United States Government Accountability Office

GAO Testimony 

Before the Subcommittee on Environment 

and Hazardous Materials, House 

Committee on Energy and Commerce

PERCHLORATE 

EPA Does Not 

Systematically Track 

Incidents of Contamination 

Statement of John B. Stephenson, Director 

Natural Resources and Environment 

For Release on Delivery

Expected at 10:00 a.m. EDT 

Wednesday, April 25, 2007

 

GAO-07-797T 
What GAO Found

United States Government Accountability Office

Why GAO Did This Study

Highlights

Accountability Integrity Reliability

April 25, 2007

PERCHLORATE

EPA Does Not Systematically Track 

Incidents of Contamination 

 

Highlights of GAO-07-797T, a testimony 

before the Subcommittee on Environment 

and Hazardous Materials, House

Committee on Energy and Commerce 

Perchlorate has been used for 

decades by the Department of 

Defense, the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration, and the 

defense industry in manufacturing, 

testing, and firing missiles and 

rockets. Other uses include 

fireworks, fertilizers, and 

explosives. Perchlorate is readily 

dissolved and transported in water

and has been found in 

groundwater, surface water, and 

soil across the country. Perchlorate 

emerged as a contaminant of 

concern because health studies 

have shown that it can affect the 

thyroid gland, which helps regulate 

the body’s metabolism, and may

cause developmental impairment in 

fetuses of pregnant women. In

2005, EPA set a reference dose of 

24.5 parts per billion (ppb)—the

exposure level not expected to 

cause adverse effect in humans. 

Today’s testimony updates GAO’s 

May 2005 report, Perchlorate: A 

System to Track Sampling and 

Cleanup Results is Needed, GAO05-462. It summarizes GAO’s (1)

compilation of the extent of 

perchlorate contamination in the 

U.S. and (2) review of peerreviewed studies about 

perchlorate’s health risks. GAO’s

2005 report recommended that

EPA work to track and monitor 

perchlorate detections and cleanup 

efforts. In December 2006, EPA 

reiterated its disagreement with 

this recommendation. GAO 

continues to believe such a system 

would better inform the public and 

others about perchlorate’s

presence in their communities. 

Perchlorate has been found at 395 sites in the U.S.—including 153 public 

drinking water systems—in concentrations ranging from 4 ppb to more than 

3.7 million ppb. More than half the sites are in California and Texas, with the 

highest concentrations found in Arkansas, California, Texas, Nevada, and 

Utah. About 28 percent of sites were contaminated by defense and 

aerospace activities related to propellant manufacturing, rocket motor 

research and test firing, or explosives disposal. Federal and state agencies

are not required to routinely report perchlorate findings to EPA, which does 

not track or monitor perchlorate detections or cleanup status. EPA recently 

decided not to regulate perchlorate in drinking water supplies pending 

further study. 

GAO reviewed 90 studies of health risks from perchlorate published from 

1998 to 2005, and one-quarter indicated that perchlorate had an adverse

effect on human health, and thyroid function in particular. In January 2005, 

the National Academy of Sciences also reviewed several studies and 

concluded that they did not support a clear link between perchlorate 

exposure and changes in the thyroid function. The academy did not 

recommend a drinking water standard but recommended additional research 

into the effect of perchlorate exposure on children and pregnant women. 

More recently, a large study by CDC scientists has identified adverse thyroid

effects from perchlorate in women with low iodine levels that are found in 

about 36 percent of U.S. women. 

Number of Sites and Maximum Perchlorate Concentrations, by State 

www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-797T.

To view the full product, including the scope 

and methodology, click on the link above. 

For more information, contact John

Stephenson at (202) 512-3841 or

stephensonj@gao.gov.
Mr. Chairman and Members of the Subcommittee: 

I am pleased to be here today to discuss our work on perchlorate, a 

chemical most commonly used in rocket fuel. A combination of human 

activity and natural sources has led to the widespread presence of 

perchlorate in the environment. Perchlorate has been used for decades by

the Department of Defense (DOD), the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA), and the defense industry in the manufacturing, 

testing, and firing of missiles and rockets. According to the Environmental 

Protection Agency’s (EPA) estimates, 90 percent of the perchlorate 

produced in the United States is manufactured for use by the military and 

NASA, with total typical production quantities averaging several million 

pounds per year. Private industry also has used perchlorate to

manufacture automobile airbags, fireworks, flares, and commercial 

explosives. Natural sources include certain atmospheric processes and 

Chilean nitrate salts (saltpeter) that have been mined and refined to 

produce commercial fertilizers for use in the U.S. Perchlorate forms salts 

that are readily dissolved and transported in water and that have been 

found in groundwater, surface water, and soil across the country. People 

are exposed to the perchlorate primarily by ingesting it in drinking water 

and food, or by working to manufacture products that contain the 

chemical. Health studies have shown that exposure to perchlorate can 

affect the thyroid gland, which helps regulate the body’s metabolism, and 

may cause neurodevelopmental impairment in fetuses of pregnant women. 

In 2003, EPA, DOD, NASA, and the Department of Energy asked the 

National Academy of Sciences to review the risks of exposure to 

perchlorate. In January 2005, the Academy recommended a reference dose 

of 0.0007 milligrams of perchlorate per kilogram of body weight per day, 

an estimated daily exposure level that is not expected to cause adverse 

effects in the children and pregnant women—the most sensitive human 

populations. This reference dose equates to a drinking water equivalent 

level of 24.5 parts per billion.1

 In February 2005, EPA adopted the 

Academy’s reference dose for perchlorate, but it has not established a 

national federal standard for perchlorate in drinking water or other 

regulatory requirements to clean up perchlorate in groundwater, surface 

 1

The drinking water equivalent level is based on a reference adult weighing 70 kilograms 

(or 154 pounds) drinking 2 liters of water per day, assuming that all perchlorate exposure 

comes from drinking water. 

Page 1 GAO-07-797T 
water, or soil, citing the need for additional study about the health effects 

of perchlorate exposure.

My testimony today is based largely on our 2005 report for this Committee 

and summarizes (1) our analysis of the estimated extent of perchlorate 

found in the United States and (2) the results of our review of published 

studies on the health effects of perchlorate.2

 In the 2005 report, we 

recommended that EPA develop a tracking system for perchlorate releases 

and cleanup efforts across the federal government and state agencies. This 

statement also includes information from my February 2007 testimony 

about EPA’s recent response to our recommendation.3

To provide an estimate of the extent of perchlorate found in the United 

States, we compiled and analyzed data on perchlorate detections from 

EPA, DOD, the U.S. Geological Survey, and state agencies. To identify 

studies of the potential health risks from perchlorate, who conducted 

them, and what methodologies were used, we conducted a literature 

search for studies of perchlorate health risks published since 1998, 

interviewed DOD and EPA officials on what studies they considered 

important in assessing perchlorate health risks, and examined the 

references of each study for other studies we had not obtained. We 

identified 125 studies on perchlorate and the thyroid, of which we 

reviewed 90 that were relevant to our review. A more detailed description 

of our scope and methodology is presented in appendix I of our 2005 

report. 

In summary, we found the following:

• As of our May 2005 review, perchlorate had been found by federal and 

state agencies in groundwater, surface water, soil, or public drinking water 

systems at almost 400 sites across the country in concentrations that 

ranged from 4 parts per billion (ppb) to more than 3.7 million ppb. 

However, there is not a standardized approach to reporting perchlorate 

data nationwide, therefore there may be more contaminated sites than we 

identified. These sites are located across 37 states and U.S. territories, but 

more than half were found in California and Texas. The sources of 

 2

GAO, Perchlorate: A System to Track Sampling and Cleanup Results is Needed, 

GAO-05-462 (Washington, D.C.: May 20, 2005). 

3

GAO, Environmental Information: EPA Actions Could Reduce the Availability of 

Environmental Information to the Public, GAO-07-464T (Washington, D.C.: February 6,

2007). 

Page 2 GAO-07-797T 
perchlorate at the sites vary, but the greatest known source is defense and

aerospace activities such as propellant manufacturing, rocket motor 

research and test firing, or explosives disposal. More than one-third of the 

sites were public drinking water systems, where perchlorate 

concentrations ranged from 4 to 420 ppb. Fourteen of these 153 public 

water systems had concentration levels above 24.5 parts per billion, the 

drinking water equivalent of EPA’s perchlorate reference dose. EPA and 

state officials told us they had not cleaned up contaminated public 

drinking water systems, principally because there was no federal drinking 

water standard or specific federal requirement to clean up perchlorate. 

Further, it is difficult to determine the extent of perchlorate in the United 

States or the status of any cleanup actions because EPA does not centrally 

track or monitor perchlorate detections, environmental releases, or 

cleanup activities. 

• Recent research indicates that low-level perchlorate exposure may 

adversely affect the thyroid and increase the risk of neurodevelopmental 

impairment in fetuses of pregnant women. In our May 2005 review, we 

identified and summarized 90 peer-reviewed studies published from 1998 

to 2005 on the health effects of perchlorate. The findings of 26 of these 

studies indicated that perchlorate had an adverse effect on thyroid 

function and human health. Most studies on adult populations were unable 

to determine whether the thyroid was adversely affected, because adverse 

effects of perchlorate on the adult thyroid, such as cancer, may happen 

over longer time periods than are generally observed in a research study. 

In contrast, the adverse effects of perchlorate on human development can

be more easily studied and measured within study time frames, and 18

studies found adverse effects on development resulting from maternal 

exposure to perchlorate. We also found that some studies considered the 

same perchlorate dose but found different effects. The precise cause of the 

different results may be attributed to the studies’ designs or to the physical 

conditions—such as sex, age, and blood iodine levels—of studies’ 

subjects. Such unresolved questions were one of the bases for the differing

conclusions among EPA, DOD, and other researchers on perchlorate 

doses and human health effects. In its January 2005 report, the National 

Academy of Sciences called for additional research on perchlorate 

exposure to help resolve questions about its effect on children and 

pregnant women. More recently, an October 2006 CDC study found that, 

for women with lower iodine levels, perchlorate reduced the thyroid 

hormone that helps regulate metabolism and that plays a part in central 

nervous system development in the fetus. 

We concluded in our report that EPA needed more reliable information on 

the extent of sites contaminated with perchlorate and the status of 

Page 3 GAO-07-797T 
cleanup efforts, and recommended that EPA work with the Department of 

Defense and the states to establish a formal structure for tracking 

perchlorate information. In December 2006, EPA reiterated its

disagreement with the recommendation stating that perchlorate 

information already exists from a variety of other sources. However, we 

continue to believe that the inconsistency and omissions in available data

that we found during the course of our study underscore the need for a 

more structured and formal tracking system. 

According to EPA, perchlorate can interfere with the normal functioning 

of the thyroid gland by competitively inhibiting the transport of iodide into

the thyroid, which can then affect production of thyroid hormones. The 

fetus depends on an adequate supply of maternal thyroid hormone for its 

central nervous system development during the first trimester of 

pregnancy. The National Academy of Sciences reported that inhibition of 

iodide uptake from low-level perchlorate exposure may increase the risk 

of neurodevelopmental impairment in fetuses of high-risk mothers—

pregnant women who might have iodine deficiency or hypothyroidism 

(reduced thyroid functioning). The Academy recognized the differences in 

sensitivity to perchlorate exposure between the healthy adults used in 

some studies and the most sensitive population and the fetuses of these 

high-risk mothers. Consequently, the Academy included a 10-fold 

uncertainty factor in its recommended reference dose to protect these 

sensitive populations. The Academy also called for additional research to

help determine what effects low-level perchlorate exposure may have on 

children and pregnant women. 

EPA has issued drinking water regulations for more than 90 contaminants. 

The Safe Drinking Water Act, as amended in 1996, requires EPA to make 

regulatory determinations on at least five unregulated contaminants and 

decide whether to regulate these contaminants with a national primary 

drinking water regulation. The act requires that these determinations be 

made every five years. The unregulated contaminants are typically chosen

from a list known as the Contaminant Candidate List (CCL), which the act 

also requires EPA to publish every five years. EPA published the second

CCL on February 24, 2005. On April 11, 2007, EPA announced its 

preliminary determination not to regulate 11 of the contaminants on this

list. The agency also announced that it was not making a regulatory 

determination for perchlorate because EPA believed that additional 

information may be needed to more fully characterize perchlorate 

exposure and determine whether regulating perchlorate in drinking water 

presents a meaningful opportunity for health risk reduction. 

Background 

Page 4 GAO-07-797T 
Several federal environmental laws provide EPA and states authorized by 

EPA with broad authorities to respond to actual or threatened releases of

substances that may endanger public health or the environment. For 

example, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, 

and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as amended, authorizes EPA to 

investigate the release of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or 

contaminant. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 

(RCRA) gives EPA authority to order a cleanup of hazardous waste when 

there is an imminent and substantial endangerment to public health or the 

environment, and one federal court has ruled that perchlorate is a 

hazardous waste under RCRA.4

 The Clean Water Act’s National Pollutant 

Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) provisions authorize EPA, which 

may, in turn, authorize states, to regulate the discharge of pollutants into 

waters of the United States. These pollutants may include contaminants 

such as perchlorate. The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to 

respond to actual or threatened releases of contaminants into public water 

systems or underground sources of drinking water, regardless of whether 

the contaminant is regulated or unregulated, where there is an imminent 

and substantial endangerment to health and the appropriate state and 

local governments have not taken appropriate actions. Under certain 

environmental laws such as RCRA, EPA can authorize states to implement 

the requirements as long as the state programs are at least equivalent to 

the federal program and provide for adequate enforcement. 

In addition, some states have their own environmental and water quality 

laws that provide state and local agencies with the authority to monitor, 

sample, and require cleanup of various regulated and unregulated 

hazardous substances that pose an imminent and substantial danger to 

public health. For example, the California Water Code authorizes Regional 

Water Control Boards to require sampling of waste discharges and to 

direct cleanup and abatement, if necessary, of any threat to water, 

including the release of an unregulated contaminant such as perchlorate. 

Finally, according to EPA and state officials, at least 9 states have 

established nonregulatory action levels or perchlorate advisories, ranging 

from under 1 part per billion to 18 parts per billion, under which 

responsible parties have been required to sample and clean up

 4

Castaic Lake Water Agency v. Whittaker Corp, 272 F. Supp. 2d 1053 (C.D. Cal. 2003). The 

conclusion that perchlorate is a hazardous waste was the first step in the court’s analysis of

whether perchlorate is a hazardous substance under the Comprehensive Environmental 

Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). (The definition of hazardous 

substances under CERCLA includes hazardous waste under RCRA.) 

Page 5 GAO-07-797T 
perchlorate. For example, according to California officials, the state of 

California has a public health goal for perchlorate of 6 parts per billion and 

has used the goal to require cleanup at one site. 

Because information on the extent of perchlorate contamination was not 

readily available, we thoroughly reviewed available perchlorate sampling

reports and discussed them with federal and state environmental officials.

We identified 395 sites in 35 states, the District of Columbia, and 2 

commonwealths of the United States where perchlorate has been found in 

drinking water, groundwater, surface water, sediment, or soil. The 

perchlorate concentrations ranged from the minimum reporting level of 4 

parts per billion to in more than 3.7 million parts per billion—a level found 

in groundwater at one of the sites. Roughly one-half of the contaminated 

sites were found in Texas (118) and California (106), where both states 

conducted broad investigations to determine the extent of perchlorate 

contamination. As shown in figure 1, the highest perchlorate 

concentrations were found in five states—Arkansas, California, Nevada, 

Texas, and Utah—where, collectively, 11 sites had concentrations 

exceeding 500,000 parts per billion. However, most of the 395 sites did not 

have such high levels of contamination. We found 271 sites where the 

concentration was less than 24.5 parts per billion, the drinking water 

concentration equivalent calculated on the basis of EPA’s reference dose.

Perchlorate Has Been 

Found At 395 Sites 

Including 153 Public 

Drinking Water 

Systems

Page 6 GAO-07-797T 
Figure 1: Number of Sites and Maximum Perchlorate Concentrations, by State 

Page 7 GAO-07-797T 
According to EPA and state agency officials, the greatest known source of 

contamination was defense and aerospace activities. As shown in figure 2,

our analysis found that, at 110 of the 395 sites, the perchlorate source was 

related to propellant manufacturing, rocket motor testing firing, and 

explosives testing and disposal at DOD, NASA, and defense-related 

industries. Officials said the source of the contamination at another 58 

sites was agriculture, a variety of other commercial activities such as 

fireworks and flare manufacturing, and perchlorate manufacturing and 

handling. At the remaining sites, state agency officials said the source of 

the perchlorate was either undetermined (122 sites) or naturally occurring 

(105 sites). Further, all 105 sites with naturally occurring perchlorate are

located in the Texas high plains region where perchlorate concentrations 

range from 4 to 59 parts per billion. 

Figure 2: Activities Linked to Perchlorate, by Site 

Of the sites we identified, 153 were public drinking water systems. The 

Safe Drinking Water Act’s Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring 

Regulation required sampling of public drinking water systems for a 12-

month period between 2001 and 2003. . As of January 2005, 153 (about 4 

percent) of 3,722 systems that were sampled and reported reported finding

perchlorate to EPA. Located across 26 states and 2 commonwealths, these 

153 sites accounted for more than one-third of the sites we identified 

where perchlorate concentrations reported ranged from 4 parts per billion 

Page 8 GAO-07-797T 
to 420 parts per billion but averaged less than 10 parts per billion. Only 14 

of the 153 public drinking water systems had concentration levels above

24.5 parts per billion, the drinking water equivalent calculated on the basis 

of EPA’s revised perchlorate reference dose. California had the most 

public water systems with perchlorate, where 58 systems reported finding

perchlorate in drinking water. The highest drinking water perchlorate 

concentration of 420 parts per billion was found in Puerto Rico in 2002. 

Subsequent sampling in Puerto Rico did not find any perchlorate, and

officials said the source of the initial finding was undetermined. 

These 153 public drinking water systems that found perchlorate serve 

populated areas, and an EPA official estimated that as many as 10 million 

people may have been exposed to the chemical. EPA officials told us they 

do not know the source of most of the contamination found in public 

drinking water systems, but that 32 systems in Arizona, California, and 

Nevada were likely due to previous perchlorate manufacturing at a Kerr 

McGee Chemical Company site in Henderson, Nevada. Regional EPA and

state officials told us they did not plan to clean up perchlorate found at 

public drinking water sites until EPA establishes a drinking water standard

for perchlorate. In some cases, officials did not plan to clean up because

subsequent sampling was unable to confirm that perchlorate was present. 

EPA officials said the agency does not centrally track or monitor 

perchlorate detections or the status of cleanup activities. As a result, it is 

difficult to determine the extent of perchlorate contamination in the U.S. 

EPA maintains a list of sites where cleanup or other response actions are 

underway but the list does not include sites not reported to EPA. As a 

result, EPA officials said they did not always know whether other federal 

and state agencies found perchlorate because, as is generally the case with 

unregulated contaminants, there is no requirement for states or other 

federal agencies to routinely report perchlorate findings to EPA. 

For example, DOD is not required to report to EPA when perchlorate is 

found on active installations and facilities. Consequently, EPA region 

officials in California said they did not know the Navy found perchlorate at 

the Naval Air Weapons Station at China Lake because the Navy did not 

report the finding to EPA. Further, states are not required to routinely 

notify EPA about perchlorate contamination they discover. For example, 

EPA region officials in California said the Nevada state agency did not tell 

them perchlorate was found at Rocketdyne, an aerospace facility in Reno,

or that it was being cleaned up. EPA only learned about the perchlorate 

contamination when the facility’s RCRA permit was renewed. 

Page 9 GAO-07-797T 
Recent Research 

Indicates that 

Perchlorate Exposure 

May be a Concern for 

Pregnant Women 

In our May 2005 review, we conducted a literature search for studies of 

perchlorate health risks published from 1998 to 2005 and identified 125 

studies on perchlorate and the thyroid. After interviewing DOD and EPA 

officials about which studies they considered important in assessing 

perchlorate health risks, we reviewed 90 that were relevant to our work. 

The findings of 26 of these studies indicated that perchlorate had an 

adverse effect on thyroid function and human health. In January 2005, the 

National Academy of Sciences considered many of these same studies and 

concluded that the studies did not support a clear link between 

perchlorate exposure and changes in the thyroid function or thyroid 

cancer in adults. Consequently, the Academy recommended additional 

research into the effect of perchlorate exposure on children and pregnant 

women but did not recommend a drinking water standard. 

DOD, EPA, and industry sponsored the majority of the 90 health studies 

we reviewed; the remaining studies were conducted by academic 

researchers and other federal agencies. Of these 90 studies, 49 were 

experiments that sought to determine the effects of perchlorate on 

humans, mammals, fish, and/or amphibians by exposing these groups to 

different doses of perchlorate over varied time periods and comparing the 

results with other groups that were not exposed. Twelve were field studies 

that compared humans, mammals, fish, and/or amphibians in areas known 

to be contaminated with the same groups in areas known to be 

uncontaminated. Both types of studies have limitations: the experimental 

studies were generally short in duration, and the field studies were 

generally limited by the researchers’ inability to control whether, how 

much, or how long the population in the contaminated areas was exposed. 

For another 29 studies, researchers reviewed several publicly available 

human and animal studies and used data derived from these studies to 

determine the process by which perchlorate affects the human thyroid and 

the highest exposure levels that did not adversely affect humans. The 3 

remaining studies used another methodology.5

 Many of the studies we 

reviewed contained only research findings, rather than conclusions or 

observations on the health effects of perchlorate. Appendix III from our 

2005 report provides data on these studies, including who sponsored them; 

what methodologies were used; and, where presented, the author’s 

conclusions or findings on the effects of perchlorate. 

 5

The number of study types is greater than the total number of studies because 3 studies

used a combination of experimental design and data analysis methodologies.

Page 10 GAO-07-797T 
Only 44 of the studies we reviewed had conclusions on whether 

perchlorate had an adverse effect. However, adverse effects of perchlorate 

on the adult thyroid are difficult to evaluate because they may happen

over longer time periods than can be observed in a typical research study.

Moreover, different studies used the same perchlorate dose amount but 

observed different effects, which were attributed to variables such as the 

study design type or age of the subjects. Such unresolved questions were 

one of the bases for the differing conclusions in EPA, DOD, and academic 

studies on perchlorate dose amounts and effects. 

The adverse effects of perchlorate on development can be more easily 

studied and measured within typical study time frames. Of the studies we 

reviewed, 29 evaluated the effect of perchlorate on development, and 18 of 

these found adverse effects resulting from maternal exposure to 

perchlorate. According to EPA officials, the most sensitive population for 

perchlorate exposure is the fetus of a pregnant woman who is also nearly

iodine-deficient. However, none of the 90 studies that we reviewed 

considered this population. Some studies reviewed the effect on the 

thyroid of pregnant rats, but we did not find any studies that considered 

perchlorate’s effect on the thyroid of nearly iodine-deficient pregnant rats. 

In January 2005, the National Academy of Sciences issued its report on 

EPA’s draft health assessment and the potential health effects of 

perchlorate. The Academy reported that although perchlorate affects 

thyroid functioning, there was not enough evidence to show that 

perchlorate causes adverse effects at the levels found in most 

environmental samples. Most of the studies that the Academy reviewed 

were field studies, the report said, which are limited because they cannot 

control whether, how much, or how long a population in a contaminated 

area is exposed. The Academy concluded that the studies did not support 

a clear link between perchlorate exposure and changes in the thyroid 

function in newborns and hypothyroidism or thyroid cancer in adults. In 

its report, the Academy noted that only 1 study examined the relationship 

between perchlorate exposure and adverse effects on children, and that no

studies investigated the relationship between perchlorate exposure and 

adverse effects on vulnerable groups, such as low-birth-weight infants. The 

Academy concluded that an exposure level higher than initially 

recommended by EPA may not adversely affect a healthy adult. The 

Academy recommended that additional research be conducted on 

perchlorate exposure and its effect on children and pregnant women but 

did not recommend that EPA establish a drinking water standard. To 

address these issues, in October 2006, CDC researchers published the 

results of the first large study to examine the relationship between lowPage 11 GAO-07-797T 
level perchlorate exposure and thyroid function in women with lower 

iodine levels. About 36 percent of U.S. women have these lower iodine 

levels. The study found decreases in a thyroid hormone that helps regulate 

the body’s metabolism and is needed for proper fetal neural development 

in pregnant women. 

Mr. Chairman, this concludes my testimony. I would be pleased to answer 

any questions that you or other Members of the Subcommittee may have at 

this time. 

For further information about this presentation, please contact me, John 

Stephenson, at (202) 512-3841 or stephensonj@gao.gov. Contact points for 

our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on

the last page of this statement. Contributors to this testimony include 

Steven Elstein, Assistant Director, and Terrance Horner, Senior Analyst; 

Richard Johnson, Alison O’Neill, Kathleen Robertson, and Joe Thompson 

also made key contributions. 

Page 12 GAO-07-797T 

GAO Contacts and 

Staff 

Acknowledgments 

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