United States

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Northern 

Research Station

Resource Bulletin NRS-17

Forests of the 

Mountain State

Richard H. Widmann

Charles R. Dye

Gregory W. Cook
Visit our homepage at: http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/

Published by: For additional copies:

USDA FOREST SERVICE USDA Forest Service 

11 CAMPUS BLVD SUITE 200 Publications Distribution

NEWTOWN SQUARE PA 19073-3294 359 Main Road

 Delaware, OH 43015-8640

April 2007 Fax: (740)368-0152

Manuscript received for publication 11 November 2006

Acknowledgment

The contributions of NRS-FIA staff members Douglas M. Griffi th, Tonya W. Lister, 

and Andrew J. Lister were invaluable during the preparation of this bulletin.

The Authors

RICHARD H. WIDMANN, is a forester with the Northern Research Station’s 

Forest Inventory and Analysis unit at Newtown Square, PA (www.fs.fed.us/ne/fi a).

CHARLES R. DYE, is the State Forester for the West Virginia Division of Forestry, 

Bureau of Commerce, Charleston WV.

GREGORY W. COOK, is Assistant State Forester for the West Virginia Division of 

Forestry, Bureau of Commerce, Charleston WV. 

Photo Credits

Photographs on the following pages are courtesy of forestryimages.org: 20 

(Minnesota Department of Natural Resources-archives); 24 (Pennsylvania DCNRArchives); 26 (Deborah Veen). Photographs on pages 22 and 23 are courtesy 

of West Virginia Division of Forestry. All other photographs are courtesy of the 

authors.
1

PREFACE

West Virginia’s forests are a critical component of the state’s natural 

resources; they have shaped its history and infl uenced its culture. In the 

densely populated mid-Atlantic region, West Virginia stands out because 

of its vast mountainous forests. These highly diverse forests provide 

globally signifi cant biological communities, habitat for wildlife, forest 

products, water quality, and opportunities for recreation. Increased 

awareness of the many benefi ts and services provide by forests, including 

many forest-related jobs, has brought new attention to the condition of 

West Virginia’s forests. And the sustainability of forestry practices has 

become a concern. Management professionals with the West Virginia 

Bureau of Commerce’s Division of Forestry continue to protect this 

valuable natural resource and assist landowners with sound stewardship 

advice to ensure that the broad range of benefi ts derived from these 

forests will be available to future generations. Having current forest 

inventory information available, such as that provided by the Forest 

Inventory and Analysis unit (NRS-FIA) of the USDA Forest Service’s 

Northern Research Station is invaluable in attaining this goal.
2

FORESTS OF THE MOUNTAIN STATE

In 2001, the Forest Service’s Northeastern Research Station in cooperation with the West Virginia 

Bureau of Commerce, Division of Forestry, completed an inventory of West Virginia’s forests (Griffi th 

2003). This bulletin summarizes the fi ndings of the most current and previous inventories, and 

highlights major changes in the state’s forests. 

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

When settlers fi rst came to what is now West Virginia more than 200 years ago, they followed the 

major rivers and found dense mountainous forests. They settled in the valleys or moved farther 

west, bypassing most of the state’s steep terrain. As late as 1870, 10 million acres of West Virginia’s 

forests were untouched and in original growth (Clarkson 1964). On the moist western slopes of the 

Appalachian Mountains grew a complex mixture of deciduous species with dense stands of red spruce 

and hemlock at the highest elevations. On the somewhat drier eastern side of the Appalachians grew 

various mixtures of oak and American chestnut. In the southeastern portion of the state were stands 

of large white pine; the best were in Greenbrier and Pocahontas Counties.

West Virginia was one of the last eastern states to have its presettlement forest cut. Lumber companies 

moved there as quality trees were becoming scarce in Pennsylvania and other eastern states. Because 

of the rough mountainous terrain, it was not until railroads extended their major trunk lines into the 

state that there was a way to deliver West Virginia lumber to markets in the East. Lumber companies 

arrived in the state in the late 

1800s with a boom, taking large 

investments and using the latest 

technology to get trees off the 

mountains and to the mills, e.g., 

by logging railroads, and steamdriven log skidders and loaders. 

Entire towns were built by the 

lumber companies to support the 

labor needed to run the mills, 

some of which were immense 

even by today’s standards. The 

lumber industry in West Virginia 

fl ourished during the fi rst two 

decades of the 20th century, with 

peak annual production reaching 

nearly 1.5 billion board feet from 

an estimated 1,500 mills (Steer 

1948).

Little thought was given to regenerating the forests after the trees were cut. During harvests every tree 

that could be used was cut, though only the best portions were utilized. Left behind were thick layers 

of logging slash that dried out and created conditions that were ripe for wildfi res. Despite early efforts 

at fi re prevention, large blazes frequently broke out across the state. These fi res killed the trees that 

were left behind after harvesting and impeded the regeneration of the future forest. This scenario was 

a repeat of what had occurred throughout the Northeastern United States.
3

During the late 1800s and into the early 1900s, the nation’s economy depended on a readily available 

supply of lumber and wood products. Wood was used for most construction and the railroads and 

mines used large amounts for rails and mineprops. Out of a concern for the future timber supply, 

a conservation ethic was embraced by government leaders and the general public. The following 

examples are evidence of this conservation movement in West Virginia: 

In 1908, the governor appointed a Conservation Commission and the West Virginia Forestry 

Association was formed.

In 1909, the state commissioned a comprehensive study of its forest land and wood-using 

industries, and, legislation made the Offi ce of Fish and Game Warden responsible for forest 

protection. 

In 1915, the state enacted legislation enabling the appointment of fi re wardens in each 

county, and the fi rst of many purchases of land was made by the federal government for what 

would become the Monongahela National Forest. 

In 1916, forest-land owners from the southern portion of the state formed the Southern 

West Virginia Forest Fire Protective Association. 

In 1935, classes to train professional foresters began at West Virginia University (Carvell 

1998). 

Given a chance to grow, trees reestablish themselves fairly quickly in most areas of the state. The 

chance to grow was enhanced by increasing efforts to control wildfi res and promote good land 

stewardship during the last century. As a result, the current condition of West Virginia’s forests can be 

attributed largely to these past efforts. 

How residents value West Virginia’s forests also has changed. Originally, they were seen as barriers to 

progress that needed to be cleared for settlement. Timber products, fuelwood, and wild game were the 

major benefi ts from the forest. Although these remain valuable assets, today the state’s forests also are 

valued for watershed protection, opportunities for recreation, conservation of wildlife habitat, diverse 

landscapes, and an overall increase in the quality of life of West Virginia’s residents. 

LAND USE AND FOREST COVER

Trends in Forest-land Area

West Virginia is the third most heavily forested 

state in the nation, with 78 percent of its area 

in forest or 12 million acres (Fig 1). Over the 

last half century, the state’s forest-land area has 

increased by more than 2 million acres. This 

increase occurred because new forest land that 

previously was overgrown fi elds and pastures 

has more than offset losses to road building, 

mining, and other development. The most 

recent inventory shows a small decrease in forest 

land. Although not statistically signifi cant, this 

decrease may indicate that the area of forest land 

in West Virginia has peaked. Most of the loss in 

forest land occurred in Kanawha and Hampshire 

Counties. 

•

•

•

•

•

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1949 1961 1975 1989 2000

Inventory Year

Millions of Acres

Timberland Other Forest Land

9.9 11.5 11.6

12.1 12.0

Figure 1.—Area of forest land, West Virginia, 1949, 1961, 1975, 

1989, and 2000.
4

Forest land is categorized by the Forest Service as 

timberland or “other” forest land (Fig. 2). These 

categories aid in understanding the availability of 

forest resources and forest management planning. 

Most of West Virginia’s forest land, nearly 11.8 

million acres, is classifi ed as timberland. These 

forests are potentially available for harvesting 

even though many private owners hold forest 

land for reasons other than timber production. 

On privately owned forests, FIA does not use the 

harvesting intentions of the owner as a criterion for 

determining whether forests should be excluded from 

timberland. 

“Other” forest land includes reserved lands and unproductive forests. Harvesting for timber products 

on these lands is restricted administratively or economically impractical. Examples include designated 

“natural” areas on National Forests, wildlife preserves, and rocky mountaintops where growing 

conditions are poor. This category covers 209,900 acres in West Virginia, nearly the same amount as in 

1989.

Distribution of Forest Land

Most counties in West Virginia are heavily forested (Fig. 3). In the eastern panhandle, Berkeley and 

Jefferson are the only counties where forests cover less than half of the land area. McDowell and Webster 

Counties are the most heavily forested; each is 93 percent forested. In addition to FIA county estimates, 

satellite imagery provides a detailed picture of the distribution of forest land in the state (Fig. 4).

Timberland

11,797,000 acres

 77%

Other forest land

 209,900 acres

1%

Farm land 

1,544,100 acres

 10%

Other nonforest 

land

 1,864,400 acres

 12%

Figure 2.—Land area by major use, West Virginia, 2000.
5

PEOPLE AND FORESTS

Trends in Population and Farm Acreage

Many of the major changes that are currently affecting West Virginia’s forests are the result of people. 

It is people who decide where to clear land for houses, shopping centers, roads, and surface mining 

and it is people who intentionally or unintentionally decide to allow land to revert to forest. Today, 

there are about 1.8 million people living in the state, whose population peaked at 2 million in 1950. 

Although recent data show that West Virginia is the slowest growing state in the nation in terms of 

population (Fig. 5), a considerable amount of forest land is lost each year to development. These 

losses have been offset by the loss of farm acreage and the subsequent conversion of this pasture and 

cropland to forests. In 2000, the amount of land in farms was less than half of that in 1950, a loss of 

nearly 5 million acres (Fig. 6). In recent years, the overall net effect of these changes on the total area 

of forest land has been small.

40-69

90+

80-89

70-79

Percent

44

78

72 78

80

79

82

88

84

69

62

89

93

70

64

66 89

74

62

71 61 81

81

75

80

81

83

66 82

66

89

79

77

85

93

76

63

69

81

87

82

84

84 85

80

76 67

87

86

85

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Census Year

Millions of People

8.55

6.7

5.1

4.2

3.7 3.6

0

4

8

12

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Year

Millions of Acres

Figure 3.— Percentage of land in forest by county, 

West Virginia, 2000.

Figure 4.— Distribution of forest land in West Virginia 

based on the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics 

project, 1992. The MRLC uses data from the Landsat 

satellite to map land across the nation.

Figure 5.—Trend in West Virginia’s population (source: U.S. 

Census Bureau). Figure 6.—Acreage in farms (including farm woodlots), 

West Virginia, 1950-2000 (source: National Agriculture 

Statistics Service).
6

Most of West Virginia’s Forest Land is 

in Large Patches

When a large portion of a forest is lost to new 

residential and urban development, the remaining 

forest land often is broken up into smaller tracts or 

noncontiguous patches. Known as forest fragmentation, 

this phenomenon concerns land managers and 

planners throughout the Northeastern United States. 

The fragmentation of forests, particularly by urban 

uses, degrades watersheds, reduces wildlife habitat, 

increases site disturbances, and favors invasion by 

exotic plant species. Many wildlife biologists believe 

that fragmentation is a contributing factor in the 

decline of some bird and other wildlife species, though 

fragmentation favors species such as raccoons, squirrels, 

and white-tailed deer. Fragmentation also changes the 

character of rural areas as small parcels are more diffi cult 

to manage for forest products than large tracts, and 

owners of small tracts are less likely to allow access to 

their land for activities such as fi shing and hunting. 

One way to characterize the distribution and 

fragmentation of forest land in West Virginia is to 

determine the size of each forested patch and the 

frequently with which various sizes occur (Fig. 7). In West 

Virginia, most of forest land is in large patches; 75 percent 

of the forest land is in patches of more than 500 hectares 

in size (ha; 1 ha= 2.47 acres). The largest patch, 17,000 

ha or 42,000 acres is in Pocahontas County (Fig. 8). 

Though there are a large number of patches 1 to 5 ha, they 

represent less than 1 percent of the state’s forest land. 

Who Owns the Forest? 

Private individuals and enterprises own 87 percent of 

the West Virginia’s forest land; federal, state, and other 

public owners hold the remaining 13 percent (Fig. 9). 

The estimated 260,000 private forest-land owners in 

West Virginia are represented by individuals, farmers, 

and corporations, including private land trusts. Fiftyseven percent hold fewer than 10 acres. Although large 

in number, they own hold only about 3 percent of the 

private forest land in the state. Nearly 1,500 owners with 

forested holdings exceeding 500 acres account for onethird of the privately owned forest land. 

BERKELEY

JEFFERSON

BARBOUR

TAYLOR

BROOKE

OHIO

BOONE

BRAXTON

CABELL CLAY

FAYETTE

GILMER

GRANT

GREENBRIER

HAMPSHIRE

HARDY

HARRISON

JACKSON

KANAWHA

LEWIS

LINCOLN

LOGAN

MCDOWELL

MARION

MARSHALL

MASON

MERCER

MINERAL

MINGO

MONONGALIA

MONROE

MORGAN

NICHOLAS

PENDLETON

POCAHONTAS

PRESTON

PUTNAM

RALEIGH

RANDOLPH

RITCHIE

ROANE

SUMMERS

TUCKER

TYLER

UPSHUR

WAYNE

WEBSTER

WETZEL

WIRT

WOOD

WYOMING

PLEASANT

RIDGE

DODDCALHOUN

HANCOCK

043

079

Average Forested Patch Size

 (Acres)

100 - 175

175-250

250-325

325-400

32 - 100

400+

Forest

Industry,

1,094,800

acres 9%

Other Public, 

515,959 acres

 4%

National

Forest,

1,072,896

acres 9%

Other Private, 

9,323,170

acres 78%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1-5 5-10 10-50 50-100 100-500 500-

1,000

 1,000-

50,000

Patch-size Class (hectares)

Thousands of Patches

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Millions of Hectares

Number of patches Total area in class

( 1 hectare=2.47 acres )

Figure 7.—Fragmentation of forest land, West Virginia, 1990 

(computed in 2003 using 1990 satellite imagery).

Figure 8.—Average size of forest patches, West Virginia, 1990.

Figure 9.—Ownership of forest land, West Virginia, 2000.
7

Of the forest-land owners in the Mid-Atlantic Region, of which West Virginia is a part, 42 percent 

are 65 years old or older. Two percent of private owners have a written management plan for their 

forest; these owners hold 14 percent of the forest land. 

Frequent reasons given for owning forest land are that it is part of the home, part of a family legacy, 

aesthetic enjoyment, and preserving biodiversity. Timber production ranks low as a reason for owning 

land, though nearly all owners with more than 1,000 acres have harvested sawlogs or pulpwood from 

their land. Public ownership of forest land has increased from 1.02 million acres in 1949 to 1.51 

million in 2000. The largest public owner is the Monongahela National Forest with 899,000 acres of 

forest land.

CHANGES IN FOREST STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

As forests mature, the species composition at a particular site goes through what ecologists call “forest 

succession.” During this continuous process, long-lived plants that can tolerate shaded conditions 

replace short-lived plants that need full sunlight to thrive. Succession is infl uenced by disturbances 

from natural and human sources. Examples of forest disturbance in West Virginia include wildfi res, 

ice storms, droughts, outbreaks of insect pests (such as the gypsy moth caterpillar), logging, and 

land clearing followed by abandonment. The interaction of these and other factors over time has 

infl uenced size and number, volume, and composition and distribution of tree species in the state. An 

understanding of trends in these characteristics is helpful in fully appreciating West Virginia’s forest 

resource and in making wise decisions about its future. 

Trees Have Increased in Size with Fewer Trees per Acre

How well forests are populated with trees is determined by measures of tree size and number. 

Foresters measure a tree at its diameter at 42 feet above the ground, referring to this as diameter at 

breast height (d.b.h.). Of trees 5 inches and larger d.b.h., the average diameter has increased from 

9.4 to 9.7 inches since 1989; the average number of trees at least 5 inches in diameter has decreased 

from 149 to 146 trees per acre of timberland (Fig. 10). Generally, as a stand of trees matures and 

trees become larger, the number of trees per acre decreases due to crowding. The recent decrease in 

the average number of trees per acre and increase in average diameter corresponds with the overall 

maturing of West Virginia’s forests.

137

149 146

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1975 1989 2000

Inventory Year

Trees Per Acre (number)

8.8

9.4

9.7

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8

9

9.2

9.4

9.6

9.8

10

1975 1989 2000

Inventory Year

Diameter at Breast Height (inches)

Figure 10.—Number of trees per acre and average tree diameter (5 inches and larger in d.b.h.), West Virginia.
8

Changes in the numbers of trees have not been distributed evenly across diameter classes (Fig. 11). 

Generally, the number of trees in the small classes is decreasing as the number of trees in the large 

classes is increasing. Since 1989, the number of trees has decreased in all diameter classes under 

12 inches (Fig. 12). As forests mature and become more crowded, the subsequent lack of sunlight 

reaching the forest fl oor inhibits the reproduction and growth of seedlings and understory trees. 

Most Small Trees are Overtopped

The crown position of a tree indicates how well it is competing with neighboring trees for light. Once 

a tree falls into an intermediate or overtopped crown position, it is below the general level of the 

canopy and is shaded by dominant and codominant neighbors. Overtopped trees generally can be 

expected to have slower growth and higher mortality rates than trees in more dominant positions. In 

West Virginia, the crowns of most trees in the 6- and 8-inch diameter classes are in an overtopped or 

intermediate position, 75 and 52 percent, respectively (Fig. 13).

0

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Diameter Class (Inches at breast height)

1961

1975

1989

2000

Inventory Year

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

2 4

Millions of Trees

11%

17%

10%

10%

5%

-6% -2%

-12% -10% -13%

-20%

-10%

0%

10%

20%

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Diameter Class (inches at breast height)

Percent Change

Figure 11.—Number of trees by diameter class and inventory year, West Virginia (data for 

saplings is unavailable for 1961 and 1975).

Figure 12.—Percent change in the numbers of trees by diameter class, 

West Virginia, 1989-2000. 
9

Most Stands are Well Stocked with Trees of Commercial Importance

Stocking levels of growing-stock trees indicate how well a site is being utilized to grow trees of 

economic value. Foresters determine stocking by the number of trees per acre and their size. In fully 

stocked stands, trees are using all of the potential of the site to grow. Poorly stocked stands have 

widely spaced trees or contain trees with little or no commercial value. Poorly stocked stands can 

develop from abandoned agricultural land or wildfi res, or result from harvesting where only the best 

and largest trees are cut. What is left are trees with large amounts of rot and cull, as well as many 

large gaps in the forest canopy. Poorly stocked stands are diffi cult to manage because they will not 

mature into a fully stocked condition in a reasonable amount of time and are not commercially viable, 

whereas moderately stocked stands are expected to quickly grow into the fully stocked condition. 

It is considered good management to thin stands to the moderate stocking level during harvesting 

operations. Thinning can reduce mortality by removing trees with a high probability of dying and 

leaving well-spaced residual trees with good vigor and form. In overstocked stands, the growth of 

individual trees has slowed due to crowding. Trees in crowded stands are less vigorous making them 

more susceptible to damage from insects and diseases. If not thinned or harvested, valuable trees in 

these stands die and their value for timber products is lost.

In West Virginia, nearly half the stands (6.4 million acres) are in fully stocked or overstocked with 

commercially important trees (Fig. 14). The large area of well-stocked stands presents opportunities for 

forest management without diminishing forest growth. Managing these stands can prevent them from 

becoming overstocked. Currently, there are few overstocked stands in the state. The 1.5 million acres 

(13 percent) of poorly stocked forest represents a loss of potential growth, though these forests still 

contribute to diversity. There was little change in the distribution of area by stocking class since the 

previous inventory in 1989.

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

68

10

121416

18

20

21-28.9

29.0+

Diameter Class (inches at breast height)

Percentage of Trees in Class

Open grown

Dominant

Codominant

Intermediate

Overtopped

1%

12%

39%

45%

3% 1%

40%

44%

2%

13%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Nonstocked Poorly Moderately

stocked

Fully stocked Overstocked

Stocking Class

Percent

1989

2000

Figure 14.—Percentage of timberland by stocking class of 

growing-stock trees, West Virginia, 2000.

Figure 13.—Percentage of growing-stock trees by diameter 

and crown position, West Virginia, 2000.
10

Changes in Species Composition

When describing a forest, people speak of the species 

of trees growing there, e.g., a pine, oak, or beech forest. 

Foresters use the term “forest type” to describe groups 

of species that frequently grow in association with one 

another. The 2000 inventory identifi ed 41 forest types in 

West Virginia.

Similar forest types are combined into forest-type groups. 

Oak/hickory, the most common group in the state, 

consists of white oak, northern red oak, hickory species, 

white ash, walnut, yellow-poplar, and red maple (Fig. 

15). The oak/hickory group covers more than two-thirds 

(8.4 million acres) of West Virginia’s forests, while the 

northern hardwood group covers 20 percent (2.4 million 

acres). It tends to grow at higher elevations and has 

higher concentrations of sugar maple and beech than the 

oak/hickory group. The loblolly /shortleaf pine group, 

which covered 179,200 acres in 2000, consists primarily 

of Virginia pine and pitch pine. These pines tend to 

grow on dry slopes and frequently originated from past 

disturbances such as wildfi re. Spruce/fi r forests cover 

23,300 acres at high elevations. Two-thirds of the spruce/

fi r forests grow on National Forest land. These broad 

species groups have changed little in area since 1989.

Over long periods, the composition of forests changes 

due to mortality, harvesting, and general maturation. In 

West Virginia, oak species now account for 34 percent 

of total volume compared to 39 percent in 1949 (Fig. 

16). During this time, the portion of total volume in 

yellow-poplar increased from 7 to 15 percent, while red 

maple increased from 4 to 9 percent. Decreases in the 

proportion of oak have been attributed to high mortality 

of this species following gypsy moth infestations and 

selective harvesting of oak over other species. Another 

contributing factor is inadequate oak regeneration and 

the subsequent lack of oak growing into larger diameter 

classes. Deer browsing of oak seedlings and shaded forest 

conditions that inhibit oak regeneration have limited the 

number of sapling-size oaks throughout the Northeastern 

United States. Long-term changes in forest composition 

can affect the value of the forest for timber products and 

alter wildlife habitats. The decline in the oak component 

of forests in Pennsylvania and Maryland has been greater 

than in West Virginia. 

Oak/hickory

71.4%

Northern

hardwoods

20.3%

Oak/pine 2.7%

Elm/ash/red

maple 2.7%

Other 3.0%

Other includes the loblolly/shortleaf, white/red pine hemolck, spruce/fir, and aspen/birch forest-type groups

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

1949 1961 1975 1989 2000

Inventory year

Percent of Total Volume

Red maple Hickory Yellow-poplar All oaks

The number of trees by species and diameter 

class provides insight into future changes in forest 

composition. Red maple is the most numerous sapling 

(1 to 4.9 inches in diameter) followed by sugar maple 

(Fig. 17). Combined oak species are the most numerous 

among trees, 5 inches and larger in d.b.h.; yellow-poplar 

ranks fi rst in the number of trees that are 12 inches 

and larger in d.b.h. As large oak die, they likely will be 

replaced by species such as red and sugar maple because 

of the small portion of oaks in the small-diameter classes. 

Maples will play an increasing role in West Virginia’s 

future forest.

Figure 15.—Area of timberland by forest-type group, West Virginia, 

2000.

Figure 16.—Change in selected tree species as a percentage of 

total growing-stock volume, West Virginia, 1949-2000.
11

Distribution of Common Species

Individual species are distributed by how well they are suited to particular site conditions. In addition 

to factors already mentioned, the number and type of animals present affects species distribution. 

Deer, mice, and squirrels infl uence forest composition by browsing seedlings, consuming available 

seeds of preferred species, and storing seeds that later geminate. For example, deer prefer to browse 

oak over red maple seedlings. The major species of trees growing in West Virginia are well distributed 

throughout the state. Yellow-poplar grows most abundantly on the west side of the Appalachian 

Mountains, reaching its greatest abundance in the southwestern portion of the state (Fig. 18). 

Chestnut oak abundance is greatest in the dry rain shadow on the eastern side of the Appalachians. 

Hickory grows extensively in the western part of the state and overlaps areas with abundant white 

oak. American beech reaches its greatest abundance in the mountainous area corresponding to the 

Monongahela National Forest and in southwestern West Virginia.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Diameter Class (Inches at breast height)

Hickory

Yellow-poplar

Beech

Sugar maple

All oaks

Red maple

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2 4

Millions of Trees

Figure 17.—Number of trees for selected species by diameter class, West 

Virginia, 2000.
12

Yellow-poplar White oak

Red maple Chestnut

oak

Relative

Importance

< 5 %

5 – 20 %

20 – 50 %

50 % +

Nonforest

How were these maps created?

The inventory plots were used as known data. Then the 

values at unknown locations were predicted from information 

from those plots. For example, an unknown area near a group 

of plots with large amounts of white oak probably has high 

amounts of white oak as well. Using this principle, we made 

predictions at every location on the map. The values of relative 

importance are actually the percentage of a stand’s stocking that 

is composed of that species. The categories used are low (less 

than 5 percent of a stand’s basal area), moderate ( 5-19 percent), 

high (20-49 percent), and very high (50 percent or greater).

p

The inventory plots were used as known data. Then the

values at unknown locations were predicted from information 

from those plots. For example, an unknown area near a group 

of plots with large amounts of white oak probably has high

amounts of white oak as well. Using this principle, we made

predictions at every location on the map. The values of relative 

importance are actually the percentage of a stand’s stocking that

is composed of that species. The categories used are low (less

than 5 percent of a stand’s basal area), moderate ( 5-19 percent), 

high (20-49 percent), and very high (50 percent or greater).

Figure 18.— Distribution of common tree species, West Virginia, 2000.
13

Northern red oak Hickory

Sugar maple American

beech

Relative

Importance

< 5 %

5 – 20 %

20 – 50 %

50 % +

Nonforest

Figure 18.—Continued 
14

Live Volume

Total cubic-foot volume for live trees in West Virginia 

increased by 7 percent (cubic-foot volume is a measure 

of the amount of wood in the bole of a tree between a 

1-foot stump and a 4-inch top diameter). The 15 most 

common species (listed in the accompanying chart) 

account for 87 percent of the total cubic-foot volume 

of trees in the state (Fig. 19). Yellow-poplar remained 

the leading species by volume, followed by white 

oak. However, red maple and sugar maple showed 

the largest volume increases, 27 and 28 percent, 

respectively. The large number of small-diameter 

maples likely will continue to sustain large increases 

in maple volume in the future. Beech and Virginia 

pine are among the few major species that decreased in 

volume. Beech bark disease is spreading across the state 

and is having an adverse effect on large beech trees. 

Virginia pine comes in after heavy forest disturbance. 

As a pioneer species, its seeds need bare mineral soil 

and direct light to sprout. It is highly intolerant of the 

shaded conditions that now prevail in West Virginia’s 

maturing forest. Many of today’s Virginia pine stands 

became established after heavy cutting and wildfi res 

during the early part of the last century.

Small Oaks are Decreasing in Number 

Besides being commercially important, oaks are 

a major source of food for nearly 100 species of 

mammals and birds (Fralish 2004). NRS-FIA data 

indicate that the number of oaks in the smaller 

diameter classes has been decreasing. From 1975 to 

1989, the number of oaks in the 6-inch class dropped 

by 15 percent; and from 1989 to 2000, there were 

additional decreases as the number of oaks in the 6- 

8- and 10-inch diameter classes decreased by 30, 21, 

and 9 percent, respectively (Fig. 20). Oaks 12+ inches 

in diameter have continued to increase, though at a 

slower rate. 

In the current inventory, oaks represent more than onethird of all trees 12 inches and larger in diameter, but 

only 9 percent of trees 4 inches d.b.h. and 5 percent of 

trees 2 inches in d.b.h. (Fig. 21). The low percentage 

of oaks in the smaller classes and the high percentage 

in the large classes is another indication that there 

are insuffi cient small-diameter oaks to replace larger 

oaks that die. As a result, it is unlikely that the current 

dominance of oak in the overstory will continue. 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 21-

28.9

29.0+

Diameter Class (inches at breast height)

Millions of Trees

oaks 1975

oaks 1989

oaks 2000

Figure 20.—Number of oak trees by diameter class, West Virginia, 

1975, 1989, 2000.

01234

Hemlock

Virginia pine

Sweet birch

White ash

Basswood

Black cherry

American beech

Sugar maple

Hickory

Scarlet/black oak

Northern red oak

Chestnut oak

Red maple

White oak

Yellow-poplar

Billion Cubic Feet

Total 1989

Total 2000

+4%

+16%

+27%

+3%

+9%

-9%

7%

+28%

-11%

+12%

+19%

+13%

+4%

-8%

+10%

Figure 19.—Change in live volume for selected species, West 

Virginia, 1989 and 2000.

Oaks Red maple

Sugar maple

Hickory

Beech

Yellow-poplar

All other 

species

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

2468

101214

16

18

20

21-28.9

29.0+

Diameter Class ( inches at breast height)

Individual species as a percentage total 

number of all trees in diameter class

Figure 21.—Species composition by diameter class, West Virginia, 

2000.
15

Shrubs

Understory vegetation is an important source of food 

and cover for wildlife. Because of the large number 

of shrub and herbaceous species that grow in West 

Virginia’s forests, understory vegetation contributes 

considerably to forest diversity in the state. In the 

2000 forest inventory, the number of woody shrub 

species was tallied on NRS-FIA plots (Fig. 22). Briers 

and brambles are the most numerous species followed 

by blueberry. Autumn olive and barberry rank 12th 

and 15th, respectively. These are nonnative plants that 

invade natural plant communities often replacing native 

species. Many of the bush honeysuckles and rose species 

also are nonnative; we did not separate these species 

groups by individual species, though it is assumed that 

most are nonnative. 

Figure 22.--Top 15 shrub species in West 

Virginia.

Top 15 shrub species in West Virginia 

(Millions of stems)

Brier And Bramble 11,895

Blueberry 7,265

Rose Spp. 5,326

Common Spicebush 3,694

Huckleberry 3,411

Mountain-laurel 2,335

Blackhaw 1,949

Witch-hazel 1,453

Maple-leaved Viburnum 1,213

Rhododendron 910

Bush Honeysuckle 882

Autumn Olive 331

Azalea (Deciduous) 324

Azalea 311

Barberry 218
16

THE CHANGING FACE OF WEST VIRGINIA’S FOREST HABITAT

More Stands of Large Trees

The types and number of wildlife species that inhabit a forest change as the forest matures. In the 

seedling-sapling stage that follows major disturbances such as clearcutting, intense wildfi re, strip mine 

reclamation, and abandonment of farm land, many wildlife species use low-growing herbaceous and 

shrub vegetation. Typically found in such stands are early successional, pioneer tree species as well 

as a variety of herb and shrub plants that need full sunlight to survive. These stands provide unique 

nesting and feeding habitat for wildlife. As larger trees become established and shade out much of 

the low-growing vegetation, species that depend on this early pioneer vegetation decline in number 

as others that use the boles of trees move into the area. This intermediate stage corresponds to the 

poletimber-size class. Many poletimber stands lack the low-growing vegetation of the regeneration 

stage and the tree boles lack the bark fl aps, cavities, and other bole characteristics that develop as 

a stand matures. As a result, the number of species present can be low between the dense thicket 

vegetation of the regeneration stage and the mature or sawtimber-size class, which is dominated by 

large trees. The number of species reaches a maximum in mature, overmature, and all-age stands. 

Species that are more likely to inhabit mature stands include the black bear, southern fl ying squirrel, 

and pileated woodpecker.

In West Virginia, the area in the regenerating or sapling-seedling/nonstocked stage rose to 963,000 

acres—8 percent of the timberland (Fig. 23). The acreage in this category has increased since 1989, 

but remains far below levels prior to 1989. Declines in this size class likely will resume as stands 

mature into larger size classes and the abandonment of farmland decreases. The area in the mature 

or sawtimber-size trees has continued to increase because poletimber-size stands are growing to 

sawtimber size and because typical harvesting practices in the state leave many large residual trees. 

Such selective harvests do not reduce stands to the sapling-seedling stage. Sawtimber-size stands now 

cover 8.2 million acres or 70 percent of timberland. These changes have been accompanied by a 

remarkable recovery and return of many woodland species during the last century. 
17

Population increases have been noted for black bear, white-tailed deer, and wild turkey. Besides 

offering diverse habitat for wildlife and providing a steady fl ow of wood products, forests that contain 

all stand sizes might be more resistant to devastating outbreaks of insects and diseases.

Hard Mast Production Probably has Increased

Wildlife populations are dependent on the quality of their habitat. Habitat characteristics that 

increase as stands mature include the size of mast-producing trees and the number of standing dead 

and cull trees. Hard mast such as nuts and hard seeds produced by overstory trees is an important 

forage resource for wildlife. Species that depend on acorns and other hard mast include ruffed grouse, 

wild turkey, red-headed woodpecker, blue jay, squirrel and chipmunk, gray fox, black bear, striped 

skunk, and white-tailed deer. Important mast-producing species include the oaks, hickory, and beech. 

Because the amount of mast produced increases as trees become larger, it can be assumed that mast 

production has increased in West Virginia with 

the increase in the number of large-diameter oak 

and hickory trees. Since 1989, the number of oak 

and hickory trees 11 inches and larger in d.b.h. 

has increased by 8 and 13 percent, respectively. 

These gains more than offset the 11-percent 

decline in large beech trees.

Dead and Cull Trees Benefi t 

Wildlife

Standing dead trees are important feeding and 

nesting sites for wildlife. These trees have a higher 

probability of use by primary cavity nesters such 

as woodpeckers than other trees because their 

wood is excavated more easily. These and natural 

cavities caused by disease or injury are used as 

resting or nesting sites by various bird species and 

small mammals. In West Virginia, 3 percent 

of all trees standing in the forest that are more 

than 5 inches d.b.h. are dead. On average, there 

are 14 dead trees 5 inches or larger in d.b.h. per 

acre of timberland; 0.8 of these are 15 inches or 

larger in d.b.h. (Fig. 24). One-fi fth of the dead 

trees are species of oak. 

Cull trees, also important to wildlife, exceed 

maximum allowances for defects for use 

as timber products. Yet some of the same 

characteristics that make these trees undesirable 

for timber products benefi t wildlife. Examples 

include cavities, broken tops, pockets of rot, 

and boles with numerous forks and limbs. 

On average, there are 13 cull trees per acre of 

timberland. 

Figure 23.—Percentage of timberland by size class, West Virginia, 

1949, 1961, 1975, 1989, and 2000.

11.8

1.6

0.8

9.6

2.3

1.1

0

3

6

9

12

15

5.0-10.9 11.0-14.9 15+

Diameter class (inches at breast height)

Number of trees per acre

Dead

Cull

Figure 24.—Average number of dead and cull trees per acre of 

timberland, West Virginia, 2000.

22

33

45

24 27

49

21

35

44

7

34

59

8

22

70

0

20

40

60

80

100

Sapling/seedling

Nonstocked

Poletimber Sawtimber

Stand-size Class

Percentage of Timberland

1949 1961 1975 1989 2000
18

TIMBER VOLUME

Growing-Stock Volume

Growing-stock volume is the volume of wood that is potentially available for use as timber products, 

including pulpwood, sawlogs, and veneer logs. Trees in this category meet minimum requirements 

for size, straightness, and rot, and are of commercial species. They form the resource base on which 

the forest products industry depends. In 2000, West Virginia’s growing-stock volume has increased 

by 6.5 percent to 22.4 billion cubic feet since 1989 (Fig. 25). The portion of this volume that is 

large enough to produce sawlogs increased by 14.3 percent to 71.4 billion board feet (Fig. 26). These 

recent gains are a continuation of increases that have been occurring over the last half century, though 

the rate of increase is slowing. Gains in growing-stock and board-foot volume between 1975 and 

1989 were 37 and 60 percent respectively. Average growing-stock volume per acre is now triple that in 

1949, increasing from 626 cubic feet in 1949 to 1,895 cubic feet in 2000. During this same period, 

board-foot volume increased from 1,780 to 6,050 board feet per acre.

Periodic forest inventories show a steady shift 

in timber volume toward larger trees (Fig. 27). 

During the most recent inventory period, the 

volume of trees decreased in the 6-, 8-, and 

10-inch diameter classes, but volume increased 

in all classes greater than 10 inches (Fig. 28). 

This refl ects the changes in the number of trees 

discussed previously. The concentration of 

volume increases in large sawtimber-size trees 

(more than 11 inches in d.b.h.) explains why 

increases in board-foot volume were more than 

twice that for cubic-foot volume.

625

971

1895

1763

1167

6050

5290

1780

2527

3031

0

500

1000

1500

2000

1949 1961 1975 1989 2000

Cubic feet per acre

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Board feet per acre

Cubic feet Board feet

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Diameter Class (inches at brest height)

Billion Cubic Feet

1961 1975 1989 2000

Poletimber size Sawtimber size

22.4

11.1

21.0

13.5

6.2

0

5

10

15

20

25

1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005

Year

Billion Cubic Feet

Sampling errors: 0.9 percent in 1989 and 1.3 percent in 2000

Figure 25.—Growing-stock volume by inventory year, West 

Virginia.

Figure 26.—Average growing-stock volume per acre of 

timberland, West Virginia. Figure 27.—Growing-stock volume by diameter class, West 

Virginia, 1961, 1975, 1989, and 2000.
19

Yellow-poplar leads in volume followed by white oak and 

red maple (Fig. 29). Red maple and sugar maple had the 

largest increases in volume (27 percent each). Harvesting 

and mortality caused by the gypsy moth caterpillar 

contributed to declines in the chestnut oak and the black 

and scarlet oak species group.

Ninety-four percent of West Virginia’s sawtimber 

volume is in hardwood species. In hardwood sawtimber 

volume, the state ranks second in the nation behind 

Pennsylvania (Fig. 30). West Virginia and neighboring 

states form the heart of the valuable Appalachian 

hardwood resource, known worldwide for producing 

high-quality oak, cherry, maple, and yellow-poplar 

lumber.

In board-foot volume, the top ranked species differ 

little from those for all growing-stock volume (Fig. 31). 

Yellow-poplar remained the leading species, accounting 

for 18 percent of total board-foot volume, followed 

by the four oak species groups. Together, oak species 

account for 36 percent of total board-foot volume. 

Red maple again had the largest increase (40 percent), 

and ranked sixth in volume but third in growing-stock 

volume. The gain for yellow-poplar volume was low 

because of the high harvesting rate for this species.

Average volumes per acre are highest in northeastern 

West Virginia (Fig. 32). This region includes much 

of the Monongahela National Forest, which has high 

volumes per acre, averaging 2,566 cubic feet of growing 

stock per acre. Red maple is now the leading species in 

this region while sugar maple increased by 43 percent 

and now ranks fi fth in volume. The northwestern region 

had the lowest average volumes per acre but the largest 

percentage increases in volume. The largest share of the 

increase was in red maple volume, which increased by 52 

percent (Fig. 33). The southern region had the smallest 

increases in volume; board-foot volume increased by 4 

percent and the volume of all growing stock decreased by 

1 percent. The decrease in this region can be attributed 

to decreases in the growing-stock volume of chestnut 

oak, scarlet and black oaks, and yellow-poplar.

-20%

-10%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

10 12 14 16 18 20 21-

28.9

29.0+

Diameter Class (inches at breast height)

Percent

6 8

Sawtimber

 size

Poleti

01234

White pine

Eastern hemlock

Virginia pine

White ash

A. basswood

Black cherry

American beech

Sugar maple

Hickory

Black/scarlet

Northern red oak

Chestnut oak

Red maple

White oak

Yellow-poplar

Billion Cubic Feet

1989

2000

+4%

+16%

+27%

+6%

-11%

+10%

+20%

+9%

-8%

+27%

+6%

-9%

+9%

-3%

+21%

0 20 40 60 80 100

Arkansas

Kentucky

Tennessee

New York

Michigan

Georgia

Virginia

North Carolina

West Virginia

Pennsylvania

Billion Board Feet

Figure 28.—Percent change in growing-stock volume, 1989-

2000, West Virginia.

Figure 29.—Growing-stock volume by species on timberland, 

West Virginia, 1989 and 2000.

Figure 30.—Current hardwood growing-stock volume for 

West Virginia and selected states.

Poletimber

 size

Sawtimber

 size
20

Tree Quality Varies by Species

The use of the timber resource for sawn timber products 

is determined largely by tree quality and species. The best 

trees are used in the manufacture of furniture, cabinets, 

and other millwork that command high prices. Lower quality trees are used for pallets, pulpwood, 

and fuelwood. Quality is indicated by the grade assigned to sawtimber-size trees. Tree grade is based 

on the amount of the bole that is free of knots, amount of cull, and tree diameter. Grade 1 yields the 

most high-grade lumber and Tie/local use grades the least. 

Because small sawtimber-size trees are assigned a low grade on the basis of size alone, the increase in 

size of West Virginia’s trees has brought about an increase in sawlog quality. Combined with increases 

in sawlog volume, this represents a tremendous increase in the value of the forest resource for timber 

products (Fig. 34). The portion of sawtimber volume in grades 1 and 2 increased from 22 percent in 

1989 to 33 percent in 2000. 

Tree quality varies by species due to differences in 

average diameter by species, growth characteristics, 

and past management practices. In West Virginia, 

yellow-poplar has the largest volume in Grade 1 

and 2 trees, followed by northern red oak and white 

oak (Fig. 35). These as well as the other oak species 

groups, black cherry, basswood, and ash have at least 

half of their sawtimber volume in trees graded 2 or 

better. Of the other major species in the state, beech 

had the lowest volume in Grades 1 and 2, followed 

by red maple. Beech bark disease can severely degrade 

trees and likely contributes to the poor tree grades for 

beech. Red maple is graded lower than other species 

because it typically has more defects and a smaller 

average diameter.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Virginia pine

White pine

Eastern hemlock

White ash

A. basswood

Black cherry

A. beech

Sugar maple

Hickory

Red maple

Black/scarlet oak

Chestnut oak

White oak

Northern red oak

Yellow-poplar

Billion Board Feet

1989

2000

+13%

+20%

+25%

-6%

+15%

+28%

+13%

-2%

+20%

+4%

+5%

+5%

+40%

+14%

+31%

Figure 31.—Board foot volume by species on timberland, West Virginia, 

1989 and 2000.
21

In West Virginia, about one-third of hardwood sawtimber volume is in trees less than 15 inches 

in d.b.h. These trees are too small to given Grade 1. Forest-land owners can receive high fi nancial 

returns by practicing good forestry and tending trees with the potential to grow into high-quality 

Grade 1 trees. This rewards the landowner and greatly benefi ts the state’s wood-using industries 

through the value added in manufacturing.

Biomass

Trees play an important role in the world’s carbon cycle. They act as a sink for carbon, removing it 

from the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and storing it as cellulose. In 

this role, forests help mitigate the effect of burning fossil fuels and the resulting global climate change 

associated with increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. West Virginia’s forests contribute 

greatly to the sequestration of carbon due to the increase in tree volume in the state.

Figure 33.—Top fi ve species by region and percent change by 

volume, West Virginia, 1989-2000.

Figure 32.—Average volume per acre of timberland by region 

and percent change by volume, West Virginia, 1989-2000.

Northwestern

 BF/acre 5659

 CF/acre 1791

 BF change +25

 All G.S. change +13

Northeastern

 BF/acre 6411

 CF/acre 1991

 BF change +4

 All G.S. change +9

Southern

 BF/acre 5971

 CF/acre 1874

 BF change +4

 All G.S. change -1

State Average

 BF/acre 6050

 CF/acre 1895

 BF change +14

 All G.S. change +7 Northwestern

Southern

Northeastern

Yellow-poplar +11

White oak +10%

Black/scarlet oak -8%

Chestnut oak +18%

Red maple +52%

Red maple +26%

Yellow-poplar +5%

Northern red oak +3%

Chestnut oak -9%

Sugar maple +42%

Yellow-poplar -1%

Chestnut oak -7%

White oak +24%

Northern red oak +11%

Black/scarlet oak -16%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1989 2000

Inventory Year

Billion Board Feet

Grade 1

Grade 2

Grade 3

Tie/local use

34%

39%

17%

10%

21%

29%

26%

24%

28%

32%

32%

3%

14%

14%

10%

27%

23%

23%

42%

32%

33%

28%

25%

8%

23%

32%

22%

23%

32%

30%

26%

27%

26%

23%

21%

27%

35%

35%

39%

26%

33%

32%

20%

23%

12%

17%

22%

62%

28%

18%

29%

23%

11%

15%

13%

18%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Ash

Basswood

Black Cherry

Beech

Sugar maple

Hickory

Red maple

Black and scarlet oak

Chestnut oak

White oak

Northern red oak

Yellow-poplar

Tree grade 1 Tree grade 2 Tree grade 3 Tie and local use

Figure 35.—Percentage of sawlog volume by tree grade for 

major species, West Virginia, 2000.

Figure 34.—Hardwood board-foot volume by tree grade, West 

Virginia, 1989 and 2000.
22

Woody biomass is a measure of how much carbon is being stored on forest land. It is the total weight 

of both live and dead trees, including branches roots and stumps plus the weight of shrubs. The total 

dry weight of all biomass on West Virginia’s timberland equals 980.4 million dry tons or an average 

of 83 tons per acre. The greatest portion (58 percent) is in the merchantable boles of commercially 

important trees (Fig. 36). It is this component that can be converted to high-value wood products. 

Other portions of biomass are underutilized and can be considered as a potential source of fuel for 

commercial power generation. Because it is a renewable source of energy, biomass could help reduce 

the nation’s dependence on fossil fuels. In some regions of the country, the use of biomass to fuel 

commercial power-generating plants has provided markets for low-grade trees and other waste wood.

SUSTAINABILITY AND USE OF WEST VIRGINIA’S FORESTS

Growth Exceeds Removals

Well-tended forests supply a continuous fl ow of products without impairing long-term productivity. 

Unlike coal and oil, forests are alive and renewable. One way to judge the sustainability of a forest is to 

look at the components of inventory change-- growth, removals, and mortality.

During the last 50 years, the growth of West Virginia’s forest resource has greatly outpaced losses from 

the removal of trees by cutting and mortality. Removals include trees harvested on land that remains in 

forest and trees lost because the forest was developed for a nonforest use. The 2000 inventory revealed 

that since 1989, on an annual basis, the net 

growth of growing-stock trees in West Virginia 

averaged 430 million cubic feet versus 248 

million cubic feet in removals (Fig. 37). The 

net change of 182 million cubic feet was half 

the increase for the 1975-89 inventory period. 

This surplus amounts to an annual net increase 

of 0.8 percent in the volume of wood on the 

state’s timberland. Surplus growth over harvest 

has been accumulating in the forest since the 

fi rst FIA inventory in 1949, and today’s wellstocked forests are a product of those steady 

gains over time.

Saplings/seedlings

/shrubs

7%

Dead trees

1%

Cull trees

7%

Stump and roots

18%

Branches and foliage

9%

Growing stock

58%

Figure 36.—Components of woody biomass, West Virginia, 

2000. Total woody biomass equals 980 million dry tons.
23

Ninety-two percent of removals are attributed to harvesting 

and 8 percent to timberland converted to nonforest use. 

Average annual removals of growing stock from 1989 to 

2000 were 80 percent greater than during the 1975 to 

1989 period. In board-foot volume, removals more than 

doubled to 966 million board feet. The harvesting of trees 

16 inches and larger in d.b.h. accounted for 70 percent 

of removals volume. Increases in removals correspond to 

increases in milling capacity at West Virginia’s sawmills and 

other wood processors. The increases in removals along 

with increases in mortality are responsible for the decrease 

in the annual net change from earlier inventories.

A measure of the sustainability of forest-management 

practices is the ratio of net growth to removals. The 

growth-to-removals (G/R) ratio for all species combined 

averaged 1.7:1 for 1989-2000, but varied considerably 

between species (Fig. 38). Yellow-poplar had the largest 

amount of removals but growth still exceeded removals 

by 2.7 to 1. Oaks generally had low G/R ratios; among 

the four oak species groups growth exceeded removals 

only in white oak. Together, oak species accounted for 

nearly half of the total volume removed. Red maple had 

the highest ratio, with growth outpacing removals by 

5.4 to 1. Comparing individual species to the all-species 

average ratio (1.7:1) reveals which species are increasing 

in importance and which are decreasing. Red maple 

clearly will play a larger role in West Virginia’s forests, 

particularly as the composition of the forest shifts from 

oaks to other species. 

-248

430

592

183

-160

-400

-200

0

200

400

600

Gross Growth Mortality Net Growth Removals Net Change

Million Cubic Feet

0 25 50 75 100 125

Basswood

Beech

Ash

Hickory

Northern red oak

Chestnut oak

Black/scarlet oak

Black cherry

Sugar maple

White oak

Red maple

Yellow-poplar

Miillion Cubic Feet

Growth

Removals

2.7:1

5.4:1

1.4:1

3.7:1

2.0:1

0.8:1

0.8:1

0.6:1

1.7:1

5.0:1

0.7:1

1.2:1

Figure 37.—Annual components of change in growing-stock 

volume, West Virginia, 1989-2000. Ninety-two percent of 

removals are due to harvesting and 8 percent due to land use 

changed to non-forest use.

Figure 38.—Average annual net growth, removals, and G/R 

ratio for major species, West Virginia, 1989-2000.
24

Mortality

The volume of trees that die from causes other than 

cutting is reported as mortality. In addition to insects and 

diseases, disturbances such as fi re, wind, and competition 

among trees contribute to tree mortality. In West 

Virginia, average annual mortality was 160 million cubic 

feet or 0.7 percent of the inventory volume. This rate is 

similar to those for neighboring states and is considered 

normal. Generally, mortality rates were higher for trees 

in the lower diameter class and for largest trees (Fig 

39). Trees in the 6-inch class and those 29+ inches in 

d.b.h. each had a mortality rate of 1.6 percent per year, 

more than twice that for all species combined. In many 

instances, the smaller trees that died were understory 

trees that were crowded out by larger trees. 

Species groups with high annual mortality rates 

were Virginia pine and beech at 3.9 and 1.4 percent, 

respectively (Fig. 40). High mortality rates for Virginia 

pine can be expected as it is replaced by more shade 

tolerant hardwood species. The beech bark disease 

complex, fi rst discovered in Nova Scotia in the late 

1890s, consists of a Nectria fungi spread by a scale insect 

(Evans 2005). It has been slowly spreading south and 

was detected in northeastern West Virginia in the early 

1980s. Typically, many beech trees die in the initial years 

in which a stand is infected, but it can take many years of 

infection before trees succumb, with infected trees often 

rendered highly defective. After many years of infection, 

stands typically contain a few large residual beech trees 

and many small beech originating from both seedling and 

root sprouts. It is expected that beech in West Virginia 

will continue to experience high mortality as the disease 

spreads across the state.

Forest Health

Forests are continually stressed by insects, diseases, 

and other factors that reduce growth and increase tree 

mortality. How forests withstand them is a measure of 

their overall health. To a great extent, West Virginia’s 

forests have withstood these stresses as trees have 

continued to increase in size and volume. An increasing 

threat to forest health is the introduction of exotic 

insects, diseases, and plants from overseas. Introduced 

species typically have few natural enemies in this 

country, so unchecked populations can explode under 

the right conditions. 

The loss of the American chestnut to the chestnut blight 

and the demise of American elm to the Dutch elm 

disease in the last century demonstrate the destructive 

nature of nonnative exotic species. Introduced diseases 

that are not as well known are the butternut canker, 

which is slowly eliminating butternut trees from the 

nation’s eastern forests, and dogwood anthracnose, which 

has greatly reduced the populations of dogwood trees 

in the forest understory. Since the mid-1980s, periodic 

outbreaks of the gypsy moth caterpillar have defoliated 
25

thousands of acres of forest, resulting in large losses of tree growth and extensive tree mortality. White 

oak is particularly susceptible to gypsy moth. More recently beech bark disease and the hemlock 

woolly adelgid have spread into the state, and the emerald ash borer has infested trees in Ohio.

The FIA Program looks at a wide set of indicators that refl ect forest conditions. One of these is 

crown dieback or the percentage of branch tips that are dead. Dieback can be a sign that a tree is 

being attacked by an insect or disease or has other health problems. As trees grow and stands become 

more crowded, the weaker, less competitive trees experience dieback. Fortunately, relatively few forest 

trees in West Virginia had a signifi cant amount of crown dieback: 84 percent had 0 to 5 percent and 

only 1 percent had dieback greater than 20 percent (Fig. 41). Differences in dieback among species 

might indicate differences in tree vigor, though some variation should be expected among species 

with different growth characteristics. Over time, observations of dieback and similar attributes will 

help us identify trends and better evaluate forest conditions in West Virginia and elsewhere.

THE FUTURE OF WEST VIRGINIA’S FORESTS

In general, West Virginia’s forests are healthy and resilient, and continue to mature. Current trends 

indicate that trees are getting larger, timber volumes are increasing, and timber quality is improving. 

Forests also are gaining in old-growth characteristics and the forest-land base is fairly stable. These 

improvements have occurred despite a near 

doubling of the timber harvest since 1989 to 

almost a billion board feet per year. Because tree 

growth continues to outpace removals by a wide 

margin, these improvements should continue, 

though the margin is narrowing and the species 

composition of the forest is changing. The lower 

diameter classes that represent the trees of the 

future forest are dominated by maples and other 

non-oak species. Oak trees that now dominate 

the overstory will increasingly be replaced by red 

and sugar maples as they succumb to insects, 

diseases, and harvesting because of the lack of 

young oak. 

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.7

0.8

0.8

0.8

1.1

1.4

3.9

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

White pine

Yellow-poplar

White oak

White ash

Black cherry

Sugar maple

Red maple

Hemlock

Hickory

A. Basswood

Chestnut oak

Black/scarlet oak

Northern red oak

American beech

Virginia pine

Percentage of Inventory

Average rate

for all speceies = 0.7%

62%

35%

39%

42%

57%

27%

49%

43%

45%

29%

41%

9%

16%

18%

11%

13%

43% 15%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Beech

White oak

Sugar maple

Red maple

Yellow-poplar

All species

Percent of trees by dieback class

No Dieback 1-5% 6-20% >20%

1%

Figure 40.—Average annual mortality rate for major species, Figure 41.—Dieback on trees in West Virginia, 1999-2004.

West Virginia, 1989-2000.

0.0%

0.5%

1.0%

1.5%

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 21-

28.9

29.0+

Diameter Class (inches at breast height)

Mortality Rate (%)

Figure 39.—Average annual mortality by diameter class, West 

Virginia, 1989-2000.
26

Changes in species composition will change forest habitats as well as how the forest is utilized by 

industry. Oaks and beech now provide hard mast during the fall. These crops are highly variable as 

bumper crops or complete crop failures have a measurable impact on wildlife. The looming decline in 

this food source as oaks fade in importance will affect wildlife populations. The full consequences of 

fewer oaks are not fully understood but, the effect on populations of ruffed grouse and wild turkey is of 

concern.

Oak species now comprise half of the sawlog harvest and one-third of the growing-stock volume. To 

maintain forest sustainability and a strong wood-using industry, mills will have to change the mix 

of species they now consume. In the long run, the species composition of the harvested trees must 

better refl ect the species that are growing in the forest. Mills can adapt by using more maple and other 

species and less oak. Active management by land owners to promote the growth of oak trees could alter 

current trends.

This steady improvement of West Virginia’s forests will become more diffi cult to maintain in the 

future. Forests are under increasing pressure not only to produce timber products but also to meet 

increasing demands for recreation, vacation homes, mining, and other development despite an ever 

increasing array of insects and diseases. Nonnative exotic diseases, insects, and plants threaten to West 

Virginia’s forests, though their impact on the long-term health of the forest is not fully understood. It 

is likely that new invasive species will be introduced in the state and that the ranges of those already 

here will continue to expand. 

Our challenge is to maintain the state’s valuable forest resource while enhancing its ability to support 

the West Virginia’s growing economy. Wise stewardship of the forest resource by all users will ensure a 

continuing fl ow of benefi ts to West Virginia’s residents. 
27

APPENDIX

About Forest Inventories

Widespread land abuse in the Eastern United States led to Congressional passage of conservation 

legislation in the early part of the 20th century. Under this and subsequent legislation, the Forest 

Service began conducting continuing forest inventories of all states to provide up-to-date information 

on the nation’s forest resources. Currently inventories are conducted by the Northern Research Station’s 

FIA unit. 

NRS-FIA provides objective and scientifi cally credible information on key forest ecosystem indicators: 

how much forest there is and whether it is increasing or decreasing, its composition, whether we 

are gaining or losing species, and how quickly trees are growing, dying, and being harvested. Such 

important information:

Aids policymakers at the federal and state level in formulating sound forest policy and in 

assessing the sustainability of current and past policies.

Enables land managers to devise better management plans and better assess the effects of 

current and past management practices.

Serves as a starting point for scientifi c investigations of factors that contribute to changes in 

forest ecosystems over time.

Keeps the public informed about the health and sustainability of the nation’s forests.

Helps scientists and land managers address resource issues such as urbanization, forest 

fragmentation, invasive species, wildfi re risk, global climate change, and water quality.

During the years 1999-2001, the U.S. Forest Service, NRS-FIA Unit, conducted the latest inventory 

of West Virginia’s forests (Griffi th 2003). This inventory is dated 2000. The West Virginia Bureau 

of Commerce Division of Forestry cooperated in this effort. Previous inventories were conducted in 

1949, 1961, 1975, and 1989 (Ferguson 1964, Bones 1978, DiGiovanni 1990). 

FIA uses a scientifi cally designed sampling method that has been adopted by all FIA units in the 

United States as the basis for the National Inventory Program. Specifi cally, a hexagonal grid, with each 

cell representing nearly 5,750 acres, was placed over the United States. During the 2000 West Virginia 

inventory, each hexagon was populated with one sample ground plot. If the hexagon contained one or 

more ground plots from the 1989 inventory, the plot located nearest the hexagon center was selected 

for remeasurement. In hexagons with no plot from the previous inventory, a new plot was randomly 

located. This resulted in a sample that included 1,176 plots established during the previous inventory, 

and 1,365 ground plots that were established for the fi rst time. Remeasured plots provide important 

information on growth, removals, and mortality. Field crews collected information on a host of forest 

attributes, including the number, size, and species of trees. These data enabled researchers to make 

reliable estimates of the current condition and overall health of West Virginia’s forests, as well as the 

degree to which this vital resource is changing over time. 

In 2004, NRS-FIA began to inventory West Virginia’s forests annually. This entails remeasuring all 

plots that were measured in 2000. Each year, one-fi fth of the inventory plots will be measured and 

each year’s plots are located in such a way that they represent the entire state. Therefore, it will be 

possible to make state-level estimates before the complete inventory is completed.

•

•

•

•

•
28

LITERATURE CITED

Bones, James T. 1978. The forest resources of West Virginia. Resour. Bull. NE-56. Broomall, PA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 105 p.

Carvell Kenneth L.; Maxey, William R. 1998 Protectors of the forest resources—A history of the 

West Virginia Division of Forestry 1909-1998. Charleston, WV: West Virginia Division of 

Forestry. 37 p.

Clarkson Roy B. 1964. Tumult on the mountains Lumbering in West Virginia—1770-1920.

Parsons, WV: McClain Printing Company. 410 p.

DiGiovanni, Dawn M. 1990. Forest statistics for West Virginia—1975 and 1989. Resour. Bull. 

NE-114. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research 

Station. 172 p.

Evans, Celia A.; Lucas, Jennifer A.; Twery, Mark J. 2005. Beech bark disease: proceedings of 

the beech bark disease symposium. Gen. Tech. Pep. NE-331. Newtown Square PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 149 p.

Ferguson, Roland H. 1964. The timber resources of West Virginia. Resour. Bull. NE-2. Upper 

Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment 

Station. 123 p.

Fralish, James S. 2004. The keystone role of oak and hickory in the central hardwood forest. 

In: Spetich, Martin A., ed. Upland oak ecology symposium: history, current conditions, and 

sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Southern Research Station: 78-87.

Griffi th, Douglas M.; Widmann, Richard H. 2003. Forest statistics for West Virginia: 1989 and 

2000. Resour. Bull. NE-157. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Northeastern Research Station. 119 p.

Steer, Henry B. 1948. Lumber production in the United States, 1779-1946. Misc. Publ. 699. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 233 p.

For additional information contact:

Forest Inventory and Analysis, U.S. Forest Service

Northern Research Station

11 Campus Boulevard, Suite 200

Newtown Square, PA 19073

(610) 557-4051; www.nrs.fs.fed.us/fi a/

WV Division of Forestry 

1900 Kanawha Blvd., East 

Charleston, WV 25305-0180 

(304) 558-3446; 

www.wvforestry.com
Printed on Recycled Paper

Widmann, Richard H.; Dye, Charles R.; Cook, Gregory W. 2007. Forests of the 

Mountain State. Resour. Bull. NRS-17. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 28 p.

A report on the forest inventory of West Virginia conducted in 1999-2001 by the 

Forest Inventory and Analysis unit of the Northeastern Research Station. Discusses 

the current condition and changes from previous inventories for forest area, timber 

volume, tree species, mortality and growth and removals. Graphics depict data at the 

state level and by county where appropriate.

KEY WORDS: West Virginia, forest inventory, growing-stock volume, biomass, growth, 

mortality, removals

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on 

the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial 

status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because 

all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program (Not all prohibited 

bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternate means for communication 

of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at 

(202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To fi le a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Offi ce 

of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800)795-3272 

(voice) or (202)720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. 
www.nrs.fs.fed.us

Capitalizing on the strengths of existing science 

capacity in the Northeast and Midwest to attain a more 

integrated, cohesive, landscape-scale research program