Incidence and Impact of Damage to 

North Carolina's Timber, 1984 

Cindy M. ~uber,' Joe P. McClure, 2 

and Noel D. cost2 

'~ntornoto~ist, Region 8, State and Private Forestry, Ashevi l le, NC. 

2~esource Analysts, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, 

Asheville, NC. 
CONTENTS 

Foreword ................................ 

Introduction .............................. 

Sampling Procedure ........................... 

Computations .............................. 

Incidence of Damaging Agents and Associated Cull ............ 

Mortality. Losses to Cull. and Quality Loss .............. 

Definitions .............................. 

Damaging Agents and Their Symptoms .................. 

Forest Survey and Forest Pest Management Terms ............ 

References ............................... 

Tables ................................. 9 
Foreword 

This Bulletin reports survey data 

on agents damaging trees in North 

Carolina's forests. Data were collected 

in 1982, 1983, and 1984 by the Forest 

Inventory and Analysis Work Unit of the 

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 

This effort was part of the fifth inventory of the State's forests. Considerably more information was gathered for 

this inventory than in the previous data 

collections, which makes possible the 

publication of this specialized report 

on timber damage, as we1 l as reports on 

forest resources other than timber. 

The Southeastern Forest Experiment 

Station in Asheville, NC, periodically 

inventories and evaluates forest 

resources in Florida, Georgia, North 

Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. 

The Region 8, State and Private 

Forestry, Forest Pest Management Staff 

Unit, headquartered in Atlanta, GA, provides training and field support and 

helps evaluate the data on forest 

insects, diseases, and other damaging 

agents. 

Damage is described here, but 

appropriate measures for preventing 

damage are not. Residents of North 

Carolina requiring technical assistance 

with forestry problems on State and 

private land should contact: 

Harry F. Layman, Director 

Division of Forest Resources 

N.C. Department of Natural Resources 

and Community Development 

P.O. Box 27687 

The Archdale Bldg., 10th Floor 

512 N. Salisbury St. 

Raleigh, NC 27611 
Introduction 

During the fifth inventory of 

North Carolina's forests in 1982-1984, 

damage to live trees on sample plots 

was noted. Where possible, a cause 

or damaging agent was specified. This 

Bulletin reports and interprets these 

observations. 

Since plots are visited only once 

but at any time of the year, it is only 

possible to keep records on agents that 

produce symptoms or signs in all seasons. 

On the basis of these "durable" symptoms 

and signs, the recognized agents are 

listed in "Definitions." 

Before the field survey, an entomologist and pathologist from Region 8, 

State and Private Forestry, Forest Pest 

Management, trained the field crews in 

the use of a damage-identification handbook, which was used throughout the 

survey. During the survey, they fieldchecked data c o l l e c t e d by crews to 

ensure accuracy and consistency. It 

should be recognized that the data 

reported here were gathered by people 

experienced in forest inventory, not 

entomology and pathology. 

Agents selected for the survey were 

required to be (1) easily identifiable, 

(2) present year around, and (3) present 

on trees at least 1 inch in diameter at 

breast height (d.b.h.). Therefore, 

small trees with problems such as brownspot and trees of all sizes with damage 

such as defoliation (which is not apparent in winter) are not accounted for in 

this report. 

There are three reasons why this 

report cannot accurately assess the 

incidence and impact of all damage that 

occurred in North Carolina's forests. 

First, damage is caused by a wide variety of agents, some of which are easily 

recognized, and others which are more 

difficult to identify. The data presented here for damaging agents that are 

easily identified and persistent, such 

as fusiform rust, are very reliable. 

The data for damaging agents that are 

more difficult to recognize, such as 

root rot, are underestimated. 

Second, certain types of damage can 

only be observed during part of the year 

and have not been included in this survey. For example, defoliation caused by 

insects and diseases is only evident at 

the time of year the trees are foliated. 

Since the survey crews work year around, 

defoliation is one type of damage that 

cannot be considered. Consequently, we 

have no information on incidence and 

impact of defoliation in this report. 

Third, some damaging agents cause 

trees to die rapidly, and dead trees are 

recorded in a mortality category. For 

instance, trees attacked by bark beetles 

in summer tend to die rapidly. If the 

survey crew found bark beetles, there is 

a good chance the trees would be dead 

and tallied as such. The bark beetle 

"damaged" trees would not show up in a 

listing of damaged trees. 

In spite of these problems, the 

survey gives a good picture of the relative incidence and impact of damaging 

agents that are easily recognized and 

persist year around. This is the context 

in which the report should be read. 

Sampling Procedure 

The sampling procedure used for the 

inventory was designed to provide reliable statistics primarily for the whole 

State, for large groups of counties, and 

for species with relatively large total 

volumes in the State. Accordingly, the 

errors associated with re1 atively minor 

species, like cottonwood, exceed those 

for major species, such as loblolly 

pine. Procedures were as follows: 

Initial estimates of forest and 

nonforest acreages were developed from 

the classification of 91,765 sample 

clusters systematically spaced on the 

latest aerial photographs avai 1 able. 

Field crews checked a subsample of 8,123 

of these 16-point clusters on the ground. 

A linear regression was fitted to the 

data to develop the relationship between 

the photo and ground classification of 

the subsample. This procedure provided 

a means for adjusting the initial acreage estimates for change in land use 

since date of photograph and for photo 

misclassifications. 

For the entire State, estimates 

of timber volume and forest classifications were based on measurements recorded 
at 5,355 ground-sample locations 

systematically distributed on commercial 

forest land. The plot design at each 

location was based on a cluster of 10 

points. In most cases, variable plots 

delineated with a basal area factor of 

37.5 square feet per acre were systematically spaced within a single forest 

condition at 5 of the 10 cluster points. 

Trees less than 5.0 inches d.b.h. were 

tallied on fixed-radius plots around the 

point centers. 

Equations developed from detailed 

measurements of standing trees in North 

Carolina and throughout the Southeast 

were used to compute volumes of individual tally trees. A mirror caliper and 

sectional aluminum poles were used to 

measure upper stems of standing trees. 

In addition, felled trees were measured 

at 100 active cutting operations to provide utilization factors for the different timber products and species groups 

and to supplement the standing-tree 

vo 1 ume study. 

Growth, removals, and mclrtality 

were estimated from the remeasurement of 

4,878 permanent sample plots established 

in the fourth inventory. A 1983 survey 

of timber products output, conducted by 

the North Carolina Division of Forest 

Resources, along with the annual pulpwood production study in the South, 

provided additional information for a 

breakdown of removals, by product. 

All field data were sent to 

Asheville for editing and were entered 

into disk and magnetic-tape storage for 

processing. Final estimates were based 

on statistical summaries of the data. 

As data collection by each of the five 

Survey Units in North Carolina was completed, special summaries of the information were added to master data files 

of forest resource statistics maintained 

in Asheville for the entire Southeast. 

A Forest Information Retrieval (FIR) 

program is available for compiling 

information for any area of interest as 

a cooperative service. 

Computations 

1. Limits on size classes of trees 

were: saplings, 1.0 to 5.0 inches d.b.h,; 

softwood poles, 5.0 to 9.0 inches d.b.h.; 

hardwood poles, 5.0 to 11.0 inches d.b.h.; 

softwood sawtimber, 9.0 inches d.b.h. 

and above; and hardwood sawtimber, 11.0 

inches d.b.h. and above. 

2. Volume equations were based on 

detai led measurements of standing and 

felled trees in North Carolina and similar measurements taken from other trees 

throughout the Southeast. These were 

used to compute merchantable and total 

cubic volume. 

3. The symptoms used to identify 

the cause of damage to living trees on 

the sampled plots are listed in "Definitions." The percentage of incidence and 

volume of cull associated with each 

damage class were determined for each 

species. Note that these data do not 

imply total tree loss. Only a part of 

the volume lost due to cull would fail 

to qualify for some comercial use, such 

as firewood. The volume loss was 

determined by totaling the volume of 

cull associated with each damaging 

agent, by species. 

4. Quality loss was determined by 

taking the number of trees that were 

sufficiently large for sawtimber trees 

but did not qualify because of damage. 

The cubic-foot volume in the saw-log 

portion of these trees was computed. 

This volume is taken as the quality 

loss. Note, however, that the quality 

losses in trees that were not damaged 

enough to be withdrawn from the sawtimber category are excluded. 

5. Mortality could not be attributed to damaging agents because it was 

often impossible to determine the cause 

of death. In many cases, a tree tallied 

in the last survey 10 years ago was simply missing. It was possible, however, 

to determine volume loss to mclrtality 

for each tree species on each plot. By 

using total mortality by tree species, 

it was possible to arrive at a total 

volume loss for poles and sawtimber by 

tree species. ' 

Incidence of Damaging Agents and 

Associated Cull 

North Carolina has 18,450,269 acres 

of commercial forest, and most of the 

acreage is in the oak-hickory, loblolly 

pine, oak-gum-cypress, and oak-pi ne 
forest types. Table 1 shows the acreage 

in the various stand-size classes and 

forest types. The remaining tables in 

this report show how much of the timber 

resource is damaged and the agents 

responsible for the damage. Remember, 

the term "damage" refers to an injury 

the tree has suffered. A damaged tree 

is still alive. 

Overall, hardwoods had a higher 

incidence of damage than softwoods. For 

most hardwood species, 30 to 60 percent 

of the saplings were damaged and most of 

this can be attributed to form damage. 

Black cherry, hickory, tupelo and blackgum, and ash a1 l had 60 percent or more 

damaged saplings. The highest incidence 

of damage to sawtimber-size hardwood 

trees occurred on bay and magnolia 

(62 percent), black walnut (44 percent), 

and soft maple (38 percent). Loblolly 

pine is by far the most abundant and 

economically important softwood species 

in North Carolina and it had relatively 

little damage compared with the other 

softwood species. Table 2 shows percentages of trees damaged, by size class 

and tree species. 

Table 3 shows damage incidence and 

volume loss due to cull for hardwoods, 

by tree species. Of all the types of 

damage found on hardwoods, basal defect 

had the highest associated volume loss 

due to cull and quality loss. Basal 

defect affects the usable volume in the 

tree because there is usually some type 

of rot associated with it, and this 

affects the first and largest log of the 

tree. Basal defect is usually associated with fire or past logging. The 

major hardwood species, from an economic 

point of view, are red oak, white oak, 

ye1 low-poplar, and tupelo and blackgum. 

Although the percentage of incidence of 

basal defect is fairly low for these 

species, the associated volume loss due 

to cull is very high. Volume loss in 

cull is rotten wood and does not provide 

any economic return. Quality loss, 

where sawtimber-size trees cannot be 

used for sawtimber due to defects, is 

even greater than cull. Trees with 

quality loss, however, can still be used 

for some pulpwood product or firewood, 

and therefore provide the owner with 

some economic return. 

Form damage to saplings is very 

high for all hardwood species, particularly those growing in bottom lands (bay 

and magnolia, tupelo and blackgum, soft 

maple, ash, and elm). Saplings also 

exhibit damage due to suppression and 

stagnation, usually between 5 and 10 

percent. Hickory had an unusually high 

incidence of terminal shoot and stem 

borers; 26 percent of saplings were 

affected and 13 percent of the poletimber. The highest incidence of hardwood borers (10 percent) was observed on 

hard maple saplings. 

Black cherry had particularly high 

damage incidence in the sapling- and 

poletimber-size classes. Black knot, a 

disease which would come under the 

"other diseases" category, probably contributed to this. This disease is very 

easy to identify by the elongated black 

swellings it causes on the twigs and 

branches. 

Table 4 shows damage incidence and 

volume loss due to cull for softwoods, 

by species. The major softwood species 

in North Carolina is loblolly pine, and 

fusiform rust is the major damaging 

agent for this species. Trees in a1 1 

size classes were affected. Fusiform 

rust was recorded only if the gall was 

on or within 12 inches of the main stem. 

If galls farther out on the limbs had 

been recorded, occurrence of fusiform 

would have been higher. Slash pine had 

a high incidence of fusiform rust but 

very little associated volume loss. 

Suppression and stagnation and form 

are the most prevalent damage types in 

softwood saplings. Basal defect on 

baldcypress and pondcypress had re1 atively low incidence but high associated 

volume loss due to cull and quality 

loss. Sawtimber-size cedar had a high 

volume quality loss due to dieback. 

The incidence of bark beetle damage 

on live softwood trees is very low, even 

though bark beetles are the greatest 

insect pest of pine in the Southeast. 

The main reason that bark beetles do not 

show up as a significant damaging agent 

is that this survey reports damage to 

living trees, and most often bark 

beetles are associated with dead trees. 

Therefore, bark beetle-infested trees 

would be considered damaged only when 
they were newly attacked and not yet 

dead. Bark beetle outbreaks also occur 

in cycles, so it is highly probable that 

a survey may not coincide with a beetle 

outbreak. In fact, this survey of North 

Carolina's forests was conducted during 

a time when bark beetle populations were 

very low. 

Reported incidence and associated 

volume loss due to insect damage on both 

hardwoods and softwoods were very low. 

This is because it is difficult to diagnose the occurrence of many types of 

insect damage, and significant damage 

from insects usually occurs in cycles. 

Insect outbreaks are easily missed in a 

survey done every 10 years, as is this 

one. 

Mortality, Losses to Cull, and Quality 

LOSS 

Annual mortality for all live hardwood timber was about 122 million cubic 

feet; for softwood timber, 119 million 

cubic feet. Hardwood mortality was 

approximately 34 percent of the annual 

harvest, and softwood mortality was 27 

percent of the harvest. Approximately 

58 percent of hardwood mortalitv and 45 

percent of softwood mortality &curred 

in sawtimber-size trees. The mortality 

figures shown in table 5 are the total 

for the resource and do not reflect any 

discounting for trees whose death represented no economic loss. Table 5 also 

shows the estimated volumes of cull and 

quality loss for the major species 

groups in North Carolina. Annual harvest figures are given to place the 

volume losses in perspective. 

The volume loss due to cull is much 

greater in hardwoods than softwoods. 

The annual accumulated cull for hardwoods is 26 percent of annual hardwood 

mortality, whereas cull for softwoods is 

less than 2 percent of softwood mortality. Quality loss was also greater in 

hardwoods than softwoods. It should be 

noted that mortality figures are on an 

Definitions 

Damaging Agents and Their 

Symptoms 

Diseases 

Fusiform rust.--Slash, loblolly, 

pitch. pond. and shortleaf ~ines. 

Spindie-shaped galls form on the stem or 

on branches within 12 inches of the 

bole. Older galls appear as cankers 

with sunken, rotten centers encircled by 

a callus ridge. Witches1-broom is 

comnon at gal 1 s. Bright-orange spores 

are produced on the galls in the spring. 

Hardwood cankers.--All hardwoods. 

Dead, sunken area on the stem, frequently 

with annual callus ridqes around the dead - area. 

Littleleaf disease.--Shortleaf and 

loblolly pines, but shortleaf is more 

susceptible. Affected trees occur in 

groups. Short, yellow needles; reduced 

shoot growth; and large crops of undersize cones are typical symptoms. 

Littleleaf disease usually occurs in 

trees growing on heavy soils with poor 

internal drainage. 

Pitch canker.--Most southern pines, 

but primari lr slash. loblollv. and 

shortleaf. Symptom; are flagging at 

branch ends, pitch flow from affected 

area, slight swelling on affected stems 

and twigs, crooks in main stem, and 

wilting of current candles. 

Root rots.--All species. Diseased 

trees often with thin, tufted crowns, 

frequently occur in groups that usually 

contain dead or windthrown trees. Conks 

(fruiting bodies) of various fungi may 

be present on or near the base of 

diseased trees. Root rots are more frequent in trees of reduced vigor, thinned 

stands, and in trees with butt or root 

injury. Trees with root rots are often 

attacked by bark beetles. 

annual basis, whereas annual accumulated 

cull and quality loss were determined by Other diseases.--All species. All 

dividing total accumulated cull and damage caused by diseases not identified 

quality loss by 10, so that losses were in separate categories (e.g., red heart 

distributed over a 10-year period. of pine, brown spot, and leaf diseases). 
Trees showing degrade caused by diseases 

and not identified elsewhere are included 

in this category. 

Growth Defects 

Branch stubs.--All species. Branch 

holes or stubs greater than 4 inches in 

diameter on stem (trees 5.0 inches 

d.b.h. and larger). Branch holes or 

stubs greater than 1 inch in diameter on 

stem (trees 1.0 to 4.9 inches d.b.h.). 

Basal defect.--All species. Butt 

swelling, curls, V-shaped stump sprouts, 

frost seams, and low stubs below d.b.h. 

are symptoms of basal defect. 

Dieback.--A1 l hardwoods. Tips of 

the branches die back. Initially, only 

a few branches are affected, but in 

advanced stages, entire branches die. 

Tree mortality may result. Oieback is 

frequently associated with stress caused 

by an unfavorable environment. 

Suppression and stagnation.--A1 l 

species. Suppressed and stagnated trees 

are characterized by poor form and small 

crowns. Suppressed trees are overtopped 

and receive indirect sunlight. Stagnated 

trees have thin foliage and receive some 

direct sunlight. Stagnation is usually 

associated with poor growing sites or 

overstocked stands. 

Form (damaging) .--A1 l species. A1 1 

treesm inches d.b.h. and larger that 

are deformed due to unknown causes. 

Natural Phenomena 

Fire.--Al l species. Fire scars are 

usual-t the base of stem and are 

widespread in the stand. The scars are 

usually on the uphill side of the tree, 

and signs of charring are generally 

present on the stem. 

Flooding.--All species. Yellowing 

and curling downward of leaves, premature leaf fa1 I, branch and top dieback, 

tree mortality, and high water and silt 

marks on tree boles are the most common 

effects of flooding. 

Li;ht;ing.;-A11 species. Lightning 

causes ar strlpplng or cracking, with 

damage running from the strike point to 

the ground in a straight line or spirally. Often, the foliage will fade due 

to root damage or top breakage. Bark 

beetles often invade struck trees. 

Weather.--All species. Windthrow, 

ice, frostracks, broken tops, broken 

branches, marginal leaf burn, and winter 

burn are the common symptoms. 

Animals and Birds 

Beaver .--A1 l species. Beavers 

leavetoothmarks and remove the bark 

from the bole of the tree. Trees are 

often flooded by water impoundment. 

Other animals.--All species. 

Branches clipped off or broken, bark 

removed, holes in the stem, and tears 

and toothmarks in the wood are all 

common signs of animal activity. 

Sapsucker.--All species. Horizontal rows of small holes that may encircle the tree's bole. Bark below the 

hole is usually streaked or stained by 

oozing sap. 

Insects 

Bark beetles.--All pines. Symptoms 

include pitch tubes, bark beetle galleries on the inner bark surface and the 

surface of the sapwood, exit holes, and 

loose bark. Streaks caused by blue 

stain fungi are often evident on the 

sapwood. Foliage of infested trees 

gradually yellows and then turns red. 

Hardwood borers.--All hardwoods. 

The initial synptom is a dark sap spot 

on the bark surface, often mixed with 

frass. Eventually, coarse boring particles appear in bark cracks and crevices 

beneath the point of attack. Old damage 

appears as knobby overgrowths or scars 

on the bark surface. 

Terminal shoot and stem borers.-- 

All soecies. Fresh attacks show borinq 

dust 'and frass at the entrance holes, - which are most often located at the base 
of leaf petioles and buds. Resin globs 

may be present at points of attack. 

Dieback results from larval tunneling 

within terminal shoots and branches. 

Foliage on the shoots turns yellow, red, 

and finally brown. 

Other insects.--All species. All 

damage caused by insects not identified 

in separate categories. Includes hardwood defoliators (e.g., orangestriped 

oakworm and fa1 l cankerworm), pine 

defol iators (e.g., redheaded pine sawfly), and pine weevils. 

Human Activities 

People.--All species. Initials in 

bark, nails in tree, lantern burn, bark 

stripped, wire around stem, and ax marks 

are signs of damage by people. 

Logging and related.--All species. 

Logging scars on the stem will have callus-ridges within 1 to 2 years after 

wounding. Trees with logging damage are 

scattered in stands and show no charring. 

Broken limbs and scars on the stem near 

the crown will occur from the felling of 

other trees. Skid trails, stumps, or 

other evidence of logging will be present 

+ Turpentinin .--Longleaf, slash, and loblo y plnes Damage is seen as exposed wood with V-shaped scars and heavy 

pitch flow. 

Forest Survey and Forest Pest Management 

- Terms 

Acceptable tree .--A tree that qua1 - ifies as srowina stock but does not meet 

the minimim req;irements to qualify as a 

desirable tree. Included are sawtimbersize trees that do not contain a 12-foot 

saw log because of excessive, natural 

taper in the butt log but have the 

potential to produce a 12-foot saw lgg 

as diameter increases, 

Basal area.--The area in square 

feet of the cross section at breast 

height of a single tree or of a1 1 the 

trees in a stand, usually expressed as 

square feet of basal area per acre. 

Commercial species.--Tree species 

conventionally regarded as being able to 

develop into trees suitable for the manufacture of industrial timber products. 

Species that typically exhibit small 

size, poor form, or inferior quality are 

excluded . 

Cull loss .--Percentage of trees 

affected x the percent cull x the volume 

for the species. 

Desirable tree.--A tree that qualifies as growing stock and has no 

serious defects in quality, limiting 

present or prospective use; is of relatively high vigor (30 percent or more 

live crown ratio); is compatible with 

the site and physiographic class; has a 

total board-foot loss not to exceed 15 

percent in softwoods or 25 percent in 

hardwoods as a result of severe sweep, 

crook, or lean; and has a relatively 

clear bole. 

Diameter class.--A classification 

of trees based on tree d.b.h. (D.b.h. 

is the common abbreviation for diameter 

at breast height, 4-1/2 feet above the 

ground. ) Two-inch di ameter classes are 

commonly used by Forest Inventory and 

Analysis, with the even inch the approximate midpoint for a class. For example, 

the 6-inch class includes trees 5.0 

through 6.9 inches d.b.h., inclusive. 

Growing-stock trees.--Live sawtimber-si ze trees of conmerci a1 species 

containing at least a 12-foot log, or 

two noncontiguous saw logs each 8 feet 

or longer, meeting minimum grade 

requirements (hardwoods must qualify as 

a log grade of either 3 or 4; softwoods 

must qualify as a log grade 3) with at 

least one-third of the gross board-foot 

volume (International 114-inch rule) 

between a 1-foot stump and the minimum 

saw-log top being sound, or a live tree 

below sawtimber size that wi 11 prospectively qualify under the above standards. 

Incidence .--Percentage of suscepti - 

ble trees affected by a damaging agent. 

Mortality.--The merchantable volume 

in trees that have died from natural 

causes during a specified period. 
Noncommercial species.--Tree 

species of typically small size, poor 

form, or inferior quality that normally 

do not develop into trees suitable for 

industrial wood products. 

Poletimber-size trees.--Live trees 

at least 5.0 inches d.b.h. but smaller 

than sawtimber size. 

Quality loss.--Volume in the sawlog portion of trees sufficiently large 

to qualify as sawtimber, but unsatisfactory for sawtimber because of damaging 

agent. 

Rotten trees.--Live trees of commercial speciesThat do not contain at 

least one 12-foot saw log or two noncontiguous saw logs, each 8 feet or longer, 

now or prospectively, primarily because 

of rot or missing sections, and with 

less than one-third of the gross boardfoot tree volume in sound material. 

Rough trees.--Live trees of commercial species that do not contain at 

least one 12-foot saw log or two noncontiguous saw logs, each 8 feet or longer, 

now or prospectively, primarily because 

of roughness, poor form, splits, cracks, 

and with less than one-third of the 

gross tree volume in sound material; and 

1 ive trees of noncommerci a1 species. 

Saplin s.--Live trees 1.0 to 5.0 

inched 

Saw log.--A log meeting minimum 

standards of diameter, length, and 

defect, including logs at least 8 feet 

long, sound and straight, and with a 

minimum diameter inside bark of 6 inches 

for softwoods and 8 inches for hardwoods. 

Sawtimber-size trees.--Softwoods 

9.0 inches d.b.h. and larser: -. hardwoods 

11.0 inches d.b.h. and larger. 

Sawtimber volume.--Growing stock 

volume in the saw-log portion of sawtimber-size trees in board feet 

(International 114-inch rule). 

Species groups.--Sets of tree species pooled together for standard 

reporting. 

Other red oaks: Scarlet, southern red, laurel, water, willow, and black. 

Select red oaks: Cherrybark, 

northern red, and. shumard. 

Other white oaks: Overcup, post, 

and live. 

Select white oaks: White, swamp 

chestnut, and chinkapin. 

Other eastern hardwoods: Chestnut oak, black locust, yellow birch, 

buckeye, birch, hackberry, dogwood, persimnon, honeylocust, silverbell, holly, 

butternut, cucumbertree, mulberry, scrub 

oaks, willow, and noncomnercial species. 

Other eastern softwoods: Eastern 

white pine, eastern hemlock, spruce, and 

fir. 

Stand-size class.--A classification 

of forest land based on the diameter 

class distribution of growing-stock 

trees in the stand. 

Sawtimber stands: Stands at 

least 16.7 percent stocked with growingstock trees, with half or more of total 

stocking in sawtimber or poletimber 

trees, and with sawtimber stocking at 

least equal to poletimber stocking. 

Poletimber stands: Stands at 

least 16.7 percent stocked with growingstock trees of which half or more of 

total stocking is in poletimber and 

sawtimber trees, and with po letimber 

stocking exceeding that of sawtimber. 

Sapling-seedling stands: Stands 

at least 16.7 percent stocked with 

growing-stock trees of which more than 

half of total stocking is saplings and 

seed1 ings. 

Susceptible trees.--All living 

trees. Includes desirable and acceptable trees,, as well as rough and rotten 

trees. 

Timberland.--Land at least 16.7 

percent stocked by forest trees of any 

size, or formerly having had such tree 

cover, not currently developed for nonforest use, capable of producing 20 

cubic feet of industrial wood per acre 

per year, and not withdrawn from timber 

utilization by legislative action. 
References 

This publication reports incidence and impact of 

damaging agents on North Carolina's timber. It does 

not discuss their identification or control. References listed below are provided to assist those 

desiring additional information on causal agents. 

Bennett. Milliar H.; Chellman, Charles Y.; mlt, 

Yilliar R. Insect enemies of southern pines. 

OCCas. Pap. 164. New Orleans. LA: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest 

Experiment Station; 1958. 35 pp. 

Burns, Denver P. Insect enemies of yellow-poplar. 

Res. Pap. NE-159. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest 

Experiment Station; 1970. 15 pp. 

Filer, T.H.; Solomon. J.D.; McCracken. F.1. [and 

others]. Sycamore pests: a guide to major insects, 

diseases, and air pollution. Atlanta, GA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southeastern Area, State and Private Forestry; 

1977. 36 pp. [Unnumbered publication]. 

Holmes, Francis Y.; Chater, Clifford 5.; Becker, 

Yilliam 8. Culture, diseases, injuriss, and pests 

of maples. Publ. 443. hherst: University of 

Massachusetts Cooperative Extension Service; 

[n.d.]. 44 pp. 

Johnson. Y.T.; Sinclair, Y.A.; Saunders, J.L. 

Insects and diseases of willow and poplar. Pest 

Leafl. R-10. Ithaca, M: Cornell Univ.; tn.d.1. 

37 PP. 

Lockard, C.R.; Putnam, J.A.; Carpenter. R.O. Grade 

defects in hardwood timber and logs. Agric. Handb. 

244. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Rgricuiture; 1963. 39 pp. 

Ilorris, R.C.; Filer, T.H.; Solomon, J.D. [and 

others]. Insects and diseases of cottonwood. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. 80-8. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest 

Experiment Station; 1975. 37 pp. 

Salmon, J.D.; Mctracken, F.I.; Lewis, R. [and 

others]. Oak pests: a guide to major insects, 

diseases, air pollution, and chemical injury. Gen. 

Rep. SA-GR-11. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Area, 

State and Private Forestry; 1980. 69 pp. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

Insects and diseases of trees in the South. Publ. 

7. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Oepartment of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Southeastern Area, State and 

Private Forestry; 1972. 8 pp. 
Table 1.-Area of timberland, by stand-size 

class and forest type, North Carolina, 1984 

Forest classification Acres 

Stand-size class: 

Sawtimber 

Poletimber 

Saplings-seedlings 

Nonstocked areas 

All stand sizes 18,450,269 

Forest type: 

Oak-hickory 

Loblolly pine 

Oak-gum-cypress 

Oak-pine 

Virginia pine 

Pond pine 

Shortleaf pine 

Elm-ash-cottonwood 

Longleaf pine 

Chestnut oak 

White pine-hemlock 

Slash pine 

Maple-beech-birch 

Southern scrub oak 

Pitch pine 

Eastern redcedar 

Spruce-f ir 

Table Mountain pine 

All types 18,450,269 
Table 2.--Percents e of susceptible trees damaged, by species and tree size, 

North Carolina, 1984 

Trees damaged Species Total population 

(thousands) 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber 

Other eastern 

hardwoods 

Soft maple 

Sweetgum 

Tupelo & blackgum 

Other red oaks 

Yellow-poplar 

Bay & magnolia 

Select white oaks 

Hickory 

Ash 

Black cherry 

Elm 

Other white oaks 

Select red oaks 

Beech 

Hard maple 

Basswood 

Sycamore 

Cottonwood 

Black walnut 

Loblolly pine 

Virginia pine 

Pond pine 

Shortleaf pine 

Other eastern 

softwoods 

Cedars 

Longleaf pine 

Slash pine 

Pitch pine 

Baldcypress 

Pondcypress 

Table Mountain pine 

SOFTWOODS 
Table 3.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Lightning 

Weather 

Beaver 

Other animals 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

People 

Logging 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback ' 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Lightning 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

People 

Logging 

---- ------ ------ -3------ 

SOFT MAPLE (2,170,082,000 susceptible trees) 

SWEETGUM ( i,40g,227,000 susceptible trees) 

Continued 

11 
Table 3.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

TUPELO & BLACKGUM (937,987,000 susceptible trees) 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Lightning 

Weather 

Beaver 

Other animals 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

Other insects 

People 

Logging 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Lightning 

Weather 

Hardwood borers 

People 

Logging 

OTHER RED OAKS (810,517,000 susceptible trees) 

Continued 
Table 3.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

----Percent----- ------ -3------ 

YELLOW-POPLAR (517,375,000 susceptible trees) 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Lightning 

Weather 

Other animals 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

People 

Logging 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Lightning 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

Logging 

BAY & MAGNOLIA (446,710,000 susceptible trees) 

Continued 

13 
Table 3.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Cant inued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

SELECT WHITE OAKS (420,559,000 susceptible trees) 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppressioc Sr 

stagnation 

Form 

Weather 

Other animals 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

People 

Logging 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

Terminal shoot & 

stem borers 

People 

Logging 

HICKORY (353,915,000 susceptible trees) 

Continued 
Table 3.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

ASH (307,210,000 susceptible trees) 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Lightning 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Logging 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Weather 

Other insects 

People 

Logging 

BLACK CHERRY ( 144,664,000 susceptible trees) 

Continued 

15 
Table ?,.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

ELM ( 134,886,000 susceptible trees) 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Flooding 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Logging 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Lightning 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

People 

Logging 

OTHER WHITE OAKS ( 126,075,000 susceptible trees) 

Continued 
Table 3.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Weather 

Hardwood borers 

People 

Logging 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Weather 

Hardwood borers 

People 

Logging 

- - - - perc& - - - - - ------ rn3------ 

SELECT RED OAKS ( 123,660,000 susceptible trees) 

BEECH (100,560,000 susceptible trees) 

Continued 

17 
Table ?,.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

HARD MAPLE (63,177,000 susceptible trees) 

Hardwood cankers 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Weather 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

Other insects 

Logging 

BASSWOOD (22,383,000 susceptible trees) 

Hardwood cankers 4 0 0 

Basal defects 0 0 12 

Suppression & 

stagnation 4 0 0 

Form 38 2 1 

Weather 5 12 2 

Sapsucker 0 3 1 

Logging 4 0 1 

Continued 
Table 3.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Flooding 

Weather 

Beaver 

Hardwood borers 

Other insects 

People 

Logging 

COTTONWOOD (9,601,000 susceptible trees) 

----Percent----- em---- -3------ 

SYCAMORE ( 13,066,000 susceptible trees) 

0 1 0 162 0 

4 11 65 1,071 3,074 

0 3 0 40 398 

4 0 0 0 0 

9 6 0 0 0 

0 1 0 0 267 

13 7 26 54 0 

0 1 0 0 0 

0 1 0 0 0 

0 1 0 0 0 

0 < 1 0 25 0 

0 1 0 0 0 

Branch stubs 0 

Basal defects 0 

Suppression & 

stagnation 7 

Form 16 

Weather 0 

Sapsucker 0 

Hardwood borers 0 

Continued 

19 
Table 3.--Damage incidence and associated cull in hardwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

Hardwood cankers 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

Logging 

BLACK WALNUT (8,565,000 susceptible trees) 

OTHER EASTERN HARDWOODS (3,418,331,000 susceptible trees) 

Hardwood cankers 1 1 2 307 86 1 2,639 

Other diseases 1 2 4 1,385 2,967 11,020 

Branch stubs 0 1 3 959 4,544 13,339 

Basal defects 0 5 10 6,171 26,211 63,769 

Dieback 1 3 2 500 87 1 4,547 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Flooding 

Lightning 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

People 

Logging 
Table 4.--Damage incidence and associated cull in softwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

LOBLOLLY PINE (I ,391,126,000 susceptible trees) 

Fusiform rust 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Lightning 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Bark beetles 

Terminal shoot & 

stem borers 

Other insects 

People 

Logging 

VIRGINIA PINE (450,505,000 susceptible trees) 

Fusiform rust 

Other diseases 

Basal defects 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Bark beetles 

Other insects 

People 

Logging 

Continued 
Table &.--Damage incidence and associated cull in softwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

Fusiform rust 

Other diseases 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Weather 

Bark beetles 

Logging 

Fusiform rust 

Littleleaf 

Other diseases 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Bark i-fstles 

People 

Logging 

POND PINE (282,576,000 susceptible trees) 

SHORTLEAF PINE (27I1272,OOO susceptible trees) 

Continued 
Table 4.--Damage incidence and associated cull in softwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

- -- 

---- Percent----- ------ -3------ 

OTHER EASTERN SOFTWOODS (223,575,000 susceptible trees) 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Lightning 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Terminal shoot & 

stem borers 

Other insects 

People 

Logging 

CEDARS (204,283,000 susceptible trees) 

Other diseases 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Weather 

Other animals 

Sapsucker 

People 

Logging 

Continued 

23 
Table 4.--Damage incidence and associated cull in softwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

Fusiform rust 

Other diseases 

Basal defects 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Bark beetles 

Other insects 

People 

Logging 

Turpentining 

Fusiform rust 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Other insects 

People 

Logging 

----Percent----- ------ 3 ------ 

LOIGLEAF PINE (84,952,000 susceptible trees) 

SLASH PINE (73,740,000 susceptible trees) 

Continued 
Table 4.--Damage incidence and associated cull in softwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

PITCH PINE (34,058,000 susceptible trees) 

Other diseases 

Basal defects 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

People 

Logging 

BALDCYPRESS (22,753,000 susceptible trees) 

Other diseases 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Lightning 

Weather 

Sapsucker 

Hardwood borers 

Logging 

PONDCYPRESS (12,221,000 susceptible trees) 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Suppression & 

stagnation 

Form 

Fire 

Logging 

Continued 
Table 4.--Damage incidence and associated cull in softwoods in North Carolina, 1984 

--Continued 

Incidence of damage Volume loss due to cull 

Damaging agent 

Quality 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber loss 

TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE (5,829,000 susceptible trees) 

Other diseases 0 0 2 

Suppression & 

stagnation 8 0 0 

Weather 0 0 2 

Bark beetles 7 0 0 
Table 5.--Annual volume of timber removals and wood loss due to mortality, cull, and qualiq 

loss, North Carolina, 1983 

Timber removals Mortality Cull 

Species 

b;l?ality 

Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber Loss 

Yellow-poplar 11,170 49,400 2,841 

Other red oaks 19,865 43,514 9,528 

Select white oaks 9,449 27,545 2,437 

Sweetgum 19,278 25,657 2,931 

Tupelo & blackgum 6,827 20,183 2,137 

Soft maple 16,613 18,203 6.188 

Other eastern 

hardwoods 

Select red oaks 

Hickory 

Ash 

Beech 

Other white oaks 

Elm 

Sycamore ' 547 1;955 ' 0 

Black cherry 1,073 684 1,042 

Black walnut 258 529 0 

Bay & magnolia 1,856 469 1,621 

Cottonwood 99 258 536 

Hard maple 62 181 317 

Basswood 313 0 178 

HARDWOODS 

Total 115,253 240,901 51,225 70,400 4,525 26,841 60,363 

Loblolly pine 41,608 197,775 23,692 23,663 24 304 668 

Shortleaf pine 18,446 45,153 15,915 10,451 2 44 48 

Pond pine 13,241 32,678 5,173 5,781 2 1 130 346 

Virainia ~ine 10.183 . - 21.673 . - 14.145 5.916 7 7 35 

other eastern 

softwoods 142 18,903 1,859 3,043 (a) (a) (a) 

Longleaf pine 4,267 17,321 75 414 9 34 83 

Cedars 1,414 4,009 1 357 770 68 72 423 

Baldcypress 0 2,534 184 888 17 689 1,192 

Pitch pine 133 2,129 2,769 1,711 3 30 0 

Slash pine 927 920 47 1 0 5 4 0 

Pondcypress 0 145 115 53 3 307 588 

Table Mountain pine 0 0 98 382 0 17 69 

Total 90,361 343,240 65,853 53,072 159 1,641 3,452 

d This information was not calculated for the other eastern softwoods group.