U.S. Department of Justice

National Drug Intelligence Center

National Drug Intelligence Center

319 Washington Street, 5th Floor

Johnstown, PA 15901-1622

(814) 532-4601

Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

Product No. 2005-Q0317-009

March 2005
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Table of Contents

National Drug Intelligence Center

iii

Methamphetamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Introduction and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Predominant User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Trends in Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Perceptions of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Trends in Consequences of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Domestic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Foreign Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Precursor Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Routes From Foreign Source Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Routes From Domestic Source Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Primary Market Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

iv

Figure 1. Six regions and Primary Market Areas for methamphetamine. San Francisco, Los Angeles, San Diego, and Phoenix are leadingconsumption areas and leading distribution centers for the drug as determined through analysis of public health data and law enforcement reporting.

Pacific Pacific

West 

Southwest Southwest Southeast Southeast

Midwest Midwest Northeast Northeast

Pacific

West 

Southwest Southeast

Midwest Northeast

San Francisco San Francisco San Francisco

Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles

San Diego San Diego San Diego Phoenix Phoenix

Primary Market Areas
National Drug Intelligence Center

1

March 2005

Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

Methamphetamine

Key Findings

• Law enforcement reporting as well as laboratory seizure and arrest data indicates that methamphetamine availability has increased over the past year in the Northeast Region, particularly in rural areas. For example, Drug 

Enforcement Administration (DEA) El Paso Intelligence Center (EPIC) National Clandestine Laboratory Seizure 

System (NCLSS) data show that the number of reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures in the Northeast region increased from 94 in 2002 to 143 in 2003. DEA methamphetamine-related arrests also have 

increased recently in the Northeast Region from 179 in 2002 to 198 in 2003. Law enforcement reporting indicates that the increase in methamphetamine availability in the Northeast Region is due primarily to a significant 

increase in wholesale distribution by Mexican criminal groups. Nevertheless, methamphetamine availability in 

the Northeast remains lower than in any other region of the country. 

• The availability of ice methamphetamine has increased in the past year because of an increase in ice production and distribution by Mexican criminal groups; however, this form of the drug is not as widely available in the 

United States as powder methamphetamine.

• Methamphetamine production appears to have increased sharply in Mexico since 2002 because Mexican criminal groups producing the drug in the United States are having greater difficulty obtaining bulk quantities of 

pseudoephedrine from Canada. However, Mexican criminal groups have greater access to bulk quantities of 

pseudoephedrine and ephedrine from China for use in Mexico–based laboratories.

• Methamphetamine smuggling from Mexico into the United States via Arizona appears to have increased 

sharply since 2001. More methamphetamine was seized at or between ports of entry (POEs) in Arizona in 

2003 than at or between POEs in California or Texas.
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

2

Introduction and Trends

The threat posed to the United States by the 

trafficking and abuse of methamphetamine is high 

and increasing. Methamphetamine availability, 

production, and distribution are increasing nationally; however, national-level data do not indicate a 

clear trend—either increasing or decreasing—

with respect to rates of methamphetamine use. 

Nevertheless, demand for the drug is relatively 

high. In fact, National Survey on Drug Use and 

Health (NSDUH) 2003 data indicate that more 

than 1.3 million persons aged 12 or older used 

methamphetamine within the past year in 2003.

According to state and local law enforcement 

agencies, the threat associated with methamphetamine trafficking and abuse has increased sharply 

since 2002 and now exceeds that of any other 

drug. NDIC National Drug Threat Survey 

(NDTS) data show that the percentage of state and 

local law enforcement agencies that identified 

methamphetamine as the greatest drug threat in 

their areas has increased from 31.0 percent in 

2002, to 36.2 percent in 2003, and 39.6 percent in 

2004. NDTS 2004 data further indicate that, for 

the first time, the percentage of state and local 

agencies that identified methamphetamine as their 

greatest drug threat (39.6%) surpassed that of 

cocaine (35.6%), including crack, and is much 

higher than marijuana (12.0%), heroin (8.6%), or 

MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 

also known as ecstasy) (0.6%).

According to state and local law enforcement 

agencies, methamphetamine-related criminal 

activity has increased concurrently with the rise 

in the overall threat posed by the trafficking and 

abuse of the drug. NDTS data show that the percentage of state and local law enforcement agencies that identified methamphetamine as the drug 

that most contributes to violent crime increased 

from 31.6 percent in 2003 to 34.2 percent in 

2004. Similarly, the percentage of state and local 

law enforcement agencies that identified methamphetamine as the drug that most contributes to 

property crime increased from 29.8 percent to 

32.7 percent during the same period.

The attendant dangers occasioned by domestic 

methamphetamine production to individuals, property, and the environment contribute to the overall 

threat posed by the drug. Law enforcement personnel, first responders, clandestine laboratory operators, and those in proximity to laboratories, 

particularly children, often are injured as a result of 

chemical burns, fires, and explosions at clandestine 

laboratories. In fact, EPIC NCLSS data show that 

despite a decrease in the number of reported fires 

and explosions at methamphetamine laboratory sites 

(from 396 in 2002 to 361 in 2003), the number of 

reported law enforcement officers injured when 

responding to methamphetamine laboratories 

increased from 129 to 255 during the same period.

The environmental damage caused by improper 

storage and disposal of chemicals and chemical 

waste attendant to methamphetamine production is 

severe, and the cost of soil and structure remediation 

at contaminated methamphetamine production sites 

is significant. For example, the annual expenditure 

for domestic clandestine laboratory (predominantly 

methamphetamine laboratory) remediation by DEA 

has increased from $2 million in fiscal year (FY) 

1995, to $12.2 million in FY1999, and $16.2 million 

in FY2003.

Child neglect and abuse are common within 

families whose parents or caregivers produce or 

use methamphetamine. According to the Department of Justice’s Office for Victims of Crime, 

children who reside with methamphetamine users 

are more likely to experience neglect as well as 

physical, sexual, and mental abuse. Furthermore, 

children who are present in homes where methamphetamine laboratories also are present often 

sustain injuries, including skin lesions, chemical 

burns, and respiratory damage, due to drug or 

chemical exposure. For example, NCLSS 2003 

data show that 66.0 percent (589 of 893) of the 

children reported present at seized methamphetamine laboratory sites subsequently tested positive for toxic levels of chemicals in their bodies.
National Drug Intelligence Center

3

Availability 

Methamphetamine availability has increased in 

the Northeast Region over the past year. All five 

DEA Field Divisions (Boston, New York, Newark, 

Philadelphia, and Washington D.C.) and five High 

Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas (HIDTAs)—

Appalachia, New England, New York/New Jersey, 

Philadelphia/Camden, and Washington/Baltimore—

in the Northeast Region report that methamphetamine availability has increased: one of the Field 

Divisions (Washington, D.C.) and the Appalachia 

HIDTA describe the increase as significant. Increasing methamphetamine availability in the Northeast 

Region also is indicated by data that show increases 

in the number of DEA arrests as well as Organized 

Crime Drug Enforcement Task Force (OCDETF) 

investigations and indictments in the region. 

According to DEA, the number of arrests for methamphetamine increased from 179 in 2002 to 198 in 

2003. Similarly, the number of methamphetaminerelated OCDETF case initiations in the Northeast 

Region increased from 2 in FY2002 to 12 in 

FY2003. The proportion of OCDETF indictments 

in which methamphetamine was charged increased 

from less than 1.0 percent in FY2002 to 12.0 percent in FY2003. Moreover, NCLSS data show that 

the number of reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures in the Northeast Region increased from 

94 in 2002 to 143 in 2003. (See Figure 1 on page iv.)

NDIC Comment: Anecdotal law enforcement reporting indicates that the increase in 

methamphetamine availability in the Northeast 

Region is due primarily to a significant increase 

in wholesale distribution by Mexican criminal 

groups. According to DEA, Mexican criminal 

groups are the predominant wholesale distributors of methamphetamine in the region, and their 

presence in the region is increasing, particularly 

in Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. Law 

enforcement reporting also indicates that methamphetamine availability in the Northeast is 

being augmented significantly by a sharp 

increase in methamphetamine production within 

the region, particularly by individuals producing 

small quantities of the drug (usually ounce quantities per cook) in low capacity laboratories. 

NCLSS data indicate that the number of reported 

methamphetamine laboratory seizures in the 

Northeast Region increased from 94 in 2002 to 

143 in 2003.

Demand

National-level drug prevalence data indicate 

that rates of past year use for powder methamphetamine have fluctuated but decreased overall 

since 1999; however, the number of treatment 

admissions for methamphetamine has increased 

sharply over the same period. According to Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS) data for 2002, the 

number of methamphetamine treatment admissions to publicly funded drug treatment facilities 

increased from 58,795 in 1999, to 66,975 in 2000, 

to 81,799 in 2001, and 104,481 in 2002.

NDIC Comment: More individuals have independently sought treatment for methamphetamine; 

however, criminal justice referrals account for the 

greatest percentage of the increase. In fact, the percentage of treatment admissions for methamphetamine that were the result of criminal justice 

referrals now appears to account for most treatment 

admissions for methamphetamine (52.6%)—a rate 

much higher than for cocaine (26.1%) or heroin 

(13.0%). TEDS data indicate that the proportion of 

treatment admissions for abuse of methamphetamine/amphetamine (primarily methamphetamine) 

resulting from individuals requesting treatment 

increased from 26.8 percent in 1999 to 27.3 percent 

in 2000, but has since decreased to 26.0 percent in 

2001 and 24.0 percent in 2002. Over the same 

period, the proportion of treatment admissions for 

methamphetamine/amphetamine based on criminal 

justice referrals decreased from 45.6 percent in 

1999 to 45.0 percent in 2000, but then increased to 

47.8 percent in 2001 and 52.6 percent in 2002.

Production 

There are no conclusive estimates regarding 

methamphetamine production in Mexico; however, 

methamphetamine production appears to have 

increased sharply in Mexico since 2002. According to DEA, Mexican criminal groups, particularly 

those based in Colima, Michoacán, Jalisco, and 

Nayarit, have increased the number and size of 

methamphetamine laboratories that they operate in 

Mexico. Supporting the assertion of increased 
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

4

methamphetamine production in Mexico is an 

increase in the amount of methamphetamine seized 

in Mexico and at land POEs along the Southwest 

Border. Data from the International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) indicate that the 

amount of methamphetamine reported seized in 

Mexico increased from 400 kilograms in 2001, to 

457 kilograms in 2002, and 652 kilograms in 2003. 

Furthermore, 2003 EPIC data show that the 

amount of methamphetamine seized along the 

Southwest Border increased from 1,130 kilograms 

in 2002, to 1,733 kilograms in 2003, and 1,168 

kilograms through July 2004.

NDIC Comment: Mexican criminal groups 

appear to be producing greater quantities of methamphetamine in Mexico for distribution in the 

United States because they have greater access in 

Mexico to bulk quantities of precursor chemicals, 

particularly ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. 

According to law enforcement reporting, Mexican 

criminal groups purchase bulk quantities of pseudoephedrine tablets, often more than 1 ton per shipment, from sources in China. Law enforcement 

reporting further indicates that many of the laboratories established during the past 2 years in Mexico 

are capable of producing multihundred-pound quantities of methamphetamine per production cycle. By 

comparison, NCLSS data indicate that the largest 

reported methamphetamine laboratory seized in the 

United States in 2003 was capable of producing 50 

pounds per production cycle.

Transportation

Drug seizure data indicate that methamphetamine smuggling from Mexico into the United 

States via the Arizona–Mexico border appears to 

have increased significantly. The amount of methamphetamine seized at or between Arizona POEs 

has increased from 168 kilograms in 2001, to 313 

kilograms in 2002, and 640 kilograms in 2003. In 

fact, the amount of methamphetamine seized at or 

between POEs in Arizona in 2003 exceeded seizures at or between POEs in California (593 kg), 

Texas (484 kg), and New Mexico (16 kg).

NDIC Comment: The sharp increase in the 

amount of methamphetamine seized at or between 

POEs in Arizona is more likely an indication of an 

overall increase in methamphetamine smuggling 

from Mexico into the United States than a shift in 

smuggling routes in favor of Arizona POEs rather 

than California, New Mexico, or Texas POEs. 

EPIC data show that since 2002—the year law 

enforcement reporting indicates that methamphetamine production began to increase significantly 

in Mexico—methamphetamine seizures at or 

between POEs in California and Texas increased 

sharply, although not to the extent of the increases 

in Arizona. From 2002 to 2003 seizures at or 

between POEs in California and Texas increased 

from 478 to 593 kilograms and from 305 to 484 

kilograms, respectively. Methamphetamine seizures at or between POEs in New Mexico were 

much lower than the other states along the U.S.–

Mexico border in 2002 (33.53 kg) and 2003 

(16.15 kg).

Distribution

Ice methamphetamine distribution has 

increased significantly since 2001 in many of the 

largest domestic methamphetamine markets. 

Anecdotal law enforcement reporting indicates 

that ice distribution has increased sharply in 

Honolulu, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles, Phoenix, San Diego, San Francisco, Seattle, and St. 

Louis since 2001. In some methamphetamine 

markets ice is now considered the preferred form 

of the drug, supplanting powder methamphetamine as the predominant type. For example, 

DEA and HIDTA reporting indicate that ice 

methamphetamine now is the type most often distributed locally in Phoenix and San Diego, two of 

the Primary Market Areas for methamphetamine.

NDIC Comment: Ice distribution has 

increased in these cities because of a sharp 

increase in ice production and distribution by 

Mexican criminal groups seeking the higher profit 

margins associated with ice distribution. The costs 

associated with ice production are slightly higher 

than those of powder methamphetamine, and ice 

production requires greater knowledge and experience; however, ice methamphetamine often is 

sold at prices much higher than those of powder 

methamphetamine (see Table 1 on page 5).
National Drug Intelligence Center

5

Availability

There are no conclusive estimates as to the 

total amount of methamphetamine available in 

the United States because of limitations in laboratory and drug seizure data and unsubstantiated or 

unknown laboratory capacity estimates in source 

areas. However, in attempting to quantify the 

amount of methamphetamine available in the 

United States, the interagency Methamphetamine 

Availability Working Group established an estimated range of 120.2 to 167.4 metric tons of pure 

methamphetamine in 2001, the only year for 

which such data are available. These estimates are 

derived from analysis of limited data and, as such, 

have a high degree of uncertainty.

Powder methamphetamine is the predominant 

type available in the United States, and law 

enforcement reporting as well as drug survey data 

indicates that, nationally, powder methamphetamine availability is increasing. Every HIDTA and 

20 of 21 DEA Field Divisions report increasing 

availability of powder methamphetamine. According to DEA and HIDTA reporting, powder methamphetamine is readily available throughout the 

Pacific, Southwest, and West Regions as well as in 

most areas of the Midwest. Law enforcement 

reporting also indicates that the drug’s availability 

has increased significantly in the Southeast to the 

point that methamphetamine is now readily available in many areas throughout the region. Availability also has increased notably in the Northeast 

Region, where the drug previously was unavailable or available only in limited amounts.

The availability of ice methamphetamine has 

increased in the past year, but overall this form of 

the drug is not as widely available in the United 

States as powder methamphetamine. Of the 21 DEA 

Field Divisions, 19 report that ice methamphetamine is available and that availability is increasing. 

Similarly, 14 HIDTAs report that ice methamphetamine is increasing in their areas. DEA and HIDTA 

reporting further indicates that in Arizona and northern California as well as in some areas of Atlanta, 

Dallas, Houston, Los Angeles, and Seattle ice methamphetamine has supplanted powder methamphetamine as the predominant type available.

The availability of methamphetamine tablets 

produced in Asia (primarily Burma) appears to be 

very limited; such tablets are available primarily 

in northern California. According to DEA, individuals of Hmong and Laotian ethnicity in northern California receive methamphetamine tablets 

from Burma for personal use and for limited distribution. However, there are no data available to 

establish reliable estimates as to the amount of 

Burma-produced methamphetamine tablets available in the United States.

NDTS data indicate that methamphetamine 

availability has increased significantly over the past 

3 years. The percentage of state and local law 

enforcement agencies reporting methamphetamine 

availability as high or moderate in their areas 

increased from 58.8 percent in 2002, to 64.6 percent 

in 2003, and 65.0 percent in 2004. In 2004 low 

methamphetamine availability was reported by 28.7 

percent of agencies, and only 4.7 percent reported 

that methamphetamine was not available in their 

areas. Regionally, the highest percentage of agencies 

that reported high or moderate methamphetamine 

availability in 2004 was in the Pacific Region 

(99.0%), followed by the West (98.5%), Southwest 

(89.4%), Southeast (78.7%), Midwest (63.5%), and 

Northeast Regions (23.2%).

Table 1: National Price Ranges, Methamphetamine, in Dollars, 2003

Pound Ounce Gram

Powder 1,600–45,000 270–5,000 20–300

Ice 6,000–70,000 500–3,100 60–700

Source: Drug Enforcement Administration.
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

6

The amount of methamphetamine seized annually has fluctuated since 2001, but the data may suggest an increase in the availability of Mexicoproduced methamphetamine. According to Federalwide Drug Seizure System (FDSS) data, the amount 

of methamphetamine seized by federal agencies 

decreased significantly from 4,050 kilograms in 

2001 to 2,475 kilograms in 2002, but then increased 

sharply to 3,845 kilograms in 2003. Of the methamphetamine seized since 2001, EPIC data show that 

an increasing amount was seized at or between 

POEs along the Southwest Border, an indication of 

increased smuggling of Mexico-produced methamphetamine into the United States. For example, 

EPIC data show that the combined amount of methamphetamine seized at or between POEs in Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas decreased 

slightly from 1,214 kilograms in 2001 to 1,130 kilograms in 2002, but has since increased sharply to 

1,733 kilograms in 2003 and 1,168 kilograms 

through July 2004.

DEA data regarding methamphetamine-related 

arrests show significant decreases overall since 

2000; however, the data support anecdotal law 

enforcement reporting and survey data that indicate methamphetamine availability is increasing in 

the Northeast Region. DEA arrests for methamphetamine-related offenses decreased steadily 

from 7,700 in 2000 to 4,595 in 2003 (see Figure 2). 

This decline is due primarily to a shift in DEA 

strategy to arrest fewer but higher priority targets. Despite the decrease nationally, however, 

methamphetamine-related arrests have increased 

recently in the Northeast Region from 179 in 

2002 to 198 in 2003, suggesting an increase in 

methamphetamine availability in that region, 

although the number of DEA methamphetaminerelated arrests in the Northeast remains much 

lower than in other regions (see Figure 3). 

National-level drug purity data indicate that 

average methamphetamine purity has increased 

sharply since 2001, particularly because of 

increased availability of high purity ice methamphetamine. According to DEA, the average purity of 

methamphetamine samples tested increased from 

40.0 percent in 2001, to 43.8 percent in 2002, and 

57.4 percent in 2003.

There are no national-level data regarding 

average prices for powder methamphetamine, and 

therefore the only available data are not a reliable 

independent indicator of rising or falling availability of the drug. According to DEA, price 

ranges for wholesale (pound) and midlevel 

(ounce) quantities of powder methamphetamine 

have expanded since 2001. However, the price 

range for retail (gram) quantities was the same in 

both 2001 and 2003, despite a rise in price in 

2002 (see Table 2 on page 7).

As with powder methamphetamine, there are 

no national price averages for ice methamphetamine. Moreover, DEA price data for ice 

(reported as national price ranges) are mixed, 

indicating neither an increase nor a decrease in 

availability (see Table 3 on page 7). 

Figure 2. Methamphetamine-related arrests, United 

States, 2000–2003.

Source: Drug Enforcement Administration.

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

2000 2001 2002 2003

7,700

6,557

5,558

4,595

Figure 3. Methamphetamine-related arrests, by 

region, 2003.

Source: Drug Enforcement Administration.

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

Midwest Northeast Pacific Southeast Southwest West

1,271

198

634

811

1,232

349
National Drug Intelligence Center

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Forms of Methamphetamine 

Powder methamphetamine is the most common form of the drug in the United States. Clandestinely 

produced powder methamphetamine is crystalline in texture, bitter-tasting, soluble in water, and is 

produced in several colors including white, pink, red, tan, and brown depending on the production 

method employed. Powder methamphetamine usually is injected or snorted but also can be ingested 

orally or smoked.

Ice methamphetamine is a highly pure, very addictive form of methamphetamine resembling 

shards of ice or chunks of rock salt. Produced primarily in Guam, Hawaii, and Mexico, ice is the 

product of the process of recrystallizing powder methamphetamine in a solvent such as water, 

methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, or acetone to remove impurities. Ice typically is smoked using 

either a glass pipe, an empty aluminum can, a piece of aluminum foil, or a light bulb.

Methamphetamine tablets are produced primarily in Burma and usually contain a combination of 

powder methamphetamine and caffeine. Methamphetamine tablets found in the United States

typically are green or orange-red in color, imprinted with a variety of symbols (most commonly WY 

or R), and are approximately the size of a pencil eraser. Methamphetamine tablets typically are 

ingested orally and often are flavored and scented like candy (grape, orange, or vanilla). Tablets 

also are smoked by placing the tablet on a piece of aluminum foil and passing a heat source 

underneath the foil until the tablet melts and vapors—which are inhaled—are released.

Methamphetamine tablets also can be crushed and snorted or mixed with water and injected.

Types of Methamphetamine

l-methamphetamine (levo-methamphetamine) is produced commercially and is the active ingredient 

in over-the-counter products sold in the United States. It does not have substantial addictive qualities.

dl-methamphetamine (dextro-levo-methamphetamine) is clandestinely produced using the P2P 

method, the preferred methamphetamine production method in the late 1970s and early 1980s 

(see Methamphetamine Production Methods text box on page 11). Although limited, production 

and use of dl-methamphetamine, which is less potent than d-methamphetamine, have reemerged.

d-methamphetamine (dextro-methamphetamine) is clandestinely produced using ephedrine/

pseudoephedrine reduction methods (see Methamphetamine Production Methods). Highly addictive, 

d-methamphetamine is the most potent, widely abused form of methamphetamine.

Table 2: Powder Methamphetamine Prices, in Dollars, 2001–2003

Pound Ounce Gram

2001 3,000-23,000 300-2,200 20-300

2002 6,000-45,000 100-6,000 20-600

2003 1,600-45,000 270-5,000 20-300

Source: Drug Enforcement Administration.

Table 3: Ice Methamphetamine Prices, in Dollars, 2001–2003

Pound Ounce Gram

2001 8,000-13,000 800-14,000 60-600

2002 6,000-73,000 500-3,000 120-500

2003 6,000-70,000 500-3,100 60-700

Source: Drug Enforcement Administration.
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

8

Demand

National-level rates of use for methamphetamine are lower than those for many illicit drugs 

primarily because the drug is largely unavailable 

to significant portions of the population, such as 

those in the Northeast (the most populous region 

in the country) and in large cities such as Chicago, 

Detroit, and Miami. According to 2003 NSDUH 

data, the rate of past year use for methamphetamine among persons aged 12 or older (0.6%) 

was lower than that for marijuana (10.6%), 

cocaine (2.5%), and MDMA (0.9%) but higher 

than heroin (0.1%).

Predominant User Groups

National drug prevalence data regarding rates 

of use for methamphetamine among various age 

groups are mixed and do not clearly indicate a 

predominant age group for methamphetamine 

use. For example, NSDUH 2003 data indicate 

that the rates of past year use for methamphetamine were much higher among young adults 

aged 18 to 25 (1.6%) than among adolescents 

aged 12 to 17 (0.7%) or adults 26 or older (0.4%). 

However, Monitoring the Future (MTF) 2003 

data indicate that the rates of past year use for 

methamphetamine among tenth (3.3%) and 

twelfth graders (3.2%) are higher than rates 

among young adults aged 19 to 28 (2.7%) or college students aged 19 to 22 (2.6%). As is typical 

of most illicit drugs, the lowest rates of past year 

use for methamphetamine (2.5%) were reported 

by eighth graders.

Males are slightly more likely to use methamphetamine than females; however, at younger 

ages, females appear to use methamphetamine at 

higher rates than males. According to NSDUH 

2003 data, the rate of past year use for methamphetamine among males was 0.7 percent compared with 0.4 percent for females. But MTF data 

for 2003 show that rates of past year methamphetamine use were higher among eighth and tenth 

grade females than males. Among all other age 

groups, past year use was higher among males 

than females (see Table 4).

Drug prevalence data indicate that adolescent 

methamphetamine use appears to be highest 

among White and Hispanic adolescents. MTF 

2003 ethnicity data—available only for eighth, 

tenth, and twelfth graders—show that rates of past 

year methamphetamine use among White students 

were 2.7, 4.2, and 3.5 percent for eighth, tenth, 

and twelfth graders, respectively, similar to rates 

among Hispanic eighth (3.2%), tenth (4.6%), and 

twelfth (3.4%) graders. By comparison, rates of 

past year methamphetamine use among Black students were 0.8, 0.6, and 1.4 percent for eighth, 

tenth, and twelfth graders, respectively.

Methamphetamine use appears to be higher in 

rural areas than in large metropolitan areas. MTF 

data for 2003 show that the rate of past year 

methamphetamine use among students and adults 

in rural areas was higher than rates in large metropolitan areas (see Table 5 on page 9).

Table 4: Percentage of Past Year Use of Methamphetamine, by Gender, 2003

Male Female

Eighth Graders 2.0 3.0

Tenth Graders 3.0 3.7

Twelfth Graders 3.6 2.9

Adults (ages 19-30) 3.3 1.8

Source: Monitoring the Future.
National Drug Intelligence Center

9

Trends in Use

According to MTF, past year use of methamphetamine among adults fluctuated but declined 

overall from 1999 to 2003 (see Figure 4). 

NSDUH data are available for 2002 and 2003 

only and cannot be analyzed for longitudinal 

trends in rates of use; however, according to the 

data, rates of past year use for methamphetamine 

among adults were unchanged at 0.4 percent in 

both 2002 and 2003.

Data regarding methamphetamine use among 

adolescents also show downward trends overall 

since 1999. According to MTF 2004 data, the 

most notable trend in past year use was among 

eighth graders, who have reported a sharp decline 

from 1999 to 2004 (see Figure 5). NSDUH data 

show a decrease in past year methamphetamine 

use for adolescents aged 12 to 17 from 0.9 percent in 2002 to 0.7 percent in 2003.

Perceptions of Use

Partnership Attitude Tracking Study (PATS) 

data indicate that most teens perceive great risk in 

using methamphetamine and that the proportion 

of teens perceiving risk associated with methamphetamine use has increased overall since 1996 

(see Figure 6 on page 10). The percentage of 

teens who believe there is great risk in people 

taking methamphetamine regularly has increased 

slightly from 77 percent in 1996 to 79 percent in 

2003. The percentage of teens who believe there 

is great risk in taking methamphetamine once or 

twice increased from 41 percent in 1996 to 51 

percent in 2003. 

Data regarding the perception of risk associated 

with the use of ice methamphetamine among older 

teens and adults are mixed. While the percentages of 

college students and adults saying there is great risk 

in people trying ice methamphetamine increased 

Table 5: Percentage of Past Year Use of Methamphetamine, by Population Density, 2003

Rural Areas Metropolitan Areas

Eighth Graders 3.4 2.0

Tenth Graders 3.7 2.3

Twelfth Graders 5.3 1.8

Adults (ages 19-30) 3.4 2.5

Source: Monitoring the Future.

Figure 4. Adult trends in percentage of past year use 

of methamphetamine, 1999–2003. 

Source: Monitoring the Future.

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

College Students (ages 19-22) Adults (ages 19-28)

Figure 5. Adolescent trends in percentage of past year 

use of methamphetamine, 1999–2004.

Source: Monitoring the Future.

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Eighth Graders Tenth Graders Twelfth Graders
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

10

overall from 1992 to 2003, data for twelfth graders 

are less encouraging. The percentage of twelfth 

graders perceiving great risk in people trying ice fell 

more than 10 percent from 1992 to 2003

(see Figure 7). 

Trends in Consequences of Use

The consequences of methamphetamine use as 

evidenced by Emergency Department (ED) mentions and treatment admissions are trending 

upward. Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) 

data show that the estimated number of ED mentions for methamphetamine fluctuated but 

increased overall from 15,933 in 1995 to 17,696 in 

2002 (see Figure 8). TEDS data show that the 

number of methamphetamine-related admissions 

to publicly funded treatment facilities nearly doubled from 47,683 in 1995 to 81,799 in 2001 and 

increased again to 104,481 in 2002 (see Figure 9). 

Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) 

data for 2003 indicate that the median percentage 

of adult males testing positive for methamphetamine (4.7%) was fourth behind the percentages 

Figure 6. Trends in perceived harmfulness of

methamphetamine, teens, 1996–2003.

Source: Partnership Attitude Tracking Study.

Figure 7. Trends in perceived harmfulness of ice methamphetamine, selected groups, 1992–2003.

Source: Partnership Attitude Tracking Study.

Percentage of teens saying there is "great risk" in taking 

methamphetamine regularly

77 79 78 78 78 78 79 79

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Teens (Grades 6-12)

Percentage saying there is "great risk" in people trying

methamphetamine once or twice

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Teens (grades 6-12)

41 44 44 44

47 47 49 51

Percentage saying there is "great risk" in people trying 

ice methamphetamine once or twice

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Twelfth Graders College Students Young Adults (23-26) Adults (27-30)

Figure 8. Methamphetamine-related emergency 

department mentions, estimated number, 1995–2002.

Source: Drug Abuse Warning Network.

Figure 9. Methamphetamine-related admissions to 

publicly funded treatment facilities, number, 1995–

2002.

Source: Treatment Episode Data Set.

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

20,000

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

15,933

11,022

17,154

11,486

10,447

13,505

14,925

17,696

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

47,683

41,035

53,694 56,517 58,795

66,975

81,799

104,481
National Drug Intelligence Center

11

testing positive for marijuana (44.1%), powder 

cocaine (30.1%), and heroin (5.8%). ADAM data 

also show that the median percentage of adult 

males reporting past year methamphetamine use 

was 7.7 percent.

Production

Illegal methamphetamine production occurs 

in countries throughout the world; however, only 

methamphetamine produced in the United States, 

Mexico and, to a lesser extent, Southeast Asia is 

available in any significant quantity in the United 

States. There are no conclusive worldwide methamphetamine production estimates, nor are there 

conclusive production estimates for the three 

principal methamphetamine source areas that 

supply U.S. drug markets. Nevertheless, laboratory seizure data suggest expanded domestic 

methamphetamine production, while law enforcement reporting and limited laboratory seizure 

data indicate a significant increase in methamphetamine production in Mexico. 

Methamphetamine Production Methods

Ephedrine/Pseudoephedrine Reduction

Hydriodic acid/red phosphorus. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, 

hydriodic acid, and red phosphorus. This method can yield multipound quantities of high quality

d-methamphetamine.

Iodine/red phosphorus. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, iodine, and 

red phosphorus. The required hydriodic acid in this variation of the hydriodic acid/red phosphorus 

method is produced by the reaction of iodine in water with red phosphorus. This method yields 

high quality d-methamphetamine and typically is used when hydriodic acid supplies are limited.

Iodine/hypophosphorous acid. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, 

iodine, and hypophosphorous acid. The required hydriodic acid in this variation of the hydriodic 

acid/red phosphorus method is produced by the reaction of iodine in water with hypophosphorous 

acid. Known as the hypo method, this method results in a high yield of d-methamphetamine and 

usually is used only when the producer in unable to acquire red phosphorus, although it can be 

used also when hydriodic acid is in limited supply. The iodine/hypophosphorous acid method is 

particularly dangerous, often resulting in fires and explosions because of phosphine gas produced 

during the methamphetamine production process.

Birch. The principal chemicals are ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, anhydrous ammonia, and 

sodium or lithium metal. Also known as the Nazi method, the Birch method typically yields ounce 

quantities of high quality d-methamphetamine and typically is used by independent producers.

Phenyl-2-propanone

P2P. The principal chemicals are phenyl-2-propanone, aluminum, methylamine, and mercuric 

chloride. This method yields lower quality dl-methamphetamine, has been associated with outlaw 

motorcycle gangs (OMGs), and is commonly referred to as the P2P method.
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

12

Domestic Production

Domestic methamphetamine production 

occurs in clandestine laboratories that range in 

capacity from a few ounces to 50 pounds per production cycle. Low capacity laboratories are operated throughout the United States primarily by 

local independent methamphetamine users; the 

number of such laboratories appears to be increasing. Large-scale laboratories that yield bulk quantities of methamphetamine are typically operated 

by Mexican criminal groups in California. 

New Mexico Laws Targeting 

Methamphetamine Production Enacted

On July 1, 2004, two New Mexico State laws 

that are intended to reduce methamphetamine production and the exposure of children to methamphetamine laboratory 

hazards went into effect. The first, House Bill 

(HB) 112, allows for a child abuse charge 

against anyone who exposes a child to the 

production of a controlled substance or 

allows a child to enter or remain in any building containing chemicals and equipment 

used to produce a controlled substance. 

Suspected violators will be charged with a 

third-degree felony on the first offense and a 

second-degree felony on the second or subsequent offense. If such exposure results in 

bodily harm or death of the child, the individual will be charged with a first-degree felony. 

The second law, HB 111, provides the Board 

of Pharmacy with the authority to add substances to the list of drug precursors and 

increases penalties for possession, manufacture, or transportation of drug precursors 

without a license from a misdemeanor to a 

fourth-degree felony on the first offense. 

Source: New Mexico State Legislature.

NDTS data indicate expanding methamphetamine production. According to NDTS 2004 

data, 49.6 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide describe the level of 

methamphetamine production in their areas as 

high or moderate, up slightly from 48.8 percent 

in 2003. At the same time, the percentage of 

agencies reporting that methamphetamine is not 

produced in their areas decreased from 23.2 percent in 2003 to 21.5 percent in 2004. A much 

higher percentage of agencies in the Pacific 

(76.1%), Southwest (75.1%), West (74.3%), and 

Southeast Regions (67.1%) report high or moderate methamphetamine production in their areas 

than agencies in the Midwest (46.4%) or Northeast (9.9%) Regions.

NCLSS data also indicate widespread domestic methamphetamine production. According to 

NCLSS, methamphetamine laboratory seizures 

were reported in 46 states in 2003; more laboratory seizures were reported in the Midwest 

Region (3,038) than in the Southeast (2,847), 

Southwest (1,874), Pacific (1,460), West (820), or 

Northeast Regions (143). NCLSS data further 

show that there has been a steady increase in the 

number of reported laboratory seizures since 

1999 (see Figure 10 on page 13) and that reported 

seizures increased in eastern states but decreased 

in many western states. From 2002 to 2003 the 

number of reported methamphetamine laboratory 

seizures increased in the Southeast (1,906 to 

2,847), Midwest (2,540 to 3,038), and Northeast 

Regions (94 to 143), but declined in the Pacific 

(1,738 to 1,460) and West Regions (1,078 to 820). 

Reported seizures of high capacity superlabs, 

those capable of producing 10 or more pounds of 

methamphetamine per production cycle, have 

decreased, likely contributing to the decline in 

total methamphetamine laboratory seizures in 

western states. NCLSS data show that reported 

seizures of superlabs decreased sharply from 246 

in 2001, to 144 in 2002, and 133 in 2003. Despite 

declines in reported laboratory seizures in the 

Pacific, most seizures of superlabs still occur in 

that region, particularly in California. Of the 133 

reported superlab seizures in 2003, 128 were 

reported in California. 

Law enforcement reporting and laboratory seizure data indicate that most superlabs in California 

are controlled by California- and Mexico-based 

criminal groups and are located in southern and central California. According to Los Angeles HIDTA 

reports, four southern California counties (Los 

Angeles, Orange, Riverside, and San Bernardino) 
National Drug Intelligence Center

13

accounted for 55.8 percent (475 of 851) of the 

reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures in 

California in 2003 including 43.0 percent (55 of 

128) of reported superlab seizures. The Central 

Valley HIDTA reports that nine central California 

counties (Fresno, Kern, Kings, Madera, Merced, 

Sacramento, San Joaquin, Stanislaus, and Tulare) 

accounted for 20.5 percent (175 of 851) of the 

reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures in 

California including 43.0 percent (55 of 128) of 

reported superlab seizures. 

HIDTA reporting indicates that Mexican 

criminal groups, some based in the Los Angeles 

area, often travel to rural or remote areas of 

southern and central California to produce methamphetamine, subsequently returning to the Los 

Angeles area to distribute the drug. Many of the 

groups maintain close family and social ties with 

individuals in Culiacán and Michoacán, Mexico, 

to recruit laboratory workers who come to California for a few months to produce methamphetamine and then return to Mexico.

Methamphetamine Superlab Seized

On February 7, 2004, agents from the Stanislaus Drug Enforcement Agency, California Multijurisdictional Methamphetamine Enforcement Team, and Central Valley HIDTA arrested five Mexican 

nationals and seized an operational methamphetamine laboratory located in a residence in 

Modesto. Authorities had received information that several men who were staying at the residence 

had acquired large amounts of chemicals used to manufacture methamphetamine. Agents 

observed the residence for about a week and, after observing several men taking supplies commonly used to produce methamphetamine into the residence, obtained a search warrant. Shortly 

after the warrant was obtained, agents observed a suspect loading garbage bags into the backseat of his car before leaving the residence. The suspect was followed until he was away from the 

residence, when officers stopped his vehicle. A search of the vehicle revealed two garbage bags 

containing 80 pounds of ephedrine. The driver was arrested and charged with manufacturing 

methamphetamine and possession of a controlled substance for sale. After his arrest, agents prepared to serve the search warrant on the residence. Just prior to entering the residence, four suspects were observed fleeing. Three suspects were captured, arrested, and charged with 

manufacturing methamphetamine, criminal conspiracy, and resisting arrest. The fourth suspect 

was found in a trailer located on the property; he was arrested and charged with manufacturing 

methamphetamine, criminal conspiracy, battery on a police officer, and resisting arrest. Inside the 

residence agents found evidence of methamphetamine manufacture in every room. They seized 

over 300 gallons of alcohol, 96 pounds of red phosphorus, 80 pounds of ephedrine, and several 

weapons. This laboratory was the largest ever seized in Stanislaus County.

Source: Stanislaus County Sheriff’s Department.

Low capacity laboratories, those capable of 

producing less than 1 pound per production cycle, 

represent an even greater proportion of seized 

laboratories since the number of superlab seizures 

has declined in recent years. For example, low 

capacity laboratories accounted for 83.4 percent 

(7,667 of 9,192) of all seized laboratories in 2002 

and 91.3 percent (9,297 of 10,182) in 2003.

Figure 10. Methamphetamine laboratory seizures, 

number reported, 1999–2003.

Source: National Clandestine Laboratory Seizure System.

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

6,777 6,940

8,577 9,192

10,182
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

14

Law enforcement reporting indicates that 

most methamphetamine production in central and 

eastern states occurs in low capacity laboratories 

operated by independent producers using the 

Birch or red phosphorus methods. NCLSS 2003 

data show that of the 6,028 methamphetamine 

laboratories seized in the Midwest, Northeast, and 

Southeast Regions, 94 percent were small, mobile 

laboratories capable of producing less than 9 

ounces of methamphetamine per production 

cycle. Every HIDTA office in the Midwest, Northeast, and Southeast Regions, with the exception of 

the Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands HIDTA, 

reports that most local methamphetamine production is conducted by local independent producers 

using either the Birch or red phosphorus methods. 

Only the Philadelphia/Camden HIDTA reported 

that OMGs in its area produce methamphetamine 

via the P2P method as well. 

Foreign Production

Law enforcement reporting and seizure data 

show that methamphetamine produced in Mexico 

and Southeast Asia, as well as in Canada, is available to varying degrees in U.S. drug markets; 

however, only Mexican methamphetamine is 

smuggled into the United States in quantities adequate for national-level distribution. 

Mexico. Mexico is the principal source of foreign-produced methamphetamine available in the 

United States. There are no conclusive estimates 

as to the amount of methamphetamine produced in 

Mexico; however, an interagency working group 

estimated that the amount of Mexico-produced 

methamphetamine seized in the United States was 

0.97 metric ton in 2001 and 1.1 metric tons in 

2002, the most recent year for which such data are 

available. Law enforcement reporting indicates 

that methamphetamine production in Mexico is 

considerable, and there is wide consensus among 

law enforcement agencies that production in Mexico has increased significantly since 2002, yet few 

data are available to confirm this assertion other 

than an apparent increase in methamphetamine 

seizures at or between land POEs along the Southwest Border (see Transportation section on page 

16). According to DEA, most methamphetamine 

production in Mexico occurs in the southwestern 

states of Colima, Michoacán, Jalisco, and Guerrero and in the northern states of Baja California 

and Sonora. The hydriodic acid/red phosphorus 

method is the primary method of production in 

Mexico; however, the P2P method is also commonly used.

Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian criminal 

groups produce large quantities of ice methamphetamine in laboratories located primarily in China 

and, to a lesser extent, the Philippines, Taiwan, and 

South Korea. According to DEA, Chinese criminal 

groups manufacture multikilogram quantities of ice 

per production cycle in mobile laboratories located 

in eastern and southeastern provinces of China. 

Most ice produced in China is intended for domestic distribution; China-produced ice also supplies 

drug markets in other Asian countries and the 

United States, particularly in the Philippines, 

Hawaii, and Guam. 

Burmese criminal groups are the principal 

producers of methamphetamine tablets in Southeast Asia. Intelligence reports indicate that Burmese criminal groups produce several hundred 

million methamphetamine tablets annually for 

distribution in drug markets in Thailand, China, 

and India. According to DEA, some shipments of 

methamphetamine tablets from Burma have been 

received by ethnic Hmong and Laotian individuals primarily in the Sacramento area. However, 

there are no reliable seizure data regarding 

Burma-produced methamphetamine tablets en 

route to the United States or any reliable estimates 

as to the amount of Burma-produced methamphetamine tablets available in the United States. 

Methamphetamine tablet production also has been 

reported in Malaysia and Fiji; however, there are 

no estimates as to the amount of methamphetamine tablets produced in those countries nor are 

there specific reports of methamphetamine tablets 

produced in Malaysia or Fiji available in the 

United States. 

Canada. The amount of methamphetamine 

produced in Canada is relatively low compared 

with the United States; however, production levels in Canada may be increasing. According to 

the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), the 

amount of methamphetamine produced in Canada 
National Drug Intelligence Center

15

primarily by Canada-based OMGs, Asian criminal groups, and independent traffickers is increasing, as evidenced by an increase in the number of 

reported methamphetamine laboratory seizures in 

Canada from 13 in 2001, to 25 in 2002, and 39 in 

2003. RCMP reporting also indicates that the 

amount of Canada-produced methamphetamine 

seized en route to the United States has increased 

since 1998; however, there are no quantifiable 

data to support this assertion. In fact, EPIC data 

show that the amount of methamphetamine seized 

at or between POEs along the Northern Border is 

low and decreased from 3.3 kilograms in 2002 to 

0.2 kilogram in 2003. 

Precursor Chemicals

Most operators of high capacity methamphetamine laboratories in the United States and Mexico 

produce the drug by utilizing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, precursor chemicals produced in China, 

the Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, India, 

Switzerland, Thailand, and the United Arab Emirates. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are shipped 

from these production countries throughout the 

world to the United States, Canada, and Mexico 

for legitimate use. However, some ephedrine and 

pseudoephedrine is diverted from the intended 

legitimate purpose by criminal groups for use in 

illicit methamphetamine production, particularly in 

California and Mexico.

Since the late 1990s, most operators of 

domestic superlabs have produced methamphetamine using bulk quantities of ephedrine or 

pseudoephedrine tablets diverted from Canada. 

Middle Eastern (Armenian, Jordanian, Lebanese, 

Syrian, and Yemeni) criminal groups and other 

individuals based in Canada and the United States 

purchase pseudoephedrine tablets in bulk—often 

in the millions—from legitimate wholesale chemical distributors in Canada and smuggle the tablets across the Northern Border in private and 

commercial vehicles through or between land 

POEs such as Detroit and Port Huron in Michigan. The tablets usually are transported to stash 

sites in the United States before being distributed 

to methamphetamine producers for use in high 

capacity laboratories, particularly those located in 

central and southern California. Pseudoephedrine 

diversion groups also transport smaller shipments 

of diverted ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from 

Canada to methamphetamine producers in the 

United States via mail services and, to a lesser 

extent, via couriers on commercial flights. 

Recent anecdotal law enforcement reporting 

indicates that more domestic superlabs are producing methamphetamine using ephedrine or 

pseudoephedrine diverted from Asia. According 

to DEA, recent legislation in Canada designed to 

reduce ephedrine and pseudoephedrine diversion 

appears to have led many methamphetamine laboratory operators in the United States—particularly operators of high capacity laboratories—to 

begin using bulk quantities of ephedrine and 

pseudoephedrine obtained from sources in Asia 

but usually smuggled into the United States via 

Mexico. Moreover, several law enforcement operations have been successful in reducing the 

availability of pseudoephedrine tablets smuggled 

into the United States from Canada. In fact, law 

enforcement reporting indicates that seizures of 

Asia-produced pseudoephedrine products at 

methamphetamine superlabs in California have 

increased. For example, the Los Angeles County 

Regional Criminal Information Clearinghouse 

reports that pseudoephedrine products manufactured in Hong Kong have been seized at several 

clandestine methamphetamine laboratory sites in 

California since 2002. In addition, in February 

2004 the Stanislaus Drug Enforcement Agency 

discovered a methamphetamine laboratory with 

three large trash bags containing empty 1,000-

tablet bottles of Asia-produced pseudoephedrine. 

Such seizures previously were very uncommon. 

Asian pseudoephedrine products also are used 

at methamphetamine laboratories in Mexico. Law 

enforcement reporting indicates that multiton 

quantities of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are 

transported each year to Mexico and that some are 

illegally distributed to methamphetamine producers by criminal groups. For example, law enforcement reporting indicates that between April 2002 
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

16

and July 2004 nearly 80 undocumented shipments 

of pseudoephedrine and ephedrine were transported from Hong Kong to Mexico via the United 

States, Panama, or Europe for subsequent distribution to methamphetamine producers in southwestern Mexico. 

Transportation

Methamphetamine is transported by numerous 

criminal groups using a wide range of conveyances. Mexican criminal groups, local independent dealers, street gangs, OMGs, and Asian 

criminal groups smuggle methamphetamine into 

and transport it within the United States. Most 

methamphetamine is transported via private vehicles although some, particularly tableted methamphetamine, is transported via commercial vehicles, 

mail services, couriers aboard commercial flights, 

and maritime conveyances. 

Routes From Foreign Source Areas

Most methamphetamine transported from foreign sources is smuggled into the United States 

overland via private vehicles and commercial 

vehicles. According to EPIC seizure data, the 

amount of methamphetamine seized at or 

between land POEs from 2001 through 2003 was 

4,081 kilograms, compared with approximately 

85 kilograms seized from commercial flights and 

5 kilograms seized from maritime conveyances. 

Mexico. Mexican criminal groups based in 

Mexico smuggle bulk quantities of methamphetamine via couriers traveling in private and commercial vehicles, usually equipped with hidden 

compartments, or by foot through and between land 

POEs along the Southwest Border. These criminal 

groups also smuggle small shipments (2 kg to 4 kg) 

via couriers aboard commercial flights and via mail 

services. Methamphetamine shipments often are 

transported to stash sites and staging areas, primarily in California and Arizona, before the drug is 

distributed locally, regionally, or nationally.

Methamphetamine transported from production areas in Mexico to the Southwest Border typically has been smuggled through and between 

POEs in California; however, recent data indicate 

that more methamphetamine may now be smuggled through or between POEs in Arizona than 

other Southwest Border states. According to 

EPIC seizure data, the combined amount of methamphetamine seizures from 2001 through 2003 at 

or between POEs in California (1,725 kg) was 

much higher than the amount seized at or 

between POEs in Texas (1,145 kg), Arizona 

(1,120 kg), or New Mexico (60 kg). However, in 

2003 the amount seized in Arizona (640 kg) surpassed seizures in the other Southwest Border 

states including California (593 kg), Texas (484 

kg), and New Mexico (16 kg) possibly because of 

specific law enforcement operations conducted in 

Arizona (see Figure 11).

There are seven principal POEs through 

which methamphetamine is smuggled from Mexico into the United States: Calexico, Otay Mesa, 

and San Ysidro in California; Nogales in Arizona; and Hidalgo, Laredo, and Pharr in Texas. 

EPIC seizure data show that from 2001 through 

2003 more methamphetamine was seized at the 

San Ysidro POE (845 kg) than any other, 

although seizures during the same period at 

Nogales (645 kg), Calexico (382 kg), Otay Mesa 

(195 kg), Laredo (136 kg), Hidalgo (133 kg), and 

Pharr (129 kg) were significant. 

Figure 11. Methamphetamine seizures at or between 

ports of entry, in kilograms, 2003.

Source: El Paso Intelligence Center.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Arizona California Texas New Mexico

640

593

484

16
National Drug Intelligence Center

17

Once inside the United States, methamphetamine is transported from principal POEs to drug 

markets throughout the country, particularly to 

the Primary Market Areas of Los Angeles, Phoenix, San Diego, and San Francisco.

Southeast Asia. Law enforcement reporting 

indicates that Asian drug trafficking organizations 

(DTOs), including ethnic Cambodian, Chinese, 

Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Thai, and 

Vietnamese, transport ice methamphetamine to 

the Pacific Region from source countries in Asia 

via mail services and passengers on commercial 

flights to California and Hawaii. Tableted methamphetamine also is transported to the United 

States from Southeast Asia, particularly Thailand 

and Laos, via mail services and couriers on commercial flights. EPIC data show that Honolulu, 

Los Angeles, and San Francisco International Airports are the primary POEs for methamphetamine 

tablets smuggled into the United States. Seizure 

data further show that methamphetamine tablet 

seizures for 2001 through 2003 combined were 

slightly higher in San Francisco (33,490 tablets) 

than in Honolulu (33,470 tablets); seizures in both 

cities were much higher than in Los Angeles 

(18,416 tablets). The Louisville POE in Kentucky 

reported the most methamphetamine tablets 

seized (111,650) in 2003; however, these tablets 

were seized in a single incident. 

Canada. Methamphetamine smuggling from 

Canada through and between POEs along the 

Northern Border occurs at a very low level, and 

seizure data do not indicate any principal POEs 

along this border. EPIC data show that from 2001 

through 2003, less than 4 kilograms of methamphetamine were seized at or between POEs along 

the Northern Border. 

Routes From Domestic Source Areas

California is the only state with methamphetamine production sufficient to supply wholesale 

quantities to regional and national markets. Methamphetamine produced in California typically is 

transported via private vehicle to Primary Market 

Areas and other significant methamphetamine 

markets including those in the central and eastern 

United States. 

Distribution

Powder methamphetamine and, increasingly, 

ice methamphetamine are distributed to a varying 

degree throughout the country. Law enforcement 

reporting indicates that powder methamphetamine distribution is widespread in the Midwest, 

Pacific, Southwest, and West Regions, moderate 

and increasing in the Southeast Region, and limited but increasing in the Northeast Region. Law 

enforcement reporting indicates that Mexican 

criminal groups control most wholesale distribution of powder methamphetamine in the Pacific, 

Southwest, and West as well as in many areas of 

the Midwest, Southeast, and Northeast Regions 

where wholesale quantities of Mexican methamphetamine are distributed. Mexican criminal 

groups also control most midlevel distribution of 

powder methamphetamine throughout the country, particularly in the Pacific, Southwest, and 

West Regions, and supply other Mexican criminal 

groups, OMGs, and independent Caucasian and 

Hispanic midlevel distributors in all regions of 

the country. Retail powder methamphetamine distributors include Caucasian independent dealers, 

Hispanic street gangs, and OMGs; Caucasian 

independent dealers control most retail distribution in rural areas, which often consists of distributing small amounts of methamphetamine that 

they produce. 

The distribution of ice methamphetamine, 

once limited to Guam, Hawaii, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Samoa, now is pervasive throughout the Pacific and Southwest Regions, and in 

many areas of the Midwest and West Regions. Ice 

distribution is comparatively limited in the Southeast and Northeast but has increased in these 

regions since 2002. California- and Mexico-based 

Mexican criminal groups control most wholesale 
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

18

distribution of ice methamphetamine in the 

United States; however, Asian criminal groups 

(including ethnic Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, 

Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Thai, and Vietnamese) 

distribute wholesale amounts of the drug to a limited number of drug markets in the Pacific 

Region. Retail ice distributors include Caucasian 

independent dealers, Hispanic street gangs, and 

OMGs. 

Primary Market Areas

Los Angeles, Phoenix, San Diego, and San 

Francisco are the Primary Market Areas for methamphetamine because these cities have very high 

levels of methamphetamine abuse and are among 

the leading regional- or national-level methamphetamine distribution centers. Several other significant markets for methamphetamine either 

exhibit high levels of consumption or serve as distribution centers for the drug, although not to the 

extent of the four Primary Market Areas. For 

example, methamphetamine use in Seattle appears 

to be considerable as evidenced by a high number 

of ED mentions for methamphetamine; however, 

drug seizure data do not substantiate Seattle as a 

distribution center for methamphetamine at a level 

comparable with the Primary Market Areas. Conversely, Dallas appears to be a significant distribution center for methamphetamine based on EPIC 

drug seizure data; however, methamphetamine 

consumption in Dallas appears to be much lower 

than in the Primary Market Areas. 

Methamphetamine use and distribution are 

extensive throughout the central United States 

and in many areas of the Southeast; however, the 

data indicate that no city in central or southeastern states has demonstrated a level of methamphetamine consumption or distribution 

comparable with that of the Primary Market 

Areas. Law enforcement agencies in states such 

as Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, 

Kentucky, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, 

Nebraska, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas 

report widespread distribution; however, this distribution usually entails the sale of small amounts 

among friends and family members who produce 

methamphetamine in low capacity laboratories. 

To the extent that wholesale methamphetamine 

distribution occurs in these states, it usually 

involves the distribution by members of Mexican 

criminal groups of methamphetamine produced 

in Mexico or California superlabs. Despite limited data regarding methamphetamine consumption for most of the states listed above, the data 

that are available indicate significantly lower use 

in central and southeastern states than in the Primary Market Areas. For example, DAWN data 

for 2002 show that the number of methamphetamine-related ED mentions was much lower for 

Minneapolis (319), Atlanta (246), St. Louis 

(150), Dallas (98), and Chicago (42) than for Los 

Angeles (1,713), San Francisco (727), San Diego 

(598), and Phoenix (501). 

Los Angeles. Methamphetamine use in Los 

Angeles is very high as evidenced by more ED 

mentions than any other DAWN reporting city. 

According to DAWN, the estimated number of 

methamphetamine-related ED mentions for Los 

Angeles (1,713) was much higher than the next 

highest city, San Francisco (727). 

Methamphetamine distribution is pervasive 

throughout the Los Angeles area. According to the 

Los Angeles HIDTA, 63 of 110 identified criminal 

organizations in the Los Angeles area distribute 

methamphetamine. Mexican criminal groups control most wholesale and midlevel methamphetamine distribution within the Los Angeles area 

and also control most wholesale distribution of the 

drug from Los Angeles to other markets throughout the country. Hispanic street gangs, including 

18th Street, Mara Salvatrucha, and Southside 

Gang, as well as prison gangs such as Mexican 

Mafia control most retail methamphetamine

distribution in the Los Angeles area; however, 

local independent dealers also distribute the drug 

at the retail level. 

EPIC drug seizure data indicate that Los 

Angeles is likely the largest distribution center for 

methamphetamine in the United States. Combined 

EPIC Pipeline, Convoy, and Jetway drug seizure 

data for 2002 and 2003 show that law enforcement 

reported 78 methamphetamine seizure events on 

domestic highways, railways, and at airports in 

which the Los Angeles area was identified as the 
National Drug Intelligence Center

19

city of origin for the methamphetamine shipment. 

Moreover, significantly more methamphetamine 

was seized in 2002 and 2003 that originated in the 

Los Angeles area (259 kg) than any other city. 

Drug seizure data also show that methamphetamine is distributed from the Los Angeles area to 

other significant markets including Atlanta, Denver, Des Moines and Davenport (IA), Kansas City 

(KS), Kansas City (MO), and San Francisco.

Phoenix. Methamphetamine use in Phoenix is 

high and increasing as evidenced by a high number of ED mentions and an increase in methamphetamine-related deaths. According to DAWN 

data for 2002, Phoenix ranked fifth among 

DAWN reporting cities in the estimated number 

of ED mentions for methamphetamine (501) 

behind Los Angeles (1,713), San Francisco (727), 

San Diego (598), and Seattle (541). DAWN mortality data show that the number of methamphetamine-related deaths in Phoenix has increased 

steadily, more than doubling from 60 in 1998 to 

132 in 2002.1 Moreover, the proportion of methamphetamine-related deaths to all drug-related 

deaths increased from 15.3 percent in 1999 to 

25.5 percent in 2002. 

Mexican DTOs and criminal groups control 

most wholesale methamphetamine distribution in 

Phoenix, supplying midlevel and retail quantities 

to Hispanic street gangs such as Wetback Power 

and Sureños, OMGs such as Hells Angels, and 

Caucasian and Mexican independent dealers. 

Phoenix-based independent producers also

distribute retail quantities of the methamphetamine they produce. 

EPIC Pipeline, Convoy, and Jetway data indicate that Phoenix is a significant distribution center 

for methamphetamine. Combined EPIC data for 

2002 and 2003 show that law enforcement officials 

reported 19 methamphetamine seizure events in 

which Phoenix was identified as the city of origin 

for the shipment. Only Los Angeles (78) and San 

Francisco (22) were identified more often than 

Phoenix as the city of origin for methamphetamine 

shipments destined for domestic drug markets. 

Furthermore, more methamphetamine was seized 

in 2002 and 2003 that originated in Phoenix (69 

kg) than any other city with the exception of Los 

Angeles (259 kg). EPIC data indicate that methamphetamine is distributed to several significant drug 

markets in the Midwest, Northeast, and Pacific 

Regions, including Akron (OH), Detroit, Kansas 

City (MO), Las Vegas, Minneapolis, New York, 

Philadelphia, and Rapid City (SD).

San Francisco. The level of methamphetamine consumption in San Francisco is very high 

compared with most other cities. According to 

DAWN data, the estimated number of methamphetamine-related ED mentions in San Francisco 

increased from 611 in 2001 to 727 in 2002, second 

only to Los Angeles (1,713).

Mexican criminal groups control most wholesale and midlevel distribution of powder and ice 

methamphetamine in San Francisco, although 

Hawaiian, Filipino, and other Asian DTOs control the distribution of the ice they produce, particularly within Asian communities. Independent 

dealers and street gangs such as Mara Salvatrucha, 19th Street, Sureños, Trece, and Eddy 

Street Mob are the primary retail distributors of 

methamphetamine in the San Francisco area.

EPIC Pipeline, Convoy, and Jetway drug seizure 

data show that the San Francisco area is among the 

leading methamphetamine distribution centers. 

Combined EPIC data for 2002 and 2003 indicate 

that law enforcement officials reported 22 powder 

methamphetamine seizure events on domestic highways, railways, and at airports in which the San 

Francisco area was identified as the origin for the 

methamphetamine shipment. In fact, only Los 

Angeles (78) was identified more often than San 

Francisco as the city of origin for methamphetamine 

seizure events. Furthermore, more methamphetamine was seized that originated in the San Francisco area (54 kg) than any other city, with the 

exception of Los Angeles (259 kg) and Phoenix (69 

kg). EPIC seizure data indicate that methamphetamine is distributed from the San Francisco area to 

drug markets throughout the country including 

1. DAWN mortality data include information on drug-induced and drug-related deaths identified and submitted by death 

investigation jurisdictions participating in DAWN.
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

20

Anchorage, Des Moines (IA), Dutch Harbor (AK), 

Lihue (HI), Lynn Haven (FL), Memphis, New York, 

Omaha, Rupert (ID), and Sioux City (IA). 

San Diego. Methamphetamine use in San 

Diego is very high. According to DAWN, the estimated number of methamphetamine-related ED 

mentions for San Diego (598) was surpassed only 

by Los Angeles (1,713) and San Francisco (727) 

among DAWN reporting cities in 2002. 

Mexican DTOs and criminal groups are the 

primary wholesale and midlevel distributors of 

methamphetamine in the San Diego area. Street 

gangs and local independent dealers, usually supplied by Mexican criminal groups, control most 

retail distribution; however, independent producers also distribute smaller amounts of the methamphetamine they produce.

EPIC Pipeline, Convoy, and Jetway data

indicate that San Diego is among the leading 

methamphetamine distribution centers. Combined 

EPIC data for 2002 and 2003 show that law 

enforcement officials reported 19 powder methamphetamine seizure events on domestic highways, railways, and at airports in which the 

methamphetamine shipment originated in the San 

Diego area. In fact, only Los Angeles (78) and 

San Francisco (22) were identified more than the 

San Diego area as cities of origin for methamphetamine shipments. Furthermore, the amount of 

methamphetamine seized during those events (29 

kg) in 2002 and 2003 was exceeded only by the 

amount seized in Los Angeles (259 kg), Phoenix 

(69 kg), and the San Francisco area (54 kg). Drug 

seizure data also show that methamphetamine is 

distributed from the San Diego area to regional 

and national drug markets such as Atlanta, Chicago, Columbus (OH), Dallas, Fort Lauderdale, 

Honolulu, Houston, Meridian (MS), Philadelphia, 

St. Paul (MN), and Washington, D.C.

Outlook

Reported increases in domestic and foreign 

production of methamphetamine should raise 

availability levels in domestic markets overall, 

exposing an increasing number of potential new 

users to the drug and sustaining the demand 

among established methamphetamine users. As a 

result, the consequences of methamphetamine use 

are likely to continue to rise as more users experience the negative health effects brought on by 

methamphetamine use.

Anecdotal law enforcement reporting, drug 

survey data, arrest data, and laboratory seizure 

data indicate that methamphetamine availability, 

production, and distribution have increased in the 

Northeast Region since 2002, a situation likely to 

continue in the near term. Most of the methamphetamine distributed in the Northeast currently is 

produced in laboratories in Mexico or California, 

and increases in availability and distribution likely 

will be driven by increased distribution by Mexican criminal groups that supply local midlevel and 

retail dealers. However, local methamphetamine 

production in low capacity laboratories has been 

increasing in the Northeast. Small-scale local 

production in the Northeast likely will increase 

sharply in the near term as methamphetamine use 

in the region increases, and established users or 

initiates to methamphetamine use become familiar with production methods and become their 

own sources of supply or even small-scale distributors. According to MTF data, past year methamphetamine use in the Northeast Region trended 

upward from 2002 to 2003 among eighth (0.8% to 

1.7%), tenth (1.5% to 2.1%), and twelfth graders 

(1.6% to 1.8%). 

Methamphetamine production in Mexico likely 

will continue to increase. Reported increases in 

bulk ephedrine and pseudoephedrine shipments 

from China to Mexico for use in Mexico-based 

superlabs and an apparent decrease in the amount of 

bulk pseudoephedrine diverted from Canada for use 

in California-based superlabs suggest that Mexican 

criminal groups will concentrate more large-scale 

methamphetamine production efforts in Mexico.
National Drug Intelligence Center

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Sources

Federal

Executive Office of the President

Office of National Drug Control Policy

High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas

Appalachia

Atlanta

Central Valley California

Los Angeles

New England

New York/New Jersey

Philadelphia/Camden

Washington/Baltimore

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

National Institutes of Health

National Institute on Drug Abuse

Monitoring the Future

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

Drug Abuse Warning Network

National Survey on Drug Use and Health

Treatment Episode Data Set

U.S. Department of Justice

Criminal Division

Organized Crime Drug Enforcement Task Force

Drug Enforcement Administration

Boston Field Division

El Paso Intelligence Center

National Clandestine Laboratory Seizure System

Operation Convoy

Operation Jetway

Operation Pipeline

Federal-Wide Drug Seizure System
Methamphetamine Drug Threat Assessment

22

Newark Field Division

New York Field Division

Philadelphia Field Division

Washington, D.C., Field Division

National Institute of Justice

Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program

Office of Justice Programs

Office for Victims of Crime

U.S. Department of State

International Narcotics Control Strategy Report

State

California

California Department of Justice

Bureau of Narcotic Enforcement

Los Angeles County Regional Criminal Information Clearinghouse

Stanislaus County Sheriff’s Department

Stanislaus Drug Enforcement Agency

New Mexico

State Legislature

International

Royal Canadian Mounted Police
National Drug Intelligence Center

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