violence or weapons, must not have been an organizer or 

leader, must not have engaged in a continuing criminal enterprise, and must have provided, in a 

timely manner, all information about the offense to the Government. In addition, the offense must not 

have resulted in death or serious bodily injury. Pursuant to USSG §2D1.1(b)(9) offenders meeting 

the criteria set forth in USSG §5C1.2 also may be eligible for a two level offense level reduction. 

99

95 94

88

83 81 79 79 77 77 78 80

85 86 85

120 122 123 124 125

130 134

126 124

115

120 124

130

124 122

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine

Average Prison Sentence in Months

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this figure. Cases with sentences of probation or any 

time of confinement as defined in USSG §5C1.1 are not included in this figure. Cases with sentences greater than 470 months were included in the sentence average computation as 470 months. 

This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005 – September 30, 2005).

Blakely

Figure 2-2

Trend in Prison Sentences for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY1992-FY2006
14

 

B. OFFENSE AND OFFENDER CHARACTERISTICS

Sentencing ranges for drug offenses sentenced under the federal sentencing guidelines 

are determined by drug quantity and type, the presence of aggravating factors (e.g., 

aggravating role, weapon involvement) and mitigating factors (e.g., minor role), and the 

offender’s criminal history. This section provides trend data for these factors from the 1992 

through 2006 Fiscal Year datafiles, as well as complementary data from the 2000 and 2005 

Drug Samples. The major conclusions that may be drawn from these data are: 

• The majority of federal cocaine offenders generally perform low-level 

functions, but the proportion of powder cocaine and crack cocaine wholesalers 

has increased since 2000. 

• The majority of federal cocaine offenses do not involve aggravating conduct. 

• Some types of aggravating conduct occur more often in crack cocaine than 

powder cocaine offenses. 

DRAFT

99

95 94

88

83 81 79 79 77 77 78 80

85 86 85

120 122 123 124 125

130 134

126 124

115

120 124

130

124 122

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine

Average Prison Sentence in Months

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this figure. Cases with sentences of probation or any 

time of confinement as defined in USSG §5C1.1 are not included in this figure. Cases with sentences greater than 470 months were included in the sentence average computation as 470 months. 

This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005 – September 30, 2005).

Blakely

Figure 2-2

Trend in Prison Sentences for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY1992-FY2006

DRAFT

25.3

32.6

42.6

47.7 49.4

54.3 55.7 54.4 55.8

49.4

53.8 55.0 52.9

44.2 43.5

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Percent Difference of Crack Cocaine Sentences Over Powder Cocaine sentences

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this figure. Cases with sentences of probation or any 

time of confinement as defined in USSG §5C1.1 are not included in this figure. Cases with sentences greater than 470 months were included in the sentence average computation as 470 months. 

This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. The figure shows, for each year, the percentage difference between prison sentences for crack cocaine 

and powder cocaine. For example, in Fiscal Year 1992, crack cocaine sentences were 25.3 percent greater than powder cocaine sentences. The percentage was calculated by dividing the difference 

between the average crack cocaine sentence and the average powder cocaine sentence by the average powder cocaine sentence.

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005 – September 30, 2005).

Blakely

Figure 2-3

Trend in Proportional Differences Between Average Cocaine Sentences

FY1992-FY2006
15

• Historically, the majority of crack cocaine offenders are black. Powder 

cocaine offenders are now predominately Hispanic. 

• While the average age of federal powder cocaine offenders has remained 

unchanged, the average age of crack cocaine offenders has increased. 

1. Demographics 

 This section updates the demographic data and trends presented in the 2002 

Commission Report. The data from the Commission’s Fiscal Year datafiles provide 

information comparing race and ethnicity, citizenship, gender (offender characteristics which 

are not relevant in the determination of a sentence32), and age (a factor which is not 

ordinarily relevant in determining whether a departure from the guidelines is warranted33) for 

federal powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenders. 

 Table 2-1 presents the demographic characteristics of federal cocaine offenders. 

Historically the majority of crack cocaine offenders are black, but the proportion steadily has 

declined since 1992: 91.4 percent in 1992, 84.7 percent in 2000, and 81.8 percent in 2006. 

Conversely, the proportion of white crack cocaine offenders has increased steadily from 3.2 

percent in 1992 to 5.6 percent in 2002, to 8.8 percent in 2006. For powder cocaine, Hispanic 

offenders have comprised a growing proportion of cases. In 1992, Hispanics accounted for 

39.8 percent of powder cocaine offenders. This proportion increased to over half (50.8%) by 

2000 and continued increasing to 57.5 percent in 2006. There has been a corresponding 

decrease in the proportion of white offenders for powder cocaine, comprising 32.3 percent of 

offenders in 1992, decreasing by approximately half to 17.8 percent by 2000, and continuing 

to decrease to 14.3 percent by 2006. 

 Nearly all crack cocaine offenders are United States citizens (96.4% in 2006, which is 

consistent with the rates in 1992 and 2000), reflecting the fact that this form of the drug 

almost exclusively is produced and trafficked domestically. See Chapter 4. In contrast, in 

2006 only 60.6 percent of powder cocaine offenders were United States citizens, continuing a 

steady decline of United States citizens convicted of powder cocaine offenses since 1992 and 

reflecting the international aspects of the powder cocaine trade that are absent for crack 

cocaine.34

 The two drug types are more similar in other demographic measures. Male offenders 

comprised the overwhelming majority of offenders for both drug types (90.2% of powder 

 

32 See USSG §5H1.10. 

33 See USSG §5H1.1. 

34 See Drug Enforcement Administration, U.S. Department of Justice, Drugs of Abuse 33 (2005). 

Cocaine hydrochloride is processed in and exported from South America. Crack cocaine is produced 

in the United States using the imported powder cocaine.
16

Table 2-1 

Demographic Characteristics of Federal Cocaine Offenders 

Fiscal Years 1992, 2000, and 2006 

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine 

1992 2000 2006 1992 2000 

N % N % N % N % N % 

Race/Ethnicity 

White 2,113 32.3 932 17.8 821 14.3 74 3.2 269 5.6 Black 1,778 27.2 1,596 30.5 1,550 27.0 2,096 91.4 4,069 84.7 Hispanic 2,601 39.8 2,662 50.8 3,296 57.5 121 5.3 434 9.0 Other 44 0.7 49 0.9 66 1.2 3 0.1 33 0.7 

Total 6,536 100.0 5,239 100.0 5,733 100.0 2,294 100.0 4,805 100.0 

Citizenship 

U.S. Citizen 4,499 67.7 3,327 63.9 3,463 60.6 2,092 91.3 4,482 93.4 

Non-Citizen 2,147 32.3 1,881 36.1 2,256 39.4 199 8.7 318 6.6 Total 6,646 100.0 5,208 100.0 5,719 100.0 2,291 100.0 4,800 100.0 

Gender 

Female 787 11.8 722 13.8 561 9.8 270 11.7 476 9.9 

Male 5,886 88.2 4,518 86.2 5,179 90.2 2,032 88.3 4,330 90.1 Total 6,673 100.0 5,240 100.0 5,740 100.0 2,302 100.0 4,806 100.0 

Average Age Average=34 Average=34 Average=34 Average=28 Average=29 

This table excludes cases missing information for the variables required for analysis. SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992, 2002, and 2006 Datafiles, MONFY92, USSCFY00, and USSCFY06
17

 cocaine offenders and 91.5% of crack cocaine offenders) in Fiscal Year 2006, which is 

consistent with federal drug offenders generally across drug type and over time. There is a 

small difference in the average age of powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenders, with 

powder cocaine offenders being slightly older. 

 The age trend since 1992 indicates stability in the average age of powder cocaine 

offenders (34 years in 1992 and 2006). This differs from the trend in crack cocaine 

offenders, whose average age increased across the same years from 28 to 29 to 31 years of 

age.35 The aging of federal crack cocaine offenders is consistent with testimony received 

from Professor Al Blumstein and Dr. Bruce Johnson, who link the aging of crack cocaine 

traffickers to the reduction in violence in crack cocaine street markets. See Chapter 4. 

2. Offender Function 

 To provide a more complete profile of federal cocaine offenders, particularly their 

function in the offense, the Commission undertook a special coding and analysis project to 

supplement the data reported in the 2002 Commission Report. This section reports data from 

the recent project as well as that reported in the 2002 Commission Report. The 

methodologies used in these two projects are described in Appendix A. Using actual cases 

sentenced after the date of the Booker decision, this analysis project assessed the function 

performed by drug offenders as part of the offense. 

 Offender function was determined by a review of the narrative in the offense conduct 

section of the Presentence Report independent of any application of sentencing guideline 

enhancements, reductions, or drug quantity and, therefore, does not indicate a court 

determination of function in the offense. Furthermore, offender function was assigned based 

on the most serious trafficking function performed by the offender in the drug distribution 

offense and, therefore, provides a measure of culpability based on the offender’s level of 

participation in the offense, independent of the offender’s quantity-based offense level in the 

Drug Quantity Table in the drug trafficking guideline. Offenders at higher levels of the drug 

distribution chain are presumed to be more culpable based on their greater responsibilities 

and higher levels of authority as compared to other participants in the offense. 

Each offender was assigned to one of 21 separate function categories based on his or 

her most serious conduct described in the Presentence Report. Terms used to describe 

offender function do not necessarily correlate with guideline definitions of similar terms. For 

example, as seen below, the definition of manager/supervisor used in the coding project to 

describe offender function does not match the guideline definition of manager or supervisor 

in USSG §3B1.1 (Aggravating Role). The 21 categories were combined into eight categories 

to facilitate analysis and presentation of the data. The eight analytic categories are listed 

below with brief descriptions of the conduct involved. A complete list of the 21 function 

categories and definitions appears in Appendix A. Function categories are displayed on the 

figures in this chapter in decreasing order of culpability from left to right. The categories 

 

35 For a graphic representation of this trend, see Figure 4-1 in Chapter 4.
18

described below represent a continuum of decreasing culpability ranging from importer/highlevel supplier to user only. 

• Importer/high-level supplier: Imports or supplies large quantities of drugs, is 

near the top of the distribution chain, and has ownership interest in the drugs. 

• Organizer/leader/grower/manufacturer/financier/money launderer: Organizes 

or leads a drug distribution organization, cultivates or manufactures a 

controlled substance, or provides money for importation or distribution of 

drugs, or launders sales proceeds. 

• Wholesaler: Sells more than retail/user-level quantities (more than one ounce) 

in a single transaction, purchases two or more ounces in a single transaction, 

or possesses two ounces or more on a single occasion, or sells any amount to 

another dealer for resale. 

• Manager/supervisor: Takes instruction from higher-level individual and 

manages a significant portion of drug business, supervises at least one other 

co-participant but has limited authority. 

• Pilot/captain/bodyguard/chemist/cook/broker/steerer: Pilots vessel or aircraft, 

provides personal security for another co-participant, produces drugs but is 

not the principal owner, arranges for drug sales by directing potential buyers 

to potential sellers. 

• Street-level dealer: Distributes retail quantities (less than one ounce) directly 

to users. 

• Courier/mule: Transports or carries drugs with the assistance of a vehicle or 

other equipment, or internally, or on his or her person. 

• Renter/loader/lookout/enabler/user/all others: Performs limited, low-level 

functions such as providing a location for drug transactions, runs errands, 

knowingly permits conduct to take place, possesses small amount of drugs for 

personal use (includes offenders whose function was not determinable from 

the description in the Presentence Report). 
19

Figure 2-4 shows the offender function category distributions for powder cocaine and 

crack cocaine offenders from the 2005 Drug Sample. As in 2000, the function category with 

the largest proportion of powder cocaine offenders remains couriers/mules (33.1%) and for 

crack cocaine offenders, street-level dealers (55.4%). While this concentration of functions 

is consistent with the 2000 Drug Sample, some changes had occurred by 2005. 

DRAFT

24.1

5.7 4.4

33.1

12.7

1.8 2.0

5.4

55.4

1.4

4.7

7.3

5.2

7.6

6.6

22.7

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powde r C ocain e C rack C ocain e

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of 

specific guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel SupplierOrganizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others

Figure 2-4

Most Serious Function for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders 

(Based on Conduct Described in the Presentence Report)

FY2005 Drug Sample
20

 The concentration of powder cocaine offenders in low-level functions shifted 

somewhat toward higher level functions between 2000 and 2005. In the 2000 Drug Sample, 

street-level dealers (28.5%) and couriers/mules (31.4%) combined to account for more than 

half (59.9%) of powder cocaine offenders (Fig. 2-5). In 2005, these two functions accounted 

for only 40.4 percent of powder cocaine offenders. The decrease in the proportion of these 

two lower level functions seems to be attributable to a shift from street-level dealing (28.5% 

of offenders in 2000 compared to 7.3% in 2005) to wholesaling (12.3% of offenders in 2000 

compared to 24.1% in 2005). 

 

DRAFT

5.2

24.1

5.7 4.4

33.1

12.7

1.4

5.3

12.3

5.8 6.6

28.5

31.4

7.6 7.3 8.5

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powder C ocaine 2000 Powde r C ocaine 2005

Percent

Importer/ HighLevel SupplierOrganizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2002 Commission Report and 2005 Sample.

Figure 2-5

Most Serious Function for Powder Cocaine Offenders 

(Based on Conduct Described in the Presentence Report)

FY2000 and FY2005 Drug Samples

 
21

 Crack cocaine offenders also are concentrated in lower level functions. In contrast to 

powder cocaine, however, crack cocaine offenders continue to cluster only in the street-level 

dealer category. Approximately two-thirds (66.5%) of crack cocaine offenders were streetlevel dealers in the 2000 sample, but this proportion decreased to 55.4 percent in 2005 (Fig. 

2-6). As with powder cocaine, there was a corresponding increase in crack cocaine 

wholesalers, from 9.1 percent in 2000 to 22.7 in 2005. 

DRAFT

1.8

22.7

2.0

5.4

1.4

4.7 3.8 2.4

66.5

5.9 6.3

9.1

5.6

0.5

6.6

55.4

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

C rack C ocaine 2000 C rack C ocaine 2005

Percent

Importer/ HighLevel SupplierOrganizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2002 Commission Report and 2005 Sample.

Figure 2-6

Most Serious Function for Crack Cocaine Offenders 

(Based on Conduct Described in the Presentence Report)

FY2000 and FY2005 Drug Samples
22

The sources of the two drugs likely account for these differences in offender function. 

Figure 2-7 demonstrates the different trafficking patterns for each type of cocaine by 

illustrating the geographic scope of each type of offense. Powder cocaine is produced 

outside the United States and must be imported. The trafficking of powder cocaine requires 

couriers to bring the cocaine into the United States and other mid- and low-level participants 

to distribute it throughout the country. Supporting this fact is the large proportion of powder 

cocaine offenses, nearly two-thirds (60.2%), that are international (42.0%) or national 

(18.2%) in scope. In contrast, with rare exception, crack cocaine is produced and distributed 

domestically and the international courier/mule component largely is absent. This fact also is 

supported by the data in Figure 2-7 showing that a small proportion of crack cocaine offenses 

(6.0%) are either national or international in scope, and more than half (56.6%) occur at the 

neighborhood level. These data on geographic scope further underscore the function data 

reported above that couriers/mules predominate in powder cocaine offenses and street-level 

dealers predominate in crack cocaine offenses. 

3. Wholesalers 

 Due to the increase in wholesalers noted in the 2005 Drug Sample, the Commission 

undertook further analysis of the offenders in this group to learn more about their activities. 

An offender was categorized as a wholesaler if his offense conduct as described in the 

DRAFT

14.6

11.2

9.0

4.9

42.0

19.9

13.3

4.2 5.1

0.9

18.2

56.6

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powder C ocaine C rack C ocaine

Percent

1 Categories of geographic activity included neighborhood (or section of city), local (within a city or suburb), regional (in a contiguous multi state or multi city area), section of 

the country (e.g. Midwest, New England), national (more than one section of the country: New York to Florida, for example), and international.

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, Preliminary 2005 Drug Sample.

Neighborhood Local Regional Section of Country National International

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Figure 2-7 

Geographic Scope of Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY2005 Drug Sample
23

Presentence Report indicated that the offender sold any drug quantity to an individual who 

resold the drugs, sold more than a retail or user level quantity (i.e., more than one ounce) of 

the drug in a single transaction, or possessed or purchased in a single transaction more than 

two ounces of the drug. The quantities used in this definition are consistent with the findings 

from the literature regarding the organization and distribution patterns of drug trafficking 

organizations discussed in Chapter 5. 

 Despite the fact that the wholesaler function is defined as transactions of one ounce or 

more, the median quantity bought or sold by these offenders is much greater for both forms 

of the drug. Figure 2-8 shows, for powder cocaine and crack cocaine wholesalers, the 

median largest single quantity associated with the conduct defining the wholesaler category: 

sale, purchase, or possession. Overall, the median wholesale amounts for powder cocaine 

(ranging from 549.1 grams to one kilogram) are substantially greater than for crack cocaine 

(ranging from 55.4 grams to 141.8 grams). 

 As discussed above, the offender function distribution in Figure 2-4 illustrates the 

most serious function the offender performed. The Commission also analyzed the most 

frequent function of powder cocaine and crack cocaine wholesalers. As to those offenders 

for whom wholesaler was the most serious function performed in the drug trafficking 

enterprise, (24.1% of powder cocaine offenses and 22.7% of crack cocaine offenses in the 

DRAFT

1,000.0 1,000.0

549.1

96.5 141.8 55.4 0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

5,500

6,000

6,500

7,000 Grams

Figure 2-8

Median Single Largest Wholesale Quantity by Conduct for 

Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders 

FY2005 Drug Sample

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

5,062.0

283.5

6,000.0

500.0 340.0

Offender Sold Wholesale Amount Offender Possessed/Owned Offender Bought Wholesale Amount

Wholesale Amount

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine Largest Transaction Amount 6,400.0
24

2005 Drug Sample), wholesaler also was the function most frequently performed. In some 

cases, however, the most serious function described in the Presentence Report is a step or 

two above the most frequently performed function. As Figure 2-9 shows, 7.8 percent of 

powder cocaine wholesalers most frequently performed functions less serious than 

wholesaler. Slightly more than one-third (36.9%) of crack cocaine wholesalers most often 

performed less culpable functions.36 For these offenders, classification as a wholesaler may 

overstate their overall culpability as measured by most serious function. 

4. Drug Quantity 

 Drug type and quantity are the two primary factors that determine offense levels 

under the federal sentencing guidelines, combining to establish the base offense level for 

drug trafficking offenses.37 Figure 2-10 shows the distribution of quantity-driven base 

 

36 The 2000 Drug Sample data show a similar distribution, that is, 3.1 percent of powder cocaine 

wholesalers and 20.5 percent of crack cocaine wholesalers most commonly acted in less serious roles 

in the drug trafficking offense. Additional analysis of wholesalers can be found in Appendix A. 

37 Final offense level (offense severity) and criminal history score comprise the vertical and horizontal 

axes of the sentencing table, respectively. Offense level values increase or decrease based on 

offender conduct, and the intersection of these calculated values determines the sentencing guideline 

DRAFT

Wholesaler 

92.2%

Crack Cocaine 

2005 Drug Sample

Powder Cocaine 

2005 Drug Sample

Wholesaler 

63.1%

Less 

Serious 

Than 

Wholesaler 

Less Serious 36.9%

Than 

Wholesaler 

7.8%

Figure 2-9

Most Common Function for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Wholesalers

FY2005 Drug Sample

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.
25

offense levels for powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenders. The distribution of offenders 

across base offense levels is similar for both drug types. The overwhelming majority of both 

powder cocaine (85.5%) and crack cocaine (91.2%) offenders receive base offense levels of 

26 or greater (that is, drug quantities at or above the five-year mandatory minimum threshold 

quantity). For both powder cocaine (19.7%) and crack cocaine offenders (26.7%), base 

offense level of 32 (which corresponds to the threshold quantities for the ten-year statutory 

mandatory minimum) is received most often, followed by base offense level 26 (18.8% of 

powder cocaine offenders and 20.9% of crack cocaine offenders). This base offense level 

distribution tends to support testimony that federal law enforcement targets offenses at the 

point they involve the minimum quantity thresholds for prosecution.38

 

range for the offense. Base offense level 43 is applicable under drug trafficking guideline: USSG 

§2D1.1(a)(1) for violations of specific subsections of title 21, United States Code, and resulting death 

or serious bodily injury from use of the substance for offenders with one or more prior convictions for 

a similar offense. Base offense level 38 can be applied both based on the Drug Quantity Table and 

pursuant to USSG §2D1.1(a)(2) for violations of specific subsections of title 21, United States Code 

resulting death or serious bodily injury from use of the substance. In addition, §2D1.1(a)(3) provides 

for reductions in quantity-based base offense levels for offenders receiving mitigating role reductions 

under USSG §3B1.2. 

38 See Statement of R. Alexander Acosta, United States Attorney, Southern District of Florida, to the 

USSC, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy, November 14, 2006, at Tr. 50. 

DRAFT Figure 2-10

Distribution of Drug Trafficking Guideline (USSG §2D1.1) Base Offense Levels 

for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY2006

10.1

5.9

19.7

7.4

2.7 2.9

1.9 1.5

2.4

13.6

10.0

18.8

2.0

1.1

20.9

1.8

12.5

7.6

5.0

26.7

7.9

10.6

1.8 1.6 1.7

0.7 0.9 0.4

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine

Percent

Base Offense Level

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline application information and a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this 

figure. Offenders receiving the Mitigating Role Cap (USSG § 2D1.1(a)(3)) are excluded from this figure. Offenders with base offense levels less than 12 or greater than 38 were excluded from 

analysis. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2006 Datafile, USSCFY06.
26

 Figure 2-11 shows the median drug weights for powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

offenses at guideline base offense levels of 26 through 36 (for those offenders who did not 

receive the “mitigating role cap” as provided in USSG §2D1.1(a)(3)).39 Base offense level 

32, the level comprising the largest proportion of both powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

offenses, includes drug quantities that trigger the ten-year statutory mandatory minimum 

penalty and provides for a sentencing guideline range of 121-151 months.40 The median 

drug weights for the powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses at base offense level 32 are 

8.045 kilograms and 79.8 grams, respectively. 

 

39 The majority of base offense levels for powder cocaine (85.5%) and crack cocaine (91.2%) offenses 

were quantity based and at level 26 or higher. Cases with base offense levels of 38 have been 

excluded because, as the highest base offense level on the Drug Quantity Table, this category has no 

upper limit for drug quantity. The very large drug quantities for some offenses at this base offense 

level make presentation of results impractical. For example, in Fiscal Year 2006 the single largest 

drug quantities for powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenders with base offense levels of 38 were 

12,000,000 grams and 500,000 grams, respectively. 

40 This is the applicable sentencing guideline range for offenders in Criminal History Category I with 

little or no prior criminal history. 
27

Base offense level 26, the level comprising the second largest proportion of both 

powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses, includes drug quantities that trigger the five-year 

statutory mandatory minimum penalties and provides for a sentencing guideline range of 63-

78 months.41 The median drug weights for the powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses at 

base offense level 26 are 1,000 grams and 10.5 grams, respectively. Thus for both base 

offense levels 26 and 32, the median drug quantities are approximately 100 times greater for 

powder cocaine than for crack cocaine, as would be expected given the 100-to-1 drug 

quantity ratio.42

 

41 This is the applicable sentencing guideline range for offenders in Criminal History Category I with 

little or no prior criminal history. 

42 The 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio between powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses is provided 

for by federal statute as the basis for quantity thresholds that determine the statutory mandatory 

minimum sentences. 

DRAFT

1,000.0 2,895.0 4,003.8

8,045.0

24,015.0

750.0

75,470.0

42.2 79.8 243.5 10.5 25.7

0

15,000

30,000

45,000

60,000

75,000

26 28 30 32 34 36

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine

Grams

Base Offense Level

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline application information and a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included 

in this figure. Cases receiving the Mitigating Role Cap (USSG §2D1.1(a)(3)) are excluded from this figure. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables 

required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2006 Datafile, USSCFY06.

Figure 2-11

Median Drug Weight for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders 

FY2006
28

 Most cocaine offenders in the federal system are convicted of statutes carrying a fiveor ten-year mandatory minimum penalty. In Fiscal Year 2006, 79.1 percent of powder 

cocaine offenders and 79.9 percent of crack cocaine offenders were convicted of statutes 

carrying mandatory minimums. Figures 2-12 and 2-13 show, for powder cocaine and crack 

cocaine offenses in the 2005 Drug Sample, respectively, the proportion of offenders in each 

function category exposed to mandatory minimum sentences based on drug quantity.43 

Exposure to mandatory minimum penalties does not decrease substantially with 

offender culpability as measured by offender function. For example, 95.3 percent of the 

highest level powder cocaine offenders (importers/high-level suppliers) faced mandatory 

minimum penalties, as did more than 80.8 percent of powder cocaine couriers/mules, the 

most prevalent offender function for powder cocaine. 

 

43 Figures 2-12 and 2-13 demonstrate the differential in the percentage of powder cocaine defendants 

who face but are not sentenced to mandatory minimum penalties versus crack cocaine defendants 

who are convicted of but are not sentenced to mandatory minimum penalties.

DRAFT

4.7 5.6

8.9

68.3

25.0

42.2

83.0

70.8

62.0

59.0

53 .8

61.4

19.2

25 .2

19.7

12.3

21.3

27.0 29.1

23.6

13 .6

19.8

11.9

32.6

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

No Man datory Five Y e a r M an dato ry Te n Y e a r o r M o re M a n da to ry

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. The No Mandatory category includes offenders exposed to mandatory minimums of less than five years in addition to those not facing a mandatory minimum sentence. 

This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Figure 2-12

Powder Cocaine Offenders Exposed to Mandatory Minimum Penalties 

for Each Offender Function

FY2005 Drug Sample

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain/ 

Bodyguard/ 

Chemist/Cook/ 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler/ 

User/All Others
29

 Similarly, among crack cocaine offenders there is little distinction across function in 

exposure to some mandatory minimum penalties. At least 90 percent of crack cocaine 

offenders in the three most culpable offender function categories were subject to mandatory 

minimum penalties (Fig. 2-13). Additionally, the majority (73.4%) of street-level dealers, 

the most prevalent type of crack cocaine offenders, were subject to mandatory minimum 

penalties. 

DRAFT

0.0

5.3

21.7

4.8

45.6 43.8

80.3

76.8

69.6

45.5

29.1

7.9

17.5

25.0 26.6

11.8

8.7

17.9

25.5 27.0

55.6

95.2

31.3

27.8

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

No Man datory

Five Y e ar M an datory

Te n Y e a r o r M o re M a n da to ry

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. The No Mandatory category includes offenders exposed to mandatory minimums of less than five years in addition to those not facing a mandatory minimum sentence. 

This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain/ 

Bodyguard/ 

Chemist/Cook/ 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler/ 

User/All Others

Figure 2-13

Crack Cocaine Offenders Exposed to Mandatory Minimum Penalties

for Each Offender Function

FY2005 Drug Sample
30

 Average imprisonment terms for cocaine offenders in each of the offender function 

categories reflect the mandatory minimum distributions described above. For both types of 

cocaine the longest prison terms were imposed for offenders in the two most serious function 

categories, offenders who most often were exposed to ten-year (or more) mandatory 

minimum penalties (Fig. 2-14). Powder cocaine importers/high-level suppliers and 

organizers/leaders/growers/ manufacturers/financiers/money launderers had average prison 

terms of 122 months and 157 months, respectively. The same two groups of crack cocaine 

offenders, importers and organizers, had average prison terms of 148 months and 207 

months, respectively. The most substantial differences between powder cocaine and crack 

cocaine offenders illustrated in Figure 2-14 are the longer sentences for street-level dealers of 

crack cocaine (97 months compared to 48 months for powder cocaine offenders) and 

wholesalers of crack cocaine (142 months compared to 78 months for powder cocaine 

offenders). 

DRAFT

148

207

112

102 9 7

4 8

7 2

122

157

7 8

115

8 6

4 8

6 0

9 3

142

0

5 0

100

150

200

250

Powder C ocaine C rack C ocain e

Figure 2-14 

Average Length of Imprisonment for Powder Cocaine 

and Crack Cocaine Offenders for Each Offender Function

Months FY2005 Drug Sample

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. Cases with sentences of probation or any time of confinement as defined in USSG §5C1.1 are not included in this figure. Cases with sentences greater than 470 months 

were included in the sentence average computation as 470 months. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. In the 2005 Drug Sample, 97.4 

percent of powder cocaine offenders and 98.2 percent of crack cocaine offenders received prison sentences.

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel SupplierOrganizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others
31

5. Aggravating Conduct 

Only a minority of powder cocaine offenses and crack cocaine offenses involve the 

most egregious aggravating conduct, but the presence of this conduct has increased for both 

forms of the drug since 2000. In addition, aggravating conduct continues to occur more often 

in crack cocaine than in powder cocaine offenses. 

The federal sentencing guidelines provide for increased sentences in cases where 

aggravating conduct (e.g., weapon possession) is present, and the application rates of such 

enhancements are collected in the Commission’s Fiscal Year datafiles. The 2000 and 2005 

Drug Samples supplement that information with analysis of whether such aggravating 

conduct occurred, regardless of whether the guideline or statutory sentencing enhancements 

for that conduct were applied by the sentencing court, as well as whether other aggravating 

conduct that is not currently covered by a guideline sentencing enhancement. The latter 

analysis was based on a review of the offense conduct narrative in the Presentence Report 

and does not reflect findings by the sentencing court. The following is an analysis of the 

aggravating conduct based on both the Commission’s Fiscal Year 2000 and 2006 datafiles 

and the 2000 and 2005 Drug Samples. 

a. Weapon Involvement 

Weapon involvement, by any measure, is the most common aggravating conduct in 

both powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses but is present in only a minority of both 

powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses. However, weapon involvement, broadly 

defined, has increased since 2000 in both powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses, and 

crack cocaine offenses continue to involve this conduct more often than powder cocaine 

offenses. 
32

Figure 2-15 shows weapon involvement data from the 2000 and 2005 Drug Samples. 

In these samples, weapon involvement is defined as weapon involvement in the offense by 

any participant, a broad definition that ranges from weapon use by the offender to mere 

access to a weapon by an un-indicted co-participant. In 2000, 25.4 percent of powder 

cocaine offenses and 35.2 percent of crack cocaine offenses involved weapons under this 

definition. The rate of weapon involvement increased to 27.0 percent for powder cocaine 

offenses and 42.7 percent for crack cocaine offenses in 2005 under this definition. 

DRAFT Figure 2-15 

Weapon Involvement for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY2000 and FY2005 Drug Samples

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. Weapon Involvement includes weapon involvement by any participant, broadly defined, ranging from weapon use by the offender to weapon accessibility by an unindicted participant. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2002 Commission Report and 2005 Sample. 

35.2

42.7

25.4 27.0

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powde r C ocaine 2000 Powder C ocaine 2005

Crack Cocaine 2000 C rack Cocaine 2005

Percent
33

Using a narrower measure of weapon involvement also indicates an increase in 

weapon use in crack cocaine offenses but not in powder cocaine offenses. This measure 

relies exclusively on offender conduct and excludes weapon involvement by others in the 

offense. Using this narrower measure, powder cocaine offenders had access to, possession 

of, or used a weapon in 15.7 percent of cases in 2005 compared to 17.6 percent in 2000 (a 

decrease of 1.9 percentage points). Crack cocaine offenders, however, had access to, 

possession of, or used a weapon in 32.4 percent of cases in 2005 compared to 25.5 percent in 

2000 (an increase of 6.9 percentage points). (See Figure 2-16; see also Figure 17 in 2002 

Commission Report). 

The finding that only a minority of powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses 

involve weapons (using the narrower measure) is consistent with the 2000 Drug Sample, that 

showed 17.6 percent of powder cocaine and 25.5 percent of crack cocaine offenders had 

weapon involvement. Moreover, like the 2000 Drug Sample, when examining only offenses 

in which weapons were accessible, possessed, or used by the offender, the nature of the 

weapon involvement tended to be relatively less aggravated in nature. Powder cocaine 

offenders used a weapon in only 0.8 percent of the cases (compared to 1.2% in 2000) and 

crack cocaine offenders used a weapon in only 2.9 percent of the cases (compared to 2.3% in 

2000). Weapon use by the offender continues to occur in only a minority of both powder 

Figure 2-16

Offender Weapon Involvement and Weapon Enhancements

for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY2005 Drug Sample

Powder Cocaine

 2005 Drug Sample

No Weapon 

84.3%

O ffender 

Access 5.9% O ffender 

Possession 

9.0%

O ffender Use 

0.8%

Crack Cocaine

2005 Drug Sample

Offender Use 

2.9%

Offender 

Possession 

19.9%

Offender 

Access 9.6%

No Weapon 

67.6%

Weapon Conviction 22.2%

Guideline Enhancement 38.5%

None 40.3%

Weapon Enhancements for Powder Cocaine 

Offenders with Weapon Involvement

Weapon Enhancements for Crack Cocaine 

Offenders with Weapon Involvement

Weapon Conviction 24.5%

Guideline Enhancement 45.8%

None 30.3%

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. The bar charts may sum to more than 100 percent due to the rare occurrence of both a weapon conviction and application of the guideline enhancement. This figure 

excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample. 
34

cocaine and crack cocaine offenses, as evidenced by the fact that 84.3 percent of powder 

cocaine and 67.6 percent of crack cocaine offenders had no weapon involvement in 2005. 

 The current federal sentencing scheme provides two alternative means for increasing 

sentences for weapon possession in drug trafficking offenses, and application rates of these 

sentencing enhancements provide an even narrower measure of weapon involvement. 

Federal drug offenders with weapons may be either convicted under 18 U.S.C. § 924(c) 

(involving possession of a firearm in relation to a drug trafficking offense) or, alternatively, 

they may be subject to application of the weapon enhancement in the drug trafficking 

guideline.44

 The bar charts in Figure 2-16 show that not all cocaine offenders whose offense 

conduct include weapon involvement (based on the offense conduct narrative in the 

Presentence Report) receive guideline or statutory sentencing enhancements for this conduct. 

More than 40 percent of powder cocaine offenders who had access to, possession of, or used 

a weapon received neither the guideline weapon enhancement nor a conviction under 18 

U.S.C. § 924(c). Similarly, nearly one-third (30.3%) of crack cocaine offenders who at least 

had access to a weapon received neither weapon enhancement. The fact that weapon 

enhancements were not applied to seemingly eligible offenders may be attributed to various 

factors (e.g., evidentiary issues, plea bargaining, etc.). 

 Figure 2-17 shows trends in the application rates of statutory and guideline weapon 

enhancements for all cocaine offenses sentenced between 1995 and 2006.45 Figure 2-17 

indicates that, since 2000, application rates of sentencing enhancements for weapon 

involvement have increased for both powder cocaine (10.6% to 13.0%) and crack cocaine 

(21.6% to 26.5%) offenses. This increase largely is attributable to an increase in convictions 

under 18 U.S.C. § 924(c). Between 2000 and 2006, the proportion of powder cocaine 

offenders receiving a statutory weapon enhancement more than doubled, increasing from 2.4 

percent to 4.9 percent. The trend for crack cocaine offenses is similar with rates of statutory 

weapons enhancements increasing from 4.0 percent in 2000 to 10.9 percent in 2006. 

 

44 A conviction under 18 U.S.C. § 924(c) requires a mandatory minimum consecutive sentence of at 

least five years, seven years, or ten years, depending on whether the weapon was possessed, 

brandished, or discharged, and the guideline enhancement at USSG §2D1.1(b)(1) provides for an 

increase of two offense levels for possession of a dangerous weapon, an approximate 25 percent 

increase in sentence. Offenders are eligible for one or the other but generally not both, except in very 

rare circumstances. 

45 The lines in Figure 2-17 show the combined application rates of both the statutory and guideline 

weapon enhancements and the bars show the individual application rates for each enhancement. 
35

Crack cocaine offenders consistently have been more likely than powder cocaine 

offenders to receive statutory or guideline weapon enhancements, and this difference has 

increased over time. In 2000, 21.6 percent of crack cocaine offenders received one of the 

weapon-related sentencing enhancements, compared to 10.6 percent of powder cocaine 

offenders, a difference of 11 percentage points. This difference increased to 13.5 percentage 

points by 2006, when the percentage of crack cocaine offenders receiving either of the two 

sentencing enhancements increased somewhat to 26.5 percent and the percentage of powder 

cocaine offenders increased slightly to 13.0 percent. 

 

DRAFT Figure 2-17 

Trends in Weapon Enhancements for Powder Cocaine 

and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY1995-FY2006

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline application information and a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this 

figure. Weapon Conviction indicates a conviction under 18 U.S.C. § 924(c) and accompanying mandatory sentence. Guideline Enhancement indicates application of the weapon sentencing 

enhancement pursuant to §2D1.1(b)(1). The lines combine the two weapon enhancements to demonstrate the overall trend from Fiscal Year 1995 to Fiscal Year 2006 for both drug types. This 

figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1995-2006 Datafiles, MONFY95-USSCFY06.

4.6

2.1 2.1 2.0 2.4 2.3

3.5 3.9 4.5 5.3 4.9

6.2

4.9

3.5 3.8 4.0 4.8 5.5

6.9

8.0

10.6 10.9 11.6

2.6

15.9

17.9

21.5

19.2

17.9 17.5 17.9 18.4

16.9

18.6

20.0 19.4

8.2 8.6

10.2

8.5 8.7 9.5 8.6 9.9 9.6 8.6 9.3 9.1

26.5

28.2 29.2

25.8

23.3

21.9 21.6 22.0 20.3

23.2

25.8

30.5

13.0 13.7 14.5

12.3 11.7 12.1

10.6

11.6 11.6

10.5

11.6

13.8

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Weapon Conviction Guideline Enhancement Both Weapon Enhancements

Percent

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine
36

The 2005 Drug Sample data in Figure 2-18 show the application rates of the 

combined guideline and statutory weapon enhancements for cocaine offenders in each 

offender function category. Crack cocaine offenders consistently have received weapon 

enhancements at a greater rate than powder cocaine offenders for the five most serious 

offender functions. Weapon enhancement rates were nearly equal for powder cocaine 

offenders and crack cocaine offenders at the low-level functions of street-level dealer (23.8% 

for powder cocaine offenses versus 22.4% for crack cocaine offenses), courier/mule (2.0% 

for powder cocaine offenses versus 0.0% crack cocaine offenses), and 

renter/loader/lookout/enabler/user/all others (13.1% for powder cocaine offenses versus 

12.7% crack cocaine offenses). 

b. Violence 

Contrary to the pattern for weapon involvement, the prevalence of violence decreased 

for both powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses and, continuing a trend identified in the 

2002 Commission Report, continues to occur in only a minority of offenses. Violence 

continues to occur more often in crack cocaine cases than in powder cocaine cases. 

Although several guidelines contain specific guideline enhancements covering 

conduct indicative of violence, such as bodily injury or threat, the drug trafficking guideline 

DRAFT

14.3

25.5

21.7

12.7

0.0

12.3

23.6

15.0

11.4

8.2

23.8

2.0

13.1

22.4

47.4

12.7

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powder C ocaine C rack C ocaine

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Figure 2-18 

Statutory and Guideline Weapon Enhancements Applied to 

Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses for Each Offender Function

FY2005 Drug Sample

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others
37

does not. Therefore, the Commission cannot use its Fiscal Year datafiles to measure this 

conduct in drug offenses. Instead, the Commission analyzed the 2000 and 2005 Drug 

Samples to find cases where violence was described in the offense conduct narrative in the 

Presentence Report. An offense was defined as “violent” if any participant in the offense 

made a credible threat, or caused any actual physical harm, to another person. Using this 

relatively broad definition, violence decreased in powder cocaine offenses from 9.0 percent 

in 2000 to 6.2 percent in 2005, and decreased in crack cocaine offenses from 11.6 percent in 

2000 to 10.4 percent in 2005. (Fig. 2-19). In addition, actual injury continued to be rare in 

both powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses, occurring in 3.1 percent and 5.5 percent, 

respectively. 

 

1.8 1.7 1.1

4.2

0.0

4.5

11.6

5.1

25.4

. 9 . 4 . 8

9.0

6.2

27.0

. 2 . 1

35.2

. 5

42.7

10 .4

2.5

. 3 . 3

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

Powder C ocaine 2000 Powder C ocain e 2005

C rack C ocain e 2000 C rack C ocain e 2005

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. Weapon Involvement includes weapon involvement by any participant, broadly defined, ranging from weapon use by the offender to weapon accessibility by an unindicted participant. Violence Involvement includes threats of violence. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2002 Commission Report and 2005 Sample. 

Co-participant Under 18 Sale to Minor Sale to Pregnant Woman Protected Location Weapon Involvement Violence Involvement

Figure 2-19

Offense Conduct of Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY2000 and FY2005 Drug Samples
38

Figure 2-20 provides data on the specific types of violence that occurred in those 

cocaine offenses that involved violence. For both powder cocaine (3.2%) and crack cocaine 

(4.9%) offenses, threats were the most common form of violence documented. Actual bodily 

injury or death occurred in a very small minority of both powder cocaine (1.5% and 1.6%, 

respectively) and crack cocaine (3.3% and 2.2%, respectively) offenses. 

Powder Cocaine 

2005 Drug Sample

Crack Cocaine 

2005 Drug Sample

No Violence 

89.6%

Threats 

4.9%

Any Injury 

3.3%

Death 

2.2%

Threats

 3.2%

Any Injury 

1.5%

Death

1.6%

No Violence 

93.8%

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Figure 2-20

Violence Involvement in Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY2005 Drug Sample
39

c. Protected Individuals and Locations 

 The involvement of co-participants under 18 years of age, rare in both powder 

cocaine and crack cocaine offenses, decreased for both drug types from 2000 to 2005. In 

2000, 1.8 percent of powder cocaine offenses and 4.2 percent of crack cocaine offenses 

involved minors as co-participants, and these figures decreased to 1.7 percent and 2.5 

percent, respectively, in 2005. The proportion of cocaine offenses that occurred in a 

protected location46 increased for both drug types between 2000 and 2005, but these offenses 

continued to occur infrequently. In 2000, 0.9 percent of powder cocaine offenses and 4.5 

percent of crack cocaine offenses occurred in a protected location. Each increased slightly to 

1.1 percent and 5.1 percent, respectively, in 2005. See Figure 2-19. 

 The other aggravating conduct depicted in Figure 2-19, sale to a minor and sale to a 

pregnant woman, occurred in less than one percent of cocaine offenses in both 2000 and 

2005. 

6. Role Adjustments 

 Under the federal sentencing guidelines, an offender’s role in the offense, as 

determined by the sentencing court, may impact the final sentencing range. Guideline role 

adjustments,47 whether aggravating or mitigating, have been applied at different rates in 

powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses. 

 

46 This conduct is described in 21 U.S.C. § 860. 

47 Guideline role adjustments refer to the two to four level offense level increase for an offender’s 

aggravating role in the offense pursuant to USSG §3B1.1 (which includes those whose role in the 

offense is an organizer or leader of five or more participants (or otherwise extensive criminal 

activity), a manager or supervisor of five or more participants (or otherwise extensive criminal 

activity), or an organizer, leader, manager, or supervisor in any other way). The two to four level 

offense level reduction for an offender’s mitigating role in the offense pursuant to USSG §3B1.2 

includes offenders whose role in the offense was minimal or minor (or between minimal and minor). 
40

Aggravating role enhancements consistently have been applied at relatively low rates 

for both powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses. Figure 2-21 illustrates the trend in 

aggravating role enhancement rates for powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenders from 

1992 through 2006. During this period, rates of aggravating role enhancements have 

remained relatively low, have been nearly equal for the two types of cocaine, and have 

decreased for both powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenders. The proportion of powder 

cocaine offenders receiving an aggravating role adjustment decreased from 11.7 percent in 

1992 to 6.6 percent in 2006. Similarly, the proportion of crack cocaine offenders receiving 

an aggravating role adjustment decreased from 9.0 percent in 1992 to 4.3 percent in 2006. 

 

DRAFT

Percent

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline application information and a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this 

figure. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005 – September 30, 2005).

Figure 2-21 

Trend in Application of Aggravating Role Adjustment (USSG §3B1.1) 

in Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY1992-FY2006

6.6 6.9

8.2 8.0 7.9 7.7 8.0 8.1

8.5 8.4 9.5 9.7 10.1

9.9

11.7

4.3

5.6 5.7 5.8 6.2 6.4 7.1 7.5

8.6

10.4 10.6 10.9 10.6

9.7 9.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Aggravating R ole Powde r Cocaine Aggravating R ole Crack Cocaine
41

Conversely, mitigating role reductions historically have been applied in powder 

cocaine offenses at rates two to three times higher than in crack cocaine offenses. The higher 

application rate of mitigating role reductions for powder cocaine is shown in Figure 2-22. 

Between 1992 and 2006 the proportion of powder cocaine offenders receiving mitigating role 

reductions increased (from 16.4% to 19.2%), while the proportion of crack cocaine offenders 

receiving mitigating role reductions decreased to a similar degree (from 9.3% to 6.2%). This 

trend represents a near doubling of the difference between the two types of cocaine from a 

7.1 percentage point difference in 1992 to a 13 percentage point difference in 2006. 

 

DRAFT

Percent

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline application information and a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this 

figure. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005 – September 30, 2005).

Figure 2-22 

Trend in Application of Mitigating Role Adjustment (USSG §3B1.2) 

in Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY1992-FY2006

19.2

20.7

21.7

23.2

25.4

23.4

22.4

23.6 24.2

22.6

23.8

22.0

19.2

16.6 16.4

6.4 6.2 6.7 6.8 6.8 7.0

8.5 8.4

9.9 9.6 10.6 9.8 9.3 8.7 9.5

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

M itigating R ole Powde r Cocaine M itigating R ole Crack Cocaine
42

Figures 2-23 and 2-24 show the application of the aggravating and mitigating role 

adjustments for each offender function category for powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

offenders, respectively. The two figures represent offenders who met the guideline criteria 

for the aggravating role adjustment or the mitigating role adjustment, as determined by the 

sentencing court and independent of the offender function categories displayed. 

 The application rates of role adjustments for powder cocaine offenders also 

corroborate the offender functions as coded from the review of the Presentence Report (Fig. 

2-23.). The powder cocaine offenders classified in the organizer/leader/grower/ 

manufacturer/financier/money launderer category had the highest rate, 51.4 percent, of 

aggravating role adjustments. In contrast, couriers/mules had the highest rate, 44.4 percent, 

of mitigating role adjustments. 

 

DRAFT

1 6.0

51.4

0.9

30.4

3.3

0.0 0.0 1.1

3.8 2.8 2.7 3.8

24.6

8 .9

44.4

35 .2

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Agg ra vatin g Role Mitigating Role

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. Role adjustments refer to the Aggravating Role (USSG §3B1.1) and Mitigating Role (USSG §3B1.2) adjustments in Chapter 3 of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines. This 

figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others

Figure 2-23 

Application of Role Adjustments for Each Offender Function 

Powder Cocaine Offenders

FY2005 Drug Sample
43

The application rates of role adjustments for crack cocaine offenders also support the 

offender function categories assessed in the Presentence Report reviews (Fig. 2-24). Similar 

to powder cocaine, crack cocaine organizers/leaders/growers/manufacturers/financiers/ 

money launderers had the highest rates of aggravating role adjustments (52.6%), and crack 

cocaine couriers/mules had the highest rates (50.0%) of mitigating role adjustments. 

DRAFT

4.8

52.6

3.8

43.5

0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

2.7

8.7 9.5

50.0

40.0

7.0

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Aggravatin g Role Mitigatin g Role

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. Role adjustments refer to the Aggravating Role (USSG §3B1.1) and Mitigating Role (USSG §3B1.2) adjustments in Chapter 3 of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines. This 

figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Figure 2-24 

Application of Role Adjustments for Each Offender Function 

Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY2005 Drug Sample

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others
44

7. Criminal History

While offense severity (based on drug type and quantity) is the preliminary 

determinant of the sentencing guideline range, an offender’s criminal history also plays a 

significant role. In general, crack cocaine offenders have more extensive criminal histories 

than powder cocaine offenders. Figure 2-25 illustrates this difference, showing the 

substantially lower rate of crack cocaine offenders (22.0%) in Criminal History Category I 

(containing offenders with little or no criminal history) compared to powder cocaine 

offenders (61.7%). In addition, the proportion of crack cocaine offenders (24.5%) assigned 

to Criminal History Category VI (containing offenders with the most extensive criminal 

histories) is substantially greater than the proportion of powder cocaine offenders (7.1%) in 

that category. 

DRAFT

22.0

12.1

20.7

12.7

8.0

24.5

61.7

11.7 12.2

5.0

2.2

7.1

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

Powder C ocaine C rack C ocaine

Percent

Category I Category II Category III Category IV Category V Category VI

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline application information and a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in 

this figure. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2006 Datafile, USSCFY06.

Figure 2-25 

Criminal History Category Distribution for Powder Cocaine 

and Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY2006
45

An offender’s Criminal History Category, however, appears unrelated to the 

offender’s most serious function in the offense. Figures 2-26 and 2-27 show the proportion 

of offenders in Criminal History Category I compared to the proportion of offenders in 

Criminal History Categories II through VI (combined) for each offender function category in 

the 2005 Drug Sample. Little, if any, relationship between the two can be observed. 

Reflecting the overall Criminal History Category distribution for powder cocaine offenders, 

the largest proportion of offenders in each powder cocaine function are in Criminal History 

Category I (with the exception of organizers/leaders and street-level dealers) (Fig. 2-26). 

Conversely, Figure 2-27 illustrates the overall Criminal History Category distribution for 

crack cocaine and shows that the largest proportion of offenders in each function category are 

in Criminal History Category II through VI (except importers/high-level suppliers). 

DRAFT

67.9

51.5

81.3 80.1

75.4

77.2

41.7

44.6

32.1

58.3

48.5

22.8 24.6

55.5

18.7 19.9

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

C ategory I C ate gori e s II-VI

Percent

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others

Figure 2-26

Criminal History Category for Each Offender Function 

Powder Cocaine Offenders

FY2005 Drug Sample

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.
46

 

DRAFT

52.4

50.0 49.1

39.7

26.1

23.2

15.8

21.0

47.6

84.2

76.8

73.9

60.3

79.0

50.0 50.9

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

C ategory I C ate gorie s II-VI

Percent

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others

Figure 2-27

Criminal History Category for Each Offender Function 

Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY2005 Drug Sample

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.
47

Criminal History Category also does not appear related to the drug quantity involved 

in the offense. Figure 2-28 shows that powder cocaine offenders tend to cluster in Criminal 

History Category I across three drug quantity groupings. Forty-six percent of powder 

cocaine offenders with base offense levels less than 26 (less than 500 grams) are in Criminal 

History Category I. Slightly greater proportions of powder cocaine offenders trafficking in 

larger drug quantities are in Criminal History Category I. Specifically, 61.3 percent of 

powder cocaine offenders with base offense levels of 26-30 (at least 500 grams and less than 

five kilograms), and 66.2 percent of powder cocaine offenders with base offense levels of 32 

or greater (at least 15 kilograms or more) are in Criminal History Category I. 

 

DRAFT

61.3

4.2

1.7

13.8

66.2

46.1

12.2 10.7 13.7

11.5 12.4

14.5

5.6 3.9

7.7

2.3

6.3 6.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

C ategory I C ate gory II C ate gory III

C ate go ry IV C ate gory V C ategory VI

Percent

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline application information and a primary drug type of powder cocaine are included in this figure. This figure 

excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2006 Datafile, USSCFY06.

BOL < 26 

N=716 

13.2 Percent of 

FY06 Powder Cocaine Offenders

BOL 26 – 30 

N=2,040 

37.5 Percent of 

FY06 Powder Cocaine Offenders

BOL 32+ 

N=2,686 

49.4 Percent of 

FY06 Powder Cocaine Offenders

Figure 2-28 

Criminal History Categories for Drug Quantity-Based Offense Levels

Powder Cocaine Offenders

FY2006
48

Similarly, Figure 2-29 shows that the largest proportion of crack cocaine offenders 

consistently are in Criminal History Category VI across base offense level categories: 24.9 

percent of offenders with base offense levels less than 26 (less than five grams), 24.4 percent 

of offenders with base offense levels of 26-30 (at least five grams and less than 50 grams), 

and 24.5 percent of offenders with base offense levels of 32 and greater (at least 50 grams or 

more). 

DRAFT

18.0

21.9 22.7

19.6 20.4 21.2

10.2 8.3 7.5

24.9 24.4 24.5

12.7 12.7

11.5

14.5 12.3 12.7

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

C ategory I C ate gory II C ate g ory III

C atogory IV Category V C ategory VI

Percent

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline application information and a primary drug type of crack cocaine are included in this figure. This figure 

excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2006 Datafile, USSCFY06.

BOL < 26 

N=449 

8.7 Percent of 

FY06 Crack Cocaine Offenders

BOL 26 – 30 

N=2,060 

39.9 Percent of 

FY06 Crack Cocaine Offenders

BOL 32+ 

N=2,652 

51.4 Percent of 

FY06 Crack Offenders

Figure 2-29 

Criminal History Categories for Drug Quantity-Based Offense Levels

Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY2006
49

8. Safety Valve

 In 1994, Congress enacted the “safety valve” provision to provide nonviolent, lowlevel, first-time drug offenders relief from mandatory minimum sentences.48 Under this 

provision, certain nonviolent drug offenders with little or no criminal history can receive the 

full benefit of applicable mitigating adjustments under the guidelines and receive sentences 

below mandatory minimum penalty levels. On November 1, 1995, the Commission 

promulgated a specific offense characteristic in the drug trafficking guideline providing for a 

two-level reduction for offenders who meet the safety valve criteria and whose offense level 

is 26 or greater. On November 1, 2001, the Commission expanded the scope of this 

provision to include offenders with offense levels less than 26.49

 Powder cocaine offenders tend to qualify for the safety valve reduction much more 

often than crack cocaine offenders. In Fiscal Year 2006, 48.4 percent of powder cocaine 

offenders received the safety valve reduction, compared to 15.4 percent of crack cocaine 

offenders. As discussed above, crack cocaine offenders have more extensive criminal 

histories than powder cocaine offenders, and this factor most often disqualifies crack cocaine 

offenders from receiving safety valve reductions. 

 Other disqualifying factors generally are rare but occur more often in crack cocaine 

offenses, which also contributes to lower safety valve rates for crack cocaine offenses. 

Specifically, as demonstrated earlier, both weapon involvement and bodily injury occur more 

frequently among crack cocaine offenses than powder cocaine offenses. 

 

48 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, Pub. L. No. 103-322, § 80001, 108 Stat. 

1796 (1994). 

49 In order to qualify for the safety valve, the defendant must have no more than one criminal history 

point, cannot have used violence or weapons, was not an organizer or leader, did not engage in a 

continuing criminal enterprise, and provided, in a timely manner, all information about the offense to 

the Government. In addition, the offense must not have resulted in death or serious bodily injury. 

See USSG §5C1.2. 
50

9. Sentences Relative to the Guideline Range

 Following the decision in Booker,

50 courts must calculate the applicable guideline 

range and consider the guideline range and guideline policy statements, including departures, 

when sentencing defendants. In addition, courts must also consider the factors set forth in 18 

U.S.C. § 3553(a). Outside the range sentences are those above or below the applicable 

guideline range. Below-range sentences include both government sponsored below-range 

sentences and non-government sponsored below-range sentences. Government sponsored 

below-range sentences include substantial assistance departures which, on motion of the 

government, permit the court to sentence below the otherwise applicable mandatory 

minimum sentence;51 early disposition programs which, upon motion of the Government, 

permit the court to depart (up to four levels below the guideline range) pursuant to a program 

authorized by the Attorney General for that district,52 and below-range sentences agreed to by 

the parties (e.g., pursuant to a plea agreement). Other below-range sentences are imposed at 

the court’s discretion. 

 

 

50 Supra note 4.

51 See USSG §5K1.1 (Substantial Assistance to Authorities). 

52 See USSG §5K3.1 (Early Disposition Programs). 
51

Trends in within, below, and above-range sentences have been similar for powder 

cocaine and crack cocaine cases over time, with the largest proportion of offenders for each 

drug type consistently sentenced within the applicable guideline range. Figure 2-30 shows 

the similar trends in the rates of sentences relative to the guideline range for powder cocaine 

and crack cocaine offenders since the PROTECT Act.53 During the period between 2003 and 

2006, between one-half and two-thirds of both powder cocaine (ranging from 55.6% to 

65.9%) and crack cocaine (ranging from 52.0% to 64.9%) offenders were sentenced within 

the guideline range. In addition, rates of government sponsored below-range, other belowrange, and above-range sentences were nearly identical for the two types of cocaine. 

 

 

53 Pub. L. No. 108-21, 117 Stat. 650 (2003). 

DRAFT

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

2003 2004 2005 2006

Powder Cocaine Within-Range Crack Cocaine Within-Range

Powder Cocaine Above-Range Crack Cocaine Above-Range

Powder Cocaine Below-Range Crack Cocaine Below-Range

Powder Cocaine Gov't Sponsored Below-Range Crack Cocaine Gov't Sponsored Below-Range

Percent

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this figure. Government Sponsored Below-Range is 

comprised of: USSG §5K1.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures (FY03), USSG §5K1.1, USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures (FY04) and USSG §5K1.1, 

USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures/Variances (FY05-FY06). This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2003-2006 Datafiles, USSCFY03 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005–September 30, 2005).

Figure 2-30 

Within Guideline Range and Out-of-Range Sentences for Powder Cocaine 

and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY2003-FY2006
52

Figure 2-31 shows the trend in sentences relative to the guideline range for powder 

cocaine offenses from 1992 through 2006. Throughout this period, the majority of powder 

cocaine sentences were within the applicable guideline range (ranging from 55.6 % to 

66.1%). The majority of below-range powder cocaine sentences were government 

sponsored,54 and the proportion of government sponsored below-range sentences increased 

somewhat between 1992 and 2006 from 29.0 percent to 33.3 percent. During that same 

period, the proportion of other below-range sentences remained substantially lower than the 

proportion of government sponsored below-range sentences, but also has increased from 4.6 

percent to 10.3 percent. 

 

54 In an effort to provide more detailed information regarding attribution of below-range sentences, 

the categories that comprise Government Sponsored Below-Range have expanded in recent years. 

Between 1992 and 2002 the category includes substantial assistance (USSG §5K1.1) departures only. 

For 2003, the category includes substantial assistance (USSG §5K1.1) and other government 

sponsored downward departures. In 2004 the category includes substantial assistance (USSG 

§5K1.1), early disposition (USSG §5K3.1), and other government sponsored downward departures. 

In 2005 and 2006 the category includes substantial assistance (USSG §5K1.1), early disposition 

(USSG §5K3.1), other government sponsored downward departures, and other government sponsored 

variances. 

DRAFT

56.0

66.1

62.6

56.8 57.1 60.4 57.8 56.6 58.0 59.7 60.1 58.8

62.7 65.9

55.6

0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6

10.3

4.6 4.7 5.6 7.2 7.4

9.8 9.6 9.2 9.1

10.7 11.4

8.7

5.7

11.6

33.3

29.0

32.4

37.2

35.5

32.0 32.2 33.7 32.7 31.0 29.0 29.6 28.3 28.0

32.2

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Within-Range Above-Range

Below-Range Gov't Sponsored Below-Range

Percent

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of powder cocaine are included in this figure. Government Sponsored Below-Range is comprised of: 

USSG §5K1.1 Departures Only (FY92-FY02), USSG §5K1.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures (FY03), USSG §5K1.1, USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures 

(FY04) and USSG §5K1.1, USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures/Variances (FY05-FY06). This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required 

for analysis.

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005–September 30, 2005).

11/94

Amendment 508

6/96

Koon

4/03

PROTECT Act

Blakely

Figure 2-31 

Rates of Within-Range and Out-of-Range Sentences for Powder Cocaine Offenses 

FY1992 to FY2006
53

 Figure 2-32 shows the trend in sentences relative to the guideline range for crack 

cocaine offenses from 1992 to 2006. Between 1992 and 2006, the majority of crack cocaine 

sentences were within the applicable guideline range (ranging from 52.0% to 73.3%). Also, 

similar to powder cocaine sentences, government sponsored below-range sentences account 

for the majority of below-range crack cocaine sentences and increased somewhat from 21.9 

percent in 1992 to 29.6 percent in 2006. 

DRAFT

56.6

73.3

66.8

61.1 61.2 60.2 59.5 58.9 57.6 58.9 59.1 60.5

63.5 64.9

52.0

0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.6

13.3

4.3 5.4 5.1 4.5 5.3 6.0 5.7 7.1 7.9 8.5 7.7 6.6 5.7

15.2

29.6

21.9

27.5

33.5

34.2 34.3 34.4 35.2 35.2

33.0 32.2 31.6

29.8 29.3

32.3

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Within-Range Above-Range Below-Range Gov't Sponsored Below-Range

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of crack cocaine are included in this figure. Government Sponsored Below-Range is comprised of: USSG 

§5K1.1 Departures Only (FY92-FY02), USSG §5K1.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures (FY03), USSG §5K1.1, USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures (FY04) 

and USSG §5K1.1, USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures/Variances (FY05-FY06). This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for 

analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005–September 30, 2005).

Percent

11/94

Amendment 508

6/96

Koon

4/03

PROTECT Act Blakely

Figure 2-32 

Rates of Within-Range and Out-of-Range Sentences for Crack Cocaine Offenses 

FY1992 to FY2006
54

 The overwhelming majority of cocaine offenders were sentenced either within the 

guideline range or below the range pursuant to a government motion or agreement. 

Combining these two categories and using trend data from 1992 through 2006 for each drug 

type, Figure 2-33 illustrates that consistently more than 84.0 percent of powder cocaine and 

crack cocaine offenders were sentenced in conformance with the guidelines under this 

measure. Put another way, fewer than 16.0 percent of cocaine sentences are below the 

guideline range without the express agreement by the government, as discerned from the 

sentencing documents received by the Commission. 

 

DRAFT

87.8

93.9

91.0

88.4 89.1

90.6 90.7 90.0 90.3

92.7 92.4

94.0

95.0

95.1

89.3

84.3

93.3 94.2

92.1 91.3

95.2

94.3

94.6 95.4

94.5 93.9 94.1

92.8 91.9

86.3

60.0

80.0

100.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this figure. Government Sponsored Below-Range is 

comprised of: USSG §5K1.1 Departures Only (FY92-FY02), USSG §5K1.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures (FY03), USSG §5K1.1, USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government 

Sponsored Departures (FY04) and USSG §5K1.1, USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures/Variances (FY05-FY06). This figure excludes cases with missing information for 

the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06, 2004 Pre-Blakely Only Cases (October 1, 2003 – June 24, 2004), and 2005 Post-Booker Only Cases 

(January 12, 2005–September 30, 2005).

Percent

11/94

Amendment 508

6/96

Koon

4/03

PROTECT Act

Blakely

Figure 2-33 

Rates of Within-Range and Government Sponsored Below-Range 

Sentences for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY1992 to FY2006
55

Figure 2-34 shows the proportion of within-range sentences for powder cocaine and 

crack cocaine for each offender function in the 2005 Drug Sample. The proportion of withinrange sentences for powder cocaine offenders is relatively consistent across offender 

function, ranging from 50.4 percent for couriers/mules to 62.4 percent for importers/highlevel suppliers. In contrast, the proportion of within-range sentences for crack cocaine 

offenders varies substantially from 29.1 percent for renters/loaders/lookouts/enablers/ 

users/all others to 66.7 percent for importers/high-level suppliers. 

DRAFT

46.7

52.7

36.4

33.9

56.2

29.1

62.4

59.7 61.2

59.0

53.5

59.6

50.4

55.4

37.5

66.7

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powde r C ocain e C rack C ocaine

Figure 2-34 

Rates of Within-Range Sentences for Each Offender Function 

for Powder and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY2005 Drug Sample Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others
56

 As shown in Figure 2-35, above-range sentences also are similarly distributed across 

offender function for both powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses. The largest 

proportion of powder cocaine offenders receiving sentences above the guideline range are 

street-level dealers at 3.0 percent. The highest rate of above-range sentences for crack 

cocaine offenders is for importers/high-level suppliers at 4.8 percent. 

DRAFT

4.8

0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.6 0.0

1.7 3.0

0.9 0.0

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powde r C ocain e C rack C ocain e

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Figure 2-35 

Rates of Above-Range Sentences for Each Offender Function 

for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY2005 Drug Sample

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others
57

 As discussed above, government sponsored below-range sentences have accounted 

for the largest proportion of below-range sentences for both types of cocaine offenders over 

time. Figure 2-36 shows, for the 2005 Drug Sample, the proportion of government 

sponsored below-range sentences for each offender function category for powder cocaine and 

crack cocaine offenders. The highest rates of government sponsored below-range sentences 

are for couriers/mules (35.7% for powder cocaine offenders and 62.5 percent for crack 

cocaine offenders) and renters/loaders/lookouts/enablers/users/all others (30.3% for powder 

cocaine offenders and 50.9% for crack cocaine offenders). 

DRAFT

19.1

34.7

31.5

40.9

43.6

62.5

50.9

30.3

35.7

27.6 28.3

26.9

28.8 27.7 27.8 28.4

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powder C ocaine C rack C ocaine

Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. Government Sponsored Below-Range is comprised of: USSG §5K1.1, USSG §5K3.1 and Other Government Sponsored Departures/Variances. This figure excludes cases 

with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others

Figure 2-36 

Rates of Government Sponsored Below-Range Sentences for Each Offender 

Function for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

FY2005 Drug Sample
58

Figure 2-37 illustrates the distribution of the three types of government sponsored 

below-range sentences55 across offender function categories for powder cocaine offenders in 

the 2005 Drug Sample. Substantial assistance departures consistently account for the 

majority of government sponsored below-range sentences and apply to approximately onefourth of powder cocaine offenders across function category. Courier/mule is the only 

offender function category that receives a substantial proportion of early disposition 

departures, accounting for 7.5 percent of courier/mule offenders (0.3% of powder cocaine 

wholesalers, a single offender, received an early disposition departure). This factor reflects 

the trafficking patterns for powder cocaine, specifically that the drug is imported from other 

countries, frequently by non-citizens.56

 

55 The government sponsored below-range category includes substantial assistance (USSG §5K1.1), 

early disposition (USSG §5K3.1), and other government sponsored below-range sentences. 

56 In Fiscal Year 2006, 39.4 percent of powder cocaine offenders were non-U.S. citizens compared to 

3.6 percent of crack cocaine offenders.

DRAFT

0.0 0.0 0.0

3.0 2.7 3.5

5.1

1.7

28.6

24.7 23.2 24.1

25.8 26.9

27.8

24.8

7.5

0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0

3.5

0.0 0.0

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

5K1.1 5K3.1 O th e r G ove rn m e n t S pon sore d

Figure 2-37 

Distribution of Government Sponsored Below-Range Sentences 

for Each Offender Function in Powder Cocaine Offenses

FY2005 Drug Sample Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis.

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel Supplier

Organizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others
59

Similar to powder cocaine offenders, Figure 2-38 shows that government sponsored 

below-range sentences for crack cocaine offenders primarily consist of substantial assistance 

departures across offender function categories. However, the rates of substantial assistance 

departures vary from 19.1 percent for importers/high-level suppliers to 56.3 percent for 

couriers/mules. Notably, none of the crack couriers/mules received early disposition 

departures, confirming the lack of importation involved in the trafficking of the drug, as 

discussed earlier. 

DRAFT

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

2.7

0.0

1.6

4.4

6.3 5.5

45.5

56.3

23.9

41.9 40.9

28.9

34.7

19.1

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

5K1.1 5K3.1 O th e r G o ve rn m e n t S po n s o re d

Figure 2-38 

Distribution of Government Sponsored Below-Range Sentences 

for Each Offender Function in Crack Cocaine Offenses 

FY2005 Drug Sample Percent

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis.

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel SupplierOrganizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others
60

Figure 2-39 shows the rates of other below-range sentences for powder cocaine and 

crack cocaine offenders for each offender function category in the 2005 Drug Sample. For 

every offender function category except couriers/mules (all of which were accounted for in 

the within-range, 37.5%, and government-sponsored, 62.5%, categories), the rates of belowrange sentences are higher for crack cocaine offenders than powder cocaine offenders. 

10. Overview of Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Sentencing 

 Table 2-2 provides a summary of the offense and offender characteristics contributing 

to powder cocaine and crack cocaine sentences. The difference in the average prison 

sentence for the two types of cocaine is more than three years (37 months); the average 

prison sentences for powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenders are 85 months and 122 

months, respectively. While both types of cocaine offenses have the same average base 

offense level of 30, the base offense levels for powder cocaine and crack cocaine are 

attributable to substantially different median drug weights of 6,000 grams and 51 grams, 

respectively. Furthermore, as illustrated in Table 2-2, powder cocaine offenders are subject 

to higher rates of factors that decrease sentences, such as the safety valve and mitigating role 

adjustments, compared to crack cocaine offenders. In contrast, factors that increases 

sentences such as weapon enhancements and criminal history occur at higher rates for crack 

cocaine offenders than powder cocaine offenders. 

DRAFT

9.5

18.7

15.4

22.7 22.6

14.8

0.0

20.0

8.9

12.5

9.4

14.1

17.2

9.1

13.0 14.3

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Powde r C ocaine C rack C ocaine

Figure 2-39 

Rates of Other Below-Range Sentences for Each Offender Function 

for Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenses

Percent FY2005 Drug Sample

Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of specific 

guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Importer/ HighLevel SupplierOrganizer/Leader 

Grower/ 

Manufacturer/ 

Financier/Money 

Launderer

Wholesaler Manager/ 

Supervisor

Pilot/Captain 

Bodyguard 

Chemist/Cook 

Broker/Steerer

Street-level 

Dealer

Courier/Mule Renter/ 

Loader/ 

Lookout/Enabler 

User/All Others
61

Table 2-2 

Comparison of Selected Sentencing Factors 

for Powder Cocaine And Crack Cocaine Offenders 

Fiscal Year 200657

Powder 

Cocaine 

Crack 

Cocaine 

Average Base Offense Level 30 30 

Median Drug Weight (grams) 6,000.0 51.0 

Weapon Enhancements 

Weapon SOC (USSG §2D1.1(b)(1)) 8.2% 15.9% 

18 U.S.C. § 924(c) Conviction 4.9% 10.9% 

Safety Valve58 45.5% 14.0% 

Guideline Role Adjustments 

Aggravating Role (USSG §3B1.1) 6.6% 4.3% 

Mitigating Role (USSG §3B1.2) 19.2% 6.2% 

Sentences Relative to Guideline Range 

Within-Range 56.2% 56.8% 

Above-Range 0.4% 0.4% 

Below-Range 43.4% 42.8% 

Average Criminal History Category II III 

Average Prison Sentence (Months) 85 122 

 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2006 Datafile, USSCFY06. 

 

57 Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with complete guideline information 

and powder cocaine or crack cocaine as the primary drug type are included in this table. Cases with 

sentences of probation or any time of confinement as defined in USSG §5C1.1 have been excluded. 

Cases with sentences of 470 months or greater were included in the sentence average computation as 

470 months. Cases were excluded due to missing information on drug weight for the primary drug 

type, missing information on sentence length, or both. 

58 Safety valve includes cases that received either a two-level reduction pursuant to USSG 

§2D1.1(b)(7) and USSG §5C1.2, or relief from the statutory mandatory minimum sentence pursuant 

to 18 U.S.C. § 3553(f), or both.
62

Chapter 3

FORMS OF COCAINE, METHODS OF USE, 

EFFECTS, DEPENDENCY, PRENATAL EFFECTS, 

AND PREVALENCE

A. INTRODUCTION

 This chapter updates information presented in the Commission’s 1995 and 2002 reports 

regarding cocaine use, effects, dependency, and prevalence. For this report, this section again 

summarizes the core findings and updates the research, primarily using the expert testimony 

received by the Commission at its November 14, 2006 public hearing on the issue. Specific 

findings include: 

• Crack cocaine and powder cocaine are both powerful stimulants, and both forms 

of cocaine cause identical effects. 

• Although both are addictive, the risk of addiction and personal deterioration may 

be greater for crack cocaine than for powder cocaine because of their different 

methods of usual administration (typically crack cocaine is smoked whereas 

powder cocaine typically is snorted). 

• The negative effects of prenatal exposure to crack cocaine are identical to the 

effects of prenatal exposure to powder cocaine and are significantly less severe 

than previously believed. 

B. POWDER COCAINE AND CRACK COCAINE MANUFACTURING, PURITY, AND DOSES

 

 Powder cocaine is a white, powdery substance produced by dissolving coca paste into 

hydrochloric acid and water. Potassium salt is then added to this mixture, followed by ammonia. 

Typically sold to users by the gram, powder cocaine often is “cut” or diluted by adding one or 

more adulterants (sugars, local anesthetics, other drugs, or other inert substances) prior to 

distribution.59 These alterations can cause the purity level of powder cocaine to vary 

considerably.60

 Crack cocaine is made by dissolving powder cocaine in a solution of sodium bicarbonate 

 

59 USSC, 2002 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 16. See also Memorandum from Toni P. Teresi, 

Chief, Office of Congressional Affairs, Drug Enforcement Administration to Stacy Shrader, Office of 

Rep. Asa Hutchinson, U.S. House of Representatives 3 (March 8, 2001) (on file with the Commission) 

[hereinafter Teresi Memo]. 

60 USSC, 2002 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 16.
63

and water. The solution is boiled and a solid substance separates from the boiling substance. 

After the solid substance is dried, the crack cocaine is broken into “rocks,” each representing a 

single dosage typically weighing from one-tenth to one-half of a gram.61 One gram of pure 

powder cocaine under ideal conditions will convert to approximately 0.89 grams of crack 

cocaine. The processes used by some crack cocaine manufacturers, however, may introduce 

impurities resulting in a product less pure than the powder cocaine from which it was derived.62 

 With respect to doses, one gram of powder cocaine generally yields five to ten doses, 

whereas one gram of crack cocaine yields two to ten doses. Thus, 500 grams of powder cocaine 

– the quantity necessary to trigger the five-year statutory minimum penalty – yields between 

2,500 and 5,000 doses. In contrast, five grams of crack cocaine – the quantity necessary to 

trigger the five-year statutory minimum penalty – yields between ten and 50 doses.63 

C. COCAINE’S EFFECTS, ADDICTIVENESS, AND METHODS OF ADMINISTRATION

 Although both powder cocaine and crack cocaine are potentially addictive, administering 

the drug in a manner that maximizes the effects (e.g., injecting or smoking) increases the risk of 

addiction. It is, however, “much easier to smoke a drug than to inject it”64 and some studies have 

reported that people prefer, to a small degree, the high from smoked cocaine.65 This difference 

in typical methods of administration, not differences in the inherent properties of the two forms 

of the drugs, makes crack cocaine more potentially addictive to typical users. Smoking crack 

cocaine produces quicker onset of shorter-lasting and more intense effects than snorting powder 

cocaine. These factors in turn result in a greater likelihood that the user will administer the drug 

more frequently to sustain these shorter “highs” and develop an addiction. Patients have the 

same symptoms and receive the same treatment regardless of form of cocaine ingested. 

 

61 See Bernard Segal & Lawrence K. Duffy, Biobehavioral effects of psychoactive drugs, in DRUGS OF 

ABUSE AND ADDICTION: NEUROBEHAVIORAL TOXICOLOGY 50 (R.J.M. Niesink et al. eds., 1999); Teresi 

Memo, supra note 59, at 16. 

62 USSC, 2002 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 17. But see Statement of Elmore Briggs, Director 

of Clinical Services, Addiction Recovery and Prevention Administration, D.C. Department of Health, to 

the Commission, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy, November 14, 2006, at Tr. 150 (converting 

powder cocaine to crack cocaine eliminates many of the impurities of the drug). 

63 Id. at 17. 

64 Statement of Nora D. Volkow, M.D., Director, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), to the 

Commission, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy, November 14, 2006, at Tr. 180. 

65 Id at 186.
64

 Cocaine is a powerful and addictive stimulant that directly affects the brain.66 In any 

form (coca leaves, coca paste, powder cocaine, freebase cocaine, and crack cocaine), cocaine 

produces the same types of physiological67 and psychotropic68 effects once the drug reaches the 

brain.69 Cocaine’s effect, regardless of form, increases dopamine in the brain’s reward centers.70 

 The effects experienced by the user of cocaine are summarized by the National Institute 

on Drug Abuse (NIDA), a branch of the National Institute of Health (NIH): 

Physical effects of cocaine use include constricted blood vessels, dilated pupils, and 

increased temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. The duration of cocaine's 

immediate euphoric effects, which include hyperstimulation, reduced fatigue, and mental 

alertness, depends on the route of administration. The faster the absorption, the more 

intense the high. On the other hand, the faster the absorption, the shorter the duration of 

action. The high from snorting may last 15 to 30 minutes, while that from smoking may 

last 5 to 10 minutes. Increased use can reduce the period of time a user feels high and 

increases the risk of addiction. 

Some users of cocaine report feelings of restlessness, irritability, and anxiety. A tolerance 

to the ‘high’ may develop—many addicts report that they seek but fail to achieve as 

much pleasure as they did from their first exposure. Some users will increase their doses 

to intensify and prolong the euphoric effects. While tolerance to the high can occur, users 

can also become more sensitive to cocaine's anesthetic and convulsant effects without 

increasing the dose taken. This increased sensitivity may explain some deaths occurring 

after apparently low doses of cocaine.71

 

66 Written statement by Nora D. Volkow, M.D., Director, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), to 

the Commission, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy, November 14, 2006, at 1.

67 Physiological effects are the effects of cocaine on human organs (e.g., organs of the central nervous 

system). 

68 Psychotropic effects are the effects of cocaine on the human mind. 

69 Written statement by Glen R. Hanson, Ph.D., D.D.S., Acting Director of the National Institute on Drug 

Abuse (NIDA), to the Commission, regarding Drug Penalties (Feb. 25, 2002). Cocaine blocks the 

dopamine re-uptake at the neuronal level, flooding the area of the brain called the ventral tegmental area 

and ultimately stimulating one of the brain’s key pleasure centers. National Institute of Health, NIDA 

Research Report Series, Cocaine Abuse and Addiction, (May 1999, revised November 2004), available at

http://www.drugabuse.gov/ResearchReports/Cocaine/Cocaine.html. 

70 Volkow, supra note 64, at Tr. 161. 

71 National Institute of Health, NIDA InfoFacts: Crack and Cocaine (April 2006), available at

http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/cocaine.html. 
65

 Medical consequences of cocaine use include complications from the drug’s 

“cardiovascular effects, including disturbances in heart rhythm and heart attacks; respiratory 

effects, such as chest pain and respiratory failure; neurological effects, including strokes, 

seizures, and headaches; and gastrointestinal complications, including abdominal pain and 

nausea.”72

 Cocaine in any form is potentially addictive.73 Research indicates that cocaine users can 

develop tolerance to the effects of cocaine, requiring the use of larger quantities to experience its 

intoxicating effects and causing withdrawal symptoms if use is abruptly discontinued.74 

Cocaine’s powerful psychotropic effects can cause the user to use the drug compulsively, 

regardless of any adverse effects that may occur. A recent study reported that “about five 

percent of recent-onset cocaine abusers become addicted to cocaine within 24 months of starting 

cocaine use.”75 Injecting powder cocaine or smoking crack cocaine causes a much greater risk of 

addiction than does snorting cocaine.76

 The risk and severity of addiction to drugs generally – including cocaine – are 

significantly affected by the way they are administered into the body. Once in the brain, the 

physiological and psychological effects of cocaine are the same, regardless of the form of the 

drug.77 The method of administration, however, determines the onset, intensity, and duration of 

the effects from drug use. Generally the faster a drug reaches the bloodstream, the quicker it is 

distributed throughout the body, the faster the user feels the desired effects,78 and the more 

intense is the associated pleasure.79 However, the methods of administration that bring about the 

 

72 Volkow, supra note 66, at 5. 

73 Volkow, supra note 66, at 2. For a discussion of a neurobiological mechanism of addiction to cocaine, 

see also, Karen Bolla, et al., The Neuropsychiatry of Chronic Cocaine Abuse, 10 JOURNAL OF 

NEUROPSYCHIATRY AND CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCES 280-289 (1998). 

74 See Segal & Duffy, supra note 61. 

75 Volkow, supra note 66, at 6. 

76 Volkow, supra note 64, at Tr. 163. 

77 Volkow, supra note 66, at 2. 

78 Volkow, supra note 64, at Tr. 162-63. Absorption of a drug into the bloodstream is regulated by two 

primary factors: the amount of blood flowing to the site of ultimate absorption (e.g., the stomach or small 

intestine) and the surface area over which the drug is absorbed. The surface area for snorting is limited to 

the nasal mucosa in the nasal cavity. In contrast, when a drug is smoked, it is absorbed by air sacs in the 

lungs that have a surface area the size of a football field. 

79 Id.
66

most intense effects – smoking and injection – also have the shortest duration, thereby 

necessitating repeated doses to sustain the drug’s effects and increasing the likelihood the user 

will develop an addiction. Smoking (inhalation) and injection typically produce effects that have 

a quicker onset, a shorter duration, and are more intense than snorting and therefore increase the 

risk of addiction. (See Diagram 3-1.)80 

 As stated above, the faster a drug reaches the brain, the faster the user feels the desired 

effects and the more intense is the associated pleasure. Snorting or injecting powder cocaine has 

the effect of diluting the drug that smoking the drug does not, and the quicker onset and more 

intense effects of smoking cocaine may motivate powder cocaine users who snort the drug to 

eventually smoke crack cocaine in order to achieve the more intense effect.81 It is widely 

accepted that snorting cocaine is often the first manner in which many users begin using 

cocaine.82 Smoking crack cocaine to achieve the more intense high, rather than injecting powder 

cocaine, may result from several factors. It is easier, and perhaps safer from infection, to smoke 

a drug than inject it.83 In addition, some users report a small preference for the intoxication 

produced from smoking (likely due to its slightly more rapid onset).84 

___________________________ 

80 Hanson, supra note 69. 

81 Written testimony of Elmore Briggs, Director of Clinical Services, Addiction Prevention and Recovery 

Administration, D.C. Department of Health, to the Commission, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy 

(November 14, 2006), at 2-3. 

82 Volkow, supra note 66, at 4-5. 

83 Volkow, supra note 64, at Tr. 180-181. Dr. Volkow also noted that a similar pattern has been seen 

with methamphetamine. 

84 Id.
67

 Powder cocaine and crack cocaine addicted patients present at treatment with the same 

symptoms. In addition, withdrawal from cocaine, regardless of form, is the same.85 The route of 

administration of crack cocaine, however, because of its rapid effect on the brain’s reward 

pathway, may intensify “cravings and compulsions to obtain more of the drug.”86 The treatment 

protocol for cocaine addiction is the same regardless of the form of the drug and is tailored to the 

needs of the specific client. That said, the personal deterioration associated with continued crack 

cocaine addiction is often more pronounced.87 There are no medications approved for the 

treatment of cocaine addiction and the most effective treatments are behavioral. These are 

available in both residential and outpatient settings.88

 

85 Briggs, supra note 81, at 2. 

86 Id. 

87 Briggs, supra note 81, at 4. 

88 Volkow, supra note 66, at 8. 

Diagram 3-1

Time Course for Drug Distribution in Brain 

Based on Route of Drug Administration

Concentration

of Drug in Brain

Inhalation 

Injection Snorting/ 

Snuffing

Ingestion 

Time

SOURCE: Written statement by Glen R. Hanson, Ph.D., D.D.S., Acting Director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), to the U.S. 

Sentencing Commission, regarding Drug Penalties (Feb. 25, 2002).
68

D. PRENATAL COCAINE EXPOSURE

1. Introduction 

 Prenatal exposure to crack cocaine and powder cocaine produces similar types and 

degrees of negative effects, but other maternal and environmental factors contribute significantly 

to these negative effects.89 In addition, research indicates that the negative effects from prenatal 

exposure to cocaine, in fact, are significantly less severe than previously believed. “Many 

findings once thought to be specific effects of in utero cocaine exposure are correlated with other 

factors, including prenatal exposure to tobacco, marijuana, or alcohol, and the quality of the 

child’s environment.”90 

2. Effects 

 The 2005 National Survey of Drug Use and Health estimated that 680,600 infants were 

exposed during pregnancy to tobacco, 496,100 were exposed in utero to alcohol, and 159,000 

 

89 Written statement of Ira J. Chasnoff, M.D., President, Children’s Research Triangle, to the U.S. 

Sentencing Commission, regarding Drug Policy, Feb. 25, 2002, at 2. “[T]he home environment is the

critical determinant of the child’s ultimate outcome. . . . The drug-exposed child most often comes from a 

neglectful family lifestyle filled with factors that interfere with the parents’ attempts at effective child 

rearing and participation in the growth and development of their children . . . . Further, the social 

environment of many addicted women is one of chaos and instability, which has an even greater negative 

impact on children.” (emphasis added.) 

Assessing the effect of prenatal drug exposure typically involves identifying pregnant women 

who use drugs before delivery (the study group) and gathering information on their drug use, lifestyle, and 

other relevant factors. At the same time a group of women are identified to serve as a comparison (the

control group). Ideally, the women comprising the control group would be identical in every way to the 

women in the study group, except in the use of the drug of interest. Often it is impossible to find a 

control group that perfectly matches the study group, and so attempts are made to match them on as many 

characteristics as possible, including demographic, economic, social, and geographic factors. Although 

the women in the control group do not use the drug being studied, they are not excluded for using other 

drugs. 

 The presence and extent of other risk factors in both the study group and the control group make 

it difficult to attribute an irrefutable association between prenatal cocaine exposure and negative effects. 

This “confluence of interacting factors” include the abuse of other controlled and legal intoxicants, “lowsocioeconomic status, poor nutrition and prenatal care, and chaotic lifestyles” that mask any specific 

relationships between the drug of interest and negative effects. See Volkow, supra note 66, at 7. See also

Vincent L. Smeriglio & Holly C. Wilcox, Prenatal Drug Exposure and Child Outcome: Past, Present, 

Future, 26 CLINICS IN PERINATOLOGY 7 (March 1999). 

90 Deborah A. Frank et al., Growth, Development, and Behavior in Early Childhood Following Prenatal 

Cocaine Exposure: A Systematic Review, 285 JOURNAL OF AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION 1613-

1625 (2001). 
69

were exposed in utero to an illicit drug. Among the infants exposed to illicit drug use, the drugs 

to which they are exposed are: marijuana (approximately 73%); unauthorized prescription drugs 

(34%); powder cocaine (7 %); and crack cocaine (2 %).91 

 

 Estimating the full extent of the consequences of maternal cocaine, or any other drug, 

abuse on the fetus and the developing child is very challenging and, therefore, caution should be 

used in searching for causal relationships.92 Recent research typically does not distinguish 

between prenatal exposure to crack cocaine and powder cocaine because of the indistinguishable 

pharmacologic effects once the drug is ingested.93 Briefly, in utero exposure to cocaine is 

associated with a greater risk for premature birth; however, there does not appear to be a 

neurological difference between cocaine exposed babies and study controls. Follow-up research 

with children up to the age of ten years has found subtle problems in attention and impulse 

control in cocaine-exposed children.94 The long term implications of any of these findings are 

unknown. For example, among cocaine-exposed children some subtle deficits in language were 

identified at age six and seven but were not found at follow-up by age nine.95 

3. Prenatal Exposure to Other Substances

 Early in the crack cocaine epidemic there was a great deal of concern regarding the 

effects on the infant and child of prenatal cocaine exposure; however, the effect of exposure has 

“not been as devastating as originally believed.”96 As described below, prenatal exposure to a 

number of intoxicants, legal and illegal, has the potential to produce significant adverse 

outcomes in the child. Research has documented that “[t]he physical and neurotoxic effects of 

alcohol exposure are significantly more devastating to the developing fetus than cocaine. The 

 

91 Written statement by Harolyn Belcher, M.D., M.H.S., Director of Research, Kennedy Krieger Institute 

Family Center, to the Commission, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy, (November 14, 2006), at 1.

92 Volkow, supra note 66, at 8. 

93 Pharmacologic effects refer to the bio-chemical effects of the drug. Frank, supra note 90, (“[T]here are 

no physiologic indicators that show to which form of the drug the newborn was exposed. The biologic 

thumbprints of exposure to these two substances in utero are identical.”); Chasnoff, supra note 89, at 1 

(“The physiology of [powder] cocaine and crack are the same, and the changes in the dopamine receptors 

in the fetal brain are the same whether the mother has used [powder] cocaine or crack”). 

94 Volkow, supra note 66, at 8. 

95 Belcher, supra note 91, at 2. 

96 Volkow, supra note 66, at 7. 
70

documented intrauterine effects of tobacco exposure are similar to cocaine”97 but may be more 

harmful to the developing brain of the fetus.98

 Research on the impact of prenatal exposure to other substances, both legal and illegal, 

generally has reported similar negative effects. Prenatal tobacco exposure is associated with 

deficits in stature, cognitive development, and educational achievement, as well as problems in 

temperament and behavioral adjustment.99 Additionally, maternal smoking during pregnancy is 

an avoidable risk factor for a number of adverse outcomes in infancy and later childhood, 

including low birthweight, preterm delivery, and sudden death in infancy.100 

 Alcohol use during pregnancy is associated with deficits in intelligence and learning 

problems; difficulties with organization, problem solving, and arithmetic; and lower scores on 

tasks involving fine and gross motor behaviors.101 A dose-response relationship between the 

amount of alcohol consumed and the severity of negative effects has been demonstrated. In 

other words, using larger amounts of alcohol is associated with deficits of greater severity.102 

Fetal alcohol syndrome, a specific pattern of mental and physical deficits, is the “leading 

identifiable and preventable cause of mental retardation and birth defects” in the United States.103

 Use of marijuana during pregnancy is associated with increased tremors and exaggerated 

startle responses at birth, lower scores on verbal ability and memory tests at later ages, deficits in 

sustained attention in school-aged children, and behavioral problems.104

 

97 Belcher, supra note 91, at 2. 

98 Volkow, supra note 64, at Tr. 177-78. 

99 D. Rush & K. R. Callahan, Exposure to Passive Cigarette Smoking and Child Development: A Critical 

Review, 562 ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 74-100 (1989). 

100 Ah-Fong Hoo et al., Respiratory Function Among Preterm Infants Whose Mothers Smoked During 

Pregnancy, 158 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF RESPIRATORY AND CRITICAL CARE MEDICINE 700-705 

(September 1998). 

101 Ann P. Streissguth et al., Neurobehavioral Dose-Response Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure in 

Humans from Infancy to Adulthood, 562 ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 145-158 

(1989). 

102 Id. These negative effects were observed at levels of alcohol abuse by pregnant women well below 

the thresholds associated with a diagnosis of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome or Fetal Alcohol Effects. 

103 Belcher, supra note 91. 

104 Peter A. Fried, Behavioral Outcomes in Preschool and School-Age Children Exposed Prenatally to 

Marijuana: A Review and Speculative Interpretation, in Behavioral Studies of Drug-Exposed Offspring: 

Methodological Issues in Human and Animal Research (Cora Lee Wetherington et al. eds.), 164 NIDA
71

 As with cocaine, deficiencies associated with prenatal exposure to heroin are not 

consistently reported.105 Some studies find a relationship between exposure and deficiencies in 

motor development as well as in some cognitive measures. However, other studies that 

controlled for the women’s use of other drugs, lifestyles, social and economic conditions, and 

health do not report similar findings. Regardless of control factors, newborns of women who are 

addicted to heroin or maintained on methadone experience a high rate of withdrawal 

symptoms.106

 Finally, prenatal exposure to amphetamine and methamphetamine is associated with 

negative effects such as premature birth, low birth weight, small head circumference, growth 

reduction, and cerebral hemorrhage. One study of children at 14 years of age found that children 

exposed to amphetamine lagged in mathematics, language, physical training, and were more 

likely to be retained in grade.107

___________________________ 

RESEARCH MONOGRAPH 242-260 (1996); Fried et al., Differential Effects on Cognitive Functioning in 9- 

to 12-Year Olds Prenatally Exposed to Cigarettes and Marihuana, 20 NEUROTOXICOLOGY AND 

TERATOLOGY 293-306 (1998). See also N. L. Day et al., Effect of Prenatal Marijuana Exposure on the 

Cognitive Development of Offspring at Age Three, 16 NEUROTOXICOLOGY AND TERATOLOGY 169-175 

(Mar./Apr. 1994).

105 Karol A. Kaltenbach, Exposures to Opiates: Behavioral Outcomes in Preschool and School-Age 

Children, 164 NIDA RESEARCH MONOGRAPH 230-241 (1996). 

106 Frank also indicated that prenatal cocaine exposure, unlike prenatal opioid exposure, does not cause an 

identifiable withdrawal syndrome in the newborn (“[A]n experienced pediatrician can walk into any 

nursery and identify from across the room an infant withdrawing from opiates, but an infant exposed to 

cocaine or crack without opiate exposure will be clinically indistinguishable from the other infants.”). 

Frank, supra note 90, at 2. 

107 Mark A. Plessinger, Prenatal Exposure to Amphetamines: Risks and Adverse Outcomes in Pregnancy, 

25 OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY CLINICS OF NORTH AMERICA 119-138 (Mar. 1998). 
72

E. TRENDS IN DRUG USE 

1. Introduction

 Estimates of the prevalence of drug use in the United States are developed from surveys 

of households and high school students. Among the most frequently cited surveys are the 

National Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA, renamed the National Survey on Drug Use and 

Health, NSDUH108), begun in 1979 and initially conducted every few years throughout the 

1980s, but now conducted annually,109 and the Monitoring the Future (MTF) survey of high 

school students, conducted annually since 1975.110 Both surveys began to measure crack cocaine 

and powder cocaine use separately in the late 1980s. 

 The NHSDA and MTF, like all surveys, have known limitations.111 Because of these 

limitations, data from self-report surveys should be considered underestimates of actual drug use. 

However, because the biases in the surveys appear to be reasonably constant over time, 

comparisons of the rates of reported use across years can be informative, despite these 

limitations. 

2. Use Trends

 Figures 3-1 through 3-3 examine the data from the MTF study of high school seniors. 

The analysis focuses on the self-report of 12th graders on their use of illicit drugs in the 30 days 

 

108 Data on the National Survey of Drug Abuse and Health are available at 

http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NHSDA/2kNHSDA/2knhsda.htm. 

109 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 

Summary of Findings from the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, available at 

http://www.samhsa.gov/publications/publications.html. 

110 The University of Michigan Institute for Social Research, Monitoring the Future, National Survey 

Results on Drug Use, 1975-2000 (2001). Monitoring the Future (MTF) is a nationwide annual survey of a 

representative sample of eighth, tenth, and twelfth grade students. MTF data are available at

http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/vol1_2000.pdf. 

111 The NHSDA and MTF require that persons live in households or are present in school on the day of 

the survey, respectively. As a result, the subpopulations believed to be among the heaviest drug users – 

high school dropouts, the homeless, the imprisoned, and the hospitalized – are under represented in these 

surveys. Additionally, some of those surveyed refuse to respond or may underreport their actual drug use. 

See also National Research Council, INFORMING AMERICA’S POLICY ON ILLEGAL DRUGS: WHAT WE 

DON’T KNOW KEEPS HURTING US 96 (Charles F. Manski et al. eds., 2001) (indicating that about 25 

percent of persons who are contacted for participation in the household survey fail to respond, and noting 

that “[t]he Committee is not aware of empirical evidence that supports the view that nonresponse is 

random. . . . [N]onrespondents have higher [drug use] prevalence rates than do respondents. 
73

prior to the survey. Figure 3-1 examines the long term trends between 1991 and 2006. Overall 

illicit drug use peaked in this population between 1997 and 2002, with just over 25 percent of 

high school seniors reporting the use of any illicit drug. Since then, there has been a steady 

decline in overall drug use among high school seniors. For any year, marijuana is by far the 

most frequently reported drug used and is generally two and a half to four times greater in 

prevalence than the next most frequently reported drug, methamphetamine/amphetamine. 

Marijuana is approximately nine to 12 times more prevalent than powder cocaine and 18 to 26 

times more prevalent than crack cocaine. 

DRAFT Figure 3-1 

Trends in Reported Drug Use in Past 30 Days 

Among 12th Grade Students

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

1991199219931994

19951996

19971998

1999

2000

200120022003200420052006

An y Il li ci t Dru g Marijuana Powder C ocaine

C rack Cocaine Heroin Me th /Am ph e t.

SOURCE: Monitoring the Future, A Continuing Study of American Youth at http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/.

Percent Reporting Use
74

 The stability of use of these substances can be seen more clearly in Figure 3-2, which 

shows this same data but for the past six years only. During this recent period, the rates of use 

for heroin, powder cocaine and crack cocaine have been very stable, while the rate of 

methamphetamine/amphetamine use has steadily declined. 

 

DRAFT Figure 3-2 

Trends in Reported Drug Use in Past 30 Days 

Among 12th Grade Students Within the Past Six Years

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

An y Illicit Dru g Marijuana Powder Cocaine

C rack C ocaine Heroin Me th /Am ph et.

SOURCE: Monitoring the Future, A Continuing Study of American Youth at http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/.

Percent Reporting Use
75

Figure 3-3 presents data from this survey on the long term trends in recent cocaine use 

among high school seniors. Powder cocaine use peaked in this population in 1999, reaching a 

prevalence of 2.6 percent. Since 1999 it has remained relatively stable, ranging between 2.1 and 

2.5 percent. The peak year reported for crack cocaine use was 2002 at 1.2 percent. As with 

powder cocaine, the trend in prevalence of crack cocaine has been stable, hovering between 0.9 

and 1.2 percent. Comparing the rates of the two forms of cocaine, powder cocaine was reported 

about twice as frequently as crack cocaine. 

DRAFT

1.4 1.3 1.3

1.5

1.8

2.0

2.3 2.4

2.6

2.1 2.1

2.3

2.5

2.1

2.3 2.3

0.9 1.0 1.0 0.9

1.2 1.1 1.0

0.7 0.6 0.7

0.8

1.0 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.1

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Powder C ocaine Crack Cocaine

Percent Reporting Use

Figure 3-3 

Trends in Reported Cocaine Use in Past 30 Days 

Among 12th Grade Students

SOURCE: Monitoring the Future, A Continuing Study of American Youth at http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/.
76

 Figure 3-4 presents data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). 

These data present self reported drug use by persons ages 18 to 25 during the month prior to the 

survey. During the period between 2002 and 2006, approximately 20 percent of these young 

adults report recent use of any illicit drug, a similar proportion as reported by 12th graders in the 

MTF survey. As in that survey, marijuana is by far the most prevalent drug reported. The rates 

of reported use of crack cocaine, powder cocaine, heroin, or methamphetamine/amphetamine are 

substantially lower. Among these latter four drugs, the overall rates of use have been stable, 

particularly in the past five years. Use of powder cocaine is reported most frequently among 

these drugs, 2.6 percent in 2005. The rate of reported powder cocaine use is approximately eight 

to ten times more often than is crack cocaine use. 

3. Social Costs

 The social costs of drug abuse are reported in several national datasets. Unlike the 

surveys reported above, these datasets are not designed to be fully representative of the national 

experience. Their focus on emergency room admissions, drug treatment episodes, or drug use 

among arrestees, generally is designed to provide more targeted information than a 

representative national prevalence. However, they are the only available sources of this 

information and are informative of variations over time. 

DRAFT

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

An y Illicit Dru g Marijuana Powder C ocaine

C rack C ocaine Heroin Me th /Am ph e t.

Figure 3-4 

Reported Past Month Drug Use Among 18-25 Year Olds

SOURCE: Results from the 2002 and 2005 Summary Findings from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables, Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse 

Mental Health and Services Administration at http://www.samhsa.gov/index.aspx.

Percent Reporting Use
77

 The Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) data on emergency room admissions, 

presented in Figure 3-5, provide a snapshot of the experience in 2004 and 2005.112 Overall, 

while the total number of emergency room admissions declined substantially in 2005, the 

number of admissions for each of the listed drugs remained relatively stable. In both 2004 and 

2005, the greatest number of drug-related emergency room admissions was for cocaine-related 

emergencies. In 2005 they accounted for approximately 31 percent of all drug related 

emergency room admissions. This is a substantially greater proportion than accounted for by 

marijuana use (16.7% of admissions), despite the substantially greater prevalence of marijuana 

use reported by high school seniors and young adults in the MTF survey and NSDUH. 

Unfortunately, this dataset does not distinguish between the form of cocaine involved or the 

method of use of cocaine. 

 

112 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [hereinafter SAMHSA] released its 2003 

report on Drug-related Emergency Department Visits in late 2004. This was the first publication to use 

data from the “new DAWN.” Virtually every feature of DAWN, except its name, changed in 2003. In 

the publication it is referred to “new DAWN” to emphasize this difference and to indicate that these new 

DAWN data are not comparable to data from prior years. As a result, pre-2003 data are not presented 

here. 
78

 Likewise, in the DAWN data, heroin and methamphetamine/amphetamine account for 

greater proportions of emergency room admissions (11.4% and 8.3%, respectively, in 2005) than 

their relatively low prevalence in the national surveys. These greater rates of emergency room 

visits for cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine/amphetamine are indicative of greater medical 

consequences resulting from their use as compared to the illicit use of marijuana, a relatively 

highly prevalent drug. 

 A dataset of admissions to substance abuse treatment, the Treatment Episode Data Set 

(TEDS), provides descriptive information about the national flow of admissions to providers of 

substance abuse treatment. It provides annual data on the number and characteristics of persons 

admitted to public and private substance abuse treatment programs receiving public funding. The 

unit of analysis is treatment admissions.113 

 Figure 3-6 reports the proportion of treatment admissions accounted for by these drugs 

over time, and presents several findings. First, treatment admissions have decreased during this 

period, peaking in 2002 at 1,936,711 and declining to 1,849,548 by 2005. Second, 

approximately 40 percent of all treatment admissions involve alcohol as the primary drug of 

 

113 TEDS data are available at http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/cocoon/SAMHDA/STUDY/04626.xml. 

DRAFT Figure 3-5 

Trends in DAWN Emergency Room Episodes and Drug Mentions

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

2004 2005

Al l Epis ode s Marijuana

C ocaine Heroin

Me th /Am phet. Alcohol in C om bination

Treatment Admissions

SOURCE: Results from the Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse Mental Health and Services Administration, SAMHSA, Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2004 (03/2007 update) at 

http://dawninfo.samhsa.gov/. 
79

abuse, by far accounting for the greatest proportion of admissions. Third, the proportion 

accounted for by alcohol has steadily declined from 44.3 percent in 2001 to 39.1 percent in 2005, 

while the proportion of admissions accounted for by methamphetamine/amphetamine has 

steadily risen from 0.06 percent in 2001 to 0.09 percent in 2005. Fourth, the proportion of 

admissions accounted for by powder cocaine, crack cocaine, and heroin have remained relatively 

stable. In 2005 the proportion of admissions accounted for by these drugs was 0.04 percent, 0.10 

percent, and 0.14 percent, respectively. 

DRAFT Figure 3-6 

Trends in Drug Treatment Admissions 

(Primary Drug)

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

All Adm issions Marijuana Powder C ocaine

C rack C ocaine Me th /Am ph e t. Heroin

Alcohol

SOURCE: Results from the Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse Mental Health and Services Administration, SAMHSA, Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS), 2005 at

http://wwwdasis.samhsa.gov/teds05.pdf.

Treatment Admissions
80

 Analysis of TEDS data sorted treatment admissions by the three primary types of 

treatment programs. Detoxification programs, which are generally inpatient treatment programs 

that provide medically supervised termination of drug use, accounted for 21 percent of all TEDS 

admissions. Admissions for medical detoxification primarily were for heroin (34%), 

tranquilizers (32%), and alcohol alone (31%). Residential/inpatient treatment programs, an 

intensive, experiential form of treatment in which the patient resides at the treatment facility for a 

period of time, generally between 30 days and one year, accounted for 17 percent of admissions. 

Most admissions for inpatient residential treatment were for smoked cocaine (29%) and 

methamphetamine/amphetamine (26%). Finally, outpatient treatment, the least restrictive form 

of treatment, accounted for 62 percent of TEDS admissions. Most admissions to outpatient 

treatment were for marijuana abuse (84%).114 

 The next two figures present information collected as part of the Arrestee Drug Abuse 

Monitoring Program (ADAM),115 which interviewed persons arrested for all crimes in selected 

cities about their recent drug use and also conducted urinanalysis. Figure 3-7 reports findings of 

the research for the years 2000 through 2003. Overall, the proportion of arrested persons testing 

positive for any of the listed drugs was very stable during this period. Marijuana was the most 

frequently identified drug followed by cocaine. Urine testing does not distinguish between 

powder cocaine and crack cocaine, therefore, the ADAM program relied on self-report of the 

arrestee to determine the form of the cocaine use. Figure 3-8 provides information on selfreported drug use by these arrestees.116 Based on arrestees’ self-reports, crack cocaine is used 

approximately twice as often as is powder cocaine. 

 

114 SAMHSA, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS) 

Highlights - 2005 National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services 4 (February 2007); 

available at http://wwwdasis.samhsa.gov/teds05/tedshi2k5_web.pdf. 

115 The ADAM program was sponsored by the National Institute of Justice, the research, development, 

and evaluation arm of the United States Department of Justice. Data are available through 2003 when the 

program ended. The goal of the program was to “assist local, state, and national policymakers in 

monitoring and understanding the consequences of drug use among detainees.” National Institute of 

Justice, U.S. Department of Justice, Program Brief: Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program, available 

at http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/adam.pdf. 

116 It should be noted that arrestees in this dataset self-report drug use at a lower rate than demonstrated 

through urinanalysis. 
81

DRAFT

64.1 63.6 63.9

67.0

1.6 2.6

5.3 4.7 6.5 5.4 5.9 5.8

44.1 41.3 42.7 40.9

30.0 30.1 29.1 30.9

0.0

25.0

50.0

75.0

100.0

2000 2001 2002 2003

An y NIDA-5 Dru g Marijuana C ocaine Me th/Am phe t. O piates

The NIDA-5 category refers to the standard panel of commonly used illegal drugs established by the NIDA. The five drugs comprising the category are cocaine, marijuana, methamphetamine, 

opiates and phencyclidine (PCP). 

SOURCE: Results from the 2000, 2001, preliminary 2002, and 2003 reports of ADAM’s Drug and Alcohol Use and Related Matters Among Arrestees Reports available at 

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/adam/.

Percent Testing Positive

Figure 3-7 

Median Percentage of Male Arrestees Who 

Tested Positive for Any Illicit Drug
82

DRAFT

37.9

40.6

37.3 39.3

6.0 6.2 6.3 7.2

13.1 13.3 12.0 12.9

1.7 3.6 4.4 4.6 4.0 3.2 3.5 3.3

0.0

25.0

50.0

75.0

100.0

2000 2001 2002 2003

Marijuana Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine Meth/Amphet. O piates

Percent Reporting Use

Figure 3-8 

Median Percentage of Male Arrestees Who 

Self Reported Any Illicit Drug Use (Past Seven Days)

SOURCE: Results from the 2000, 2001, preliminary 2002, and 2003 reports of ADAM’s Drug and Alcohol Use and Related Matters Among Arrestees Reports available at 

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/adam/.
83

Chapter 4

TRENDS IN DRUG TRAFFICKING 

PATTERN, PRICE, AND USE 

A. INTRODUCTION

 This chapter presents data from a number of sources to describe cocaine trafficking 

patterns, trends in the price and purity of powder cocaine, and the price of crack cocaine. 

Specific findings include: 

• Almost all cocaine smuggled into the United States is in the powder form. 

• Cocaine markets can be broadly classified into five levels: 1) smugglers; 2) highlevel dealers; 3) mid-level dealers; 4) retail sellers; and 5) users. 

• Purchases of cocaine cluster at one kilogram, one ounce, and one gram quantity 

levels and distinguish the different levels of cocaine markets. 

• The reported substantial increase in violence in the United States, which peaked 

in 1992, often is attributed to the introduction of crack cocaine around 1985 and 

the recruitment of young crack cocaine dealers with access to handguns. 

• The reduction in violence experienced since 1992 is consistent with the aging of 

the crack cocaine trafficker and user populations. 

• The price of cocaine, regardless of form, has remained relatively stable during the 

period 1998 through 2005, and there is substantial similarity in the price of 

powder cocaine and crack cocaine at the kilogram, ounce, and gram quantity 

levels. 

B. DRUG TRAFFICKING

The powder cocaine and crack cocaine markets are “inescapably intertwined because 

virtually all cocaine enters the United States in powder form.”117 Powder cocaine is imported 

from several source cities, dispersed throughout the United States to regional and wholesale 

distributors, and at a later point some of the powder cocaine is converted into crack cocaine.118

 

117 USSC, 1995 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 63.

118 Id. at 66.
84

 The process of dispersing drugs throughout the United States is described as a highly 

pyramidal structure that optimizes the distribution of the specific drug quantities that are 

imported. There are five broad categories of functions involved in cocaine distribution that can 

be targeted by law enforcement: 1) smugglers; 2) high-level dealers; 3) mid-level dealers; 4) 

retail sellers; and 5) users.119 This structure suggests a potentially attractive target for law 

enforcement, the “middle market” area – that is, one or two steps below the importation and 

above the retail level – essentially the high-level and mid-level dealer.120 These middle market 

functions, “taking the bundle [of imported drugs] roughly from one kilo[gram] to one ounce,”121

account for most of the mark-up in the final price of the drug. This niche in the drug distribution 

chain may make substantial sums of money, far more than the low earnings reported at the retail 

distribution level. In addition, it has low entry barriers such that upward mobility in the drug 

trade is easy.122

 An independent analysis of the Drug Enforcement Administration’s (DEA) System to 

Retrieve Information From Drug Evidence (STRIDE)123 data conducted in 2004 developed an 

empirical model of drug trafficking that is consistent with the quantity distinctions described 

above.124 It noted that purchases in the STRIDE database clustered at the one kilogram, one 

 

119 Peter Reuter, RAND Corporation, Do Middle Markets for Drugs Constitute an Attractive Target for 

Enforcement? (April 2003), available through the National Criminal Justice Reference Service at 

http://www.ncjrs.gov.

120 Id.

121 Id.

122 Id.

123 STRIDE consists of six subsystems providing information on drug intelligence, statistics on markings 

found on pills and capsules, drug inventory, tracking, statistical information on drugs removed from the 

market place, utilization of laboratory manpower and information on subsystems analyzed outside of the 

DEA laboratory system where DEA participated in the seizure(s). STRIDE abstract, 

http://www.dea.gov/foia/stride.html (last visited May 1, 2007).

124 R. Anthony & A. Fries, Empirical Modelling of Narcotics Trafficking from Farm Gate to Street, 56 

BULLETIN ON NARCOTICS 1, (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna, Austria), 2004, at 8, 

available at http://www.unodc.org/pdf/bulletin/bulletin_2004_01_01_1_Art1.pdf. These drug quantity 

break points are consistent with those reported by others. For example, the Office of National Drug 

Control Policy reported STRIDE data analysis by categorizing powder cocaine quantities as: number of 

purchases of two grams or less, purchases of 10-50 grams, and seizures/purchases greater than 750 grams. 

Classifications for crack cocaine are: purchases of one gram or less, and purchases greater than 15 grams. 

Office of National Drug Control Policy, Executive Office of the President, National Drug Control 

Strategy Data Supplement 58 (March 2005). See also Letter from Janet Reno and Barry McCaffrey to 

President William Jefferson Clinton (July 3, 1997) (“5 grams of crack is worth a few hundred dollars at 

most, and its sale is characteristic of a low-level dealer. A mid-level crack dealer typically deals ounce or 

multi-ounce quantities.”); Letter from Paul Daly, Assistant Administrator, Intelligence Division, Drug 

Enforcement Administration to Chairman Richard Conaboy of the U.S. Sentencing Commission 

(October, 1996) (“Wholesale crack traffickers purchase cocaine in kilogram or multikilogram allotments 

from traditional cocaine sources. They will either package the cocaine into ounce quantities or convert it 

to crack and then divide into ounces for sale at the next level . . . . Crack distributors further divide the 
85

ounce, and one gram quantities. These quantities correspond approximately to the “stratification 

of traffickers into wholesalers buying kilograms and selling ounces and dealers buying ounces 

and selling in grams.” 125

 Considering the Reuter model further, while upward mobility in the drug trade is easy, it 

does represent a narrowing of the trafficking “pyramid,” thereby providing a smaller number of 

targets for law enforcement.126 In contrast, sellers at the retail level are the most exposed and 

easiest targets for law enforcement, provide an almost unlimited number of cases for 

prosecution, and easily are replaced. Another attractive target for law enforcement is the drug 

importer. Conceptualizing an hourglass structure between the source country and the destination 

country, Reuter indicates that the importer represents the pinch point where the removal of one 

importer may make an important difference in the drug’s distribution and availability on the 

street. Reuter notes, however, that successful prosecution of major importers is difficult in part 

because they employ large numbers of “low-level, unskilled labor” such that the organization is 

not greatly affected by seizures and arrests.127 

 The Commission’s data analysis, presented in Chapter 2, is consistent with the presence 

of a pyramidal structure in drug trafficking, with the largest numbers of federal cocaine offenders 

performing lower level functions. Among federal powder cocaine offenders the largest 

proportion are couriers and mules, consistent with the need for a large number of low-level, 

unskilled laborers required to transport the drug into the United States. Among federal crack 

cocaine offenders, the largest proportion of offenders also are classified in a low-level function – 

that of street-level dealer (as expected, there are very few couriers/mules in the federal crack 

cocaine data given that very little cocaine enters the country in that form). There are 

substantially fewer defendants of either form of cocaine prosecuted at higher level functions in 

large part because there are fewer individuals at this level of the pyramid, (i.e., the smallest 

number of offenders is at the importer/supplier or high-level distributor level, the narrower 

portion of the pyramid). (See Figures 2-5 and 2-6 in Chapter 2). 

 This difference between the federal powder cocaine and crack cocaine cases by function 

also is consistent with the reported trafficking structure of cocaine, in which virtually all cocaine 

is imported in powder form. The increase in 2005 in the proportion of federal cocaine 

defendants engaged in the wholesale function may indicate an enhanced effort to target these 

“middle market” functions identified by Reuter. The Commission’s data also demonstrate, at 

______________________ 

ounces into dosage units for sale at the retail level . . . . Mid-level distributors can be either members of 

larger groups or independent operators.”)

125 Anthony & Fries, supra note 124. 

126 Statement of Joseph T. Rannazzisi, Deputy Assistant Administrator for the Office of Diversion 

Control, Drug Enforcement Administration, to the Commission, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy, 

November 14, 2006, at Tr. 32. 

127 Reuter, supra note 119.
86

least for the wholesale function, that upward mobility indeed is possible in cocaine markets. 

This is evidenced by the data indicating that some offenders whose most serious function is a 

wholesaler usually act in lower level functions such as a street-level dealer. See Figure 2-9 in 

Chapter 2. 

C. DRUG TRAFFICKING RELATED VIOLENCE

 The Commission heard testimony in November 2006 that violence committed by crack 

cocaine users is relatively rare.128 Almost all crack cocaine related violence is of the “systemic” 

type, that is, violence that occurs within the drug distribution process.129 In describing the long 

term trends in violence in the United States, Professor Alfred Blumstein reported a 25 percent 

increase in violence between 1985 and 1993 that could be attributed almost entirely to an 

increase in the number of “young people with handguns. . .recruited into the crack market 

starting in [19]85” 130 as replacements for older sellers, large numbers of whom were 

imprisoned.131

 In contrast, the more recent trend in violence in the United States has been a steady 

decline, by approximately 40 percent, between 1993 and 2000. Since 2000, the trend has been 

rather stable.132 According to Blumstein, the reduction in violence is attributable to a reduction 

in new users of crack cocaine and a consequent reduction in the crack cocaine street markets.133 

 

128 Written statement by Bruce D. Johnson, Ph.D., Director, Institute for Special Populations Research, to 

the Commission, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy, November 14, 2006, at 4. 

129 Bruce D. Johnson, Patterns of Drug Distribution: Implications and Issues, 38 SUBSTANCE USE &

MISUSE 1795 (2003). This is consistent with the findings in the 1995 Commission Report that “Crack 

cocaine is associated with systemic crime - crime related to its marketing and distribution - to a greater 

degree than powder cocaine. Researchers and law enforcement officials report that much of the violence 

associated with crack cocaine stems from attempts by competing factions to consolidate control of drug 

distribution in urban areas. Some portion of the distribution of powder cocaine, and the majority of the 

distribution of crack cocaine, is done on street corners or open-air markets, crack houses, or powder 

shooting galleries between anonymous buyers and sellers. These distribution environments, by their very 

nature, are highly susceptible to conflict and intense competition. As a result, individuals operating in 

these surroundings are prone to be involved in, as well as victimized by, increased levels of violence. ” 

130 Oral testimony of Alfred Blumstein, Ph.D., to the Commission, regarding Cocaine Sentencing Policy, 

November 14, 2006, at Tr. 201. 

131 Id.

132 Id. 

133 Id. 
87

Dr. Bruce Johnson, testifying about trends in powder cocaine and crack cocaine usage among 

arrestees in New York City, also reported a substantial decline in the number of arrestees with 

“detected cocaine/crack use.”134 He attributed this trend to a decline in the number of new, 

young crack cocaine users, who have left these markets to be sustained by older crack cocaine 

users who tend to be less violent. 

 Analysis of the Commission’s sentencing data in Chapter 2 tends to corroborate these 

findings. Although weapon involvement, by the broadest of definitions, has increased since 2002 

in both powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses, the rate of actual violence involved in the 

offense, already relatively low, has declined further during this period. The recent increase in the 

number of cocaine cases in which a weapon was involved, as found in the Commission’s data, 

may reflect federal law enforcement investigative and prosecutorial priorities apart from drug 

trafficking priorities. For example, federal law enforcement programs targeting firearms 

possession, such as Project Safe Neighborhood and other similar programs have been greatly 

expanded since 2001. 

 The aging of the crack cocaine population, without replacement by younger users, also is 

consistent with data reported by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 

(SAMHSA), an agency within the National Institute of Health. Figure 4-1 presents trends in 

drug treatment admissions135 for crack cocaine users between 1992 and 2005. During this 

period, treatment admissions for clients aged 31-45 steadily increased from 43.3 percent of all 

admissions in 1992 to 66.8 percent by 2001. Since 2001, the proportion of all treatment 

admissions for that age group declined slightly to 60.2 percent. The period between 1992 and 

2005 saw a corresponding decline in the proportion of clients aged 18-30, from 52.8 percent to 

19.7 percent of all drug treatment admissions. A smaller but growing percentage of drug 

treatment admissions over this period is accounted for by the 46-60 age group. The proportion 

accounted for by this group steadily rose from 2.1 percent to 18.9 percent of all treatment 

admissions for crack cocaine. 

 

134 Johnson, supra note 128. 

135 The TEDS series was designed to provide annual data on the number and characteristics of persons 

admitted to public and private substance abuse treatment programs receiving public funding. The unit of 

analysis is treatment admissions. A summary of the TEDS program is available at 

http://webapp.icpsr.umich.edu/cocoon/SAMHDA/STUDY/04626.xml.
88

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7

19.9 19.4 19.6 19.7 21.5

52.8

47.8

43.6

39.3

35.5

32.2

29.0 26.7

23.5

60.2

62.4

64.7 66.8 66.1 66.3 64.2 63.0 61.2

58.5

55.6

51.9

48.3

43.3

18.9 16.7 14.6

12.8

10.7 9.1 7.8 5.6 6.7 4.8 3.1 3.9 2.1 2.6

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Age 17 and Younger Age 18-30

Age 31-45 Age 46-60

Age 61 and Older

Percent Admitted to Treatment

The percent of admissions for each year may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding. Admissions with unknown ages were excluded from this figure.

SOURCE: Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): Quick Statistics from www.dasis.samhsa.gov.

Figure 4-1

Trends in Crack Cocaine Substance Abuse Treatment Admissions by Age Group

1992-2005
89

 Likewise, in the Commission’s data there is a clear, albeit slight, trend documenting the 

aging of the federal crack cocaine offender population. As can be seen in Figure 4-2, between 

1992 and 2006, the average age of federal crack cocaine offenders steadily has risen from 28.4 

years to 31.1 years. During this same period, the average age of powder cocaine offenders has 

remained steady, ranging between 33.5 years (1992) to 34.4 years (2006). 

DRAFT

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7

19.9 19.4 19.6 19.7 21.5

52.8

47.8

43.6

39.3

35.5

32.2

29.0 26.7

23.5

60.2

62.4

64.7 66.8 66.1 66.3 64.2 63.0 61.2

58.5

55.6

51.9

48.3

43.3

18.9 16.7 14.612.8

10.7 9.1 7.8 5.6 6.7 4.8 3.1 3.9 2.1 2.6

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Age 17 and Younger Age 18-30

Age 31-45 Age 46-60

Age 61 and Older

Percent Admitted to Treatment

The percent of admissions for each year may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding. Admissions with unknown ages were excluded from this figure.

SOURCE: Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): Quick Statistics from www.dasis.samhsa.gov.

Figure 4-1

Trends in Crack Cocaine Substance Abuse Treatment Admissions by Age Group

1992-2005

DRAFT

34.4

33.5 33.8 33.9 34.1 34.3 34.4

33.7 33.8 33.9

33.4 33.4 33.3

33.7 33.8

31.1

28.4 28.3

28.9 28.8 29.0

29.4 29.7 29.9 29.9 30.0

30.5 30.6 30.5 30.8

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Average Age 

Only cases sentenced under USSG §2D1.1 (Drug Trafficking) with a primary drug type of powder cocaine or crack cocaine are included in this figure. This figure excludes cases with missing 

information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 1992-2006 Datafiles, MONFY92 – USSCFY06.

Powder Cocaine

Crack Cocaine

Figure 4-2

Trends in Average Age at Sentencing of 

Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Offenders

FY1992-FY2006
90

D. COCAINE PRICES AND PURITY136

 The following analysis reviews data related to the purchase of illegal drugs in the United 

States collected and provided by the DEA. The information collected includes the type of drug, 

the quantity transacted, price, and the purity of powder cocaine. Although not collected in a 

manner that ensures that the information is fully representative of drug purity and price at the 

national level, DEA has the only national database containing this information, providing the 

best available measures of trends in cocaine prices,137and is the basis of numerous published 

research articles on drug trafficking trends. 

1. Cocaine Prices

 Figure 4-3 presents the trend from 1998 through 2005 in the average price of powder 

cocaine at purchase points of one kilogram, one ounce, and one gram. These are the quantity 

 

136 Data on the price and purity of drugs is compiled by DEA from two sources. Price data is from 

DEA’s Traffic Reports. Data on the purity of drugs is derived from the DEA’s STRIDE dataset. Office 

of Domestic Intelligence, Drug Enforcement Administration, U.S. Department of Justice, Illegal Drug 

Price and Purity Report 3 (Feb. 8, 2007). 

DEA price data is not presented as a single average price of the drug, but rather as a range of 

prices found within each of the 20 metropolitan areas from which this information is collected. The 

reported national range includes the lowest and highest prices from each of the metropolitan areas. For 

example, in 2002, the price range for a kilogram of cocaine in Miami was $8,000 - $30,000, and the price 

range for a kilogram of cocaine in Seattle was $10,000 - $38,000. Therefore the national range was 

presented as $8,000 - $38,000. Because one single point of reference was needed to analyze trends over 

time, a crude annual average value was calculated by adding the upper and lower values of the national 

range and dividing by two. In this example, the 2003 average price for a kilogram of cocaine is reported 

as $23,000. During some years, the national range included a price that was uncharacteristically high or 

low and substantially different than the other prices provided for that year. This method of calculating the 

average may introduce some variation that is not likely to be characteristic of purchase prices for that 

year. Other methods were explored, including dropping the outliers for each national range, or 

calculating the average of each of the 20 metropolitan areas, taking the sum and dividing by 20 to obtain a 

national average, but because of missing or reported data, these methods were abandoned in favor of the 

approach used to calculate the price data in each figure. Purity level data are presented in the STRIDE 

data by drug type and weight as national averages. 

137 The STRIDE data on drug purity are not randomly collected and thus are not necessarily 

representative of cocaine prices nationwide. Anthony and Fries point out that the STRIDE dataset is 

designed to record law enforcement purchases and priorities and does not attempt to create a balanced

survey of drug transactions noting variations in the number of transactions of different drugs, the amounts 

purchased, and the geographic focus. Despite these limiting factors, the authors report that these 

“sampling distortions” have only “minimal impact on the utility of STRIDE for analyzing features and 

trends of relative prices.” Anthony & Fries, supra note 124, at 8.
91

points at which most STRIDE purchases tightly cluster138 and are the quantity levels reported by 

DEA in its publications. The average purchase price for each of these three quantities is 

presented in Figure 4-3 to compare trends in pricing over time. To facilitate this analysis, 

however, the price at the kilogram level was divided by ten. Overall, the price of cocaine at each 

of these three primary purchase levels has remained stable over the last several years, however, 

some fluctuations do occur. 

 From 1998 through 2005, the nationwide average kilogram price of powder cocaine has 

ranged between $22,000 and $26,000. Average ounce level prices also have been relatively 

stable, except for a one time jump in 2002. In 2002, the average ounce price reached $1,850, 

approximately 50 percent greater than the next highest average price during that period. For the 

other seven years depicted in Figure 4-3, the price ranged from $1,100 to $1,250. The greatest 

price variation is the trend of the average price per gram of powder cocaine, ranging between 

$102.50 and $185. 

 

138 Id.

DRAFT Figure 4-3

Powder Cocaine Price Trends

Modified Average Powder Cocaine

1998-2005

$2,300.00 $2,450.00 $2,550.00

$2,300.00 $2,300.00 $2,350.00

$2,200.00

$2,600.00

$1,150.00 $1,250.00 $1,100.00

$1,850.00

$1,100.00

$1,200.00 $1,200.00 $1,125.00

$130.00 $147.50 $147.50 $110.00 $102.50 $185.00 $104.50 $110.00

$0.00

$500.00

$1,000.00

$1,500.00

$2,000.00

$2,500.00

$3,000.00

$3,500.00

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Powder Cocaine Kilogram/10 Powder Cocaine Ounce Powder Cocaine Gram

Average Price

SOURCE: Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Quarterly Trends in the Traffic Reports from the Illegal Drug Price and Purity Report, (02/07/07 draft) from the Domestic Strategic Unit of 

the Office of Domestic Intelligence: Intelligence Production Unit, Intelligence Division DEA Headquarters.
92

To better demonstrate the fluctuation at the gram price of powder cocaine, Figure 4-4 presents 

those data alone. 

DRAFT

$130.00

$147.50 $147.50

$110.00

$102.50

$185.00

$104.50 $110.00

$0.00

$50.00

$100.00

$150.00

$200.00

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Powder Cocaine Gram

Figure 4-4

Powder Cocaine Price Trends

Modified Average Powder Cocaine Gram

1998-2005

Average Price

SOURCE: Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Quarterly Trends in the Traffic Reports from the Illegal Drug Price and Purity Report, (02/07/07 draft) from the Domestic Strategic Unit of 

the Office of Domestic Intelligence: Intelligence Production Unit, Intelligence Division DEA Headquarters.
93

 The average price of crack cocaine at these quantity points is presented in Figure 4-5. 

Data on the average price per ounce of crack cocaine is available for the period between 2001 

and 2005, although data on crack cocaine prices at the kilogram and gram level are only 

available since 2002. At the kilogram level, the nationwide average price spiked in 2004 to 

$36,500, substantially above the average prices in the other years, which ranged between 

$24,000 and $25,400. Average prices at the ounce level were $1,000 in 2001, rose to $2062.50 

during 2002 and 2003, remained close to that price in 2004 ($1,950) and then dropped to $1,150 

in 2005. Identical to the pattern displayed at the kilogram level, the average price per gram of 

crack cocaine peaked in 2004 at $259, substantially above the average price during the other 

years displayed (ranging from $149 to $155). 

DRAFT Figure 4-5

Crack Cocaine Price Trends

Modified Average Crack Cocaine 

2001-2005

$2,400.00

$3,650.00

$2,540.00 $2,400.00

$1,000.00

$2,062.50 $2,062.50 $1,950.00

$1,150.00

$150.00

$259.00

$155.00 $149.00

$0.00

$1,000.00

$2,000.00

$3,000.00

$4,000.00

$5,000.00

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Crack Cocaine Kilogram/10 Crack Cocaine Ounce Crack Cocaine Gram

Average Price

2001 data is unavailable for kilogram and gram quantities of crack cocaine.

SOURCE: Drug Enforcement Administration’s (DEA) Quarterly Trends in the Traffic Reports from the Illegal Drug Price and Purity Report, (02/07/07 draft) from the Domestic Strategic 

Unit of the Office of Domestic Intelligence: Intelligence Production Unit, Intelligence Division DEA Headquarters.
94

 Figure 4-6 displays average price data at these three quantity points for both powder 

cocaine and crack cocaine. Two conclusions may be drawn from these data: 1) the prices at 

each quantity point are much more similar than dissimilar regardless of the form of the cocaine; 

and 2) there seems to be little association between the price fluctuations in the two forms of the 

drug. 

$2,600.00

$2,200.00

$2,300.00 $2,350.00

$2,550.00 $2,450.00 $2,300.00

$1,125.00 $1,200.00 $1,200.00 $1,100.00

$1,850.00

$1,100.00 $1,250.00 $1,150.00

$104.50 $110.00

$185.00

$102.50

$110.00 $130.00 $147.50 $147.50

$2,400.00

$3,650.00

$2,540.00

$2,400.00

$1,950.00

$1,000.00

$2,062.50 $2,062.50

$259.00 $150.00

$149.00

$155.00

$0.00

$1,000.00

$2,000.00

$3,000.00

$4,000.00

$5,000.00

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Powder Cocaine Kilogram/10 Powder Cocaine Ounce

Powder Cocaine Gram Crack Cocaine Kilogram

Crack Cocaine Ounce Crack Cocaine Gram

Figure 4-6

Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Price Trends

Modified Average Powder Cocaine and Crack Cocaine 

1998-2005

Average Price

1998-2001 data is unavailable for crack cocaine. 2001 data is unavailable for kilogram and gram quantities of crack cocaine.

SOURCE: Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Quarterly Trends in the Traffic Reports from the Illegal Drug Price and Purity Report, (02/07/07 draft) from the Domestic Strategic 

Unit of the Office of Domestic Intelligence: Intelligence Production Unit, Intelligence Division DEA Headquarters.
95

2. Powder Cocaine Purity

 Figure 4-7 presents data on the average purity of powder cocaine at the kilogram, ounce, 

and gram levels during the period between 1998 and 2005. The DEA does not maintain purity 

data for crack cocaine. The average purity of powder cocaine is highest at the kilogram level, 

with the drug ranging in average purity between 69 percent and 82 percent. Surprisingly, the 

average purity of powder cocaine at the ounce level is lower than the average purity of at the 

gram level during this period. The average purity of powder cocaine at the ounce level ranged 

from 53 to 69 percent pure; powder cocaine at the gram level ranged from 56 to 70 percent pure. 

 

DRAFT

82.0

79.0

72.0

69.0 70.0

79.0 79.0 81.0

66.0

60.0 62.0

55.0

53.0

56.0

63.0 69.0

69.0

63.0

59.0 56.0

62.0

66.0

69.0 70.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Powder Cocaine Kilogram Powder Cocaine Ounce Powder Cocaine Gram

Figure 4-7

Powder Cocaine Average Purity Trends

1998-2005

Percent

SOURCE: Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Quarterly Trends in the Traffic Reports from the Illegal Drug Price and Purity Report, (02/07/07 draft) from the Domestic 

Strategic Unit of the Office of Domestic Intelligence: Intelligence Production Unit, Intelligence Division DEA Headquarters.
96

Finally, Figures 4-8, 4-9, and 4-10 simultaneously present data on average price and 

average purity of powder cocaine purchases. The average purity is displayed on the left vertical 

axis and the average price is displayed on the right vertical axis. For example, in Figure 4-8, 

during 1999 the average purchase price for a kilogram of powder cocaine was $24,500 and the 

average purity that year was 79 percent. 

It is difficult to see any strong correspondence between the average purchase price of 

powder cocaine and its average purity. Despite some annual variations between 1998 and 2005, 

the price and purity of powder cocaine in 1998 and in 2005 are remarkably similar. 

DRAFT

81.0 79.0 79.0

70.0 69.0

72.0

79.0

82.0

$23,000.00 $24,500.00 $25,500.00$23,000.00 $23,000.00 $23,500.00

$22,000.00

$26,000.00

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

$0.00

$5,000.00

$10,000.00

$15,000.00

$20,000.00

$25,000.00

$30,000.00

$35,000.00

Powder Cocaine Kilogram Purity Powder Cocaine Kilogram Price

Figure 4-8

Powder Cocaine

Average Purity and Price Per Kilogram

1998-2005

SOURCE: Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Quarterly Trends in the Traffic Reports from the Illegal Drug Price and Purity Report, (02/07/07 draft) from the Domestic Strategic 

Unit of the Office of Domestic Intelligence: Intelligence Production Unit, Intelligence Division DEA Headquarters.

Percent Purity Average Price 
97

DRAFT

66.0

62.0 60.0

55.0

53.0

56.0

63.0

69.0

$1,100.00 $1,150.00

$1,250.00

$1,100.00

$1,850.00

$1,200.00 $1,200.00 $1,125.00

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

$0.00

$500.00

$1,000.00

$1,500.00

$2,000.00

$2,500.00

$3,000.00

Powder Cocaine Ounce Purity Powder Cocaine Ounce Price

Figure 4-9

Powder Cocaine

Average Purity and Price Per Ounce

1998-2005

SOURCE: Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Quarterly Trends in the Traffic Reports from the Illegal Drug Price and Purity Report, (02/07/07 draft) from the 

Domestic Strategic Unit of the Office of Domestic Intelligence: Intelligence Production Unit, Intelligence Division DEA Headquarters.

Percent Purity Average Price 

DRAFT

69.0

63.0

59.0 56.0

62.0

66.0

69.0 70.0

$110.0 $104.5

$185.0

$102.5

$110.0

$147.5 $147.5

$130.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

$0.00

$50.00

$100.00

$150.00

$200.00

$250.00

$300.00

Powder Cocaine Gram Purity Powder Cocaine Gram Price

Figure 4-10

Powder Cocaine

Average Purity and Price Per Gram

1998-2005

SOURCE: Drug Enforcement Administration’s (DEA) Quarterly Trends in the Traffic Reports from the Illegal Drug Price and Purity Report, (02/07/07 draft) from the Domestic 

Strategic Unit of the Office of Domestic Intelligence: Intelligence Production Unit, Intelligence Division DEA Headquarters.

Percent Purity Average Price 
98

Chapter 5

STATE SENTENCING POLICY

AND POSSIBLE EFFECT ON FEDERAL 

PROSECUTORIAL DECISIONS 

A. STATE COCAINE SENTENCING POLICIES

 In order to provide some contextual framework in which to assess federal cocaine 

sentencing policy, the 1995 and 2002 Commission Reports included a survey of the state laws to 

determine whether and to what extent states distinguish between crack cocaine and powder 

cocaine penalties.139 The Commission, in this report, updated its survey of relevant state laws in 

order to determine whether there have been any recent trends in state legislative action that 

might be relevant to evaluating federal cocaine sentencing policy.140 

 As a part of this update, the Commission sought the following information: 

(1) whether the state uses sentencing guidelines (and, if so, whether they are advisory 

or mandatory); 

(2) whether the state statutes and/or guidelines distinguish between crack cocaine and 

powder cocaine; 

(3) whether state sentences are determinate or, alternatively, whether early release 

through parole is available; and 

(4) whether the state enacted or repealed statutes containing mandatory minimum 

penalties for drug offenses. 

 The Commission reviewed relevant state statutes and guideline provisions. In addition, 

the Commission contacted each state sentencing commission, if such an agency existed within 

the state. Otherwise, the Commission surveyed the state agency responsible for collecting 

criminal justice data (e.g., statistical analysis centers). 

 The overwhelming majority of states do not distinguish between powder cocaine and 

crack cocaine offenses. Only 13 states have some form of distinction between crack cocaine and 

powder cocaine in their penalty schemes, one less than in 2002. Connecticut previously 

distinguished between trafficking offenses involving crack cocaine and powder cocaine using a 

 

139 2002 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 73-78; 1995 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, at 129-

138. 

140 Unless otherwise indicated, this chapter’s use of the term “state” hereinafter signifies the states and 

territories contacted for the survey. 
 99

drug quantity ratio of 56.7-to-1.141 A penalty of five years’ to life imprisonment had been 

triggered by trafficking either in one ounce (28.5 grams) or more of powder cocaine or .5 grams 

or more of crack cocaine. In 2005, the Connecticut General Assembly eliminated the quantity 

disparity between crack cocaine and powder cocaine by raising the threshold quantity for crack 

cocaine to one-half ounce (approximately 14.25 grams) and reducing the threshold quantity for 

powder cocaine also to one-half ounce. 

Iowa, the only state reported in the 2002 Commission Report as providing a 100-to-1 

drug quantity ratio between powder cocaine and crack cocaine, has since reduced its drug 

quantity ratio to 10-to-1 for cocaine offenses in its statutory scheme.142 Unlike the federal 

statutory scheme, however, Iowa distinguishes between crack cocaine and powder cocaine only 

for determining the statutory maximum penalties, not mandatory minimum penalties. 

 

 The Commission also examined whether states had sentencing guideline systems and 

whether imposed sentences were determinate (i.e., sentence imposed as approximates the 

sentence served) or indeterminate (i.e., sentence or sentence range imposed with release into the 

community after service of less than the full sentence). Twenty-seven states use some form of 

sentencing guidelines; and 40 states have determinate sentencing structures, some in 

combination with guidelines. Statutory mandatory minimum penalties exist in 41 states for 

certain drug offenses (e.g., trafficking, repeat trafficking, repeat possession, and sale of drugs 

within a certain distance of a protected area, such as a school or playground). 

 The penalties structures of the 13 states that currently distinguish between powder 

cocaine and crack cocaine offenses are described briefly below. 

1. Alabama

 

 Alabama does not provide different penalties for crack cocaine and powder cocaine 

offenses, but uses a 10-to-1 drug quantity ratio for determining eligibility for its drug abuse 

diversion program. Under this program, any person arrested or charged with a controlled 

substance offense may file a request with the district attorney to enroll in a drug abuse treatment 

program in lieu of undergoing prosecution. The statutory provisions outlining eligibility for the 

diversion program provide different quantity levels for powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

offenders. For powder cocaine, the quantity cannot exceed five grams for eligibility for 

diversion. For crack cocaine, the quantity cannot exceed 500 milligrams (one-half gram).143 For 

non-diversionary cocaine offenses, Alabama does not distinguish between crack cocaine and 

powder cocaine. For 28 grams or more but less than 500 grams of cocaine, an offender is subject 

to a mandatory minimum term of three years imprisonment; for 500 grams but less than one 

kilogram, an offender is subject to a mandatory minimum term of five years imprisonment; for 

one kilogram but less than ten kilograms, an offender is subject to a mandatory minimum term of 

 

141 Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 21a-278(a) (West 2006). 

142 Iowa Code § 124.401 (2006). 

143 Ala. Code § 12-23-5(2)(b), (c) (2006). 
 100

15 years imprisonment; for ten kilograms or more, an offender is subject to a mandatory term of 

imprisonment of life without parole.144 

 2. Arizona

 

 Arizona distinguishes between offenses involving powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

using a drug quantity ratio of 12-to-1. Under Arizona’s statute, nine grams of powder cocaine or 

750 milligrams of cocaine base trigger the threshold amount for trafficking, with a presumptive 

sentence of five years imprisonment.145 The judge may sentence an offender to a minimum of 

four years imprisonment if mitigating factors are present, or a maximum of ten years if 

aggravating factors are present.146 An offender convicted of trafficking is not eligible for 

suspension of sentence or release until the offender has served the sentence imposed by the 

court.147 

3. California148

 Offenders convicted of possession or possession with intent to sell crack cocaine or 

powder cocaine are sentenced to different terms under California law, depending on the 

threshold amount. A person convicted of possessing for sale a substance containing 14.25 grams 

or more of cocaine base or 57 grams or more of a substance containing at least five grams of 

cocaine base is subject to a sentenced of either a three, four, or five-year term of imprisonment, 

depending on whether aggravating or mitigating circumstances are present. Conversely, a 

person convicted of possessing for sale a substance containing 28.5 grams or more of powder 

cocaine or 57 grams or more of a substance containing cocaine is sentenced to either a two, 

three, or four-year term, depending on whether aggravating or mitigating circumstances are 

present.149

 

144 Ala. Code § 13A-12-231 (2006).

145 Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§ 13-3408(A)(2), (B)(2), 13-701(C), 13-3401(36)(b), (c) (2006). 

146 Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-702(A)(1) (2006). 

147 Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§ 3401(36), 3408(D) (2006).

148 The state of California currently does not have sentencing guidelines. A governor’s proposal to create 

a sentencing commission, however, was included within the state budget proposed for 2007-2008 and is 

scheduled for a vote by the state legislature in July, 2007. 

149 Cal. Penal Code § 1203.073(b)(1) and (5) (West 2006); Cal. Health & Safety Code §§ 11351.5, 11351 

(West 2006). Under California’s Determinate Sentencing Law (DSL), the sentencing judge must sentence 

an offender to the middle statutory range absent a finding by the judge of certain aggravating or 

mitigating circumstances. In Cunningham v. California, 127 S.Ct. 856 (Jan. 22, 2007), the Supreme 

Court struck down California’s DSL on grounds that it violated the Sixth Amendment’s jury trial right, as 

interpreted by the Court in the Apprendi line of cases. Unlike the Booker opinion, the Court did not set 

forth a remedy. In response, the California legislature recently passed SB 40, which essentially makes the 

California DSL advisory in nature. 
 101

 Possession with intent to sell still carries a mandatory minimum penalty if a defendant 

has a prior conviction. California statutes provide enhancements if large quantities of drugs are 

involved in the offense. When calculating the quantity levels necessary to trigger these 

enhancements, however, California does not distinguish between crack cocaine and powder 

cocaine. 

 4. Iowa 

 Iowa distinguishes between trafficking offenses involving crack cocaine and powder 

cocaine using a 10-to-1 drug quantity ratio. In the 2002 Commission Report, Iowa was the only 

state reported as having a 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio for crack cocaine and powder cocaine 

similar to the federal statutes. In 2003, Iowa lowered its ratio from 100-to-1 to 10-to-1 by 

amending Iowa Code section 124.401 in order to “align, using a 10-to-1 ratio, the threshold 

amount for a conviction of a cocaine-related offense with a ‘crack cocaine’ offense.”150 The 10-

to-1 ratio still is reflected only in the threshold amounts that determine the maximum statutory 

penalty, and not in the mandatory minimum penalty. For example, more than 500 grams of 

powder cocaine or more than 50 grams of cocaine base trigger a maximum penalty of 50 years’ 

imprisonment. An offender with more than 50 grams of powder cocaine or more than five grams 

of cocaine base is subject to a maximum penalty of 25 years’ imprisonment.151 Essentially, an 

offender must have 10 times more powder cocaine than crack cocaine to trigger the same 

statutory maximum penalty. Iowa also requires an offender who commits one of these offenses 

to serve a minimum period of confinement of one-third of the maximum sentence prescribed by 

law before being eligible for parole.

152

 

 5. Maine 

 Maine distinguishes between trafficking offenses involving crack cocaine and powder 

cocaine using a 3.5-to-1 drug quantity ratio. If an offender knowingly possesses 14 grams or 

more of powder cocaine or four grams or more of cocaine base, a presumption of unlawful 

trafficking is established.153 For aggravated trafficking, i.e., 112 grams or more of powder 

cocaine or 32 grams or more of cocaine base, an offender is subject to a mandatory minimum 

sentence of four years’ imprisonment.154 

 

150 2003 Iowa Legis. Serv. P. 4, Senate File 422, by Committee on Judiciary (Thomson/West). 

151 Iowa Code § 124.401 (2006). 

152 Iowa Code § 124.401 (2006). 

153 Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 17, § 1103(3) (2007). 

154 Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 17, §§ 1105-A(D), 1252(5-A) (2007).
 102

 6. Maryland

 Maryland distinguishes between offenses involving powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

using a 9-to-1 drug quantity ratio. Maryland has a five-year mandatory minimum penalty for 

trafficking 448 grams or more of powder cocaine or 50 grams or more of cocaine base.155

 7. Missouri

 Missouri differentiates between offenses involving powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

using a 75-to-1 drug quantity ratio. Offenders who traffic more than 150 grams but less than 450 

grams of cocaine powder are Class A felons. For cocaine base, two grams but less than six 

grams trigger the same penalty. Offenders who traffic 450 grams or more of powder cocaine, or 

six or more grams of cocaine base, both Class A felonies, are ineligible for probation or parole. 

Class A felonies carry an imprisonment term of not less than ten years and not more than 30 

years.156 

8. New Hampshire

 New Hampshire differentiates between trafficking offenses involving powder cocaine 

and crack cocaine using a 28-to-1 drug quantity ratio. New Hampshire provides a maximum 

penalty of 30 years imprisonment for trafficking in five ounces (142.5 grams) or more of powder 

cocaine. The same penalty applies for trafficking in five grams or more of cocaine base.157

 9. North Dakota

 North Dakota differentiates between offenses involving powder cocaine and crack 

cocaine using a 10-to-1 ratio.158 Mandatory minimums apply if an offender has prior offenses. 

An offender who is found guilty of a second offense is subject to a mandatory minimum of five 

years imprisonment; an offender with a third or subsequent offense is subject to a mandatory 

minimum of 20 years imprisonment.159 In North Dakota, however, a first time offender has an 

enhanced penalty that provides a maximum of life imprisonment with or without an opportunity 

for parole for trafficking 50 grams or more of powder cocaine or five grams or more of cocaine 

base. An offender who is classified as a Class AA felon, and who receives a sentence of life 

imprisonment with the possibility of parole, will not be eligible for parole for 30 years, less any 

 

155 Md. Code Ann., Crim. Law § 5-612(a)(2), (4), -612(c)(1) (West 2006). 

156 Mo. Ann. Stat. § 195.222(2) (West 2006). 

157 N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 318-B:26(I)(a)(1), (3) (2006). 

158 N.D. Cent. Code § 19-03.1-23.1(1)(c)(2), (3) (2005). 

159 N.D. Cent. Code § 19-03.1-23(1)(a)(1), (2) (2005). 
 103

sentence reduction earned for good conduct. Cocaine quantities less than the above-mentioned 

amounts qualify as a Class A felony, with a maximum penalty of 20 years imprisonment.

160

 10. Ohio 

 Ohio differentiates between offenses involving powder cocaine and crack cocaine using a 

graduated scale based on threshold amounts and felony categories imposed by statute.161 The 

felony categories are defined by degree: first, second, third, and fourth. The ratios vary between 

each individual felony category based on quantities from the low end of the range to the high 

end.162 For example, it is a felony in the third degree to distribute ten grams but less than 100 

grams of powder cocaine. For cocaine base, the third-degree felony range is five grams but less 

than ten grams. The minimal drug quantity ratio is 2-to-1; the maximum drug quantity ratio for 

this category is 10-to-1. To qualify for a first-degree felony, an offender must distribute 500 

grams but less than 1,000 grams of powder cocaine, and at least 25 grams but less than 100 

grams of cocaine base, which results in a ratio fluctuation of between 10-to-1 and 20-to-1. For 

major drug offenders, Ohio uses a 10-to-1 ratio (1,000 grams cocaine powder and 100 grams of 

cocaine base) and prescribes a mandatory minimum term of ten years’ imprisonment with an 

additional one to ten-year term subject to judicial discretion.163 

 11. Oklahoma

 

 Oklahoma differentiates between trafficking offenses involving powder cocaine and 

crack cocaine using a 6-to-1 drug quantity ratio. The Oklahoma statutes provide mandatory 

minimum penalties of ten years imprisonment for offenses involving 28 grams or more of 

cocaine powder or five grams or more of cocaine base. The statutes also provide a 20-year 

mandatory minimum for offenses involving 300 grams or more of powder cocaine or 50 grams 

or more of cocaine base.164

 12. South Carolina 

South Carolina’s statutory scheme for cocaine penalties is complex, with different 

minimum and maximum penalties for possession, distribution, and trafficking of powder cocaine 

and crack cocaine. For possession offenses, crack cocaine is penalized more severely than 

powder cocaine. A first time offender with ten grains (.648 grams) or less of powder cocaine is 

subject to a statutory maximum penalty of two years imprisonment, but a first time offender with 

less than one gram of crack cocaine is subject to a statutory maximum penalty of five years 

 

160 N.D. Cent. Code § 12.1-32-01(1), (2) (2005). 

161 Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2925.01(X), (GG) (West 2006). 

162 Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2925.11(C)(4)(b)-(f) (West 2006). 

163 Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2925.03(4)(a)-(g) (West 2006). 

164 Okla. Stat. Ann. tit. 63, §§ 2-415(C)(2), (7), 2-401 (West 2006).
 104

imprisonment.165 Offenses involving ten grams or more of powder cocaine are presumed to be 

distribution offenses, and offenses involving one gram or more of crack cocaine are presumed to 

be distribution offenses. Interestingly, second time distribution offenses involving powder 

cocaine are penalized more severely (five to thirty years imprisonment) than those involving 

crack cocaine (zero to 25 years imprisonment). 166 

 13. Virginia

 Virginia’s statutes generally do not distinguish between offenses involving powder 

cocaine and crack cocaine. The penalties are determined by the schedule of the controlled 

substance involved in the offense, and all forms of cocaine are listed in schedule II. Virginia’s 

distribution statute, however, does distinguish between the two forms of cocaine using a 2-to-1 

drug quantity ratio. Under this statute, an offender who traffics five kilograms or more of 

powder cocaine or 2.5 kilograms or more of cocaine base is subject to a 20-year mandatory 

minimum sentence.

Table 5-1 

State Cocaine Penalties 

STATE 

Crack/Powder 

Distinction 

Guidelines 

System 

Determinate 

Sentencing 

Drug 

Mandatory 

Minimum 

Total

Affirmative 

Responses 14 27 18 41

Alabama No Yes Yes Yes 

Alaska No Yes No Yes 

Arizona Yes No Yes Yes 

Arkansas No Yes No Yes 

California Yes No No Yes 

Colorado No No Yes Yes 

Connecticut No No No Yes 

Delaware No Yes Yes Yes 

District of 

Columbia No Yes Yes No 

Florida No Yes No Yes 

 

165 S.C. Code Ann. §§ 44-53-370(d)(4), (e)(2), 44-53-375(B)(2) (2006). 

166 S.C. Code Ann. § 44-53-370(e)(2)(a)(2) (2006). 
 105

Table 5-1 

State Cocaine Penalties 

STATE 

Crack/Powder 

Distinction 

Guidelines 

System 

Determinate 

Sentencing 

Drug 

Mandatory 

Minimum 

Georgia No No Yes Yes 

Hawaii No No No No 

Idaho No No No Yes 

Illinois No Yes Yes Yes 

Indiana No Yes Yes Yes 

Iowa Yes (10:1 ratio) No No Yes 

Kansas No Yes Yes No167

Kentucky No No No No 

Louisiana No Yes Yes Yes 

Maine Yes (3.5:1 ratio) No Yes Yes 

Maryland Yes (9:1 ratio) Yes Yes Yes 

Massachusetts No Yes No Yes 

Michigan No Yes No No168

Minnesota No Yes No No 

Missouri Yes (75:1 ratio) Yes No Yes 

Montana No No No Yes 

Nebraska No No No Yes 

Nevada No No No Yes 

New Hampshire Yes (28:1 ratio) No Yes Yes 

New Jersey No Yes No Yes 

New Mexico No Yes Yes Yes 

New York No No Yes Yes 

North Carolina No Yes Yes Yes 

North Dakota Yes (10:1 ratio) No No Yes 

 

167 Kansas repealed the mandatory minimums for drug offenses in 2003. See 2003 Senate Bill 123, 

http://www.kansas.gov/ksc/goals.shtml. 

168 Michigan repealed the mandatory minimums for drug offenses in 2002. See MCLS § 333.7401 and 

Public Act 665. 
 106

Table 5-1 

State Cocaine Penalties 

STATE 

Crack/Powder 

Distinction 

Guidelines 

System 

Determinate 

Sentencing 

Drug 

Mandatory 

Minimum 

Ohio

Yes (2:1 minimum 

ratio; 10:1 maximum 

ratio) 

Yes Yes Yes 

Oklahoma Yes (6:1 ratio) Yes No Yes 

Oregon No Yes Yes No 

Pennsylvania No Yes No Yes 

Rhode Island No Yes No Yes 

South Carolina Yes Yes No Yes 

South Dakota No No Yes Yes 

Tennessee No Yes Yes Yes 

Texas No No No Yes 

Utah No Yes No Yes 

Vermont Yes (5:1 ratio) No No No 

Virgin Islands No No No Yes 

Virginia Yes (2:1) Yes Yes Yes 

Washington No Yes Yes No 

West Virginia No No No Yes 

Wisconsin No Yes Yes No169

Wyoming No No No No 

 

169 Wisconsin repealed the mandatory minimums for drug offenses on February 1, 2003 under the 

Uniform Controlled Substance Act. 
 107

B. INTERACTION OF PROSECUTORIAL DECISIONS AND STATE PENALTIES

Federal law enforcement and judicial resources are too limited to process all drug 

trafficking offenses at the federal level. Only a small minority of all drug offenses are 

prosecuted federally. During the last decade, there have been between one and one and one-half 

million arrests for drug violations annually, and state courts have imposed sentence for about 

one-third of a million drug convictions annually.170 By contrast, 25,013 federal offenders were 

sentenced under the primary drug trafficking guideline in fiscal year 2006.171 In fact, one of the 

stated goals of the 1986 Act was to “give greater direction to the DEA and the U.S. Attorneys on 

how to focus scarce law enforcement resources.”172

Because the states generally have not adopted the federal penalty structure for cocaine 

offenders, the decision whether to prosecute at the federal or state level can have an especially 

significant effect on the ultimate sentence imposed on an individual crack cocaine offender. 

Differences in federal prosecutorial practices nationwide occur for a number of reasons. For 

example, federal resources in a specific jurisdiction may be prioritized toward a specific drug 

type that is particularly problematic for that jurisdiction. The Department of Justice reports that 

the comparative laws in a jurisdiction also play an important role in determining whether a 

particular case is brought in federal or state court.173 

Table 5-2 suggests that there are significant differences in the types of cocaine cases 

brought in the various federal districts. For each district, Table 5-2 shows the number of crack 

cocaine and powder cocaine cases and the median drug quantity involved for each form of 

cocaine. The districts are listed in ascending order by the median quantity of crack cocaine. 

Among districts with at least 30 crack cocaine cases in Fiscal Year 2006, the five districts with 

the greatest median drug quantity were Northern Iowa (320.9 grams), Northern Florida (238.4 

grams), Eastern North Carolina (176.4 grams), Central Illinois (101.7 grams), and Eastern 

Pennsylvania (98.3 grams). Among districts with at least 30 crack cocaine cases in Fiscal Year 

2006, seven had a median drug quantity of less than 25 grams; the five districts with the smallest 

median drug quantity were New Hampshire (3.1 grams), Southern West Virginia (14.0 grams), 

Eastern Kentucky (15.4 grams), Nebraska (17.0 grams), and Eastern Missouri (21.3 grams). 

Even among some districts within the same state there are some significant variations in 

 

170 Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports, Crime in the United States, 1995-2005; U.S. 

Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, State Court Sentencing of Convicted Felons, 1992, 

1994, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002. 

171 USSC, 2006 Sourcebook of Federal Sentencing Statistics, supra note 15, Table 17. 

172 H.R. Rep. No. 99-845, pt. 1, at 11-12 (1986). 

173 R. Alexander Acosta, United States Attorney of the Southern District of Florida, testified that “much 

of what goes federal versus state is a function of comparative laws in any jurisdiction because, in any 

large operation, we sit down with our colleagues at the state and we divvy up cases based on who’s likely 

to get the more appropriate or the stronger criminal sanctions.” Supra note 38, at Tr. 38-9. 
 108

the types of crack cocaine cases prosecuted. For example, in Northern Florida the median 

quantity of crack cocaine is 238.4 grams, compared to 50.8 grams in Middle Florida. Similarly, 

in Central Illinois the median quantity of crack cocaine is 101.7 grams, compared to 54.1 grams 

in Southern Illinois. 

Table 5-2 

Median Drug Weight for Powder Cocaine and 

Crack Cocaine Cases in Each Federal District 

Fiscal Year 2006

Primary Drug Type 

Crack Cocaine Powder Cocaine 

District Number of Cases

Median Weight 

(Grams) Number of Cases 

Median Weight 

(Grams)

All Districts 4,262 51.0 4,140 6,000.0

Guam 0 - 0 -

Northern Mariana Islands 0 - 0 -

Virgin Islands 0 - 6 18,200.0

North Dakota 0 - 4 989.0

Idaho 1 2.3 2 10,563.0

New Hampshire 41 3.1 10 200.5

West Virginia, Southern 62 14.0 18 63.4

Vermont 5 14.8 6 567.0

Kentucky, Eastern 49 15.4 45 283.5

Nebraska 61 17.0 18 5,950.0

Kansas 41 19.0 46 4,505.0

Missouri, Eastern 130 21.3 22 1,482.3

Kentucky, Western 28 21.7 21 986.9

New York, Western 49 25.0 15 520.0

Texas, Eastern 94 25.7 64 15,070.0

Indiana, Northern 50 26.1 24 657.3

New York, Northern 37 26.7 17 1,000.0

Texas, Western 127 27.3 295 4,900.0

Washington, Eastern 13 28.5 7 992.3

New Mexico 23 29.0 53 2,330.0

California, Northern 18 30.2 20 1,126.5

Florida, Southern 104 30.2 305 19,800.0

Ohio, Northern 80 30.4 43 2,988.8

Tennessee, Eastern 43 31.4 39 3,000.0

West Virginia, Northern 89 31.5 12 124.8

Rhode Island 20 31.9 18 4,003.8

Alabama, Northern 35 32.6 34 5,000.0

Texas, Southern 70 33.3 523 11,040.0

California, Southern 1 33.6 97 22,020.0

Michigan, Eastern 60 34.5 48 2,189.9

Georgia, Middle 76 34.9 20 761.9

Pennsylvania, Western 60 36.3 17 1,500.0
 109

Table 5-2 

Median Drug Weight for Powder Cocaine and 

Crack Cocaine Cases in Each Federal District 

Fiscal Year 2006

Primary Drug Type 

Crack Cocaine Powder Cocaine 

District Number of Cases

Median Weight 

(Grams) Number of Cases 

Median Weight 

(Grams)

Colorado 30 37.3 26 1,875.0

Alabama, Middle 17 38.5 10 1,979.5

Washington, Western 30 45.7 25 2,300.0

Mississippi, Northern 37 45.9 10 8,000.0

Tennessee, Western 35 46.0 16 12,675.0

Michigan, Western 48 47.1 21 2,020.0

District of Columbia 78 47.4 16 953.5

Tennessee, Middle 10 47.5 28 3,320.0

Alabama, Southern 64 49.3 25 500.0

Florida, Middle 180 50.8 326 550,000.0

Alaska 11 51.7 12 4,098.5

Ohio, Southern 81 52.9 64 13,500.0

Louisiana, Middle 17 53.1 2 8,079.4

Minnesota 38 53.9 25 1,400.7

Illinois, Southern 38 54.1 13 8,000.0

Massachusetts 53 54.9 50 2,720.0

Arkansas, Eastern 23 55.3 17 1,910.0

Virginia, Eastern 253 56.0 78 2,216.6

Virginia, Western 123 56.0 22 2,953.6

New York, Southern 78 56.3 121 20,000.0

Connecticut 55 56.5 14 1,000.0

Louisiana, Western 80 58.5 26 5,956.9

Texas, Northern 67 59.5 62 10,250.0

Georgia, Southern 35 60.6 14 1,793.2

Nevada 10 62.9 4 5,830.0

Utah 1 66.3 14 1,310.4

Arkansas, Western 5 67.1 1 2,010.8

Hawaii 7 67.5 10 1,706.0

North Carolina, Western 66 67.5 49 3,000.0

Pennsylvania, Middle 63 69.0 12 1,835.0

New York, Eastern 67 73.8 112 5,000.0

Oklahoma, Western 5 74.9 19 40,000.0

Maine 15 75.6 21 992.3

Illinois, Northern 79 76.3 131 4,500.0

Missouri, Western 61 76.4 40 991.3

North Carolina, Middle 60 76.8 42 7,900.0

Puerto Rico 12 77.5 48 332,350.0

California, Eastern 35 86.5 9 3,000.0

Wisconsin, Eastern 22 87.4 28 1,000.0

Oklahoma, Northern 20 88.1 6 5,900.0
 110

Table 5-2 

Median Drug Weight for Powder Cocaine and 

Crack Cocaine Cases in Each Federal District 

Fiscal Year 2006

Primary Drug Type 

Crack Cocaine Powder Cocaine 

District Number of Cases

Median Weight 

(Grams) Number of Cases 

Median Weight 

(Grams)

Wisconsin, Western 27 88.2 15 1,600.0

Delaware 15 90.5 6 613.8

Maryland 46 91.6 39 2,340.0

Mississippi, Southern 33 93.7 22 8,920.0

South Carolina 154 95.6 75 1,996.2

Georgia, Northern 25 96.6 43 30,000.0

New Jersey 48 97.0 57 5,000.0

Pennsylvania, Eastern 64 98.3 49 1,992.0

Illinois, Central 62 101.7 25 6,528.0

Louisiana, Eastern 21 107.9 10 997.0

South Dakota 6 109.5 9 1,500.0

Oregon 5 112.9 12 2,117.7

California, Central 27 120.0 30 5,050.0

Arizona 4 143.0 147 13,040.0

Iowa, Southern 12 147.1 7 12,730.0

North Carolina, Eastern 118 176.4 74 2,453.0

Indiana, Southern 24 182.4 16 4,285.0

Florida, Northern 51 238.4 57 5,000.0

Iowa, Northern 34 320.9 9 500.0

Oklahoma, Eastern 4 907.3 4 9,460.0

Montana 1 1,555.0 10 605.2

Wyoming 5 2,420.0 6 1,325.0

Of the 23,701 cases with complete sentencing guideline information sentenced under the primary drug trafficking guideline, 

USSG §2D1.1, 5,164 had crack cocaine and 5,442 had powder cocaine as their primary drug type. Due to missing drug 

weight data, 902 of the 5,164 crack cocaine cases and 1,302 of the 5,442 powder cocaine cases were excluded from the 

table. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2006 Datafile, USSCFY06.

 Table 5-3 shows the prevalence of federal crack cocaine cases involving relatively small 

drug quantities (less than 25 grams) in the various jurisdictions. Nationwide, 35.1 percent of 

crack cocaine cases in 2006 involved less than 25 grams of the drug, compared to 28.5 percent in 

2000. Among districts with at least 30 crack cocaine cases, six districts prosecuted crack 

cocaine offenses involving less than 25 grams in over 50 percent of their crack cocaine caseload 

(New Hampshire, Eastern Kentucky, Southern West Virginia, Eastern Missouri, Kansas, and 

Nebraska). In contrast, among districts with at least 30 crack cocaine cases, the following 

districts had a relatively small proportion of cases involving less than 25 grams: Southern 
 111

Georgia (8.6%), Northern Iowa (8.8%), Southern Mississippi (12.1%), Northern Florida 

(13.7%), and Middle North Carolina (15.0%). Eight districts which had at least one crack 

cocaine case in 2006 did not have any case involving less than 25 grams (Western Arkansas, 

South Dakota, Southern California, Montana, Oregon, Eastern Oklahoma, Utah, and Wyoming), 

but these district each had six or fewer crack cocaine cases. 

 The prevalence of crack cocaine cases involving less than 25 grams in part can be 

attributable to the relatively low drug quantity threshold quantities for the mandatory minimum 

penalties for crack cocaine. Figure 2-10 from Chapter 2 shows drug quantities in federal cocaine 

cases tend to cluster around the mandatory minimum threshold quantities, and Department of 

Justice testimony confirms the role that the mandatory minimum threshold quantities might play 

in prosecutorial decision-making.174

 

174 See Acosta, supra note 38, at Tr. 50-51 (“[S]ome of the data may show that prosecutions do tend to 

focus around mandatory minima. In part that may be a function of the particular cases the United States 

Attorneys take; in part also that may be a function of what a prosecutor is willing to do. Often it is the 

case that if you have enough to go after someone at a particular level, rather than push the envelope, 

rather than spend more time gathering more evidence, rather than make a case more complex, a 

prosecutor will say this is enough to obtain the result that we believe is warranted.”). 
 112

Table 5-3

Number of Crack Cocaine Cases With Less Than 25 Grams in Each 

Federal Judicial District

Fiscal Year 2006 

 Crack Cocaine Cases with Less than 25g

District 

Total 

Crack 

Cocaine 

Cases Number Percent

All Districts 4,262 1,497 35.1

Idaho 1 1 100.0

New Hampshire 41 37 90.2

Kentucky, Eastern 49 33 67.3

Vermont 5 3 60.0

West Virginia, Southern 62 37 59.7

Missouri, Eastern 130 75 57.7

Kentucky, Western 28 16 57.1

Kansas 41 22 53.7

Nebraska 61 32 52.5

New York, Western 49 24 49.0

New York, Northern 37 18 48.6

West Virginia, Northern 89 43 48.3

Texas, Western 127 61 48.0

Texas, Eastern 94 44 46.8

Tennessee, Eastern 43 20 46.5

Washington, Eastern 13 6 46.2

Indiana, Northern 50 23 46.0

Rhode Island 20 9 45.0

Michigan, Eastern 60 27 45.0

Ohio, Northern 80 36 45.0

California, Northern 18 8 44.4

Texas, Southern 70 31 44.3

New Mexico 23 10 43.5

Florida, Southern 104 45 43.3

Mississippi, Northern 37 16 43.2

Maine 15 6 40.0

Pennsylvania, Western 60 24 40.0

Alabama, Northern 35 14 40.0

Georgia, Middle 76 30 39.5

District of Columbia 78 30 38.5

Virginia, Eastern 253 95 37.5

Tennessee, Western 35 13 37.1

Illinois, Southern 38 14 36.8

Colorado 30 11 36.7

Florida, Middle 180 66 36.7
 113

Table 5-3

Number of Crack Cocaine Cases With Less Than 25 Grams in Each 

Federal Judicial District

Fiscal Year 2006 

 Crack Cocaine Cases with Less than 25g

District 

Total 

Crack 

Cocaine 

Cases Number Percent

Michigan, Western 48 17 35.4

Louisiana, Middle 17 6 35.3

Alabama, Middle 17 6 35.3

Alabama, Southern 64 22 34.4

Louisiana, Western 80 27 33.8

Puerto Rico 12 4 33.3

Massachusetts 53 17 32.1

Virginia, Western 123 39 31.7

California, Eastern 35 11 31.4

Texas, Northern 67 21 31.1

North Carolina, Western 66 20 30.3

Pennsylvania, Middle 63 19 30.2

Tennessee, Middle 10 3 30.0

Nevada 10 3 30.0

Washington, Western 30 9 30.0

Oklahoma, Northern 20 6 30.0

South Carolina 154 46 29.9

Ohio, Southern 81 23 28.4

New York, Southern 78 22 28.2

Illinois, Central 62 17 27.4

Alaska 11 3 27.3

Arkansas, Eastern 23 6 26.1

Connecticut 55 14 25.5

Pennsylvania, Eastern 64 16 25.0

Iowa, Southern 12 3 25.0

Arizona 4 1 25.0

Minnesota 38 9 23.7

Wisconsin, Eastern 22 5 22.7

Wisconsin, Western 27 6 22.2

New York, Eastern 67 14 20.9

Oklahoma, Western 5 1 20.0

Georgia, Northern 25 5 20.0

Maryland 46 9 19.6

New Jersey 48 8 16.7

Indiana, Southern 24 4 16.7

Illinois, Northern 79 13 16.5

Missouri, Western 61 10 16.4

North Carolina, Eastern 118 18 15.3

North Carolina, Middle 60 9 15.0
 114

Table 5-3

Number of Crack Cocaine Cases With Less Than 25 Grams in Each 

Federal Judicial District

Fiscal Year 2006 

 Crack Cocaine Cases with Less than 25g

District 

Total 

Crack 

Cocaine 

Cases Number Percent

California, Central 27 4 14.8

Hawaii 7 1 14.3

Florida, Northern 51 7 13.7

Mississippi, Southern 33 4 12.1

Louisiana, Eastern 21 2 9.5

Iowa, Northern 34 3 8.8

Georgia, Southern 35 3 8.6

Delaware 15 1 6.7

Arkansas, Western 5 0 0.0

South Dakota 6 0 0.0

California, Southern 1 0 0.0

Montana 1 0 0.0

Oregon 5 0 0.0

Oklahoma, Eastern 4 0 0.0

Utah 1 0 0.0

Wyoming 5 0 0.0

North Dakota 0 - -

Virgin Islands 0 - -

Guam 0 - -

Northern Mariana Islands 0 - -

Of the 23,701 cases with complete sentencing guideline information sentenced under the primary drug 

trafficking guideline, USSG §2D1.1, 5,164 had crack cocaine as the primary drug type. Of these 5,164 crack 

cocaine cases, 902 were excluded from the table due to missing data on drug weight. In each row, the 

percentages are based on the total number of crack cocaine cases in each district, regardless of weight, 

indicated in the Total column. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2006 Datafile, USSCFY06
115

Chapter 6

CASE LAW DEVELOPMENTS 

A. INTRODUCTION

 

Since the 2002 Commission Report, case law has developed that has significantly 

altered the landscape of federal sentencing. In particular, in 2005 the Supreme Court in 

United States v. Booker174 extended its holding in Blakely v. Washington175 to federal 

sentencing and held that the imposition of an enhanced sentence under the federal 

sentencing guidelines based on the sentencing judge’s determination of a fact (other than 

a prior conviction) violated the Sixth Amendment right to jury trial. In the remedial 

portion of the decision, the Court severed and excised two statutory provisions, 18 U.S.C. 

§ 3553(b)(1), which made the guidelines mandatory, and 18 U.S.C. § 3742(e), a related 

appeals provision, effectively rendering the guidelines advisory. Under the approach set 

forth by the Court, “district courts, while not bound to apply the Guidelines, must consult 

those Guidelines and take them into account when sentencing,” subject to review by the 

courts of appeals for “unreasonableness.”176

The Booker decision has given rise to litigation and resulted in a split among the 

circuits on the issue of whether, and how, sentencing courts should consider the 100-to-1 

drug quantity ratio when sentencing federal cocaine offenders. Although sentencing 

courts generally are attempting to avoid perceived unwarranted sentencing disparity 

caused by the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio, the very fact that sentencing courts are 

considering the ratio to varying degrees and in varying methods — and the circuit split 

that has ensued — itself may lead to unwarranted sentencing disparity. 

B. United States v. Booker 

Prior to Booker, the issue arose whether the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio may 

properly form the basis for a downward departure from the guideline sentencing range. 

This factor was typically asserted by defendants as “a ... mitigating circumstance of a 

kind, or to a degree, not adequately taken into consideration by the Sentencing 

Commission in formulating the guidelines that should result in a sentence different from 

that” provided by the applicable guideline sentencing range. This language governed 

both the statutory requirements for a departure, 18 U.S.C. § 3553(a)(2), and the 

guidelines’ general policy statement regarding departures, U.S.S.G. §5K2.0 (Grounds for 

 

174 543 U.S. 220 (2005).

175 542 U.S. 296 (2004) (holding that any fact (other than a prior conviction) which is necessary to 

support a sentence exceeding the maximum authorized by the facts established by a plea of guilty 

or a jury verdict must be admitted by the defendant or proved to a jury beyond a reasonable 

doubt).

176 543 U.S. at 264. 
116

Departure). Circuit courts uniformly held that, when sentencing crack cocaine offenders, 

district courts were not permitted to depart downward from the guideline sentencing 

range based on a policy disagreement with the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio.177 

Since the Booker decision excised the language governing departures from section 

3553(a)(2), defendants have made similar arguments based on 18 U.S.C. § 3553(a)178

findings in prior Commission reports on federal cocaine sentencing policy. Specifically, 

the issue has arisen whether, in considering the factors set forth in section 3553(a), the 

100-to-1 drug quantity ratio may properly form the basis for a sentence below the 

guideline sentencing range. Post-Booker, defendants typically have asserted that the 100-

to-1 drug quantity ratio creates unwarranted disparity in contravention of 18 U.S.C. § 

3553(a)(6) (“The court, in determining the particular sentencing to be imposed, shall 

 

177 United States v. Sanchez, 81 F.3d 9, 11 (1st Cir. 1996); United States v. Haynes, 985 F.2d 65, 

70 (2d Cir. 1993); United States v. Alton, 60 F.3d 1065, 1070 (3d Cir. 1995); United States v. 

Banks, 130 F.3d 621, 624 (4th Cir. 1997); United States v. Fonts, 95 F.3d 372, 374 (5th Cir. 

1996); United States v. Gaines, 122 F.3d 324, 329 (6th Cir. 1997); United States v. Arrington, 73 

F.3d 144, 146 (7th Cir. 1996); United States v. Maxwell, 25 F.3d 1389, 1400-1401 (8th Cir. 

1994); United States v. Berger, 103 F.3d 67, 71 (9th Cir. 1996); United States v. Maples, 95 F.3d 

35, 37-38 (10th Cir. 1996); United States v. Byse, 28 F.3d 1165, 1171 n.9 (11th Cir. 1994); 

United States v. Thompson, 27 F.3d 671, 679 (D.C. Cir. 1994); see also USSC, 1995 Commission 

Report, supra note 1, at 220.

178 18 U.S.C. § 3553(a) provides in pertinent part: 

(a) Factors to be considered in imposing a sentence.–The court shall impose a sentence 

sufficient, but not greater than necessary, to comply with the purposes set forth in 

paragraph (2) of this subsection. The court, in determining the particular sentence to 

be imposed, shall consider– 

(1) the nature and circumstances of the offense and the history and 

characteristics of the defendant; 

(2) the need for the sentence imposed– 

(A) to reflect the seriousness of the offense, to promote respect for the 

law, and to provide just punishment for the offense; 

(B) to afford adequate deterrence to criminal conduct; 

(C) to protect the public from further crimes of the defendant; and 

(D) to provide the defendant with needed educational or vocational 

training, medical care, or other correctional treatment in the most 

effective manner; 

(3) the kinds of sentences available; 

(4) the kinds of sentence and the sentencing range established for– 

(A) the applicable category of offense committed by the applicable 

category of defendant as set forth in the guidelines issued by the 

Sentencing Commission . . . 

(5) any pertinent policy statement issued by the Sentencing Commission . . . 

(6) the need to avoid unwarranted sentence disparity among defendants with 

similar records who have been found guilty of similar conduct; and 

(7) the need to provide restitution to any victims of the offense. 
117

consider . . . the need to avoid unwarranted sentence disparity among defendants with 

similar records who have been found guilty of similar conduct. . .”). 

District courts have largely declined to sentence below the guideline range 

based on this argument.179 Those district courts that have sentenced below the 

guideline range on the basis of the 100-to-1 drug quantity,180 frequently have been 

reversed by the appellate courts. Courts in the First, Second, Fourth, Fifth, 

Seventh and Eleventh Circuits have rejected such sentences, holding that the 100-

to-1 drug quantity ratio does not create “unwarranted” sentencing disparity as 

contemplated by section 3553(a)(6) because it reflects congressional judgment 

that offenses involving powder cocaine and crack cocaine are not similar. 181 For 

example, in United States v. Pho,

182 the First Circuit said: 

[A sentencing court may not impose a sentence] outside the advisory 

guideline sentencing range based solely on its categorical rejection of the 

guidelines’ disparate treatment of offenses involving crack cocaine, on the 

one hand, and powdered cocaine, on the other hand. . . . The decision to 

employ a 100:1 crack-to-powder ratio rather than a 20:1 ratio, a 5:1 ratio, 

or a 1:1 ratio is a policy judgment, pure and simple. . . . Congress 

incorporated the 100:1 ratio in the statutory scheme, rejected the 

Sentencing Commission’s 1995 proposal to rid the guidelines of it, and 

failed to adopt any of the Commission’s subsequent recommendations for 

easing the differential between crack and powdered cocaine. It follows 

inexorably that the district court’s categorical rejection of the 100:1 ratio 

impermissibly usurps Congress’s judgment about the proper sentencing 

policy for cocaine offenses. 

The Eleventh Circuit similarly held that the disparity between crack 

cocaine and powder cocaine offenders is not “unwarranted” under Section 

3553(a)(6), rejecting the defendant’s argument that the 100-to-1 drug quantity 

ratio reflects the policy position of the Commission rather than of Congress: 

 

179 See, e.g., United States v. Tabor, 365 F.Supp.2d 1052 (D. Neb. 2005); United States v. Doe, 

412 F.Supp.2d 87 (D. D.C. 2006); United States v. Valencia-Aguirre, 409 F.Supp.2d 1358 (M.D. 

Fla. 2006).

180 See, e.g., United States v. Smith, 359 F.Supp.2d 771 (E.D. Wis. 2005); United States v. 

Clay, 2005 WL 1076243 (E.D. Tenn. 2005). 

181 United States v. Pho, 433 F.3d 53, 54 (1st Cir. 2006); United States v. Castillo, 460 F.3d 337, 

361 (2d Cir. 2006); United States v. Eura, 440 F.3d 625, 633 (4th Cir. 2006); United States v. 

Leatch, __ F.3d __, 2007 WL 851323 (5th Cir. Mar. 22, 2007); United States v. Jointer, 457 F.3d 

682, 687-88 (7th Cir. 2006); United States v. Spears, 469 F.3d 1166 (8th Cir. 2006); United 

States v. Williams, 456 F.3d 1353, 1367 (11th Cir. 2006).

182 433 F.3d at 62-63. 
118

Williams is incorrect in suggesting the 100-to-1 ratio embedded in the 

Guidelines is merely the Sentencing Commission’s policy and not 

Congress’s policy. In determining the threshold quantities for triggering 

the statutory sentencing ranges in § 841(b), Congress decided on a 100-to1 differential, and the Sentencing Commission was left no choice but to 

employ the same ratio in crafting the various Guidelines ranges within 

those statutory ranges. ... Indeed, Congress rejected the Commission’s 

proposal that would have equated the drugs for Guidelines purposes . . . . 

Thus, the statutory minimums and maximums and the Guidelines reflect 

Congress’s policy decision to punish crack offenses more severely than 

powder cocaine offenses by equating one gram of crack to 100 grams of 

cocaine.183

Furthermore, appellate courts have reversed sentences that utilized an 

alternative drug-quantity ratio, such as the 20-to-1 ratio proposed in the 2002 

Commission Report, on similar grounds. For example, in United States v. Jointer, 

the Seventh Circuit overturned a sentence imposed by substituting a 20-to-1 drug 

quantity ratio and re-calculating the offense level. The Seventh Circuit said: 

In this case, the district court did not make a statement categorically rejecting the 

100:1 ratio in sentencing all crack defendants in front of the court. Such a 

statement would have been a quintessential appropriation of legislative authority. 

On the other hand . . . it did not articulate a rationale for why 20:1 was more 

appropriate than any other ratio for Mr. Jointer. ... It simply disagreed with the 

legislative facts upon which Congress had based its judgment and substituted 

other legislative facts for the congressional judgment. . . . In sum, although the 

district court did, at first, correctly calculate the applicable offense level and 

sentencing range, the court abandoned that correct calculation and inserted its 

own ratio, 20:1, and then recalculated the applicable offense level and sentencing 

range. ... This recalculation was erroneous; it followed neither the statutory 

language set out by Congress nor the applicable guidelines sections.184

Therefore, sentencing courts in these circuits may not vary from the guidelines 

solely on the basis of a policy disagreement with the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio, even by 

utilizing another drug quantity ratio, such as the 20-to-1 drug quantity ratio recommended 

by the Commission in its 2002 Report. 185 

 

183 456 F.3d at 1366 (internal citations omitted).

184 457 F.3d at 686-87. The Court added that a district court may consider the 100-to-1 drug 

quantity ratio, but in so doing it “must still tie the § 3553(a) factors to the individual 

characteristics of the defendant and the offense committed.” 

185 See, e.g., United States v. Duhon, 440 F.3d 711 (5th Cir. 2006).
119

Other circuits, however, have endorsed a sentencing court’s discretion to consider 

the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. In United States v. Gunter, the Third Circuit reversed a 

sentence after the district court had declined to issue a non-guideline sentence where the 

defendant had asked it to consider the drug quanity ratio as a basis for sentencing below 

the guideline sentencing range.186 The Third Circuit vacated the sentence on grounds that 

it was procedurally unreasonable because “the District Court here believed that it had no 

discretion to impose a below-[g]uidelines sentence on the basis of the crack/powder 

cocaine differential and, thus, treated the [g]uidelines range difference as mandatory in 

deciding the ultimate sentence.”187 The Gunter court suggested that sentencing courts 

may be able to sentence below the guideline range based on crack/powder disparity, 

stating: 

[T]he District Court is under no obligation to impose a sentence below the 

applicable Guidelines range solely on the basis of the crack/powder 

cocaine differential. Furthermore, although the issue is not before us, we 

do not suggest (or even hint) that the Court categorically reject the 100:1 

ratio and substitute its own, as this is verboten. The limited holding here is 

that district courts may consider the crack/powder cocaine differential in 

the Guidelines as a factor, but not a mandate, in the post-Booker

sentencing process.188

In United States v. Pickett,

189 the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit 

similarly reversed a crack defendant’s sentence on the grounds that the district 

court refused to consider the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio when determining the 

defendant’s sentence. The D.C. Circuit said the proper approach “is to evaluate 

how well the applicable [g]uideline effectuates the purposes of sentencing 

enumerated in Section 3553(a).”190 The D.C. Circuit discussed the Commission’s 

various reports to Congress, noting especially the 2002 Report. The D.C. Circuit 

surmised that the Commission “believes that its [g]uideline for crack distributors 

generates sentences that are ‘greater than necessary,’ exaggerates ‘the seriousness 

of the offense’ of crack trafficking, does not ‘promote respect for the law,’ and 

does not ‘provide just punishment for the offense,’”191 and that the district court’s 

refusal to consider whether sentencing the defendant in accordance with the 100-

to-1 drug quantity ratio would comport with section 3553(a) constituted a legal 

error. 

 

186 United States v. Gunter, 462 F.3d 237 (3d Cir. 2006).

187 Id. at 246.

188 Id.

189 475 F.3d 1347 (D.C. Cir. 2007).

190 Id. at *5. 

191 Id. at *6. 
120

Several of these cases are pending before the United States Supreme Court 

on petition for a writ of certiorari.

192 

Another case pending before the Supreme Court, United States v. 

Claiborne,

193 involves sentencing for a crack cocaine offense. Although 

Claiborne does not squarely present the question of whether the 100-to-1 drug 

quantity ratio may properly form the basis for a sentence below the guideline 

sentencing range, the disparate penalty structure may be addressed in the Court’s 

reasonableness review of the sentence imposed. 

The defendant in Claiborne pled guilty to a two-count indictment arising 

out of two separate incidents: a May, 2003 charge for distributing .23 grams of 

crack, and a November, 2003 charge of possessing 5.03 grams of crack. The 

district court calculated the applicable guideline sentencing range as 37-46 

months, but imposed a sentence of 15 months’ imprisonment. The defendant 

raised the crack cocaine-powder cocaine distinction at the sentencing hearing, but 

the district judge did not expressly mention the drug quantity ratio at sentencing. 

The factors cited by the court for the sentence imposed, however, did include the 

small quantity of drugs involved. At sentencing, the court said: 

. . . when I compare your situation to that of other individuals that I have 

seen in this court who have committed similar crimes but perhaps 

involving a larger – a much [larger] amount of drugs – and the sentences 

they receive, I don’t believe that 37 months is commensurate in any way 

with that. 

Upon appeal by the government, the Eighth Circuit held that the sentence, 

which it calculated as a 60 percent downward variance, was an “extraordinary 

reduction” which was required to be “supported by extraordinary circumstances,” 

and that such circumstances were not present in this case because, among other 

things, “[t]he small amount of crack cocaine seized during his two offenses was 

taken into account in determining his guidelines range.”194 The Eighth Circuit 

remanded the case for resentencing, and the district court granted the defendant’s 

motion to stay sentencing pending resolution of the defendant’s petition for 

certiorari. 

 

192 Eura, petition for cert. filed June 20, 2006 (No. 05-11659); Jointer, petition for cert. filed

October 27, 2006 (No. 06-7600); Williams, petition for cert. filed October 19, 2006 (No. 06-

7352). 

193 439 F.3d 479 (8th Cir. 2006), cert. granted, 127 S.Ct. 551 (U.S. Nov. 3, 2006).

194 Id. at 481. 
121

The Supreme Court granted review in that case on the following 

questions: 

(1) Was the district court’s choice of below-Guidelines sentence 

 reasonable? 

(2) In making that determination, is it consistent with United States v. 

Booker, 543 U.S. 220 (2005), to require that a sentence which 

constitutes a substantial variance from the Guidelines be justified 

by extraordinary circumstances? 

Although the issue of the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio is not squarely 

presented, the differential treatment of the two forms of cocaine has been raised in 

briefs and could provide a backdrop to the Court’s review for reasonableness of 

the particular sentence imposed in Claiborne.195

Since the passage of the 1986 and 1988 Acts and implementation of the 

federal sentencing guidelines, defendants have raised various constitutional 

challenges to the federal cocaine penalty structure. In appealing the 

constitutionality of their sentences for crack cocaine offenses, defendants 

generally have argued that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio violates equal 

protection and due process guarantees, constitutes cruel and unusual punishment, 

and is based on a statute that is impermissibly vague. To date, none of these 

challenges has been successful in the federal appellate courts.196

However, the Supreme Court has requested that the government respond 

to a petition for a writ of certiorari in a case arising out of the Ninth Circuit, 

Jackson v. United States,

197 which again presents the question for review of 

195 See, e.g., Brief of Amici Curiae Senators Edward M. Kennedy, Orrin G. Hatch, and Dianne 

Feinstein in Support of Respondents, at 27-28 (“Amici do not foreclose the possibility that courts 

might cite the disproportionate emphasis assigned by the guidelines to the relevant quantity of 

crack cocaine as a principled reason for imposing a sentence below the applicable guideline 

range. . . . Congress has thus far failed to act on the Commission’s recommendations. That 

failure, however, should not be interpreted as a license by courts to disregard the Commission’s 

policy statements. . . . It is well-documented that the crack-powder disparity has a 

disproportionate impact on African-American defendants, their families, and their communities, 

and as a result has undermined public confidence in the criminal justice system. Such sentencing 

disparity is completely contrary to the goals of the Sentencing Reform Act, and § 3553(a) enables 

courts to consider this impact as they develop principled rules on sentencing.”) (citations 

omitted). 

196 See generally USSC, 1995 COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 1, Appendix C (containing a 

detailed discussion and collection of cases raising constitutional challenges to federal cocaine 

sentencing policy). See also United States v. Gaines, 122 F.3d 324, 329 (6th Cir. 1997) 

(collecting cases).

197 201 F.App’x. 481 (9th Cir. 2006). 
122

whether the statutory distinction between powder cocaine and crack cocaine 

results in penalties that are arbitrary and capricious in violation of due process, 

equal protection, and the Eighth Amendment. In the appellate court, the 

defendant acknowledged precedent repeatedly upholding the distinction between 

powder cocaine and crack cocaine against constitutional attacks, but argued that 

“[t]he rationale for upholding the statutory scheme has rested on findings that 

there was a rational basis for the disparity. That rational basis has been seriously 

undermined by factual studies that the difference in the effects and circumstances 

involved in crack as opposed to powder cocaine does not exist, or at least not to 

the extent believed at the time of the enactment of the studies. Congressional 

failure to act in light of these studies and recommendations, most notably by the 

Sentencing Commission itself, makes the disparity arbitrary and capricious in 

violation of due process, equal protection, and the Eighth Amendment . . .”.198

The government countered that the “findings by the Commission are in 

keeping with the reasons attributable to the 1986 Congress and Congress in 1995 

when it rejected the proposal for parity among crack and powder cocaine 

sentencing. Therefore, the legislative classification under 21 U.S.C. § 841 cannot 

be said to be irrational or unreasonable.”199 The government specifically cited 

findings that crack cocaine is more addictive than powder cocaine, crack cocaine 

offenses are more likely to involve weapons or bodily injury (although the 

majority of such offenses do not involve direct violence), and twice as likely to 

involve minors.200 

A three-judge Ninth Circuit panel unanimously affirmed the sentence 

imposed by the district court, citing circuit precedent that foreclosed review of 

these issues.201 The government’s response to the petition for writ of certiorari

was filed April 18, 2007. 

 

198 2005 WL 4120999, at *5 (9th Cir Nov. 17, 2005). 

199 2005 WL 4668634, at *15-16 (9th Cir. Jan. 3, 2005) (internal citations omitted). 

200 Id. at *15.

201 United States v. Jackson, 201 F.App’x. 481 (9th Cir. 2006).
A-1 

Appendix A 

SENTENCING DATA SOURCES 

AND METHODOLOGY 

A. INTRODUCTION

 Data for this report are from three sources: 1) the Commission’s Fiscal Year 

datafiles from 1992 through 2006, 2) the 2000 Drug Sample, and 3) the 2005 Drug 

Sample. The Fiscal Year datafiles allow comparisons over time of sentencing data 

regularly collected by the Commission. The 2000 and 2005 Drug Samples include 

supplemental information about drug offenders not routinely collected and reported by 

the Commission. 

B. SENTENCING COMMISSION FISCAL YEAR DATAFILES

 The Commission’s Fiscal Year datafiles contain information reported in the five 

documents that sentencing courts are required to submit to the Commission for each 

criminal felony case. These five documents include: 1) the Judgement and Commitment 

Order, and 2) the Statement of Reasons), 3) any plea agreement, 4) the indictment or 

other charging document, 5) the Presentence Report. The Commission uses these 

documents routinely to collect case identifiers, demographic variables, statutory 

information, the guideline provisions applied to the case, and sentencing information. 

Analysis of the Fiscal Year datafiles for this report is for offenses sentenced under 

the primary drug trafficking guideline (USSG §2D1.1) with either powder cocaine or 

crack cocaine as the primary drug type. The primary drug type is the drug involved in the 

offense that primarily determines the offender’s sentence, specifically, the drug that 

produces the highest base offense level under the guidelines and results in the longest 

sentence. Figure 2-1 in Chapter 2 displays the total number of powder cocaine and crack 

cocaine offenders for each Fiscal Year. 

C. 2000 DRUG SAMPLE

 The 2000 Drug Sample consists of a 20 percent random sample of powder 

cocaine (793) and crack cocaine (802) offenders sentenced under the primary drug 

trafficking guideline (USSG §2D1.1) in Fiscal Year 2000. Data from this sample 

supplement information in the Commission’s Fiscal Year datafiles with information 

about offenders and offense conduct collected from the narrative offense conduct and 

criminal history sections of the Presentence Report. The conduct described may or may 

not be subject to existing guideline or statutory sentencing enhancements. Therefore, the 

reported data do not necessarily indicate court findings or ultimate guideline applications 
A-2 

(e.g., offender function). Furthermore, the definitions used for collecting information do 

not, in some instances, match entirely the guideline definitions for identical terms (e.g., 

manager/supervisor). 

The individual offender data provide details both of the offender’s prior substance 

use and criminal convictions (regardless of whether the convictions were included as part 

of the determination of the offender’s Criminal History Category). Information about the 

instant offense includes the organization of and participants in the offense, the offender’s 

most serious function, investigation techniques, evidence concerning drug amounts, and 

the operation of the criminal enterprise (e.g., sophisticated means used to conceal 

criminal activity). The weapon information collected for each case includes extent, 

number and types of weapons involved in the instant drug offense. Victim data includes 

the number of victims, extent of injury, and perpetrator of the violence. Finally, 

information is included concerning protected individuals (such as minor children) and 

locations. 

D. 2005 DRUG SAMPLE

 The 2005 Drug Sample consists of a 25 percent random sample of powder 

cocaine (1,398 of the 5,744 cases) and crack cocaine (1,172 of the 5,397 cases) offenders 

sentenced under the primary drug trafficking guideline (USSG §2D1.1) in Fiscal Year 

2005 after the date of the decision in United States v. Booker (i.e., offenders sentenced 

from January 12, 2005 through September 30, 2005). Only offenses involving a single 

type of cocaine, either powder cocaine or crack cocaine, but not both, were selected for 

the sample. Because all of the data are collected from the Presentence Report, only case 

files containing this document were eligible for selection in the sample.1

 The 2005 Drug Sample, in large part, replicates the data in the 2000 Drug Sample. 

The Commission used the same coding definitions and decision-making criteria for the 

2005 and 2000 Drug Samples to enable comparable trend data and analysis. As with the 

2000 Drug Sample, the 2005 Drug Sample comes from the narrative offense conduct and 

criminal history sections of the Presentence Report so the data are not indicative of court 

findings or ultimate guideline applications. 

1. Offender Function Definitions 

Table A-1 provides definitions for all 21 offender function categories used for the 

coding project. Each cocaine offender was assigned to one of the 21 categories in the 

table based on the most serious conduct described in the offense conduct section of the 

Presentence Report. The assignment of offender function category solely is based on the 

description of the offender’s conduct, not on court findings or guideline criteria for role 

in the offense. Terms used to describe offender function do not necessarily correlate with 

guideline definitions of similar terms. For example, the definition of manager/supervisor 

 

1 Cases were eligible with complete Presentence Reports, partial or alternative Presentence 

Reports, court order sealed Presentence Reports, and otherwise sealed Presentence reports. 
A-3 

used to assign offender function does not match the guideline definition of manager or 

supervisor in USSG §3B1.1. The categories are listed in descending order of culpability, 

importer/high-level supplier is considered the most serious offender function, and user is 

considered the least serious offender function. 

The 21 offender function categories are aggregated into eight function categories 

for ease of analysis and presentation in the report (See, for example, Figure 2-4 in 

Chapter 2). The same offender function categories were used to determine the most 

frequent function for only offenders whose most serious function was wholesaler. 

Table A-1 

Offender Function Categories 

Function Definition 

Importer/high-level 

supplier 

Imports or otherwise supplies large quantities of drugs, is near the 

top of the distribution chain, has ownership interest in drugs (not 

merely transporting drugs for another individual), usually supplies 

drugs to other drug distributors and does not deal in retail amounts; 

may employ no, or very few subordinates. 

Organizer/leader Organizes, leads, directs, or otherwise runs a drug distribution 

organization, has the largest share of the profits and the most 

decision making authority. 

Grower/manufacturer Grows, cultivates, or manufactures a controlled substance, and is 

the principal owner of the drugs. 

Financier/Money launderer Provides money for purchase, importation, manufacture, 

cultivation, transportation, or distribution of drugs; launders 

proceeds of drug sales or purchases. 

Aircraft pilot/vessel captain Pilots aircraft or other vessel, requires special skill; does not include 

offenders who are sole participants directing a small boat (e.g., a 

go-fast boat) onto which drugs have been loaded from a “mother 

ship” (See courier/mule below). 

Wholesaler Sells one ounce or more in a single transaction, sells any amount to 

another dealer, buys two ounces in a single transaction, possesses 

two ounces or more. 

Manager Serves as a lieutenant to assist one of the above functions; manages 

all or a significant portion of a drug manufacturing, importation, or 

distribution operation; takes instructions from one of the above 

functions and conveys to subordinates; supervises directly at least 

one other co-participant in an organization of at least five coparticipants. 

Bodyguard/strongman/debt 

collector 

Provides physical and personal security for another co-participant in 

the offense; collects debts owed, or punishes recalcitrant persons. 
A-4 

Table A-1 

Offender Function Categories 

Function Definition 

Chemist/cook/chemical 

supplier 

Produces LSD, methamphetamine, crack, or other drugs, but is not 

the principal owner of the drugs and therefore does not qualify as a 

grower/manufacturer. Chemical suppliers do not handle the drugs, 

but engage in the unlawful diversion, sale, or furnishing of listed 

chemicals or equipment used in the synthesis or manufacturing of 

controlled substances. 

Supervisor Supervises at least one other co-participant but has limited authority 

and does not qualify as a manager. 

Street-level dealer Distributes retail quantities directly to the drug user. Sells less than 

one ounce in a single transaction. 

Broker/steerer/go-between Arranges for two parties to buy or sell drugs, or directs potential 

buyers to potential sellers. 

Courier Transports or carries drugs with the assistance of a vehicle or other 

equipment. Includes offenders, otherwise considered to be crew 

members, who are the sole participants directing a vessel (e.g., a 

go-fast boat) onto which drugs have been loaded from a “mother 

ship.” 

Mule Transports or carries drugs internally or on his/her person, often by 

airplane or crossing the border. Includes offenders who only 

transport or carry drugs in baggage, souvenirs, clothing, or 

otherwise. 

Renter/storer Provides, for profit or other compensation, a personal residence, 

structure (barn, building, storage facility), land, or equipment for 

use in the drug offense. Distinguished from enablers due to 

compensation received for services. 

Money runner Transports or carries money and/or drugs to and from the streetlevel dealer. 

Off-loader/loader Performs the physical labor required to put large quantities of drugs 

into storage, hiding, or onto a mode of transportation. 

Gopher/lookout/deckhand/ 

worker/employee 

Performs very limited, low-level function in the offense (one time, 

or ongoing); including running errands, answering the telephone, 

receiving packages, packaging drugs, manual labor, acting as a 

lookout during meetings, exchanges, or off-loading, or acting as a 

deckhand/crew member on a vessel or aircraft used to transport 

large quantities of drugs. 
A-5 

Table A-1 

Offender Function Categories 

Function Definition 

Enabler Plays only a passive role in the offense, knowingly permitting 

certain unlawful activity to occur without affirmatively acting in 

any way to further the activity, may be coerced or unduly 

influenced to participate (e.g., a parent or grandparent threatened 

with displacement from home unless they permit the activity to take 

place), or may do so as a favor without compensation. 

User Possesses a small quantity of drugs apparently for personal use 

only, performs no apparent function that furthers the overall drug 

trafficking offense. 

Other Offender does not clearly fit into any of the above function 

categories. 

Missing/indeterminable Not enough information provided to determine the offender’s 

function. 

2. Cocaine Wholesalers 

For those offenders whose most serious function was wholesaler, additional 

information was collected to further explain how they came to be classified as 

wholesalers. Specifically, the Commission examined who initiated the wholesale 

transaction (defendant, co-participant, or law enforcement), the drug quantity involved in 

the wholesaler’s largest transaction, and the most frequent function performed by that 

offender (the most frequent function was not collected for any other offender function 

category). 
A-6 

77.7

63.4

22.7

14.0

16.9

5.4

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Powder Cocaine Crack Cocaine

Percent

Offender Bought 

Wholesale Amount

No Transaction –

Offender 

Possessed/Owned 

Wholesale Amount

Offender Sold 

Wholesale Amount

Figure A-1

Offender Conduct for Wholesale Classification1

FY2005 Drug Sample

1 Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of 

specific guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis. 

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample.

Figure A-1 demonstrates the offense conduct that led offenders to be categorized 

as wholesalers. Most powder cocaine and crack cocaine wholesalers sold wholesale 

quantities of one ounce or more in a single transaction.2 Nearly two-thirds of powder 

cocaine (63.4%) and more than three-quarters (77.7%) of crack cocaine wholesalers were 

classified as such because their documented sale quantities exceeded one ounce on at 

least one occasion, or because they sold to another dealer. Far fewer wholesalers, 5.4% 

of crack cocaine and 22.7% of powder cocaine, were classified as such based on drug 

purchases of greater than two ounces in a single transaction. Finally, some powder 

cocaine (14.0%) and crack cocaine (16.9%) wholesalers were arrested with quantities 

indicative of a wholesaler status absent any reported transaction. 

 

 

2 The quantities involved in the wholesale transactions are those described in the offense conduct 

section of the Presentence Report and do not necessarily reflect the quantity used by the court to 

determine the base offense level under the guidelines.
A-7 

Figure 2-9 in Chapter 2 demonstrates that 7.8 percent of powder cocaine 

wholesalers and 36.9 percent of crack cocaine wholesalers most frequently performed 

less serious functions. With respect to those offenders whose most frequent function was 

less serious than wholesaler, the Commission sought to determine the origin of the 

wholesale level transaction. Figure A-2 shows the basis for ascribing wholesaler status to 

those cocaine offenders who most frequently engaged in conduct less serious than 

wholesaler. Specifically, Figure A-2 identifies the parties who interacted with the 

offender during the drug offense (as described in the offense conduct section of the 

Presentence Report). 

More than half of both powder cocaine and crack cocaine wholesalers who most 

frequently performed less serious functions engaged in wholesaler conduct due to 

interactions with law enforcement. Similar proportions of both powder cocaine (30.8%) 

and crack cocaine (23.5%) wholesalers interacting with law enforcement interacted with 

undercover officers. The wholesale conduct for approximately one-third of powder 

cocaine (36.0%) and crack cocaine (27.4%) wholesalers occurred in transactions with 

other drug dealers. 

Powder Cocaine

2005 Drug Sample

Drug Dealer 

36.0%

No 

Transaction(s) 

12.0%

Law 

Enforcement 

52.0%

Law Enforcement Contact in the 

2005 Drug Sample

Figure A-2

Basis for Wholesale Classification When 

Most Common Function is Not Wholesaler1

FY2005 Drug Sample

Crack Cocaine

2005 Drug Sample

Drug Dealer 

27.4%

No 

Transaction(s) 

19.0%

Law 

Enforcement 

53.7%

Undercover Officer 30.8%

Confidential Informant 69.2%

Law Enforcement Contact in the 

2005 Drug Sample

1 Classifications were based on descriptions of conduct found in the offense conduct section of the Presentence Report. These classifications may not reflect court findings on application of 

specific guideline enhancements. This figure excludes cases with missing information for the variables required for analysis.

SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2005 Sample. 

Undercover Officer 23.5%

Confidential Informant 76.5%
A-8 

3. Geographic Scope 

Table A-2 provides definitions for geographic scope used for the coding project. 

Each offense was assigned to one of the seven categories in the table based on the largest 

geographical area in which the drug trafficking organization operated. 

Table A-2 

Definitions of Geographic Scope 

Scope Definition 

Neighborhood/ section of a 

city 

Largest scope of offense conduct occurs at or around a street corner 

or the few blocks within that immediate area. 

Local Largest scope of offense conduct crosses multiple city blocks or 

extends from the city into a contiguous suburban area. 

Regional Largest scope of offense conduct extends throughout a multi-city 

area, within a state, or within a contiguous multi-state area (e.g., 

Pennsylvania-to-Delaware). 

Section of the country Largest scope of offense conduct extends across multiple, noncontiguous states within a recognized region of the country (e.g., 

the Midwest, the Northeast). 

National Largest scope of offense conduct spreads beyond a section of the 

country (e.g., California-to-Florida) 

International Largest scope of offense conduct crosses the United States border. 

Missing Insufficient information in the offense conduct section of the 

Presentence Report to determine the geographic scope of the 

offense. 
 B-1

Appendix B 

SUMMARY OF PUBLIC HEARINGS 

ON COCAINE SENTENCING POLICY

 

A. INTRODUCTION

 The Commission held an all-day public hearing on federal cocaine sentencing policy in 

Washington, D.C., on November 14, 2006, and heard additional testimony at another public 

hearing in Washington, D.C., on March 20, 2007. In total, over twenty witnesses, representing 

the federal judiciary, the Executive Branch, local law enforcement agencies, private 

practitioners, the scientific and medical communities, academics, community representatives, 

and other interested parties, testified before the Commission.1

B. FEDERAL JUDGES

 The Honorable Reggie Walton, United States District Court, District of Columbia, 

appeared on behalf of the Criminal Law Committee of the Judicial Conference of the United 

States. Judge Walton reported that at its September 19, 2006, session, the Judicial Conference 

expressed its opposition to “the existing sentencing differences between crack and powder 

cocaine and agreed to support the reduction of that difference.” The remainder of his testimony 

expressed his personal views on the matter. 

 Judge Walton stated his belief that the current sentencing structure is unconscionable. 

Although he acknowledged that some degree of difference in punishment for crack cocaine and 

powder cocaine offenses might be warranted in the view of policy makers, no reasonable 

justifications exist for the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. He noted that the fact that crack cocaine 

has greater addictive potential than powder cocaine cannot be seriously challenged, particularly 

because of the manner in which it is used causes greater addiction. However, the level of 

violence associated with the crack cocaine trade is less than during the 1980s and early 1990s. 

According to Judge Walton, the discretion federal prosecutors have to decline prosecutions 

complicates the unfairness in the sentencing of crack cocaine and powder cocaine traffickers 

because it leaves two hypothetical defendants subject to the variables of the state laws if 

prosecutions are brought in state courts. 

 

1 Witness Statements and the full transcripts are available on the Commission’s website, www.ussc.gov.
 B-2

 Judge Walton emphasized that not only must the punishment imposed be fair, it also must 

be perceived as fair. He noted that many believe that current sentencing differential is unfair to 

those at the lower end of the socioeconomic ladder and to people of color because they are 

disproportionately prosecuted for crack related trafficking offenses. In his opinion, the 

sentencing differential was not enacted with the conscious objective of targeting the poor and 

people of color, but the current state of affairs should cause the policy to be reexamined. 

Specifically, Judge Walton observed the tremendous increase in the number of inmates in federal 

prisons, noting that many, if not most, are comprised of people of color charged or convicted of 

crack cocaine distribution related offenses. 

 Judge Walton also observed that the perception of unfairness has had a negative impact 

on the respect of many for our nation’s criminal justice system. According to Judge Walton, 

some people do not wish to serve on juries when crack cocaine is involved because of the crack 

cocaine/powder cocaine sentencing disparity, and jurors at times have refused to convict crack 

cocaine offenders because of it. He added that some may be unwilling to come forward and 

cooperate with the government for similar reasons. In short, Judge Walton concluded that the 

failure to address the sentencing disparity has left many to believe that there is an indifference to 

its real and perceived unfairness because of the population it disproportionately impacts. He also 

noted that it has a negative impact on the credibility of the sentencing guidelines, in part because 

this is an area where a greater number of judges are imposing non-guideline sentences, some 

even novel in nature. 

 Judge Walton pointed out the devastating impact long sentences have on the community. 

According to Judge Walton, most kids in many poor black communities do not have fathers 

because they are imprisoned for such long periods, and some of these offenders could be 

contributing members of society if they were not imprisoned for so long. 

C. LAW ENFORCEMENT

1. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

R. Alexander Acosta, United States Attorney, Southern District of Florida, testified on 

behalf of the Department of Justice at the November 14, 2006, hearing. Mr. Acosta reiterated the 

position of the Department as articulated in 2002 by then-Deputy Attorney General Larry 

Thompson that the existing federal sentencing policy is an important part of the federal 

government’s efforts to hold traffickers of both crack cocaine and powder cocaine accountable, 

including violent gangs and other organizations that traffic in open air crack cocaine markets that 

terrorize neighborhoods, especially minority neighborhoods. 

 Mr. Acosta acknowledged that many are concerned that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio 

is an example of unwarranted racial disparity in sentencing, and he stated that it may be 

appropriate to address the ratio in light of larger, systemic changes taking place in federal 

sentencing. Mr. Acosta stressed, however, that changes to federal cocaine sentencing policy 

must take place first and foremost in Congress. 
 B-3

 Mr. Acosta emphasized that three matters have remained unchanged. First, the 

devastation cocaine has on individuals, families, and communities has not changed. Systemic 

violence, including murder, injury to and neglect of children, and HIV and STD transmission are 

common effects of cocaine use. Second, the route of administration continues to be a significant 

factor in the extent to which cocaine impacts the brain of the user. Third, there continue to be 

major differences in the trafficking patterns of powder cocaine and crack cocaine, resulting in 

very different effects on individual communities and requiring a range of law enforcement 

responses. 

 Mr. Acosta asserted that federal cocaine sentencing policy is properly calibrated and 

advances law enforcement responses to crack cocaine in a fair and just manner. He stated that 

the Department continues to believe that higher penalties for crack cocaine offenses 

appropriately reflect the greater harm posed by crack cocaine. While crack cocaine and powder 

cocaine are chemically similar, there are significant differences in the predominant way in which 

the two substances are ingested and marketed. Based on these differences and the resulting 

harms to society, Mr. Acosta said crack cocaine is an especially dangerous drug, and its 

traffickers should be subject to significantly higher penalties than traffickers of like amounts of 

powder cocaine. 

 Mr. Acosta elaborated by stating that the highest concentration of cocaine and the fastest 

entry to the central nervous system occur when cocaine is smoked. Smoking is one of the most 

efficient ways to take a psychoactive drug. The amount of cocaine that is absorbed through the 

large surface area of the lungs by smoking is greater than the amount absorbed by injecting a 

solution of cocaine. In addition, the ease of smoking allows a user to ingest extreme levels of the 

drug in the body without repeatedly filling a syringe, finding injection sites, and then injecting 

oneself. The intensity of the euphoria, the speed with which it is attained, and the ease of repeat 

administration are factors that explain the user’s attraction to crack cocaine. 

 According to Mr. Acosta, differences in distribution methods, age groups involved, and 

levels of violence flow from the fact that smaller amounts of crack cocaine are needed to produce 

the euphoria sought by the typical user. Crack cocaine can be distributed in smaller unit sizes 

than powder cocaine and is sold in single dose units at prices that are at first easily affordable by 

the young and the poor. Because crack cocaine is distributed in such relatively small amounts in 

transactions that often occur on street corners, control of small geographic areas by traffickers 

takes on great importance. He maintained that, as a result, crack cocaine offenders are more 

likely to possess a weapon and that crack cocaine is often associated with serious crime related to 

its marketing and distribution. 

 Mr. Acosta described his experience in South Florida and stated that strong penalties for 

trafficking cocaine must be part of any comprehensive attempt to reduce the harm caused by 

violent drug organizations. In his opinion, the sale of crack cocaine is particularly integral to 

violent drug organizations and is a major cause of urban violence. Unlike legitimate businesses, 

drug gangs maintain their positions through violence targeted at rival drug gangs or anyone else 

that threatens their profits. Mr. Acosta stated there is substantial proof that crack cocaine is 

associated with violence to a greater degree than other controlled substances, including powder 
 B-4

cocaine. According to the 2005 National Gang Threat Assessment, 38 percent of law 

enforcement respondents reported moderate to high involvement of gangs in the distribution of 

powder cocaine, while 47.3 percent reported moderate to high involvement of gangs in the 

distribution of crack cocaine. 

 Mr. Acosta added that deciding which cases to prosecute federally is a function of the 

comparative laws in any jurisdiction because, in any large operation, cases are divided by federal 

and local jurisdictions based on which jurisdiction is likely to get the more appropriate or 

stronger sanction. He also asserted that relying on sentencing enhancements as a method of 

addressing the sentencing differential is of concern because they often fail to capture all the 

indirect associated violence. For example, if there is a high correlation between guns and drug 

gangs that traffic in crack cocaine, whether or not a particular individual has a weapon at the 

time of arrest in not indicative of whether the gang with which he is associated is the cause of 

violence. He concluded that sentencing enhancements fail to capture the full impact of the 

violence gangs bring to particular community. 

 In sum, Mr. Acosta stated that federal cocaine sentencing policy is reasonable. In his 

view, it is not only appropriate but vital to maintain strong criminal sanctions for trafficking in 

crack cocaine. The strong federal sentencing guidelines are one of the best tools for law 

enforcement’s efforts to stop violent crime, he said, and reducing those sentences would create a 

risk of increased drug violence. 

 John C. Richter, United States Attorney, Western District of Oklahoma and Chair of the 

Attorney General’s Advisory Subcommittee on Sentencing, submitted written testimony on 

behalf of the Department of Justice for the March 20, 2007 hearing. Mr. Richter’s statement 

reiterated the Department’s position as previously articulated by Mr. Acosta. Mr. Richter 

described his duty as a United States Attorney to not only prosecute large organizations but also 

to protect neighborhoods from the low level traffickers whose activities prevent law abiding 

residents from enjoying the quality of life they deserve. Mr. Richter acknowledged that it may 

be appropriate to address the drug quantity ratio but stressed that changes to federal cocaine 

sentencing policy must start with Congress. 

2. FRATERNAL ORDER OF POLICE

 Chuck Canterbury, National President, Fraternal Order of Police (FOP), testified at the 

November 2006 hearing in opposition to any proposal that would address the sentencing 

disparity between crack cocaine and powder cocaine by decreasing penalties for crack cocaine. 

Mr. Canterbury asserted that the tougher penalties enacted by the Anti-Drug Abuse Acts of 1986 

and 1988 helped law enforcement counter the explosion of violence fueled by the emergence of 

crack cocaine, which he described as a cheaper, more dangerous form of the drug that has 

devastating psychological and physiological effects on users. He added that mandatory 

minimum sentences, especially those which take into consideration the type of drug, the presence 

and use of firearms, and the use or attempted use of violence, provide a mechanism for imposing 

longer sentences on the worst offenders. 
 B-5

 Mr. Canterbury stated that the FOP believes that crack cocaine inflicts greater harm to the 

user and the communities in which it is available. For example, Mr. Canterbury stated that while 

crack cocaine users comprise only 22 percent of all cocaine users, they accounted for 72 percent 

of all primary admissions to hospitals for cocaine usage in the past year. He stated that crack 

cocaine is more often associated with systemic crime and produces more intense physiological 

and psychotropic effects than powder cocaine, and he asserted that federal sentencing policy 

must reflect correspondingly greater punishments. He encouraged including additional 

aggravating factors, such as the presence of firearms or children and the use or attempted use of 

violence, in the determination of a final sentence, but he indicated that any such enhancements 

should be in addition to the mandatory minimum sentence currently provided by law. 

 Mr. Canterbury stated that the FOP opposes any proposal to address the sentencing 

disparity between crack cocaine and powder cocaine by decreasing penalties that have proven to 

be effective. He disagreed with the position that mandatory minimum sentences should be 

targeted only at the most serious drug offenders. According to Mr. Canterbury, the low level 

dealer who traffics in small amounts is no less of a danger to the community than an individual at 

the manufacturing or wholesale level. The fact that they are at the bottom of the drug 

distribution chain does not decrease the risk of violence or the effect on quality of life associated 

with their activities. 

 Finally, Mr. Canterbury supported increasing the penalties for offenses involving powder 

cocaine by reducing the drug quantity thresholds necessary to trigger the five and ten year 

mandatory minimum penalties. 

D. CRIMINAL DEFENSE PRACTITIONERS

1. FEDERAL PUBLIC AND COMMUNITY DEFENDERS

 A. J. Kramer, Federal Public Defender, District of Columbia, testified on behalf of the 

Federal Public and Community Defenders (FPCD). According to Mr. Kramer, crack cocaine 

cases comprised 58.8 percent of his district’s drug cases in 2005, compared to the national 

average of 20.9 percent. He described the crack cocaine/powder cocaine sentencing disparity as 

unconscionable and stated that the FPDC supports the modification or elimination of the 100-to1 drug quantity ratio. 

 Mr. Kramer urged the Commission to equalize the guideline penalties for crack cocaine 

and powder cocaine at the powder cocaine level. He stated that there is no scientific, medical, or 

law enforcement justification for any differential. He urged the Commission to recommend that 

Congress also equalize the mandatory minimum penalties at the powder cocaine levels. He 

opposed adding new enhancements because he believes existing guideline and statutory 

provisions address particular harms. Specifically, he noted that dangerous weapons are already 

covered by a two level enhancement in USSG §2D1.1(b)(1), a four level enhancement at §USSG 

2K2.1(b)(6), and through a separate charge under 18 U.S.C. § 924(c). Similarly, use of a minor 

is covered by USSG §3B1.4, and sales to protected individuals and in protected locations are 

covered by USSG §2D1.2. 
 B-6

 Mr. Kramer asserted that drug quantity manipulation and untrustworthy information 

provided by cooperators are problems in federal drug cases. According to Mr. Kramer, 

undercover agents and informants hold out for higher quantities in a single sale, come back 

repeatedly for additional sales, and insist that powder cocaine be cooked into crack cocaine 

before accepting it. These tactics produce more “bang for the buck” in crack cocaine cases than 

in any other kind of drug case because a very small quantity increase results in a very large 

sentence increase, and because the simple process of cooking powder cocaine into crack cocaine 

results in a drastic sentence increase. Mr. Kramer asserted that this dynamic is encouraged by 

the guidelines’ relevant conduct rules. He believes that instead of focusing on major and serious 

drug traffickers as intended by the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, law enforcement agents and 

informants take advantage of the sentencing disparity, relevant conduct rules, and the lack of 

procedural safeguards to create more serious offenses for the sole purpose of obtaining longer 

sentences. He added this has a racially disparate impact and wastes taxpayer dollars. 

 With respect to the disparate impact on minorities, Mr. Kramer noted that there are more 

African American men in prison than in college. According to Mr. Kramer, one of every 14 

African American children has a parent in prison, and 13 percent of all African American males 

are not permitted to vote because of felony convictions. Mr. Kramer asserted that the harsh 

treatment of federal crack cocaine offenders contributes to the destruction of families and 

communities. 

 In Mr. Kramer’s opinion, federal cocaine sentencing policy has not succeeded in reducing 

drug use or drug crime. He noted that John Walters, Director of the Office of National Drug 

Control Policy, told Congress in 2005 that the policy of focusing on small time dealers and users 

is ineffective in reducing crime. As an alternative, Mr. Kramer suggested that studies show that 

if a small portion of the budget currently dedicated to incarceration were used for drug treatment, 

intervention in at-risk families, and school completion programs, it would reduce drug 

consumption and save taxpayer dollars. 

 Mr. Kramer emphasized that the physiological and psychotropic effects of crack cocaine 

and powder cocaine are the same. He noted that the negative effects of prenatal crack cocaine 

exposure are identical to the negative effects of prenatal powder cocaine exposure, which are 

significantly less severe than previously believed, similar to prenatal tobacco exposure, and less 

severe than prenatal alcohol exposure. 

 Mr. Kramer cautioned that what constitutes a more or less culpable function is 

unavoidably imprecise and subjective because differences in quantity attributed to different 

functions are too small, and both quantity and the type of cocaine are subject to manipulation and 

happenstance. Mr. Kramer observed that crack cocaine always starts as powder cocaine and only 

as it moves down to lower levels of the distribution chain, down to the street level dealers, is it 

converted to crack cocaine. Thus, individuals on the lowest end of the chain face the highest 

sentences. Finally, Mr. Kramer reported that the public does not have confidence in the fairness 

of the disparity between crack cocaine and powder cocaine sentencing laws, which poses a 

serious problem for the criminal justice system. 
 B-7

2. PRACTITIONERS’ ADVISORY GROUP

 Mr. David Debold, Co-Chair of the Practitioners’ Advisory Group (PAG), a standing 

advisory committee to the Commission, testified in support of reducing the crack cocaine 

penalties to those applicable to the same quantity of powder cocaine, a 1-to-1 drug quantity ratio. 

He asserted that the current penalty structure does not promote proportionality and runs counter 

to the goal of calibrating punishment to culpability. In Mr. Debold’s opinion, the person who 

sells or handles crack cocaine at a retail level is no more responsible for the harms resulting from 

that form of drug than the persons who handled the drug higher up the distribution chain when it 

was still in powder form. He stated that as a general matter we should reserve the greater penalty 

for the persons higher in the distribution chain, at the wholesale level (rather than the retail level) 

who are responsible for more harm because of the higher quantity of drug they distribute. 

 Mr. Debold acknowledged that the crack cocaine defendant may be more likely to engage 

in violence or possess a firearm, but he believes there currently are ways in the guidelines to 

differentiate that defendant from other crack cocaine defendants. 

3. AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION

 Mr. Stephen Saltzburg, the Wallace and Beverly Woodbury University Professor at the 

George Washington University Law School, testified on behalf of the American Bar Association 

(ABA). Mr. Salzburg recalled that in 1995, the House of Delegates of the ABA approved a 

resolution endorsing a proposal submitted by the Commission to Congress which would have 

treated crack cocaine and powder cocaine offenses similarly and would have accounted for 

aggravating factors such as weapon use, violence, or injury to another person. Mr. Salzburg 

reported that the ABA continues to believe that Congress should amend federal statutes to 

eliminate the sentencing differential and that the Commission should promulgate guidelines that 

treat both types of cocaine similarly. 

 Mr. Salzburg emphasized that not only does the ABA oppose the sentencing differential, 

it opposes mandatory minimum sentences for drug offenses generally. He referenced a 

resolution passed by the ABA House of Delegates on August 9, 2004, that adopted a 

recommendation submitted by the Kennedy Commission. The resolution called for all 

jurisdictions, including the federal government, to repeal mandatory minimum sentences and 

called upon Congress to minimize the statutory directives to the Commission to permit it to 

exercise its expertise independently. 

4. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CRIMINAL DEFENSE LAWYERS

 With respect to cocaine, Mr. Salzburg noted that the overwhelming majority of crack 

cocaine defendants are African American, while the overwhelming majority of powder cocaine 

defendants are white or Hispanic. He observed that the penalties for crack cocaine offenses 

obviously have a disproportionate impact on African American defendants. 
 B-8

 Carmen D. Hernandez, President of the National Association of Criminal Defense 

Lawyers (NACDL), testified that NACDL urges modification of the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. 

She described the failure to correct the injustice of the sentencing disparity as a symbol of the 

flaws in the federal sentencing system and a symbol of racism in the criminal justice system. 

Ms. Hernandez observed that the average crack cocaine sentence exceeds the average sentence 

for robbery, sexual abuse, and other violent crimes, which she found especially disturbing 

considering that two-thirds of crack cocaine defendants are street-level dealers. 

 Ms. Hernandez stated that the way in which crack cocaine is prosecuted substantially 

impacts lower socioeconomic classes and black or Latino neighborhoods. Over-incarceration 

within black communities adversely impacts those communities by removing young women and 

men who could benefit from rehabilitation, educational and job training opportunities, and a 

second chance. She added that drug amounts consistent with state misdemeanors become federal 

felonies, resulting in disenfranchisement, disqualification for public benefits including student 

loans and public housing, and diminished economic opportunity. 

 Ms. Hernandez asserted there is no scientific basis to conclude that crack cocaine is 100 

times worse than powder cocaine. According to Ms. Hernandez, there are fewer deaths as a 

result of either the violent conduct of crack cocaine users or from an overdose of the drug than 

result from alcohol, nicotine, or other illegal substances. 

 Ms. Hernandez stated that the penalty scheme not only skews law enforcement resources 

toward lower level crack cocaine offenders, it punishes them more severely than their powder 

cocaine suppliers, creating an effect known as “inversion of penalties.” The 500 grams of 

cocaine that can send one powder cocaine defendant to prison for five years can be distributed to 

89 street level dealers who, if they convert it to crack cocaine, could make enough crack cocaine 

to trigger the five year mandatory minimum sentence for each defendant. This penalty inversion 

causes unwarranted sentencing disparity, as does the unequal number of mitigating role 

reductions granted to crack cocaine defendants. 

 Ms. Hernandez cautioned that any effort to distinguish between forms of cocaine based 

on a quantity-role correlation is bound to fail because agents and informants routinely 

manipulate drug quantities to obtain longer sentences. According to Ms. Hernandez, this 

practice, in combination with the relevant conduct rules, defeats the value of drug quantity as an 

indicator of role and culpability. She suggested equalizing the two forms of cocaine as a solution 

to this problem, which also would permit individualized sentencing based on criminal history 

and existing specific offense characteristics. Ms. Hernandez emphasized that existing guideline 

and statutory enhancements are sufficient to punish aggravating circumstances that occur in a 

minority of crack cocaine offenses, such as weapon involvement and violence. 

 Mr. Hernandez described crack cocaine and powder cocaine as part of the same supply 

chain. Anyone trafficking in powder cocaine therefore contributes to the potential supply of 

crack cocaine and any dangers which may be inherent in crack cocaine. Ms. Hernandez 

concluded by stating that NACDL opposes any proposal to reduce the disparity by increasing 

powder cocaine penalties. Ms. Hernandez asserted that raising already harsh powder cocaine 
 B-9

sentencing levels is no answer to the problem of disproportionate and discriminatory crack 

cocaine sentences. She added that there is no credible evidence that powder cocaine penalties 

are insufficient. 

E. MEDICAL/SCIENTIFIC/TREATMENT COMMUNITIES

1. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, ADDICTION, 

RECOVERY, AND PREVENTION ADMINISTRATION

 Mr. Elmore Briggs, Director of Clinical Services, District of Columbia Department of 

Health, Addiction, Recovery, and Prevention Administration, testified that he looks at cocaine as 

a public health issue, and the relevant question to ask is whether we are talking about criminals 

or talking about patients. Mr. Briggs advocated finding a way to separate out violent offenders 

from those who suffer from addiction, which he characterized as a brain disease typified by 

obsession, compulsion, loss of control over use, and continued use despite consequences. 

Treatment can put the disease into remission and result in a productive member of society. 

 With respect to addicts, Mr. Briggs stated that some try to maximize their gains and 

minimize their losses by becoming dealers. They initially amass some money by buying some 

powder cocaine, converting it to crack cocaine, and convincing themselves they are going to sell 

it and make a lot of money. Mr. Briggs stated, however, that addicts often become their own 

best customers and generally do not make good dealers. 

 According to Mr. Briggs, powder cocaine and crack cocaine users generally experience 

similar “symptomatology,” with some nuanced differences. The withdrawal symptoms of both 

forms of cocaine are similar, but they vary depending on whether the use was a two to three day 

binge or chronic use of high doses. Withdrawal symptoms include dysphasia, irritability, 

difficulty in sleeping, and intense dreaming. He did not report seeing general differences in the 

way people come into treatment based on the form of cocaine abuse. 

 Mr. Briggs added that crack cocaine enters the brain quickly, with an instantaneous 

pleasurable effect on the reward pathway of the brain. However, the decline of the effect occurs 

quickly as well, producing a desire to experience the intense feeling of pleasure and intensifying 

cravings and compulsion for the drug. He described how this can lead to frantic behavior as the 

user begins to chase the same high as before. Mr. Briggs noted that because crack cocaine is 

cheaper, new users often perceive their resources as infinite. That perception changes as they 

become caught in a cycle of obsession, compulsion, loss of control over their use, and continued 

use despite adverse consequences. At that point, many crack cocaine users present for treatment 

in a state of despair, dejection, and destitution. An additional consideration raised by Mr. Briggs 

is that the conversion of powder cocaine to crack cocaine removes much of the impurities of the 

drug. Thus, the user is smoking a substance that is very close to pure, and because it hits the 

brain fast and then leaves as fast, the addictive nature of the drug and the drug-seeking behavior 

are magnified. 
 B-10

 Although this scenario also applies to many users of powder cocaine, Mr. Briggs stated 

that given the route of administration and cost, the scenario is prolonged as many users of 

powder cocaine move from snorting to injecting and/or smoking crack cocaine. This pattern is 

indicative of a desire to achieve a more intense level of euphoria and a willingness to adapt 

behaviors to accomplish this goal. Snorting or injecting drugs has an effect of substance dilution 

that smoking the drug does not have. Thus, a cocaine-addicted person soon realizes that by using 

powder cocaine in some ways he is are wasting money on a diminishing effect and may start 

using crack cocaine. 

 Mr. Briggs concluded that trafficking sentencing should be equalized for cocaine 

regardless of the form of drug. He added it is important to consider that a significant number of 

those who sell drugs do so to support their addiction, and any federal sentencing policy that does 

not take into account the value of diversion and treatment will fail not only the individual but the 

community at large. 

2. NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON DRUG ABUSE (NIDA) 

 Dr. Nora Volkow, Director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), testified that 

research supported by NIDA has found cocaine to be a powerfully addictive stimulant that 

directly affects the brain. Cocaine, like many other drugs of abuse, produces a feeling of 

euphoria or “high” by increasing the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain’s reward circuitry. 

 Cocaine in any form produces similar physiological and psychological effects once it 

reaches the brain, but the onset, intensity, and duration of its effects are related directly to the 

route of administration and thus how rapidly cocaine enters the brain. Oral absorption is the 

slowest form of administration because cocaine has to pass through the digestive tract before it is 

absorbed into the bloodstream. Intranasal use, or snorting, is the process of inhaling powder 

cocaine through the nostrils, where it is absorbed into the blood stream through the nasal tissue. 

Intravenous (IV) use, or injection, introduces the drug directly into the bloodstream and 

heightens the intensity of its effects because it reaches the brain faster than oral or intranasal 

administration. Finally, the inhalation of cocaine vapor or smoke into the lungs, where 

absorption into the bloodstream is as rapid as by injection, produces the quickest and highest 

peak blood levels in the brain, without the risk attendant to IV use, such as exposure to HIV from 

contaminated needles. 

 Dr. Volkow emphasized that all forms of cocaine, regardless of the route of 

administration, result in a similar blockage of dopamine transporters in the reward center of the 

brain, which is why repeated use of any form of cocaine can lead to addiction and other health 

consequences. 

 Dr. Volkow reported that according to the 2005 Substance Abuse and Mental Health 

Service Administration’s (SAMSHA) National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), more 

than 5.5 million (2.3%) persons aged 12 years or older used cocaine in the year prior to the 

survey, and 2.4 million (1.0%) were current users. She further reported that 1.4 million persons 

12 years or older (0.6%) used crack cocaine in the past year, and 682,000 (0.3%) were current 
 B-11

crack cocaine users. Current crack cocaine use has never been reported above 0.3 percent; 

however, crack cocaine use in 2005 among blacks 12 years or older was 0.8 percent, a 

prevalence more than four times as high as in the white (0.2%) or Hispanic (0.2%) populations. 

Dr. Volkow also cited studies indicating that cocaine use among high school students has 

remained essentially unchanged since 2003, with past year abuse rates for both forms of cocaine 

combined at 5.1 percent of 12th graders, 3.5 percent of 10th graders, and 2.2 percent of 8th

graders. Rates for crack cocaine specifically were 1.9 percent, 1.7 percent, and 1.4 percent, 

respectively. 

 Dr. Volkow reported that there has been a decline in the number of people admitted for 

treatment for cocaine addiction, according to the Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS). Primary 

cocaine admissions have decreased from approximately 297,000 in 1994 (18% of all admissions 

reported that year) to approximately 256,000 (14%) in 2004. Crack cocaine represented 72 

percent of all primary cocaine admissions in 2004. Among crack cocaine admissions, 53 percent 

were black, 38 percent were white, and 7 percent where Hispanic. The reverse pattern was 

evident for non-smoked cocaine, with whites accounting for 51 percent, blacks 28 percent, and 

Hispanics 16 percent. Dr. Volkow added that three out of four who enter an addiction treatment 

program for cocaine addiction are crack cocaine users. 

 According to Dr. Volkow, it is widely accepted that the intranasal route of administration 

is often the first way that many cocaine-dependent individuals use cocaine. She stated that 

although there are no pharmacological differences between powder cocaine and crack cocaine, 

there are differences in the route of administration that determine a user’s preference. It is much 

easier and more rewarding to smoke a drug than inject it, and a person may be afraid of 

contracting HIV, so one may favor smoking. She opined that is why we typically see a pattern in 

which use of a drug gravitates toward smoking once it becomes available in that form. 

 Cocaine’s acute effects as a stimulant appear almost immediately after a single dose, and 

disappear within a few minutes or hours, depending on the route of administration. The shortterm physiological effects of cocaine include constricted blood vessels, dilated pupils, and 

increased temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. Larger amounts may lead to erratic, 

psychotic, and even violent behavior. Dr. Volkow reports that there is no evidence that crack 

cocaine is more associated with violent behavior than IV drug use. Abusers of large amounts 

may experience tremors, vertigo, muscle twitches, paranoia, or a toxic reaction. In rare 

instances, sudden death can occur on the first use of cocaine or unexpectedly thereafter, often a 

result of cardiac arrest or seizures followed by respiratory arrest. 

 Dr. Volkow stated that there are significant medical complications associated with 

cocaine abuse. The most frequent complications stem from cardiovascular effects, including 

disturbances in heart rhythm and heart attacks; respiratory effects such as chest pain and 

respiratory failure; neurological effects, including strokes, seizures, and headaches; and 

gastrointestinal complications, including abdominal pain and nausea. Other health effects 

include increased risk of contracting infectious diseases such as HIV and hepatitis C. When 

people inject cocaine, there is a possibility of using contaminated material or paraphernalia. 

However, when they smoke or inject cocaine, the intoxication from cocaine produces changes 
 B-12

that increase risky sexual behaviors that put them at higher risk of contracting diseases such as 

HIV. 

 Dr. Volkow described cocaine as a powerfully addictive drug. She added that cocaine 

abusers often develop a rapid tolerance to the high. When this occurs, even while the blood 

levels of cocaine remain elevated, the pleasurable feelings begin to dissipate, causing the user to 

crave more. During this process, an individual may have difficulty controlling the extent to 

which he will want to use the drug. Dr. Volkow also cited a recent study indicating that about 

five percent of recent-onset cocaine abusers become addicted to cocaine within 24 months of 

starting use, but the risk of addiction is not randomly distributed. Females are three to four times 

more likely to become addicted within two years than males, and non-Hispanic black/African 

Americans are an estimated nine times more likely to become addicted to cocaine within two 

years than non-Hispanic whites. However, she emphasized that the excess risk is not attributable 

to crack cocaine smoking or injecting cocaine. 

 Dr. Volkow reported that several findings have recently emerged regarding the impact of 

in-utero exposure to cocaine – notably, these effects have not been as devastating as originally 

believed. There is a greater tendency for premature births in women who abuse cocaine. A 

neurologic examination at age six reveals no difference between gestational cocaine exposed and 

control subjects, but Dr. Volkow cautioned that the possibility of other underlying deficits cannot 

be excluded. She stated a recent follow-up study at age ten uncovered subtle problems in 

attention and impulse control, putting exposed children at higher risk of developing significant 

behavioral problems as cognitive demands increase. She concluded that estimating the full 

extent of the consequences of maternal cocaine, or any drug, abuse on the fetus and newborn 

remains very challenging and, therefore, caution should be used in searching for causal 

relationships. 

3. DR. HAROLYN BELCHER

 Dr. Harolyn Belcher, Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School 

of Medicine, testified regarding the prenatal effects of cocaine use. Dr. Belcher reported that 

according to the 2005 National Survey of Drug Use and Health, 3.9 percent of pregnant women 

ages 15 to 44 used illicit drugs in the past month prior to the survey, the same rates as 2002-

2003. Marijuana was the most commonly used illicit drug, accounting for approximately 74.2 

percent of current illicit drug use, and three times as many reported using powder cocaine as 

crack cocaine. These rates of fetal exposure accounted for approximately 159,000 with illicit 

drug exposure, versus 496,100 alcohol and 680,000 tobacco-exposed infants. 

 Dr. Belcher stated there are no scientific studies to date that compare the immediate and 

long term effects of intrauterine powder cocaine versus crack cocaine exposure on child 

development. Biologically, the rate of drug distribution varies depending on the method of 

administration, but the fetal effects of crack cocaine and powder cocaine, once they pass through 

the placenta, should be identical. 
 B-13

 According to Dr. Belcher, the physical and neurotoxic effects of alcohol exposure are 

significantly more devastating than cocaine exposure to the fetus. She reported that recent 

studies indicate that intrauterine cocaine exposure is associated with less risk of adverse health 

and neurodevelopmental outcomes in the child compared to fetal alcohol and cigarette (tobacco) 

exposure. Dr. Belcher added that fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is one of the leading identifiable 

and preventable causes of mental retardation and birth defects, occurring in 30 to 40 percent of 

pregnancies in which women drink heavily (greater than one drink of 1.5 ounces of distilled 

spirits, five ounces of wine, or 12 ounces of beer per day). 

 Dr. Belcher noted that children with intrauterine cocaine/polydrug exposure have similar 

cognitive outcomes as their socio-economically matched peers. Although subtle effects of 

cocaine exposure have been noted in language development at six and seven years of age, those 

effects were not observed at nine and one-half years of age. Similarly, some researchers have 

reported increased risk of developing externalizing behaviors among boys with intrauterine 

cocaine exposure, but other researchers have failed to observe such adverse outcomes. 

 In sum, Dr. Belcher stated that there is no evidence that one form of cocaine is 

biologically more harmful than the other to the fetus or developing child. Dr. Belcher 

emphasized that children with intrauterine cocaine exposure benefit from interventions that 

provide support, education, and medical surveillance and treatment services. 

F. ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH COMMUNITIES 

1. DR. ALFRED BLUMSTEIN

 Dr. Alfred Blumstein, Professor of Urban System and Operations Research, CarnegieMellon University, testified regarding violence associated with cocaine. According to Dr. 

Blumstein, violence associated with the crack cocaine market rose appreciably between 1985-

1993. He pointed to a 25 percent increase in homicide and robbery during that period and 

attributed the increase to gun use by young people who were recruited into the crack cocaine 

markets, largely as replacements for the large number of older sellers who were incarcerated. He 

asserted that the increase in the incarceration rate between 1980 and 2000 likely did not avert 

many drug transactions because of the recruitment of younger people as replacements. He added 

that, since crack cocaine typically is sold in street markets, sellers are inherently vulnerable to 

street robberies, and so they carry weapons for self defense. 

 Dr. Blumstein reported that the maturation and stabilization of the crack cocaine market 

has had an important effect in reducing the level of violence. He described a significant reduction 

in violence between 1993 and 2000, citing more than a 40 percent reduction in both homicide 

and robbery. Dr. Blumstein believed that a major contributor to that drop in violence is the 

decline in the demand for crack cocaine by new users, which in turn led to the dismissal of the 

young sellers that had previously been recruited. While the demand for cocaine in both its forms 

has continued, he stated that the violence associated with these markets decreased because the 

persistent demand is driven by longer-term users who can personally meet their demand rather 

than turn to violence-prone streets. 
 B-14

 Dr. Blumstein acknowledged that the initial intent of introducing the sentencing 

differential was understandable as a political response to the violence associated with the 

introduction of crack cocaine, but the violence was associated with the intense competition 

associated with the introduction of a new drug market. He stated the competitive violence has 

certainly abated, and in his view any difference that might appear between the powder cocaine 

and crack cocaine markets has nothing to do with the difference in the drugs themselves. Those 

differences can be attributed to differences in the venue of the market (e.g., street crack cocaine 

markets versus closed powder cocaine markets) or to the dispute resolution culture of the 

communities in which the market is located. 

 Dr. Blumstein pointed out that one of the attractive features of the federal sentencing 

guidelines is the ability to increase basic guideline sentences for aggravating features of the basic 

crime, such as carrying a gun or using a gun. This opportunity, according to Dr. Blumstein, 

obviates the need to differentiate between powder cocaine and crack cocaine in the drug 

guideline, which is important because of the perception that the sentencing differential is racially 

discriminatory. 

2. DR. BRUCE JOHNSON

 Dr. Bruce Johnson, Director, Institute for Special Populations Research, National 

Development and Research Institutes, testified regarding the changing trends of crack cocaine 

use and cocaine powder usage among arrestees in Manhattan since 1980. Dr. Johnson reported 

that the crack cocaine “epidemic” peaked between 1987 and 1989 in New York City, when about 

70 percent of all arrestees were detected as positive for use of either powder cocaine or crack 

cocaine. He added that there has been a substantial decline in detected cocaine, from about twothirds in 1987 through 1985 to about two-fifths in 2000 through 2003. Dr. Johnson attributed the 

decline primarily to the changing mix of birth cohorts among ethnic groups among New York 

City arrestees. 

 Dr. Johnson summarized data that show that older cohorts, those aged 35 and older in 

2003, comprise a diminishing proportion of arrestees in New York City, and this is the group that 

continues to have high rates of detected crack cocaine use. Conversely, among younger cohorts, 

those born after 1970, there was a considerable diminution in crack cocaine use. Thus, the 

overall decline is in great part because the younger generation, particularly of African-American 

males, has greatly diminished its use of crack cocaine. 

 Dr. Johnson reported that crack cocaine users appear to limit their criminal activities so 

as to bring about limited harm to others. Since 2000, only a small minority of crack cocaine 

users in New York City have carried guns or used weapons, engaged in aggravated assault, or 

otherwise harmed others. He concluded that violence is relatively rare among current cocaine 

users. Dr. Johnson stated that retail sales of powder cocaine occur mainly in private settings and 

primarily involve consumers who hold otherwise legal jobs and who typically avoid the crack 

cocaine market. Most low-level drug distributors added crack cocaine to their product line in the 

1990s. According to Dr. Johnson, most retail sales and low-level support roles, especially by 
 B-15

young women, are done to support one’s own crack cocaine consumption. He added that most 

crack cocaine distributors live at or below poverty levels, and very few are able to establish 

households or maintain a working class standard of living. 

 Dr. Johnson cited studies concluding that almost all violence associated with crack 

cocaine is “systemic violence,” that is violence that occurs within the drug distribution apparatus 

and among people who are engaged in drug selling and distribution. There is very little 

“pharmacological violence” that was caused by people being high on crack cocaine or coming 

down from a crack cocaine high. However, robbery of other drug distributors still is a significant 

problem and typically not reported to the police. 

 Dr. Johnson asserted that it is nearly impossible to document any deterrent effect of the 

100-to-1 drug quantity ratio because crack cocaine distributors rarely mention awareness of it or 

report changing business activities due to its existence. Moreover, he stated that the average 

crack cocaine distributor does not know with precision how much he possesses, but often 

believes it to be under five grams. Repeat purchases of bundles of vials or bags, each valued at 

$10, may exceed five grams, however. 

 Many persons in New York City were arrested from 2001 to 2003 for felony controlled 

substance possession (about 60,000 annually) and sale (about 20,000 annually), and Dr. Johnson 

believed that the majority of the arrests for controlled substance sale were for crack cocaine. 

Yet, he noted, very few face federal prosecution. Rather, the vast majority are prosecuted and 

sentenced under New York state law, which treats powder cocaine and crack cocaine equally and 

does not require a mandatory minimum sentence. 

 Dr. Johnson reported that among New York City arrestees, 26 percent self-report crack 

cocaine use in the past 72 hours, compared to 17 percent who self-report powder cocaine use. 

He cited recent studies that document that almost 90 percent of ADAM arrestees whose urine 

specimens tested positive for cocaine also had detectable metabolites for crack cocaine. He 

asserted these data suggest either a 10-to-1 or a 2-to-1 drug quantity ratio would be more 

appropriate than the current 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. 

3. DR. PETER REUTER

 Dr. Peter Reuter, Professor in the School of Public Policy and in the Department of 

Criminology, University of Maryland, testified that the inherent properties of the drug should 

guide the sentencing policy decision, not the contingent differences, i.e., those associated with its 

actual use. 

 Dr. Reuter explained that relatively safe powder cocaine can be converted to “more 

dangerous” crack cocaine simply by dissolving it with baking soda and boiling. Crack cocaine is 

converted from powder cocaine primarily at the lower market levels and at a cost that is trivial 

compared to the value of the cocaine itself. Thus, the same atoms that merit only a modest 

sentence when part of a wholesale dealer’s one pound bag of powder can elicit a five year 
 B-16

mandatory minimum sentence several layers down the distribution chain when they are part of a 

low-level seller’s five gram stash of crack cocaine. 

 Dr. Reuter acknowledged that route of administration matters to the user, and one 

generally expects faster and shorter acting routes of administration to be more reinforcing. 

However, Dr. Reuter asserted that the rapid course or action is not the primary motivation for the 

differential sentencing since smoking nicotine and injecting powder cocaine also act very fast. 

Rather, it is crack cocaine’s association with violence and the birth of drug-addicted infants that 

drove the fear of crack cocaine and resulted in the sentencing differential. However, he stated 

there is nothing intrinsic about crack cocaine being the base and not the alkaloid form of the 

molecule that made its retail markets so violent in the 1980s or that made it any more harmful in 

utero.

 Dr. Reuter cited studies indicating that, as compared to powder cocaine, crack cocaine is 

much more heavily used by poor, African American males than by other groups. He added there 

is little evidence of substantial white or Asian middle class crack cocaine dependence or abuse. 

 Dr. Reuter reported that the violence associated with crack cocaine has declined. In the 

mid-1980s, crack cocaine was used primarily by the young. Now, because rates of initiation and 

escalation into frequent use have been lower for a long time, the population of users has aged. 

For example, in 2004, among treatment admission for which crack cocaine is the primary drug of 

abuse, two-thirds of admissions were age 35 or older, a much higher age than for powder 

cocaine. He explained that relationships between any specific drug and behaviors such as crime 

and violence are subject to change over the course of a drug epidemic. 

 Dr. Reuter observed that crack cocaine historically has been associated with high levels 

of violence, but he questioned whether it is the drug itself or the interaction between the drug and 

the population that is the cause. Some might argue that crack cocaine is more dangerous 

precisely because it is more attractive to those for whom stimulants engender particularly 

harmful behavior: young, poorly-educated males in high-crime neighborhoods. Thus, if the goal 

of sentencing is in part retributive, it can be argued that selling crack cocaine has resulted in 

greater harm to society than selling cocaine powder and, therefore, longer sentences are 

appropriate. 

 Dr. Reuter cautioned, however, that this approach ignores the social and racial 

consequences of the interaction. Dr. Reuter stated that the disparity in sentences produced a 

tragic disproportion in the share of crack cocaine prison time served by African Americans. In 

his experience, a sentencing structure that is based solely on the damage inflicted during the 

early stages becomes increasingly arbitrary over time. This is because the sentencing regime 

typically is enacted when the drug is in its early phase of popularity, but each new drug becomes 

associated with an aging cohort of users over time, which reduces the level of violence 

associated with the drug. He asserted his belief that this is what has occurred with crack cocaine 

penalties. 
 B-17

 Dr. Reuter added that there is little evidence that increasing sentence lengths reduce drug 

use either by raising prices or reducing availability, citing a tripling of incarceration between 

1986 and 1997 that raised prices by only five to 15 percent, which he termed a modest 

accomplishment given the financial and human costs associated with incarceration. 

G. COMMUNITY REPRESENTATIVES AND INTERESTED PARTIES

1. FAMILIES AGAINST MANDATORY MINIMUMS

 Ms. Julie Stewart, President and Founder of the Families Against Mandatory Minimums 

(FAMM), testified that the same organizing principle that applied to other drugs should also 

apply to crack cocaine offenses, i.e., punish a mid-level dealer with a five year minimum 

sentence and a high-level dealer with a ten year minimum sentence. She stated that FAMM 

agrees with the Commission’s prior conclusions that the harm associated with crack cocaine does 

not justify substantially harsher treatment compared to powder cocaine. 

 Ms. Stewart endorsed the recommendations put forward by the Federal Public and 

Community Defenders, specifically: 

 

(1) Equalize guideline penalties for crack cocaine and powder cocaine at the powder 

 cocaine level. 

(2) Recommend to Congress that it do the same. 

(3) Refrain from adding new enhancements because existing guideline enhancements 

 and statutory penalties can be applied if appropriate. 

(4) Recommend that Congress repeal the mandatory minimum for simple possession 

 of crack cocaine. 

2. ACLU

 Ms. Jesslyn McCurdy, Legislative Counsel of the National Office American Civil 

Liberties Union (ACLU), testified that the ACLU opposes the disparity in sentencing for equal 

amounts of crack cocaine and powder cocaine. She urged the Commission to support 

amendments to federal law that would equalize crack cocaine and powder cocaine sentences at 

the current level of sentences for powder cocaine. She described the mandatory minimum of five 

years for simple possession of more than five grams of crack cocaine as “extraordinarily harsh.” 

 Ms. McCurdy delineated three principle areas of concern regarding the crack cocainepowder cocaine ratio. First, the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio has a racially discriminatory impact 

and has had a devastating impact on communities of color. Second, it created many myths 

associated with crack cocaine without supporting facts. Third, it does not reflect the original 

intent of Congress to focus on high-level drug traffickers. 
 B-18

 Ms. McCurdy cited data showing that the vast majority of offenders sentenced under the 

federal crack cocaine laws are Hispanic and African American, despite her belief that whites and 

Hispanics form the majority of crack cocaine users. According to Ms. McCurdy, in 2003, whites 

constituted 7.8 percent and African Americans constituted more than 80 percent of the 

defendants sentenced under the federal crack cocaine laws, while 66 percent of crack cocaine 

users are white or Hispanic. She noted that African Americans now serve virtually as much time 

in prison for a drug offense – 58.7 months – as whites do for a violent offense at 61.7 months. 

 She cited data indicating that African Americans make up 15 percent of the nation’s drug 

users, yet they comprise 37 percent of those arrested for drug violations, 59 percent of those 

convicted, and 74 percent of those sentenced to prison for a drug offense. In 1986, before the 

enactment of the federal mandatory minimum sentencing for crack cocaine offenses, the average 

federal drug sentence for African Americans was 11 percent higher than for whites. Four years 

later, the average federal drug sentence for African Americans was 49 percent higher than for 

whites. Ms. McCurdy concluded that a dramatic shift occurred in the overall incarceration trends 

for African Americans, relative to the rest of the nation, transforming federal prisons into 

institutions increasingly dedicated to the African American community. 

 Ms. McCurdy explained that the collateral consequences of the nation’s drug policies, 

racially targeted prosecutions, mandatory minimums, and crack cocaine sentencing disparities 

have had a devastating effect on African American men, women, and families. Mandatory 

minimums not only contribute to the disproportionately high incarceration rates, but also 

separate fathers from families, separate mothers with sentences for minor possession crimes from 

their children, leave children behind in the child welfare system, create disfranchisement of those 

with felony convictions, and prohibit previously incarcerated people from receiving social 

services. 

 Ms. McCurdy asserted that the rapid increase in the use of crack cocaine between 1984 

and 1986 created many myths about the effects of the drug in popular culture that were used to 

justify treating crack cocaine differently. For example, crack cocaine was said to destroy the 

maternal instinct and cause unique dangers to fetuses, which recent studies dispute. Similarly, 

crack cocaine was said to cause especially violent behavior in users, but most violence associated 

with crack cocaine results from the nature of the illegal market and is similar to violence 

associated with trafficking of other drugs. In addition, crack cocaine was thought to be instantly 

addictive, but the propensity for dependence depends on the method of ingestion, amount used, 

and frequency, not the form of the drug. She concluded there is no scientific or penological 

justification for the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. 

 Ms. McCurdy also asserted that the sentencing structure does not target high-level drug 

traffickers as originally intended by Congress. She cited the fact that the purity of cocaine has 

increased while the price has declined as evidence that the National Drug Control Strategy has 

not made progress in cutting off supply and that the country’s drug control policy has not 

properly focused on prosecuting high-level traffickers. 
 B-19

 Ms. McCurdy reported that the ACLU recommends that the quantities of crack cocaine 

that trigger federal prosecution and sentencing must be equalized with and increased to the 

current levels of powder cocaine. The ACLU believes that federal prosecutors must be properly 

focused on high level traffickers of both crack cocaine and powder cocaine. In addition, the 

mandatory minimum for simple possession of crack cocaine should be repealed. 

3. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT

OF COLORED PEOPLE (NAACP) 

 Mr. Hillary Shelton, Director of the Washington Bureau of the National Association for 

the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), testified and described the crack cocaine 

penalties as discriminatory, unfair, and immoral policy. He observed that despite the fact that 

cocaine use is roughly equal among the different populations of the nation, the vast majority of 

offenders who are tried, convicted, and sentenced under federal crack cocaine mandatory 

minimum sentences are African Americans. He asserted that because the law governing federal 

crack cocaine offenders has remained unaltered, so has the discriminatory impact. 

 Mr. Shelton acknowledged that policy makers could not have foreseen twenty years ago 

the vastly disparate impact that the 1986 law would have on communities of color. However, 

African Americans, especially low income African Americans, continue to be severely penalized 

at much greater rates than white Americans for drug use, and the policy is having a devastating 

effect on their communities. Mr. Shelton stated this reflects a callous disregard for the people of 

the African American communities. 

 Mr. Shelton stated that ongoing research has eroded the myths that crack cocaine is more 

addictive than powder cocaine, that crack cocaine users are, because of their choice in drug use, 

more violent than powder cocaine users, or that maternity wards are full of “crack babies.” He 

noted that medical authorities have found that crack cocaine is no more addictive than powder 

cocaine. 

 Mr. Shelton reported that the NAACP opposes increasing the penalties for powder 

cocaine so that they are more in line with those of crack cocaine. Such an approach, in his view, 

would not take into consideration the more even-handed, informed and balanced approach that 

went into the development of powder cocaine sentencing ranges and would only fill more prison 

cells with low-level offenders serving mandatory minimum sentences. He testified that the 

NAACP supports a 1-to-1 drug quantity ratio at current powder cocaine levels. 

4. SENTENCING PROJECT

 Mr. Ryan King, Policy Analyst at the Sentencing Project, testified that the Commission 

should recommend that Congress reform federal cocaine sentencing policy for four reasons. 

First, the current sentencing structure, with its reliance on quantity as the primary determinant for 

sentence length, is flawed by design and calibrated to target low-level crack cocaine users with 

five year mandatory minimum sentences. Second, the rationale that more severe crack cocaine 

penalties are necessary because of heightened correlations with more serious offenses amounts to 
 B-20

either a “double counting” of offense characteristics in cases with a serious concurrent offense or 

an unwarranted sentence enhancement in the remainder of cases. Third, the current federal 

cocaine sentencing policy has failed to produce any appreciable impact on the crack cocaine 

market. Fourth, the national consensus regarding demand reduction versus law enforcement has 

evolved over the last two decades to support a more treatment-oriented agenda. 

 Mr. King observed that the differential penalty threshold has been particularly 

controversial for two reasons. First, crack cocaine and powder cocaine are manufactured from 

the same compound of origin and their pharmacological roots are identical. Second, and most 

important, the weight level necessary to warrant a five year mandatory sentence for crack 

cocaine is set so low that it is likely to impact low-level users. He stated that it is entirely 

plausible that someone possessing five grams of crack cocaine, the equivalent of slightly less 

than two packets of sugar, could be holding that quantity for personal consumption. He 

estimated that five grams of crack cocaine translates to between 10 and 50 doses. By 

comparison, the 500 grams of powder cocaine necessary to trigger the five year mandatory 

minimum yields between 2,500 and 5,000 doses. Mr. King asserted that it is reasonable to 

consider than an individual might consume between 10 and 50 doses of crack cocaine during the 

course of a week, but nobody could consume 2,500 to 5,000 doses of powder cocaine. 

 Mr. King concluded that this improper calibration of weight threshold triggers has 

resulted in a disproportionate number of low-level offenders being convicted for crack cocaine 

offenses. According to Mr. King, the crack cocaine weight triggers bears no resemblance to the 

seriousness of the conduct. He added that reliance on this single factor to determine sentence 

exacerbates the aforementioned problems by exposing defendants who have played peripheral 

roles in the drug trade to sentences far out of proportion to their conduct in spite of potentially 

mitigating evidence. 

 Mr. King also observed that the fear that crack cocaine created a proclivity to engage in 

other serious criminal behavior led Congress to embed an assumption in favor of a defendant 

having committed a concurrent serious crime in the structure of the statutory penalty. Congress 

essentially codified the unsubstantiated, and subsequently refuted, belief that all crack cocaine 

defendants manifest a tendency toward more serious criminal offending. According to Mr. King, 

this is problematic for two reasons. First, for those who have not engaged in a lesser included or 

more serious offense, the enhanced penalty scheme categorically subjects crack cocaine 

defendants to a punishment based on uncommitted behavior. Second, for those who have been 

charged with a concurrent offense, the penalty differential double counts the charged conduct 

relative to a powder cocaine defendant. 

 Mr. King also concluded that federal cocaine sentencing policy has failed to disrupt drug 

markets, citing statistics that the number of users has remained stable for the last two decades; 

the number of annual new initiates during the 1990s remained level; and the average price per 

gram of a purchase between one and 15 grams actually declined by 57 percent from 1986 to 

2003. Mr. King suggested that if law enforcement or stiffer sentences were effective in deterring 

market entry, one would expect supply to decline and prices to increase, but the data show the 

opposite. He added that the fact that prices for powder cocaine, with its lower penalty structure, 
 B-21

have the same pattern further demonstrates that the federal crack cocaine penalty structure has 

not disrupted drug markets. He attributed this observation to the elasticity of drug markets in 

which there is generally a strong replacement effect of former sellers lost to prison. 

 Mr. King concluded that if Congress is unwilling to repeal mandatory minimum 

sentencing, the Commission should recommend increasing the crack cocaine mandatory 

minimum thresholds to the levels currently in place for powder cocaine. 

5. JUSTICE ROUNDTABLE

 

 Ms. Nkechi Taifi, Senior Policy Analyst for the Open Society Institute, testified on behalf 

of the Justice Roundtable. She related that on February 16, 2006, an open letter to Congress was 

sent by over 50 organizations regarding cocaine sentencing. They asserted that the 100-to-1 drug 

quantity ratio is too great and results in penalties that sweep too broadly, apply too frequently to 

lower level offenders, overstate the seriousness of the offenses, and produce insupportable racial 

disparity in sentencing. The groups stressed that justice necessitates that crack cocaine sentences 

have the same quantity triggers as those currently required for powder cocaine, as two decades of 

stringent crack cocaine sentencing have neither reduced cocaine trafficking nor improved the 

quality of life in deteriorating neighborhoods. Ms. Taifi strongly recommended that the 

Commission adhere to its original 1995 recommendation, which would begin to place the focus 

of federal cocaine drug enforcement on major drug traffickers. 

6. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF LA RAZA (NCLR) 

 Angela Arboleda, Associate Director for Criminal Justice Policy, National Council of La 

Raza (NCLR), testified that NCLR shares the concerns of other groups regarding the 

discriminatory effect of the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. Ms. Arbodela stated that NCLR relied 

on numerous studies over the past decade documenting severe racial and ethnic disparities 

against the Latino community in the criminal justice system. 

 Ms. Arboleda stated that in 2000 Latinos constituted 12.5 percent of the United States 

population but accounted for 43.4 percent of the total drug offenders that year (50.8% were 

convicted for a powder cocaine offense and 9% for a crack cocaine offense). Ms. Arboleda 

attributed the disproportionate number of Latino drug offenders to a combination of factors, but 

most particularly, racial profiling. She stated that Latinos are no more likely than other groups to 

use illegal drugs, but they are more likely to be arrested and charged with drug offenses and less 

likely to be released before trial. 

 Ms. Arboleda stated that NCLR believes the Hispanic community often is targeted by law 

enforcement for drug offenses based on their ethnicity. As evidence, she cited, among other 

statistics, the fact that Hispanics accounted for 30.3 percent of federal inmates in 1998, a rate 

twice as high as the group’s percentage of the population that year. Furthermore, Hispanics 

constituted 43.5 percent of those convicted of federal drug defendants in 2003. 
 B-22

 Ms. Arboleda observed that, contrary to popular stereotype, the overwhelming majority 

of incarcerated Latinos have been convicted of relatively minor nonviolent offenses, are first 

time offenders, or both. The cost of excessive incarceration to the groups affected, and to the 

broader society, in terms of reduced current economic productivity, barriers to future 

employment, inhibited civic participation, and growing racial/ethnic societal inequalities, is 

extremely high. 

 Ms. Arboleda reported that NCLR recommends the elimination of the sentencing 

differential by increasing the crack cocaine threshold quantities to the current powder cocaine 

threshold quantities. She urged the Commission to resist proposals that would lower the powder 

cocaine thresholds in order to achieve equalization between crack cocaine and powder cocaine 

and advocated making alternative methods of punishment for low-level, nonviolent drug 

offenders more widely available. She also suggested that DEA agents and federal prosecutors 

concentrate on solving the real problem – deterring the importation of millions of tons of powder 

cocaine – and prosecuting ring leaders with the fullest weight of law. 

7. CRIMINAL JUSTICE POLICY FOUNDATION

 Mr. Eric E. Sterling, President, Criminal Justice Policy Foundation, testified that the goal 

of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 was to give greater direction to the DEA and United States 

Attorneys on how to focus scarce law enforcement resources, specifically by focusing on major 

traffickers, the manufacturers, and heads of organizations who are responsible for creating and 

delivering very large quantities of drugs. He described state and local enforcement agencies as 

having an enormous capacity to effectively police neighborhood, local, and city-wide retail drug 

trafficking. According to Mr. Sterling, they have made between one and 1-1/2 million arrests for 

drug abuse violations annually for the last decade, and state courts impose about one-third of a 

million felony convictions annually. By contrast, the number of federal drug cases that can be 

brought is dramatically smaller, in the range of 20 to 30 thousand cases per year. Thus, 

Congress’s stated goal made sense. According to Mr. Sterling, however, Congress made a 

mistake by choosing quantities, particularly for cocaine, that have pointed the federal effort in 

the wrong direction, the lowest level of retail trade. 

 Mr. Sterling discussed the widely held belief that crack cocaine leads to more violence 

than powder cocaine and is more destructive to the communities in which it is used. He asserted 

the problem with this analysis is its pharmacological bias. Since the analysis attempts to find 

differences between crack cocaine and powder cocaine to justify the sentencing difference, it 

attributes any differences to the form of drug rather than other factors that cause or contribute to 

the problems, independent of the form of the drug. In short, attributing the plight of the most 

impoverished neighborhoods to crack cocaine ignores too many other real phenomena and other 

cultural problems. Although he acknowledged that crack cocaine no doubt contributes, so does 

alcohol abuse. 

 Mr. Sterling also stated that claims about crack cocaine’s unique addictiveness and its 

unique in utero devastation of fetal development have been discredited. Furthermore, 

pharmacologically there is no difference in the violence propensity of crack cocaine users versus 
 B-23

powder cocaine users. Mr. Sterling observed that when illegal drug markets are unstable and 

immature, violence is more common than when the markets are matured and stabilized. 

Violence is an inherent tool of all illegal drug markets, as disputes among market participants 

cannot be resolved to by resort to the courts. In addition, drug markets deal exclusively in cash, 

which creates robbery targets. As the markets mature, these risks diminish. Mr. Sterling 

asserted that nothing in the crack cocaine market is intrinsically more prone to violence than 

another busy illegal market. 

 Mr. Sterling concluded that the federal government should no longer be involved in retail 

drug cases and should focus on the international production and trafficking in cocaine, the 

highest level traffickers. He argued there should be no federal crack cocaine cases because such 

a case, by definition, is a retail case. 

8. BREAK THE CHAIN

 Ms. Deborah Peterson Small, Executive Director, Break the Chain, testified and 

recounted the growing criticism regarding the impact of the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. She 

stated that federal sentencing laws punish not only those who sell drugs, but also a wide range of 

people who help or merely associate with those who sell drugs and have a minimal or no 

involvement whatsoever in the drug trade. She added that the impact on women has been 

dramatic as they now constitute the fastest growing segment of the prison population. Women 

are now six times as likely to spend time in prison that they were prior to the passage of the 

mandatory minimum laws. 

 Ms. Small asserted that crack cocaine sentences are grossly disproportionate compared 

with sentences for other crimes. For example, a sale of five grams of crack cocaine for $400 

results in a five year sentence compared to the national average time served for homicide of 

about five years and four months. She cited evidence that the punitive sentencing structure has 

not produced benefits commensurate with the harms it is inflicting. For example, despite 

increased law enforcement focus on cocaine, the street prices of crack cocaine and powder 

cocaine have remained the same over the past decade, and cocaine purity is as high as it was at 

the height of the crack cocaine era. She concluded this shows that the strenuous efforts to target 

street level crack cocaine dealing has had little impact on supply and overall distribution. 

 Ms. Small stated that government surveys consistently show that drug use rates are 

similar across racial and ethnic groups and that two-thirds of crack cocaine users are white or 

Hispanic. Furthermore, studies show that the majority of drug users purchase their drugs from 

people who are the same racial or ethnic background as they are, which suggests that the 

majority of crack cocaine sellers are white. Nonetheless, African Americans comprised 82.3 

percent of federal crack cocaine defendants in 2005. 

 Ms. Small also rebutted claims by law enforcement that stronger penalties against crack 

cocaine are warranted because higher levels of violence are associated with the crack cocaine 

trade, citing two recent studies. She added that the disparate focus on drug law enforcement on 

poor inner-city neighborhoods, and particularly on young men in those communities, exacerbates 
 B-24

the endemic problems of poor performing schools, high unemployment, dysfunctional families, 

and persistent poverty. 

 Ms. Small urged the Commission to recommend eliminating the sentencing disparity by 

raising the threshold quantities that trigger the mandatory minimum penalties for crack cocaine 

to the threshold quantities that current exist for powder cocaine offenses. In addition, she urged 

repeal of the mandatory minimum for simple possession of crack cocaine. 
 C-1

Appendix C 

SUMMARY OF WRITTEN PUBLIC

COMMENT ON COCAINE

SENTENCING POLICY 

 On January 30, 2007, the Commission published in the Federal Register a notice 

requesting comment on any suggestions at the November 14, 2006, public hearing or any other 

suggestions (such as possible changes in the Drug Quantity Table) for addressing federal cocaine 

penalties. The Commission received written comment from several groups, including the United 

States Department of Justice; the Federal Public and Community Defenders, the Practitioners’ 

Advisory Group, National Council of La Raza, the Mexican American Legal Defense and 

Education Fund, the Sentencing Project, Human Rights Watch, members of the academic 

community, and concerned citizens. 

1. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

The Department of Justice emphasized that the existing penalties for crack cocaine 

offenses – including statutory mandatory minimum penalties and sentencing guidelines – have 

been an important part of the Federal government’s efforts to hold crack cocaine and powder 

cocaine traffickers accountable for their actions. The Department acknowledged that many view 

the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio as an example of unwarranted racial disparity in sentencing and 

that it may be appropriate to address the ratio. The Department stated its desire to work with the 

Commission, the Administration, and the Congress to determine whether any changes are 

necessary in the drug weight triggers for mandatory minimums and guidelines sentences for 

crack cocaine and powder cocaine trafficking. 

 The Department emphasized that only Congress can definitively alter federal cocaine 

sentencing policy, by modifying the existing statutes that define the federal penalty structure. 

The Department suggested that the Commission continue to fill its critical role by providing 

Congress, the Department, and the general public with updated research and data that will assist 

in the development of Federal cocaine sentencing policy, including updated information on the 

current sentencing environment, and on crack cocaine and powder cocaine sentences being 

imposed in Federal district courts. The Department reiterated it would oppose any sentencing 

guideline amendments that do not adhere to the statutes that currently set forth the penalty 

structures for federal cocaine offenses. 
 C-2

2. FEDERAL PUBLIC AND COMMUNITY DEFENDERS

The Federal Public and Community Defenders (FPCD) urged the Commission to amend 

the federal sentencing guidelines to eliminate the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio. Specifically, the 

FPDC endorsed reducing the threshold quantities for crack cocaine to the current threshold 

quantities for powder cocaine. In addition, FPDC suggested that the Commission add a 

downward departure provision for cases in which the offender successfully completes a drug 

treatment program. The FPDC stated that the disparity in existing federal cocaine sentencing 

policy lacks justification and causes detrimental effects to families, communities, and the entire 

federal criminal justice system. 

3. PRACTITIONERS’ ADVISORY GROUP

 The Practitioners’ Advisory Group (PAG) recommended that the Commission equalize 

crack cocaine and powder cocaine penalty levels at the existing powder cocaine penalty levels. 

In PAG’s view, the November 14, 2006, hearing testimony confirmed that equalization is 

appropriate and that the current federal cocaine penalty structure lacks supporting evidence. The 

PAG emphasized the testimony by many witnesses that the current crack cocaine penalty 

structure creates racial disparity in sentencing, which undermines confidence in the federal 

criminal justice system. 

 PAG stated that the various justifications cited for the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 have 

been shown to have been or are no longer true. PAG added that additional aggravating harms 

can be addressed through appropriate sentencing enhancements and adjustments. 

4. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF LA RAZA AND MEXICAN LEGAL DEFENSE AND 

EDUCATIONAL FUND

 

 The National Council of La Raza (NCLR) and the Mexican American Legal Defense and 

Educational Fund (MALDEF) recommended eliminating the sentencing differential between 

crack cocaine and powder cocaine by increasing the crack cocaine quantity thresholds to the 

existing powder cocaine quantity thresholds. Further, they urged the Commission to resist 

proposals to lower the powder cocaine threshold quantities in order to equalize the drug quantity 

ratio. 

 NCLR and MALDEF stated that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio disproportionately 

impacts communities of color and low income communities. They added that the racial 

imbalances in the justice system, while primarily affecting African Americans, increasingly are 

affecting Latinos. 

 NCLR and MALDEF observed that the majority of drug offenders are low-level, mostly 

nonviolent offenders. They also pointed out that drug use rates per capita among whites and 

minorities are similar. According to United States Census data, Latinos constituted 12.5 percent 

of the United States population, but Latinos comprised 43.4 percent of federal offenders 

sentenced in Fiscal Year 2000. In addition, the proportion of Hispanic drug offenders convicted 
 C-3

of powder cocaine and crack cocaine offenses has increased, from 39.8 percent of powder 

cocaine cases in 1992 to 50.8 percent in 2000, and from 5.3 percent to 9.0 percent for crack 

cocaine. NCLR and MALDEF attributed the increasing proportion of Latino offenders to 

significant inequalities in the United States criminal justice system. 

 NCLR and MALDEF also supported wider availability of alternative penalties, including 

substance abuse treatment for low-level, nonviolent offenders. They also suggested a renewed 

emphasis on prosecuting high level drug kingpins and halting importation of large quantities of 

powder cocaine into the United States. 

5. THE SENTENCING PROJECT 

 The Sentencing Project stated that the Commission should recommend that Congress 

repeal the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio and should modify the guidelines to reflect an 

equalization of crack cocaine and powder cocaine penalties at the current powder cocaine levels. 

The Sentencing Project stated that defendants charged with crack cocaine offenses receive 

disproportionately severe sentences because of an incorrect perception of a high association 

between crack cocaine and violence. The Sentencing Project pointed to data indicating that the 

majority of both crack cocaine and powder cocaine defendants did not involve weapons in their 

offense, and when they do, statutory penalty enhancements are available under 18 U.S.C. § 

924(c). 

 The Sentencing Project stated that the current federal cocaine sentencing policy has a 

disparate impact on the African American community, noting that eight out of ten persons 

convicted in federal court annually for crack offenses are African American. The Sentencing 

Project suggested that the harsh crack cocaine penalties have created distrust of law enforcement 

within African American communities, may result in the deliberate obstruction of investigations 

of other crimes, and may hinder jury selection. The Sentencing Project also asserted that the 

crack cocaine penalties are diverting resources from important social services to the prison 

system. 

6. HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH

 Human Rights Watch recommended that the Commission eliminate the sentencing 

disparity between crack cocaine and powder cocaine, stating that the crack cocaine sentences are 

disproportionately severe and have a racially discriminatory impact. Human Rights Watch 

observed that federal crack cocaine penalties are more severe than state crack cocaine penalties 

and more severe than drug trafficking penalties in European countries, where the average 

sentence is 33 months. Human Rights Watch asserted that there is much empirical data showing 

that the inherent pharmacological dangers of crack cocaine are not dramatically different from 

those of powder cocaine, that many of the alleged dangers of crack cocaine are myths, and that 

the harsh federal sentences have had little impact on the demand for or the availability of the 

drug. 
 C-4

 Human Rights Watch stated its belief that the historical concerns about violence and the 

increased use of crack cocaine that may have warranted sentencing differentials twenty years ago 

are outdated, and there is no justification for a sentencing differential. Thus, they supported 

elimination of the 100-to-1 drug current quantity ratio by increasing the crack cocaine threshold 

quantities to those currently in place for powder cocaine offenses. Further, they urged the 

Commission to recommend that Congress do the same. 

7. AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION

 The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) urged the Commission to recommend that 

Congress amend federal law to equalize the penalties for crack cocaine and powder cocaine at 

the current penalty levels for powder cocaine offenses. The ACLU emphasized support for this 

change among its members, academics, federal judges, prosecutors, and President Bush. In the 

ACLU’s view, the disparate sentencing regime has serious implications for due process and 

equal protection and raises concerns regarding freedom of association and freedom from 

disproportionate sentencing. 

 The ACLU stated that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio promotes unwarranted sentencing 

disparities based on race, citing studies that show that African Americans are more likely to be 

convicted of crack cocaine offenses and serve more time in prison for drug offenses than any 

other racial group. The ACLU stated this is disturbing because most crack cocaine users are not 

African American. The ACLU described the effects of cocaine sentencing policy on African 

American families and communities as including unemployment, broken families, and poverty. 

 The ACLU criticized the perceived relationship between crack cocaine use and violence 

as being unsupported by evidence. Furthermore, the ACLU maintained that the violence once 

associated with the intense competition in the crack cocaine market has abated. The ACLU also 

pointed out that there is double counting in cases in which an offender does possess both crack 

cocaine and a weapon because of the presumption of violence built into the drug quantity ratio 

for crack cocaine offenses and the separate penalties for weapons. 

 The ACLU also asserted that the goal of targeting high-level drug traffickers has failed in 

the context of crack cocaine because such low-level quantities trigger lengthy mandatory 

minimum penalties for crack cocaine offenders. In sum, the ACLU urged the Commission to 

recommend that Congress (1) equalize the quantities of crack cocaine that trigger federal 

prosecution and sentencing at the current levels for powder cocaine offenses (2) eliminate 

mandatory minimums for all cocaine offenses, and (3) focus federal prosecutions on high-level 

traffickers. 
 C-5

8. MAINE CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION

The Maine Civil Liberties Union (MCLU) recommended eliminating the sentencing 

disparity between crack cocaine and powder cocaine offenses by reducing the crack cocaine 

penalties to the existing powder cocaine penalties. MCLU asserted that the current disparity is 

inconsistent with the goals of sentencing set forth in 18 U.S.C. § 3553(a) and is at odds with the 

principles of the guidelines. MCLU suggested that crack cocaine penalties perhaps introduce a 

racial bias in sentencing that is the type of personal characteristic that is impermissible to 

consider in sentencing. 

 MCLU added that the sentencing disparity fails to reflect a difference in the seriousness 

of the two crimes, provide greater deterrence, or enhance public safety, and has caused both 

social and economic harm. MCLU stated that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio was based on 

incorrect factual assumptions and has proven counterproductive. Specifically, both forms of 

cocaine have identical effects, and the increased violence associated with crack cocaine’s 

appearance on the drug market was not associated with inherent properties of the drug. The 

existing policy results in unacceptable and perverse racial effects and squanders limited federal 

resources by failing to target major traffickers, as intended by Congress. 

9. DRUG POLICY ALLIANCE

 The Drug Policy Alliance requested that the Commission take action to equalize the 

guideline penalties for crack cocaine and powder cocaine at the current levels for powder cocaine 

offenses. The Drug Policy Alliance stated that crack cocaine and powder cocaine are made from 

the same substance. In addition, the Drug Policy Alliance stated that the existing sentencing 

policy has had an overwhelming disparate effect on people of color and the poor and 

disproportionately affects nonviolent drug offenders. According to the Drug Policy Alliance, 

federal sentencing law should focus on large scale distribution networks instead. 

10. NATIONAL AFRICAN AMERICAN DRUG POLICY COALITION

The National African American Drug Policy Coalition (NAADPC) urged the 

Commission to reaffirm its 1995 recommendation to repeal the mandatory five year sentence for 

simple possession of crack cocaine and eliminate the disparity between crack cocaine and 

powder cocaine by raising the threshold quantities for crack cocaine offenses to the existing 

threshold quantities for powder cocaine offenses. The NAADPC asserted that for Congress to 

maintain the existing crack cocaine sentencing disparity in the face of overwhelming evidence of 

its ineffectiveness and unfairness in application would have to be viewed as racist. 

The NAADPC compared the pharmacological characteristics of crack cocaine to 

methamphetamine and noted that while methamphetamine is generally accepted to be more 

addictive and more devastating in its effects on users and society, Congress has not responded in 

the same punitive fashion as it did for crack cocaine. Rather, the response has been to offer 

treatment for methamphetamine addiction. The NAAPDC lamented that this more 

compassionate response has not carried over to people addicted to crack cocaine. 
 C-6

11. FAMILIES AGAINST MANDATORY MINIMUMS

Families Against Mandatory Minimums (FAMM) stated that the 100-to-1 drug quantity 

ratio punishes low-level crack cocaine offenders far more severely than the wholesale drug 

suppliers who provide the low level offenders with the powder cocaine needed to produce the 

crack cocaine. FAMM added that among all drug defendants, crack cocaine offenders are most 

likely to receive a sentence of imprisonment and receive longer periods of incarceration. 

 FAMM asserts that the current sentencing policy has not resulted in any appreciable 

impact on the cocaine trade, and the harms associated with crack cocaine do not justify its 

substantially harsher treatment compared to powder cocaine. FAMM believes the new Congress 

provides a fresh opportunity to develop bipartisan support for amending the crack cocaine 

penalties and urges the Commission to propose a guideline amendment that ends the sentencing 

disparities between crack cocaine and powder cocaine by applying the existing penalty levels for 

powder cocaine offenses to crack cocaine offenses as well. 

12. 108 LAW SCHOOL PROFESSORS

One hundred eight law school professors from various law schools around the nation 

urged the Commission to make a formal recommendation to Congress to equalize the threshold 

quantities for crack cocaine offenses at the current threshold quantities for powder cocaine 

offenses. The professors stated that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio promotes unwarranted racial 

disparity in sentencing. According to the professors, African Americans comprise the 

overwhelming majority of those convicted of crack cocaine offenses, but the majority of crack 

cocaine users are white and Hispanic. They added that the drug quantity ratio results in African 

Americans serving considerably longer person terms than whites for drug offenses. 

13. 308 UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS AND SCHOLARS

 Three hundred eight professors from various universities expressed concern about the 

sentencing disparity between crack cocaine and powder cocaine offenses and supported 

equalization of the penalties at the existing penalty levels for powder cocaine offenses. The 

professors stated their belief that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio creates a false impression that 

crack cocaine is 100 times more dangerous and destructive than powder cocaine, when two 

decades of research shows the effects of the two forms of the drug are the same. They noted the 

myths of crack cocaine babies, instant addiction, super-violent users and traffickers have been 

dispelled. 

 The professors stated that the current sentencing policy has resulted in alarmingly 

disproportionate incarceration rates for African Americans, which is disturbing given that whites 

and Hispanics account for the majority of crack cocaine users in the country. They also noted 

the dramatic increase in the number of women in federal prison as a result of the penalty scheme. 

According to the professors, the incarceration rate for African American women, driven by drug 

convictions, has increased by 800 percent since 1986, compared to an increase of 400 percent for 

women of all races during the same period. 
 C-7

 The professors also expressed that mandatory minimum penalties generally result in the 

deterioration of communities by incarcerating parents for minor possession crimes, preventing 

some from receiving social services, and causing massive disenfranchisement. 

14. STUDENTS FOR SENSIBLE DRUG POLICY

Students for Sensible Drug Policy (SSDP) urged the Commission to eliminate the 

sentencing disparity between crack cocaine and powder cocaine offenses by conforming crack 

cocaine penalties to the existing penalties for powder cocaine offenses. SSDP emphasized the 

effect that the disparity has on students’ eligibility for certain scholarships that are conditioned 

upon the students’ lack of a felony conviction. According to SSDP, students who leave school 

are more likely to develop serious drug problems, commit crimes, and rely on social programs 

instead of becoming law abiding, productive members of society. SSDP also stated its concern 

with the racial implications of the sentencing disparity between crack cocaine and powder 

cocaine offenses.

15. CITIZEN LETTERS

 The Commission received several letters from individual citizens expressing their 

opinions regarding federal cocaine sentencing policy. The general consensus of these citizens is 

that the current federal cocaine sentencing policy creates racial disparity in sentencing. They 

generally stated that the 100-to-1 drug quantity ratio is flawed because scientific and medical 

experts have determined the pharmacological effects of cocaine are the same regardless of the 

substance’s form. Many requested that the Commission support an equalization of the penalty 

structure for crack cocaine offenses and powder cocaine offenses at the levels currently used to 

sentence powder cocaine offenses. Some urged that greater emphasis be placed on high-level 

traffickers and distributors rather than users. Some of the citizens also advocated for the 

elimination of the mandatory minimum sentences for both crack cocaine and powder cocaine 

offenses to provide judges more discretion at sentencing. Finally, one citizen suggested 

sentences should include more treatment options for drug addicts. 
D-1 

Appendix D 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND 

PRISON IMPACT ANALYSIS 

 The following analyses present sentencing impact and prison impact information on a variety of 

models of possible modifications to the crack cocaine penalty levels. Each model presumes a 

modification to the existing quantity-based statutory mandatory minimum penalties and implements 

changes to the Drug Equivalency Table in USSG §2D1.1 (Unlawful Manufacturing, Importing, 

Exporting, or Trafficking (Including Possession with Intent to Commit These Offenses); Attempt or 

Conspiracy) that correspond to the modified mandatory minimum threshold quantities.1

 The effects of each possible modification are reported in two tables. The first table presents the 

proportion of cases affected by the modification,2 the current average sentence of all crack cocaine 

cases, and the estimated new average sentence. The second table presents the estimated change in the 

number of prison beds required should the modification be adopted. Each analysis applies the 

Commission’s prison impact model to the 2006 Fiscal Year datafile.3

 

1 These models modify USSG §2D1.1 to adjust the statutory mandatory minimum quantity thresholds for crack 

cocaine and apply the changes throughout the Drug Quantity Table. The models only revise the Drug Quantity 

Table for crack cocaine offenses. 

2 Not all cases are affected by any single modification presented in this analysis because of four possible 

scenarios: 

1) drug quantity involved in the offense is sufficiently low that, regardless of the new quantity at base 

offense level 12 (the lowest level in the Drug Quantity Table for crack cocaine cases), the base offense 

level does not change; 

2) drug quantity involved in the offense is sufficiently great at base offense level 38 (the highest offense 

level in the Drug Quantity Table) that it continues to exceed the new threshold; 

3) the new quantity thresholds overlap at some point with current quantity levels in the Drug Quantity 

Table, resulting in no change to the base offense level; and 

4) cases with multiple counts may be controlled, for sentencing purposes, by a guideline other than USSG 

§2D1.1.

3 The U.S. Sentencing Commission’s prison impact computer model identifies and re-sentences cases in 

Commission datafiles. The model recalculates the relevant guideline based on specified changes (e.g., drug 

amounts that correspond to base offense levels) and compares the recalculated offense levels to existing offense 

levels. The model then reassigns any Chapter Three adjustments and outside the range sentences that currently 

exist in each case. Finally, the model “respots” the new sentence in the new guideline range to a location 

equivalent to the location in the guideline range of the current sentence. 
D-2 

 For example, the first series of tables reports the effect of changing the existing quantity 

thresholds for crack cocaine offenses to provide that 20 grams of crack cocaine would trigger a 

mandatory term of imprisonment of five years, and 200 grams of crack cocaine would trigger a 

mandatory term of imprisonment of ten years. The model incorporates these changes into the Drug 

Quantity Table in USSG §2D1.1. In this example, 85.1 percent of crack cocaine offenders sentenced in 

2006 are estimated to be affected by this modification. The current average sentence of crack cocaine 

offenders is 121 months. The average sentence for all crack cocaine offenders is estimated to change to 

90 months, a 25.6 percent decrease. The corresponding estimated changes to the prison population is 

presented in the accompanying table. Under this modification (as with all modifications presented in 

this analysis), fewer prison beds are necessary because offenders are released sooner than they otherwise 

would be under the current statutory and guideline penalty structure for federal crack cocaine offenders. 

The reduction in prison beds for crack cocaine offenders one year after this modification takes effect is 

115 beds, after two years, 476 beds, and so on. The remaining tables present this information in the 

same format. 

A summary of the results of all of the models follows the individual analyses. 

_________________________ 

The prison impact model estimates the change to an hypothetical "steady-state" prison population 

resulting from changes that affect prison sentence length. The concept of a "steady-state" population envisions a 

prison system in homeostasis. That is, the number of new, in-coming inmates is assumed to be equal to the 

number of out-going (released) inmates and all beds are assumed to be occupied. In order to isolate the changes 

to the system caused by the specific policy under review, a number of factors are artificially held constant in the 

model. For example, arrest rates, charging practices, conviction rates, other sentencing policies, etc. are assumed 

to remain constant over time. 

Assumptions incorporated into the prison impact model include: 1) defendants are re-sentenced to a 

position in the estimated new guideline range that is equivalent to the position of the sentence in the original 

guideline range; 2) defendants earn the maximum allowable good-time (currently 54 days per year served for 

imposed sentences greater than one year but not life imprisonment); and 3) defendants serve the minimum of A) 

the sentence imposed less the maximum allowable good conduct time, or B) their estimated remaining life 

expectancy, based upon an actuary table incorporating age, race, and sex. 

If the proposed amendment lengthens sentences, the “steady-state” prison population increases because 

inmate release dates would be later if the new, longer sentence were applied. These delayed release dates would 

cause offenders to accumulate in the prison system. Because new inmates arrive at a constant rate, additional 

beds are required. If the proposed amendment shortens sentences, the “steady-state” prison population decreases 

because inmates would be released earlier, and early releases would free up prison beds. 
D-3 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT MODEL OF 

CRACK COCAINE FIVE YEAR MANDATORY MINIMUM THRESHOLD AT 20 GRAMS

CRACK COCAINE-POWDER COCAINE RATIO 25-TO-1

Estimated Sentence Change

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold Percent of Cases Affected

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

A

Estim

Average 

(

Crack Cocaine = 20g 85.1% 121 

Estimated Reduction in Prison Beds

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 

Crack Cocaine = 20g -115 -476 -1,077 -1,747 -2,538 

This model assumes no change to the current mandatory minimum sentencing threshold for powder cocaine offensesSOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile. 
D-4 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT MODEL OF 

CRACK COCAINE FIVE YEAR MANDATORY MINIMUM THRESHOLD AT 25 GRAMS

CRACK COCAINE-POWDER COCAINE RATIO 20-TO-1

Estimated Sentence Change

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold Percent of Cases Affected

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

A

Estim

Average 

(

Crack Cocaine = 25g 86.4% 121 

Estimated Reduction in Prison Beds

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 

Crack Cocaine = 25g -143 -566 -1,294 -2,075 -3,018 

This model assumes no change to the current mandatory minimum sentencing threshold for powder cocaine offensesSOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile. 
D-5 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT MODEL OF 

CRACK COCAINE FIVE YEAR MANDATORY MINIMUM THRESHOLD AT 33.3 GRAMS

CRACK COCAINE-POWDER COCAINE RATIO 15-TO-1

Estimated Sentence Change

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold Percent of Cases Affected

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

A

Estim

Average 

(

Crack Cocaine = 33.3g 87.41% 121 

Estimated Reduction in Prison Beds

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 

Crack Cocaine = 33.3g -196 -727 -1,616 -2,582 -3,707 

This model assumes no change to the current mandatory minimum sentencing threshold for powder cocaine offensesSOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile. 
D-6 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT MODEL OF 

CRACK COCAINE FIVE YEAR MANDATORY MINIMUM THRESHOLD AT 50 GRAMS

CRACK COCAINE-POWDER COCAINE RATIO 10-TO-1

Estimated Sentence Change

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold Percent of Cases Affected

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

A

Estim

Average 

(

Crack Cocaine = 50g 88.6% 121 

Estimated Reduction in Prison Beds

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 

Crack Cocaine = 50g -274 -978 -2,084 -3,295 -4,658 

This model assumes no change to the current mandatory minimum sentencing threshold for powder cocaine offensesSOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile. 
D-7 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT MODEL OF 

CRACK COCAINE FIVE YEAR MANDATORY MINIMUM THRESHOLD AT 100 GRAMS

CRACK COCAINE-POWDER COCAINE RATIO 5-TO-1

Estimated Sentence Change

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold Percent of Cases Affected

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

A

Estim

Average 

(

Crack Cocaine = 100g 89.5% 121 

Estimated Reduction in Prison Beds

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 

Crack Cocaine = 100g -416 -1,553 -3,044 -4,734 -6,477 

This model assumes no change to the current mandatory minimum sentencing threshold for powder cocaine offensesSOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile. 
D-8 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT MODEL OF 

CRACK COCAINE FIVE YEAR MANDATORY MINIMUM THRESHOLD AT 250 GRAMS

CRACK COCAINE-POWDER COCAINE RATIO 2-TO-1

Estimated Sentence Change

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold Percent of Cases Affected

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

A

Estim

Average 

(

Crack Cocaine = 250g 90.2% 121 

Estimated Reduction in Prison Beds

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 

Crack Cocaine = 250g -767 -2,337 -4,443 -6,570 -8,723 

This model assumes no change to the current mandatory minimum sentencing threshold for powder cocaine offensesSOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile. 
D-9 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT MODEL OF 

CRACK COCAINE FIVE YEAR MANDATORY MINIMUM THRESHOLD AT 500 GRAMS

CRACK COCAINE-POWDER COCAINE RATIO 1-TO-1

Estimated Sentence Change

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold Percent of Cases Affected

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

A

Estim

Average 

(

Crack Cocaine = 500g 90.4% 121 

Estimated Reduction in Prison Beds

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 

Crack Cocaine = 500g -1,049 -2,992 -5,404 -7,750 -10,010 

This model assumes no change to the current mandatory minimum sentencing threshold for powder cocaine offensesSOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile. 
D-10 

Summary of Sentencing Impact and Prison Impact Estimates 

Five Year Mandatory Minimum Penalty Threshold Model 

Percent of 

Cases Affected 

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

All Cases:

Estimated New 

Average Sentence

(months)

Crack Cocaine = 20g (ratio 25-to-1)4 85.1% 121 90 

Crack Cocaine = 25g (ratio 20-to-1) 86.4% 121 86 Crack Cocaine = 33.3g (ratio 15-to-1) 87.4% 121 81 Crack Cocaine = 50g (ratio 10-to-1) 88.6% 121 75 Crack Cocaine = 100g (ratio 5-to-1) 89.5% 121 66 Crack Cocaine = 250g (ratio 2-to-1) 90.2% 121 55 Crack Cocaine = 500g (ratio 1-to-1) 90.4% 121 50 

These models assume no change to the current mandatory minimum sentencing threshold for powder cocaine offensSOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile. 4 The ratio refers to the relationship between the statutory quantity thresholds triggering a five year mandatory minimum senten

and crack cocaine. In this model, the five year crack cocaine quantity threshold is set at 20 grams and the powder cocaine quan

500 grams (as it does in all of the models). This results in a ratio such that it requires 25 times more powder cocaine than crack same statutory and guideline sentence. 
E-1 

Appendix E 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND 

PRISON IMPACT ANALYSIS FOR 

CRACK COCAINE AMENDMENT 

A. CRACK COCAINE GUIDELINE AMENDMENT

On April 27, 2007, the Commission promulgated an amendment to USSG §2D1.1 (Unlawful 

Manufacturing, Importing, Exporting, or Trafficking (Including Possession with Intent to Commit These 

Offenses); Attempt or Conspiracy) to adjust the quantity thresholds for crack cocaine (“cocaine base”) 

so that the base offense level for cocaine base, as determined by the Drug Quantity Table, will be 

reduced by two levels. The amendment results in the base offense level corresponding to a guideline 

range that includes the five-year and ten-year mandatory minimum terms of imprisonment for five and 

50 grams of crack cocaine, respectively. Prior to the amendment, at least five grams but less than 20 

grams of cocaine base were assigned a base offense level of 26 (63 to 78 months at Criminal History 

Category I), and at least 50 grams but less than 150 grams of cocaine base were assigned a base offense 

level of 32 (121 to 151 months at Criminal History Category I). Pursuant to the amendment, those same 

quantities of cocaine base will be assigned a base offense level of 24 (51 to 63 months at Criminal 

History Category I) and 30 (97 to 121 months at Criminal History Category I), respectively. 

The amendment also addresses how to determine the base offense level in a case involving 

cocaine base and other controlled substances. Prior to the amendment, there was a mathematical 

relationship among all drug types that was used to structure both the Drug Quantity Table and the Drug 

Equivalency Tables. As a result, the marihuana equivalencies set forth in Drug Equivalency Tables 

could be used to determine the base offense level in any case involving differing controlled substances. 

By restructuring the Drug Quantity Table for cocaine base offenses only, the amendment will alter the 

mathematical relationship between cocaine base and other drug types to varying degrees throughout the 

Drug Quantity Table. The amendment, therefore, provides an alternative method for determining the 

combined offense level in an offense involving cocaine base and other drugs. 

The amendment, which absent congressional action to the contrary becomes effective November 

1, 2007, is set forth below, followed by a sentencing and prison impact analysis. 
E-2 

Amendment: 

§2D1.1. Unlawful Manufacturing, Importing, Exporting, or Trafficking (Including Possession with 

Intent to Commit These Offenses); Attempt or Conspiracy 

 (a) Base Offense Level (Apply the greatest): 

 (1) 43, if the defendant is convicted under 21 U.S.C. § 841(b)(1)(A), (b)(1)(B), or 

(b)(1)(C), or 21 U.S.C. § 960(b)(1), (b)(2), or (b)(3), and the offense of 

conviction establishes that death or serious bodily injury resulted from the use of 

the substance and that the defendant committed the offense after one or more 

prior convictions for a similar offense; or 

(2) 38, if the defendant is convicted under 21 U.S.C. § 841(b)(1)(A), (b)(1)(B), or 

(b)(1)(C), or 21 U.S.C. § 960(b)(1), (b)(2), or (b)(3), and the offense of 

conviction establishes that death or serious bodily injury resulted from the use of 

the substance; or 

(3) the offense level specified in the Drug Quantity Table set forth in subsection (c), 

except that if (A) the defendant receives an adjustment under §3B1.2 (Mitigating 

Role); and (B) the base offense level under subsection (c) is (i) level 32, decrease 

by 2 levels; (ii) level 34 or level 36, decrease by 3 levels; or (iii) level 38, 

decrease by 4 levels. 

(b) Specific Offense Characteristics 

(1) If a dangerous weapon (including a firearm) was possessed, increase by 2 levels. 

(2) If the defendant unlawfully imported or exported a controlled substance under 

circumstances in which (A) an aircraft other than a regularly scheduled 

commercial air carrier was used to import or export the controlled substance, or 

(B) the defendant acted as a pilot, copilot, captain, navigator, flight officer, or 

any other operation officer aboard any craft or vessel carrying a controlled 

substance, increase by 2 levels. If the resulting offense level is less than level 26, 

increase to level 26. 

(3) If the object of the offense was the distribution of a controlled substance in a 

prison, correctional facility, or detention facility, increase by 2 levels. 

(4) If (A) the offense involved the importation of amphetamine or methamphetamine 

or the manufacture of amphetamine or methamphetamine from listed chemicals 

that the defendant knew were 

imported unlawfully, and (B) the defendant is not subject to an adjustment under 

§3B1.2 (Mitigating Role), increase by 2 levels. 

(5) If the defendant, or a person for whose conduct the defendant is accountable 

under §1B1.3 (Relevant Conduct), distributed a controlled substance through 

mass-marketing by means of an interactive computer service, increase by 2

levels. 
E-3 

(6) If the offense involved the distribution of an anabolic steroid and a masking 

agent, increase by 2 levels. 

(7) If the defendant distributed an anabolic steroid to an athlete, increase by 2 levels. 

(8) (Apply the greater): 

(A) If the offense involved (i) an unlawful discharge, emission, or release 

into the environment of a hazardous or toxic substance; or (ii) the 

unlawful transportation, treatment, storage, or disposal of a hazardous 

waste, increase by 2 levels. 

(B) If the offense (i) involved the manufacture of amphetamine or 

methamphetamine; and (ii) created a substantial risk of harm to (I) 

human life other than a life described in subdivision (C); or (II) the 

environment, increase by 3 levels. If the resulting offense level is less 

than level 27, increase to level 27. 

(C) If the offense (i) involved the manufacture of amphetamine or 

methamphetamine; and (ii) created a substantial risk of harm to the life 

of a minor or an incompetent, increase by 6 levels. If the resulting 

offense level is less than level 30, increase to level 30. 

(9) If the defendant meets the criteria set forth in subdivisions (1)-(5) of subsection 

(a) of §5C1.2 (Limitation on Applicability of Statutory Minimum Sentences in 

Certain Cases), decrease by 2 levels. 

[Subsection (c) (Drug Quantity Table) is set forth on the following pages.] 

(d) Cross References 

(1) If a victim was killed under circumstances that would constitute murder under 18 

U.S.C. § 1111 had such killing taken place within the territorial or maritime 

jurisdiction of the United States, apply §2A1.1 (First Degree Murder) or §2A1.2 

(Second Degree Murder), as appropriate, if the resulting offense level is greater 

than that determined under this guideline. 

(2) If the defendant was convicted under 21 U.S.C. § 841(b)(7) (of distributing a 

controlled substance with intent to commit a crime of violence), apply §2X1.1 

(Attempt, Solicitation, or Conspiracy) in respect to the crime of violence that the 

defendant committed, or attempted or intended to commit, if the resulting offense 

level is greater than that determined above. 

(e) Special Instruction 

(1) If (A) subsection (d)(2) does not apply; and (B) the defendant committed, or 

attempted to commit, a sexual offense against another individual by distributing, with 

or without that individual’s knowledge, a controlled substance to that individual, an 

adjustment under §3A1.1(b)(1) shall apply. 
E-4 

(c) DRUG QUANTITY TABLE

Controlled Substances and Quantity* Base Offense Level 

(1) z 30 KG or more of Heroin; 

z 150 KG or more of Cocaine; 

z 1.54.5 KG or more of Cocaine Base; 

z 30 KG or more of PCP, or 3 KG or more of PCP (actual); 

z 15 KG or more of Methamphetamine, or 1.5 KG or more of 

Methamphetamine (actual), or 1.5 KG or more of "Ice"; 

z 15 KG or more of Amphetamine, or 1.5 KG or more of Amphetamine (actual); 

z 300 G or more of LSD; 

z 12 KG or more of Fentanyl; 

z 3 KG or more of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z 30,000 KG or more of Marihuana; 

z 6,000 KG or more of Hashish; 

z 600 KG or more of Hashish Oil; 

z 30,000,000 units or more of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z 1,875,000 units or more of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 38

(2) z At least 10 KG but less than 30 KG of Heroin; 

z At least 50 KG but less than 150 KG of Cocaine; 

z At least 500 G1.5 KG but less than 1.54.5 KG of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 10 KG but less than 30 KG of PCP, or at least 1 KG but less than 3 

KG of PCP (actual); 

z At least 5 KG but less than 15 KG of Methamphetamine, or at least 500 G but 

less than 1.5 KG of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 500 G but less than 

1.5 KG of "Ice"; 

z At least 5 KG but less than 15 KG of Amphetamine, or at least 500 G but less 

than 1.5 KG of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 100 G but less than 300 G of LSD; 

z At least 4 KG but less than 12 KG of Fentanyl; 

z At least 1 KG but less than 3 KG of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 10,000 KG but less than 30,000 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 2,000 KG but less than 6,000 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 200 KG but less than 600 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 10,000,000 but less than 30,000,000 units of Schedule I or II 

Depressants; 

z At least 625,000 but less than 1,875,000 units of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 36

(3) z At least 3 KG but less than 10 KG of Heroin; 

z At least 15 KG but less than 50 KG of Cocaine; 

z At least 150500 G but less than 500 G1.5 KG of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 3 KG but less than 10 KG of PCP, or at least 300 G but less than 1 

KG of PCP (actual); 

z At least 1.5 KG but less than 5 KG of Methamphetamine, or at least 150 G but 

less than 500 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 150 G but less than 

500 G of "Ice"; 

z At least 1.5 KG but less than 5 KG of Amphetamine, or at least 150 G but less 

than 500 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 30 G but less than 100 G of LSD; 

z At least 1.2 KG but less than 4 KG of Fentanyl; 

Level 34
E-5 

z At least 300 G but less than 1 KG of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 3,000 KG but less than 10,000 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 600 KG but less than 2,000 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 60 KG but less than 200 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 3,000,000 but less than 10,000,000 units of Schedule I or II 

Depressants; 

z At least 187,500 but less than 625,000 units of Flunitrazepam. 

(4) z At least 1 KG but less than 3 KG of Heroin; 

z At least 5 KG but less than 15 KG of Cocaine; 

z At least 50150 G but less than 150500 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 1 KG but less than 3 KG of PCP, or at least 100 G but less than 300 G 

of PCP (actual); 

z At least 500 G but less than 1.5 KG of Methamphetamine, or at least 50 G but 

less than 150 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 50 G but less than 

150 G of "Ice"; 

z At least 500 G but less than 1.5 KG of Amphetamine, or at least 50 G but less 

than 150 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 10 G but less than 30 G of LSD; 

z At least 400 G but less than 1.2 KG of Fentanyl; 

z At least 100 G but less than 300 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 1,000 KG but less than 3,000 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 200 KG but less than 600 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 20 KG but less than 60 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 1,000,000 but less than 3,000,000 units of Schedule I or II 

Depressants; 

z At least 62,500 but less than 187,500 units of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 32

(5) z At least 700 G but less than 1 KG of Heroin; 

z At least 3.5 KG but less than 5 KG of Cocaine; 

z At least 3550 G but less than 50150 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 700 G but less than 1 KG of PCP, or at least 70 G but less than 100 G 

of PCP (actual); 

z At least 350 G but less than 500 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 35 G but 

less than 50 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 35 G but less than 50 

G of "Ice"; 

z At least 350 G but less than 500 G of Amphetamine, or at least 35 G but less 

than 50 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 7 G but less than 10 G of LSD; 

z At least 280 G but less than 400 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 70 G but less than 100 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 700 KG but less than 1,000 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 140 KG but less than 200 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 14 KG but less than 20 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 700,000 but less than 1,000,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 43,750 but less than 62,500 units of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 30

(6) z At least 400 G but less than 700 G of Heroin; 

z At least 2 KG but less than 3.5 KG of Cocaine; 

z At least 2035 G but less than 3550 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 400 G but less than 700 G of PCP, or at least 40 G but less than 70 G 

of PCP (actual); 

z At least 200 G but less than 350 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 20 G but 

Level 28
E-6 

less than 35 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 20 G but less than 35 

G of "Ice"; 

z At least 200 G but less than 350 G of Amphetamine, or at least 20 G but less 

than 35 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 4 G but less than 7 G of LSD; 

z At least 160 G but less than 280 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 40 G but less than 70 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 400 KG but less than 700 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 80 KG but less than 140 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 8 KG but less than 14 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 400,000 but less than 700,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 25,000 but less than 43,750 units of Flunitrazepam. 

(7) z At least 100 G but less than 400 G of Heroin; 

z At least 500 G but less than 2 KG of Cocaine; 

z At least 520 G but less than 2035 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 100 G but less than 400 G of PCP, or at least 10 G but less than 40 G 

of PCP (actual); 

z At least 50 G but less than 200 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 5 G but less 

than 20 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 5 G but less than 20 G of 

"Ice"; 

z At least 50 G but less than 200 G of Amphetamine, or at least 5 G but less than 

20 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 1 G but less than 4 G of LSD; 

z At least 40 G but less than 160 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 10 G but less than 40 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 100 KG but less than 400 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 20 KG but less than 80 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 2 KG but less than 8 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 100,000 but less than 400,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 6,250 but less than 25,000 units of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 26

(8) z At least 80 G but less than 100 G of Heroin; 

z At least 400 G but less than 500 G of Cocaine; 

z At least 45 G but less than 520 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 80 G but less than 100 G of PCP, or at least 8 G but less than 10 G of 

PCP (actual); 

z At least 40 G but less than 50 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 4 G but less 

than 5 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 4 G but less than 5 G of 

"Ice"; 

z At least 40 G but less than 50 G of Amphetamine, or at least 4 G but less than 

5 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 800 MG but less than 1 G of LSD; 

z At least 32 G but less than 40 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 8 G but less than 10 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 80 KG but less than 100 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 16 KG but less than 20 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 1.6 KG but less than 2 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 80,000 but less than 100,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 5,000 but less than 6,250 units of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 24

(9) z At least 60 G but less than 80 G of Heroin; Level 22
E-7 

z At least 300 G but less than 400 G of Cocaine; 

z At least 34 G but less than 45 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 60 G but less than 80 G of PCP, or at least 6 G but less than 8 G of 

PCP (actual); 

z At least 30 G but less than 40 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 3 G but less 

than 4 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 3 G but less than 4 G of 

"Ice"; 

z At least 30 G but less than 40 G of Amphetamine, or at least 3 G but less than 

4 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 600 MG but less than 800 MG of LSD; 

z At least 24 G but less than 32 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 6 G but less than 8 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 60 KG but less than 80 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 12 KG but less than 16 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 1.2 KG but less than 1.6 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 60,000 but less than 80,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 3,750 but less than 5,000 units of Flunitrazepam. 

(10) z At least 40 G but less than 60 G of Heroin; 

z At least 200 G but less than 300 G of Cocaine; 

z At least 23 G but less than 34 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 40 G but less than 60 G of PCP, or at least 4 G but less than 6 G of 

PCP (actual); 

z At least 20 G but less than 30 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 2 G but less 

than 3 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 2 G but less than 3 G of 

"Ice"; 

z At least 20 G but less than 30 G of Amphetamine, or at least 2 G but less than 

3 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 400 MG but less than 600 MG of LSD; 

z At least 16 G but less than 24 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 4 G but less than 6 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 40 KG but less than 60 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 8 KG but less than 12 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 800 G but less than 1.2 KG of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 40,000 but less than 60,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z 40,000 or more units of Schedule III substances; 

z At least 2,500 but less than 3,750 units of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 20

(11) z At least 20 G but less than 40 G of Heroin; 

z At least 100 G but less than 200 G of Cocaine; 

z At least 12 G but less than 23 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 20 G but less than 40 G of PCP, or at least 2 G but less than 4 G of 

PCP (actual); 

z At least 10 G but less than 20 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 1 G but less 

than 2 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 1 G but less than 2 G of 

"Ice"; 

z At least 10 G but less than 20 G of Amphetamine, or at least 1 G but less than 

2 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 200 MG but less than 400 MG of LSD; 

z At least 8 G but less than 16 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 2 G but less than 4 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 20 KG but less than 40 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 5 KG but less than 8 KG of Hashish; 

Level 18
E-8 

z At least 500 G but less than 800 G of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 20,000 but less than 40,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 20,000 but less than 40,000 units of Schedule III substances; 

z At least 1,250 but less than 2,500 units of Flunitrazepam. 

(12) z At least 10 G but less than 20 G of Heroin; 

z At least 50 G but less than 100 G of Cocaine; 

z At least 500 MG1 G but less than 12 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 10 G but less than 20 G of PCP, or at least 1 G but less than 2 G of 

PCP (actual); 

z At least 5 G but less than 10 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 500 MG but 

less than 1 G of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 500 MG but less than 1 

G of "Ice"; 

z At least 5 G but less than 10 G of Amphetamine, or at least 500 MG but less 

than 1 G of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 100 MG but less than 200 MG of LSD; 

z At least 4 G but less than 8 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 1 G but less than 2 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 10 KG but less than 20 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 2 KG but less than 5 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 200 G but less than 500 G of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 10,000 but less than 20,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 10,000 but less than 20,000 units of Schedule III substances; 

z At least 625 but less than 1,250 units of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 16

(13) z At least 5 G but less than 10 G of Heroin; 

z At least 25 G but less than 50 G of Cocaine; 

z At least 250500 MG but less than 500 MG1 G of Cocaine Base; 

z At least 5 G but less than 10 G of PCP, or at least 500 MG but less than 1 G of 

PCP (actual); 

z At least 2.5 G but less than 5 G of Methamphetamine, or at least 250 MG but 

less than 500 MG of Methamphetamine (actual), or at least 250 MG but less 

than 500 MG of "Ice"; 

z At least 2.5 G but less than 5 G of Amphetamine, or at least 250 MG but less 

than 500 MG of Amphetamine (actual); 

z At least 50 MG but less than 100 MG of LSD; 

z At least 2 G but less than 4 G of Fentanyl; 

z At least 500 MG but less than 1 G of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 5 KG but less than 10 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 1 KG but less than 2 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 100 G but less than 200 G of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 5,000 but less than 10,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 5,000 but less than 10,000 units of Schedule III substances; 

z At least 312 but less than 625 units of Flunitrazepam. 

Level 14

(14) z Less than 5 G of Heroin; 

z Less than 25 G of Cocaine; 

z Less than 250500 MG of Cocaine Base; 

z Less than 5 G of PCP, or less than 500 MG of PCP (actual); 

z Less than 2.5 G of Methamphetamine, or less than 250 MG of 

Methamphetamine (actual), or less than 250 MG of "Ice"; 

z Less than 2.5 G of Amphetamine, or less than 250 MG of Amphetamine 

(actual); 

Level 12
E-9 

z Less than 50 MG of LSD; 

z Less than 2 G of Fentanyl; 

z Less than 500 MG of a Fentanyl Analogue; 

z At least 2.5 KG but less than 5 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 500 G but less than 1 KG of Hashish; 

z At least 50 G but less than 100 G of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 2,500 but less than 5,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 2,500 but less than 5,000 units of Schedule III substances; 

z At least 156 but less than 312 units of Flunitrazepam; 

z 40,000 or more units of Schedule IV substances (except Flunitrazepam). 

(15) z At least 1 KG but less than 2.5 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 200 G but less than 500 G of Hashish; 

z At least 20 G but less than 50 G of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 1,000 but less than 2,500 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 1,000 but less than 2,500 units of Schedule III substances; 

z At least 62 but less than 156 units of Flunitrazepam; 

z At least 16,000 but less than 40,000 units of Schedule IV substances (except 

Flunitrazepam). 

Level 10

(16) z At least 250 G but less than 1 KG of Marihuana; 

z At least 50 G but less than 200 G of Hashish; 

z At least 5 G but less than 20 G of Hashish Oil; 

z At least 250 but less than 1,000 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z At least 250 but less than 1,000 units of Schedule III substances; 

z Less than 62 units of Flunitrazepam; 

z At least 4,000 but less than 16,000 units of Schedule IV substances (except 

Flunitrazepam); 

z 40,000 or more units of Schedule V substances. 

Level 8

(17) z Less than 250 G of Marihuana; 

z Less than 50 G of Hashish; 

z Less than 5 G of Hashish Oil; 

z Less than 250 units of Schedule I or II Depressants; 

z Less than 250 units of Schedule III substances; 

z Less than 4,000 units of Schedule IV substances (except Flunitrazepam); 

z Less than 40,000 units of Schedule V substances. 

Level 6

*Notes to Drug Quantity Table: 

(A) Unless otherwise specified, the weight of a controlled substance set forth in the table refers to the entire 

weight of any mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of the controlled substance. If a 

mixture or substance contains more than one controlled substance, the weight of the entire mixture or 

substance is assigned to the controlled substance that results in the greater offense level. 

(B) The terms "PCP (actual)", "Amphetamine (actual)", and "Methamphetamine (actual)" refer to the weight 

of the controlled substance, itself, contained in the mixture or substance. For example, a mixture 

weighing 10 grams containing PCP at 50% purity contains 5 grams of PCP (actual). In the case of a 

mixture or substance containing PCP, amphetamine, or methamphetamine, use the offense level 

determined by the entire weight of the mixture or substance, or the offense level determined by the weight 

of the PCP (actual), amphetamine (actual), or methamphetamine (actual), whichever is greater. 
E-10 

The term "Oxycodone (actual)" refers to the weight of the controlled substance, itself, contained in the 

pill, capsule, or mixture. 

(C) "Ice," for the purposes of this guideline, means a mixture or substance containing d-methamphetamine 

hydrochloride of at least 80% purity. 

(D) "Cocaine base," for the purposes of this guideline, means "crack." "Crack" is the street name for a form 

of cocaine base, usually prepared by processing cocaine hydrochloride and sodium bicarbonate, and 

usually appearing in a lumpy, rocklike form. 

(E) In the case of an offense involving marihuana plants, treat each plant, regardless of sex, as equivalent to 

100 G of marihuana. Provided, however, that if the actual weight of the marihuana is greater, use the 

actual weight of the marihuana. 

(F) In the case of Schedule I or II Depressants (except gamma-hydroxybutyric acid), Schedule III substances, 

Schedule IV substances, and Schedule V substances, one "unit" means one pill, capsule, or tablet. If the 

substance (except gamma-hydroxybutyric acid) is in liquid form, one "unit" means 0.5 ml. For an 

anabolic steroid that is not in a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid form (e.g., patch, topical cream, aerosol), the 

court shall determine the base offense level using a reasonable estimate of the quantity of anabolic steroid 

involved in the offense. In making a reasonable estimate, the court shall consider that each 25 mg of an 

anabolic steroid is one "unit". 

(G) In the case of LSD on a carrier medium (e.g., a sheet of blotter paper), do not use the weight of the 

LSD/carrier medium. Instead, treat each dose of LSD on the carrier medium as equal to 0.4 mg of LSD 

for the purposes of the Drug Quantity Table. 

(H) Hashish, for the purposes of this guideline, means a resinous substance of cannabis that includes (i) one or 

more of the tetrahydrocannabinols (as listed in 21 C.F.R. § 1308.11(d)(25)), (ii) at least two of the 

following: cannabinol, cannabidiol, or cannabichromene, and (iii) fragments of plant material (such as 

cystolith fibers). 

(I) Hashish oil, for the purposes of this guideline, means a preparation of the soluble cannabinoids 

derived from cannabis that includes (i) one or more of the tetrahydrocannabinols (as listed in 21 

C.F.R. § 1308.11(d)(25)), (ii) at least two of the following: cannabinol, cannabidiol, or 

cannabichromene, and (iii) is essentially free of plant material (e.g., plant fragments). Typically, 

hashish oil is a viscous, dark colored oil, but it can vary from a dry resin to a colorless liquid. 

 

Commentary

Statutory Provisions: 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a), (b)(1)-(3), (7), 960(a), (b); 49 U.S.C. § 46317(b). For additional 

statutory provision(s), see Appendix A (Statutory Index). 

Application Notes: 

* * * 

10. Use of Drug Equivalency Tables.— 

(A) Controlled Substances Not Referenced in Drug Quantity Table.—The Commission has used the 

sentences provided in, and equivalences derived from, the statute (21 U.S.C. § 841(b)(1)), as the 

primary basis for the guideline sentences. The statute, however, provides direction only for the 
E-11 

more common controlled substances, i.e., heroin, cocaine, PCP, methamphetamine, fentanyl, 

LSD and marihuana. In the case of a controlled substance that is not specifically referenced in 

the Drug Quantity Table, determine the base offense level as follows: 

(A)(i) Use the Drug Equivalency Tables to convert the quantity of the controlled substance 

involved in the offense to its equivalent quantity of marihuana. 

(B)(ii) Find the equivalent quantity of marihuana in the Drug Quantity Table. 

(C)(iii) Use the offense level that corresponds to the equivalent quantity of marihuana as the 

base offense level for the controlled substance involved in the offense. 

(See also Application Note 5.) For example, in the Drug Equivalency Tables set forth in this 

Note, 1 gm of a substance containing oxymorphone, a Schedule I opiate, converts to an 

equivalent quantity of 5 kg of marihuana. In a case involving 100 gm of oxymorphone, the 

equivalent quantity of marihuana would be 500 kg, which corresponds to a base offense level of 

28 in the Drug Quantity Table. 

(B) Combining Differing Controlled Substances (Except Cocaine Base).— The Drug Equivalency 

Tables also provide a means for combining differing controlled substances to obtain a single 

offense level. In each case, convert each of the drugs to its marihuana equivalent, add the 

quantities, and look up the total in the Drug Quantity Table to obtain the combined offense level. 

To determine a single offense level in a case involving cocaine base and other controlled 

substances, see subdivision (D) of this note. 

For certain types of controlled substances, the marihuana equivalencies in the Drug Equivalency 

Tables are "capped" at specified amounts (e.g., the combined equivalent weight of all Schedule V 

controlled substances shall not exceed 999 grams of marihuana). Where there are controlled 

substances from more than one schedule (e.g., a quantity of a Schedule IV substance and a 

quantity of a Schedule V substance), determine the marihuana equivalency for each schedule 

separately (subject to the cap, if any, applicable to that schedule). Then add the marihuana 

equivalencies to determine the combined marihuana equivalency (subject to the cap, if any, 

applicable to the combined amounts). 

Note: Because of the statutory equivalences, the ratios in the Drug Equivalency Tables do not 

necessarily reflect dosages based on pharmacological equivalents. 

(C) Examples for Combining Differing Controlled Substances (Except Cocaine Base) .—: 

a.(i) The defendant is convicted of selling 70 grams of a substance containing PCP (Level 22) 

and 250 milligrams of a substance containing LSD (Level 18). The PCP converts to 

70 kilograms of marihuana; the LSD converts to 25 kilograms of marihuana. The total is 

therefore equivalent to 95 kilograms of marihuana, for which the Drug Quantity Table 

provides an offense level of 24. 

b.(ii) The defendant is convicted of selling 500 grams of marihuana (Level 8) and five 

kilograms of diazepam (Level 8). The diazepam, a Schedule IV drug, is equivalent to 625 

grams of marihuana. The total, 1.125 kilograms of marihuana, has an offense level of 10 

in the Drug Quantity Table. 
E-12 

c.(iii) The defendant is convicted of selling 80 grams of cocaine (Level 16) and five kilograms 

of marihuana (Level 14). The cocaine is equivalent to 16 kilograms of marihuana. The 

total is therefore equivalent to 21 kilograms of marihuana, which has an offense level of 

18 in the Drug Quantity Table. 

d.(iv) The defendant is convicted of selling 56,000 units of a Schedule III substance, 100,000 

units of a Schedule IV substance, and 200,000 units of a Schedule V substance. The 

marihuana equivalency for the Schedule III substance is 56 kilograms of marihuana 

(below the cap of 59.99 kilograms of marihuana set forth as the maximum equivalent 

weight for Schedule III substances). The marihuana equivalency for the Schedule IV 

substance is subject to a cap of 4.99 kilograms of marihuana set forth as the maximum 

equivalent weight for Schedule IV substances (without the cap it would have been 

6.25 kilograms). The marihuana equivalency for the Schedule V substance is subject to 

the cap of 999 grams of marihuana set forth as the maximum equivalent weight for 

Schedule V substances (without the cap it would have been 1.25 kilograms). The 

combined equivalent weight, determined by adding together the above amounts, is 

subject to the cap of 59.99 kilograms of marihuana set forth as the maximum combined 

equivalent weight for Schedule III, IV, and V substances. Without the cap, the combined 

equivalent weight would have been 61.99 (56 + 4.99 + .999) kilograms. 

(D) Determining Base Offense Level in Offenses Involving Cocaine Base and Other Controlled 

Substances.— 

(i) In General.—If the offense involves cocaine base ("crack") and one or more other 

controlled substance, determine the base offense level as follows: 

(I) Determine the combined base offense level for the other controlled substance or 

controlled substances as provided in subdivision (B) of this note. 

(II) Use the combined base offense level determined under subdivision (B) of this 

note to obtain the appropriate marihuana equivalency for the cocaine base 

involved in the offense using the following table: 
E-13 

Base Offense Level Marihuana Equivalency

38 6.7 kg of marihuana 

36 6.7 kg of marihuana 

34 6 kg of marihuana 

32 6.7 kg of marihuana 

30 14 kg of marihuana 

28 11.4 kg of marihuana 

26 5 kg of marihuana 

24 16 kg of marihuana 

22 15 kg of marihuana 

20 13.3 kg of marihuana 

18 10 kg of marihuana 

16 10 kg of marihuana 

14 10 kg of marihuana 

12 10 kg of marihuana. 

(III) Using the marihuana equivalency obtained from the table in subdivision (II), 

convert the quantity of cocaine base involved in the offense to its equivalent 

quantity of marihuana. 

(IV) Add the quantity of marihuana determined under subdivisions (I) and (III), and 

look up the total in the Drug Quantity Table to obtain the combined base offense 

level for all the controlled substances involved in the offense. 

(ii) Example.—The case involves 1.5 kg of cocaine, 10 kg of marihuana, and 20 g of cocaine 

base. Pursuant to subdivision (B), the equivalent quantity of marihuana for the cocaine 

and the marihuana is 310 kg. (The cocaine converts to an equivalent of 300 kg of 

marihuana (1.5 kg x 200 g = 300 kg), which when added to the quantity of marihuana 

involved in the offense, results in an equivalent quantity of 310 kg of marihuana.) This 

corresponds to a base offense level 26. Pursuant to the table in subdivision (II), the base 

offense level of 26 results in a marihuana equivalency of 5 kg for the cocaine base. 

Using this marihuana equivalency for the cocaine base results in a marihuana 

equivalency of 100 kg (20 g x 5 kg = 100 kg). Adding the quantities of marihuana of all 

three drug types results in a combined quantity of 410 kg of marihuana, which 

corresponds to a combined base offense level of 28 in the Drug Quantity Table. 

DRUG EQUIVALENCY TABLES

(E) Drug Equivalency Tables.— 

Schedule I or II Opiates* 

1 gm of Heroin = 1 kg of marihuana 

1 gm of Alpha-Methylfentanyl = 10 kg of marihuana 

1 gm of Dextromoramide = 670 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Dipipanone = 250 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of 3-Methylfentanyl = 10 kg of marihuana 
E-14 

 1 gm of 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-4-propionoxypiperidine/MPPP = 700 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of 1-(2-Phenylethyl)-4-phenyl-4-acetyloxypiperidine/ 

 PEPAP = 700 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Alphaprodine = 100 gm of marihuana 

1 gm of Fentanyl (N-phenyl-N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)-4- 

 piperidinyl] Propanamide) = 2.5 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Hydromorphone/Dihydromorphinone = 2.5 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Levorphanol = 2.5 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Meperidine/Pethidine = 50 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Methadone = 500 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of 6-Monoacetylmorphine = 1 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Morphine = 500 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Oxycodone (actual) = 6700 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Oxymorphone = 5 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Racemorphan = 800 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Codeine = 80 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Dextropropoxyphene/Propoxyphene-Bulk = 50 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Ethylmorphine = 165 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Hydrocodone/Dihydrocodeinone = 500 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Mixed Alkaloids of Opium/Papaveretum = 250 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Opium = 50 gm of marihuana 

1 gm of Levo-alpha-acetylmethadol (LAAM)= 3 kg of marihuana 

*Provided, that the minimum offense level from the Drug Quantity Table for any of these 

controlled substances individually, or in combination with another controlled substance, is level 

12. 

Cocaine and Other Schedule I and II Stimulants (and their immediate precursors)* 

 1 gm of Cocaine = 200 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of N-Ethylamphetamine = 80 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Fenethylline = 40 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Amphetamine = 2 kg of marihuana 

1 gm of Amphetamine (Actual) = 20 kg of marihuana 
E-15 

 1 gm of Methamphetamine = 2 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Methamphetamine (Actual) = 20 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of "Ice" = 20 kg of marihuana 

1 gm of Khat = .01 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of 4-Methylaminorex ("Euphoria")= 100 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Methylphenidate (Ritalin)= 100 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Phenmetrazine = 80 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm Phenylacetone/P2P (when possessed for the purpose 

 of manufacturing methamphetamine) = 416 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm Phenylacetone/P2P (in any other case) = 75 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Cocaine Base ("Crack") = 20 kg of marihuana

 1 gm of Aminorex = 100 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Methcathinone = 380 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of N-N-Dimethylamphetamine = 40 gm of marihuana 

*Provided, that the minimum offense level from the Drug Quantity Table for any of these 

controlled substances individually, or in combination with another controlled substance, is level 

12. 

 LSD, PCP, and Other Schedule I and II Hallucinogens (and their immediate precursors)* 

 1 gm of Bufotenine = 70 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide/Lysergide/LSD = 100 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Diethyltryptamine/DET = 80 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Dimethyltryptamine/DMT = 100 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Mescaline = 10 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Mushrooms containing Psilocin and/or 

 Psilocybin (Dry) = 1 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Mushrooms containing Psilocin and/or 

 Psilocybin (Wet) = 0.1 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Peyote (Dry) = 0.5 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Peyote (Wet) = 0.05 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Phencyclidine/PCP = 1 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Phencyclidine (actual) /PCP (actual) = 10 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Psilocin = 500 gm of marihuana 
E-16 

 1 gm of Psilocybin = 500 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Pyrrolidine Analog of Phencyclidine/PHP = 1 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of Thiophene Analog of Phencyclidine/TCP = 1 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of 4-Bromo-2,5-Dimethoxyamphetamine/DOB = 2.5 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine/DOM = 1.67 kg of marihuana 

 1 gm of 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine/MDA = 500 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine/MDMA = 500 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine/MDEA= 500 gm of marihuana 

1 gm of Paramethoxymethamphetamine/PMA = 500 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of 1-Piperidinocyclohexanecarbonitrile/PCC = 680 gm of marihuana 

1 gm of N-ethyl-1-phenylcyclohexylamine (PCE) = 1 kg of marihuana 

 *Provided, that the minimum offense level from the Drug Quantity Table for any of these 

controlled substances individually, or in combination with another controlled substance, is level 

12. 

 Schedule I Marihuana

 1 gm of Marihuana/Cannabis, granulated, powdered, etc. = 1 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Hashish Oil = 50 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Cannabis Resin or Hashish = 5 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Tetrahydrocannabinol, Organic = 167 gm of marihuana 

 1 gm of Tetrahydrocannabinol, Synthetic = 167 gm of marihuana 

Flunitrazepam ** 

1 unit of Flunitrazepam = 16 gm of marihuana 

**Provided, that the minimum offense level from the Drug Quantity Table for flunitrazepam 

individually, or in combination with any Schedule I or II depressants, Schedule III substances, 

Schedule IV substances, and Schedule V substances is level 8. 

 Schedule I or II Depressants (except gamma-hydroxybutyric acid)

1 unit of a Schedule I or II Depressant 
E-17 

(except gamma-hydroxybutyric acid) = 1 gm of marihuana 

 

Gamma-hydroxybutyric Acid

1 ml of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid = 8.8 gm of marihuana 

Schedule III Substances*** 

 1 unit of a Schedule III Substance = 1 gm of marihuana 

***Provided, that the combined equivalent weight of all Schedule III substances, Schedule IV 

substances (except flunitrazepam), and Schedule V substances shall not exceed 59.99 kilograms 

of marihuana. 

 Schedule IV Substances (except flunitrazepam)  

 1 unit of a Schedule IV Substance 

(except Flunitrazepam)= 0.0625 gm of marihuana 

** **Provided, that the combined equivalent weight of all Schedule IV (except flunitrazepam) 

and V substances shall not exceed 4.99 kilograms of marihuana. 

 Schedule V Substances***** 

 1 unit of a Schedule V Substance = 0.00625 gm of marihuana 

*****Provided, that the combined equivalent weight of Schedule V substances shall not exceed 

999 grams of marihuana. 

List I Chemicals (relating to the manufacture of amphetamine or methamphetamine)****** 
E-18 

1 gm of Ephedrine = 10 kg of marihuana 

1 gm of Phenylpropanolamine = 10 kg of marihuana 

1 gm of Pseudoephedrine = 10 kg of marihuana 

******Provided, that in a case involving ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, or phenylpropanolamine 

tablets, use the weight of the ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, or phenylpropanolamine contained in 

the tablets, not the weight of the entire tablets, in calculating the base offense level. 

To facilitate conversions to drug equivalencies, the following table is provided: 

 MEASUREMENT CONVERSION TABLE

 1 oz = 28.35 gm 

 1 lb = 453.6 gm 

 1 lb = 0.4536 kg 

 1 gal = 3.785 liters 

 1 qt = 0.946 liters 

 1 gm = 1 ml (liquid) 

 1 liter = 1,000 ml 

 1 kg = 1,000 gm 

 1 gm = 1,000 mg 

 

B. IMPACT ANALYSIS

 The following analysis presents sentencing impact and prison impact information for the 

amendment to USSG §2D1.1 that was promulgated April 27, 2007. The Commission’s impact model 

incorporates the changes to the quantity thresholds in the Drug Quantity Table and the restructured Drug 

Equivalency Table for cocaine base offenses, and the model assumes no change to the existing statutory 

mandatory minimum threshold quantities for cocaine base offenses. 

 The effect of this amendment is reported in two tables. The first table presents the proportion of 

cases affected by the amendment, the current average sentence of all crack cocaine cases, and the 

estimated new average sentence. The second table presents the estimated reduction in the number of 

federal prison beds based on this change. This analysis applies the Commission’s prison impact model 

to the 2006 Fiscal Year datafile.1

 

1 The U.S. Sentencing Commission’s prison impact computer model identifies and re-sentences cases in 

Commission datafiles. The model recalculates the relevant guideline range based on the amendment to the Drug 

Quantity Table and Drug Equivalency Table in USSG §2D1.1 and compares the recalculated offense levels to 

existing offense levels. The model then reassigns any Chapter Three adjustments and outside the range sentences 

that currently exist in each case. Finally, the model “respots” the new sentence in the new guideline range to a 

location equivalent to the location in the guideline range of the current sentence. 

The prison impact model estimates the change to an hypothetical “steady-state” prison population 

resulting from changes that affect prison sentence length. The concept of a “steady-state” population envisions a 
E-19 

In this estimate, 69.7 percent of crack cocaine offenders are estimated to be affected by the 

amendment. Not all cases are affected by this amendment primarily because of one of seven possible 

reasons: 

1) the drug quantity involved in the offense is sufficiently low that, regardless of the new 

quantity threshold at base offense level 12 (the lowest level in the Drug Quantity Table for crack 

cocaine cases), the base offense level does not change (0.7 percent of all crack cocaine cases); 

2) the drug quantity involved in the offense is sufficiently great at base offense level 38 (the 

highest offense level in the Drug Quantity Table) that it continues to exceed the new threshold 

for that level (1.5 percent of all crack cocaine cases); 

3) the guideline range for the case did not change because the offender’s final offense level 

exceeds the maximum of the table (level 43), even with the two-level reduction from the 

amendment (0.2 percent of all crack cocaine cases); 

4) the defendant received a departure to zero months of imprisonment under the existing 

sentencing structure and, therefore, the sentence cannot be reduced further (0.7 percent of all 

crack cocaine cases); 

5) the two-level reduction in the Drug Quantity Table is offset by the offender no longer being 

eligible for the “mitigating role cap” in USSG §2D1.1(a)(3) because the resulting base offense 

level will be below the threshold requirements in subsection (a)(3) (1.7 percent of all crack 

cocaine cases); 

6) the offense involved crack cocaine and another controlled substance or substances and the 

reduction in the marijuana equivalency for cocaine base for determining the base offense level in 

_________________________ 

prison system in homeostasis. That is, the number of new, in-coming inmates is assumed to be equal to the 

number of out-going (released) inmates and all beds are assumed to be occupied. In order to isolate the changes 

to the system caused by the specific policy under review, a number of factors are artificially held constant in the 

model. For example, arrest rates, charging practices, conviction rates, other sentencing policies, etc. are assumed 

to remain constant over time. 

Assumptions incorporated into the prison impact model include: 1) defendants are re-sentenced to a 

position in the estimated new guideline range that is equivalent to the position of the sentence in the original 

guideline range; 2) defendants earn the maximum allowable good-time (currently 54 days per year served for 

imposed sentences greater than one year but not life imprisonment); and 3) defendants serve the minimum of A) 

the sentence imposed less the maximum allowable good conduct time, or B) their estimated remaining life 

expectancy, based upon an actuary table incorporating age, race, and sex. 

If the proposed amendment lengthens sentences, the “steady-state” prison population increases because 

inmate release dates would be later if the new, longer sentence were applied. These delayed release dates would 

cause offenders to accumulate in the prison system. Because new inmates arrive at a constant rate, additional 

beds are required. If the proposed amendment shortens sentences, the “steady-state” prison population decreases 

because inmates would be released earlier, and early releases would free up prison beds. 
E-20 

revised Application Note 10 is not of sufficient magnitude to result in a lower combined base 

offense level (11.2 percent of all crack cocaine cases); and 

7) the offender’s current guideline range was below the existing statutory mandatory minimum 

prior to operation of USSG §5G1.1(b),2 and, therefore, lowering the guideline range further will 

have no effect (14.0 percent of all crack cocaine cases).3

The current average sentence of crack cocaine offenders is 121 months. The average sentence 

for all crack cocaine offenders is estimated to change to 106 months, a 12.4 percent decrease. The 

corresponding estimated changes to the prison population are presented in the accompanying table. 

Fewer prison beds are needed because offenders are released sooner than they otherwise would be under 

the guideline penalty structure existing prior to the amendment. The reduction in prison beds for crack 

cocaine offenders one year after this modification takes effect is 20 beds, after two years, 101 beds, and 

so on. 

 

2

 USSG §5G1.1(b) (Sentencing on a Single Count of Conviction) provides that “[w]here a statutorily required 

minimum sentence is greater than the maximum of the applicable guideline range, the statutorily required 

minimum sentence shall be the guideline sentence.” 

3 An additional 0.3 percent of the cases are counted as not affected because of missing data or logical 

inconsistencies within the data that prevented calculating the impact. 
E-21 

SENTENCING IMPACT AND PRISON IMPACT MODEL OF 

APRIL 27, 2007 CRACK COCAINE AMENDMENT

(Amends the Drug Quantity Table and Drug Equivalency Table in USSG §2D1.1 (Unlawful Manufacturing, Importing, 

(Including Possession with Intent to Commit These Offenses); Attempt or Conspiracy) 

Estimated Sentence Change

CRACK COCAINE AMENDMENT

Percent of Cases Affected

All Cases:

Current Average 

Sentence

(months)

A

Estim

Average 

(

69.7% 121 

Estimated Reduction in Prison Beds

CRACK COCAINE AMENDMENT

 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 

- 20 - 101 - 307 - 542 - 894 

This model assumes no change to the current statutory mandatory minimum sentencing thresholds for crack cocaine SOURCE: U.S. Sentencing Commission. Prison Impact Model. FY2006 datafile.