About the Cover: Coating applicators apply a layer of primer to the underbelly of an F-117 Nighthawk

before it is painted gray. (Photo taken by Airman 1st Class Vanessa Laboy and provided

courtesy of the US Air Force)

Our feature article in this issue reminded me

that it was about a year and a half ago that I first

saw a demonstration of the virtual spray system

at the STAR4D® exhibit, which is the Iowa

Waste Reduction Center’s (IWRC) innovative

training tool for honing the skills

of spray gun operators. It was one

of the few “hands-on” exhibits at

the conference I was attending. A

number of attendees stood in line

waiting to have their turn at the

simulator. Many of the participants, including a

number of my colleagues, congregated after

their turn, proudly comparing their scores to

determine who had “sprayed” their virtual panel

best. In this case, scores were based on a number

of factors, including how uniform the coating

was applied or by the amount of waste generated. Having operated manual, air-assisted spray

systems myself earlier in my career, I already

knew firsthand that manual spraying of coatings

is still mostly an art, and that no amount of

automation or level of technology will ever totally replace it. There will always be situations

where manual application is necessary.

To most at the conference, the main attraction

of the STAR4D® (Spray Technique Analysis and

Research for Defense) exhibit was in all likelihood its hands-on demonstration, which would

naturally appeal to engineers and other technical

personnel. However, the experience crystallized

in my head a very different thought as I walked

away from the exhibit. Most technology we have

developed throughout the history of civilization

has either expanded our capabilities to affect the

world around us (more so than that of an unaided human) or has assumed some function that

would otherwise be performed by people. While

the technologies featured in the article are not

unique in this respect, they are part of the comparatively small group of technologies that

specifically acknowledge the importance of

humans and foster their interaction rather than

diminish or supplant them. In such systems, the

primary intent is to foster and enhance the individual’s ability to master a technology, and not

to replace them with it.

As technologists, I think we sometimes lose

sight of this basic precept. In our haste and zeal

to create enabling technologies and systems to

aid and enhance the nation’s defense capabilities,

it is easy to overlook the human element that is

the very essence of the warfighter. Therefore, we

must first take the human factor into account in

everything we do. Technology is meant to serve

people, and not the other way around. Let us all

remember those men and women who comprise

the front line of the nation’s defenses, and who

have far more invested in the endeavor. While

we all strive in our own way to define, develop,

design, manufacture, field, or maintain the systems that serve the warfighter, we must remember that we ultimately serve those people who

are the warfighter.

Chris Grethlein

Deputy Director

Always 

Remember 

the Human Factor

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INTRODUCTION

The effectiveness of US military forces is largely dependent on the

readiness of the equipment and vehicles they use. One process in

particular that plays an important role in the overall readiness of

military equipment is the spray application of coatings. This is 

significant because it is such a pervasive process within the Armed

Forces. Spray-applied coatings are used for many types of equipment, components and vehicles including aircraft, ground vehicles, water-borne vessels and ordnance. For example, if a coating

has to be re-applied because it was poorly applied in the firstplace, re-deployment of the vehicle will be delayed, thereby

straining military readiness. Coating re-application also results in

increased usage of labor and materials, thus increasing overall

maintenance costs. Improved coating application quality therefore results in reduced cost and increased readiness.

Spray Application by the DoD

The DoD has implemented some of the most advanced coating

systems ever created. However, the performance of these coatings

is dependent upon the effectiveness of their application. Since

coatings are designed to perform specific tasks, they are typically

very expensive. By using high performance coatings efficiently,

the DoD can realize significant monetary savings through the

reduction in coating purchases, material rework and waste disposal. Training has been the conventional route to improving the

quality of coating application, but advances in both spray application technologies and training programs have brought the quality of coating application to the next level. This article describes

some of the nuances of the coating application process that affect

the quality of the coating and also presents a special training program and new technologies that have been developed to help

coating applicators improve the quality of their coatings.

THE COATING APPLICATION PROCESS

Applying coatings using a spray gun (Figure 1) is a skill that can

only be mastered through effective hands-on training and years of

experience. However, the fundamental skills and knowledge

required for acceptable DoD coating application can be passed 

on through effective education and training. Coating application

effectiveness can generally be evaluated based upon three factors 

of application outcomes: efficiency, accuracy and consistency. In

addition to these three factors, spray applicators must also possess

the knowledge required to effectively prepare surfaces and coating

materials and safely dispose of the waste products which could 

contain hazardous materials.

Spray Gun Settings

In order to efficiently apply coatings, spray applicators must

understand and follow several techniques. One of the most

important preparatory steps is properly setting up a spray gun so

that it operates at its maximum efficiency. A common mistake in

setting up the gun is using excessive air pressure, which reduces

the amount of paint that adheres to the part. Properly adjusting

the fan pattern, air pressure and fluid flow can drastically affect

the efficiency with which coatings are applied to substrates.

Coating Application Parameters

Other techniques that can improve efficiency include the reduction of lead and lag space* and maintaining the proper spray gunto-substrate distance. Also of primary importance is maintaining

an appropriate speed with which the spray gun is moved while

taking into consideration the

particular properties of the

coating being applied. Spray

applicators must learn about

the properties of certain coatings and how fast they should

be applied. This knowledge can

then be converted into skill

through training and experience, because ultimately, this

skill and knowledge can result

in more accurate mil-build

(coating thickness applied to

substrate). As a result of inappropriate mil build, coating

defects can develop in the forms

of corrosion or poor abrasion

resistance. Thus, an accurate

and consistent mil-build is the

most important factor affecting

coating performance and durability of the complete coating

system. Techniques that can be

taught to improve consistency

include identifying and producing the proper fifty percent overlap with each spray pass and maintaining an orientation of holding the spray gun perpendicular to the substrate.

All of these factors play a pivotal role with regard to the end

product and the coating quality. Beginning at the preparation stage

and continuing through the entire application process, the implementation of these techniques assure an efficient, accurate and consistent finish on materials. Perhaps the best way to quickly achieve

this level of proficiency is through proper and effective training.

However, to supplement and enhance training, several technologies

have been developed to help coating applicators cultivate and maintain proper techniques for the coating application process.

Lea Ann Schellhorn

Iowa Waste Reduction Center

Cedar Falls, IA

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 1, Number 4 3

Figure 1. An Anti-Terrorism Bomb

Blast Protective Coating is sprayed

onto the Interior Walls of an Air

Force Base facility. (Photo taken 

by Airman 1st Class Nicholas Pilch

and provided courtesy of the 

US Air Force)
4 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 1, Number 4

LASER-GUIDED SPRAY GUN ATTACHMENT

Efficiently using raw coating materials can lead to significant savings when large quantities of coatings are required. This leads to

the question of how can coatings be used more efficiently? One

answer to this question is maintaining a proper spray gun distance. When spray guns are too far away from the substrate there

is an increased likelihood of coating over-atomization†. One result

of over-atomization is that the coating material can bounce off

the substrate, which results in wasted material. Improving the

consistency with which substrates are coated can reduce the

occurrence of several problematic coating application results. Two

of the most easily recognized results of an inconsistent finish are

sags and light spots. Sags result in areas with a wet paint film

build that is overly heavy causing the paint to drip down the surface, and light spots can cause certain coatings, such as chemical

agent resistant coatings (CARC), to lose their effectiveness. Often

these problems can be attributed to a change in the distance the

spray gun was held from the substrate.

The Iowa Waste Reduction Center (IWRC) has combined available technologies to help applicators mitigate these problems. To

ensure applicators maintain a consistent distance between the nozzle of the spray gun and the substrate, IWRC created a special laser

device which attaches to any spray gun. The laser-guided spray gun

attachment utilizes a class 3A device laser beam‡ that passes

through a beam splitter producing two separate beams, which are

projected onto the substrate being painted, as shown in Figure 2.

As the applicator moves the gun toward or away from the substrate

the two laser dots move in relation to each other. When the two

laser dots converge and result in one dot on the substrate, this indicates to the applicator that the paint from the spray gun is traveling the optimal distance from the spray gun tip to the substrate.

When the distance between the spray gun and substrate changes,

the laser dot will separate from one dot to two dots. The spray gun

settings can be adjusted by an experienced applicator to determine

the optimal distance at which the lasers converge. This visual 

feedback serves as an aid for maintaining a consistent finish and

uniform thickness on the substrate and in the long-term helps 

prevent coating failure.

An additional advantage of this system is that applicators have been able to

gauge exactly where the paint is going

to land using the converged dots of the

laser to target the gun. Increased control over where paint is sprayed can

decrease the amount of paint sprayed

off of the edge of the part and improve

transfer efficiency§. Increased transfer

efficiency leads to a reduction in

volatile organic compound (VOC)

emissions, hazardous wastes and ozone

causing air pollution. IWRC data have

shown that transfer efficiencies can be

increased by almost forty percent when

using this laser-guided spray gun attachment.

In addition, the laser attachment has demonstrated another

advantage in that it has helped to more precisely control overlapping spray passes at the optimal fifty percent overlap. When a

fifty percent overlap is achieved, coating application defects such

as tiger striping** are eliminated.

The laser-guided spray gun attachment has been shown to

improve the technique of spray applicators, while decreasing

costs, materials, waste and time. With this new technology, spray

applicators have demonstrated that they can consistently apply a

high quality finish while reducing the environmental impact.

TRAINING

Effective training is rarely provided to commercial and industrial

spray applicators. In most cases, an applicator is handed a spray

gun with minimal knowledge and is forced to either learn on their

own through trial-and-error or while watching their peers. This

lack of standardized fundamental training can lead to a significant

gap in the knowledge and skill level of applicators.

Extensive hands-on training is necessary to help applicators

understand, practice and become proficient with proper coating

application techniques. Traditionally, however, there have been

many drawbacks to providing effective hands-on training to coating applicators. These typically include the amount of time, labor,

space, material, hazardous wastes, and safety precautions that are

required, as well as the cost that is incurred when conducting

training. Such obstacles and expenses lead to less than optimal

rates of training for incoming spray technicians. Consequently,

these coating applicators are often trained on the job, possibly

learning bad habits from more experienced applicators, who also

may not have been trained properly. To help overcome some of

these obstacles and costs a special training program was created to

address the issues and provide the DoD with a resource for training incoming and experienced applicators.

A New Approach to Training

The Spray Technique Analysis and Research for Defense

(STAR4D®)†† program was developed and implemented to provide individual, hands-on training to military spray applicators,

focusing on developing proper techniques as well as improving

efficiency and reducing waste. This program, which was established by IWRC, has provided military personnel with the 

education and resources needed to develop quality painting techniques. The program has utilized state-of-the-art technologies

and hands-on painter training to not only help improve coating

durability and performance, but also to save money and

resources by implementing waste reduction initiatives. 

This training program for military personnel has taught applicators how to effectively spray specific components, equipment, 

vehicles and surfaces to maximize coating efficiency and minimize

environmental pollution. Sample training results, which are

shown in Table 1, compare the transfer efficiency of coating applicators before and after training. Other data are also shown in the

table, including the amount of environmentally harmful VOCs

released. The test results show that the average transfer efficiency

for 254 students improved from 56 percent to 66 percent after

training. Additionally, the amount of coatings is shown to have

been reduced by 13 percent among the students trained. [1]

Military personnel have traveled to the facility in Cedar Falls,

Iowa, to learn advanced spray techniques, master new technologies and examine alternative technologies that allow spray applicators to improve quality. As a result, military spray technicians

from 65 sites in 40 states and territories have received instruction

in the form of training, equipment and waste reduction advice.

The program educates trainees about the fundamentals of coatFigure 2. Two Laser Beams 

Help the Coating Applicator

Maintain Proper Distance 

from the Substrate and Keep 

the Coating on Target.
http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 1, Number 4 5

ings and spray techniques. Furthermore, in order to give applicators training that was relevant to their job, the program makes

every attempt to use the same coatings and equipment that they

typically use on-site (Figure 3). The training staff also demonstrates some of the new or existing technologies which may prove

more efficient for their process.

During the training course, applicators go through a mix of

classroom, hands-on and simulation training. A pre-test and posttest are administered which allows the trainees to see their growth

and improvements from the first day to the last. By focusing on

strategies and techniques that enable military spray applicators to

use less material and improve spray technique, applicators are able

to return to their paint facilities and produce a quality finish while

most likely lowering the costs and environmental implications

associated with painting.

Coating Application Research

In addition to training, IWRC has been conducting numerous 

studies and research relating to painting and coating operations.

In response to anticipated local and federal restrictions on volatile

organic compound (VOC) and hazardous air pollutant (HAP)

emissions, the DoD is in the process of replacing its current solvent-borne chemical agent resistant coatings with water dispersible CARC (WD-CARC II), which are in compliance with

these restrictions. The STAR4D® training program is currently

providing assistance in examining the compatibility of the new

types of WD-CARC II and is investigating the possible use of

infrared curing in order to reduce potentially problematic cure

times. Supplemental to these applied studies on the performance

of newly developed CARC, a cost analysis regarding the placement of solvent-borne CARC to WD-CARC II was recently completed for the DoD. Studies of WD-CARC II dry times have also

been conducted for the National Guard Bureau in the past year.

IWRC has also developed a data compilation containing CARC

information for the Army. This CD has been distributed to various military bases across the United States and is continually

being updated with new information. 

IWRC has spent the past two years developing a standardized

painter training course for Air Force spray applications. In its

entirety, the course consists of instructor manuals, student manuals and presentations for 13 units that encompass the process

of coating application. Six military bases were visited with the

purpose of determining the factors and problems that needed 

to be addressed and incorporated into an effective training program. Based upon the research at the bases, the IWRC designed

the program to meet those needs and developed the instructor

manuals accordingly.

Other Coatings Projects and Training

IWRC is also involved in projects and studies that involve the

use of black lights for the inspection of coating mil-build and 

the development of a painter certification course. By discovering

new ways to examine acceptable mil-build, such as using a black

light, a reduction in corrosion could result by reducing the

occurrence of light spots. Additionally, the goals of the painter

certification course will be to educate and help select spray 

applicators for the DoD.

The program offers an interactive website to complement the

training program. The site, www.star4d.org, serves as a centralized

location where painters of the US Armed Services can find useful

information.

Virtual Spray Training

To eliminate many of the drawbacks of conventional spray application training, an innovative approach was developed that utilizes virtual reality technologies such as simulated paint and

surfaces. Spray applicators are now able to view and interact with

real spray application equipment while simulating the actual

application process onto a virtual surface, as shown in Figure 4.

The conventional training requirements of a paint booth, safety

equipment, solvents or a regulatory permit are no longer necessary. The time spent to prepare the surface, mix the coatings and

cleanup are also factors that no longer must be considered in the

training process.

Simulated spraying is very similar to actual spray application

but with additional benefits. The virtual training system uses a

real spray gun which is uniquely instrumented to allow applicators to control flow rate and fan size in the same manner as they

do on other spray guns. Those factors can also be displayed on the

simulator screen to enable applicators to completely understand

how the spray gun operates.

How the Virtual Training System Works

When the spray gun trigger is pulled, the position and orientation

of the spray gun is automatically tracked in relation to the virtual surface. A software program translates the data input and communicates it to a projector which then displays the spray pattern

onto the screen.

Along with the benefits of learning the spray gun operation,

applicators are also provided with instantaneous feedback

Table 1. STAR4D® Results from Training Classes to Date [1].

No. of Students: Pre-Training Post-Training Difference Percent

254 Change

Transfer Efficiency 55.56% 66.12% 10.56% 19.01%

Amount of Coatings 0.15 0.13 0.02 13.33%

Used (gal)

Amount of VOCs 0.45 0.39 0.06 12.57%

Released (lbs)

Amount of Coating 0.06 0.05 0.01 16.67%

Material Used per 

Thickness Applied 

(gal/mil)

Figure 3. A Military Technician Practices Proper Spray Technique on

the Hood of a Vehicle.
regarding their spray pattern and overall application. Mil-build

average, ounces of paint sprayed and elapsed time spent spraying are also displayed on the screen. Regarding the actual 

application, transfer efficiency and overspray are also displayed.

All of these factors combine to give applicators a quantitative

assessment of their performance and ultimately the overall 

effectiveness of the training.

While all of the factors explained thus far are important, possibly the most useful display factor is the use of two different

paint accumulation modes: the single-color and the multi-color

accumulation mode (Figure 5). Single-color paint mode is an

approximation of the actual appearance of paint. In this mode,

shades of a single color are used to indicate paint thickness. In

multi-color accumulation mode, multiple shades of three colors

are used to indicate the thickness of the paint. In this mode, the

surface color represents an area with no paint. Shades of blue 

represent values below the minimum thickness setting. Shades of

green represent values within the minimum and maximum 

target thickness range. Shades of red represent thickness values

that exceed the maximum target.

Advantages

This system has allowed for realistic hands-on painter training to

be conducted in a more suitable setting. For example, the virtual

training can be conducted in a classroom with more students

compared to conventional training. The instructors can provide

demonstrations encompassing spray gun setup and proper application and then supervise the students as they practice in the same

room. This allows the instructor to identify strengths and weaknesses of each trainee.

The virtual spray application training is beneficial because

applicators are presented with an unlimited amount of practice

parts and materials while completely eliminating the byproducts

of hazardous waste or air emissions. Applicators are able to

explore coating application and accumulation in an entirely new

way, while improving the motor skills necessary for applying high

performance coatings appropriately.

SUMMARY

The military spray application training program, STAR4D®,

at the IWRC continues to meet the needs of military spray 

applicators by continually updating their knowledge-base and

increasing their technological capabilities through tools such as

the laser-guided spray gun attachment and the virtual training

system. With the help of this program and these technologies, 

the DoD continues to properly train and educate spray applicators. As a result, coatings applied to real-life military systems and

equipment will be of higher quality to ensure these systems 

are ready in the time of need.

NOTES AND REFERENCE * Lead is the distance between the point where the material leaves the part

and the point where the spray gun trigger is released; lag is the distance

between the point where the spray gun is triggered off of the part and the

point where the material leaving the spray gun lands on the part. 

† Over-atomization results when the paint droplet size becomes too small

and does not adhere or bounces off the substrate.

‡ A class 3A laser is one that is produced for continuous operations 

but does not require operator training. 

§ Transfer efficiency is the amount of coating material deposited on the 

substrate divided by the amount of coating material sprayed.

** Tiger striping is a defect that occurs as a result of an inconsistent film

build.

†† STAR4D® is a registered trademark of the Iowa Waste Reduction 

Center.

[1] STAR4D® Training Class Database, Iowa Waste Reduction Center, 

University of Northern Iowa, http://www.star4d.org/database.cfm.

6 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 1, Number 4

Lea Ann Schellhorn is a member of the staff at the Iowa Waste Reduction Center (IWRC). As a part of Iowa’s 1987 Groundwater Protection Act, the IWRC was established as a service of the University of Northern Iowa (UNI) in Cedar Falls, Iowa. The IWRC receives state

and federal funding to provide small Iowa businesses with the guidance and resources necessary to keep up-to-date with the constantly

changing environmental regulations. A portion of the Center has focused on the painting and coating industry for over 10 years. Not only is

training conducted on-site, but the staff continuously keep up-to-date with knowledge and advancements in the industry. The IWRC is continuously striving to expand their resources and services to provide equipment and tools to assist spray technicians in their day-to-day routines.

Figure 4.

Demonstration

of the Virtual

Spray Application Training

System.

Figure 5. Two Viewing Modes of the Virtual Training System: Single

Color Mode (Left) and Accumulation Mode (Right). Various Thickness

Levels Are Visible in the Accumulation Mode.
techsolutions 3

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 1, Number 4

INTRODUCTION

Even though eddy current testing is one of the oldest nondestructive evaluation methods, it was not widely understood

and did not reach full, widespread use until the 1980s.[1]

Whereas portable ultrasonic instrumentation offering

considerable versatility for nondestructive testing (NDT) has

been available since the 1960s, comparable eddy current testing

equipment was not widely available until the 1980s. In addition,

eddy current theory did not become available until the late

1970s. Now, excellent tutorial information is available for

scientists and engineers without advanced degrees.

History of Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing (Figure 1) has its roots in discoveries 

that were made in the 1800s. The most fundamental

breakthrough was the discovery of electromagnetism by Hans

Christian Orstead in 1820. About a decade later in 1831,

Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction*. 

Then in 1834, Heinrich Lenz developed the principal that

defines how the electromagnetic properties of a test object are

communicated back to the test system. And finally, James

Maxwell, who is famous for his defining equations of

electromagnetic theory, discovered eddy currents in 1864.

D.E. Hughes was the first to use eddy current testing in

1879 to conduct metallurgical sorting tests†. More than a half

century later, eddy current testing made a leap forward when

Friedrich Foerster developed and marketed practical eddy

current testing equipment in the 1940s. His major 

contributions led to the development of the impedance plane

display, which greatly aided presentation of test information.

In addition, he formulated the Law of Similarity, which

enables eddy current test results to be duplicated under a wide

variety of test situations.

An equipment manufacturer, Intercontrolle of France, made

the next major advancement in 1974, when the company

developed multi-frequency testing. Driving the device at

multiple frequencies enabled eddy current testing to overcome

the major limitation of having to interpret eddy current signals

from a single display. Multi-frequency methods can also

optimize conflicting test variables such as sensitivity and

penetration. The development of microprocessor-based 

eddy current instruments in the 1980s greatly enhanced the

potential and user-friendliness of the method, and allowed for

the development of automated eddy current inspection

equipment. Finally, at the turn of the century in the late 1990s

and early 2000s, giant magnetoresistive‡ sensors were utilized to

allow multi-frequency techniques at very low frequencies to

probe for flaws deep in multi-layer metallic aircraft structures.

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES

Eddy current NDT is based on the principals of electromagnetic

induction for inducing eddy currents§ in a material or part

placed in or adjacent to one or more alternating flux field

induction coils.[2] The system is operated at very low power

levels to minimize heating and temperature changes. The loop

currents induced in the material produce an additional magnetic

field, and a sensor is used to measure the total magnetic field

near the specimen. The value of the total magnetic field depends

on several factors including the following: 

• Geometry of the induction coil

• Geometry of the specimen

• Current and frequency in the coil

• Electrical conductivity of the specimen

• Magnetic permeability of the specimen

Selecting a Nondestructive Testing Method, Part III: Eddy Current Testing

7

H. Thomas Yolken

TRI/Austin

Austin, TX

Figure 1. Eddy Current

Inspection of an F-16

Fighting Falcon Aircraft.

NDT is Responsible for

Early Engine Wear

Detection to Accomplish

Missions in a More Cost

Effective Way.

This edition of TechSolutions is the third installment in a series dedicated to the subject of nondestructive testing. 

TechSolutions 1, published in Vol. 1, No. 2 of the AMMTIAC Quarterly, introduced the concept of nondestructive 

testing and provided brief descriptions of the various techniques currently available. TechSolutions 2, published in Vol. 1,

No. 3 of the AMMTIAC Quarterly focused in on the most common nondestructive testing technique: Visual Inspection.

This current article continues the series and covers another very common technique: Eddy Current Testing. Once the 

series on nondestructive testing methods is complete, we will combine all of the articles into a valuable desk reference on

nondestructive testing and place it on our website. - Editor
techsolutions 3

8 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 1, Number 4

How Eddy Current Testing Works

A crack in the surface, or near the surface of the specimen

interrupts the current flowing in the specimen (i.e., it locally

changes the electrical conductivity) and causes a change in 

the adjacent magnetic field. The induction coil is scanned over

the specimen, and the magnetic field is measured by a sensor

and recorded. In another approach, there is no second or

sensing coil, and the reluctance** is measured directly in the

exciting or induction coil to locate a crack.

Figure 2 shows the principal elements of four types of

typical eddy current systems. Figure 2 (a) shows a simple

arrangement, in which voltage across the coil is monitored.

Figure 2 (b) shows a typical impedance bridge. Figure 2 (c)

shows an impedance bridge with dual coils, and Figure 2 (d)

shows an impedance bridge with dual coils and a reference

sample in the second cell.

The location of the eddy currents in the specimen in the z,

or depth direction, is a function of the frequency. As the

frequency is increased, the eddy currents are increasingly

concentrated near the surface of the specimen, and as the

frequency is decreased the eddy currents increase their

penetration into the specimen. Employing a variety of

frequencies to probe different depths in the specimen can be

very useful for analyzing a greater volume of the specimen.

Types of Discontinuities

There are a number of different discontinuities that can be

detected with eddy current NDT. In metallic structures, welds,

fatigue cracks, voids, hidden corrosion and stress corrosion

cracks can be detected (Figure 3) and the size of such defects

can also be determined. The geometry of the part and the

defect location dictate the size of the flaw that can be detected.

For example, automated and manual eddy current inspection

of gas turbine engine disks can reliably detect cracks as small as

0.023 inches in length in boltholes of seventh stage compressor

disks.[3] Defects such as delaminations, voids and broken

fibers from impact damage can be detected in graphite epoxy

composites. While in carbon/carbon composites for high

temperature use, eddy current NDT can be used to determine

the thickness of the silicon carbide (SiC) coating used on

carbon/carbon composite for oxidation protection. In addition,

voids caused by oxidation between the SiC coating and the

carbon/carbon base can be detected and carbon loss due to

oxidation can be determined using eddy current NDT. Eddy

current NDT can be used on conducting materials including

metals, alloys, carbon/epoxy composites, carbon/carbon

composites, and metallic matrix composites.

INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS

There are no special facility requirements for eddy current

NDT, and portable instrumentation is available for field

applications such as aircraft inspection, as shown in Figure 4.

Rugged eddy current equipment is also available for use in

manufacturing environments to inspect metallic products 

as they are being processed. There is no special material

preparation for testing, but a smooth surface produces

optimum results. Eddy current equipment is calibrated using

physical calibration standards made of the same material with

the same geometry as the part to be tested. Electrodischarge

machining (EDM) notches, drilled holes, etc., can serve as

Figure 2. Four Types of Eddy Current Instruments. (a) A Simple Arrangement, in which Voltage across the Coil is Monitored. 

(b) Typical Impedance Bridge. (c) Impedance Bridge with Dual Coils. (d) Impedance Bridge with Dual Coils and a Reference 

Sample in the Second Coil.[2] (Reprinted with permission of ASM International®. All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org)

Figure 3. A Senior

Airman Uses Eddy

Current to Locate

Surface Cracks on a

C-5 Flange. (Photo

taken by Staff Sgt.

Matt McGovern and

provided courtesy

of the US Air Force)

Resistor

Voltmeter

Test

Sample

Inspection Coil

ac V

R

Ground Ground Ground

Voltmeter

Test

Sample

Inspection Coil

Balancing

Impedance

ac V

R R

R

Ground Ground

Voltmeter

Test

Sample

Inspection Coil

Coil (Balancing

Impedance)

Coil (Balancing

Impedance)

Reference

Sample

ac V

R R

R R

Ground Ground

Voltmeter

Test

Sample

Inspection

Coil

ac V

R R

R R

Ground Ground

(a) (b) (c) (d)
flaws, and several sizes should be used to encompass the actual

flaw sizes expected. Figure 5 shows several fabricated

discontinuities used as standards in eddy current inspection.

Real flaws such as fatigue cracks, stress corrosion cracks, etc.,

are required for improved accuracy in sizing of defects. The

distance of the inspection coil from the surface of the sample,

called “liftoff” must also be carefully controlled. The interpretation of results using the modern, computer-based eddy

current equipment is straightforward with both a display screen

showing the results and the computer recording the data.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Commercial, off-the-shelf eddy current equipment is available

that is very portable and user-friendly. Training for the eddy

current testing technique is somewhat straightforward (Figure

6). However, certified NDT inspectors are either recommended

or required and the training for a certified inspector involves

more in-depth training than just how to use the instrument and

interpret the results. In the US, eddy current inspectors can be

certified by NAS 410 from the Aerospace Industries Association

of America, or by the American Society for Nondestructive

Testing (ASNT). Eddy current instruments range in cost from

about $10,000 to about $30,000.

In additional to conventional eddy current NDT techniques,

remote field eddy current inspection capability was developed to

inspect tubular metallic products from the inside of the tube.

This technique, illustrated in Figure 7, provides a means of

inspecting the outside of the tube wall with only an interior

eddy current probe. The technique is applicable to any metallic

material, but has been primarily applied to ferromagnetic

materials since the wall of the tube must be magnetically

saturated. The outside of the tube or pipe can be inspected for

corrosion/erosion wall thinning, pitting, and cracks. The

technique is equally sensitive to axial and circumferential flaws.

The major disadvantage is that when applied to nonmagnetic

materials the sensitivity is generally decreased.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Eddy Current Testing

There are several advantages to using the method of eddy

current testing. These typically include:

• Reasonable cost

• Availability of a wide variety of commercial, 

off-the-shelf instruments

• Automation potential

• Good sensitivity to small flaws at or near the surface 

of the sample

• Capability for quantitative flaw sizing

• Portable equipment

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 1, Number 4 9

AMMTIAC A DVANCED M ATERIALS , M ANUFACTURING AND T ESTING

Figure 4. A Royal Air

Force Airman Checks

for Potential Flaws 

on an Aircraft Using

Eddy Current. (Photo

taken by Staff Sgt.

Rhiannon Willard and

provided courtesy of

the US Air Force)

Figure 5. Several Fabricated Discontinuities Used as Reference

Standards in Eddy Current Inspection.[2] (Reprinted with 

permission of ASM International®. All rights reserved.

www.asminternational.org)

Figure 6. A US Air

Force Airman Nondestructive Inspection

Apprentice Checks for

Defects on a Training

Aircraft Part by 

Performing an Eddy

Current Inspection

(Photo taken by Staff

Sgt. Michael B. Keller

and provided

courtesy of the

US Air Force)

Figure 7. Schematic Showing Location of Remote-Field Zone in

Relation to Exciter Coil and Direct Coupling Zone.[2] (Reprinted

with permission of ASM International®. All rights reserved.

www.asminternational.org)

Figure 8. Standard Depths of Penetration as a Function of 

Frequencies Used in Eddy Current Inspection for Several 

Metals of Various Electrical Conductivities. [2] (Reprinted with 

permission of ASM International®. All rights reserved.

www.asminternational.org)

Filed 

Transverse Notch

Milled or

Electrical Discharge

Machined Longitudinal Notch

Milled or

Electrical Discharge

Machined Transverse Notch Drilled Hole

Tube OD Direct

Coupling

Zone

Remote 

Field Zone Tube ID

Exciter Coil Detector Array

10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

Frequency, Hz

10

1

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

Depth of Penetration, in.

Graphite

Titanium

Stainless Steel

Aluminum

Ingot Iron

High-Alloy Steel

Copper
10 The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 1, Number 4

techsolutions 3

The disadvantages of eddy current NDT include the lack 

of capability to detect flaws that are deep in thick section

metallic structures and the restriction for application to only

conducting materials. Figure 8 gives the standard depths 

of penetration of eddy currents as a function of frequency 

for several metals of various electrical conductivities.

SELECTED EXAMPLES OF EDDY CURRENT APPLICATIONS

Eddy current NDT is widely used to inspect for corrosion

and cracking in airplane wing skins at rivet holes and in

aircraft frames.[4] Modern commercial eddy current

instrumentation capable of operating down to 60 Hz with

small eddy current probes is now available to detect small

fatigue cracks below the surface in aircraft airframes with

more sensitivity than X-ray radiography. Fatigue cracks can

also be detected in layered structures such as an aircraft

window belt splice, which is illustrated in Figure 9 (a). 

The technique produces easily interpreted crack responses 

Eddy

Current

Summary

Figure 9. Detection of Crack in Second Layer by Scanning Over

Fasteners with a 15 mm (0.6 in.) Probe at 1 kHz: (a) Scanning

Procedure; (b) No Crack Response; (c) Crack Response.[4] 

(Copyright 2004 © The American Society for Nondestructive 

Testing, Inc. Reprinted with permission from NDT Handbook,

third edition: Vol. 5, Electromagnetic Testing.)

Figure 10. Typical Applications for Low Frequency Eddy Current

Testing: (a) Interstitial Corrosion; (b) Thinning.[4] (Copyright 2004

© The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. Reprinted

with permission from NDT Handbook, third edition: Vol. 5, 

Electromagnetic Testing.)

Discontinuity types • Cracks

(e.g., what types the method can detect) • Holes

• Corrosion

• Damage in C/C composites

Size of discontinuities • Depends on geometry, etc., but down to 0.020” for jet turbine engine 

fatigue cracks at or near the surface

Limitations • Material must be electrically conducting

• Depth of inspection limited by frequency of eddy currents used 

• Not effective for cracks deep in thick sectioned metallic structures

Advantages • Can detect discontinuities that do not break the surface 

• Quantitative flaw sizing

• Can be automated for repetitive inspections

Inspector training (level • Usually required, with commercial or military training schools 

and/or availability) available

Inspector certification • Depends on application 

required • Certification available through the American Society for Nondestructive Inspection (ASNT)

Equipment • Except for very simple equipment, most have computer control 

and data logging, automated scanning is also available, 

single frequency or multi-frequency equipment is available

Relative cost • Can be labor intensive if used manually on large areas such as 

of inspection airplane skins and rivets, equipment cost vary from a modest amount 

to $100,000 or more

Aluminum Fasteners

Probe Up

(a) (a)

(b) (b) (c)

Forward

Scan Direction

Nonmetallic Guide

Liftoff Aluminum

Fasteners

Liftoff Aluminum

Crack Response

Resistance R

(Relative Scale)

Resistance R

(Relative Scale)

Reactance X (Relative Scale)

Reactance X (Relative Scale)

Crack

1.2 mm

(0.05 in.)

0.6 mm (0.025 in.)

0.4 mm (0.085 in.)

Probe

Corrosion

Corrosion
on a screen display, as shown in Figure 9 (b & c).

These cracks were detected in the first row of rivets above

the longitudinal belt splice of aircraft windows. The cracks

initiated at the fastener holes in the internal (second layer) skin

and grew in a longitudinal direction. Corrosion of multiplayer

aircraft skins can also be readily detected with eddy current

techniques, as shown in Figure 10.

Eddy current techniques are also in widespread use to

detect fatigue cracks in critical aircraft jet engines components,

such as blades and turbine disk during overhaul. For

discontinuities more than 0.07 in. (1.8 mm) long fluorescent

penetrant inspection will usually suffice. However, for cracks

below 0.07 in. (1.8 mm) in length, eddy current NDT is

usually required.

CONCLUSIONS

Eddy current NDT is a mature technology with widespread

availability of user-friendly, affordable, commercial, off-theshelf equipment. It can be used on conducting materials and

can detect many types of discontinuities. Eddy current testing

has enjoyed considerable success in a number of applications

including, for example, inspection of nuclear reactor heat

exchanger tubes, aircraft engine and metal skin components,

and in the manufacturing plant inspection of a variety of

metallic components. In addition, eddy current NDT is widely

used to inspect welds along with X-ray radiography and

ultrasonic testing.

NOTES & REFERENCES

* Electromagnetic induction is the generation of an electrical voltage

across a conducting material through stimulation by an applied 

alternating magnetic field.

† Tests used to quickly sort metal alloys with differing chemical or

alloying compositions.

‡ Giant magnetoresistance is a phenomenon where the application 

of a magnetic field reduces the electrical resistance of certain 

materials by a significant margin.

§ An eddy current is an electrical current that flows in a circular 

path or loop and is induced by an applied magnetic field.

** Reluctance in a magnetic system is akin to resistance in an 

electrical system.

[1] C.J. Hellier, “Eddy Current Testing,” Handbook of Nondestructive

Evaluation, McGraw-Hill, NY, 2001, pp. 8.1-8.7.

[2] “Eddy Current Inspection,” ASM Metals Handbook, Ninth 

Edition, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control,

1989, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, pp. 164-194.

[3] Nondestructive Evaluation Capabilities Data Book, 3rd Edition,

Appendix A, Eddy Current Inspection, NTIAC, DB-97-02, 

November 1997.

[4] D.J. Hagemaier, “Low Frequency Eddy Current Testing of 

Aircraft Structures,” Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third 

Edition, Volume 5; S.S. Udpa and P.O. Moore, editors; American

Society for Nondestructive Testing, 2004, pp. 481-485.

GENERAL REFERENCES

N. Eua-Anant, X. Cai, L. Udpa, J. Chao and I. Elshafiey, “Crack

Detection in Eddy Current Images of Jet Engine Disks,” Review of

Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 19A. American

Institute of Physics, Melville, NY, May 2000, pp. 773-780.

E.M. Franklin “Eddy Current Inspection,” Materials Evaluation,

Vol. 40, No. 10, American Society for Nondestructive Testing,

Columbus, OH, September 1982, pp. 1008-1010.

N. Goldfine, V. Zilbertstein, K. Walrath, E. Hill and C. Paraizaman,

“Inspection of Gas Turbine Components Using Conformable MWM

Eddy-Current Sensors,” ASNT Fall Conference and Quality Testing

Show–2000: Paper Summaries Book, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH, November 2000, pp. 29-31.

D.J.Hagemaier, “Nondestructive Testing of Aging Aircraft,” FAA

Aging Aircraft Workshop, American Society for Nondestructive Testing,

Columbus, OH, 1990, pp. 4-12.

D.J. Hagemaier, and G. Klark, “Eddy Current Detection of Short

Cracks under Installed Fasteners,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 55, 

No. 1, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH,

January 1997, pp. 25-30.

A.W. Irvine, “Quick Eddy Current Inspection of Aircraft Wheels,”

Materials Evaluation, Vol. 55, No. 5, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH, May 1997, p. 573.

B. Lepine, D. Forsyth, S. Guiguere and S. Dubois, “Comparison of

Pulsed Eddy Current NDT to Conventional Eddy Current Testing,”

ASNT Spring Conference and 8th Annual Research Symposium Paper

Summaries, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus,

OH, March 1999, p. 124.

“MIL-STD-1537C, Electrical Conductivity Test for Verification 

of Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys, Eddy Current Method,” 

United States Department of Defense, Arlington, VA, 2002.

D. Moore, J. Mihelic and J.D. Barnes, “Crack Detection on 

HC-130H Aircraft Using Low Frequency Eddy Current,” The 

9th Asia-Pacific Conference on Nondestructive Testing in Conjunction

with ASNT’s 1998 Spring Conference and 7th Annual Research 

Symposium, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus,

OH, March 1998, pp. 202-205.

AMMTIAC

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AMMTIAC’s National Materials Information System

(NAMIS) now houses the many volumes of valuable data

generated under the $152M Air Force Composite Affordability Initiative (CAI). By selecting NAMIS as its data

depository, the Air Force benefited from the

document storage, database access and security mechanisms for managing and accessing

export controlled information that NAMIS

provides. AMMTIAC developed a data module and an interface to enable authorized users to

access the information. In addition, CAI was featured in

the lead article of the AMMTIAC Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 3.

In the mid-1990s, the Air Force Research Laboratory’s

Materials and Manufacturing Directorate (AFRL/ML)

initiated an 11-year, $152M effort to breach the affordability barriers that were preventing widespread use of

composite structures in air vehicles. This effort involved

the entire industrial base of aerospace primes, as well as the

Air Force and the Navy. All participants agreed to a single

set of testing standards for validating the performance of

new and emerging classes of composite structures. Over its

course, CAI generated thousands of data sets of valuable

design information, which has provided structural engineers an information foundation to design composite structures with confidence.

To preserve this data and disseminate the

results, the CAI program developed a database that captured the test data generated by

participating aerospace primes related to maturing improved manufacturing processes, advanced materials and structural design. The database captures the

materials and manufacturing pedigree of composite test

data by preserving metadata such as pretest preparations,

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composite architecture. The database includes high value

data from full-scale development projects that have resulted in transition to real systems, such as the F-35, X-45,

and the C-17. AMMTIAC provides a means to maintain

the data for future use by Army, Navy, and Air Force manufacturing technology programs, as well as weapon system

program offices.

The CAI Database will continue to provide company

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with the data they require to introduce advanced composite technologies into current and future weapon systems.

The database will also minimize the financial burden of

testing required to implement these new technologies, as

well as reduce the risk and accelerate the transition of the

technologies. Qualified users can access this data through

NAMIS at http://namis.alionscience.com. 

Please visit our website at http://ammtiac.alionscience.

com or send us an email at ammtiac@alionscience.com to

learn more about this program or how you can utilize

AMMTIAC’s database capabilities.
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