## Importation of **Leaves of Allium**  **spp. from**  **Hawaii**

**into the**  **C ontinental United States**  **A Qualitative, Pathway**
**- Initiated Pest Risk Assessment** 

**October 3 ,**  **2013**

**Ver sion**  **1**

**Agency Contact:** Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory Center for Plant Health Science and Technology United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Plant Protection and Quarantine 1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 3 00 Raleigh, NC 27606Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 i 

### Executive Summary
The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHI S) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prepared this risk assessment document to examine plant pest risks associated with importing commerciall y produced leaves of Allium spp
. ( Li liaceae ) for consumption from Hawaii into the continental United States

. Based on the market access request from Hawaii , there are currentl y no known processes and conditions for the production and shipment of leaves of allium

. Based on the scientific literature, port

- of

- entry pest interception data, and information from the Hawaii Department of Agriculture (HDOA) , we developed a list of all potential pests with actionable regulatory

status for the continental United States that are known to occur in Hawaii and that are known to be associated with the commodity plant species anywhere in the world. From this list, we identified and further analyzed five arthropods that have a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the commodity following harvesting from th e field and prior to any post

- harvest processing. Of the pests selected for further anal ys is, we determined that the following are not candidates for risk management, either because there is no endangered area within the continental United States , or they did not meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction : Thrips alliorum (Thys anoptera: Thripidae) and Thrips palmi (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

. We determined that the following pests are candidates for risk management, because they **met the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction**  , and they received an overall **likelihood of introduction** risk rating **above** Negligible:
**Taxo nomy**  **Scientific name Likelihood of Introduction**  **overall rating** Lepidoptera: Acrolepiidae Acrolepiopsis sapporensis (Matsumura) Medium Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) Medium Thysanoptera: Thripidae Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood High Detailed examination and choice of appropriate phy tosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk are part of the pest risk management phase within APHI S and are not addressed in this document.Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 ii 

### Table of Contents
**Executive Summary ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **....................... i**  **1. Introduction ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **............................... 1**  1.1. Background

................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 1 1.2. Initiating event

................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 1 1.3. Determination of the necessity of a weed risk assessment for the commodity

.................... 1 1.4. Description of the pathway

................................ ................................ ................................ ... 2 **2. Pest List and Pest Categorization**  **................................ ................................**  **............................ 3**  2.1. Pests considered but not included on the pest list

................................ ................................ 3 2.2. Pest list

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 6 2.3. Pests sel ected for potential anal ys is

................................ ................................ ..................... 8 **3. Assessing Pest Risk Potential ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **... 8**  3.1. Introduction

................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 8 3.2. Assessment results

................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 9 **4. Sum mary and Conclusions of Risk Assessment**  **................................ ................................**  **... 21**  **5. Acknowledgements ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **................. 22**  **6. Literature Cited ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **...................... 22**  **7. Appen dix A**  **................................ ................................**  **................................ ..............................**  **32** Pests with non

- actionable regulatory status

................................ ................................ .............. 32Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 1 

### 1. Introduction **1.1. Background** This document was prepared b y the Plant Epidemiology and Risk Anal ys is Laboratory of the Center for Plant Health Science and Technology , USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHI S), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), to evaluate the risks associated with the importation of commerciall y produced fresh leaves of all Allium species for consumption from Hawaii into the continental United States

. Inaddition to reviewing the pathway of all species of Allium , Hawaii has indicated specific interest in production and shipment of French chives, A. schoenoprasum L. , which we considered in this assessment

. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides guidance for conducting pest risk anal ys es. The methods used here are consistent with guidelines provided b y the IPPC, specificall y the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) on ‘Pest Risk Analysis for Quarantine Pests, Including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living Modified Organisms’ ( IPPC, 2011 ). The use of biological and phy tosanitary terms is consistent with the ‘Glossary of Phy tosanitary Terms’ ( IPPC, 2012 ). Three stages of pest risk anal ys is are described in international standards: Stage 1, Initiation ; Stage 2, Risk Assessment ; and Stage 3, Risk Managem ent. This document satisfies the requirements of Stages 1 and 2. This is a qualitative risk assessment. We express the risk based on qualitative ratings for the likelihood and consequences of pest introduction via the imported allium from Hawaii

. The details of the methodology and rating criteria are found in the Guidelines for Plant Pest Risk Assessment of Imported Fruit and Vegetable Commodities, Version 6.0 (PPQ, 2012 ). The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that pest. Identification of appropriate phy tosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk is undertaken in Stage 3 (Risk Management) and is not covered in this risk ass essment. Risk management will be specified in a separate document. **1.2. Initiating e** **vent** Currently under regulation 7 CFR 318.13 the entry of Allium leaves from Hawaii into the continental United States is not authorized. This assessment was prepared in response to a request from the Hawaii Department of Agriculture with support from the Hawaii State Plant Health Director to change the Federal Regulation to allow entry (Alontaga, 2011 ). **1.3. Determination of the necessity of a weed risk**  **assessment for the**  **commodity** In some cases, the imported commodity could becom e invasive in the PRA area. The likelihood that this may

happen is evaluated in a weed risk assessment, conducted separatel y from the commodity

risk assessment.Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 2 Weed risk assessments do not need to be conducted for plant species that are widel y established (native or naturalized) or cultivated in the PRA area, for commodities that are already enterable into the PRA area from other countries, or when the plant part(s) cannot easily propagate on their own or be propagated. We determined that a weed risk assessment is not needed for Allium spp. because the proposed commodity does not contain any

propagules (sexual or vegetative) that could lead to the establishment of Allium plants in the United States.
**1. 4**  **. Description of the p**  **athway** The IPPC (201 1 ) defines a pathway as “any means that allows the entry or spread of a pest .” In the context of commodity pest risk assessments, the pathway is the commodity to be imported, together with all the processes the commodity undergoes that may have an impact on pest risk. In this risk assessment , the spec ific pathway of concern is the importation of fresh leaves of species of Allium L. for consumption from Hawaii into the continental United States ; the movement of this commodity

provides a potential pathway for the introduction and/or spread of plant pests

. The following description of this pathway f ocus es on the conditions that may affect plant pest risk , including morphological and physiological characteristics of the commodity, as well processes the commodity will undergo from production in Hawaii through importation and distribution in the continental United States

. These conditions provided the basis for creating the pest list and assessing the likelihood of introduction of the pests selected for further anal ys is ; therefore, all components of the pathway , as they are described below, should be considered mandatory

conditions for importation of the commodity

. 1.4.1 . Description of the c ommodity Hawaii seeks to export the leafy , aboveground portions of Allium spp. to the continental United States. I f all Allium spp. are not acceptable, Hawaii requests specific information regarding French chives, A. schoenoprasum (Wong, 2011 )

. The leaves of French chives, A. scho enoprasum , are described as 6

- 10 inches long, slender , and tubular (Myers and Voss, 1998 ). Both fresh and dried chives are frequently used as garnish and seasoning ( Myers and Voss, 1998 ). We currentl y have no information about production practices for these crops

. 1.4.2. Production and harvest procedures in the exporting area P roduction and harvesting procedures in the expor ting area have not been specified

. 1.4.3. Post

- harvest procedures in the exporting area P ost

- harvest procedures in the exporting area have not been specified.
1.4.4. Shipping and storage conditions Shipping and storage conditions have not been specified

. McGregor (1987) describes shipping conditions for leeks to be bundled, 1

- 2 dozen per bunch, with rubber band, and refrigerated at 0 degrees C and 95

- 100 percent relative humidity

. 1.4.5. Summary

of the pathway In Figure 1, we summarize the pathway of concern: the importation of fresh leaves of Allium species for consumption from Hawaii into the continental United States

.Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 3 **Figure 1.** Summary

of the pathway

for the importation of fresh leaves of species of Allium L. for consumption from H awaii into the continental United States.



### 2. Pest List and Pest Categorization In this section, we identify the plant pests with actionable regulatory status for the continental United States that could potentially become established in the continental United States as a result of the importation of Allium leaves from Hawaii , and we determine which of these pests meet the criteria for further anal ys is. Pests are considered to be of regulatory significance if th ey are actionable at U.S. ports

- of

- entry . Actionable pests include quarantine pests, pests considered for or under official control, and pests that require evaluation for regulatory action. **2.1. Pests considered but not included on the pest list** 2.1.1. Pests with weak evidence for asso ciation with the commodity or for presence in the export area **Acrolepiopsis assectella.** While we found many references indicating that A. assectella (Zeller) ( Lepidoptera: Acrolepiidae ) is established in Hawaii (e.g., Fullaway and Krauss, 1945 ; Mau and Lee, 1995 ), these are misidentification s of A. sapporensis (Gaedike, 1997)

. A crolepiopsi s assectella is not known to be present in Hawaii and therefore w e did not list it below

. **Bactrocera cucurbitae**

. Dry onion ( Allium cepa ) is a doubtful host of B

. cucurbitae Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae) under induced oviposition (McBride and Tanda, 1949, as cited by Dhillon et al., 2005 ). For this reason, we did not include B. cucurbitae on the pest list. **Chrysodeixis chalcites**

. Chrysodeixis chalcites ( Esper) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae ) is a highl y poly phagous pest (CABI, 2012). One database indicates that Allium and A. cepa are hosts (Robinson et al., 2012) but we found no additional information that Allium species are natural hosts for C. chalcites

. Therefore, we did not include this species on the pest list. **Cryptoblabes gnidiella**

. Evidence indicates that C. gnidiella (Millière ) (Lepidoptera: Py ralidae) may damage stored garlic bulbs ( El

- Zemaity et al., 2009 ; S alama, 2008 ). We found no evidencePest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 4 indicating that this species affect s Allium in production fields . Therefore, we did not include this species on the pest list. **Dysmicoccus neobrevipes .**  While Allium cepa is occasionall y listed as a host for D. neobrev ipes Beardsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae ) (e.g., Be n - Dov et al., 2012 ), the original association was based on interception records (Williams, 2004 ). Dysmicoccus neobrevipes has only been intercepted twice in baggage at ports

- of

- entry in the United States (PestID, 2012 ) , which is insufficient evidence for a host association. We found no other evidence for this host ass ociation

. Therefore, we did not include D. neobrevipes on the pest list. **Gryllotalpa africana .**  The host status of Allium cepa for G. africana Palisot de Beauvois ( Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae ) is “ O ther” ( CABI , 2012 ). We found no additional references indicating that G. a

fricana i s a pest of Allium spp. Moreover , mole crickets are root pests, and would not be associated with leaves of the host plant. Consequently , we did not list this pest. **Helicoverpa assulta**

. H

elicoverpa assulta (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a minor pest of Allium spp. (Hill, 1983) but we could not confirm its presence of in Hawaii , except for a mention in the Bishop Museum ( 2002 ) database. Therefore, we did not include this species on the pest list. **Leucania loreyi .**  Fifty ye ars ago , L

. loreyi (Duponchel) ( Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) was reported to be a pest of Allium cepa ( Le Pelley , 1959 ) . M ore recently , sources only indicate that maize and sugar cane are infested by L. loreyi in the field ( El

- Sherif et al., 1972 ). Therefore, we did not include this pes t on the pest list. **Liriomyza huidobrensis.** Liriomyza huidobrensis is a leafmining fly that has repeatedl y been listed as a pest of Allium in Hawaii (Hamasaki et al., 1999; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002; Steck, 2008; Wong, 2011). It is morphologically identical to and sy

nony mous with L. langei ( Spencer , 1973). While L. huidobrensis was thought to be present in California and Hawaii, recent advances in molecular systematics reveal that the leafminer found in California and Hawaii is a separate, cryptic species of L. huidobrensis (Scheffer, 200 0 ; Scheffer and Lewis, 2001; Scheffer et al., 2001). The name L

. huidobrensis has thus been restricted to species from Central and South America, and L

. langei is now used for the species in California and Hawaii (Scheffer and Lewis, 2001). L iriomyza huidobrensis is not currently present any

where in the United States, and we did not include it on the pest list. **Spodoptera littoralis**

. S ome confusion exists about the distribution of S. littoralis (Boisduval ) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in comparison with the distribution of the similar species , S. litura ( CABI, 2012 ). In general, only S. litura is established in the Pacific Islands ( CABI, 2012 ). Thus , we did not list S. littoralis

. **Thrips florum**

. Th e poly

phagous pest T

. florum Schmutz (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is listed as a pest of Allium cepa with unknown context ( CABI, 2012 ). We found no additional information regarding the potential host status of Allium spp. for T. florum . Therefore, we did not include this pest.Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 5 **Mollusks**

. Cornu aspersum Müller (Helicidae ) (action only to FL, AL, PR) , Lissachatina fulica (Bowdich) (Achatinidae) , and Sarasinula plebeia Fischer (Veronicellidae ) are pol yphagous grazers ( CABI, 2012 ). Allium species are listed as “hosts” (e.g., CABI, 2012 ; Gallego and Velez, 1992 ; Raut and Barker, 2002 ) , but pest interceptions since 1984 do not indicate that Allium spp. are a common pathway

for movement of these species (PestID, 2012). Various mollusk species have been intercepted 225 times at US ports of entry associated with Allium sp. (PestID, 2012). However, of the species o f concern in this document, there is onl y one recorded interception of C. aspersum associated with permitted cargo (PestID, 2012) , considered insufficient data for an open pathway

. Thus, we did not include these species on the pest list. **Phytophthora mano ana** 
. While listed as a plant disease occurring on Allium in Hawaii b y Nelson et al. (2009; from the market access request submitted by Hawaii), the authors do not consider P

. manoana Sid. to be a valid species. We found no additional information regarding the status of this species, and therefore did not include it on the pest list. **Phytophthora meadii**

. A llium cepa became infected with Phytophthora meadii McRae via artificial inoculation (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996 , citing Tucker, 1933 )

. Although P. meadii has a broad host range, we found no additional evidence that Allium species are natural hosts

. Therefore, we did not include P. meadii on the pest list. 2.1.2. Organisms with non

- actionable regulatory status We found evidence of the organisms listed in Appendix A being associated with Allium and being present in Hawaii ; however, because these organisms have non

- actionable regulatory status for the continental United States , we did not include them in Table 2 of this risk assessment

. 2.1. 3 . Organisms identified only to the genus level In commodity

import risk assessments, the taxonomic unit for pests selected for evaluation beyond the pest categorization stage is usuall y the species ( IPPC, 2011 ) , as assessments focus on organisms for which b iological information is available. Therefore, generally , we do not assess risk for organisms identified only to the genus level, in particular if the genus in question is reported in the import area. Often there are many s pecies within a genus, and we cannot know if the unidentified species occurs in the import area and, consequentl y, whether it has actionable regulatory

status for the import area. On the other hand, if the genus in question is absent from the import area, any unidentified organisms in the genus can have actionable status; however, because such an organism has not been full y identified, we cannot properly anal yz e its likelihood and consequences of introduction. In light of these issues, we usually do not include organisms identified only to the genus level in the main pest list. In stead, we address them separately in this sub

- section. The information here can be used b y risk managers to determine if measures beyond those intended to mitigate full y identified pests are warranted. Often, how ever, the development of detailed assessments for known pests that inhabit a variety of ecological niches, such as internal fruit feeders or foliage pests, allows effective mitigation measures to eliminate the known organisms as well as similar but incompl etely

identified organisms that inhabit the same niche.**Table 1**  **.** Organisms identified to the genus level that are reported on Allium species in Hawaii and that

have actionable or undetermined regulatory status. **Pest Name Evidence of** 

**presence on Allium**  **in Hawaii**  **Genus**

**present in continental**  **United States**  **? Regulatory** 

**status a**  **Plant part(s)**

**association b**  **On**

**harvested plant**  **part(s)? c**  **Remarks**

**BACTERIA** Xanthomonas sp. Nelson et al.,

2009 Yes

( Schwartz and Gent, 2011 ) U Leaf ( Schwartz and Gent, 2011 ) Yes

**NEMATODE S**  Meloidogyne sp. (Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae ) Nelson et al.,

2009 Yes

( Walters and Barker, 1994 ) U Roots ( Walters and Barker, 1994 ) No

Paratrichodorus sp. ( Triplonchida : Trichodoridae ) Hamasaki et al.,

1999 Yes ( Crow,

2004 ) U Roots ( Crow, 2004 ) No

a A= Actionable, U=Undetermined. If the genus does not occur in the continental United States , the organism has actionable status. If the genus occurs in the continental United States , the organism has undetermined regulatory status, because we cannot know if the unidentified species is one that occurs in the continental United States

. b The plant part(s) listed are those for the plant species under analysis. If the information is extrapolated, such as from plant part association on other plant species, this is noted.
c “Yes” indicates the pest has a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the harvested plant part(s).

**2.2. Pest l** **ist** In Table 2, we list the actionable pests associated with leaves of Allium species that occur in Hawaii

. The list comprises those actionable pests that occur in Hawaii on any host and are reported to be associated with Allium species, whether in Hawaii or elsewhere in the world. For each pest , we indicate 1) the part of the imported plant species with which the pest is generally associated, and 2) whether the pest has a reasonable likelihood of being associated , in viable form, with the commodity following harvesting from the field and prior to any post

- harvest processing

. We developed this pest list based on the scientific literature, port

- of

- entry pest interception data, and information provided by the government o f Hawaii

. Pests in shaded rows are pests identified for further evaluation , as we consider them reasonabl y likely to be associated with the harvested commodity ; w e summarize these pests in a separate table (Table 3 ).Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 7 **Table 2** 

. Actionable p ests reported on Allium spp. (in any country) and present in Hawaii (on any host)

. **Pest Name Evidence of** 

**presence in Hawaii**  **Host status 1**  **Plant part(s) association**  **2 On harvested** 

**plant part(s)?**  **3 Remarks** 

**ARTHROPODS Diptera: Syrphidae**  Eumerus aurifrons (Wiedemann) Wong, 2011 Type 2 (Wong, 2011 ) Bulb, root

( Wong, 2011 ) No May infest damaged host plants ( Wong, 2011 )

. **Lepidoptera: Acrolepiidae**  Acrolepiopsis sapporensis (Matsumura) Hamasaki et al.,

1999 ; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002 ; Landry, 200 7 ; Wong, 2011 Type 1 (Hamasaki

et al., 1999 ; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002 ; Landry, 2007 ; Robinson et al., 2001 ; Wong, 2011 ) Leaf,

sometimes bulb ( Hong, 1994; Landry, 2007 ) Yes

**Lepidoptera: Noctuidae** Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) Hill, 1983 ;

NAPIS, 2012; Zhang, 1994 Type 1 (Hill, 1983 ;

Robinson et al., 2001 ) Leaf ( Hill,

1983 ) Yes A minor pest of Allium spp. ( Hill, 1983 )

. **Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae** Atractomorpha sinensis Bolivar Kessing et al.,

2007 ; Kobayashi and Bitt enbender, 2002 Type 1 (Kobayashi

and Bittenbender, 2002 ) Leaf, stem

( Kessing et al., 2007 ) No . T his large,

very mobile grasshopper is highly unlikely to remain with harvested commodity. **Thysanoptera: Thripidae** Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood CABI, 2010;

Ludwig et al., n.d. Type 1 (Kumar et

al., 2010 ) Leaf, stem

( Kumar et al., 2010 ) Yes Present in Florida (Kumar et al., 2010)

.

1 T ype 1 is a natural host, i.e., a plant species that becomes infested or infected by a plant pest in nature under natural conditions (e.g., natural, cultivated and/or unmanaged plants) , and the plant pest is sustained on that plant species. Ty pe 2 is a conditional host, i.e. a plant species that is only a host or a non

- host under certain conditions . Ty pe 3 is a natural non

host (pests for which the plant has this status are not included in the pest list). Type 4 refers to situations when the plant is not a food source but serves as a fomite, which is an object or material (including a harvested plant part) that may be contaminated with a pest and that could transmit that pest from one place to another

. 2 The plant part(s) listed are those for the plant species under analysis. If the information is extrapolated, such as from plant part association on other plant species, this is noted. 3 “Yes” indicates simply that the pest has a re asonable likelihood of being associated with the harvested commodity ; the level of pest prevalence on the harvested commodity (low, medium, or high) is qualitatively assessed in Risk Element A1 as part of the likelihood of introduction assessment (section 3).Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 8 **Pest Name Evidence of** 

**presence in Hawaii**  **Host status 1**  **Plant part(s) association**  **2 On harvested** 

**plant part(s)?**  **3 Remarks** 
Thrips alliorum (Priesner) Kobayashi and

Bittenbender, 2002 Type 1 ( Lewis,

1997 ; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002 ) Leaf ( Lewis,

1997 ) Yes

Thrips palmi Karny Johnson, 1986 ;

Nakahara, 1994 Ty

pe 1 ( Capinera, 2008 ; Johnson, 1986 ; PestID, 2012; Seal, 2004 ) Leaf ( Capinera,

2008 ) Yes

**NEMATODE Tylenchida:**  **Pratylenchidae** Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne Sipes et al., 2001 Type 1 (Keetch and Buckley, 1984 ) Roots

( O'Bannon, 1977 ) No

**2. 3**  **. P**  **ests selected for**  **potential analysis** 
We identif

ied five pests that are potential candidates for further mitigation (Table 3 ). All of th o se organisms are actionable pests for the continental United States and have a reasonable likelihood of being associated with Allium leaves at the time of harvest and remaining with the commodity , in viable form, throughout the harvesting process

. **Table 3**  **.** Arthropod p ests selected for further analysis

. **Taxonomy Scientific Name**  Lepidoptera: Acrolepiidae Acrolepiopsis sapporensis Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Spodoptera litura Thysanoptera: Thripidae Scirtothrips dorsalis Thrips alliorum Thrips palmi


### 3. Assessing Pest Risk Potential
**3.1 .**  **Introduction** For each pest selected for further anal ys is, we estimate its overall pest risk potential. Risk is described b y the likelihood of an adverse event , the magnitude of the consequences , and uncertainty . In this risk assessment, we first determine for each pest if there is an endangered area within the import area. The endangered area is defined as the portion of the import area where ecological factors favor the establishment of the pest and where the presence of the pest will result in economically important losses. Once an endangered area has been determined, the overall risk of each pest is then determined b y two separate components: 1) the likelihood of its introduction into the endangered area on the imported commodity (i.e., the likelihood of anPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 9 adverse event), and 2) the consequences of its introduction (i.e., the magnitude of the consequences). In general, we assess both of these components for each pest. However, if we determine that the risk of either of these components is negligible, it is not necessary to assess the other, as the overall pest risk potential would be negligible regardless of the result of the second component. In other words, i f we determine that the introduction of a pest is unlikely to have unacceptable consequences, we do not assess its likelihood of being introduced. Likewise, if we determine there is negligible likelihood of a pest being introduced, we do not assess its con sequences of introduction. The likelihood and consequences of introduction are assessed using different approaches. For the consequences of introduction, we determine if the pest meets the threshold (Yes/No) of likely causing unacceptable consequences of introduction. This determination is based on estimating the potential consequences of introduction in terms of physical losses (rather than monetary losses). The threshold is based on a proportion of damage rather than an absolute value or amount. Pests that are like to impact at least 10 percent of the production of one or more hosts are deemed “threshold pests.” For likelihood of introduction, which is based on the likelihoods of entry and establishment, we qualitatively

assess risk using the ratings Negligible, Low, Medium, and High. The risk factors comprising the model for likelihood of introduction are interdependent and, therefore, the model is multiplicative rather than additive. Thus, if any one risk factor is rated as Negligible, then the overall likelihood will be Negligible. For the overall likelihood of introduction risk rating, we define the different categories as follows: High: P est introduction is highl y likely to occur. Medium: Pest introduction is possible , but for that to happen, the exact combination of required events needs to occur

. Low: Pest introduction is unlikely to occur because one or more of the required events are unlikel y to happen, or the full combination of required events is unlikely to align properl y in time and space

. Negligible: Pest introduction is highly unlikel y to occur given the exact combination of events required for successful introduction

. **3.2. Assessment results** 3.2. 1

. Acrolepiopsis sapporensis We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium

. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. We determined that the introduction of Acrolepiopsis sapporensis in the continental United States is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. **Determination of the portion of the continental United States**  **endangered by Acrolepiopsis**  **sapporensis** Climatic suitability Acrolepiopsis sapporensis has been reported from Russia (Sattler,Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 10 1985), Korea (Ahn et al., 1991), northern Japan (Ohtomo et al., 2001 ) , and Hawaii ( Sattler, 1985 ). Given this temperate to tropical distribution, we estimate this species could establish in Plant Hardiness Zones 5

- 11 in the continental United States

. This species is also a pest in greenhouses (Lim et al., 2012). Potential hosts at risk in PRA Area Hosts are restricted to species of Allium (Liliaceae) (Landry , 2007). Allium species at risk may be found throughout the continental United States (NRCS, 2013 ). Economically important hosts at riska Onion, garlic , and leek production are economically important in the United States (NASS, 2013)

. Pest potential on economicall y important hosts at risk Acrolepiopsis sapporensis is considered a significant pest of “the onion group” of plants in Asia (Landry , 20 07). **Defined Endangered Area**  The endangered area is likely to encompass Allium species within Plant Hardiness Zones 5

- 11 in the continental United States.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and non

market (environmental) plants ( IPPC, 2011 ).

**Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Acrolepiopsis sapporensis**  **into the**  **endangered area via the importation of**  **Allium from**  **Hawaii Risk Element**  **Risk Rating Uncertainty**  **Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary) Likelihood of Entry**  Risk Element A1: Pest prevalence on the harvested commodity (= the baseli ne rating for entry) High MU Acrolepiopsis sapporensis is a pest of Allium species in Hawaii, is known to feed on the leaves , and can be found mining and boring the leaves, stem, bulb, and flower buds (Landry , 2007). It is generally concealed within the leaves (Landry , 2007) and may

not be detected at harvest time. Risk Element A2: Likelihood of surviving post

- har

vest processing before shipment High U No post

- harvest processing procedures were described; we did not change the previous rating. Risk Element A3: Likelihood of surviving transport and storage conditions of the consignment High U No transport and storage procedures were described that may mitigate the presence of this species on Allium

. Risk Element A: Overall risk rating for likelihood of entry High N/A
**Likelihood of Establishment** Risk Element B1: Likelihood Low MC Larvae or pupae may be foundPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 11 **Risk Element Risk Rating**  **Uncertainty Rating**  **a Justification for rating and** 

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary)** of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area associated with the Allium leaves (Landry , 2007). For development to be completed, the adult must mate and find suitable hosts for egg laying, and climatic conditions must be suitable. A mated pair must be introduced and emerge at the same life stage and in close proximity to each other in order for population development to occur (Landolt et al., 1984). As with the similar species A. assectella (Jenner et al., 2010), mortality rates in the field for A. sapporensis larvae are probabl y high . Mortality is likely to be even greater on harvested and shipped Allium leaves , thereby

further reducing the likelihood of introduction of mated pair

. Risk Element B2: Likelihood of arriving in the endangered area High C The endangered area includes m ore than 25 percent of the U

. S

. populatio n (PERAL , 2008 )

. Risk Element B: Combined likelihood of establishment Medium N/A
**Overall Likelihood of Introduction** Combined likelihoods of entry and establishment Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
**Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Acrolepiopsis sapporensis**  **into the**  **continental United States (i.e., the PRA area)**  **Criteria Meets**  **criteria? (Y/N)**  **Uncertainty**

**Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary) Direct Impacts**  Risk Element C1: Damage potential in the endangered area Yes MU Acrolepiopsis sapporensis is an economicall y important pest (Shimizu and Kuwahara, 2009). Hong (1994) documented yi eld losses of 6.3 to 35.5 percent in Allium species. WhilePest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 12 **Criteria Meets**  **criteria? (Y/N)**  **Uncertainty**

**Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary)** several other Acrolepiopsis species feed on Allium species in the continental United States, it is unclear whether or not current management schemes would be effective. Ongoing research on effective pest management strategies in Korea indicate that current pest control strategies for this species in Allium may

not be as effective as in other systems (Park et al., 2012) , and additional measures may

be needed. Risk Element C2: Spread potential Yes MU Natural dispersal capabilities of A. sapporensis are unclear , but similar species disperse naturall y in search of hosts throughout Canada , or recently found as newl y invasive species within North America (Landry , 2007)

. Risk Element C: Pest introduction is likely

to cause unacceptable direct impacts Yes N/A

**Trade Impacts** Risk Element D1: Export markets at risk N/A N/A
Risk Element D2: Likelihood of trading partners imposing additional phy

tosanitary requirements N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely to cause significant trade impacts N/A N/A

**Conclusion** Is the pest likely

to cause unacceptable consequences in the PRA area? Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2. 2

. Spodoptera litura We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium

. We present the results of this assessment in the table below.Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 13 We determined that the establishment of S

. litura in the continental United States is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. **Determination of the portion of the continental United States**  **endangered by Spodoptera**  **litura** Climatic suitability Di s tribution records in the literature reflect some confusion regarding the

presence of S. litura vs. S. littoralis . At this time, S. litura is known to be established throughout tropical and temperate Asia, Australasia , and the Pacific Islands (CABI, 2013; E PPO, n.d.). Based on a comparison with USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008), it is estimated that S. litura may

establish in zones 7

- 11 in the continental United States. Potential hosts at risk in PRA Area Spodoptera litura feeds on leav es of more than 120 host plants (EPPO,

n.d.) , and many would be available throughout the relevant region. Economically important hosts at riska E conomically important hosts of S. litura in the continental United States include apple (

Malus domestica ), beans ( Phaseolus sp.), Brassica spp., citrus/lemon ( Citrus spp., C. limon ), corn (Zea mays ), cotton ( Gossypium sp. ), onion (

Allium cepa ), potato (Solanum tuberosum ), soy bean ( Glycine max), sweet potato (

Ipomoea batatas ), and tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum ) (Venette et al., 2003). Pest potential on economicall y important hosts at risk Spodoptera litura can strip host plants of their leaves (Venette et al.,

2003)

.

**Defined Endangered Area**  The endangered area of the continental United States includes the hosts

listed above that are present in USDA P lant H ardiness Z ones 7

- 11.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and non

market (environmental) plants ( IPPC, 2011 ).

**Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Spodoptera litura**  **into the endangered area**  **via the importation of Allium**  **from Hawaii**  **Risk Element Risk Rating**  **Uncertainty Rating**  **a Justification for rating and** 

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary) Likelihood of Entry**  Risk Element A1: Pest prevalence on the harvested commodity

(= the baseline rating for entry) High M C Spodoptera litura is a significant pest on onion until harvest time (Chandio, 1999). We have no information on standard industry field practices that may

reduce the prevalence of this pest. Risk Element A2: Likelihood of surviving post

- har

vest processing before shipment High MU No standard post

- harvest procedures have been indicated. While adults and older larvae are unlikely to be associated with leaves harvested during daylightPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 14 **Risk Element Risk Rating**  **Uncertainty Rating**  **a Justification for rating and** 

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary)** hours (CABI, 2013), eggs and yo ung larvae may

be associated with the leaves. Risk Element A3: Likelihood of surviving transport and storage conditions of the consignment High MU No transport and storage procedures were described that may mitigate the presence of this species on Allium

. Risk Element A: Overall risk rating for likelihood of entry High N/A
**Likelihood of Establishment** Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area Low M C Due to the large size of the larvae, eggs are the most likely

life stage to be imported with Allium leaves. For establishment to occur, eggs must hatch, and larvae must be able to feed sufficientl y t o develop, find suitable pupation sites in the soil, emerge , find hosts and mate (CABI, 2013)

. The mated pair s must be introduced and emerge at the same life stage and in close proximity to each other in order for population development to occur (Landolt et al., 1984). Risk Element B2: Likelihood of arriving in the endangered area High C That area includes more than 25 percent of the U

. S

. population (PERAL , 2008 )

. Risk Element B: Combined likelihood of establishment Medium N/A
**Overall Likelihood of Introduction** Combined likelihoods of entry and establishment Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
**Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Spodoptera litura**  **into the continental**  **United States (i.e., the PRA area)**  **Criteria Meets**  **criteria? (Y/N)**  **Uncertainty**

**Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary) Direct Impacts**  Risk Element C1: Damage Yes MC Spodoptera litura feed s and reproduce sPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 15 **Criteria Meets**  **criteria? (Y/N)**  **Uncertainty**

**Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary)** p otential in the endangered area on a wide variety of cultivated and wild host plants. Increasingl y frequent outbreaks of S. litura in China have been occurring in recent years, regardless of various control measures in place (Huang et al., 2006). Insecticide usage must be closel y monitored in order to minimize resistance and appl y at the appropriate intervals for successful control ( Saleem et al., 2008). Itis likely that control measures currently used in the United States would need to be altered in order to prevent significant economic impacts due to infestations of S. litura . These additional monitoring and control measures would likely

result in significant increases in the costs of production. Risk Element C2: Spread potential Yes M C O ther Spodoptera species migrate seasonall y in the United States (Heppner, 1998) , so S. litura seems likely to be able to spread throughout the continental United States

. Risk Element C: Pest introduction is likely

to ca use unacceptable direct impacts Yes N/A

**Trade Impacts** Risk Element D1: Export markets at risk N/A N/A
Risk Element D2: Likelihood of trading partners imposing additi onal phy

tosanitary requirements N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely to caus e significant trade impacts N/A N/A

**Conclusion** Is the pest likely

to cause unacceptable consequences in the PRA area? Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=UncertainPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 16 3.2. 3

. Scirtothrips dorsalis We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be High

. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. We determined that the establishment of Scirtothrips dorsalis in the continental United States is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. **Determination of the portion of the continental United States**  **endangered by Scirtothrips**  **dorsalis** Nietschke et al. (2008) conducted research regarding the threat of establishment of S. dorsalis in the continental United States. This research combined information based on the weather

-based mapping tool, NAPPFAST, with the known impacts and potential imp acts on host plants considered to be economically important in the United States. The final risk map as generated by Nietschke et al. (2008) is shown in Figure 2. Major crops considered to be at risk include peppers, eggplant, and tomatoes , which are predominantly grown in California and southern Florida (Nietschke et al., 2008)

. The potential for seasonal migration and greenhouse infestations were not included in the development of this model (Nietschke et al., 2008)

.

**Figure 2**

. Risk map for S. dorsalis based on generation potential, minimum temperature exclusion, and host density (Nietschke et al., 2008)

.Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 17 **Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Scirtothrips dorsalis**  **into the endangered**  **area via the importation of**  **Allium from**  **Hawaii Risk Element**  **Risk Rating Uncertainty**  **Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary) Likelihood of Entry**  Risk Element A1: Pest prevalence on the harvested commodity

(= the baseline rating for entry) High MC Scirtothrips dorsalis is a pest of Allium species, primaril y feeding on leaves (Kumar et al., 2010). No standard industry

field practices are being considered. Risk Element A2: Likelihood of surviving post

- harvest processing before shipment High MC No standard post

- harvest procedures have been indicated. The small size of these insects further reduces the likelihood of detection through inspection (EPPO, 2005). Risk Element A3: Likelihood of surviving transport and storag e conditions of the cons ignment High MC No transport and storage procedures were described that may mitigate the presence of this species on Allium

. Risk Element A: Overall risk rating for likelihood of entry High N/A
**Likelihood of Establishment** Risk Element B1: Likelihood of coming into contact with host material in the endangered area High C Scirtothrips dorsalis is a poly phagous, mobile pest (Mound and Palmer, 1981) , and suitable hosts are widel y and regularly distributed throughout the endangered area (NRCS, 2013)

. Risk Element B2: Likelihood of arriving in the endangered area High C The endangered area contains more than 25 percent of the U

. S

. population (PERAL , 2008 )

. Risk Element B: Combined likelihood of establishment High N/A
**Overall Likelihood of Introduction** Combined likelihoods of entry and establishment High N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=UncertainPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 18 **Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Scirtothrips dorsalis**  **into the**  **continental United States**  **(i.e., the PRA area) Criteria**  **Meets criteria?**  **(Y/N) Uncertainty** 

**Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and**  **other notes as necessary) Direct Impacts**  Risk Element C1: Damage p otential in the endangered area Yes C Yield loss in Capsicum annuum production can reach as high as 74 percent (Kumar et al., 2013). Development of an effective management plan in the United States is still ongoing , and S. dorsalis is a significant pest in Florida (Kumar et al., 2010 ; Kumar et al., 2013 ). Risk Element C2: Spread potential Yes C Scirtothrips dorsalis was detected in Florida in 2005 , and has been expanding its worldwide range in recent ye ars , most notably in the Middle East , Africa (EPPO, 2005) , and the Caribbean (Kumar et al., 2013)

. Risk Element C: Pest introduction is likely

to ca use unacceptable direct impacts Yes N/A

**Trade Impacts** Risk Element D1: Export markets at risk N/A N/A
Risk Element D2: Likelihood of trading partners imposing additional phy

tosanitary requirements N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely to cause significant trade impacts N/A N/A

**Conclusion** Is the pest likely

to cause unacceptable consequences in the PRA area? Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2. 4

. Thrips alliorum We determined that the establishment of Thrips alliorum in the continental United States is unlikely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. Because we determined there would not be significant impacts, no analysis of the likelihood of introduction was necessary

.Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 19 **Determination of the portion of the**  **continental United States endangered by**  **Thrips alliorum**  Climatic suitability Thrips alliorum has been reported from China, Japan, Korea (Hua, 2000), and

Hawaii (Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002) . A comparison with USDA P lant H ardiness Z ones (Magarey , 2008) indicates that this species may establish in Zones 5

- 11 in the continental United States. Potential hosts at risk in PRA Area Allium species are the only hosts for T. alliorum (Hua, 2000) and are present throughout the continental United States (Kartesz, 2013). Economically important hosts at riska Onion , garlic, and and leek are economically important crop s in the United States (NASS, 2013)

. Pest potential on economicall y important hosts at risk Li et al. (1997) classifi ed T. alliorum primarily as “present, but not an important

pest.” In six of the analyzed provinces in southern China, T. alliorum is classified as “important locally, or only in some years” (Li et al., 1997). Thrips alliorum caus es “silvery mottles or blotches on onion” in East Asia (Lewis, 1997) , which may be important for commercial production of Allium leaves. It is also listed as a known pests of onion in Hawaii (Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002)

. Therefore, with moderate uncertainty, we estimate that T. alliorum ha s pest potential on Allium in the United States. **Defined Endangered**  **Area** The endangered area consists of Allium species within P lant H ardiness Z ones

5

- 11 in the continental United States.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and non

market (environmental) plants ( IPPC, 2011 ).
**Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Thrips alliorum**  **into the continental**  **United States (i.e.,**  **the PRA area) Criteria**  **Meets criteria?**  **(Y/N) Uncertainty** 

**Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and other n**  **otes as necessary) Direct Impacts**  Risk Element C1: Damage p otential in the endangered area N o MC In the literature, T. alliorum is not considered a significant pest of onions. Multiple other species that may overlap in distribution with T. alliorum are considered to be important pests requiring mitigation. Some of these include species that are already regularl y controlled for in the continental United States , including Frankliniella occ identalis and Thrips tabaci ( Sparks and Liu, 2011 ). C ontrol measures already in use in AlliumPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 20 **Criteria Meets**  **criteria? (Y/N)**  **Uncertainty**

**Rating a**  **Justification for rating and**

**explanation of uncertainty (and other n**  **otes as necessary)** production in the United States are highl y likely to be effective against this species, should it become established. Risk Element C2: Spread potential N/A N/A
Risk Element C: Pest introduction is likely

to ca use unacceptable direct impacts No N/A

**Trade Impacts** Risk Element D1: Export markets at risk No C Thrips alliorum is unlikely to be associated with Allium bulbs without leafy green parts attached. At least “some” fresh onion exports may include edible green top s, however (Burden et al., 2012). In 2010, total exports of fresh onion were valued at $202.8 million, with $126.1 million exported to Canada, and $14.1 million exported to Mexico (Burden et al., 2012), where T. alliorum is not known to occur. Risk Element D2: Like lihood of trading partners imposing additional phy

tosanitary requirements No MC Thrips alliorum is not listed by any country as a harmful organism (PeXD, 2013) . Neither Canada nor Mexico appear concerned about thrips species, as neither country

has Thrips spp. or Thripidae listed as potential harmful organisms (PeXD, 2013). Risk Element D: Pest is likely to cause significant trade impacts No N/A

**Conclusion** Is the pest likely

to cause unacceptable consequences in the PRA area? No N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=UncertainPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 21 3.2. 5

. Thrips palmi A full pest anal ys is is not needed for T. palmi because we determined that no endangered area exists in the continental United States. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. **Determination of the portion of the continental United States**  **endangered by Thrips palmi**  Climatic suitability Thrips palmi is distributed throughout tropical regions in Asia, Africa,

South America, Oceania, and the Caribbean (CABI, 2013) , as well as Hawaii and southern Florida ( Capinera, 2010; Seal, 2001 ). While T

. palmi is an important greenhouse pest, and there is some concern that it may infest protected environments any where, it is estimated that outdoor establishment of permanent populations would be restricted to tropical regions (Capinera, 2010)

. Permanent populations have onl y been documented in Florida south of Orlando (Capinera, 2010). Initially detected in 1990 ( Capinera, 2010 ), it is not under official control. Sur veys conducted over the last 20 years indicate that T. palmi is likely established throughout the climate zone appropriate for population development. The possibility of T. palmi populations overwintering in greenhouses and then moving outdoors in summer ( e.g., Kawai, 1990; McDonald et al., 1999) has not been realized. **Defined Endangered Area**  Based on the current distribution of T. palmi in the continental United

States and lack of official control , we determined that the endangered area is negligible.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and non

market (environmental) plants ( IPPC, 2011 ). 

### 4. Summary and Conclusions of Risk Assessment Of the organisms associated with Allium spp. worldwide and reported in Hawaii , we identified organisms that are actionable pests for the continental United States and have a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the commodity following harvesting from the field and prior to any post

- harvest processing. We f urther evaluated these organisms for their l ikelihood of introduction (i.e., entry

plus establishment) and their potential c onsequences of introduction. Pests that meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction and receive an overall likelihood of introduction risk rating above Negligible are candidates for risk management. The results of this risk assessment represent a baseline estimate of the risks associated with the import commodity pathway as described in section 1.4

. O f the pests selected for further anal ys is, we determined that the pest s identified in Table 4 are not candidates for risk management, either because no portion of the continental United States is likely to be endangered by

the pest s or they

do not meet the threshold to be likely to cause unacceptable consequences of introduction. We summarize the results for each pest in Table 4

. All the other pests selected for further anal ys is are candidates for risk management , because they meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction, and they receivedPest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 22 an overall likelihood of introduction risk rating above Negligible. We summarize the results for each pest in Table 5

. Detailed examination and choice of appropriate phy tosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk are part of the pest risk management phase within APHI S and are not addressed in this document.

**Table 4**  **.** Summary

for pests selected for further evaluation and determined not to be candidates for risk management

. **Pest Reason the pest is**  **not a candidate for** 

**risk management Uncertainty statement**  **(optional) a**  Thrips alliorum Does not meet threshold to be likely to cause unacceptable Consequenc es of Introduction Thrips palmi No endangered area exists within the PRA

area
aThe uncertainty statement , if includ ed, identifies the most im portant source ( s ) of uncertainty

.

**Table 5**  . Summary

for pests selected for further evaluation and determined to be candidates for risk management

. All of these pests meet the threshold for unacceptable c onsequences of introduction. **Pest Likelihood of Introduction overall**  **rating Uncertainty statement**  **(optional) a**  Acrolepiopsis sapporensis Medium Spodoptera litura Medium Scirtothrips dorsalis High

aThe uncertainty statement, if included, identifies the most important source(s) of uncertainty.



### 5 **. Ack nowledgements** 
**Authors** Cy nthia Landry , Risk Analyst, Ecologista
**Reviewers** Shawn Robertson, Risk Analyst, Entomologista

Lisa M. Ferguson , Risk Analyst, Plant Pathologist a

a Plant Epidemiology

and Risk Analysis Laboratory , USDA

- APHIS

- PPQ



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### 7 **. Appendix A** 
**Pests with non**
**- actionable regulatory status**  We found some evidence of the below listed organisms being associated with Allium leaves and being present in the Hawaii ; however, because these organisms have non

- actionable regulatory status for the continental United States , we did not list them in Table 2 of this risk assessment. Below we list these organisms along with the references supporting their potential association with Allium leaves , their potential presence in Hawaii , their presence in the continental United States (if applicable), and their regulatory status for the continental United States

. For organisms not present in the continental United States , we also provide justification for their non

- actionable status. **Organism Evidence and/or other notes**  **ARTHROPODS Acari: Acaridae**  Rhizoglyphus echinopus Fumouze & Robin Annecke and Moran, 1982 ; CABI, 2012 ; Koch and Waterhouse, 2000 **Acari: Tetranychidae** Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) CABI, 2012 ; Maes, 2004 ; PestID , 2012 Tetranychus desertorum Banks Bolland et al., 1998 ; PestID, 2012 Tetranychus neocaled

onicus Andre Bolland et al., 1998 ; PestID, 2012 Tetranychus urticae Koch Bolland et al., 1998 ; Jones et al., 1992 ; Maes, 2004 ; PestID, 2012 **Coleoptera: Anobiidae** Stegobium paniceum (Linnaeus) CABI, 2012 **Coleoptera: Curculionidae** Listroderes costirostris obliquus Klug CABI, 1994 ; CABI, 2012 ; Koch and Waterhouse, 2000 ; PestID, 2012 ; Prado, 1991 **Dermaptera: Carcinophoridae** Euborellia annulipes (Lucas) Capinera, 1999 ; Hill, 1983 **Diptera: Agromyzidae** Liriomyza brassicae (Riley) Mau et al., 2007b ; PestID, 2012 ; Wongsiri, 1991 Liriomyza langei Frick Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Steck, 2008 ; Wong, 2011. There is some confusion regarding the identification of L. huidobrensis and L. langei in Hawaii (see discussion in section 2.1.1). It is concluded that the species found in HI is the non

actionable species L. langei

. Liriomyza sativae Blanchard CABI, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Wong, 2011 Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) CABI, 2012 ; Diez et al., 2007 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Spencer, 1973Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 33 **Organism Evidence and/or other notes**  **Diptera: Anthomyiidae** Delia (Hylemya ) platura (Meigen) CABI, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Hill, 1983 ; Kessing and Mau, 1991 ; Koch and Waterhouse, 2000 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Wong, 2011 H ylemya antiqua (Meigen) (= Delia antiqua ) Avidov and Harpaz, 1969 ; CABI, 2012 ; Hill, 1983 ; Prado, 1991 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Hylemyia cilicrura (Rondani) Avidov and Harpaz, 1969 ; Swezey, 1951 **Diptera: Muscidae**  Atherigona orientalis (Schiner) (= A. excisa Thomson) Anonymous, n.d. ; CABI, 2012 ; PestID, 2012 ; Yunus and Hua, 1980 **Diptera: Syrphidae** Eumerus figurans Walker Hill, 1987 ; Wong, 2011 **Hemiptera: Aphididae** Aphis fabae Scopoli Blackman and Eastop, 2000 ; CABI, 2012 Aphis gossypii Glover CABI, 2012 Aulacorthum solani (Kaltenbach) CABI, 2012 ; Stoetzel, 1992 ; PestID, 2012 Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach) Hill, 1983 ; Liu and Sparks, 2011 ; Mau et al., 2007a Micromyzus formosanus Takahashi Fullaway and Krauss, 1945 ; PestID, 2012 Myzus persicae Sulzer Blackman and Eastop, 2000 ; CABI, 2012 ; Hill, 1983 ; Maes, 2004 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Neotoxoptera formosana (Takahashi) Blackman and Eastop, 2000 ; Foottit et al., 2011 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002 ; PestID, 2012 ; Wong, 2011 Neotoxoptera oliveri (Essig) Blackman and Eastop, 2000 ; Foottit et al., 2011 ; PestID, 2012 **Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae** Phenacoccus parvus Morrison Ben

- Dov et al., 2012 ; Williams and Hamon, 1994 Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret) Ben

- Dov et al., 2012 ; PestID, 2012 **Lepidoptera: Noctuidae** Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) CABI, 2012 ; Hill, 1983 ; Koch and Waterhouse, 2000 ; Prado, 1 991 ; Robinson et al., 2001 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) CABI, 2012 ; Koch and Waterhouse, 2000 ; Prado, 1991 ; Robinson et al., 2001 Mythimna unipuncta Haworth CABI, 2012 Peridroma saucia (Hubner) CABI, 2012 ; Koch and Waterhouse, 2000 ; Mau et al., 2007c ; PestID, 2012 ; Prado, 1991 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Spodoptera exigua (Hubner) CABI, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Hill, 1983 ; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002 ; PestID , 2012 ; Robinson et al., 2001 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Wong, 2011 Trichoplusia ni (Hubner) CABI, 2012 ; Maes, 2004 ; Gallego and Velez, 1992 ; PestID, 2012 **Lepidoptera: Pyralidae** Cadra cautella (Walker) Solis, 2006 ; PestID, 2012 Cadra figulilella (Gregson) Solis, 2006 ; PestID, 2012 **Lepidoptera: Tineidae** Setomorpha rutella Zeller PestID, 2012 ; Rob inson et al., 2001 **Thysanoptera: Thripidae** Chaetanaphothrips orchidii (Moulton) CABI, 2012Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 34 **Organism Evidence and/or other notes**  Frankliniella fusca (Hinds) CABI, 201 2 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) CABI, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Lewis, 1997 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Wong, 2011 Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) CABI, 2012 ; Gahukar, 2004 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Frankliniella williamsi Hood Maes, 2004 ; PestID, 2012 Thrips tabaci Lindeman CABI, 2012 ; Gahukar, 2004 ; Lewis, 1997 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Hill, 1983 ; Kobayashi and Bittenbender, 2002 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Wong, 2011 **FUNGI** Alternaria alternata (Fr : Fr.) Keissl. (Ascomycetes, Pleosporales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Valerin, 1994

Alternaria dauci (J. G. Kühn) J.W. Groves & Skolko CABI, 2012 Alternaria porri (Ellis) Cif. (Ascomycetes, Pleosporales) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Holliday, 1980 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Aspergillus niger Tiegh (Ascomycetes, Eurotiales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Valerin, 1994 Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbr. (Anamorph: Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.) (Basidiomycetes, Polyporales) CABI, 2012 ; Crous et al., 2000 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Singh, 1980 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008
Botryosphaeria rhodina (Berk. & M .A. Curtis) Arx (Anamorph: Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & Maubl.) (Ascomycetes, Dothideales) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel (Anamorph: Botrytis cinerea Pers.: Fr.) (Ascomycetes, Helotiales) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamas aki et al., 1999 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008
Botryotinia squamosa Vienn.

- Bourg. (Anamorph: Botrytis squamosa J.C. Walker) (Ascomycetes, Helotiales) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008
Botrytis aclad

a Fresen. (= B. allii Munn.) (Ascomycetes, Helotiales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Valerin, 1994 Chaetomium globosum Kunze : Fr. (Ascomycetes, Sordariales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelso n et al., 2009 ; Shaw, 1973 Choanephora cucurbitarum (Berk. & Ravenel) Thaxt. (Zygomycetes, Mucorales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Peregrine and Ahmad, 1982 ; Singh, 1980 Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen. ) G.A. De Vries (Ascomycetes, Mycosphaerellales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Shaw, 1973Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 35 **Organism Evidence and/or other notes**  Cochliobolus lunatus R.R. Nelson & Haasis (Anamorph: Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn) (Ascomycetes, Pleosporales) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012

Colletotrichum circinans (Berk.) Voglino (Ascomycetes, Phyllachorales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Peregrine and Ahmad, 1982 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Cylindrocladiella parva (P.J. Anderson) Boesew. (= Cylindrocladium parvum P.J. Anderson) (Ascom

ycetes, Hypocreales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009

Diaporthe phaseolorum var. sojae (Lehman) Wehm. CABI, 2012 Fusarium moniliforme J. Sheld. (Ascomycetes, Hypocreales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Shaw, 1973 Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl.: Fr. (Ascomycetes, Hypocreales) CABI, 2012 ; Dugan et al., 2007 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Holli day, 1980 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae (H.N. Hansen) W.C. Snyder & H.N. Hansen (Ascomycetes, Hypocreales) Dugan et al., 2007 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Valerin, 1994
Globisporangium debaryanum (R. Hesse) Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium debaryanum R. Hesse) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Valerin, 1994

Globisporangium irregulare (Buisman) Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish (= Pythium irregulare Buisman) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008
Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & Schrenk (Ascomycetes, Incertae sedis ) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Singh, 1980 Glomerella lindemuthiana Shear (Anamorph: Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magn.) Scribn.) (Ascomycetes, Incertae sedis) Farr and Rossman, 2012

Haematonectria haematococca (Berk. & Broome) Samuels & Rossman (Anamorph: Fusarium solani (Mart.) Appel & Wr.) (Ascomycetes, Hypocreales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Shaw, 1973

Hypocrea rufa (Pers.: Fr.) Fr. (Anamorph: Trichoderma viride Pers.: Fr.) (Ascomycetes, Hypocreales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Valerin, 1994Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 36 **Organism Evidence and/or other notes**  Leptosphaerulina trifolii (Rostr.) Petr. (= Pseudoplea trifolii (Rostr.) Petr.) (Ascomycetes, Pleosporales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Peregrine and Ahmad, 1982 ; Singh, 1980

Leveillula taurica (Lév.) G. Arnaud (Ascomycetes, Erysiphales) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. (Ascomycetes, Incertae sedis) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Peregrine and Ahmad, 1982 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Nigrospora sphaerica (Sacc.) E.W. Mason (Ascomycetes, Trichosphaeriales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Peregrine and Ahmad, 1982
Ovatisporangium vexans (de Bary) Uzuhashi, Tojo & Kakish. (= Pythium vexans de Bary) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009
Penicillium digitatum (Pers.) Sacc. CABI, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Penicillium expansum Link CABI, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Penicillium funiculosum Thorn (Ascomycetes, Eurotiales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Shaw, 1973 Penicillium italicum Stoll CABI, 2012 ; PestID, 2012 Peronospora destructor (Berk.) Casp. ex Berk. (Oomycetes, Peronosporales) Crous et al., 2000 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Phytophthora cinnamomi var. cinnamomi Rands (= P. cinnamomi Rands) (Oomycetes, Pythiales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009

Phytophthora cryptogea Pethybr. & Laff. CABI, 2012 Phytophthora drechsleri Tucker (Oomycetes, Pythiales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan (= P. pa rasitica Dastur) (Oomycetes, Pythiales) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009

Phytophthora palmivora var. palmivora (E.J. Butler) E.J. Butler (Oomycetes, Pythiales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009
Pleospora herbarum (Pers.: Fr.) Rabenh. (Ascomycet es, Pleosporales) Crous et al., 2000 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Shaw, 1973 Pleospora tarda E.G. Simmons (Anamorph: Stemphylium botr yosum Wallr.) (Ascomycetes, Pleosporales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009

Puccinia allii F. Rudolphi (= P. porri Wint.) (Urediniomycetes, Uredinales) Crous et al., 2000 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Holliday, 1980 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 37 **Organism Evidence and/or other notes**  Pythium graminicola Subram

. CABI, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Rhizoctonia solani J.G. Kühn (= Thanatephorus cucumeris (A.B. Frank) Donk) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Rhizoctonia sp. Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary (Ascomycetes, Helotiales) CABI, 2012 ; Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Sclerotium cepivorum Berk. (Basidiomycetes, Agaricales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Holliday, 1980 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Setophoma terrestris (H.N. Hansen) Gruyter, Aveskamp & Verkley (= Phoma terrestris Hansen, Pyrenochaeta terrestris (H.N. Hansen) Gorenz, J.C. Walker & Larson) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Holliday, 1980 ; Nelson et al., 2009

Stemphylium lycopersici (Enj oji) W. Yamam. (Ascomycetes, Pleosporales) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Peregrine and Ahmad, 1982

Trichothecium roseum (Pers. : Fr.) Link (Ascomycetes, Incertae sedis) Farr and Rossman, 2012 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Shaw, 1973

Verticillium albo

- atrum Reinke & Berthier (Ascomycetes, Hypocreales) Farr and Rossman, 2012

**BACTERIA** Burkholderia cepacia (Palleroni & Holmes ex Burkholder) Yabuuchi et al. APSnet, 199 8 ; CABI, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008

Burkholderia gladioli (Severini) Yabuuchi et al. (= Pseudomonas gladioli Severini) CABI, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Lu et al., 2007 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008
Dickeya chrysanthemi (Burkholder et al. ) Samson et al. (= Erwinia chrysanthemi Burkholder et al.) CABI, 2012 ; Nelson, 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008

Enterobacter cloacae (Jordan) (Enterobacteriaceae) Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Horst, 2001 ; Schroeder et al., 2010 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Erwinia carotovora (Jones) Bergey et al. Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Horst, 2001 ; PestID, 2012
Erwinia carotovora (Jones) Bergey et al. var. carotovora (Jones) Dye Bradbury, 1977 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Valerin, 1994 Pantoea agglomerans (Beijerinck) Gavini et al. (= Erwinia herbicola (Lohnis) Dye) CABI, 2012 ; Delmas et al., 2008 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008

Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum (Jones) Hauben et al. CABI, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; UGA, 2011Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 38 **Organism Evidence and/or other notes**  Pseudomonas cichorii (Swingle) Stapp CABI, 2012 Pseudomonas viridiflava (Burkholder) Dowson CABI, 2012 ; Schwartz and M ohan, 2008 ; UGA, 2011 Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. allii (Dowson) CABI, 2012 ; Schwartz and Gent, 2004 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schw artz and Mohan, 2008 Xanthomonas campestris (Pammel) Dowson Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; PestID, 2012
**VIRUS** Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV) (tospovirus) CABI, 2012 ; Goldberg, 2005 ; Hu (Project director), 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 ; Wong, 2011 Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) (tospovirus) CABI, 2012 ; Schwartz and M ohan, 2008
**NEMATODES** Aphelenchoides besseyi Christie (Tylenchida : Aphelenchoididae) CABI, 2012 ; Lamberti et al., 1996 ; Uchida and Sipes, 1998 ; PestID, 2012 Aphelenchoides fragariae (Ritzema

- Bos) Christie (Tylenchi da : Aphelenchoididae) CABI, 2012 ; PestID, 2012
Aphelenchus avenae Bastian (Aphelenchida: Aphelenchidae) Keetch and Buckley, 1984 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; PestID, 2012 Ditylenchus destructor Thorne (Tylenchida: Anguinidae) CABI, 2012 ; DPI, 2006 ; PestID, 2012 Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn) (Tylenchida: Anguinidae) CABI, 2012 ; Goodey et al., 1965 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; McLeod et al., 1994 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Helicotylenchus dihystera (Cobb) Spher (Hoplolaimidae) Benson et al., 1976 ; CABI, 2012 ; Evans et al., 1993 ; McLeod et al., 1994 ; Nelson et al., 2009 Helicotylenchus multicinctus (Cobb) Golden (Hoplolaimidae) CABI, 2012 ; Evans et al., 1993 ; PestID, 2012 Meloidogyne arenaria (Neal) Chitwood (Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae) Keetch and Buckley, 1984 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; PestID, 2012
Meloidogyne chitwoodi Golden, O'bannon, Santo, and Finley (Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae) Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008
Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood (Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae) CABI, 2012 ; Gonsalves and Ferreira, 1994 ; Goodey et al., 1965 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; McLeod et al., 1994 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood (Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae) Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Keetch and Buckley, 1984 ; McLeod et al., 1994 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Meloidogyne javanica (Treub) Chitwood (Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae) CABI, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Keetch and Buckley, 1984 ; McLeod et al., 1994 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Nothocriconema mutabile (Taylor) de Grisse & Loof (Tylenchida: Criconematidae) Keetch and Buckley, 1984 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; PestID, 2012
Paratrichodorus porosus (Allen) Siddiqi CABI , 2012Pest Risk Assessment for Allium leaves from Hawaii

Ver. 1 October 3 , 2013 39 **Organism Evidence and/or other notes**  Pratylenchus brachyurus (Godfrey) Filipjev & Schuurmans Stekhoven CABI, 2012
Pratylenchus penetrans (Cobb) Filip. & Schuur. Stekh. (Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae) Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; McLeod et al., 1994 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; PestID, 2012 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008 Pratylenchus zeae Graham (Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae) CABI, 2012 ; DPI, 2006 ; PestID, 2012 Rotylenchulus reniformis Lindford & Oliveira (Tylenchida: Tylenchoidea) CABI, 2012 ; Hamasaki et al., 1999 ; Nelson et al., 2009 ; PestID, 2012
**PHYTOPLASMA** Aster yellows phytoplasma Borth et al., 2002 ; Horst, 2001 ; O'Mara et al., 1993 ; Schwartz and Mohan, 2008