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CULTURE OF SUGARCANE

FOR SUGAR PRODUCTION

IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA

Agriculture Handbook No. 417

Agricultural Research Service

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE

FOR SUGAR PRODUCTION

IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA

By

R. J. Matherne, R. D. Breaux and R. W. MillhoUon, research agronomists

and

R. D. Jackson, investigaion leader, Agricultural Research Service

Agriculture Handbook No. 417

Agricultural Research Service

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Washington, D.C. Slightly revised March 1977

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

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PREFACE

This handbook summarizes information on sugarcane production in the United States based on extensive research findings and grower experience. It is

intended to give essential information for growers, producers, processors, extension personnel, and others

interested in the production of this crop.

This publication reports research involving pesticides. It does not contain

recommendations for their use, nor does it imply that the uses discussed here

have been registered. All uses of pesticides must be registered by appropriate

State and/or Federal agencies before they can be recommended.

CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals,

desirable plants, and fish or other wildlife—if they are not handled or

applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow recommended practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide

containers.

POUUOW THK bABKI. *

Trade names are used in this publication solely for the purpose

of providing specific information. Mention of a trade name does

not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the U.S.

Department of Agriculture or an endorsement by the Department

over other products not mentioned.

Ill
CONTENTS

Page

Growing conditions 1

Soil types 2

Description of the sugarcane plant 4

Cultural practices 7

Drainage , 7

Crop rotation 8

Planting 9

Fertilization 9

Cultivation 10

Varieties 13

Commercial varieties 15

Some varietal characteristics 16

Variety improvement 17

Parent material 17

Breeding 17

Testing 18

Increase and release to growers 19

Weed control .. , 20

Important weeds 20

Weed control programs 21

Fallowing 22

Herbicide programs in sugarcane 22

Herbicide programs for ditchbanks ........ 23

Sugarcane diseases 26

Mosaic 26

Ratoon stunting disease 28

Red rot 28

Root rot 28

Interaction between diseases 30

Diseases of minor importance 32

Insects 09

Sugarcane borer 32

Sugarcane beetle 33

Wireworms ....... 33

Soil arthropods ,. 00

Miscellaneous pests 30

Harvesting ....... _ ^ ^

Manufacture of sugar 3^

Literature cited 30
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE

FOR SUGAR PRODUCTION

IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA

Sugarcane, introduced to Louisiana in 1751, has been a major crop

on farms and plantations since 1820.

At present it is the principal means of

support of approximately 5,000

growers who employ 16,500 workers

in 18 producing parishes. The

investment in land, machinery, and

other equipment for growing and

processing sugarcane is conservatively estimated at $350 million. The

last three crops (1967-69) had an

average value of $74 million to the

sugarcane grower and a retail value

of $164 million.

Sugar production in Louisiana

fluctuated from a low of 48,000 tons

in 1926 to a high of 759,000 tons in

1963 (5).^ Present production is about

25 tons of cane per acre, 180 pounds

of sugar per ton of cane, or about

4,500 pounds of sugar per acre (fig.l)

(i).

GROWING CONDITIONS

The sugarcane area of Louisiana

lies between latitudes 29° N. below

Houma and 31° N. above Bunkie

(fig. 2). It extends from the Gulf of

Mexico in the south to the Red River

in the north and from the Mississippi

River on the east to the Vermilion

River on the west.

The climate is subtropical. Freezes

that occur during the winter kill all

young growth of summer- and fallplanted cane and damage mill cane

standing in the field. Table 1 gives the

average temperatures of the sugarcane area at Houma in the extreme

south, Lafayette in the west, and

Bunkie in the north (48).

Rainfall (fig. 3) is generally adequate and reasonably well distributed

so that the crop can be cultivated

during the late winter and early

spring. There is almost no commercial irrigation of cane. There is more

rain during the summer when temperatures are high and the cane is

growing rapidly and less in the fall

when the nights are cool and the cane

is increasing in sugar content as it

reaches maturity.

Sugarcane grows actively for only

about 7 months, from April 1 to

October 30. This 7-month growing

season is in contrast to the 12- to 24-

month seasons of most sugarcanegrowing areas of the world. Weekly

growth rate averages about 1 to 2

inches during April and May,

increases to about 6 inches during

June and July, and decreases to

'Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 39.
2 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

about 3 inches by the end of September, as shown in figure 4 (26). A

maximum growth of nearly 13 inches

in a week has been recorded. An

average crop reaches a height of 9 to

11 feet at harvest.

SOIL TYPES

Sugarcane soils are classified into

three general groups—(1) Pleistocene

terrace, (2) Recent Alluvial of the

lower Mississippi River, and (3)

Recent Alluvial of the Red River (9).

The Pleistocene teirace soils form

Figure 1.—Average yield of cane, sugar per ton of cane, and sugar per acre in Louisiana, 1926-69.
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA

PARISHES GROWING SUGARCANE

1. Ascension

2. Assumption

3. Avoyelles

4. Iberia

5. Iberville

6. Lafayette

7. Lafourche

10. St. Charles

11. St. James

12. St. John

13. St. Martin

14. St. Mary

15. Terrebonne

16. West Baton Rouge

17. West Feliciorta

18. Vermilion

Figure 2.—Sugarcane culture for sugar production in Louisiana is primarily restricted to the

shaded area.

the eastern and western boundaries of

the recent alluvial deposits, which

make up the largest portion of the

sugarcane area. These terrace soils

were developed from silty deposits

washed from other terraces or loessial

uplands some 3,000 years old. Other

low-stream terrace deposits, within

the area of recent alluvial soils, have

undergone weathering for 2,000 to

5,000 years. Soils on the Pleistocene

terraces have undergone more weathering and leaching than other sugarcane soils. Yields are somewhat

lower, and response to applied phosphorous and potassium is more

consistent.

Recent alluvial soils of the Mississippi flood plain have been weathering for a relatively short time.

Some of the sandy soils now respond

to phosphorous and potassium fertilization, and liming, as well as to

higher rates of nitrogen. Recent alluvial soils of the Red River also have

little profile development, and fertilizer recommendations are the same

on these soils as on the recent alluvial

soils of the Mississippi River.

Soil types within each of the three
4 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 1.—Average temperatures at Houma, Lafayette, and Bunkie in

the Louisiana sugarcane area, 1921-50

Houma Lafayette Bunkie

Month Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

1 Minimum

"F. "F. °F. °F. °F. ^F.

January 66.6 46.1 63.5 44.1 63.3 41.2

February- 69.4 48.2 66.4 46.5 66.7 44.2

March 73.0 52.2 70.6 51.1 71.9 48.7

April 79.3 58.4 78.2 58.8 79.2 56.2

May 84.8 Ô4.1 84.1 66.4 85.2 62.5

June 89.7 70.1 89.7 72.4 91.6 69.3

July 90.7 71.8 91.4 73.9 93.2 71.2

August 91.2 71.4 91.8 73.3 93.8 70.7

September 88.2 68.5 88.9 68.9 89.9 65.9

October 82.2 58.7 83.0 59.1 82.5 55.1

November 72.5 49.4 71.8 49.5 71.7 45.5

December 67.1 46.5 64.5 44.6 65.1 42.2

Average 79.6 58.8 78.7 59.1 79.5 56.1

groups vary in texture from light

sands to heavy clays. Sugarcane is

grown most successfully on the moderately well-drained soils. Some years

satisfactory crops are also grown on

the poorly drained soils.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SUGARCANE PLANT

Sugarcane (Saccharum sp.) is a

tail, thick-stemmed, perennial grass

that stores sugar in the stem. Varieties grown in Louisiana are complex

hybrids produced from crosses of

slender wild canes (Saccharum spontaneum L.), slender Indian canes (S.

barberi Jeswiet), and noble canes (S.

officinarum L.). A few varieties also

derive from the species S. robustum

Brandes and Jeswiet ex Grassl.

Mature stalks vary from 0.75 to 1.0

inch in diameter and froni 50 to 130

inches in length with an average

length of about 90 to 100 inches.

They weigh from 2 to 3.5 pounds

depending on growing conditions.

Louisiana varieties are generally

erect, but they sometimes lodge or

fall.

The stalk is made up of joints or

sections. There are from 10 to 16

joints above ground that vary from

4.5 to 7 inches in length. Each joint

consists of a node and internode (fig.

5). At each node there is a bud or

"eye" which contains beginning of a

new plant. The buds may be oval,

pointed, or flattened. As is typical of

the grass family, the buds alternate in

two rows on opposite sides of the

stalk. When present, a bud furrow, or

depression, in the joint immediately

above the bud may be deep or shal-
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA

5¿6

z4

<

JFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASOND

MONTH

Figure 3.—Average rainfall at Houma, Lafayette, and Bunkie, La., 1921-50.

10

8

6-

X

u

z

Max. f

T—1—I—r—h—\—i—r

RIL' ' JUNE

Figure 4.—Average weekly growth rate of plant and 1st stubble cane of CP 44-101 from 1957

through 1967.
6 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO, 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

INTERNODE

VASCULAR BUNDLES

GROWTH RiNe

ROOT BAND

LEAF SCAR

WAX RING

CORKY CRACKS

BUD FURROW

CORKY PATCH

ROOT PRIMORDIA

GROWTH CRACK

Figure 5.—Diagram of node and internode of

sugarcane. (After Artschwager.)

low; it may be short or may extend

the length of the internode. One to

several rings of root primordia, or

root buds, are located at the nodal

zone. The growth ring is a narrow

band just below the internode and

above the root primordia. The usually well-defined leaf scar appears just

below the root primordia. Sugarcane

stalks are green, yellow, red, and

purple or shades of brown or tan.

The leaf of the sugarcane plant

consists of the sheath and the blade.

The sheath may remain firmly

attached to the stalk or may be

loosely attached and fall off readily.

The blade may be narrow or wide,

long or short, and drooping or erect.

The long drooping leaves form a

spreading canopy, which combats

weeds by shading the ground.

The underground part of the stalk

is composed of many short joints,

each with a node and an internode.

At each node is a bud. A growing

plant, known as a stool, consists of

the primary, or original shoot, and

the secondary shoots or tillers (fig. 6).

The primary shoot develops from the

bud of the mother stalk or seed piece.

The secondary shoots develop from

the buds on the underground part of

the stalk. A tertiary shoot may also

originate from a secondary shoot.

Each plant has a large number of

buds. More shoots emerge above the

surface in the spring than finally

become mature stalks. It is not

unusual to find 15 to 20 or more new

shoots per plant early in the spring

and only three to six mature stalks

per plant at maturity because of

shading or other causes.

Sugarcane rarely flowers in the

field in Louisiana. Floral initiation

occurs almost every year, but the

Figure 6.—Diagram of part of a sugarcane

stool: A, Ground level; B, primary; C, sec=

ondary; and D, tertiary shoots. (After

Artschwager.)
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA

cane is either harvested or frozen

before the tassels emerge. Under

more tropical conditions, sugarcane

flowers in the field and sometimes

produces viable seed. Propagation in

commercial plantings, however, is

always by whole stalks or vegetative

cuttings. The inflorescence (tassel or

arrow) of sugarcane is an openbranched panicle. Seedling plants are

grown from true seed to produce new

varieties in breeding programs. They

are extremely small, and infinite care

and attention are required to establish and grow plants from the small

seed. Seedling plants, xmlike those

from cuttings, are genetically different and show a wide range in size,

color, juice quality, and other

characteristics.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Drainage

Since many sugarcane soils have

poor internal drainage, good surface

drainage is essential for the production of good sugarcane crops. In

Louisiana, sugarcane is planted on

ridges built to a height of about 12

inches. Two systems of drainage are

in use: (1) Lateral ditches every 150

to 250 feet with quarter drains

draining to the lateral ditches and (2)

precision grading.

The first system has probably been

in use since sugarcane was first

planted in Louisiana. The area

between two lateral ditches, called

"squares" or "cuts," ranges from 500

to 1,000 feet in length. Quarter drains

(small ditches), at right angles to the

rows, drain the water from the cut to

the ditches (fig. 7). Deeper ditches

and canals drain the water from lateral ditches into bayous or swamps.

The use of heavy equipment on

sugarcane lands causes soil compaction, which limits water intake,

storage, and root development (40).

Subsoiling and deep plowing (14 to

18 inches) crack or shatter the compacted areas and increase yields on

some soil types. Increases in yield

have been obtained on fine sandy

loam and silty clay loam but not on

clay alluvium and loess silt loam

soils.

A system of precision grading that

eliminates the quarter drains and

many lateral ditches is now used to

drain many Louisiana sugarcane

fields (43). This is recommended for

the sandy "light" soils. Lateral ditches

are spaced 600 to 800 feet apart, so

only about one-fifth as many ditches

are required to drain the same area.

PN-2402

Figure 7.—Drain-cleaning machine.
8 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

The land is graded to slope towards

one end of the cut (row drainage) and

also towards one of the lateral ditches

(side fall). Side fall should be 0.2 foot

or less per 100 feet, and row drainage, from 0.3 to 0.5 foot fall per 100

feet. This may require the movement

of considerable soil by scrapers,

which move soil from the high spots

and fill in the low spots. A land plane

is used for the final smoothing operation (fig. 8).

A sample of four fields in Terrebonne Parish showed 73 percent of

ditch footage was eliminated by precision grading. The lateral ditches

and quarter drains are expensive to

maintain and are a serious source of

weed infestation. The resulting larger

cuts also permit a more efficient

operation of multirow equipment.

Crowning is recommended for the

clay "heavy" soils. This is accomplished by sloping the land from the

center of the cut towards the lateral

ditches. The center of the cut is the

high point, and the fall to each side is

0.3 foot per 100 feet.

Crop Rotation

Three crops of sugarcane are generally obtained from each planting

(plant cane, first stubble, and second

stubble). A cover crop is seldom used

in rotation with sugarcane. Old

stubble can be destroyed immediately

after harvesting, but usually enough

stubble is kept until spring so that

only the poorest stubbling fields are

destroyed. Stubbling ability depends

upon variety, severity of the winter,

and time of harvesting. After the

stubble is destroyed, the fields are

cuhivated frequently (fallow plowing)

throughout the summer as part of the

weed control program and cane is

planted again in the fall.

Organic matter content of the soil

can be maintained even when sugarcane plant residues are the only

.. s»^: ' • *,¿'|ri-.^ ¿^.-r^ '^^ nim HI nri-Vm«aia" * 1: T'^ -l

PN-2403

Figure 8.—Land plane used for the final smoothing operation.
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA

organic matter incorporated into the

soil (/9). Turning under a good soybean crop maintains the organic

matter at about the same level, but

has the added advantages of supplying about 40 pounds of nitrogen

and assisting in the control of annual

grasses and broadleaved weeds where

Johnsongrass is not present.

Planting

Planting season is from early

August to mid-October. August and

September plantings give the highest

yields {33). Unfavorable weather conditions often make it necessary to

plant through October and sometimes in November or December.

Because of peak labor demands, it is

extremely difficult to continue largescale planting operations after harvesting begins in October.

Cane to be used for seed is given

special attention, including heavy fertilization, to assure maximum

growth. The cane is heat treated for

control of ratoon stunting disease,

checked frequently for varietal mixture, rogued for mosaic disease, and

dusted for borer control. Approximately 3 to 4 tons of seedcane are

planted to produce an acre of cane in

Louisiana (18). Whole stalks, cut by

mechanical harvester, are used as

seedcane.

A well-prepared seedbed is of

great importance. A good fallow

plow program during the summer

provides a seedbed in good tilth for

final disking before planting. Sugarcane is planted on raised rows or

banks to facihtate drainage during

long wet periods. Rows are formed

up to 12 inches high spaced 6 feet

apart. Furrows are opened in the top

of these rows to a depth of 4 to 10

inches, but always at least 2 inches

above the water furrow (25). Seedcane is loaded into tractor-drawn

carts and dropped into the open furrows (fig. 9). Two to three whole

stalks are placed side by side, covered

with 3 to 4 inches of soil, cultipacked,

and sprayed with preemergence herbicides (42) (figs. 10 and 11).

Hand planting is gradually being

replaced by planting machines. One

fully automatic machine is commercially available (fig. 12). Other

machines, called planters' aids (fig.

13), use a crew of four rather than the

nine required if cane is planted completely by hand.

Fertilization

Fertilizers are usually applied

during March and April. Generally,

PN-2404

Figure 9.—Planting seed cane into open furrows.
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Lia^ vv

:*.-x

<^s

fcyTi^lrf *'''**=;-?»• <"%.•- '* ~ - • V '/ y>-*.Z'-u- Js' "^ "f -

PN-2405

Figure 10.—Cultipacking rows after planting.

all fertilizers are applied at one time;

however, if higher rates are used, a

split application may be made. The

last application can be made as late

as July 15 (77). No significant variety

and fertilizer inaction has been

reported.

Recommended rates vary with soil

type and for plant cane and stubble

(44). The rates range from 80 to 120

pounds of nitrogen per acre for plant

cane and 120 pounds to 140 pounds

of nitrogen per acre for stubble.

Forty pounds of phosphate (PjOj)

per acre and 80 pounds of potash

(KjO) per acre are recommended for

plant cane and* stubble where the

availability of these elements are in

the medium or low range, as determined by soil analysis. Nitrogen can

be applied in liquid or solid form, but

anhydrous and aqua ammonia are

almost exclusively used. Phosphate

and potash are applied in liquid or

solid form.

Liming is recommended if soil pH

is below 6.0.

Cultivation

Cultivation of sugarcane in Louisiana differs from that used in most

other sugarcane-producing areas.

High rows or banks are maintained

from the time the sugarcane is

planted until the old stubble is

plowed out.

Shaving, when practiced, is the

first cultural operation of the year.

Farmers shave to remove excess soil

covering plant cane, to remove high

stubble after harvesting, and to

remove winter-killed "eyes" (buds)

near the surface to permit lower

viable eyes to germinate better, and

to remove winter weeds. Some

farmers practice "false shaving"
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 11

which cuts off high stubble left after

harvesting but removes little or no

soil.

Shaving is harmful and reduces

yield if appreciable early cane growth

in a mild winter is cut off (27). Gaps

in stand are sometimes caused by

shaving too deeply.

The next cultural operation is

"off-barring." Soil is removed on

either side of the row of cane leaving

a ridge or "bar" about 12 inches wide.

Usually two sets of disk cultivators

are used in tandem. The first set is

reversed from its normal cultivating

position and removes the soil from

the row. The second set, left in its

normal cultivating position, immediately brings the soil back. Some

farmers leave the rows on the off-bar

for a few weeks, but this is not necessary (22).

The off-bar operation leaves the

row in good physical condition so

that anhydrous or aqua ammonia can

be applied without appreciable loss of

nitrogen and provides a clean row for

application of preemergence herbicides. Fertilizer is applied into the

loose soil on either side and at the

base of the off-bar.

To control weeds, the crop may be

cultivated several more times until

the cane leaves can grow over the

middles of the rows. The last such

cultivation is referred to as the "layby" cultivation. Experiments have

shown no difference in cane yields

with 1, 2, or 5 cultivations provided

good weed control is maintained (30).

Increased costs of production, labor

scarcity, and better herbicides have

brought about a gradual reduction in

the number of cultivations.

Figure 11.—Sprayer and cultipacker.

PN-2406
12 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

PN-2407

Figure 12.—Sugarcane mechanical planter.

Figure 13.—Planting sugarcane with planters' aid.

PN-2408
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 13

"^ -i^;S#^

Figure 14.—Three-row cultivators.

PN-2409

Some farmers with small acreages tirow (three rows) cultivating equipare using single row cultivators, but ment (fig. 14).

these are being replaced with mulVARIETIES

The old noble varieties produced

good crops for over a century before

they failed, but the commercial life of

the interspecific hydrids that have

replaced them is much shorter (31).

These varieties, although reproduced

vegetatively and hence genetically stable, appear to become less productive

after being grown a few years. This

"running out" or yield decline is

being intensively studied to determine

its causes (11). An expanded breeding

program that produces improved

varieties at a more rapid rate also

contributes to the short life span of

commercial varieties. Figure 15

shows the succession of commercial

varieties grown in Louisiana since

1926.

A particular kind of sugarcane

variety has been bred to meet Louisiana's exacting and peculiar requirements. These varieties are early maturing, have good stubbHng qualities,

are resistant to disease and insect

pests, and stand relatively erect at

maturity. A degree of cold tolerance

and resistance to inversion of sucrose

is also characteristic of Louisiana

varieties.
% OF ACREAGE

CP 61-37

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

Figure 15.—Changes in sugarcane varieties based on acreage planted in Louisiana, 1920-70.

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CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 15

Commerical Varieties

Table 2 gives the commercial sugarcane varieties, country of origin,

year of release, and highest acreage

attained by each. Figure 15 shows the

changes in varieties that have

occupied at least 10 percent of the

sugarcane acreage for the period of

time.

From 1825 to 1926 three varieties,

Louisiana Purple, Louisiana Striped,

and D-74, occupied most of the

acreage. From 1924, when the POJ

TABLE 2.—Data pertaining to commercial sugarcane varieties released

in Louisiana, 192Í-68

Year of Variety Country of

origin

Maximum acreage attained

release Percent Year

1924 POJ 234 Java 65 1928

1924 POJ 213 do 47 1931

1924 POJ 36 do 13 1933

1924 POJ 36 M do 13 1933

1930 Co 281 India 47 1936

1930 CP807 United States 11 1935

1933 Co 290 India 41 1940

1934 CP 28-11 United States 5 1942

1934 CP 28-19 do 13 1942

1935 CP 29-320 do 24 1940

1936 CP 29-116 do 13 1947

1939 CP 29-103 do 7 1945

1939 CP 29-120 do 10 1947

1941 CP 33-243 do 1 1945

1942 CP 34-120 do 25 1947

1943 CP 33-310 do 1 1947

1943 CP 33-425 do 1 1947

1945 CP 36-105 do 39 1952

1946 CP 36-13 do 7 1953

1947 CP 34-92 do 1 1951

1947 CP 36-19 _____do___- 1 1951

1947 CP 36-183 do 1 1951

1949 CP 44-101 do 53 1957

1949 CP 44-155 do 11 1955

1950 CP 43-47 do 4 1955

1952 CP 44-154 do 1 1954

1954 NCo 310 South Africa 25 1960

1955 CP 47-193 United States 4 1964

1955 CP 48-103 do 12 1968

1958 CP 52-68 do 49 1968

1963 CP 55-30 do 15 1968

1966 L 60-25 do 27 1970

1967 CP 61-37 do 9 1970

1969 L 62-96 do 1 1970
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

varieties were made available to the

industry, until 1968, 34 varieties have

been released to growers as follows:

Four POJ, two Co, one NGo, 25 GP,

and two L varieties. Some of the

varieties were widely grown, and

some did not gain good grower

acceptance. Five varieties attained a

maximum acreage of over 45 percent—POJ 234, POJ 213, Co 281, CP

44-101, and CP 52-68. Six varieties

attained a maximum acreage of from

25 to 41 percent—Co 290, CP 29-320,

CP 34-120, CP 36-105, NCo 310, and

L 60-25.

POJ 234 was grown extensively

because it was definitely superior to

the noble canes. CP 44-101 occupied

more than 50 percent of the acreage

because of its high yields, satisfactory

sucrose, disease resistance, cold tolerance, and general adaptability. CP

52-68 replaced CP 44-101 primarily

because it had better juice quality. A

continued and perhaps even more

rapid succession of varieties is

assured by the fact that many more

promising varieties are under increase

or in test at ail stages in the breeding

program (7).

Some Varietal

Characteristics

In 1969, NCo 310, CP 48-103, CP

52-68, and L 60-25 occupied almost

80 percent of the sugarcane acreage

in Louisiana (32). Two new varieties,

CP 61-37 (released in 1967) and L 62-

96 (released in 1969), are under rapid

increase.

CP 52-68 (released in 1958)

occupied 40 percent of the 1969 crop

acreage and is still used as a basis for

comparison of other varieties in the

selection program. CP 52-68 is widely

adapted, yields well, and is medium

early in maturity. It is a very erect

uniform variety, excellent for

mechanical harvesting. The variety is

resistant to ratoon stunting disease

but susceptible and relatively intolerant to mosaic. It has become saturated with mosaic in many areas and

acreage is declining.

NCo 310 (released in 1954) still

occupied 13 percent of the acreage in

Louisiana in 1969. It is grown primarily in the southwestern area

where it produces good tonnage. It is

also liked because of its nonbrittleness and cold tolerance. The

variety is highly susceptible to

mosaic, and its continued use is not

recommended.

L 60-25 (released in 1966) is an

early maturing, high sucrose variety

with acceptable yield and is apparently widely adapted on heavy and

light soils throughout the area (16).

The variety is somewhat susceptible

to borer, susceptible and intolerant to

mosaic, and subject to lodging and

brittleness.

CP 48-103 (released in 1955) is

also an early maturing, high sucrose

variety but is lacking in vigor, not as

widely adapted as L 60-25, and

should be planted only on the better

light soils where weeds and grasses

are not a problem. However, the

variety is moderately resistant to

mosaic and relatively cold tolerant.

CP 61-37 (released in 1967) is a

high tonnage variety that has yielded

well on both light and heavy soil. The
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 17

variety has good cold tolerance and is

moderately resistant to mosaic. It is

medium to late in maturity and somewhat brittle when lodged.

L 62-96 (released in 1969) is a high

sucrose variety that has outyielded

CP 52-68 in sugar per acre. It is a

large barrel variety by Louisiana

standards and is tall, uniform, and

erect which makes it well adapted to

mechanical harvesting. The variety is

moderately susceptible to mosaic and

sometimes has a low population of

stalks in plant cane.

VARIETY IMPROVEMENT

When the noble varieties failed, it

was necessary to import varieties

from Java and India that were tolerant to mosaic. The POJ and Co

varieties restored the Louisiana sugar

industry and maintained it until a

breeding program was established for

this area.

The development of high yielding,

disease resistant varieties through

breeding became the chief objective

of the sugarcane investigations of the

Agricultural Research Service. Field

stations were established at Canal

Point, Fla., to make crosses and produce seed, and at Houma, La., to test

the promising new seedUngs.

Sugarcane flowers infrequently in

Louisiana, but true seed of sugarcane

aided by photoperiod induction of

flowering, are produced by the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station at Baton Rouge (10). Varieties

bred in Florida are called CP (Canal

Point) varieties, and those bred in

Louisiana are called L varieties. The

American Sugar Cane League cooperates in the production of new varieties by increasing seed suppHes of

promising new canes and by contributing funds to the two breeding

programs.

Parent Material

CP and L varieties are mostly trispecies hybrids between the large barrel, soft, sweet noble canes (Saccharum officinarum L.), the commercially worthless but disease resistant,

slender, nonsweet canes (S. spontaneum L.), and the small barrel, highfibered, Indian canes (S. barberi

Jeswiet). S. robustum Brandes and

Jeswiet ex. Grassl, a progenitor of the

noble canes, is also in the pedigree of

a few Louisiana varieties. Generally,

the characteristics of the interspecific

hybrids are intermediate between, or

combine the desired characteristics of

each species.

Actually, only a few clones of the

different species hybridized in Java

and India provided most of the sugarcane varieties of the world (5).

Plant explorers have searched areas

of the world where the basic forms of

sugarcane are native and assembled a

large variety collection at Canal

Point {6,49). These collections are

presently being used as sources of

new germ plasm {13).

Breeding

Crosses are made at Canal Point

inside a large greenhouse because of
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

low night temperatures and damaging

winds and rain that occur during the

floral initiation and crossing season.

Several weeks before setting up the

cross, canes to be used as female parents are air-layered. At least two

nodes of the stalk are wrapped first

with sphagnum moss and then with

polyethylene to keep the moss from

drying out. When the flowers have

developed well enough to make the

cross, the stalk is cut immediately

below the air layer, the polyethylene

is removed, and the stalk is placed in

a trough of running water. At this

stage, the roots have grown enough

to keep the plant alive.

Canes to be used as male parents

are grown in cans on railroad carts.

Low night temperatures interfere

with pollen production, so these

canes are kept inside the heated

greenhouse at night and outside

during the day. The male tassels are

cut and preserved in a dilute sulfurous, phosphoric acid solution.

The cross is set up in polyethylene

cubicles inside the crossing house to

prevent contamination from outside

pollen. Stalks bearing pollen-producing arrows are raised above those

bearing the seed-producing arrows.

Although sugarcane has a perfect

flower, many varieties do not produce viable pollen. Pollen-producing

parents can be identified by examining the anthers for pollen grains.

Quality of the pollen is determined by

the iodine test. For the next 7 to 10

days pollen-bearing stalks are tapped

each morning so that they shed pollen. When pollination is complete,

the pollen parents are removed and

seed are matured on the female parents. About 30 days after the cross is

set up, the fuzz containing the ripe

seed is stripped from the tassel. The

fuzz is dried several days and is then

ready to plant. Seed can be stored for

a short time at room temperature or

for several years at below freezing

temperature.

The application of indoor crossing

techniques resulted in a tremendous

increase in the production of viable

seed at Canal Point to over 1 million

a year (12), Photoperiod treatments

that delay certain early flowering

clones and enhance late-flowering

ones make it possible to synchronize

early and late-flowering varieties to

make certain crosses not possible

under natural conditions (27). Coldroom treatments have also been used

at the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station to prevent pollen production in highly male-fertile varieties. It is now possible by manipulation and application of one or more

of the above techniques to effect

almost any desired cross for varieties

to be grown in Louisiana.

Testing

Commercial varieties occur very

infrequently in sugarcane seedling

progenies and are difficult to distinguish, particularly during the eariy

stages of testing. It takes 12 years to

determine whether a variety is suitable for commercial culture in Louisiana. The seedlings progress

through a test system where they are

evaluated in single stool nurseries,

unreplicated line trials, repHcated
CULTURE OP SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 19

infield variety trials, and replicated

outfield variety trials.

No selection for yield, as such, is

practiced in single stools or

unreplicated line trials. Instead, a

subjective selection is practiced for

the heritable components of sugar per

acre yield. Stalk diameter and height

and hand refractometer Brix are the

most important selection criteria in

single stools. Selecdon for stalk

number and erectness, which are low

in heritability in single stools, is

delayed until the 6-foot and 15-foot

line trial stages (20). Selection in

these initial stages is to raise the frequency of commercial varieties so

that they occur even in the small

number of varieties that are critically

evaluated, rather than to identify the

individual varieties with commercial

potential.

About 100 new CP and L varieties

advance to replicated yield trials at

Houma and Baton Rouge each year.

Of these varieties, 20 to 30 are sent to

14 test field locations on cooperating

plantations throughout the sugarproducing area for further testing.

The out-field test program is conducted cooperatively by the USDA

and the Louisiana Agricultural

Experiment Station. Eight test fields

are on light and heavy Mississippi

alluvial soils, five are in Pleistocene

soils west of the Atchafalaya River

and one is on Red River alluvial soil.

Yield data are obtained first from the

plant cane crop and then from the

first and second stubble crops at all

locations before a variety is released.

In addition to yielding ability,

varieties are tested and classified for

other important characteristics. For

example, even a high-yielding variety

may be unfit for growth in Louisiana

if it has one undesirable character.

Data are collected on erectness and

brittleness which largely determine

the suitability of a variety to mechanical harvest (75). Extremely brittle

varieties that frequently lodge are discarded. Milling quality of a variety is

also considered, and high-fibered

varieties are discarded from the test

program. Pathologists classify varieties in test according to their

resistance and tolerance to the major

diseases, and entomologists determine their borer resistance. Physiologists also study and classify the

varieties for leaf and stalk cold tolerance and inversion rate, which are

important economic considerations in

growing the crop in Louisiana (24).

Increase and Release to

Growers

The American Sugar Cane League

conducts a seed increase program of

promising new varieties. Seed cane is

increased under terms of written

agreements between the league and

growers at three primary and 42 secondary increase stations. A release

statement is prepared jointly by the

three agencies involved in variety

development when sufficient data are

available to release a new variety.

This statement describes the new

variety and lists its advantages and

disadvantages (2). The League then

arranges for the allocation, sale, and

distribution of the available seed

cane.
20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

WEED CONTROL^

Weeds abound in sugarcane fields

throughout the year and can be damaging to a crop if not controlled.

Effective control of weeds is unlikely

unless both herbicides and timely cultivation are used judiciously. Weed

control treatments mentioned herein

have appeared satisfactory in

research with respect to both weed

control and crop tolerance.

Important Weeds

Weeds in sugarcane may be

grouped into those that grow during

the cool season or winter months and

those that grow during the warm

season or summer months. Winter

weeds are primarily broadleaf

annuals such as chickweed {Stellaria

media (L.) Cyrillo), htnhxi {Lximium

amplexicaule L.), Carolina geranium

{Geranium carolinianum L.), and

Virginia pepperweed {Lepidium virginicum L.). Canarygrass {Phalaris

spp.) is one of the few grassy weeds

that are problems in the winter In

the spring and summer, the main

weed problems are annual and perennial grasses: Johnsongrass {Sorghum

halepense (L.) Pers.), Rottboellia

exaltaîa L.f. (called itchgrass locally),

crabgrass {Digitaria sanguinalis (L.)

Scop.), junglerice {Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link), and bermudagrass

{Cynodon dactylon {L,) Pers.). In late

^This section was prepared by R, W. Milihollon.

summer, annual broadleaf vines such

as scarlet morningglory {Ipomoea

coccínea L.) and cypressive morningglory {Ipomoea quamoclit L.) are

troublesome.

The most widespread and most

economically important weed in sugarcane is Johnsongrass. It is well

adapted for competition with sugarcane since it thrives under the cultural conditions suitable for sugarcane, and can reproduce as an annual

from seed or as a perennial from rhizomes (fig. 16). Seedlings of johnsongrass produce rhizomes within a

few weeks after germination and

thereafter become increasingly hard

to control with herbicides. Many of

its seed are dormant and can survive

to reinfest fields even after one or

more years of fallowing. Johnsongrass infestations usually increase

from relatively low levels in newly

planted cane to very high levels in the

stubble crops. Heavy infestations

may reduce yields 25 to 50 percent.

Itchgrass is a relatively new weed

in sugarcane in Louisiana. It is very

competitive and difficult to control

(55). It grows over 6 feet tall and may

be recognized by the short, stiff hairs

that cover the leaf sheaths, the cylindrical spikelike inflorescence, and the

large cylindrical seed that fall from

the mature inflorescence (fig. 17).

Itchgrass is an annual, but individual

plants mature many seed almost continuously throughout the growing

season. The seed germinate periodically during the spring and summer
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 21

however, has shown that heavy

infestations of winter weeds reduce

both the stand and yield of newly

planted sugarcane, even when

removed 8 months before harvest {39)

(fig. 18). These weeds are usually

more of a problem in newly planted

cane than in stubble ratoon crops.

Winter weeds must be removed in the

spring before herbicides can be

applied to the soil surface for preemergence control of summer weeds.

Weed Control Programs

Weeds are most competitive when

sugarcane is becoming established

after planting or stubbling. Without

weed competition, young sugarcane

PN-2410

Figure 16.—Johnsongrass plant showing

extensive Rhizome system.

and can emerge from a depth of 6

inches in soil.

Annual grasses such as crabgrass

and junglerice and broadleaf vines

will severely stunt sugarcane if not

controlled. They become a problem

particularly after layby if sugarcane

stands are sparse. Annual grasses

may overrun the cane; vines may tie

up cane and interfere with efficient

mechanical harvesting.

At one time, winter weeds were

not considered competitive with sugarcane since they grow when sugarcane is relatively dormant and are

removed by cultivation early in the

growing season. Recent research.

PN-2411

Figure 17.—Inflorescence and individual seed

of itchgrass.
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

PN-2412

Figure 18.—Weed infestation in the winter on newly planted sugarcane. Plot in background was

sprayed in the fall with simazine to control weed before emergence.

plants will grow vigorously and

within a few months will be tall

enough to shade the row and prevent

much weed growth. Therefore, an

effective weed control program

involves timely control of weeds and

the use of cultural practices that promote good growth of sugarcane.

Fallowing

After a crop of sugarcane has been

grown for its 3-year crop cycle, it

may be severely infested with johnsongrass. Fallowing the land by frequent plowing for one spring and

summer effectively kills the majority

ofJohnsongrass rhizomes and reduces

the population of seed in the soil.

Fields are effectively fallowed by

plowing under johnsongrass when it

is approximately 14 inches tall; six or

more plowings may be needed during

one fallow season.

Herbicide programs in sugarcane

Herbicides used in sugarcane

during 1970 were 3-íerí-butyl-5-

chloro-6-methyluracil (terbacil),

(2,3,6-trichlorophenyl) acetic acid

(fenac), a,a,a,-trifluoro-2,6-dinitroAf,7V-dipropyl-p-toluidine (trifluralin),

sodium salt of trichloroacetic acid

(TCA), sodium salt of 2,2-dichloropropionic acid (dalapon), 2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy) propionic acid (silvex), (2,4-dichlorophenoxy) acetic

acid (2,4-D), and 2-chloro-4,6-bis-

(ethylamino)-i-triazine (simazine). In

commercial practice, herbicides are

usually applied to a 30-inch band

over the top of the sugarcane row.
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 23

and the remaining strip of 36 to 42

inches is cultivated with disk plows to

control weeds. Most of these herbicides do not injure sugarcane excessively when used as described in table

3. Any shght, temporary injury is

usually more than offset by the benefits of weed control. Sugarcane has

marginal tolerance, however, for

some of the treatments, and varying

degrees of injury may result from

their use. Dalapon, for example, is

more likely to injure sugarcane if the

foliage is sprayed or if appUcations

are repeated several times. Also,

some varieties of sugarcane are more

sensitive than others to certain herbicides (39),

After fallowing and replanting,

one of several herbicides can be

applied to soil for preemergence control of weeds (table 3). By reapplying

herbicides annually, preemergence

control can be extended throughout

the 3-year crop cycle. For many

years, mixtures of TCA plus 2,4-D or

TCA plus silvex were the only treatments available for general preemergence weed control. In the

1960's, however, fenac and terbacil

were found to control johnsongrass

seedlings and many other weed species more effectively than the TCA

treatment (34,41). Terbacil and fenac

persist in soil long enough for a single

application to control weeds

residually for several months. Simazine controls annual weeds residually

and is exceptionally nonphytotoxic to

sugarcane. Trifluralin is the only herbicide that effectively controls itchgrass, but it seldom persists enough

to control heavy infestations for more

than 60 days.

Herbicides for preemergence control and cultivations seldom control

all weeds, but other herbicides can be

applied for postemergence control

(table 3). Herbicides may be applied

either as spot treatments or as general

treatments depending on weed density. Stubble crops frequently have

heavy infestations of johnsongrass,

vines, and other weeds. A mixture of

TCA and dalapon inhibits the growth

of johnsongrass, but the plants tend

to recover.

Herbicide programs for

ditchbanks

Drainage ditchbanks occupy

approximately 10 percent of sugarcane fields and are a primary source

for the dissemination of johnsongrass, and other weeds. The control of johnsongrass on ditchbanks

involves two basic steps—initial control of established johnsongrass and

annual control of new growth, particularly seedlings. The treatments

described in table 4—applications of

MSMA, dalapon, or sodium chlorate—control established johnsongrass about equally well (36)] however, the plant species that becomes

dominant after johnsongrass is controlled varies with the herbicide used.

Bermudagrass rapidly covers ditchbanks treated with MSMA; broadleaf

plants grow sparsely on ditches

treated with dalapon; and various

weed grasses grow sparsely on ditches

treated with sodium chlorate. The

rapid regrowth of plants on ditchbanks prevents erosion, and desirable

species compete with new infestations

of johnsongrass.
24 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 3.^—Herbicide treatments that have effectively controlled weeds

in sugarcane fields

Herbicide

Terbacil

Rate of

application 1

Pounds per acre

1.6—3.2

Fenac 3.6—6.0

Simazine 3.0

Method of application Weeds controlled

Preemergence or postemergence to weeds approximately 1 inch tall,

applied to soil surface as

basally directed spray if

sugarcane has emerged. In

newly planted cane, 1.6

Ib./acre applied after

planting in fall and reapplied after first cultivation in early spring. In

stubble cane, approximately 3.2 Ib./acre applied after first cultivation in

early spring.

Preemergence to weeds,

applied to soil surface as

basally directed spray if

sugarcane has emerged. In

newly planted cane, 3.6 lb./

acre applied after planting in fall and reapplied

after first cultivation in

early spring. Usually more

effective if mixed with

silvex or 2,4-D at 2.4 lb./

acre. In stubble cane, approximately 6.0 Ib./acre

applied after first cultivation in early spring.

Preemergence to weeds,

applied to soil surface as

basally directed spray if

sugarcane has emerged.

Applied in fall after planting, in following spring,

and in spring on stubble

cane.

Seedling johnsongrass and most

annual broadleaf

and grass weeds.

Seedling johnsongrass and most

annual broadleaf

and grass weeds.

Annual broadleaf

and grass weeds.

See footnote at end of table.
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 25

TABLE 3.—Herbicide treatments that have effectively controlled weeds

in sugarcane fields—continued

Rate of

Herbicide application i Method of application Weeds controlled

Pounds per acre

TCA + silvex 10.0 + 2.4 Preemergence or post- Seedling johnsonemergence to weeds grass and most

(grasses under 2 inches annual broadleaf

tall and large broadleaf and grass weeds.

weeds), sprays applied to

soil surface and weed foliage either directed to the

base or over-the-top of

sugarcane. Applied after

first cultivation in spring

and reapplied after fertilization.

Trifluralin 1.0—2.0 Preemergence to weeds, Seedling johnsonincorporated in soil over grass, itchgrass,

sugarcane before or short- and most annual

ly after it emerges in early grasses.

spring.

Dalapon 4.5 Postemergence to weeds, Seedling johnsonsprays directed to weed grass, bermudafoliage at base of sugar- grass, and most

cane. annual grasses.

TCA + dalapon 15.0 + 4.5 Postemergence to weeds, Johnsongrass

sprays applied in early from rhizomes

spring over-the-top of and most grasses.

Johnsongrass and sugarcane in stubble crops only.

Silvex or 2,4-D 1.0—2.0 Postemergence to weeds Broadleaf weeds

and sugarcane in spring and vines.

or summer.

1 Rates of application of herbicides are stated in terms of a broadcast application of the active ingredient or acid equivalent, whichever is required, for a single

application. Based on 72-inch rows, the rate required for a 30-inch band application per acre of sugarcane would be 5/12 of the broadcast rate.
26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 4.—Herbicide treatments that have effectively controlled weeds

on drainage ditchbanks in sugarcane

Rate of

Herbicide application ^ Method of application Weeds controlled

Pounds per acre

MSMA 4.0 Postemergence, sprayed on J 0 h n; s 0 n g r a s s

foliage initially in spring. from rhizomes or

and resprayed repeatedly seed and itchon new growth 14 to 24 grass.

inches tall.

Dalapon 7.4 Postemergence, sprayed on Johnsongrass

foliage initially in spring, from rhizomes or

and resprayed repeatedly seed.

on new growth 14 to 24

inches tall.

Sodium chlorate 300-600 Postemergence or pre- Johnsongrass

emergence, applied to from rhizomes or

plants and soil in spring. seed and itchHigh rate for established grass.

Johnsongrass; low rate

for johnsongrass seedlings

or itchgrass.

1 Rates of application of herbicides are stated in terms of a broadcast application of the active ingredient or acid equivalent, whichever is required for a single

application.

SUGARCANE DISEASES

The Louisiana sugarcane industry

has been constantly plagued by diseases. In 1926 it was almost destroyed

by a combination of diseases. The

breeding program has usually succeeded in providing varieties resistant

or tolerant to the major diseases and

plant pathologists have provided

other control measures.

Mosaic

Mosaic, a virus disease, is recognized by the presence on the leaves of

pale-green or yellowish stripes surrounded by areas of normal green

color (fig. 19). Generally the stripes

are diffuse and indistinct, but on

some varieties or with certain strains

of the virus they are sharply defined.

Usually the chlorotic areas predominate over the normal green and are

rather uniformly distributed over the

leaf. Mosaic is transmitted in stalk

cuttings used for seedcane and from

diseased to healthy plants by aphids.

The most effective control of

mosaic is growing resistant varieties,

but existence of strains of the virus
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 27

complicates breeding for resistance.

The development of resistant varieties

made mosaic a minor disease

problem in Louisiana from about

1940 until the early 1960's when a

strain of the virus, designated strain

H, began to spread in the principal

commercial varieties which were susceptible to this strain {4). A new

strain of mosaic, designated strain I,

was reported in 1968 {46). Losses in

yield from strain H vary with different varieties from about 15 percent

in mildly infected crops to 50 percent

in completely infected crops. In field

tests, strain I produced even greater

reductions in germination and yield

than strain H {47).

Mosaic is widespread throughout

the sugarcane belt, but high yields are

still being produced. Losses are kept

to a minimum in light spread areas

by roguing of seed plots. Infection

can be kept below a harmful level

even in susceptible varieties. In heavy

spread areas, particularly the western

area, however, roguing in susceptible

varieties is futile. Clean seed is introduced into this area to minimize

losses, and tolerant susceptible varieties like NCo 310 are grown here.

Varieties which are resistant enough

Healthy D H

Figure 19.—Leaves of sugarcane showing a healthy leaf (left) and 3 different strains of mosaic disease (right).
28 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

to rogue, like CP 61-37, CP 65-350,

and L 65-69, are beginning to emerge

from the breeding program (8).

In recent years, mosaic has

become widespread on johnsongrass.

This mosaic is different from any of

the known strains of sugarcane

mosaic and is transmissible to sugarcane by artificial inoculation and

aphids (28). The mosaic on johnsongrass has been identified as Maize

Dwarf Mosaic Strain A (MDMV-A).

The present commercial varieties

appear to be highly resistant to

MDMV-A, but it could become a

serious problem to sugarcane in Louisiana if a susceptible variety were

grown.

Ratoon Stunting Disease

Ratoon stunting disease is caused

by a virus. This disease has no clearcut external symptoms and is therefore difficult to recognize. The

internal symptoms consist of discolored vascular bundles at the nodes

(pLI). Cane grown from seed pieces

treated with hot air at 54° C. for 8

hours or with hot water at 50° C. for

lYi to 3 hours show definite

improvement in yields and growth

characteristics as a result of eliminating the virus (fig. 20). Some varieties show a greater increase in yield

after heat treatment than others. It is

now standard practice in Louisiana

to plant seed plots with heat-treated

cane.

No insect vector of this disease has

been found. Ratoon stunting disease

is transmitted from the stem and

leaves of diseased cane to healthy

cane by cane knives and farm

machinery (e.g., mechanical harvesters and stubble shavers).

Red Rot

Roi rot is caused by the fungus

Physalospora tucumanensis Spegazzini. This disease affects primarily

the sugarcane stalk. The internal tissues become dull red with whitish

patches (pi.II).

Although red rot causes losses of

sugar in mill cane in Louisiana, it is

much more serious as a disease of

seedcane. During the long winter, the

seedcane remains relatively dormant

because temperatures are too low for

growth to take place. Seedcane diseases, of which red rot is the most

important, damage the seed pieces to

such an extent that stand reductions

or even failures might occur,

especially on poorly drained heavy

soils. Varieties that once occupied a

high percentage of the State acreage

have failed because of red rot. All

seedlings considered for advanced

agronomic testing are screen^ for

their reaction to this fungus disease.

Root Rot

Root rot is caused by fungi

belonging to the species of Pythium

It was one of the combination of diseases that resulted in the failure of

the noble cane varieties in Louisiana

in the mid-1920's. With the development of more resistant varieties

and improved drainage since that

time, losses from root rot have been

greatly diminished. However, the disease still causes injury during cold,

wet winters and together with seed-
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA, Plate I 29

B

Internal symptoms of ratoon stunting disease on sugarcane:

A, Diseased, note discoloration in nodes; B, healthy.
30 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

PN-2413

Figure 20.—Heat treatment of sugarcane for control of ratoon stunting disease.

rotting diseases contributes toward

stand failures in the spring. Rotting

of young rootlets in both plant cane

and stubbles interferes with the establishment of the young plants, particularly those grown from seed pieces or

stubbles weakened by red rot or other

diseases. Unthrifty appearance of

young plants with yellowing and

wilting of leaves during periods of

drought are usually indications of

root rot injury. When plants affected

by root rot are dug up, marked deficiency of the root system will be

found. Flabby, brownish watersoaked rootlets are characteristic

symptoms of the disease.

The most effective control for root

rot is the use of resistant varieties.

The present commercial varieties of

cane in Louisiana are at least moderately resistant to the disease. Since

the root rot fungus is favored by high

soil moisture, good drainage, particularly in heavy soils, is necessary to

reduce damage by the disease.

Interaction Between

Diseases

The combined effects of diseases

on plants may sometimes be greater

than those of each disease individually. Sugarcane mosaic (strain H) and

the root rot fungus Pythium graminicola Subr. in combination caused

greater reductions in growth of some

commercial varieties than each disease individually (29). There are indications that greater reductions in

growth of some varieties may also

result when mosaic and ratoon

stunting disease are present in combination. Under certain conditions,

some varieties are affected by the

combined effects of three or more

diseases, for example mosaic, ratoon

stunting disease, root rot, and fungus

leaf spots.
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA, Plate II 31

-^mm

Il ' f Wg1

^IH'' Ilj

. p V1 '1

m Iw 1 1^1

VH1 II i

i Xilj

J

Split sections of

F

sugarcane showing red rot.
32 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Diseases of Minor

Importance

Other fungus seed-rotting diseases

have caused some concern in Louisiana from time to time but seldom

do much damage to present-day

varieties. These diseases are Phytophthora rot caused by Phytophthora megasperma Dreschler and

P. erythroseptica Pethybridge; black

rot caused by Ceratocystis adiposa

(Butler) C. Moreau; and pineapple

disease caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa (de Seynes) C. Moreau.

Chlorotic streak, believed to be

caused by a virus, caused losses in

some susceptible varieties formerly

grown but is rarely found in Louisiana cane fields today.

Pokkah boeng, or tangle-top, disease occurs frequently in Louisiana

during periods of rapid growth after

rainy spells. It is caused by the fungus

Gibberella moniliformis (Sheldon)

Wineland. Losses are usually minor

because most varieties are resistant.

An occasional outbreak of brown

spot occurred in Louisiana on certain

varieties when there was no late

spring freeze. The leaf spotting disease is caused by the fungus Cercospora longipes Butler. It seldom

occurs on present commercial varieties.

Mottled stripe, caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas rubrisubalbicans (Christopher and Edgerton) Hayward is commonly seen on

leaves of many varieties in the spring

and early summer. The disease is

seldom observed on older cane.

Red stripe disease is occasionally

seen on the leaves of some varieties,

especially in the summer, but the top

rot stage of the disease has not been

observed for many years. The disease

is caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas rubrilineans (Lee et al.)

Starr et Burkh.

INSECTS^

Insects and allied pests cause considerable losses every year by damaging sugarcane and transmitting diseases. Continuing research programs

are directed toward developing controls for the various pests.

Sugarcane Borer

The sugarcane borer, Diatraea

saccharalis (Fabricius), is the most

important and destructive insect

attacking sugarcane in Louisiana.

^This section was prepared by R. D. JackInjury is caused by the larvae feeding

and tunneling within the stalks.

Reductions in both cane tonnage and

in purity of the juice result. Larval

tunneling also weakens the stalks,

which then lodge or break in high

winds. Borer attacks also destroy vegetative buds in seedcane and allow

easy entry of disease organisms.

Biological control of the sugarcane

borer is not as effective in Louisiana

as in more tropical areas. The sugarcane borer can be effectively controlled with azinphosmethyl (Guthion) and carbaryl (Sevin), which is
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 33

frequently applied by airplane. Other

methods that assist in control include

(1) destroying infested plant residues

(trash) by burning or removing it

from canefields after harvest, (2)

shaving and burning heavily infested

early plant cane in late winter, (3)

planting borer-free seedcane, and (4)

using borer-resistant varieties.

Sugarcane Beetle

The sugarcane beetle, Euetheola

rugiceps (Leconte), injures sugarcane

in the spring by gnawing ragged holes

in the young plant just below the soil

surface. There are cycles of abundance and scarcity of the insect. Early

planting and light trapping have been

of value in decreasing injury to

sugarcane,

Wireworms

Wireworms {Melanotus, Conoderus, and Aeolus spp.) destroy the

vegetative buds of the planted seedcane before germination and bore

into young plants below the surface

of the soil and kill them. Infestations

are restricted to the well-drained

sandy soils. Wireworms can be effectively controlled with Diazinon.

Soil Arthropods

Several species of soil arthropods

cause injury to sugarcane by pruning

off root hairs and gnawing into cane

roots. The resulting wounds provide

entrances for fungus pathogens.

Injury has been most serious in the

heavy, poorly drained soils where

root rots have been prevalent and

during winters when cane remained

dormant. These pests include symphylans {Hanseniella unguiculata

(Hansen)), springtails (Pseudosinella

violenta (Folsom)), Lepidocyrtus

cyaneus (TuUberg), Onychlurus

armatus (TuUberg), and bristletails

{Japyx sp.). August planting and

improved drainage have markedly

reduced injury by soil arthropods.

Miscellaneous Pests

Other pests that attack sugarcane

but usually cause minor injury are the

yellow sugarcane aphid, Sipha flava

(Forbes); gray sugarcane mealybug,

Dysmicoccus {Pseudococcus) boninsis Kuwana; the sugarcane weevil,

Anacentrinus subnudus Buch.; lesser

cornstalk borer, Elasmopalpus lignosellus Zeil.; West Indian sugarcane

fulgorid, Saccharosydne saccharivora

Westwood; the pink borer, Meropleon cosmion Dyar; another borer,

Schoenobius sp.; the scale, Pulvinaria

elongata Newstead; and various species of cutworms and grassworms. No

methods of controlling these pests

have been developed.

HARVESTING

Harvesting of sugarcane in Louisiana begins in mid-October and

ends in late December. The crop is

only 7 to 8 months old when harvesting begins. It increases in value,

particularly in sucrose content,

during October and November. However, the grower cannot wait for his
34 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

crop to reach peak maturity because

he would risk losing much of it due

to killing freezes. Light freezes (26°

to 28° F.) sometimes occur as early

as late October or early November,

ihey kill most of the leaf tissue and

stop sugar accumulation. Freezes

with minimum temperatures as low

as 24° severely damage tissue in the

upper part of the stalk which must be

topped off and left in the field. Sustained temperatures below 23° freeze

the whole stalk, and this is generally

followed by a rapid deterioration of

cane remaining in the field (25).

The crop is harvested entirely by

machinery (fig. 21). Erect Louisiana

varieties permit the use of what is

generally known as the Louisiana

"soldier type" harvester. The machine

cuts the cane at the bottom and top

and piles it on "heap rows." About

six rows are placed on each heap.

The machine does not clean or strip

the cane, although some experimental

machines can clean the cane of trash.

Leaves and adhering trash are burned

after 2 to 4 hours of drying on the

heap row.

A sugarcane harvester is capable

of cutting 30 tons of cane per hour in

erect cane. Heavy rainfall or high

winds often cause high tonnage cane

to lodge. In this case, the cutting rate

drops to 15 tons.

The cut, burned cane is loaded

into tractor-drawn carts (fig. 22). A

typical grab-type loader can load 60

tons of cane per hour, and a tractor

with two wagons can haul about 11

tons of cane per hour from the field.

Cane is hauled directly to the mill in

the tractor wagons, or loaded into

trailer trucks at field transfer stations

for longer hauls.

Until recently, cane was handled

and transported entirely in bundles

held together with chains or "slings."

Figure 21.—Sugarcane harvester cutting sugarcane.

PN-2414
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 35

This practice has yielded almost completely to bulk handling systems {14).

Many systems of bulk handling are

used, but all are variants of the chainnet or side dump systems (figs. 23

and 24). Bulk handling has resulted

in significant cost reductions when

cane is hauled directly from the field

to the mill (45).

PN-2415

Figure 22.—Loading sugarcane into tractor-drawn carts.

Figure 23.—Unloading sugarcane tractor wagon at the mill.

PN-2416
36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

r

PN-2417

Figure 24.—Unloading sugarcane truck at the mill.

MANUFACTURING OF SUGAR

Sugar is manufactured in large

factories near the cane fields. There

were 44 factories operating in Louisiana during the 1969 season. Three

of them produced refined as well as

raw sugar, and 41 produced raw

sugar only. In addition, there are

three refineries that process raw sugar

into refined sugar. The raw sugar factories differ in size, but most of them

can process 100 tons of cane or more

per hour. The average capacity of

factories operating in 1969 ranged

from 1,400 to 6,000 tons of cane for

each 24-hour period.

Approximately 54 percent of the

Louisiana sugarcane crop is grown by

factory or mill owners who process

and market their own product, and

the remainder of the cane is produced

by farmers who do not own factories

and are not members of cooperative

sugar mills. This latter group sells

cane to the nearby factories for the

production of sugar. Existing agreements between factory owners and

growers provide for payment of cane

to be made on the basis of (1) the net

weight of the cane after deduction for

trash and (2) the level of sugar content. Trash consists of leaves, suckers,

sugarcane tops, and all other extraneous materials. In the event damaging

freezes occur, acidity tests of the juice

are run and appropriate deductions

can be made.

When cane arrives at the factory,

it is piled in the factory yard by huge

derricks for milling during the night

(fig. 25) or moved immediately onto

the feed table by derrick, bridge

crane, or front-end loader. The sam-
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 37

pies for sucrose and trash determinations are collected on the feed

table at most factories. The cane is

leveled and washed with from 2,000

to 10,000 gallons of water per minute.

The washed cane discharges from the

feed table to the carrier. The cane is

prepared for milling by revolving

knives and, at some factories, additional preparation is accomplished by

shredders.

The mill tandem has one or two 2-

roller crushers or one 3-roller crusher

followed by three or more 3-roller

mills. All juice extraction is done by

the mill tandem. The crushers have

two or more huge, grooved rollers,

which range in width from 4 to 7 feet.

Each mill has three grooved rollers,

as large as the crusher rollers, which

are mounted in a triangular fashion.

Hydraulic pressure is exerted on

the top mill roller, and the cane is

compressed between the top roller

and the bottom rollers for juice

extraction. Maceration or imbibition

,^-is*S¿

PN-2418

Figure 25.- -Sugarcane stockpiled at the mill

for night milling.

water, or water plus juice, averaging

20 percent by weight is injected into

the mass of crushed cane as it leaves

each mill except the last one. The

purpose of this water, or mixed juice,

is to diffuse as much sugar and to

extract as much juice as possible

from the cane. Some mills remove 90

percent or more of the sugar in the

cane. Juice extraction varies with the

efficiency of the equipment.

The pulp or residue containing the

fiber after juice extraction is called

bagasse (fig. 26). Some of it is used to

generate steam to operate the factory.

Some bagasse is used in making

paper, building and insulating board,

plant mulches, and litter for animals.

The juice from the mill tandem is

weighed or measured for factory control purposes. The extracted juice is

acid with a pH of 5 to 5.5. The pH is

raised to 6 or 6.5 with lime to precipitate some of the colloids and other

nonsugars and to prevent inversion

or degradation of sucrose when the

juice is heated. Defecation or clarification of the heated limed juice

takes place in large vessels called clarifiers. Precipitates that settle to the

bottom of the clarifiers are drawn off

and run through rotary vacuum filters to remove more juice containing

sucrose. The clear juice is continuously drawn out or decanted

from the top of the clarifiers and sent

to the evaporators.

The juice contains natural water

which was extracted from the cane

together with the added maceration

water. This water must be removed.

This is accomplished in multiple

evaporators. The juice enters the
38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

^H

9w.

---Wfei ;. -

Í '' '

;. "W^fl^P.

PN-2419

Figure 26.—Piles of bagasse—a byproduct of sugarcane.

evaporator with a 16° to 18° Brix

and leaves at about a 60° Brix.

The sirup goes to the "boiling

pans" which are units heated under

vacuum and their function is to

develop and grow sugar crystals.

When the sirup has been evaporated

until saturated with sugar crystals or

"grains," its density is approximately

92° Brix, and it is ready to be "dried"

or centrifuged. A centrifugal machine

spins the thick sirup or "massecuite"

to remove most of the molasses. The

remaining light brown, raw sugar

crystals are ready for refining. The

refining process includes melting the

raw sugar, decoloring the liquid by

means of carbon filter, crystalizing it

in the vacuum boiling pans, and

drying it by centrifugal force. The

centrifuged dried sugar is then ready

for direct consumption and industrial

use.
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 39

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Anonymous.

1969. Recapitulation of final reports of Louisiana, sugarcane factories. Crops. 1959-

68. (Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service Report.) Sugar Bui. 47

(22): 3.

(2)

1969. Notice of release of sugar cane variety L 62-96. Sugar Bui. 47 (20): 3.

(3)

1969. Production of sugar in Louisiana, 1900-1968. Sugar Bui 47 (20): 7.

(4) Abbott, E. V.

1961. A new strain of sugarcane mosaic virus. (Abstract) Phytopathology 51: 642.

(5) Arceneaux, G.

1965. Cultivated sugarcanes of the world and their botanical derivation. Internatl.

Soc. Sugar Cane Technol. Cong. Proc. 12: 844-854.

(6) Artschwager, E., and Brandes, E. W.

1958. Sugarcane {Saccharum officinarum L). Origin, classification, characteristics,

and descriptions of representative clones. U.S. Dept. Agr. Handb. 122, 307 pp.,

illus.

(7) Breaux, R. D., and Dunkelman, P. H.

1969. The USDA seedling program: Selection for commercial production. Sugar Bui.

47(21): 6-15.

(8) and Fanguy, H. P.

1970. Sugarcane mosaic in Louisiana: A prescription for a chronic disease. Sugar Bui.

48 (17): 212-216.

(9) Cain, C. C.

1961. Soils of the sugarcane area in Louisiana. Amer. Soc. Sugarcane Technol. Proc.

8: 1-7.

(10) Chilton, S. J. P., and Moreland, C. F.

1954. Experiments on the flowering of sugarcane. Sugar Bui. 32: 165-169.

(11) Coleman, R. E.

1968. Variety yield decline research in the United States. Internatl. Sugar Jour. 70: 75-

77.

(12) Dunckelman, P. H.

1959. Transition: Effectiveness and implications of breeding sugarcane in an indoor

environment at Canal Point, Florida. Sugar Bui 37 (19) 229-252.

(13) and Breaux, R. D.

1968. Evaluarion of germ plasm in the U.S.D.A. Sugarcane Program at Houma, Louisiana. Internatl. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol. Cong. Proc. 13: 888-892.

(14) Fairbanks, N. J.

1065. Handling and transporting sugarcane in Louisiana. Sugar Bui. 43: 258-262.

(15) Fanguy, H. P.

1968. A new device to measure brittleness of sugarcane varieties. Sugar Bui 46 (21):

11-14.
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(16)

1968. Sugarcane variety outfield experiments in Louisiana in 1967. Sugar Bui. 47 (4):

6-13.

(17) Golden, L. E., Ricaud, R., and Loupe, D. T.

1970. Fertilizer recommendations for Louisiana sugar cane. Sugar Bui. 48 (10): I.

(18) Hebert, L. P.

1956. Effect of seed piece and rate of planting on yields of sugarcane in Louisiana.

Internatl. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol Cong. Proc. 9: 301-310.

(19) _____ and Davidson, L. G.

1959. Effect of cane trash, legumes and bagasse on cane and sugar yields and on the

organic matter content in Louisiana sugarcane soils. Internatl. Soc. Sugar Cane

Technol. Cong. Proc. 10: 565-579.

(20) and Henderson, M. T.

1959. Breeding behavior of certain agronomic characters in progenies of sugarcane

crosses. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 1194. 54 pp.

(21) and Matherne, R. J.

1954. Results of tests conducted over a number of years to determine the effect of

shaving sugarcane on yields. Internatl. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol. Cong. Proc.

(1953). 8: 253-260.

(22) and Matherne, R. J.

1957. Comparison of the usual off-barring with a modified method of off-barring on

yields of sugarcane in Louisiana. Sugar Bui, 35: 119-120 and 123.

(23) Hebert, L. P., and Matherne, R. J.

1959. Effect of depth of placement of seed piece and date of planting on yields of cane

and sugar from CP 36-105 and CP 44-101 at Houma, Louisiana. Sugar Bui. 37:

260-265.

(24) Irvine, J. E.

1965. Testing sugarcane varieties for cold tolerance in Louisiana. Internatl. Soc. Sugar

Cane Technol. Cong. Proc. 12: 569-574.

(25) _ _

1968. Effects of an early freeze on Louisiana sugarcane. Internatl. Soc. Sugar Cane

Technol. Cong. Proc. 13: 837-839.

(26) .^^ Tippett, R. L., and Coleman, R. E.

1968. Growth, rainfall and temperature: The effects on sugarcane in Louisiana. Sugar

Bui. 46(24): 7-13.

(27) James, N. 1.

1969. Delayed flowering and pollen production in male-sterile sugarcane subjected to

extended day length. Crop Sei. 9: 279-282.

(28) Koike, H.

1970. Johnsongrass mosaic virus transmitted from johnsongrass to sugarcane seedlings and other grasses by aphids. Sugar Bui. 48 (15): 188, 190-191.

(29) and Yang, S.

1970. The effects of sugarcane mosaic virus (strain H) and Pythium graminicola,

singly and in combination on growth of sugarcane. (Abstract) Phytopathology

69: 1299.
CULTURE OF SUGARCANE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 41

(30) Matherne, R. J.

1968. Preliminary studies on minimum cultivation of sugarcane in Louisiana. Sugar

Bui. 46(19): 6-7 and 10.

(31)

1968. A history of major Louisiana sugarcane varieties. Internatl. Soc. Sugar Cane

Technol. Cong. Proc. 13: 1056-1061.

(32)

1969. Distribution of sugarcane varieties in Louisiana. Sugar Bui. 47 (7): 4-6.

(33) and Hebert, L. P.

1964. Results of date of planting experiments with sugarcane in Louisiana, 1960-63.

Sugar Bui. 42: 246-251.

(34) Millhollon, R. W.

1964. Evaluation of fenac for control of johnsongrass seedlings and other weeds in

sugarcane. Sugar Jour. 26: 22-26.

(35)

1965. Growth characteristics and control of Rottboellia exaltata L.f., a new weed in

sugarcane. Sugar Bui. 44 (5): 82-88.

(36)

(37)

1969. Control of johnsongrass on drainage ditchbanks in sugarcane. Weed Sei. 17:

370-373.

1970. MSMA for johnsongrass control in sugarcane. Weed Sei. 18: 333-336.

(38) Millhollon, R. W.

1971. Influence of winter weeds on growth and yield of sugarcane. Internatl. Soc.

Sugar Cane Technol. Cong. Proc. 14: 1166-1171.

(39) and Matherne, R. J.

1968. Tolerance of sugarcane varieties to herbicides. Weeds 16: 300-303.

(40) Saveson, L L., Lund, Z. F., and Davidson, L. G.

1966. Deep tillage investigations on alluvial soil in the sugarcane area of Louisiana.

U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Res. Serv. ARS 41-123. 21 pp.

(41) Stamper, E. R.

1966. The use of uracil compounds as chemical herbicides in Louisiana sugarcane.

South. Weed Conf. Proc, pp. 73-81.

(42) and Millhollon, R. W.

1970. Recommendations for the control of johnsongrass and other weeds in Louisiana

sugarcane, spring 1970. Sugar Bui. 48: 106-107 and 110-113.

(43) Stewart, K. V.

1965. New land grading systems for sugarcane. Prog. Farmer 80: 52B.

(44) Sturgis, M. B., Burnside, D., and Davidson, L. G,

1957. Fertilizer recommendations for sugarcane. Sugar Bui. 35: 135.

(45) Timmons, G. R.

1968. Important cost considerations in cane handling. Sugar Bui. 46 ( 10): 6-15 and 23.
42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 417, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(46) Tippett, R. L., and Abbott, E. V.

1968. A new strain of sugarcane mosaic virus in Louisiana. Plant Dis. Rptr. 52: 449-

451.

(47) and Koike, H.

1970. Strains of sugarcane mosaic virus in sugarcane varieties: Effects on stands and

yields. Plant Dis. Rptr. 54 554-557.

(48) U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau.

1953. The climate of Louisiana, temperature and precipitation normals--192!-1950

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(49) Warner, J. N., and Grassl, C. O.

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ix U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1977 O—225-551