U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 3/29/2010 

Bisphenol A Action Plan

(CASRN 80-05-7) 

[CA Index Name: Phenol, 4,4'-(1-methylethylidene)bis-] 

I. Overview

 Bisphenol A (BPA) is a high production volume (HPV) chemical widely used in 

manufacturing polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins used in many industries. Humans appear 

to be exposed primarily through food packaging uses of products manufactured using BPA, 

although those products account for less than 5% of the BPA used in this country. Releases of 

BPA to the environment exceed one million pounds per year. 

 EPA intends to consider initiating immediate actions addressing BPA in the environment 

based on concerns for potential effects in aquatic species. At the same time, EPA will continue to 

work with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention (CDC), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) to 

better determine and evaluate the human health consequences of BPA exposures. Based on the 

results of those efforts, EPA will consider whether further action is needed to address human 

health risks resulting from non-food-packaging uses of BPA. 

 EPA intends to consider initiating rulemaking under section 5(b)(4) of the Toxic 

Substances Control Act (TSCA) to identify BPA on the Concern List as a substance that may 

present an unreasonable risk of injury to the environment on the basis of its potential for longterm adverse effects on growth, reproduction and development in aquatic species at 

concentrations similar to those found in the environment. A notice of proposed rulemaking is 

intended to publish in autumn, 2010. In late 2010, EPA intends to consider also initiating 

rulemaking under section 4(a) of TSCA to develop environmental effects data relevant to a 

further determination that BPA either does or does not present an unreasonable risk of injury to 

the environment. Beginning in April 2010, EPA intends to initiate collaborative alternatives 

assessment activities under its Design for the Environment (DfE) program to encourage 

reductions in BPA manufacturing and use to facilitate reductions in environmental releases and 

subsequent exposures. One of these activities will relate to thermal and carbonless paper 

coatings, including those on cash register receipts, which are uses where alternatives to BPA may 

be readily available. This DfE environmental and health assessment is expected to be completed 

in the latter half of 2011. Additionally, EPA intends to conduct alternatives analyses for BPA 

used in foundry castings since foundries are accountable for large releases of BPA as reported 

under the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI), and for BPA-based materials lining water and waste 

water pipes since this application may have a potential for human and environmental exposure. 

 EPA does not intend to initiate regulatory action under TSCA at this time on the basis of 

human health. EPA remains committed to protecting human health, but notes that most human 

exposure, including exposure to children, comes through food packaging materials under the 

jurisdiction of FDA. Food, food additives, drugs, cosmetics, and medical devices, all regulated 

by FDA, are specifically excluded from the definition of chemical substance under TSCA. FDA, 

together with CDC and NIEHS, is investing in important new health studies in both animals and 

humans to better determine and evaluate the potential health consequences of BPA exposures. 
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EPA will continue to coordinate closely with FDA, CDC, and NIEHS on this activity. To the 

extent that FDA may identify health concerns from BPA in food contact materials, EPA will 

work with FDA to identify and assess potential substitutes. Levels of exposure that may be 

identified by FDA as being of concern to human health, including children’s health, will affect 

the extent to which EPA would take additional action to address potential risks to human health 

resulting from uses within TSCA jurisdiction. 

 Because BPA is a reproductive, developmental, and systemic toxicant in animal studies 

and is weakly estrogenic, there are questions about its potential impact particularly on children’s 

health and the environment. Studies employing standardized toxicity tests used globally for 

regulatory decision-making indicate that the levels of BPA in humans and the environment are 

below levels of potential concern for adverse effects. However, results of some recent studies 

using novel low-dose approaches and examining different endpoints describe subtle effects in 

laboratory animals at very low concentrations. Some of these novel low-dose studies in animals 

are potentially of concern for the environment because the concentration levels identified with 

effects are similar to some current environmental exposure levels. Regulatory authorities around 

the world that have reviewed these low-dose studies have generally concluded that they are 

insufficient for use in risk assessment because of a variety of flaws in some of the study designs, 

scientific uncertainty concerning the relevance to health and ecological hazard of the reported 

effects, and the inability of other researchers to reproduce the effects in standardized studies. 

Although there is disagreement about the interpretation of these low-dose studies, they do raise 

potential concerns for long-term effects at similar concentrations, and some authorities, including 

Canada and some U.S. state and county governments, have taken interim risk management action 

to protect certain sensitive populations, such as infants and toddlers. For example, the Canadian 

government is taking steps to ban baby bottles that are manufactured with BPA. 

II. Introduction

 As part of EPA's efforts to enhance the existing chemicals program under the Toxic 

Substances Control Act (TSCA)1

, the Agency identified an initial list of chemicals, including 

bisphenol A (BPA), for action plan development based on one or more of the following factors: 

their presence in human blood; persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT)2

 characteristics; use 

in consumer products; production volume; and other similar factors. This Action Plan is based on 

and encompasses EPA’s initial review of readily available use, exposure, and hazard 

information3

 on BPA. EPA considered which of the various authorities provided under TSCA 

and other statutes might be appropriate to address potential concerns with BPA in developing the 

Action Plan. The Action Plan is intended to describe the courses of action the Agency plans to 

pursue in the near term to address its concerns. The Action Plan does not constitute a final 

 

1 15 U.S.C. §2601 et seq. 2

 Information on PBT chemicals can be found on the EPA website at http://www.epa.gov/pbt/. 3

 Information sources customarily employed include Inventory Update Reporting (IUR) submissions; Toxic Release 

Inventory (TRI) reporting; data submitted to the HPV Challenge Program; existing hazard and risk assessments 

performed by domestic and international authorities including but not limited to U.S. Federal government agencies, 

the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic 

Pollutants, Health and Environment Canada, the European Union; and others. References to specific sources used in 

this Action Plan are provided in the individual sections discussing use, exposure, and hazard information. 

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Agency determination or other final Agency action. Regulatory proceedings indicated by the 

Action Plan will include appropriate opportunities for public and stakeholder input, including 

through notice and comment rulemaking processes.

III. Scope of Review

In conducting this review, EPA focused on the two areas with the most potential for 

environmental releases and exposures: manufacturing and processing. EPA also considered 

potential human exposures to workers during the manufacturing process and to the general 

population from the presence of BPA in drinking water sources and systems. Because the 

principal concern is for potential reproductive and developmental effects in early life stages, 

EPA considered exposures to children from drinking water and from the use of BPA in consumer 

products. EPA also examined potential ecological impact from the presence of BPA in the 

environment. 

Although most human exposure appears to come from food packaging materials (e.g., 

Willhite, 2008), less than 5% of the BPA produced is used in food contact applications. EPA’s 

review addresses the roughly 85-90% of BPA manufactured (includes imports) and used 

domestically that is subject to TSCA, including the manufacture of non-food-additive, nonmedical products. 

 The FDA has jurisdiction over food additives, which include food contact substances 

such as food packaging. These substances are not regulated under TSCA. This review does not 

address potential risks from these food additive uses, which appear to comprise the bulk of 

human exposure. FDA and NIEHS are doing additional studies on the potential risks from these 

exposures, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) has provided 

recommendations for parents and families to take reasonable steps to reduce exposures, 

especially for young children.4

IV. Uses and Substitutes Summary

 

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a high production volume chemical with a U.S. volume estimated 

at 2.4 billion pounds in 2007, and an estimated value of almost $2 billion. It is a monomer used 

in manufacturing most or all polycarbonate plastics, the majority of epoxy resins, and certain 

other products such as flame retardants (Mannsville, 2008a). Based on the nature of uses within 

product areas, EPA judges that the majority (possibly 85% to 90%) of BPA manufactured and 

used in the United States may fall within TSCA jurisdiction, as shown in Table 1, below. 

 

4

 Recommendations released by HHS on January 15, 2010 can be found at http://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/. 

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Table 1. BPA U.S. Consumption and Assumed Share Within TSCA Jurisdiction 

Product Percent of BPA U.S. 2007 

Consumption1 Assumed TSCA share2

Polycarbonate resins 74% 62 - 64 % 

Epoxy resins 20% 18 - 20 % 

Flame retardants; Polyetherimides/ 

Polyarylates; Polysulfone resins; Unsaturated 

polyester resins 

6% 5 - 6 % 

 Total 100% 85 - 90 % 1

 Mannsville, 2008a 

2

 EPA judgment, based on percentage of BPA consumption for each product area and use believed to fall within 

EPA jurisdiction under TSCA. Because the available data lack specific detail, these are “ballpark” estimates only 

and the range may under- or over-estimate the TSCA share. 

BPA-based materials are pervasive in the U.S. economy. Apart from food-related uses, 

they are used in automotive and other transportation equipment, optical media such as DVDs, 

electrical/electronics equipment, construction, linings inside drinking water pipes, thermal and 

carbonless paper coatings, foundry casting, and elsewhere. A handful of companies manufacture 

most BPA, as well as most BPA-based polycarbonate and epoxy resins, but numerous companies 

process BPA-based materials into final goods. 

 BPA-based materials tend to be chosen for their performance characteristics. For 

example, polycarbonates are lightweight and tough compared to glass. In uses subject to FDA 

jurisdiction, public concern has led industry to move toward non-BPA-based materials in such 

products as baby bottles, cups, and spoons and adult drink bottles, and to explore alternatives in 

food can linings. A vast number of other uses are subject to EPA jurisdiction. EPA is aware that 

substitutes for some of those uses include other epoxies, a wide variety of plastics (some of them 

blended with polycarbonate), glass, metals, and wood. However, EPA has not assessed the 

suitability and availability of substitutes for specific uses in this screening-level review. 

V. Hazard Identification Summary

Risk assessments for BPA have been conducted by numerous governmental bodies and 

review panels. OPPT reviewed the following assessments as well as numerous toxicological 

studies in assessing the hazard of BPA: 

• Government Assessments: 

o US (Federal) – Food and Drug Administration (FDA, 2008), National Toxicology 

Program/Center for Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (NTP-CERHR, 

2008) 

o US (State) - California Proposition 65 Developmental and Reproduction Toxicant 

Identification Committee (DARTIC) (California, 2009a) 

o International – Japan (AIST, 2007), European Union (EU) (EC, 2003, 2008), 

European Food Safety Administration (EFSA 2006, 2008a-b) and Canada 

(Canada, 2008) 

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• Other Reviews: Harvard Panel (Gray et al., 2004; Goodman et al., 2006); Chapel Hill 

Group (vom Saal et al., 2007; Crain et al., 2007); NSF International (Willhite et al., 2008) 

Human Health Hazard Summary 

There is general agreement that BPA is a reproductive and developmental toxicant at 

doses in animal studies of > 50 mg/kg-bw/day (delayed puberty in male and female rats and male 

mice); > 235 mg/kg-bw/day (reduced fetal or birth weight or growth early in life, effects on testis 

of male rats); and > 500 mg/kg-bw/day (possible decreased fertility in mice, altered estrous 

cycling in female rats, and reduced survival of fetuses). Systemic effects (reduction in body 

weight, changes in relative organ weights, and increases in liver toxicity) were observed at doses 

above 5 mg/kg-bw/day (identified as a NOAEL; LOAEL of 50 mg/kg-bw/day). There is 

controversy about whether effects seen at lower doses in animals (less than 1 mg/kg/day) are 

meaningful and relevant to humans. These low-dose effects are endocrine-related and include 

effects on puberty and developmental neurotoxicological effects (brain, behavior) at doses in 

animal studies as low as 2 μg/kg-bw/day. 

All of the government BPA assessments reviewed by EPA discuss these low-dose data 

and virtually all (FDA, 2008; California, 2009a; AIST, 2007; EC, 2003, 2008; EFSA, 2006, 

2008a-b) have considered them insufficient for the purposes of hazard evaluation/risk 

assessment, the exceptions being Canada (Canada, 2008) and the NTP-CERHR (NTP-CERHR, 

2008). Canada acknowledged high uncertainty in the data, but took precautionary action to 

restrict BPA exposures to infants and young children. The NTP-CERHR observed that the 

uncertainty led to a conclusion of “some concern”5

 for potential effects. New information on 

these potential low-dose effects has been published on an almost monthly basis over the past 

year, with some studies supporting the concept and others finding no effects. For example, a 

recent study performed by EPA scientists comparing BPA with the oral contraceptive ethinyl 

estradiol (EE) found that low in utero doses of EE affected sexual differentiation in female rats, 

but low in utero doses of BPA produced no such effects (Ryan et al., 2010). The same 

investigators reported results in male rats in an earlier publication, also noting effects in males 

exposed in utero to EE, but not to BPA (Howdeshell et al., 2008). On the other hand, a different 

study reported that prenatal BPA exposure (again at low doses) in mice leads to adverse effects 

on the female reproductive tract later in life (Newbold et al., 2009). In addition, the NIEHS 

recently awarded $30 million dollars in grants for a two-year program of research on these issues 

(NIEHS, 2009). FDA announced on January 15, 2010 that it shared the perspective of the NTPCERHR and would undertake additional research in this area. (FDA, 2010).

Given the laboratory animal data, it is important to note that metabolism studies have 

been performed in multiple species (rats, mice, monkeys, and humans) and show that humans 

and rodents metabolize BPA differently. Data in all four species indicate metabolism by 

 

5 NTP’s possible levels of concern, from lowest to highest, are negligible concern, minimal concern, some concern, 

concern, and serious concern. “Some concern” thus represents the mid-point of a five-level scale of concern used by 

the NTP. In the case of BPA, the NTP stated it “expressed “some concern” for potential exposures to the fetus, 

infants and children. There are insufficient data from studies in humans to reach a conclusion on reproductive or 

developmental hazards presented by current exposures to bisphenol A, but there is limited evidence of 

developmental changes occurring in some animal studies at doses that are experienced by humans. It is uncertain if 

similar changes would occur in humans, but the possibility of adverse health effects cannot be dismissed.”

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conjugation in the liver with glucuronic acid to form the metabolite BPA-glucuronide (BPAG). 

The relative amount of free-BPA and BPAG circulating in mammals is important because freeBPA (“parent”) is known to be weakly estrogenic and BPAG is not. Data indicate that BPAG is 

more prevalent in primates and free-BPA is more prevalent in rodents. These differences in 

metabolism suggest that rodents may be more sensitive to effects from BPA than humans. 

BPA has been found in human biological samples (serum, breast milk, urine, fetal blood, 

and umbilical cord blood). The literature reporting these results reflects both a variety of 

analytical techniques and the BPA forms measured (i.e., total BPA , free-BPA and BPAG). In 

2008, the CDC reported that BPA was detected in the urine of 93% of the 2,517 people tested in 

the 2003-4 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) (Calafat et al., 2008). 

Recently, urinary BPA concentrations measured in premature infants from two separate intensive 

care facilities showed that mean urinary concentrations of total BPA were an order of magnitude 

higher in the infants than in the general population. Over 90% of the BPA found in the urine in 

that study was in the form of a glucuronide conjugate (Calafat et al., 2009), providing evidence 

of the ability for neonates to conjugate BPA into its non-estrogenic form. The study authors 

noted, however, that this metabolic pathway would not be expected to be functional at adult rates 

until months after birth. The authors also noted that the infants underwent intensive medical 

intervention, and that some of the BPA exposure may have been attributable to contact with 

medical devices. 

 There was a recent report in which a cross-sectional study design was used to suggest an 

association between BPA levels in humans and a higher risk of diabetes, heart disease, and 

elevation of certain liver enzyme activities (Lang et al., 2008). The authors examined the human 

data from the 2003-4 NHANES population. However, this report prompted an immediate review 

by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (EFSA, 2008b) in late 2008 which concluded 

that the study did not provide sufficient proof for the stated associations. EPA notes that the 

same investigative group recently published an online research article repeating their original 

findings for heart disease but not diabetes on a second NHANES population from 2005-6 

(Melzer et al., 2010). 

Table 2 below is a list of each major assessment reviewed and the accompanying intake 

limits chosen in their respective assessments. Some assessments did not derive an intake limit 

per se, but did make hazard/risk decisions: 

• The California Proposition 65 Developmental and Reproductive Toxicant Identification 

Committee (DARTIC) voted on July 15, 2009 not to list BPA as a developmental 

toxicant, a female reproductive toxicant, or a male reproductive toxicant (each by 

separate, unanimous votes of 7-0) (California, 2009a). 

• Thirty-eight scientists (known as the “Chapel Hill Group”; vom Saal et al., 2007) 

concluded that: (1) there is relevance of in vitro data to in vivo effects; (2) ecological 

studies are consistent with lab animal studies; (3) the low doses in animal studies are 

relevant to BPA levels found in humans; and (4) life stage is important in 

pharmacokinetics, exposure, and effects in animals and humans. 

• A Harvard Panel (Gray et al., 2004) concluded that the low dose data are not relevant to 

humans (and reaffirmed this in an update reported in Goodman et al., 2006). 

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• A National Toxicology Program (NTP) Center for Evaluation of Risks to Human 

Reproduction (CERHR) Panel (NTP-CERHR, 2008) concluded that rodent studies 

suggest that BPA causes “...neural and behavioral alterations related to disruptions in 

normal sex differences in rats and mice (0.01-0.2 mg/kg/day).” 

Table 2: BPA Intake Limits for Human Health Assessments 

Authors Intake Limit 

(mg/kg/day) 1

Endpoint (Animal dose in mg/kg/day) 

And Study 

USEPA (Integrated 

Risk Information 

System; IRIS (1993)) 

0.05 Reduced body weight (5) 

NTP 1982 two year cancer study in both rats and mice (as 

cited in USEPA 1993) 

0.005 Systemic – reduced body wt and liver effects (5) 

0.05 

Irreversible reproductive effects (50) 

FDA (2008) 

0.5 Reversible reproductive effects (50) 

(All based on both 2-generation mouse study (Tyl et al., 

2008) and 3-generation rat study (Tyl et al., 2002)) 

EFSA (2006, 2008a-b) 

and EC (2003, 2008) 

0.05 Used 5 (lowest value in cited studies) 

Tyl et al. (2002, 2008) 

0.05 

0.5 

Body weight (5) 

Reproduction (50) 

Tyl et al., (2002, 2008) 

Japan (AIST, 2004) 

0.046 Liver effects (23) 

NTP (1985) – continuous breeding study in mice 

Canada (2008) Did not report 

any 

Body weight reduction (5) and dev/repro effects (50) 

Tyl et al., (2002, 2008) 

Cited numerous studies with effect levels ranging from 0.010 

to 0.100 mg/kg/day for a variety of effects in mice and/or rats 

including changes in: maternal behavior, gender-specific 

behaviors; sexual performance; novelty-seeking/impulse 

behaviors; avoidance response; maze performance. 

Willhite,et al. (2008) 

(NSF International) 

0.016 Used 5 (lowest value in cited studies) 

Tyl et al., (2002, 2008) 1

 Most risk assessments take an exposure value from an animal study (dose in mg/kg-bw/day) and divide it 

by several uncertainty factors to arrive at an acceptable dose in humans. This value is what is shown here as 

an “intake limit” and is what is compared to an expected/estimated exposure value in a risk assessment. 

The uncertainty factors used by the various assessments are: EPA (IRIS) – 1000; FDA – either 1000 

(systemic or irreversible effects) or 100 (reversible effects); EFSA/EU – 100; Japan – either 100 or 500; 

Canada – did not specify; and NSF Int.’l – 300. 

Environmental Hazard Summary 

Many studies have been conducted to determine potential effects of BPA exposure on 

invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and wild mammals, and a review is provided by 

Crain et al. (2007). EPA’s screening-level ecological hazard review for this Action Plan focused 

on effects in freshwater aquatic species to provide a framework for determining whether toxicity 

may warrant further investigation or risk management action. 

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In general, studies have shown that BPA can affect growth, reproduction and 

development in aquatic organisms. Among freshwater organisms, fish appear to be the most 

sensitive species. Evidence of endocrine-related effects in fish, aquatic invertebrates, amphibians 

and reptiles has been reported at environmentally relevant exposure levels lower than those 

required for acute toxicity. There is a widespread variation in reported values for endocrinerelated effects, but many fall in the range of 1μg/L to 1 mg/L. (Canada, 2008). 

The ecological hazard for BPA has been evaluated in three different risk assessments 

performed by the European Union (EC), Canada, and Japan as summarized below in Table 3. 

The different methodologies, endpoints and study results used by each country to derive these 

values highlight the significant uncertainty in the estimated hazard values. Canada used a novel 

low-dose study (Lahnsteiner et al., 2005) that reported reduced sperm quality and delayed 

ovulation in brown trout at a very low dose (1.75 μg/L). Other effects such as the induction of 

intersex (or testes-ova in males and females), decreased spermatogenesis, induction of 

vitellogenin, delayed or ceased ovulation, or histological liver changes were also reported in 

other studies referenced in the EU and Japanese hazard evaluations. However, because there 

were no standardized test guidelines or risk assessment guidance for evaluating some of these 

endocrine-related effects6

 at the time of these assessments, the EU and Japan set 

ecotoxicological hazard values based on conventional effects (mortality and reproducti

from standardized studies. Canada concluded in its hazard characterization that “[c]onsidered 

together, the data provide strong evidence that bisphenol A is capable of eliciting adverse eff

(1) following prolonged exposure at levels below those usually seen to elicit effects in standa

toxicity tests (i.e., tests based on recognized methods which evaluate endpoints such as survival, 

reproduction and growth); (2) following brief low-dose exposure, particularly at sensitive 

developmental stages, with effects apparent later in the life cycle; (3) on filial generations 

following parental exposure; and (4) using more than one mode of action.” (Canada, 2008). 

ve effects) 

ects: 

rd 

Table 3: Summary of Bisphenol A Ecological Hazard Values 

Country 

Predicted No 

Effect 

Concentrations1 

(μg/L) 

Endpoints 

European 

Union 

1.5 The predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) for aquatic 

organisms (derived by using a statistical analysis of data from 

available data on freshwater and marine aquatic organisms (in 

this case, 16 different studies, unpublished and published, from 

10 different taxonomic groups) to arrive at a value of 7.5 μg/L, 

which is divided by an uncertainty factor of 5, resulting in a 

PNEC of 1.5 μg/L (EC, 2008). 

 

6 As part of its endocrine disruptor screening program, EPA developed a two-tiered approach to implement statutory 

testing requirements. The purpose of Tier 1 screening is to identify substances that have the potential to interact with 

the estrogen, androgen, or thyroid hormone systems. The purpose of Tier 2 testing is to identify and establish a doseresponse relationship for any adverse effects that might result from the interactions identified through the Tier 1 

assays. EPA has established Tier 1 screening test guidelines. Tier 2 test guidelines will be developed after the 

completion of ongoing validation studies. 

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Table 3: Summary of Bisphenol A Ecological Hazard Values 

Predicted No 

Effect Country Endpoints Concentrations1 

(μg/L) 

Canada 0.175 This PNEC was derived by using a lowest observed effect 

concentration (LOEC) of 1.75 μg/L for reduced semen quality 

and delayed ovulation in a published brown trout study 

(Lahnsteiner et al, 2005) and applying an uncertainty factor of 

10 (Canada, 2008). 

Japan 1.6 The PNEC was derived by using the 16 μg/L no effect 

concentration (NOEC) for egg hatchability in fathead minnows 

from the unpublished 3 generation study by Sumpter, et al. 

(2001) multigeneration fish study and dividing by an 

uncertainty factor of 10 (AIST, 2007). 1 In Europe, Canada, and Japan, a predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) is compared directly with an exposure 

value to evaluate risk. If the ratio of environmental concentration to PNEC is less than one, the risk is generally 

considered acceptable. As noted in the table, countries use different approaches for generating PNECs, and the 

precise values may differ even when based on the same studies. 

VI. Fate Characterization Summary

 

BPA is a solid at room temperature. It has a low vapor pressure, moderate water 

solubility, and low volatility (HSDB, 2009). It has low to moderate mobility in soil. It is 

expected to biodegrade under environmental conditions, although conflicting results have been 

obtained using biodegradation screening tests. However, the weight of evidence suggests that it 

is not expected to be persistent in the environment, and degradation is expected to occur. The 

rate of atmospheric photooxidation is rapid. Hydrolysis is expected to be negligible under 

environmental conditions since BPA does not contain functional groups that are susceptible to 

hydrolysis. Based on the criteria set forth in EPA’s policy statement on Category for Persistent, 

Bioaccumulative, and Toxic New Chemical Substances (64 Fed. Reg. 60194, November 4, 1999), 

BPA is expected to have low persistence (P1) and low bioaccumulation potential (B1). (EC, 

2003, 2008) 

 Any residual, unreacted BPA remaining in polycarbonate products and epoxy resins can 

leach out into food or the environment. Polycarbonate is generally stable, but some BPA can be 

released from polycarbonate when it is exposed to strongly basic conditions, UV light, or high 

heat. Epoxy resins made with BPA are stable; only residual BPA is expected to be released from 

epoxy resins. 

VII. Exposure Characterization Summary

BPA is present in the environment as a result of direct releases from manufacturing or 

processing facilities (USEPA, 2009a). BPA may also be present in the environment as a result of 

fugitive emissions during processing and handling, or release of unreacted monomer from 

products (NTP-CERHR, 2008). According to the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) Database, total 

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release of BPA in 2007 was 1,132,062 pounds7, with releases of 122,965 pounds to air, 6,246 

pounds to water (direct), 14,972 pounds released on-site to land, and 684,638 pounds transferred 

off-site to land (USEPA, 2009a). Sources of human exposure to BPA include dietary intake (e.g., 

migration from food packaging and from repeat-use polycarbonate containers, such as baby 

bottles), environmental media (ambient air, indoor air, drinking water, soil and dust), and use of 

consumer products. Given the tendency of young children to put inappropriate objects into their 

mouths, there is some minor potential for children to be exposed to BPA through their mouthing 

or accidental ingestion of consumer products. Dietary intake appears to be the primary source of 

human exposure. However, food packaging and food containers, such as baby bottles, are the 

purview of the Food and Drug Administration; therefore, OPPT’s human and environmental 

exposure characterization focuses on exposure from manufacturing; processing; industrial uses; 

commercial uses; selected consumer uses; ingestion of BPA in drinking water, including 

drinking water contaminated by wastewater releases to surface water, drinking water drawn from 

ground water contaminated by leachate from landfills, and drinking water distributed through 

BPA-based water pipes; and incidental ingestion of BPA from contact with consumer products. 

OPPT used release data, modeling, and information available in peer-reviewed articles and 

government publications to obtain information on exposure to BPA. 

Very little information is available on exposure from consumer products. While noting 

that the primary intake for children six months and older came through food, Miyamoto and 

Kotake (2006) also estimated exposure to BPA for Japanese infants from contact with consumer 

products such as toys. They estimated the mean intake of BPA from toys for male infants 0 to 5 

months of age to be 0.026 μg/kg bw per day and the mean intake for infants 6-11 months to be 

0.069 μg/kg per day. Current information posted by the HHS indicates that most plastic toys that 

children put in their mouths do not contain BPA4

. No studies were identified measuring potential 

exposures to adults or children from contact with other consumer products. 

Limited information is available for BPA concentrations in U.S. water and other 

environmental media (Table 4, providing values from all of the studies cited in this discussion). 

Most environmental monitoring results show that the concentrations of BPA in water bodies are 

lower than 1 μg/L, mainly due to its partitioning and biodegradability properties (Tsai, 2006). 

BPA was detected at a median concentration of 0.14 μg/L and a maximum concentration of 12 

μg/L in 41.2% of 85 samples collected from U.S. streams in 1999 and 2000 (Kolpin et al., 2002). 

The maximum concentration of 12 μg/L is an outlier; the BPA concentration in other U.S. waters 

was much lower (as indicated by the median concentration of 0.14 μg/L). In 2001 and 2002, 

BPA was not detected (< 0.001 μg/L) in effluent from a wastewater treatment plant in Louisiana, 

and concentrations were not quantifiable in samples collected from surface waters in Louisiana 

and in drinking water at various stages of treatment at plants in Louisiana (Boyd et al., 2003). 

In 2000, the U.S. Geological Survey collected samples from 47 ambient groundwater 

sites (not drinking water wells) in 18 states and analyzed them for 65 organic wastewater 

contaminants (Barnes et al., 2008a-b). BPA was detected in 29.8% of the sampled groundwater 

sites, with a mean detected concentration of 1.78 μg/L and a range of 1.06 to 2.55 μg/L (Barnes 

 

7 This total does not include off-site water transfer to POTWs (Publicly Owned Treatment Works) wastewater 

treatment facilities (32,928 pounds) or transfer to incineration (2,759,705 pounds). 

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et al., 2008b). BPA was among the top five most frequently detected organic compounds 

(Barnes, et al., 2008a). 

In the summer of 2001, the U.S. Geological Survey collected samples from 74 sources of 

raw, untreated, drinking water in 25 states and Puerto Rico, in areas that were known or 

suspected to have at least some human and/or animal wastewater sources in upstream or 

upgradient areas. These sources comprise 25 groundwater and 49 surface water sources of 

drinking water serving populations ranging from one family to more than 8 million people. BPA 

was detected in 9.5% of these samples at a reporting level of 1 μg/L. The maximum 

concentration measured in these samples was 1.9 μg/L (Barnes, et al., 2008a; Focazio et al., 

2008). 

Landfill leachates from one U.S. study reported maximum BPA concentrations of 1.7 

μg/L in landfill leachate and 1.4 μg/L in the receiving groundwater plume at a landfill on Cape 

Cod that was known to be leaking (Crain et al., 2007). Data for other landfill sites in the United 

States were not available, and this single point may not be representative of the country. Landfill 

leachate from other countries contained more than 500 μg/L of BPA, which is on the order of 

500 times the BPA concentrations in water bodies (Tsai, 2006). Studies conducted at Japanese 

landfills resulted in maximum untreated leachate concentrations of 17,200 μg/L and treated 

leachate concentrations of 5.1 μg/L (Crain et al., 2007). 

Soil concentrations reported by NTP-CERHR (2008) were for soil samples taken from 

outdoor play areas of homes and daycares; BPA concentrations ranged from 4-14 ppb dry 

weight, with means of 6-7 ppb dry weight. Klecka et al. (2009) reported a median concentration 

of 0.6 ppb BPA in North American freshwater sediments, including nondetected samples; BPA 

concentrations in samples from the United States ranged from 1.4 to 140 ppb dry weight. U.S. 

marine sediments were reported to have a median of 3.5 ppb of BPA and to range from 1.5 to 5 

ppb dry weight (Klecka et al., 2009; Tsai, 2006). 

Table 4: U.S. Reported Environmental Concentrations of BPA 

Location 

Mean or Range 

of Means (ppb) Range (ppb) 

Surface Water 0.012 to 0.14 0.0009 to 12 

Groundwater 0.0041 to 1.9 0.006 to 2.55 

Drinking Water 0.005 to <0.1 <0.1 to 0.42 

Wastewater <0.1 0.0036 to 50 

Soils 6 to 7 4 to 14 

Sediment, Fresh 0.6*† 1.4 to 140†

Sediment, Marine 3.5* 1.5 to 5.0 

* Value is median; mean values not reported 

†

 median value includes nondetected values below the MDL, while the reported range includes 

only detected values 

 

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E-FAST28 modeling of BPA releases in the 2007 TRI showed the most conservative 

estimates of the potential acute dose rate for ingestion of BPA in drinking water by children ages 

1-2 ranged from 0.0000531 to 16.5 μg/kg/day, and the most conservative estimates of the surface 

water concentration ranged from 0.000574 to 232 μg/L. The E-FAST2 model is intended to be 

used for screening level exposure characterization. E-FAST2 is based on numerous assumptions 

that are designed to be conservative; for example, E-FAST2 does not account for the half life of 

a chemical in surface water. The inputs selected for the E-FAST2 modeling of BPA were also 

selected to be conservative; for example, the bioconcentration factor was selected to be at the 

high end of the range of values reported for BPA in the literature. 

FDA estimated exposure to BPA from food contact uses to be 0.185 μg/kg bw/day for 

adults. The highest estimate by FDA is 2.42 μg/kg bw/day for female infants, 1-2 months of age 

(FDA, 2008). Human exposures from food contact uses are consistently estimated by researchers 

to be higher than exposures from all other sources (e.g., Willhite, 2008). 

Workers may be exposed to BPA by inhalation or skin contact during the manufacture of 

BPA and BPA-containing products. No data were available for dermal exposures, and limited 

data were available for inhalation exposures. Table 5 summarizes EPA’s estimates for 

occupational exposures that may occur during manufacturing. These estimates were derived 

using models developed by EPA/OPPT for use in preparing screening-level exposure 

assessments of chemicals. These models do not take into account the effect of any personal 

protective equipment that may be used. 

Table 5. Inhalation and Dermal Exposure Estimates to BPA 

During BPA Lifecycle Stages 

Lifecycle Stage Exposure Type BPA Exposure Dose (mg/day) 

Inhalation 0 – 9.6 Manufacturing Dermal (liquids and solids) 882 – 3,100 a 

Inhalation 0.7 – 2.7 b 

USE 1: Polycarbonates Dermal (solids) 0.31 – 3,100 c 

Inhalation 0 – 28 USE 2: Epoxy Resins Dermal (solids) 3,100 c 

Inhalation 0 d 

USE 3: Flame Retardants 

Dermal (solids) 3,100 c 

a – Exposure is in milligrams per event. Events can include sampling of solutions containing BPA or solid BPA and 

loading/unloading of BPA from containers. 

b – Exposure is to polycarbonate dust. 

c – Exposure is in milligrams per loading/unloading of BPA from containers, which is the only identified potential 

exposure during this stage of the lifecycle. 

d – Inhalation exposure to BPA during the production of flame retardants is not expected.

VIII. Risk Management Considerations

 

 BPA has been evaluated as a chemical of potential concern by some U.S. agencies and 

other countries since the early 1980’s. 

 

8

 Information on E-FAST2 can be found at http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/exposure/pubs/efastdl.htm. 

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U.S. EPA and State/Local Regulatory Reviews and Actions 

 BPA was included in the initial proposal of the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) list 

published in 1987 (52 Fed. Reg. 21001, June 4, 1987). That initial list was mandated by the 

Emergency Planning & Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) section 313(c), 42 U.S.C. § 

11023(c), to include the substances specified by the Senate Environment and Public Works 

Committee Print 99-169, so there was no separate discussion of the justification for placing BPA 

on the initial TRI list. 

 In 2009, the EPA Office of Water considered BPA during its development of the third 

Candidate Contaminant List (CCL3) of substances that might be appropriate candidates for 

future regulation. Although BPA appeared on the potential CCL (PCCL) list used during the 

screening process, BPA did not meet the combined screening criteria of potential to occur in 

public water systems and potential for public health concern because its measured presence in 

water was well below potential effect levels in guideline studies, and thus did not appear on the 

final CCL3 list. The notice publishing the final CCL3 list (74 Fed. Reg. 51850, October 8, 2009) 

does not specifically address BPA, but supporting materials available on the EPA website 

describe the process and criteria used in the development of the list, including the information on 

BPA (USEPA, 2009b). 

 Connecticut, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Washington, Chicago and Suffolk County, N.Y., 

have banned the sale of polycarbonate baby bottles, food containers and cups that contain BPA. 

The Connecticut ban also applies to infant formula cans and all reusable food and beverage 

containers. The Suffolk County ban (County of Suffolk, 2009) went into effect in July 2009. The 

Minnesota ban (Minnesota, 2009) went into effect on 1/1/2010, and the Chicago ban (Chicago, 

2009) on 1/31/2010. The Wisconsin ban (Wisconsin 2010) will go into effect on 6/15/2010, and 

the Connecticut ban (Connecticut, 2009) will take effect on 10/1/2011. The Washington state ban 

(Washington, 2010) will take effect on 7/1/2010 concerning food and drink containers for 

children three years old and under, and will ban BPA in sports water bottles effective 7/1/2012. 

Similar bills banning BPA in children’s food and drink containers passed both houses in 

Maryland (Maryland, 2010) in February 2010, and if they are signed into law by the governor, 

would take effect on 1/1/2012. California bill (California, 2009) to ban the use of BPA in baby 

bottles and cups and infant formula cans failed to pass in September 2009 and was moved to the 

inactive file. A similar bill failed to pass in Oregon (Oregon, 2010) in February 2010. 

International Regulatory Reviews and Actions 

 Numerous foreign governmental bodies and review panels have conducted human health 

risk assessments for BPA in the recent past. Japan (AIST, 2007), the European Union (EC, 

2008), and the European Food Safety Administration (EFSA, 2008) all concluded within the past 

three years that the novel studies indicating low dose, endocrine-related effects were insufficient 

for the purposes of hazard evaluation/risk assessment. Using hazard values derived by dividing 

the doses used in standardized animal studies by the respective uncertainty factors applied by the 

different regulatory bodies, these regulatory bodies concluded that expected exposures even from 

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food contact uses, the largest expected source of exposure, did not present concern for risk to 

human health. 

 In contrast, on June 26, 2009, Canada became the first country to take regulatory action 

against BPA. Canada announced that it was moving forward with proposed regulations to 

prohibit the advertisement, sale and importation of polycarbonate plastic baby bottles that 

contain BPA, to reduce newborn and infant exposure to this substance. In announcing this 

decision, Canada noted “The Government has concluded that exposure levels for newborns and 

infants up to 18 months of age are below those that could cause health effects. However, due to 

the uncertainty raised in some studies relating to the potential effects of low levels of BPA, the 

Government wants to further limit exposure.” (Canada, 2009). 

 Ecological risk for BPA has been evaluated by the European Union (EC, 2008), Canada 

(Canada, 2008), and Japan (AIST, 2007). Japan concluded that “the current exposure levels of 

BPA will not pose unacceptable risks to the local populations of aquatic life, particularly fish.” 

The EU concluded that although the predicted exposure concentrations were significantly below 

its hazard values, there was a need for further information and/or testing on such organisms as 

freshwater snails. Based on a novel low-dose study (Lahnsteiner et al., 2005), Canada concluded 

that BPA concentrations in water have the potential to cause adverse effects on populations of 

pelagic organisms in Canada and concentrations in biota have the potential to cause adverse 

effects in populations of wildlife in Canada, but that there is a low risk of direct adverse effects 

to sediment organisms and to avian wildlife species in Canada. In the conclusion of its risk 

assessment, Canada stated that it is considered appropriate to apply a precautionary approach 

when characterizing risk, observing “it is concluded that bisphenol A is entering the environment 

in a quantity or concentration or under conditions that have or may have an immediate or longterm harmful effect on the environment or its biological diversity.” 

 In August 2009, Taiwan designated BPA as a Class 4 toxic substance under the Toxic 

Chemical Substances Control Act (Taiwan, 2009). A Class 4 toxic substance is defined as a 

substance for which there is concern of pollution of the environment or the endangerment of 

human health. Handlers of Class 4 substances are required to keep and report records of the 

toxicity, production, release, and use of those chemicals, but the chemicals are not subject to 

other restrictions on handling, transportation, or use (Taiwan, 2007). Class 4 is the lowest 

designation for a toxic substance in Taiwan. 

Ongoing Activities and Issues 

 The primary issue with regard to risk management approaches to BPA is the uncertainty 

surrounding the actual determination of risk, particularly from low dose exposures. There is 

agreement among international regulatory authorities using generally accepted approaches to 

human health assessment that human exposures to BPA are below levels that would be 

associated with health effects, leading to determinations that current uses of BPA do not present 

human health risks warranting further regulatory controls. Similarly, environmental 

concentrations of BPA, apart from isolated hot spots, are estimated generally to be lower than the 

levels associated with effects in standardized toxicological studies done according to established 

guidelines. The complicating factor, however, is the uncertainty surrounding the meaning and 

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relevance both to humans and the environment of the effects seen in some novel low-dose 

studies, because some concentrations are similar to levels associated with observed effects 

reported in those studies. 

 Reproductive and developmental toxicity are the most sensitive effects observed in the 

guideline studies, and some novel studies suggest the potential for endocrine-related effects at 

much lower levels than the effect levels identified in the standardized studies. Accordingly, BPA 

exposures raise particular questions concerning children’s health. Children may be exposed to 

BPA before birth through their mothers’ exposures, and directly through the use of BPA in food 

packaging materials and child feeding products (such as baby bottles, sippy cups, and spoons) 

within FDA jurisdiction. FDA is conducting further studies on potential health risks to both 

children and adults from exposure to BPA in food contact materials (FDA, 2010), and HHS has 

provided recommendations on how parents and families can reduce their potential exposure to 

BPA while this investigation continues4

. Children and adults may also be exposed to a lesser 

extent through contact with other consumer products and through contact with environmental 

media (e.g., air and water). Children’s exposures are greater than adults’ due to increased intakes 

of food, water, and air per pound of body weight. 

 

 On October 28, 2009, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), 

part of the National Institutes of Health under the U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services, announced the award of $14 million in Recovery Act funds to support two-year 

research grants into the potential effects of BPA on human health (NIEHS, 2009). Including 

these Recovery Act funds, NIEHS is investing approximately $30 million over two years on 

BPA research. The new two-year animal and human studies will focus on either developmental 

exposure or adult chronic exposures to low doses of BPA. Researchers will be looking at a 

number of health effects including behavior, obesity, diabetes, reproductive disorders, 

development of prostate, breast and uterine cancer, asthma, cardiovascular diseases and 

transgenerational or epigenetic effects. 

 Given that human exposures from TSCA uses of BPA are minor compared with human 

exposures from uses under FDA jurisdiction, EPA considers that FDA has the lead in making 

human health judgments on BPA. EPA does not consider that action under TSCA would be 

warranted at this time on the basis of potential human health concerns from exposures through 

TSCA uses of BPA. 

EPA has jurisdiction over environmental exposures to BPA. Although there is 

disagreement in interpreting the novel low-dose studies and some of the effects observed in the 

many aquatic toxicity studies performed thus far with BPA, a comparison of the range of 

predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) values used in the three international regulatory risk 

assessments (0.175 to 1.6 μg/L, Table 3) with measured concentrations in U.S. waters and 

sediments, which included values as high as 12 μg/L (surface water), 2.55 μg/L (ground water), 

and 140 μg/kg sediment (freshwater sediment) (Table 4), raises concern about possible risk of 

injury to aquatic organisms. However, limited information is available for BPA concentrations in 

U.S. water, and most available environmental monitoring results show that the concentrations of 

BPA in water bodies are lower than 1 μg/L (median concentration of 0.14 μg/L, below any 

calculated PNEC). These environmental measurements represent only isolated snapshots in time 

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and do not provide an indication of how many areas may exceed PNEC values or concentrations 

of concern, how often or how long such concentrations may be exceeded, or the pathways 

leading to BPA presence in the environment from manufacturing, processing, distribution in 

commerce, use, or disposal. Additional information would help to resolve these uncertainties. 

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IX. Next Steps

 

 In conducting this review of bisphenol A, EPA considered a number of potential actions, 

including regulatory actions under TSCA sections 4, 5 and 6; cooperative activities with other 

federal agencies; and voluntary actions through such programs as Design for the Environment 

(DfE). 

Based on EPA’s screening-level review of hazard and exposure information, including 

the uncertainties surrounding the low-dose studies, EPA intends to: 

1. Consider initiating rulemaking under section 5(b)(4) of the Toxic Substances Control 

Act (TSCA) to identify BPA on the Concern List as a substance that may present an 

unreasonable risk of injury to the environment on the basis of its potential for longterm adverse effects on growth, reproduction and development in aquatic species at 

concentrations similar to those found in the environment. A notice of proposed 

rulemaking is intended to publish in autumn, 2010. 

2. Consider initiating rulemaking under section 4(a) of TSCA to develop data with 

respect to environmental effects relevant to a further determination that BPA either 

does or does not present an unreasonable risk of injury to the environment. This may 

include testing or monitoring data in the vicinity of landfills, manufacturing facilities, 

or similar locations to determine the potential for BPA to enter the environment, 

including surface water, ground water, and drinking water, at levels of potential 

concern particularly for environmental organisms, pregnant women, and children. 

EPA anticipates publishing an advance notice of proposed rulemaking in late 2010. 

3. Initiate collaborative alternatives assessment activities under its Design for the 

Environment (DfE) program to encourage reductions in BPA manufacturing and use 

to facilitate reductions in environmental releases and subsequent exposures. One of 

these activities, intended to be initiated in April 2010, will address thermal and 

carbonless paper coatings, a use where preferable alternatives to BPA may be readily 

available. This DfE alternatives assessment is expected to be completed in the latter 

half of 2011. Paper coatings are not a major use of BPA, but thermal paper has been 

reported to contain free BPA, which would be expected to be more available for 

exposure than BPA bound into resin or plastic. Popular uses of this paper include 

airline tickets, event and cinema tickets, labels, and point of sale applications 

(receipts). While there is little concern for dermal absorption of BPA, free BPA can 

readily be transferred to skin and residues on hands can be ingested. Use of BPA in 

paper also may contribute to the presence of BPA in the stream of recycled paper 

used in toilet paper, paper tableware, and other products, and may contribute to the 

presence of BPA in landfills since paper products are a major solid waste stream. 

Additionally, EPA intends to initiate alternatives analyses for BPA used in foundry 

castings since foundries are accountable for large releases of BPA as reported under 

TRI, and for BPA-based materials lining water and waste water pipes since this 

application may have a potential for human and environmental exposure. 

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EPA does not intend to initiate regulatory action under TSCA at this time on the basis of 

human health. EPA remains committed to protecting human health, but notes that most human 

exposure, including exposure to children, comes through food packaging materials under the 

jurisdiction of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). FDA, together with the Centers for 

Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institute of Environmental Health 

Sciences (NIEHS), is investing in important new health studies in both animals and humans to 

better determine and evaluate the potential health consequences of BPA exposures. EPA will 

continue to coordinate closely with FDA, CDC, and NIEHS on this activity. To the extent that 

FDA may identify health concerns from BPA in food contact materials, EPA will work with 

FDA to identify and assess potential substitutes. Levels of exposure that may be identified by the 

ongoing review as being of concern to human health, including children’s health, will affect the 

extent to which EPA would take additional action to address potential risks to human health 

resulting from uses within TSCA jurisdiction. 

As part of the Agency's efforts to address BPA, EPA also intends to evaluate the potential 

for disproportionate impact on children and other sub-populations through exposure from TSCA 

uses. 

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