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Recently, the Defense Science Board (DSB) released a report titled

Defense Imperatives for the New Administration. The intent of the

report is to describe the critical issues that require attention from the

new Secretary of Defense to prevent military failure. While the new

presidential administration has selected the Secretary of Defense from

the previous administration to continue to serve, the issues described

are nonetheless critical. The report is organized according to the five

primary missions of the Department of Defense (DoD):

1. Protect and defend the homeland

Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, the most significant threat to

the US homeland was the specter of a full arsenal exchange with the (former)

Soviet Union – a threat dealt with by symmetrically assuring the destruction

of their homeland. Mutually Assured Destruction, and deterrence more generally, seemed sufficient to protect the homeland from attack. This complacency

was shattered along with the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.

The DSB report suggests that one of the critical needs is to reduce our

vulnerability to Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). In addition to

improving foreign and domestic intelligence with regard to WMD, the

DSB recommends restricting access to WMD materials, such as Cesium137, a radioactive isotope used commonly by the medical community. In

terms of technology needs, the development of advanced detection and

decontamination capabilities are required to assure our preparedness.

2. Maintain capability to project force around the world, to deter or

defeat

US conventional forces are currently second to none, but the defense

acquisition system is so slow that it continuously compromises our technology

lead, and in effect extrapolates the past to the future...The Department’s

excessively slow processes limit its ability to exploit current technology...

The DSB recommends that the DoD look to the commercial sector to see

effective and efficient business practices. In addition, the report suggests that

as technology and industry become globalized the DoD needs to develop

effective strategies for leveraging this globalized industrial sector without

compromising its security. The Board also recommends that the

Department embrace spiral development (i.e., continuously building, testing, and improving) as a conventional approach rather than an irregular one.

3. Bring stability to nations and regions

Since the end of the Cold War, 80 percent of our supplemental funds for

operations have been for stability operations. We have not yet learned to use

technology to reduce the cost of stability operations as we have for combat

operations, but technology has significantly amplified the capabilities of

insurgents to disrupt US operations.

Part of the DSB’s focus in this area was on information sharing and

communication technology to better achieve political objectives during

stabilization and reconstruction operations.

4. Thwart terrorism and bring terrorists to justice – anytime and anywhere

Excepting nuclear weapons, most weapons of mass destruction/disruption are

locally available or producible and need not be imported across a scrutinized

national border. Hazardous materials are located throughout the United

States.

In addition to readily accessible hazardous materials, the availability

and accessibility of defense-related information, while important and necessary for collaboration, is a reminder of the importance of safeguarding

information that could be damaging if accessed by those with the will and

means of inflicting harm on US interests worldwide.

5. Support state and local authorities in providing domestic catastrophe

relief

Disrupting even a single defense contractor’s operations could significantly

hinder combat operations abroad.

The example given in the report is the notion that a variety of missiles are

manufactured in Tucson, Arizona, and if this locality is disrupted through

a domestic attack or other catastrophe it could threaten the supply chain

and impede a military deployment elsewhere in the world. The report

urges all, including the private sector and individuals, to “nurture a culture

of preparedness to significantly reduce the consequences of attacks on the

homeland.”

These are but a few excerpts and descriptions of what is contained in

the report, and there are many more recommendations made by the

DSB. While these primary mission responsibilities are succinctly

discussed at a very high level, it is important to periodically reflect on

them to ensure that our daily efforts as scientists, engineers and program managers are best oriented to make them readily and effectively

achievable.

Ben Craig, Editor

The entire report can be found at:

http://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/2008-11-Defense_Imperatives.pdf

“It has been more than two generations since the presidency transitioned with American troops

engaged in significant combat operations...” – Defense Science Board

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http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 3

ABSTRACT

Titanium dioxide or titania (TiO2) has well-known photoactive

antimicrobial attributes. It also readily forms on titanium

implants. Recently conducted in vitro studies have demonstrated

increased osteoblast functions of nanostructured TiO2 necessary

to promote the efficacy of orthopedic implants. Titania-based

ceramics (bulk material, thin films, nanoscale powders, etc.) are

generally synthesized by using either a highly corrosive and

toxic titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) and titanium oxychloride

(TiOCl2) or rather expensive and moisture-sensitive titanium

isopropoxide [Ti(C3H7O)4] as the starting chemicals. In this

paper, the technique of electrospinning has been used to fabricate

non-woven, breathable titania nanomats† employing titanyl

nitrate as a benign and inexpensive precursor.

INTRODUCTION

Titanium dioxide (also known as rutile) in pure or doped form

has been extensively used in a number of applications, ranging

from food coloring, paints, cosmetics, catalysts, anti-biofouling,

photovoltaic solar cells, and sunscreens to gas sensors. In addition, due to its suitable energy band gap (≈ 3.2 -3.5 electron volts,

eV), titania has also gained interest in photonic band gap crystals

for the visible spectrum of light due to its high refractive index

(nrutile ≈ 2.9) and low absorption properties [1]. Recently, selfcleaning wool-polyamide, polyester and cotton textiles coated

with TiO2 have been also reported [2-7]. One of the unique physical properties of titania is its photocatalysis – a photoactivated antimicrobial/disinfective activity where free radicals

generated from TiO2 oxidize organic matter upon activation by

light. This property makes the material a candidate for numerous

medical applications where infection control is needed. By interposing an effective procedure based on nanotechnology, the bone

healing can be made safer and to take place at an accelerated

pace, simultaneously eliminating or mitigating the probability of

wound infection. However, the unique photocatalytic property

of nanostructured titania as a wound and bone fracture disinfectant has not been exploited hitherto. Constructing non-woven

TiO2 nanothreads and nanomats possessing a three-dimensional

scaffold structure and optimal porosity, in conjunction with

photo-activated antimicrobial activity, could provide a significant

improvement in the management of segmental bone defects

particularly in the presence of infection. A photoactive TiO2

nanomat either in pristine form or impregnated with antibacterial agents can be used as an effective ultralight disinfectant gauze

for wound healing upon brief activation by light.

Considering that the natural scaffold (extracellular matrix or

ECM) consists of a multilayered fibrous and porous architecture,

the possibility of utilizing electrospinning as a novel nanomanufacturing technique applicable to tissue engineering has emerged.

Several researchers have explored the feasibility of fabricating biothreads containing live cells in benign polymeric matrices that

could be used for a number of applications including wound

healing and tissue growth. Electrospun fibers are found to possess

features that bear morphologic similarity to the ECM of natural

tissue such as high porosity and effective mechanical properties.

They therefore meet the essential design criteria of an ideally

engineered scaffold [8-9]. Recently, the authors have successfully carried out preliminary experiments to attach cells to the

electrospun polymeric (poly vinyl pyrrolidone or PVP) as well as

ceramic (alumina) nanofibers [10].

With the goal of using nanomats to combat wound infection

due to its photoactive attributes, this paper describes the fabrication and characterization of non-woven titania nanofibers using a

simpler and more benign precursor than that which has usually

been used in the case of titania synthesis. In this case, an aqueous

titanyl nitrate (TiO(NO3)2) was synthesized from water

soluble titanium fluoride, as described in the Experimental

Procedure section. First, an appropriate ceramic-polymer (ceramer)

composite of titania electrospun as a continuous non-woven

nanofibrillar mat was fabricated from an optimized

mixture of suitable inorganic and polymeric precursor blend.

The ceramer composite was then processed carefully and the transformation of ceramer to high purity, crystallized and morphologically optimized titania was followed by a well-conceived heatAbdul-Majeed Azad*

Sara Lynne McKelvey

The University of Toledo

Toledo, OH

Zainab Al-Firdaus

Perrysburg High School

Perrysburg, OH

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4 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3

treatment and the systematic phase evolution. The structural and

morphological features of the products, subsequent to each of such

heat-treatments, were verified by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron

microscopy (TEM) coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy

and selected area electron diffraction (EDS–SAED) techniques.

The photoactive efficacy of these electrospun titania nanofibers is

currently under investigation and will be reported separately.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Granular polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP, average molecular weight

~1.3×106) was used as the polymeric component of the inorganic-organic composite. A 15 wt.% PVP solution was made by dissolving PVP powder in reagent grade ethanol under constant and

vigorous stirring. Due to the pronounced volatility of ethanol

during and after the preparation and the tendency of the solution

to dry out and leave a stiff gel in the container upon prolonged

storage, the PVP solution was prepared in small batches and only

when electrospinning was to be carried out. The inorganic precursor used for electrospinning the ceramer composite of titania

was made from titanium (IV) fluoride (TiF4, purity 98%). In a

typical batch preparation, 1.3254 g of titanium tetrafluoride was

dissolved by adding to 50 ml of deionized (DI) water in small

increments over a period of 90 minutes under constant stirring

and gentle heating until it dissolved completely giving a clear

transparent solution of 0.214 M strength. The resulting solution

was diluted with 230 ml of DI water, to which 20 ml of 7.4 M

ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) was added slowly under constant stirring. A white precipitate of titanium hydroxide

(Ti(OH)4) was formed and was allowed to settle for 2 hours.

The supernatant liquid was tested by adding a few drops of

ammonium hydroxide. Absence of the formation of fresh

precipitate indicated that the reaction was complete.

The Ti(OH)4 suspension was allowed to settle overnight and

tested again for additional precipitation the next day. The supernatant liquid was decanted, and the precipitate was washed with

DI water and centrifuged several times until the decanted liquid

acquired a near neutral pH (~8). Fifteen milliliters of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) was added to the hydrated solid

Ti(OH)4[TiO2·xH2O] under constant stirring, until the precipitate began to dissolve. Ten milliliters of HNO3 was added again

after 30 minutes and the precipitate promptly began to dissolve.

Subsequently, every 25 minutes additional HNO3 was added in

decreasing volume increments (5 ml, 3 ml, and 2 ml, bringing the

total amount of concentrated nitric acid to 40 ml) to completely

dissolve the hydrated titanium hydroxide and to form titanyl

nitrate (TiO(NO3)2, TN), which is a clear solution with a distinctive luster. It is worth noting that the titanyl nitrate solution is

relatively unstable over long periods and tends to become cloudy

and to re-form hydrated titania. Therefore, the precursor was synthesized only when needed and was used soon after preparation.

In order to optimize the electrospinning conditions, the precursor solutions (TN and PVP) were mixed in different volume/

volume (v/v) ratios and stirred into homogeneous viscous solutions. Each of these mixtures (1:1, 1:2 and 2:3 v/v) was drawn

into a 10 ml capacity clinical syringe. A precision-tip 25-gauge

stainless steel needle was attached to the syringe, which was

mounted on a programmable syringe pump. The preferred

orientation of the syringe pump in this work was horizontal. A

custom-made direct current power supply with a high voltage

system (30 kV maximum) using a modified version of a circuit

design developed at NASA Glenn Research Center [11] was used

for electrospinning (e-spinning). One terminal of the power

supply was connected to the needle, while the other was connected to a grounded stainless steel collector plate.

However, for the ease of sample handling and subsequent

thermal processing, ceramic plates instead of metal were used as a

collector. In order to enhance the fiber collection area, a modified

collection set-up was devised. Two (4.5 in. × 4.5 in.) dense alumina plates (0.0625 in. thick) were employed. The plates were kept

a half inch apart and connected together to a common junction

by attaching short lengths of electrical wires to the center of each

plate through blocks of one square inch of aluminum foil stuck to

the back of the plates with double-sided tape. This allowed the

fibers to spread and collect across the plates and including the

empty space between them. Other details of this set-up are

described elsewhere [12-13].

Using the high-voltage power supply, an electrical impulse was

applied between the needle and the collectors in order to initiate

the e-spinning. After the voltage was turned on, the syringe pump

was started. The voltage was tweaked precisely until the fibers

began to form steadily and collect on the plate, placed three

inches away from the tip of the needle; the optimized voltage

in this case was found to be 16 kV. A flow rate of 0.02 ml/h was

chosen, and the ceramer fibers were spun continuously with short

intermittent interruptions of the run for periodic cleaning of the

clogged needle tip.

After spinning was complete, small amounts of the as-spun

composite fibers were used for characterization by scanning electron microscopy. This exercise allowed the determination of

which mixture of the two precursors was the more optimal in

terms of the quality of the fibers (free from intertwining, twisting,

branching, liquid globule entrapment, etc.). The remaining fibers

collected on the ceramic plates were fired at 700°C for one hour

in static air as per the following heating rate-temperature-soak

time profile: 22°C (room temperature) to 500°C at a rate of

1⁄2 °C/min. with a hold at 500°C for one hour; 500°C to 700°C

at a rate of 1⁄2 °C/min. with a hold at 700°C for one hour,

followed by cooling from 700°C to the room temperature at a

rate of 1 °C/min. The rather small heating and cooling rates were

chosen so as to ensure the removal of organic components without destroying the nanofibrillar morphological features in the end

product and also to avoid the disintegration of the titania

nanofibers into powdery grains. Subsequent to cooling, the samples were collected for characterization by a host of analytical

techniques, such as X-ray diffraction, scanning and transmission

electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy and selected

area electron diffraction. The results of photoactivity evaluation

and biocidal efficacy of the electrospun titania nanofibers will be

reported subsequently.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Hollow titania fibers have been prepared by soaking the electrospun poly (lactic acid) in a 1:19 (v/v) solution of titanium (IV)

isopropoxide and isopropanol, followed by hydrolysis, vacuum

drying and calcination at 450°C for ten hours at a ramp rate of

15 °C/min., three hours of which were in a nitrogen atmosphere

and seven hours in an oxygen atmosphere. [14] The amorphous

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http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 5

titania fibers were shown to be porous and

500 nm across. As is evident, the technique

involves several time-consuming processes:

electrospinning of the polymeric skeleton

first; preparing of inorganic sol, followed by

gel formation and its hydrolysis onto the

electrospun polymeric fibers before the

organics are removed to yield the desired

ceramic nanofibers. Moreover, the authors

of reference 14 claim that the surface of the

fiber is not flat but contains small oval

indentations, which are due to rapid phase

separation during the electrospinning

process, where the solvent-rich regions

result in pore formation. This statement,

equivalent to the postulation of the existence of a ‘concentration gradient’ region in

the dynamic process of fiber formation, is

rather speculative and unsubstantiated; this

is particularly so, in the light of the absence

of any visible ‘thinning’ along the fiber

length. If this were true, some collapsing

and narrowing of the uniform tubes to

form ‘sheets’ should certainly be observed

in the high magnification micrographs

included in the reference.

A similar procedure has also been adopted to synthesize metal (tin and titanium)

oxide coated polymer nanofibers with a

diameter on the order of 100 nm and a

coating thickness ranging from 20 to 80

nm. [15] The preparatory technique used is

also quite elaborate and involved. It uses

complex salts, such as ammonium hexafluorotitanate and ammonium hexafluorostannate, as the precursors and requires a

halide scavenger in the form of boric acid.

Furthermore, as seen from the SEM

images, the metal oxide coating is uneven

and non-uniform, and the TEM images

confirm this. Other researchers have used a

sol of titanium and silicon to electrospin silica-doped titania nanofibers onto a rotating

drum. [16] The ceramic fibers were

obtained by firing them for two hours in

the temperature range of 500-1000°C.

However, while the SEM images of the asspun fibers and those dried (incorrectly

referred to as ‘calcined’ in the reference) at

100°C for two hours alone are shown, no

micrographs of the fired samples were

included. Hence, the morphological features of the samples calcined in the range

500-1000°C is unknown.

The fabrication of anatase titania porous

nanofibers of controlled diameter using an

ethanol solution containing both PVP and

titanium (IV) isopropoxide via electrospinning, followed by calcination in air at

500°C, has been reported. [17] This

research shows that the average fiber diameter ranged between 20 and 200 nm

depending upon a number of parameters,

such as the strength and ratio of PVP and

titanium (IV) isopropoxide solutions, the

strength of the applied electric field, and

the flow rate of the precursor solution.

As can clearly be seen from above, the

synthesis of pure and/or doped titania

nanofibers via electrospinning: (a) involves

elaborate routes, or (b) uses either a complex compound (ammonium fluorotitanate, for example) in combination with a

halide scavenger, or a relatively expensive

and moisture-sensitive titanium (IV) isopropoxide, as a precursor. Moreover, a technique of coating an electrospun polymeric

skeleton with titania precursor followed by

calcination does not produce the as-desired

uniform and homogeneous ceramic fibers.

In contrast, the present work describes the

procedure of synthesizing a simple titanium

precursor (viz., titanyl nitrate) from a less

reactive and benign source (TiF4) and

employs it in the fabrication of high quality titania nanofibers.

As stated above, in order to ascertain an

optimized composition that is conducive to

yield uniform ceramer nanofibers, the

aqueous solution containing titanyl nitrate

and the PVP solution in ethanol were

mixed in three different v/v ratios: 1:1, 1:2

and 2:3, keeping other experimental variables (applied electric field strength, flow

rate, the distance between the needle and

the collector plates, etc.) constant. The

SEM images of the as-spun nanofibers from

each batch are shown in Figure 1.

As seen from Figure 1 (a-b), the fiber

spun from a 1:1 (v/v) mixture of the inorganic and organic components are characterized by the presence of a large fraction of

nearly spherical liquid globules connecting

various segments of the fibers. Thus, it

appears that this mixture is subject to the

combined phenomena of electrospraying

(spherilization of the charged droplet upon

discharging) and electrospinning. A large

population of globules, rather than linear

fibers, suggests that the mixture might not

have attained the optimal viscosity in order

to satisfy the conditions of forming perfect

non-woven fibers. For this purpose, the

polymeric content of the solution was

increased in the ratio TN:PVP = 1:2. The

SEM images displayed in Figure 1 (c-d)

indicate that this strategy helped, as the

density of liquid blobs greatly diminished,

Figure 1. SEM images of the ceramer

nanofibers spun from a solution

containing TN and PVP in volumetric

ratio of 1:1 (a-b), 1:2 (c-d) and 2:3 (e-f).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

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6 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3

though was not eliminated totally. Some evidence of fiber bending can also be seen, which indicates that the ratio of the two

components in the spinning mixture still needs to be optimized.

The 2:3 (v/v) mixture of TN:PVP appeared to form the most

desired microstructure when electrospun, as could be seen from

the nonwoven fibers of uniform thickness in Figure 1 (e-f). The

subsequent discussion pertains to the fibers which were electrospun from a homogeneous solution containing the inorganic and

organic precursors in the volumetric ratio of 2:3.

The morphological features of the fired nanofibers of electrospun titania are shown in Figure 2a. The intact nature of the

fibers in the layered mats of titania that were present in the asspun material can be discerned in the calcined sample as well.

This is by virtue of the judicious firing scheme adopted in this

work; even a slightly higher ramp rate has been found to cause

severe fiber rupturing, rendering them into a powdery mass, due

to faster combustion of the polymer with a concomitant and

sudden release of a copious amount of gaseous products. The

energy dispersive spectrum (EDS) of the same is shown in Figure

2b, where the signals due to oxygen and titanium alone are seen;

no peak belonging to carbon is present, meaning that the heating

profile selected in this work was able to eliminate polymeric

components quantitatively.

The TEM images of the nanofibers fired at 700°C as per the

schedule described in the previous section are shown in Figure 3.

It is evident that the heat treatment used in the present work

has preserved the fibrous artifact in the processed material.

Moreover, the titania fibers are porous and less than 100 nm

across; they are comprised of interconnected monosized grains,

making the structure quite breathable and therefore amenable for

the intended medical application. Using the wavelength of the

electron beam (0.0335Å) and the length of the SAED pattern on

the film, the interplanar distances (d-spacings) for successive

diffractions were calculated. They match the d-spacings reported

in literature for the anatase phase of titania. This is corroborated

by the X-ray diffraction pattern of the powdered nanofibers, as

shown in Figure 4; the selected area electron diffraction signature

of the calcined fibers is also shown as an inset.

CONCLUSION

Titanium dioxide nanofibers were successfully electrospun as a

polymeric composite from a benign and inexpensive titanium

precursor, viz., titanyl nitrate and polyvinyl pyrrolidone. The asspun ceramer fibers possessing uniform thickness upon firing

were formed into breathable titanium dioxide nanomats of

anatase modification upon a single-stage firing in air at 700°C for

one hour.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Zainab Al-Firdaus was part of this research during summer 2007,

when she was an 8th grade student at Perrysburg Junior High

School. She is currently a sophomore at Perrysburg High School.

NOTES & REFERENCES

* Corresponding author; e-mail address: abdul-majeed.azad@utoledo.edu

† Nanomats are 3-dimensional carpet-like, supportless, independent,

modular structures with nearly identical porosity in their bulk. These

specialized nanostructured materials can be used either as such or in

combination with other components, such as dyes or drugs or both, to

enhance their anticipated functional attributes.

[1] Kingrey, W.D., H.K. Bowen, and D.R. Uhlmann, Introduction to

Ceramics, 2nd ed., John Wiley, 1990.

[2] Peblow, M., Nature, Vol. 429, 2004, p. 620.

[3] Bozzi, A., T. Yuranova, and J. Kiwi, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A:

Chem., Vol. 172, 2005, p. 27.

[4] Bozzi, A., T. Yuranova, I. Guasaquillo, D. Laub, and J. Kiwi, J.

Photochem. Photobio. A: Chem., Vol. 174, 2005, p. 156.

[5] Meilert, K.T., D. Laub, and J. Kiwi, J. Molec. Catal. A, Vol. 237,

2005, p. 101.

[6] Yuranova, T., R. Mosteo, J. Bandata, D. Laub, and J. Kiwi, J. Molec.

Catal. A, Vol. 244, 2006, p. 160.

[7] Daoud, W.A., J.H. Xin, and Y. H. Zhang, Surf. Sci., Vol. 599, 2005,

p. 69.

[8] Li, W.J., C.T. Laurencin, E.J. Caterson, R.S. Tuan, and F.K. Ko, J.

Biomed. Mater. Res. Vol. 60, 2002, p. 613.

[9] Kenawy, E., J.M. Layman, J.R. Watkins, G.L. Bowlin, J.A.

Matthews, D.G. Simpson and G.E. Wnek, Biomaterials, Vol. 24, 2003,

p. 907.

Figure 2. (a) SEM showing the intact nature of the mat structure of

the fired fibers and (b) EDS signature in the ceramer composite

fired at 700°C/1h. Figure 3. TEM images of the ceramer nanofibers fired at 700°C/1h.

Figure 4. XRD signature of the nanofibers calcined at 700°C/1h

(inset: SAED pattern).

(a) (b)

200 nm 100 nm

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http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 7

[10] Azad, A.-M., unpublished research, 2007.

[11] Eichenberg, D.J., “High-Voltage Droplet Dispenser,” NASA

TechBriefs, 2003, http://www.nasatech.com/Briefs/Nov03/LEW17

190.html.

[12] Azad, A.-M., Mater. Sci. Eng. A, Vol. 435–436, 2006, p. 468.

[13] Azad, A.-M., M. Noibi, and M. Ramachandran, Bull. Polish Acad.

Sci., Vol. 55, 2007, p. 195.

[14] Caruso, R.A., J.H. Schattka, and A. Greiner, Adv. Mater., Vol. 13,

2001, p. 1577.

[15] Drew, C., X. Liu, D. Ziegler, X. Wang, F.F. Bruno, J. Whitten,

L.A. Samuelson, and J. Kumar, Nano Lett., Vol. 3, 2003, p. 143.

[16] Choi, S., B.C. Chu, S.G. Lee, S.W. Lee, S.S. Im, S.H. Kim, and

J.Y. Park, J. Sol-Gel Sci. Tech., Vol. 30, 2004, p. 215.

[17] Li, D. and Y. Xia, Nano Lett., Vol. 3, 2003, p. 555.

Dr. Abdul-Majeed Azad is an Associate Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of

Toledo; he has been serving the university in this capacity since August ’03. Dr. Azad began his career as a Research

Scientist studying fast breeder nuclear reactor materials with a special focus on their processing and characterization

aspects. His current interests are in the area of nanomaterials, including metals, functional ceramics and composites.

Dr. Azad is particularly interested in the relevance of nanomaterials to clean energy, catalysis, sensors, biomedical

applications and other nanotechnologies.

Ms. Sara Lynn McKelvey was born and raised in Toledo, Ohio. Ms. McKelvey received undergraduate degrees in

chemical and bio-engineering from the University of Toledo in December 2008.

Ms. Zainab Al-Firdaus was born in Columbus, Ohio, and currently attends Perrysburg High School. Ms. Al-Firdaus

plans to attend The Ohio State University upon completion of high school. She is an ardent Jeopardu fan and plays the

piano.

AMMTIAC Success Story:

Commercial Manufacturer Benefits from DoD Technology Transfer

Beyond the primary charge of providing technical solutions to the

warfighter, it is also a mission of the Information Analysis Centers

(IACs) to transfer, or “spin-off,” innovative technologies to the

US industrial base, as AMMTIAC has recently done. Through a commercial inquiry,

AMMTIAC provided a manufacturer of wire

and cable machinery with a machining solution that employed technology originally

developed for the US Army to solve a production issue and improve product quality.

The manufacturer identified the root cause of

the production issue as a poor surface finish on

machine components called forming rolls. These

rolls are grooved pieces of high strength steel used to shape individual strands of wire so that they can be wrapped together to form a

larger cable. Due to the weight of the components (60 lbs each) and

the complexity associated with machining the wire grooves, the

proper surface finish needed to shape the wire strands is not readily

achieved by traditional machining methods (e.g., turning, grinding,

etc). Engineers from AMMTIAC collaborated with the component

manufacturer to evaluate possible solutions and decided the best

approach is to apply a superfinish to the complex surface geometry

of the forming rolls to achieve the desired surface finish.

Chemically Accelerated Vibratory Surface Finishing (CAVSF),

more frequently referred to as Superfinishing, is a process that was

originally developed by the US Army to improve the surface

finish and fatigue life of components in helicopter transmissions.

Superfinishing uses a chemicallyformulated conversion coating to oxidize the

peaks on a surface after which they are placed in

a vibratory media container, where the oxidized

peaks are removed, leaving a microscopicallysmooth surface finish. Metallic components

that have undergone a superfinishing operation

have demonstrated a 300% improvement in the

fatigue life of the surface. Transition of superfinishing technologies has netted significant

results in the automobile racing community, as

it has significantly improved the overall performance and service

life of car transmissions and ring and pinion gears.

Application of superfinishing technology to the forming rolls

produced a drastic improvement in the quality of the wire being

produced. The improved surface finish (less than four micro-inches)

has allowed the machinery manufacturer to produce individual

strands of wire that are free of defects, eliminating a long-standing

production issue. The success achieved by superfinishing the

forming rolls has lead the machinery manufacturer to consider

permanently using the superfinishing process in the production

of forming rolls. In addition, AMMTIAC is working with the

machinery manufacturer to identify other machine components

that would benefit from the use of superfinishing technology.

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We provide answers to customers looking for copies of

reports, legacy data and information, or engineering

consulting services.

Here are just a few of the numerous inquiries

submitted to us each month:

Given the fact that current steel making practices

produce little in the way of inclusions that are

strung out by hot and/or cold working, what, if

any, benefit does a grain direction provide in the

way of strength, toughness or fatigue resistance?

I need some more information about Blast

Mitigation (and a demonstration film clip, if

possible) and the polymer coatings which

increase blast resistance of existing and

temporary structures.

I am looking for an accelerated environmental

test protocol that can be run for corrosion testing

of zinc plated mild steel samples and a method to

correlate these results to actual life.

Please be kind enough to supply me with

information on the latest technologies to do NDT

of pre-stressed concrete pipelines of diameters

ranging from 1m to 3.5m.

I need the following information about digital

radiography:1) its feasibility during maintenance/

overhaul of steam generators of thermal power

plants, and 2) data of thermal power plants which

are using this technology.

Do you have information on hydrogen

embrittlement data on 4340 and 300M steels?

Stress versus embrittlement, baking time versus

hydrogen content, empirical formulas?

WHAT’S YOUR QUESTION?

AMMTIAC provides a government-subsidized, free technical inquiry service. We have the expertise

to jump-start or support your project — the first four hours of every question are free.

What is the AMMTIAC Inquiry Service?

As one of the Department of Defense Information

Analysis Centers (IACs), we provide up to

four free hours to answer technical and

bibliographic inquiries related to our scope –

materials, manufacturing and testing.

Who is Eligible to Use the Service?

We have answered inquiries for individuals

from virtually all sectors, including the Department

of Defense and other government agencies,

government contractors, industry, academia, and

foreign allies of the U.S.

How Does AMMTIAC Obtain Answers

to Technical Inquiries?

We manage an extensive library of approximately

300,000 government technical reports, conference

papers, presentations, and journal articles related to

materials, manufacturing, and testing.

With an experienced technical staff on hand,

answers are obtained quickly through our library or

other private research systems, including DTIC’s

Scientific and Technical Information Network

(STINET) and Total Electronic Migration System

(TEMS), and NASA’s Technical Reports Server

(NTRS).

What If My Inquiry Takes More Than 4 Hours?

Sometimes an inquiry will require extended services.

These services include comprehensive literature

searches, summarizations of literature results,

material property compilations, failure analysis,

selection of materials, manufacturing and testing

technologies, test planning and engineering design.

If your inquiry requires more than four hours of

support, we will discuss our extended research and

engineering options and provide a tailored cost

estimate that best suits your needs. Ultimately all

parties must agree to a work contract prior to any

work beyond the four free hours of support.

How Do I Submit an Inquiry?

You can submit an inquiry on our website at http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/experts, by sending an email to

ammtiac@alionscience.com or by calling 315.339.7090.

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INTRODUCTION

The natural environment produces most everything humans need

to survive. However, to attain knowledge, security, convenience,

creature comforts and longevity, society relies on manufactured

products and services. Derived from the Latin phrase manu factus,

meaning to make by hand[1], manufacturing affects almost every

aspect of our lives, from the cars we drive to the water we drink. The

ability of a nation to meet the need of its inhabitants through the

production of goods and services is a major determining factor in

the prosperity and longevity of that nation. The ancient Romans

were able to sustain a flourishing empire for several centuries

through the development of freshwater transportation technology

(aqueducts) and a well-maintained system of roads. These were

achievable because Roman engineers were able to identify critical

needs of the empire and developed products and methods to meet

those needs. This article presents an introduction to manufacturing,

production processes, and the concepts, technologies, and strategies

employed to provide the high-quality products and services that

make modern society possible.

From Concept to Finished Product

Manufacturing is the process of taking raw materials or components

and making them into a finished product. Figure 1 illustrates the

general manufacturing process from initial concept to a distributable product. The purpose of manufacturing a product is typically to meet an identified need or to fulfill a void (i.e., the shortage or

absence of a product). Once a need or void is identified and the feasibility of developing and manufacturing the desired product is

assessed, it is necessary to formulate a plan to fulfill the requirements. This is accomplished by establishing design parameters. The

materials are then selected and a prototype is developed.

If the prototype meets design and performance requirements, the

concept is then moved into the production stage. In this stage, a

manufacturing process is selected and the production system is chosen. Quality assurance and control ensure the product meets design

requirements and performance specifications and is sufficiently free

of defects. The finished product can then be packaged and distributed. The following sections present additional detail of the product

design, development, and production processes.

PRODUCT DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT

The first step in designing a product is to properly define the need.

Clearly defining a need, and with it the required performance specifications and operational parameters, will result in a more focused and

efficient product development process. Feasibility analyses for systems, assemblies, and subsystems can be conducted once the relevant

parameters are set. Material choices can also be made at this point.

Once the design is sufficiently mature, a prototype can be built.

Through the use of metrics, design parameters, such as design

function, end user, design fit, operating environment, desired life

cycle, and desired quantity, are defined to ensure high product quality. From these parameters, the range of potential materials and

processes that may be considered for production can be more readily identified by the design team.

Design Parameters

Identification and definition of design specifications and performance requirements is critical to the successful development of a

product. Some considerations include design function, the end user,

design fit, operating environment, desired life cycle, and desired

quantity. If these specifications and parameters are not defined

upfront, the cost and time required to develop a product could

increase unchecked, possibly at an exponential rate. It is more difficult to remedy design oversights later in the development process,

and the cost of correction can increase by an order of magnitude at

each successive step in the product development cycle.

Design parameters also significantly influence material selection

for a product. Choosing the proper material, or combination of

materials, is dependent on the operating conditions, environment,

and desired life span of the product. Material selection is also dependent on environmental restrictions, and the chosen material and/or

processing method must comply with applicable regulations.

Product Design Tools

There are several tools that can be used to develop performance

requirements. One of the more prevalent techniques for transforming

user needs into quantifiable design, quality, and performance criteria,

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 9

Christopher W. Fink

AMMTIAC

Rome, NY techsolutions 9

An Introduction to Manufacturing

Figure 1. Manufacturing Process from Initial Concept to Finished

Product.

Concept

Development

Product Design

&

Development

Identify – needs and requirements

Research – feasibility

Establish Metrics – Used to convert needs & requirements to design parameters

Set Design Parameters

– Design requirements

– Performance specifications

Concept Design

Select Materials

Material Properties

– Environmental regulations

Develop Protype

Production

Finished

Product

Select Manufacturing Process & Equipment – How to fabricate a product

given design & materials

– Machinery

– Tools

Choose Production Type – Maximize output & quality, while minimizing unit cost

– Mass production

– Job shop

– Agile manufacturing

Maintain Quality – Meet design requirements & performance specifications

– Quality assurance

– Quality control

– Statistical quality control

Package and distribute – finished product

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10 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3

at both the system and subsystem level, is Quality Function

Deployment (QFD)[2]. QFD is a methodology for transforming

the needs that are provided by the customer into design specifications and performance requirements and then quantifying how well

the customer’s needs are met. Beyond the mere synthesis of performance specifications, a QFD can be used to prioritize customer needs

and evaluate subsequent engineering solutions to ensure that design

and development efforts are focused appropriately.

In the past, the relationship between design engineers and manufacturing engineers has often been represented by the sentiment of

“we design it, you build it”[3]. As a result, manufacturing staff have

often been left to solve unanticipated production problems because

they were not involved in the design process. A different approach,

which can eliminate this mentality and potentially reduce unexpected problems, is to employ multidisciplinary design teams.

Comprised of representatives from all stages of the product development cycle, multidisciplinary design teams ensure that the product can be made from existing materials and processes, will meet

design specifications, and will perform as required while meeting

budgetary constraints. In addition to ensuring that the proper metrics are established, these teams ensure that the selected design

option is the best choice for all stages of production and development rather than the one that is most familiar to the design team.

Material Selection

One of the most daunting tasks of any design activity is choosing

the materials for production. Material selection for all components is influenced by design specifications, performance requirements, process limitations, and environmental factors. Choosing

a material without first taking into account all requirements and

specifications can result in poor quality or defective products

and abnormally high maintenance and replacement costs. In

addition, material selection can be limited by the process needed

to produce a material. For example, some materials that can be

fabricated in a laboratory setting have difficulty being scaled up

to a satisfactory production rate because the fabrication process

isn’t fully developed.

Designers have a tendency to develop design concepts based on

familiarity with materials and processes. While being familiar with

the materials and processes in use can be valuable, a narrow view may

exclude combinations of materials and processes that could prove to

be a more efficient and produce higher quality components[4].

Environmental Factors in Material Selection

In addition to design specifications, performance parameters, and

process limitations, environmental factors can have a significant

impact on the selection of materials for a product. For example, the

Removal of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive was enacted

by the European Union (EU) in July 2006, with the goal of

restricting “the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and

electronic equipment”[4]. The hazardous substances outlined for

restriction in the 2006 RoHS Directive are lead, cadmium, mercury, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), and

polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE). Restriction on the use of

lead has had a significant impact on the international electronics

industry, as manufacturers have had to switch to lead-free solders

for new electronic components in order to meet EU regulations.

While there is no US equivalent to RoHS, the directive has had

a significant impact on US commercial manufacturing since

US-based manufacturers must adhere to these regulations to

maintain a global market share.

Prototyping

Typically, the last step before scaling up production is building a

prototype of the product. Physical prototypes are built to validate

the product’s design and material choices, and to ensure that the

product meets performance specifications and design requirements. In some cases, prototypes may also be employed to validate

one or more production processes.

The process of prototyping can be very expensive, since production machinery and materials may have to be obtained to build a

prototype, which may or may not meet requirements. However,

these costs are necessary since the design must be validated before

it can enter into full production. Toward the end of 20th century,

the growing need for an easier method of creating models and prototype parts led to the invention of rapid prototyping (RP) systems.

Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping systems, such as 3-D printing, additive fabrication, and solid free-form fabrication, transform computer-aided

design (CAD) drawings into layers (thin cross-sections that collectively make up a component). These layers are then manufactured

one on top of another until the model is complete.[5]

Stereolithography, which was the first type of RP system created,

was invented in 1986.[5] Through the use of processes like fuse

deposition modeling, selective laser sintering (SLS), and stereolithography, the RP industry has revolutionized the way new products

are designed and manufactured. It no longer takes hours to set up

the tooling and computer numerical control (CNC) systems to

make prototypes and short-run parts. Rapid prototyping enables

design teams to quickly fabricate functional models and identify

candidate production processes.

THE PRODUCTION PROCESS

Determining how to make a product in many cases is just as difficult as deciding what product to make to fulfill a need. The selection of the manufacturing process that will be used to fabricate a

product is often dictated by the design of the product; however,

process limitations can alter the final design of the product when

the processes available lack the ability to produce the desired material with properties that meet performance requirements. For

instance, the process for manufacturing a certain product may not

be sustainable outside of a prototype setting, resulting in the need

for a materials substitution or even a complete component redesign.

In addition to material limitations, tool selection can affect manufacturing processes. The term “tool” represents more than simple

hand tools; it represents any and all equipment (e.g., CNC machinery, automated systems, etc.) needed to produce a component.

techsolutions 9

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http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 11

Manufacturing Process and Equipment Selection

Once the basic product has been developed, the manufacturing

processes are selected. For example, to fabricate a plastic component

the proper molding process (e.g., traditional injection molding, resin

transfer molding, or vacuum assisted resin transfer molding) must be

selected to ensure product quality and meet customer demand.

Maintaining product quality while meeting production demand are

typically the primary considerations when selecting a manufacturing

process. In addition, the manufacturing process is often selected

based on the design of the product. In some cases, after the process

is selected the design is altered to accommodate the limitations of the

fabrication process (e.g., machine production capacity).

Machinery and tools needed to fabricate the product are selected as

part of the manufacturing process. Similar to the selection of the

manufacturing process, there are many factors (too many to discuss in

this article) that are considered when selecting machinery and tools.

For instance, the machinery must be able to handle the production

rate, and it is often selected based on the ability to hold a dimensional tolerance, durability, and ease of maintenance. The manufacturing

processes and machinery must also adhere to the production methodology that best meets these production requirements.

The production rate requirements for a manufacturing line are

largely determined based on product demand. The production rate

requirements influence the amount of flexibility in a line.

Production lines with minimal product variety but large production

quantities traditionally yield a lower unit cost (cost per product).

The lower unit cost is partially attributed to the simplicity of

the manufacturing line, but it is primarily less because the initial

startup costs are distributed over a larger number of units produced.

However, production lines that have limited flexibility have difficulty adapting to changing customer needs.

CNC Machining

Invented in 1947 by John Parsons[6], a CNC machine is any

machine that uses computer logic code to control movements and

perform material shaping operations[7]. The logic code used to control a CNC machine is generated from an electronic version of an

engineering drawing. The drawing is entered into a computer-aided

machining (CAM) program, which subsequently assigns tool paths

and writes the logic code required to perform the operation. CNC

is used for several types of machining equipment, including lathes,

milling machines, laser cutters, abrasive waterjet cutters, and stamping machines.

CNC machines produce higher quality components and have

lower reject rates than conventional machines because of their ability to maintain precise coordinates on all work axes. CNC machines

also produce components at a faster rate because they have shorter

setup and cycle times. In addition to producing higher quality components at a faster rate, CNC machinery can be easily adapted for

both low volume and mass production, thereby eliminating the

need for expensive specialty production machinery. As the technology behind CNC systems has evolved, smaller manufacturing cells

with the ability to produce several different components with even

higher accuracies have been developed.

Rapid Machining

Rapid machining is considered in some manufacturing circles to be

the next evolution of CNC machining. Both additive (i.e., building

one layer at a time) and subtractive (i.e., machining from a solid

block) prototyping systems have become conventional design tools

because they offer product designers a greater selection of production materials and can make parts with greater accuracy, produce a

better surface finish, and can be produced much faster than previous prototyping processes. 3D printing and other RP systems have

established themselves solidly as viable agile, rapid manufacturing

solutions that will continue to foster change in the 21st century

manufacturing industry.

Robotics and Automation

Along with CNC machining and rapid prototyping, the use of

automated processes and robotics has revolutionized the manufacturing industry (see Figure 2). The earliest use of industrial robots

in a manufacturing environment was during the 1960’s, when the

first programmable transfer machine (i.e., robot) was introduced.

This machine, nicknamed Unimate after the parent company, was

used by General Motors to weld cast auto body parts[8].

The term automation quickly gained broad usage as processes

became less dependent on human intervention. Originally developed to reduce direct labor costs[9], automation has improved

process efficiency, safety, and overall quality. Automation and robotics have transformed the manufacturing industry by shortening

process cycle times and eliminating the need for workers in some

processes. For example, in the automotive industry all welding of

automobile chassis is performed by robots. Not only is robotic welding completed faster than welding performed by humans, but the

welds are consistently more accurate. This automated process

enables manufacturers to produce cars faster and reduce the overall

cost of building a car.

Robots are used in almost all facets of manufacturing processes.

In many factories, robots and automated processes are used for each

step of product assembly, including inspection, packaging, and storing for shipment. Automated systems have eliminated human error

in most processes; they have also eliminated human involvement in

many hazardous procedures. For instance, robots now handle and

store hazardous materials and perform other dangerous tasks that

were previously carried out by humans.

Robotics and automation have made manufacturing processes safer,

AMMTIAC A D V A N C E D M A T E R I A L S , M A N U F A C T U R I N G A N D T E S T I N G

Figure 2. CNC milling of components for the Joint Strike Fighter[10].

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12 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3

more accurate, and faster, while simultaneously eliminating the need

for many assembly workers. These advances have reduced the number

of lower skill jobs but have also created a demand for a new level of

skilled workers to supervise the automated processes. These new jobs

are needed to prevent errors from occurring during the manufacturing

process and to minimize the impact of errors when they do occur.

Selecting a Production System

A production system is an operational method that is established to

meet all facets of a customer’s production requirements. The three

most common production system types are mass production, job

shop production, and agile production. Setting up a successful

production system is a delicate balancing act between achieving productivity requirements (i.e., rate and variety) and managing costs.

Therefore, the optimum manufacturing lines (e.g., processes, machinery, and tools) are set up using the production system that will produce

the highest quality goods at the lowest cost, while possessing the

flexibility in machinery to adjust to meet changing customer needs.

The type of production system that is selected depends mostly on

the number of parts needed in a production run and the variety of

parts desired. The quantity of parts to be produced is typically set

in a production forecast. This forecast also helps production managers order the proper types and quantities of raw materials to begin

production, regardless of the type of production system.

Mass Production (High Volume, Low Variety)

The concepts of mass production and the assembly line originated

in Henry Ford’s Highland Park production facility in the early 20th

century[11]. Mass production is most commonly used to manufacture a large quantity of product. Facilities that perform traditional

mass production are typically capable of producing large quantities

of a limited variety of products. The production of goods in large

quantities is traditionally the least expensive method per unit of

product because the production costs are distributed over thousands,

sometimes millions, of products. However, the lack of process agility can hinder mass production facilities because transitioning

processes and machinery to make new products can be expensive.

Job Shop (Low Volume, High Variety)

A job shop production facility traditionally adapts to accommodate

the job at hand and typically produces several types of components

in smaller quantities. These facilities often modify the production

line after completion of each run in order to accommodate the next

product. Job shops are especially useful for fabricating spare parts or

critical out-of-date parts because the part can be produced quickly.

Moreover, the machinery in job shops is versatile and can be set up

to fabricate a variety of products. Several large production facilities

will have an internal job shop to handle refurbishing or orders for

individual parts (usually warranty-related). However, most independent job shops are small facilities that have five to ten machines

and between ten and 40 employees. Figure 3 shows an example of

the layout for a low volume, high variety assembly line.

Agile Manufacturing (High Volume, High Variety)

An agile manufacturing facility combines the production rate

capabilities of a mass production facility with the versatility to

manufacture a variety of products. Establishing a production facility to manufacture products at a high rate while possessing the

ability to adapt to meet customer demand can be challenging and

requires extensive personnel support. Production lines must be set

up to enable a rapid reconfiguration of the process without sacrificing quality or producing an unacceptable amount of waste. To

establish an agile production facility, production teams create tool

kits for each product. These kits consist of any and all tooling (e.g.,

drill bits) and accessories (e.g., brackets that secure material for

machining) that are used to fabricate a given product.

To optimize space in a fast-paced manufacturing facility, production lines are operated as lean as possible. This allows the

vacant space to be used to store excess inventory. Running a lean

product line means that the throughput (i.e., the amount of work

that can be done in a period of time) is maximized while the workin-progress (i.e., unfinished products) is minimized. A product

“pull” methodology is employed rather than a “push” to ensure

that parts are produced only as they are needed. In a pull system,

when a production station reaches a certain inventory level, the

techsolutions 9

BR

ENG PARK

ASB 820 OFFICES ASB 230

226

223

224

210 210 210

P/U P/U 

FUNCTIONAL TEST EQUIPMENT TOOL PARK TOOL PARK

ASB

280

STD TOOL

&

TOOL INSP

V. STAB.

L.E. INSTL.

529

S.C. M.C.

BR

STAGING

& STORAGE

S.C. CLASS.

PARTS

FUNCT.

TEST S.C.

225 225

FAJ FAJ

220 220

FAJ FAJ

220 220

S.C. HARNESS & CONSOLE ASSEMBLY S.C. BR

BR

F.F.

200

FAJ

4123 4125

4126

4117 4118 4119 4120 4121 4122

4124

RTP / 200 P/U

200 P/U / RTP

4116

Figure 3. Example of a Job-Shop (Low Volume, High Variety) Assembly Line: F-22 Final Assembly.

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http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3 13

operators signal to processes upstream (i.e., closer to the beginning

of the production line) that a certain amount of a component (e.g.

raw material or semi-finished product) is needed to ensure that the

flow of products is continuous. As a result of following this methodology, products are manufactured as needed, and no unnecessary

inventory is retained.

When running a high production-rate, agile manufacturing facility, a concerted effort must be undertaken to ensure that the products meet quality standards. Since there are a variety of products

being fabricated, the potential for defects and parts that need to be

reworked increases. Quality control measures and processes are

established to ensure that a high level of quality is maintained across

all production lines.

Agile manufacturing facilities need to be operated with a spirit of

innovation and a focus on continuous improvement. An open

forum for improving the processes used to manufacture a product is

vital, as workers from all levels of production will be able to give

input that leads to improved production efficiency and quality.

Quality

The ability to manufacture high quality products is paramount

and often supersedes production rate and cost. A product is determined to be of sufficient quality when customer expectations and

requirements are met or exceeded in all areas. Fabricating quality

products requires a fluid relationship between management, who

set the quality standards, processes, and methodologies, and the

production operators.

Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) measures are

implemented to ensure that the customer expectations are met. The

definitions of QA and QC are commonly mistaken for one another. According to the American Society of Quality (ASQ), QA is

defined as “the planned and systematic activities implemented in a

quality system so that quality requirements for a product or service

will be fulfilled,” whereas QC is defined as “The observation techniques and activities used to fulfill requirements for quality”.[12]

The essential difference between the two is that QA is performed

before manufacturing takes place, while QC takes place during and

after the manufacturing process.

Statistical Quality Control

Statistical quality control (SQC) is an example of a QC methodology that is used to ensure that products of the highest quality can be

made efficiently. Process controls, like SQC, place an emphasis on

maintaining control of the process to ensure quality. Typically, products have a critical dimension that must be precisely controlled. If

these dimensions fall within a standard deviation range from the

mean (average) dimension (see Figure 2), the process is said to be

controlled. The concept of statistical process control was originated

by Walter Shewart, an engineer at Bell Labs in the 1920’s[13]. The

evolution of quality control methodologies has led to the use of

statistical methods to help identify the root cause of defects. In

many cases, employing quality control methods to identify root

causes of defects is built into a business management theory.

Measurement Tools

The ability to measure and ensure a certain level of quality is only as

good as the tools used to assess the quality of a product. There is a

wide range of tools available to assess the physical attributes of a

component, regardless of its size or shape. For example, measurement of the inner diameter of a hole can be performed using an

adjustable measuring device, such as a caliper or micrometer, or a

pre-measured validation device (commonly referred to as a go/no-go

gage). When measuring dimensions on a smaller scale, a device called

an optical comparator will magnify a given area of the component,

which is then compared to a scaled drawing of the part. When a

dimension needs to be measured to the hundred-thousandth or millionth of an inch, a computer-operated device called a coordinate

measurement machine (CMM) is used to take measurements and

compare them to an electronic version of the component drawing.

COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURING VS. DEFENSE

MANUFACTURING

While manufacturing for the commercial and defense sectors have

some similarities, they are easily distinguished by their differences.

Commercial manufacturing is driven by profit and maintaining or

increasing their market share among the consumer base. In the

defense sector, national defense and system readiness are paramount

issues, as they are the expressed missions of the DoD. It is true that

AMMTIAC A D V A N C E D M A T E R I A L S , M A N U F A C T U R I N G A N D T E S T I N G

Figure 4. Sample Control Chart. 1/1/05 1/2/05 1/3/05 1/4/05 1/5/05 1/6/05 1/7/05

1/8/051/9/05

1/10/05

1/11/05

1/12/05

1/13/05

1/14/05

1/15/05

1/16/05

1/17/05

1/18/05

1/19/05

1/20/05

1/21/05

1/22/051/23/05

1/24/05

1/25/051/26/05

1/27/05

1/28/051/29/051/30/05

1/31/05

Number of Imperfections

Number of Imperfections per Production Run

 Average Daily Imperfections  Sample Mean  Lower Control Limit  Upper Control Limit









6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0











 











  







    

    

    

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14 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 3, Number 3

most defense manufacturing is performed by private contractors and

turning a profit is a goal but, unlike the commercial market, the

defense market is relatively fixed, thus limiting market growth. Also,

all defense products are subject to stringent acquisition rules for contracting, known as the Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation

Supplement (DFARS). Beyond purchasing and contracts, DFARS

regulates many aspects of how defense contractors conduct business,

such as engineering and design, supplier selection and subcontracting, quality metrics, and, depending on the type of contract, the

amount of profit the company may take is also predetermined.

However, regulatory and contractual matters are not the only difference; defense systems are traditionally produced in smaller quantities than commercial products. For example, Boeing has produced

more than 1,400 commercial 747 jumbo jets since their inception

in 1969,[14] whereas they have only produced 744 B-52’s for the

US Air Force[15]. Coupled with high development costs and finite

production runs (the last B-52 was delivered in 1962), the

Department of Defense has opted to use prime contractors (e.g.,

Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman) to produce

aircraft at their own facilities. However, commercial production

facilities strive to run at maximum capacity with little room for

surge. Conversely, military production requires facilities to possess

the capacity to meet any surge caused by the onset of conflict,

retirement of a previous system, or other eventualities. This fundamental difference in production methodology has prompted several commercial manufacturers to cease military production work.

SUMMARY

Each production situation is unique and has its own challenges.

However via thorough planning, careful product design, and due

diligence in production and quality management, any product can

be made to meet and possibly exceed customer requirements.

Designing a product to meet a need starts with identifying the

form, fit, and function of that product. Metrics like the QFD

are instrumental in transforming customer needs into design

requirement and performance specifications. After development

of requirements and specifications, materials and processes are

selected that will meet those requirements. A plan for production

that takes into account the materials, tools, and labor required

for production is imperative to ensure the product meets the customer’s needs. This production plan has a significant influence on

the type of production methodology (high volume/low variety, low

volume/high variety, high volume/high variety) in the production

facility. Selecting appropriate quality assurance measures (quality

control programs, methodologies, and inspection tooling) will

ensure that goods made in the production facility will meet both

the design specifications and performance requirements as set forth

by the design team.

REFERENCES

[1] “Manufacture,” Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, MerriamWebster Online, November 2008.

[2] Akao, Y., “Development History of Quality Function Deployment,”

The Customer Driven Approach to Quality Planning and Deployment,

Minato, Tokyo 107 Japan: Asian Productivity Organization, p. 339, 1994.

[3] Boothroyd, G., P. Dewhurst, and W. Knight, Product Design for

Manufacture and Assembly, Second Edition Revised and Expanded, Marcel

Dekker, 2001.

[4] “RoHS,” National Weights and Measures Laboratory, http://www.

rohs.gov.uk/

[5] “30 Years of Manufacturing Technology”, NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 30,

No. 6, June 2006.

[6] “John T. Parsons,” National Inventors Hall of Fame, http://www.

invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/118.html

[7] “CNC Machine Tool,” How Products are Made, http://www.

madehow.com/Volume-2/CNC-Machine-Tool.html

[8] “The 2003 Inductees: Unimate,” Robot Hall of Fame, http://www.

robothalloffame.org/unimate.html

[9] Ostwald, P.F. and J. Munoz, Manufacturing Processes and Systems,

9th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1997.

[10] F-35 Lightning II Program, Joint Strike Fighter Program, http://

www.jsf.mil.

[11] “The Life of Henry Ford,” The Henry Ford, http://thehenryford.

org/exhibits/hf/chrono.asp.

[12] “Quality Assurance and Quality Control,” American Society for

Quality, http://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/quality-assurancequality-control/overview/overview.html.

[13] “Walter A. Shewhart,” American Society for Quality, http://www.

asq.org/about-asq/who-we-are/bio_shewhart.html.

[14] “747 Model Summary Through October 2008,” Boeing,

http://active.boeing.com/commercial/orders/displaystandardreport.

cfm?cboCurrentModel=747&optReportType=AllModels&cboAll

Model=747&ViewReportF=View+Report

[15] “B-52 Stratofortress,” Air Force Link, http://www.af.mil/factsheets/

factsheet.asp?id=83.

techsolutions 9

Figure 5. F-22 Raptor Assembly. Photo Courtesy of US Air Force

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