EMPLOYMENT FOR 

PEOPLE WITH 

DISABILITIES

Little Is Known about 

the Effectiveness of 

Fragmented and 

Overlapping Programs

Report to Congressional Committees

June 2012

GAO-12-677

United States Government Accountability Office

GAO
United States Government Accountability Office

Highlights of GAO-12-677, a report to 

congressional committees

June 2012

EMPLOYMENT FOR PEOPLE WITH 

DISABILITIES

Little Is Known about the Effectiveness of 

Fragmented and Overlapping Programs 

Why GAO Did This Study

Many federal programs—within the

Departments of Education, Labor, and 

Veterans Affairs; the Social Security 

Administration; and other agencies—

help people with disabilities overcome

barriers to employment. Section 21 of

Pub. L. No. 111-139 requires GAO to 

identify and report annually on 

programs, agencies, offices, and 

initiatives that have duplicative goals or 

activities. GAO examined the extent to 

which programs that support 

employment for people with disabilities 

(1) provide similar services to similar 

populations and (2) measure 

effectiveness. GAO identified programs 

by searching the Catalog of Federal 

Domestic Assistance and consulting 

agency officials. GAO surveyed and 

interviewed agency officials to 

determine program objectives and 

activities. Nine agencies reviewed the

draft report and five provided 

comments. Labor was concerned that

GAO characterized its programs as 

fragmented and potentially duplicative. 

While multiple programs may be 

appropriate, GAO maintains that 

additional review and coordination may 

reduce inefficiencies and improve 

effectiveness among overlapping 

programs. 

GAO is not recommending executive 

action at this time. In a recent report, 

GAO suggested the Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) 

consider establishing governmentwide 

goals for employment of people with 

disabilities, and working with agencies 

that administer overlapping programs 

to determine whether consolidation 

might result in more effective and 

efficient delivery of services. GAO

continues to believe these actions are 

needed and will follow up with OMB to 

determine their status.

What GAO Found

GAO identified 45 programs that supported employment for people with 

disabilities in fiscal year 2010, reflecting a fragmented system of services. The 

programs were administered by nine federal agencies and overseen by even 

more congressional committees. All programs overlapped with at least one other 

program in that they provided one or more similar employment service to a 

similar population—people with disabilities. The greatest overlap occurred in 

programs serving veterans and servicemembers (19 programs) and youth and 

young adults (5 programs). In addition, GAO identified seven programs that did 

not limit eligibility to any particular population and were potentially available to 

veterans and servicemembers or youth. Some overlapping programs, such as 

those with specific eligibility requirements, have less potential for duplication—

providing the same services to the same beneficiaries—than others. However, 

even when the potential for duplication of services is low, there may be 

inefficiencies associated with operating multiple programs that provide similar 

services to similar populations. Coordination across programs may help address 

fragmentation and potential duplication, but officials that GAO surveyed reported

only limited coordination. However, among six selected programs that only serve 

people with disabilities—including the Department of Education’s Vocational 

Rehabilitation program and the Social Security Administration’s Ticket to Work 

program—officials cited more consistent coordination. 

a

The Department of Labor jointly administers the Workforce Recruitment Program with the Department of Defense 

and the Work Opportunity Tax Credit with the Internal Revenue Service. These programs are therefore included 

under both the Department of Labor and the other administering agencies in the figure. 

Most (32) of the 45 programs surveyed tracked at least one employment-related 

outcome measure for people with disabilities, but overall little is known about the 

effectiveness of these programs. The most commonly tracked outcomes for 

people with disabilities were “entered employment” (28 programs) and

“employment retention” (18 programs). However, it may be difficult to compare 

outcomes across programs, in part, because of variation in the type and severity 

of participants’ disabilities. In addition, only 10 of the 45 programs reported that 

an evaluation had been conducted in the last 5 years. Just one of the 45 

programs (Job Corps) reported conducting an impact study—a study that would 

most clearly show whether the program (and not other factors) was responsible 

for improved employment outcomes for people with disabilities. However, 

additional studies are underway for at least two other programs. 

View GAO-12-677. For more information, 

contact Daniel Bertoni at (202) 512-7215 or 

bertonid@gao.gov. 
Page i GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Letter 1 

Background 3

Fragmentation and Overlap Prevalent among 45 Programs Serving 

People with Disabilities 6

Programs Tracked Varying Outcome Measures, and Little Is Known 

About Program Effectiveness 25

Concluding Observations 29

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 30

Appendix I Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 36

Appendix II Selected Survey Data from Programs That Have Ended Since Fiscal 

Year 2010 44

Appendix III Reported Program Obligations and Number of People with 

Disabilities Served 47

Appendix IV Reported Program Objectives and Eligibility Requirements 51

Appendix V Services Reported to Be Provided in Fiscal Year 2010, by Population 

and Program 64

Appendix VI Employment-Related Outcome Measures Programs Reported 

Tracking for People with Disabilities in Fiscal Year 2010 73

Appendix VII Programs That Identified Performance Reviews Completed Since 

2006, by Type of Study 80

Contents
Page ii GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Appendix VIII Agency Comments from the Department of Agriculture 81

Appendix IX Agency Comments from the Department of Education 82

Appendix X Agency Comments from the Department of Labor 84

Appendix XI GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 85

Tables

Table 1: Programs Reporting the Number of People with 

Disabilities Served and Obligations, Fiscal Year 2010 10

Table 2: Reported Eligibility Requirements for Labor’s Three 

Programs Limiting Eligibility to Students, Transition-age 

Youth, and/or Young Adults 18

Table 3: Programs Reporting Waiting Lists 19

Table 4: Coordination Reported by All Programs in Our Scope 22

Table 5: Services Provided by 19 Programs That Limit Eligibility to 

Servicemembers, Veterans, and/or Their Families 64

Table 6: Services Provided by Five Programs That Limit Eligibility 

to Students, Transition Age Youth, and/or Young Adults 67

Table 7: Services Provided by Seven Programs That Serve All 

People with Disabilities 68

Table 8: Services Provided by 14 Programs That Limit Eligibility to 

Other Populations 69

Figures

Figure 1: Multiple Congressional Committees, Federal and State 

Agencies, and Other Entities Oversee and Administer 45 

Federal Programs that Support Employment for People 

with Disabilities 8

Figure 2: Number of Programs Reporting Selected Employment 

Services Provided to People with Disabilities, Fiscal Year 

2010 12
Page iii GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Figure 3: Selected Employment Services Reported to Be Provided 

by 19 Programs Limiting Eligibility to Veterans, 

Servicemembers, and/or Their Families, Fiscal Year 2010 14

Figure 4: Selected Employment Services Reported to Be Provided 

by Five Programs Limiting Eligibility to Students, 

Transition-aged Youth, and/or Young Adults, Fiscal Year 

2010 15

Figure 5: Selected Employment Services Reported to Be Provided 

by Seven Programs That Serve All People with 

Disabilities, Fiscal Year 2010 16

Figure 6: Measures Reported by Programs to Track Employment 

Outcomes for People with Disabilities 26

Figure 7: Criteria for Including Programs within Our Scope 37

Abbreviations

Education Department of Education

GPRA Government Performance and Results Act of 1993

GPRAMA GPRA Modernization Act of 2010

Labor Department of Labor

OMB Office of Management and Budget

SSA Social Security Administration

VA Department of Veterans Affairs

VR State Vocational Rehabilitation Services

VR agency vocational rehabilitation agency

VR&E Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment

WIA Workforce Investment Act

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Page 1 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

United States Government Accountability Office

Washington, DC 20548

June 29, 2012

Congressional Committees

Nearly one in five people in the United States are reported to have a 

disability.1

Over the years, many federal programs across a number of federal 

agencies have been created or have evolved to address barriers to 

employment for people with disabilities, resulting in a fragmented system 

of supports. Recently, we identified 50 programs administered by nine 

federal agencies that supported employment for people with disabilities.

Although some people are born with disabilities, everyone is at 

risk of experiencing a short-term or long-term disability, whether through 

accidents, employment-related injuries and illnesses, disease, or aging. In 

addition, individuals may have mental disorders or developmental 

disabilities, which are severe chronic conditions resulting from mental 

and/or physical impairments that can begin at any time during 

development and last throughout a person’s lifetime. A body of evidence 

indicates that many people with disabilities can and want to work. 

However, research has shown that people with disabilities may face 

multiple barriers to employment, including poor health or functioning; 

inadequate education, skills, or training; lack of transportation; lack of 

accessible workplaces or accommodations; and discrimination. Federal 

programs reported obligating more than $4 billion in fiscal year 2010 on 

employment-related supports for people with disabilities, compared to a 

significantly higher amount on income and medical supports for people 

with disabilities. Even with these expenditures, historically, people with 

disabilities have experienced higher unemployment and poverty rates 

than those without disabilities.

2

 

1

U.S. Census Bureau, Americans with Disabilities: 2005. (Washington, D.C.: December 

2008). Data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation, June through 

September 2005.

This report provides additional information and context related to our work 

2

GAO, 2012 Annual Report: Opportunities to Reduce Duplication, Overlap, and 

Fragmentation, Achieve Savings, and Enhance Revenue, GAO-12-342SP (Washington, 

D.C.: Feb. 28, 2012). This report was our second annual report to Congress in response 

to the statutory requirement that we identify and report annually on federal programs, 

agencies, offices, and initiatives that have duplicative goals or activities, in accordance 

with Pub. L. No. 111-139, § 21, 124 Stat. 29 (2010), 31 U.S.C. § 712 Note. 

 
Page 2 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

and addresses the following objectives: (1) to what extent do federal 

programs that support employment for people with disabilities provide 

similar services to similar populations and (2) to what extent has the 

effectiveness of programs that support employment for people with 

disabilities been measured?

To address our first objective, we identified programs that support 

employment for people with disabilities by consulting with federal agency 

officials and researchers knowledgeable about employment and disability 

issues, searching the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance, and 

reviewing our previous work. Consistent with our prior work on 

duplication, we considered “programs” to include a variety of types of 

assistance—such as grants, initiatives, and tax expenditures—and will 

use that term throughout the report for simplicity. We included programs 

that served only people with disabilities, as well as programs that served 

a broader population but provided special consideration to people with 

disabilities or their employers.3

 

3

Specifically, in order to be considered within the scope of our work, agencies must have 

reported that their programs met at least one of the following criteria and provided an 

employment-related service in fiscal year 2010: (1) people with disabilities are mentioned 

in the legislation as a targeted group, (2) people are eligible for the program wholly 

because of a disability, (3) people are eligible for the program partially because of a 

disability, (4) people with disabilities are given special consideration in eligibility 

determinations, (5) people with disabilities are given priority in being served, or (6) 

employers of people with disabilities are a targeted group. 

We also included programs for wounded, 

ill, and injured servicemembers within our scope. After validating the list 

of programs with agency officials, we fielded a web-based survey to each 

program. The survey collected information on each program’s objectives, 

eligibility requirements, services provided, outcome measures, and 

obligations, among other data. We incorporated data reliability checks 

into the survey instrument, reviewed documentation, and conducted 

follow-up interviews as necessary. We determined that the data used in 

this report were sufficiently reliable for the purposes of this report. We did 

not conduct an independent legal analysis to identify relevant programs or 

verify the program information provided by survey respondents. To further 

explore coordination efforts among overlapping programs, we selected six 

programs—administered by three different agencies—that serve only 
Page 3 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

people with disabilities.4 We conducted interviews with officials 

representing these six programs regarding their coordination efforts, 

challenges to coordination, and factors that facilitate or create barriers to 

coordination. To address our second objective, we collected data through 

our survey on program outcome measures and any studies or evaluations 

of program performance conducted since 2006. We reviewed the studies’ 

methodologies to determine whether they met our definition of an impact 

study.5 We conducted this performance audit from April 2011 to June 

2012 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing 

standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to 

obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for 

our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe 

that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings 

and conclusions based on our audit objectives. See Appendix I for a more 

detailed description of our objectives, scope, and methodology.

In 2003, we first designated federal disability programs as a high-risk area 

because the programs require urgent attention and organizational 

transformation to ensure that they function in the most economical, 

efficient, and effective manner possible.6

 

4

The selected programs were the Department of Education’s State Vocational 

Rehabilitation Services and Assistive Technology State Grant programs; the Department 

of Labor’s Disability Employment Initiative; and the Social Security Administration’s State 

Vocational Rehabilitation Cost Reimbursement, Work Incentives Planning and Assistance, 

and Ticket to Work programs. The Disability Employment Initiative was not included in our 

analysis of the 45 programs that support employment for people with disabilities because 

it is a new program, and it did not provide services in fiscal year 2010. We included this 

program in our analysis of program coordination because its purpose is to increase 

coordination across programs and agencies that support employment for people with 

disabilities.

We have also reported that 

improving work participation among people with disabilities has been 

challenging in part because the United States has a patchwork of 

disability programs—developed individually over many years—and lacks 

5

An impact study assesses the net effect of a program by comparing program outcomes 

with an estimate of what would have happened in the absence of the program. 

6

GAO, High-Risk Series: An Update, GAO-03-119 (Washington, D.C.: January 2003).

Background 

Improving and 

Modernizing Federal 

Disability Programs
Page 4 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

a unified set of national goals that guide coordination among programs or 

contribute to measuring desired outcomes.7

In February 2012, we identified programs administered by nine federal 

agencies that supported employment for people with disabilities, and 

many of these programs overlapped in that they provided similar services 

to similar populations.8

In response, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) noted that, in 

fiscal year 2012, the administration’s Domestic Policy Council will conduct 

an internal review of ways to improve the effectiveness of disability 

programs through better coordination and alignment of policies and 

strategies. OMB also noted that the administration has set 

governmentwide goals for employment and inclusion of people with 

disabilities in the federal government, among other ongoing and planned 

efforts to improve employment for people with disabilities.

We recommended that the Office of Management 

and Budget (OMB), in consultation with those agencies that administer 

programs that support employment for people with disabilities, take two 

actions to improve coordination and program effectiveness and efficiency: 

(1) consider establishing measurable, governmentwide goals for 

employment of people with disabilities, and (2) continue to work with 

executive agencies that administer overlapping programs to determine 

whether program consolidation might result in administrative savings and 

more effective and efficient delivery of services.

Responsibility for many federal efforts, including employment support for 

people with disabilities, lies with more than one agency, yet agencies face 

a range of challenges and barriers when they attempt to work 

collaboratively. Both Congress and the Executive Branch have 

recognized this, and in January 2011, the GPRA Modernization Act of

2010 (GPRAMA) was enacted, updating the Government Performance 

and Results Act of 1993.9

 

7

GAO, Federal Disability Programs: More Strategic Coordination Could Help Overcome 

Challenges to Needed Transformation, 

GPRAMA establishes a new framework aimed 

at taking a more crosscutting and integrated approach for focusing on 

results and improving government performance. Effective implementation 

GAO-08-635 (Washington, D.C.: May 20, 2008).

8

GAO-12-342SP. 

9

Pub. L. No. 111-352, 124 Stat. 3866 (2011); Pub. L. No. 103-62, 107 Stat. 285.

GPRA Modernization Act 

of 2010
Page 5 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

of the law could play an important role in clarifying desired outcomes, 

addressing program performance spanning multiple organizations, and 

facilitating future actions to reduce unnecessary duplication, overlap, and 

fragmentation.10

GPRAMA requires OMB to coordinate with agencies to establish 

outcome-oriented goals covering a limited number of crosscutting policy 

areas as well as goals to improve management across the federal 

government, and to develop a governmentwide performance plan for 

making progress toward achieving those goals. The performance plan is 

required to, among other things, identify the agencies and federal 

activities—including spending programs, tax expenditures, and 

regulations—that contribute to each goal, and establish performance 

indicators to measure overall progress toward these goals as well as the 

individual contribution of the underlying agencies and federal activities. 

GPRAMA also requires similar information at the agency level. Each 

agency is required to identify the various federal organizations and 

activities—both within and external to the agency—that contribute to its 

goals, and describe how the agency is working with other agencies to 

achieve its goals as well as any relevant crosscutting goals. OMB officials 

stated that their approach to responding to this requirement will address 

fragmentation among federal programs. OMB and the agencies within our 

scope identified several employment-related goals for fiscal year 2013, 

including a goal to increase the percentage of eligible servicemembers 

served by career readiness and preparedness programs, and a goal to 

provide 2 million workers with skills training by 2015 and improve the 

coordination and delivery of job training services. However, none of the 

governmentwide goals established for fiscal year 2013 relate specifically 

to employment for people with disabilities.

Members of Congress have expressed concern that there is no 

consolidated list of all federal government programs, and that individual 

federal agencies are not able to provide a list of all of their programs and 

initiatives. GPRAMA requires OMB to create a single website, no later 

than October 1, 2012, that lists each federal agency’s programs. 

Agencies are required to identify how they define the term “program,” 

consistent with guidance from OMB; a description of the purpose of each 

program and how it contributes to the mission and goals of the agency; 

 

10GAO-12-342SP. 
Page 6 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

and information on funding for the current fiscal year and two previous 

fiscal years. In addition, in January 2012, OMB announced that it will work 

with agencies to identify a comprehensive list of programs, pursuant to 

the law. As a first step, OMB stated it will conduct a pilot for a selected

group of agencies and bureaus with programs related to trade, exports, 

and competitiveness. Based on the pilot, OMB plans to issue guidance to 

all federal agencies detailing the approach to be taken to develop a 

governmentwide inventory of programs.

Fragmentation occurs when more than one federal agency (or 

organization within an agency) is involved in the same broad area of 

national need. As we have previously noted, fragmented programs that 

do not coordinate effectively could waste scarce funds, confuse and 

frustrate program beneficiaries, and limit the overall effectiveness of the 

federal effort.11 We identified 45 programs that supported employment for 

people with disabilities in fiscal year 2010 and continued to do so as of 

April 2012.12

 

11

(See app. III for a complete list of programs.) Oversight and 

administration of the programs is the responsibility of multiple 

congressional committees, executive agencies, and state and local 

offices. Most of the programs overlapped in that they provided similar 

services to similar populations; however, differences in specific eligibility 

criteria sometimes limited the potential for duplication. In general, 

coordination among the 45 programs was limited. Selected programs that 

serve only people with disabilities reported higher levels of coordination at 

the state and local levels.

GAO-12-342SP. 

12In our contribution to our governmentwide examination of duplication (GAO-12-342SP), 

we reported on 50 programs that supported employment for people with disabilities in 

fiscal year 2010. For this report, we have omitted six of these programs—two of which, 

that is, SSA’s Mental Health Treatment Study and Youth Transition Demonstration, were 

demonstration studies of limited duration—that agency officials reported had been phased 

out or ended by April 2012, when we finalized our data (see app. II for details on the

programs). In addition, we excluded an additional program—the Benefit Offset National 

Demonstration—because, while the program had obligations in fiscal year 2010, SSA 

officials reported that the demonstration did not begin enrolling participants until January 

2011. In commenting on a draft of our prior report and, later, in verifying data previously 

provided, Department of Defense officials requested that we add three programs that they 

believed to be within the scope of this review. After reviewing the programs, we 

determined that two met our criteria and we included them in our analyses for this report. 

We did not include or review programs that may have been created or revised after fiscal 

year 2010.

Fragmentation and 

Overlap Prevalent 

among 45 Programs 

Serving People with 

Disabilities
Page 7 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Oversight and administration of programs that support employment for 

people with disabilities is fragmented among various congressional 

committees, multiple federal agencies, and state entities (see fig. 1).

Agency officials reported that 27 of the 45 programs were created by 

statute, rather than at the agencies’ initiative. At least 13 congressional 

committees are responsible for oversight of the 45 programs, which are 

administered by nine federal agencies. In some cases, a range of 

departments or offices within an agency are responsible for the programs. 

For example, several offices in the Department of Labor (Labor) 

administer 14 programs that provide employment-related services to 

people with disabilities. Further, the Department of Defense has 10 

programs within its purview in part because each service branch 

administers its own program or programs to assist wounded, ill, and 

injured servicemembers with employment. Adding to the fragmented 

landscape, some of these federal programs are administered by 

governmental and nongovernmental state or local entities, either in 

collaboration or independently. In addition, agency officials noted that 

states have various governmental structures to administer the programs. 

For example, the Department of Education (Education) allocates formula 

funds to states to carry out the State Vocational Rehabilitation Services 

(VR) program. The state may create one vocational rehabilitation agency 

(VR agency) or designate a separate VR agency to serve individuals who 

are blind and a “general” agency for all other disability categories. In 

addition, each state may organize its VR agency or agencies within 

different government departments relative to other states, such as state 

departments of labor or education, or they may be free-standing agencies 

or commissions.

Program Oversight and 

Administration Is 

Fragmented
Page 8 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Figure 1: Multiple Congressional Committees, Federal and State Agencies, and Other Entities Oversee and Administer 45 

Federal Programs that Support Employment for People with Disabilities

Note: Labor jointly administers the Workforce Recruitment Program with the Department of Defense 

and the Work Opportunity Tax Credit with the Internal Revenue Service. These programs are 

therefore included under both Labor and the other administering agencies in the figure.

The specific definitions of disability and eligibility requirements that 

programs use—often established by law—vary, which may contribute to 

fragmentation. For example, officials from 34 programs collectively 

reported using at least 10 different definitions of disability, and 10 

programs reported having no specific definition for disability. In addition, 

the 45 programs reported at least 26 specific limitations to eligibility, such 

as limiting services to Native Americans or people who are blind. The 

variation across programs allows policy makers and program officials to 

target certain populations and, as discussed later, may reduce the 

potential for duplicative services. However, variation in definitions of 

disability and eligibility requirements may lead to confusion among people 

with disabilities about their eligibility for a specific program, and may 

create additional administrative burdens for state and local agencies and 

private partners that deliver services.

To address fragmentation among programs that support employment for 

people with disabilities, at least two programs have been created to assist 

clients in determining what services and benefits they are eligible for, and 

which would best meet their needs. Specifically, according to agency 

officials, the Social Security Administration’s (SSA) Work Incentives 
Page 9 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Planning and Assistance program helps Social Security Disability 

Insurance beneficiaries and Supplemental Security Income disability 

recipients (for the purposes of this report, we will refer to these 

populations collectively as “SSA disability beneficiaries”) understand 

SSA’s complex work incentives and how working would affect their 

disability benefits or payments. In addition, agency officials noted that 

Labor’s Disability Program Navigators, jointly funded with SSA, provided 

staff members in one-stop career centers to help people with disabilities 

navigate multiple employment programs and services to meet their 

employment needs.13

The number and range of programs makes it difficult to estimate the total 

federal funding dedicated to providing people with disabilities with 

employment supports or the number of individuals served. Programs we 

surveyed reported obligating about $4.1 billion to provide employment 

support to at least 1.5 million individuals with disabilities in fiscal year 

2010, but these numbers may be largely underestimated for several 

reasons. (See table 1 for summary information on reported numbers of 

people served and obligations in fiscal year 2010; see app. III for detailed 

fiscal year 2010 participant and obligation data reported by each 

program.) Of the 23 programs serving only people with disabilities, 18 

reported on the number of people with disabilities receiving employment 

supports and 18 reported data on obligations in fiscal year 2010. One 

program—Education’s VR program—accounted for most of these funds 

and participants (the program obligated $3 billion to serve more than 1 

million people with disabilities). Even less is known about expenditures on 

and the number of people receiving employment supports from the 22 

programs serving people with and without disabilities. Specifically, only 13 

of these programs reported how many people with disabilities received 

employment supports and 10 reported obligations spent on people with 

disabilities. Agency officials from some of these programs reported that 

they do not systematically collect information on whether participants 

have disabilities, while others indicated that program participants may not 

always disclose that they have a disability. SSA officials noted that 

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended—which 

prohibits federal agencies and programs that receive federal funding from 

 

13The Disability Program Navigator program was not included in analyses for this report 

because it ended after fiscal year 2010. See appendix II. Best practices from the Disability 

Program Navigator, including this function, were incorporated into the Disability 

Employment Initiative, a new program. 
Page 10 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

discriminating against individuals with disabilities—limits programs’ ability 

to require individuals to disclose that they have a disability. Other 

programs, such as Labor’s Employer Assistance and Resource Network, 

serve employers of people with disabilities and do not track the number of 

people with disabilities who indirectly benefit from program services.

Table 1: Programs Reporting the Number of People with Disabilities Served and Obligations, Fiscal Year 2010 

Number of 

programs

Number of people with disabilities 

receiving employment support 

Obligations for providing employment 

support to people with disabilities 

Serve only people with 

disabilities or their families

23 1,313,046

(18 programs reporting)

$4.1 billion

(18 programs reporting)

Serve people with and without 

disabilities

22 224,141

(13 programs reporting)

$7.3 million

(10 programs reporting)

Total 45 1,537,187 $4.1 billion

Source: GAO analysis of survey data.

All 45 programs overlapped with at least one other program in that they 

provided one or more similar employment service to people with 

disabilities. To identify services provided, we asked survey respondents 

to indicate from a list of employment-related services and supports which 

ones their programs provide. Respondents indicated a range of services 

provided, with some services being provided more than others.14

 

14Survey respondents reported whether they provided the service to more than 50 percent 

of participants, less than 50 percent of participants, or that they provided the service but 

could not specify the level. We did not collect the number of participants receiving each 

service.

For 

example, survey responses revealed that 36 of the 45 programs provided 

employment counseling, assessment, and case management, with 23 

providing these services to more than half of their participants. On the 

other hand, agency officials reported that 17 programs provided remedial 

academic English language skills and adult literacy assistance, with 4 of 

those providing it to more than half of their participants. Two programs 

reported providing tax expenditures related to workers with disabilities. 

For example, the Work Opportunity Tax Credit provides a tax credit to 

employers who hire individuals from target groups, including disabled 

veterans. In addition, two programs—Education’s Randolph-Sheppard 

program and the U.S. AbilityOne Commission’s AbilityOne Program—

help create jobs for individuals with disabilities through the federal 

Overlap Was Greatest 

among Certain Programs
Page 11 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

property management and procurement systems. Randolph-Sheppard 

licenses people who are blind to operate vending facilities on federal or 

other designated state properties. Under the AbilityOne program, federal 

government agencies are generally required to purchase certain goods 

and services from nonprofit agencies that employ people who are blind or 

have some other severe disability. Several programs also noted that they 

provided additional services not included on our list, such as financial 

supports, resume preparation, job coaching, transportation, and medical 

and psychiatric services.
Page 12 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Figure 2: Number of Programs Reporting Selected Employment Services Provided to People with Disabilities, Fiscal Year 

2010 
Page 13 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Overlap was greatest in programs serving two distinct groups; 

specifically, we identified 19 programs that provided employment services 

to veterans and servicemembers (see fig. 3) and 5 programs that 

provided employment services to students and young adults (see fig. 4). 

In addition, 7 programs did not limit eligibility to any particular group and 

therefore potentially overlapped with these and other programs in our 

scope (see fig. 5). For example, 17 of the 19 programs that limit eligibility 

to veterans and servicemembers reported providing job-readiness skills. 

At the same time, any veteran or servicemember could receive these 

services from 5 of the 7 programs that did not limit eligibility to any 

particular population. The remaining 14 programs limited eligibility to 

other specific groups or types of disabilities, such as SSA disability 

beneficiaries, or people who are blind or visually impaired. For a complete 

list of programs, their objectives, and eligibility requirements, see 

appendix IV. For a list of programs, populations they serve, and the 

services they reported providing, see appendix V.
Page 14 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Figure 3: Selected Employment Services Reported to Be Provided by 19 Programs Limiting Eligibility to Veterans, 

Servicemembers, and/or Their Families, Fiscal Year 2010
Page 15 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Figure 4: Selected Employment Services Reported to Be Provided by Five Programs Limiting Eligibility to Students, 

Transition-aged Youth, and/or Young Adults, Fiscal Year 2010
Page 16 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Figure 5: Selected Employment Services Reported to Be Provided by Seven Programs That Serve All People with Disabilities, 

Fiscal Year 2010
Page 17 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

While many programs reported providing similar services to similar 

populations, some programs have less potential for duplication—

providing the same services to the same beneficiaries—than others. 

Some overlapping programs have specific eligibility requirements that 

make duplication less likely. For example, the Department of Veterans 

Affairs’ (VA) Compensated Work Therapy and Vocational Rehabilitation 

and Employment (VR&E) programs both reported providing vocational 

rehabilitation and a number of other similar employment services to 

veterans with disabilities. However, the work therapy program targets 

veterans with mental illness or other severe disabilities who are patients 

in VA medical centers, whereas the VR&E program serves veterans with 

all types of disabilities. In addition, unlike the work therapy program, the 

VR&E program requires that a veteran’s disability be connected to his or 

her military service.15

On the other hand, we identified three programs—Labor’s Workforce 

Investment Act (WIA) Youth, YouthBuild, and Registered Apprenticeship 

for Youth and Young Adults with Disabilities programs—that are 

potentially available to any youth with disabilities between the ages of 16 

and 21 (see table 2) and reported offering many similar services, such as 

job readiness skills, on-the-job training, and assistance in obtaining a high 

school diploma.

In another example, the Workforce Recruitment 

Program, jointly administered by Labor and the Department of Defense, is 

the only one of the five youth programs that reported limiting eligibility to 

college students or recent graduates with disabilities.

16

 

15In addition to differences in eligibility requirements, VA officials reported that the types of 

services differ between the two programs. Compensated Work Therapy provides support 

with entry into employment at the veteran’s current level of functioning, whereas VR&E 

provides career-level services, including training at a college, vocational, technical, or 

business school; on-the-job training; and nonpaid work experience to prepare veterans for 

entry into careers. VR&E also provides an independent living program, which is not 

available through the Compensated Work Therapy program.

Despite their similarities, Labor officials told us these 

programs employ different strategies for providing services. For example, 

the YouthBuild program focuses on helping youth earn their high-school 

equivalency degree while learning job skills by building affordable housing 

for homeless and low-income people, whereas the WIA Youth program is 

broader in that it focuses on more than construction skills and serves a 

larger population. The apprenticeship program is a small, 3-year pilot 

16As shown in table 2, the programs have different age ranges for eligibility, but all allow 

eligible youth between the ages of 16 and 21 to participate.

The Potential for 

Duplication in Services 

May Be Low, but 

Administrative 

Inefficiencies Are Likely 

With Multiple Programs
Page 18 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

program in two states administered in partnership with state-organized 

apprenticeship agencies to place young adults with disabilities in 

registered apprenticeships in the construction and health care fields. 

Labor officials said that case managers may refer a participant from the 

WIA Youth program to the YouthBuild program, for example, if they are 

interested in learning construction skills. However, it is difficult to 

determine the extent to which these different strategies reduce or prevent 

potential duplication in services among these programs.

Table 2: Reported Eligibility Requirements for Labor’s Three Programs Limiting Eligibility to Students, Transition-age Youth, 

and/or Young Adults 

Program name Reported eligibility requirements

WIA Youth Youth, ages 14 to 21, with a low personal or family income who also meet one or more of 

the following criteria:

• deficient in basic literacy skills,

• school dropout,

• homeless,

• runaway,

• foster child,

• pregnant or a parent,

• an offender, or

• requires additional assistance to complete their education or secure and hold 

employment.

Up to 5 percent of youth participants in a local area do not have to meet the income 

criterion if they meet one of the following criteria:

• school dropout;

• basic skills deficient;

• are one or more grade levels below the grade level appropriate to the individual’s 

age;

• pregnant or parenting;

• possess one or more disabilities, including learning disabilities;

• homeless or runaway;

• offender; or

• face serious barriers to employment as identified by the local board.

YouthBuild Youth ages 16 through 24 and a member of a disadvantaged population, such as:

• low-income,

• foster care (including youth aging out of foster care),

• youth offender,

• youth with a disability,

• child of an incarcerated parent,

• high school dropout, or

• migrant youth.
Page 19 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program name Reported eligibility requirements

Registered Apprenticeship for Youth and 

Young Adults with Disabilities 

Youth and young adults with disabilities ages 16 through 27

Source: GAO analysis of survey data.

Note: Another Labor program, Job Corps, also generally serves youth and has similar eligibility 

requirements to WIA Youth and YouthBuild programs. However, eligible people with disabilities can 

apply to participate in the program at any age. Therefore, we did not include Job Corps as a program 

that limits eligibility to students, youth, and young adults.

Another factor affecting the potential for duplication is resource levels, in 

that some overlapping programs lack the capacity to serve all who apply, 

thereby reducing the potential for duplication in services. Six of the 45 

programs reported having a waiting list for services (see table 3). Three of 

these programs reported serving only people with disabilities. Individuals 

who are on a waiting list for one program may be eligible to receive 

services from another program. For example, Labor officials told us that 

individuals waiting for VR services could be referred to one-stop career 

centers for services.17

Table 3: Programs Reporting Waiting Lists

Waiting list Number of programs

Yes 6 programs

• Computer/Electronic Accommodations Program (Department of 

Defense)

• VR program

a

a,b

• Job Corps (Labor)

(Education)

• Work Opportunity Tax Creditc

• Community Service Employment for Older Americans (Labor)

(Labor/Internal Revenue Service)

• Compensated Work Therapy program (VA)

No

a

26 programs

Don’t know 6 programs

Not applicable 7 programs

Source: GAO analysis of survey data.

 

17In commenting on our report, Education noted that state VR agencies that are unable to 

serve all eligible individuals must give priority to those with the most significant disabilities. 

Individuals with less significant disabilities may be referred to other WIA partner programs. 

Likewise, other WIA programs may refer individuals with disabilities or suspected 

disabilities to VR agencies because of their capacity to provide specialized services.
Page 20 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

a

Programs that serve only people with disabilities.

b

Education officials noted that some, but not all, state VR agencies have a wait list for services.

c

Even when the potential for duplication of services is low, there may be 

inefficiencies associated with operating two or more separate programs 

that provide similar services to similar populations. For example, in its 

budget requests for fiscal years 2012 and 2013, Education proposed 

consolidating two smaller programs in our scope—the Migrant and 

Seasonal Farmworker and Supported Employment State Grants 

programs—into its larger VR program. Education proposed this 

consolidation in order to reduce duplication of effort and administrative 

costs, streamline program administration at the federal and local levels, 

and improve accountability.

Labor officials noted that State Workforce Agencies may have backlogs of requests from employers 

to certify that an employee has met the eligibility requirements for the Work Opportunity Tax Credit 

target group.

Among the 19 programs that serve servicemembers and veterans, we 

identified two programs—Labor’s Disabled Veterans’ Outreach and Local 

Veterans’ Employment Representatives programs—that provide similar 

services at similar locations, potentially by the same staff members. Both 

programs reported that they provided job search and placement services 

to veterans with disabilities, among other similar services. Labor officials 

said that the veterans’ employment representatives were intended to 

reach out to employers and the disabled veterans’ outreach specialists 

were intended to work with job seekers. However, as we reported in May 

2007, staff often performed the same roles in one-stop career centers 

and, in some cases, the roles were carried out by the same staff 

member.18

 

18GAO, Veterans’ Employment and Training Service: Labor Could Improve Information on 

Reemployment Services, Outcomes, and Program Impact, 

A recent law gave states the flexibility—subject to the approval 

of the Secretary of Labor—to consolidate these two programs in order to 

promote more efficient provision of services. Labor officials noted that the 

agency is in the process of developing criteria and procedures for making 

determinations on consolidations. The law also requires the Secretary of 

Labor to conduct audits to ensure that the veterans’ employment 

representatives and the outreach specialists are performing their required 

GAO-07-594 (Washington, 

D.C.: May 24, 2007).
Page 21 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

duties, and officials told us that they are in the process of defining the 

requirements and protocols for these audits.19

In another example, SSA administers two separate statutorily mandated 

programs—the State Vocational Rehabilitation Cost Reimbursement and 

the Ticket to Work programs—that perform similar functions in that they 

provide funding for employment supports to serve SSA disability 

beneficiaries. The Cost Reimbursement program reimburses state VR 

agencies when they help disability beneficiaries find jobs and earn above 

a certain threshold (known as substantial gainful activity) for 9 months.20

The Ticket to Work program, established more than a decade after the 

Cost Reimbursement program, also provides funding to service providers 

(including, in some instances, VR agencies), when they help SSA 

disability beneficiaries achieve employment outcomes; retain 

employment; and whenever possible, support long-term financial 

independence.21

 

19VOW to Hire Heroes Act of 2011, Pub. L. No. 112-56, § 241, 125 Stat. 712, 728.

State VR agencies can decide, on a case-by-case basis, 

whether to accept payments under the Ticket to Work or the Cost 

Reimbursement programs, but they may not receive payment under both 

programs at the same time for the same beneficiary. A senior SSA official 

noted that the Ticket to Work and Cost Reimbursement programs were 

both created to address a concern that VR and other workforce programs 

were not adequately serving SSA disability beneficiaries, given the 

severity of their disabilities. In addition, the official noted that both 

programs were intended, in part, to achieve cost savings by helping SSA 

disability beneficiaries achieve self-sufficiency and reduce or eliminate 

their reliance on disability benefits or payments. However, SSA officials 

also pointed out that the Ticket to Work program was intended, in part, to 

provide beneficiaries more choices in receiving employment services 

beyond those provided by VR agencies. In addition, officials noted that 

2042 U.S.C. §§ 422(d) and 1382d(d); 20 C.F.R. §§ 404.2101 and 416.2201. Under 

thresholds set annually by SSA, individuals are considered engaged in substantial gainful 

activity if they had earnings in 2012 above $1,010 per month for nonblind beneficiaries 

and $1,690 per month for blind beneficiaries.

2142 U.S.C. § 1320b-19; 20 C.F.R. §§ 411.100 – 411.730. Specifically, the Ticket to Work 

program provides funding for SSA disability beneficiaries to receive employment services, 

vocational rehabilitation services, or other services to help them obtain and retain 

employment and reduce their dependency on benefits or payments. Individuals may 

receive services from SSA-approved public or private providers, known as employment 

networks, or traditional state VR agencies.
Page 22 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

the two programs provide a continuum of services—VR agencies provide 

more intensive, up-front services to help beneficiaries enter or return to 

work, while employment networks under the Ticket to Work program can 

provide longer-term supports to help beneficiaries stay at work.

Coordination could help mitigate the potential for duplication among 

fragmented programs, but officials we surveyed reported limited 

coordination among the 45 programs in our scope. In our survey, we 

asked respondents to indicate whether their program coordinated with 

any of the other programs receiving our survey. In 13 percent of cases, 

two programs mutually reported coordinating with each other. However, in 

most cases, respondents either reported not coordinating or 

inconsistently reported coordinating with other programs (see table 4). 

For example, although VA’s VR&E program reported coordinating with 

Labor’s Veterans Workforce Investment Program and Disabled Veterans 

Outreach Program, only one of the two Labor programs—the Disabled 

Veterans Outreach Program—reported coordinating with the VA program.

Officials explained that, in some cases, federal-level program staff 

responding to our survey may not be aware of coordination taking place 

at the state and local levels. Further, although the rate of mutual 

coordination reported is low among all the programs in our scope, 

programs that have different missions or serve different populations may 

not be expected to coordinate with one another. For instance, Labor’s 

Senior Community Service Employment Program supports part-time work 

opportunities for low-income senior citizens, and therefore may not need 

to coordinate with Department of Defense transition programs—such as 

Operation Warfighter—that help servicemembers returning to civilian life 

gain employment experience.

Table 4: Coordination Reported by All Programs in Our Scope

Both programs 

reported coordinating

Both programs reported 

that they did not 

coordinate

Programs disagreed or did 

not know whether they 

coordinate

13% 44% 43%

Source: GAO analysis of survey data.

In order to better understand our survey results, we held more detailed 

discussions about coordination efforts with six selected programs that 

serve only people with disabilities:

Officials Surveyed 

Reported Limited 

Coordination across All 

Programs
Page 23 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

• Assistive Technology State Grant program (Education)22

• Disability Employment Initiative (Labor)

• State Vocational Rehabilitation Cost Reimbursement Program 

(SSA)23

• Ticket to Work program (SSA)

• VR program (Education)

• Work Incentives Planning and Assistance program (SSA)

Officials cited more consistent coordination among these programs. In 

response to our survey, all six programs had mutually reported 

coordinating with the Ticket to Work and the VR programs. This is 

perhaps not surprising, given that the VR program reported serving the 

largest number of people with disabilities and the Ticket to Work program 

is closely related to the VR program.

Although not all of the six programs mutually reported coordination, 

federal program officials noted that a significant amount of coordination 

occurs at the state and local levels where services are delivered. Labor 

officials reported that its Disability Employment Initiative grantees at the 

state and local level have established Integrated Resource Teams, which 

include representatives from a number of programs—including the VR 

program, the Assistive Technology State Grant program, and other state 

and local programs—to leverage all available resources for individual 

clients. To further encourage local coordination, Labor recently issued 

guidance to state and local workforce agencies outlining ways in which 

programs housed in one-stop career centers can coordinate with 

providers under SSA’s Ticket to Work program.24

 

22In commenting on a draft of this report, Education noted that the services provided by 

the Assistive Technology State Grant program may facilitate employment or contribute to 

obtaining employment, but it is not exclusively an employment program.

Labor issued similar 

23As noted previously, SSA’s State Vocational Cost Reimbursement Program does not 

directly serve individuals with disabilities. Rather, it reimburses state VR agencies when 

they help disability beneficiaries find jobs and earn above a certain threshold for 9 months.

24Department of Labor, Training and Employment Notice No. 6-11: Increasing the Public 

Workforce Development System’s Participation in the Ticket to Work (TTW) Program for 

Disability Beneficiaries (Aug. 24, 2011).
Page 24 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

guidance listing available resources to help beneficiaries obtain assistive 

technology, including Education’s Assistive Technology State Grant 

program and SSA’s Ticket to Work program.25

Agency officials also described efforts to increase coordination more 

broadly among programs that support employment for people with 

disabilities. For example, in 2008, Education and SSA established the 

Partnership Plus initiative, which is intended to provide a seamless 

approach to vocational services for people with disabilities. Individuals 

who need intensive employment services, such as education or training, 

can receive them first through the VR program, and then transition to an 

employment network under Ticket to Work for job retention services, or 

other ongoing services and supports to maintain employment and 

increase earnings. In addition, officials described a new initiative that 

coordinates programs and leverages resources from Education, the 

Department of Health and Human Services, Labor, and SSA, and aims to 

help youth receiving Supplemental Security Income to transition 

successfully to higher education or employment by working with the entire 

family to provide supports necessary to reduce barriers and improve 

outcomes.26

Officials from selected programs reported facing a number of challenges 

in coordinating with each other. First, officials noted that coordination can 

be challenging because programs are governed by separate statutes and 

regulations containing different definitions and program requirements. 

One official noted that aligning definitions of disability in statute would be 

helpful to ensure programs established by WIA and the Rehabilitation Act 

are complementary. In interviews with our six selected programs, officials 

from each reported that individual programs lack the resources, both in 

terms of funding and staff time, to pursue coordination with one another. 

Finally, one official indicated that interagency working groups may have 

limited effectiveness. He said that, in general, coordination could be more 

effective if programs had a set of outcomes they were expected to 

collectively achieve and were given the authority to work together to do 

 

25Department of Labor, Training and Employment Notice No.16-11: Availability of 

Assistive Technology (AT) Resources for Persons with Disabilities (Nov. 15, 2011).

26The Promoting Readiness of Minors in Supplemental Security Income (PROMISE) 

initiative was first proposed in the President’s 2012 budget and therefore not within the 

scope of this engagement, but demonstrates ongoing efforts for greater coordination 

among federal agencies.
Page 25 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

so—including the authority to waive requirements that present barriers—

and given funding to support such collaboration. This is consistent with 

concerns raised in our 2010 forum on employment for people with 

disabilities, where participants noted that past interagency coordination 

efforts have not been very successful at achieving significant change 

because they have lacked sufficient authority, accountability, or 

resources.27

Coordination efforts can be enhanced when agencies work toward a 

common goal, yet outcome measures varied across programs and not all 

programs reported outcomes specifically for people with disabilities. 

Given a list of typical employment measures, 32 of the 45 programs 

reported tracking at least one employment measure specifically for people 

with disabilities.28

 

27GAO, Highlights of a Forum: Actions that Could Increase Work Participation for Adults 

with Disabilities, 

The measures varied across programs, but the 

measures most commonly tracked were “participants who enter 

employment” (28 programs) and “participants’ employment retention” (18 

programs). Some programs reported tracking other indicators, such as 

quality of life. For instance, both VA’s VR&E program and Education’s 

Helen Keller National Center track the number of participants who are 

able to live independently or in less-restrictive residential programs. The 

remaining 13 programs did not report tracking any employment-related 

outcomes for people with disabilities, in part because they have a broader 

mission. For instance, Department of Health and Human Services officials 

reported that states are required to identify various performance 

measures in their applications for the Medicaid 1915(c) Home and 

Community-Based Services Waivers and the 1915(i) State Plan Home 

GAO-10-812SP (Washington, D.C.: July 2010).

28Nineteen of these programs reported limiting eligibility to people with disabilities.

Programs Tracked 

Varying Outcome 

Measures, and Little 

Is Known About 

Program 

Effectiveness 

Programs Reported 

Tracking Varying 

Employment Outcomes for 

People with Disabilities
Page 26 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

and Community-Based Services related to participants’ health and 

welfare overall, but are not required to measure employment-related 

outcome measures because both programs provide a broad range of 

health care and other services beyond employment-related services.29

Figure 6: Measures Reported by Programs to Track Employment Outcomes for People with Disabilities

See Figure 6 for the number of programs tracking specific outcome 

measures.

Despite some similarities in programs’ outcome measures, it can be 

difficult to compare relative performance due to variation across programs 

in the type and severity of participants’ disabilities. Just over half (24) of 

the 45 programs reported targeting or giving priority to people with 

significant or severe disabilities for whom it may be challenging to achieve 

 

29Both may be used to permit states to provide long-term care services, including 

employment-related services like supported employment, in home and community based 

settings as an alternative to institutional care under the Medicaid program. 42 U.S.C. § 

1396n(c) and (i). 
Page 27 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

positive employment outcomes.30 Further, some programs may use 

different thresholds for their employment outcome measures. For 

example, although 28 programs reported tracking “participants who enter 

employment,” officials told us that some programs may consider just a 

few hours of paid work per week as an employment outcome, while 

others set a higher bar and require a participant to be working at a level 

that would allow them to become self-sufficient and eliminate their 

dependence on federal disability benefits.

Little is known about the effectiveness of the programs we identified as 

supporting employment for people with disabilities because only about 

one-quarter reported having a performance review. Ten of the 45 

programs in our scope reported that a review or study had been 

conducted to evaluate their program’s performance.31

 

30Programs may have a variety of definitions for “severe” or “significant” disability. Our 

survey instrument did not specify a definition, but we offered an example of one agency’s 

definition of an individual with a “significant disability”: “an individual who has a severe 

physical or mental impairment that seriously limits functional capabilities, such as mobility, 

communication, or self-care.” 

The studies varied 

in methodology, and many examined program outcomes and proposed 

ways to improve services, but fell short of determining whether outcomes 

were a direct result of program activities. (See app. VII for programs that 

reported performance reviews.) For example, the Department of 

Agriculture’s AgrAbility program conducted a review of its activities 

between 1991 and 2011 that found that 11,000 clients had been served, 

and that 88 percent of those clients continued to be engaged in farm or 

ranch activities. However, this study did not determine whether other 

factors may have contributed to participants’ positive outcomes. Likewise, 

a 2009 study evaluated aspects of Labor’s YouthBuild program—such as

recruitment and enrollment procedures, educational and vocational 

services, and case management—to understand similarities and 

31Officials from two additional programs reported conducting evaluation studies, but one 

had not been completed at the time of our survey and the other was a GAO report that 

was not an evaluation of program performance. In commenting on our draft report, Labor 

noted that most of its programs have been or are being evaluated. Starting in fiscal year 

2010, the agency stated that it expanded its evaluation activities with the creation of a 

Chief Evaluation Office. Of the 10 programs in our scope that reported having an impact 

evaluation or another review or study to evaluate program performance, three were Labor 

programs.

Some Programs Have 

Conducted Evaluations, 

but Few Have Measured 

Their Impact
Page 28 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

differences across grantees, but the study did not attempt to discern the 

effect of the program on participants’ employment.32

Only one program in our scope—Labor’s Job Corps program—reported 

having a study that meets the criteria of an impact study. Impact studies 

examine what would have happened in the absence of a program to 

isolate its impact from other factors. Many researchers consider impact 

studies to be the best method for determining the extent to which a 

program is responsible for participant outcomes, but these studies can be 

challenging to conduct. However, there are sometimes opportunities for 

agencies to assess impacts without conducting full-scale impact studies.

As an example, Education officials noted that it may be more feasible to 

conduct a rigorous study to evaluate the impact of providing enhanced 

services over regular services, rather than the impact of providing 

services over providing no services at all. The Job Corps impact study 

compared the outcomes of participants in the program to outcomes of a 

comparable group of individuals who did not participate in the program.

The study concluded that, although there were no long-term program 

impacts on earnings for many Job Corps participants, the program 

generated earnings gains for participants between the ages of 20 and 24, 

who may be more highly motivated and disciplined.

Reports for two additional programs that were excluded from our scope—

SSA’s Youth Transition Demonstration and the Mental Health Treatment 

Study programs33—met the criteria for impact studies. Each of the 

programs was a demonstration project that included an impact study to 

determine whether the program produced positive outcomes. The Youth 

Transition Demonstration Project had interim impact studies for three 

project sites.34

 

32Social Policy Research Associates, Evaluation of the YouthBuild Youth Offender Grants 

Final Report (May 2009). YouthBuild does not limit eligibility to people with 

disabilities. This report did not focus specifically on youth with disabilities, but on 

outcomes for all youth offenders participating in the program.

The studies concluded that, while the program did result in 

greater use of services to promote employment, it did not impact the 

employment of participants from two out of three project sites during the 

33Although we surveyed both programs, we excluded them from our data analysis for this 

report because they were demonstration studies that had ended by December 2011. See 

appendix II for more information.

34Youth Transition Demonstration–Interim Reports, 

http://www.ssa.gov/disabilityresearch/interimreports.html, accessed June 13, 2012. 
Page 29 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

1-year follow-up period.35 The program also did not impact the education 

or income of participants from the three project sites during the 1-year 

follow-up period. The Mental Health Treatment Study program also 

published an impact study, which concluded that there was significant 

improvement in the 24-month employment rate for the group receiving 

services (61 percent versus 40 percent employment for the control 

group).36

Finally, agencies may have published or initiated impact studies after 

responding to our survey. For instance, officials at Labor notified us of two 

impact studies currently being planned or underway, for the YouthBuild 

program and for the Disability Employment Initiative.

The number of programs providing similar employment services to people 

with disabilities—and the range of requirements and approaches they 

entail—raises questions about the current structure of federal disability 

programs. In fact, several of the programs we identified were created in 

order to help people with disabilities navigate this fragmented system. 

Efforts such as Education’s proposed consolidation of several smaller 

programs into its VR program also indicate an awareness of the need to 

simplify the system and increase effectiveness and ease of use. In our 

February 2012 report on duplication and overlap in government 

programs, we suggested that OMB continue to work with executive 

agencies that administer overlapping programs to identify any 

opportunities for cost savings or streamlining, such as program 

consolidation. We continue to believe that such a review could result in 

more effective and efficient delivery of services to help people with 

disabilities obtain and retain employment.

 

35One study estimated that the City University of New York’s project increased 

participation in paid employment during the 1-year follow-up period. However, the study 

explains that this may be because site participants took part in summer employment 

through the project. Mathematica Policy Research, The Social Security Administration’s 

Youth Transition Demonstration Projects: Interim Report on the City University of New 

York’s Project, (April 2011). Available at http://www.mathematicampr.com/publications/pdfs/disability/SSA_YTD_CUNY.pdf, accessed June 15, 2012.

36 Westat, Mental Health Treatment Study Final Report, (July 2011), available at 

http://www.ssa.gov/disabilityresearch/documents/MHTS_Final_Report_508.pdf, accessed 

June 15, 2012.

Concluding 

Observations 
Page 30 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

We identified limited coordination among programs that provide 

employment support for people with disabilities, which may exacerbate 

the potential for duplication among fragmented programs. In addition, 

many programs have not evaluated their programs for effectiveness, and 

little is known about effectiveness overall, such that policymakers have 

limited information to help them make informed decisions on allocating 

scarce resources. In our February 2012 report, we noted that OMB 

should consider establishing governmentwide goals related to 

employment of people with disabilities, with agencies establishing related 

outcome measures. We continue to believe that setting common goals 

across programs that support employment for people with disabilities 

could help spur greater coordination and more efficient and economical 

service delivery in overlapping program areas, and plan to follow up with 

OMB on its progress with respect to both of the actions we suggested in 

our February 2012 report.

We provided copies of our draft report to the nine federal agencies that 

administer programs within the scope of this report for comment. The 

AbilityOne Commission; the Departments of Defense and Health and 

Human Services; and the Internal Revenue Service had no comments. 

The Departments of Education, Labor, and Veterans Affairs, and SSA 

provided technical comments, which we incorporated into the report, as 

appropriate. The Departments of Agriculture, Education, and Labor also 

provided written comments, which are reproduced in appendixes VIII, IX, 

and X, respectively.

In its comments, the Department of Agriculture noted that it generally 

concurred with our findings. Education provided additional information 

and examples of how its VR program coordinates services at the state 

and local level that were not fully described in our report. For example, 

Education noted that the program coordinates at the state level with each 

state’s workforce investment system, and state VR agencies have staff 

who provide a variety of education, training, and rehabilitation services to 

one-stop career center customers with disabilities. Education also stated 

that the capacity of the VR program to provide and coordinate a wide 

range of individualized services to achieve employment outcomes for 

individuals with disabilities—particularly individuals with significant 

disabilities—is not duplicated by any other program.

Labor generally expressed concern that we found fragmentation among 

the programs we examined, noting that our definition of fragmentation is 

broad. We continue to believe that fragmentation—defined as more than 

Agency Comments 

and Our Evaluation
Page 31 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

one federal agency (or organization within an agency) being involved in 

the same broad area of national need—exists among the 45 programs we 

identified across nine federal agencies. As we have noted, unless 

programs coordinate effectively, fragmentation could lead to inefficient 

use of scarce resources, confuse program beneficiaries, and ultimately, 

limit the overall effectiveness of the federal effort. Labor also expressed 

concern about our statement that certain youth programs with similar 

eligibility requirements present a greater risk of potential duplication than 

other programs, noting that we did not consider the unique characteristics

of the programs, such as the individual services provided, the program 

design used, or the populations served. We did consider such factors and 

provided some information in our report about the different ways these 

programs serve the youth population. However, we were unable to 

determine the extent to which these factors reduce the potential for 

duplication.

Further, while Labor acknowledged that it is important to minimize 

duplication and maximize efficiency, it noted that some overlap is 

necessary and appropriate to ensure that all participants receive 

comprehensive employment and training services. We agree that, in 

some instances, overlap among programs involved in providing services 

to similar populations may be appropriate. However, we continue to 

believe there is value in examining overlapping programs to identify 

opportunities for streamlining and coordination to more efficiently provide 

services. 

Labor also pointed out that several of its programs included in the scope 

of our study were created to serve all job-seekers rather than specifically 

to provide employment support for people with disabilities. Labor also 

noted that, rather than being seen as duplicative or undesirable, service 

integration and diversity of design are important for achieving inclusion of 

people with disabilities consistent with what Congress envisioned. We 

included such programs to provide a more comprehensive picture of the 

services and supports available to help people with disabilities stay at 

work or return to work. We did not label any given program as duplicative 

or undesirable, but noted that, in some cases, having many programs 

serving similar populations may result in administrative inefficiencies.
Page 32 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

We are sending copies of this report to the AbilityOne Commission; the 

Departments of Agriculture, Defense, Education, Health and Human 

Services, Labor, and Veterans Affairs; the Internal Revenue Service; and 

SSA. In addition, the report is available at no charge on the GAO website 

at http://www.gao.gov. 

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact 

me at (202) 512-7215 or bertonid@gao.gov. Contact points for our 

Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on 

the last page of this report. GAO staff who made key contributions to this 

report are listed in appendix XI.

Daniel Bertoni, Director

Education, Workforce, and Income Security
Page 33 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

List of Committees

The Honorable Debbie Stabenow

Chairwoman

The Honorable Pat Roberts

Ranking Member

Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry

United States Senate

The Honorable Carl Levin

Chairman

The Honorable John McCain

Ranking Member

Committee on Armed Services

United States Senate

The Honorable Max Baucus

Chairman

The Honorable Orrin G. Hatch

Ranking Member

Committee on Finance

United States Senate

The Honorable Tom Harkin

Chairman

The Honorable Michael B. Enzi

Ranking Member

Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions

United States Senate

The Honorable Joseph I. Lieberman

Chairman

The Honorable Susan M. Collins

Ranking Member

Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs

United States Senate
Page 34 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

The Honorable Patty Murray

Chairman

The Honorable Richard Burr

Ranking Member

Committee on Veterans’ Affairs

United States Senate

The Honorable Tom Harkin

Chairman

The Honorable Richard Shelby

Ranking Member

Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, 

 Education, and Related Agencies

Committee on Appropriations

United States Senate

The Honorable Frank D. Lucas

Chairman

The Honorable Collin Peterson

Ranking Member

Committee on Agriculture

House of Representatives

The Honorable Howard P. McKeon

Chairman

The Honorable Adam Smith

Ranking Member

Committee on Armed Services

House of Representatives

The Honorable John Kline

Chairman

The Honorable George Miller

Ranking Member

Committee on Education and the Workforce

House of Representatives

The Honorable Fred Upton

Chairman

The Honorable Henry A. Waxman

Ranking Member

Committee on Energy and Commerce

House of Representatives
Page 35 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

The Honorable Darrell E. Issa

Chairman

The Honorable Elijah Cummings

Ranking Member

Committee on Oversight and Government Reform

House of Representatives

The Honorable Jeff Miller

Chairman

The Honorable Bob Filner

Ranking Member

Committee on Veterans’ Affairs

House of Representatives

The Honorable Dave Camp

Chairman

The Honorable Sander Levin

Ranking Member

Committee on Ways and Means

House of Representatives

The Honorable Denny Rehberg

Chairman

The Honorable Rosa DeLauro

Ranking Member 

Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, 

Education, and Related Agencies

Committee on Appropriations

House of Representatives
Page 36 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Our objectives were to examine: (1) to what extent do federal programs 

that support employment for people with disabilities provide similar 

services to similar populations and (2) to what extent has the 

effectiveness of programs that support employment for people with 

disabilities been measured? The interim results for this report were 

included in our February 2012 report on duplication and overlap in 

government programs.1

We determined that programs included in the scope of our work should 

meet two sets of criteria. Specifically, they should: (1) be targeted to 

people with disabilities or their employers and (2) have provided specific 

employment and training services in fiscal year 2010.2 See figure 7 for a 

detailed description of both sets of criteria.

 

1

GAO-12-342SP. 

2

We excluded Recovery Act programs; loans (such as Pell Grants and federal student 

loans); civil protection and legal services (such as nondiscrimination requirements and 

protection and advocacy programs); research; personal assistant services (such as 

independent living); training for professionals who work with people with disabilities; 

federal employment and contracting preferences; and programs whose objectives do not 

explicitly include helping job seekers enhance their job skills, find job opportunities, obtain, 

or retain employment, including general education programs. 

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Identifying Programs 

that Provide 

Employment-Related 

Services to People 

with Disabilities
Page 37 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Figure 7: Criteria for Including Programs within Our Scope

We identified and selected programs for inclusion in our review leveraging 

a variety of sources and a multi-step process. Specifically, we identified 

programs for potential inclusion using key terms to search the Catalog of 

Federal Domestic Assistance (CFDA), reviewing our previous work on 

related topics, and consulting with internal and external stakeholders. We 

then reviewed the programs’ objectives and eligibility criteria from CFDA

or program websites to determine if the program met our inclusion 

criteria. If key information, such as how a program focuses on people with 

disabilities or provides employment-related services, was incomplete or 

ambiguous, we kept the program in our preliminary list.

We sent our preliminary list of programs for validation to the 10 agencies 

that administer the programs. The agencies requested we add several 

programs to our list, and determined that others did not meet the criteria 

for inclusion. We held follow-up meetings with agency officials to clarify 

criteria, as appropriate. We determined that the two programs in our 

preliminary list administered by the Small Business Administration did not 
Page 38 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

meet our criteria and thus we excluded the agency and the programs 

from our review.

Our validation process yielded a total of 56 programs administered by 

nine federal agencies. We surveyed these programs from August to 

October 2011. Based on agency responses and follow-up conversations, 

we omitted six surveyed programs because we found they did not meet 

the inclusion criteria.3 We reported on 50 of those programs in our 

February 2012 report.4

For this final report, we have omitted an additional 7 programs and added 

2 new programs, for a total of 45 programs. We omitted six programs that 

had ended as of April 2012, and one demonstration program—the Benefit 

Offset National Demonstration—that did not begin enrolling participants 

until January 2011. (See app. II for a list of programs we omitted.) In 

commenting on a draft of our February 2012 report and, later, in verifying 

data previously provided, Department of Defense officials requested that 

we add three programs that they believed to be within the scope of this 

review. After identifying the programs’ employment services to people 

with disabilities, we determined that two—the Army Warrior Care and 

Transition and the Marines Wounded Warrior Regiment programs—met 

our criteria and thus were included in our analyses for this report.

We did not include or review programs that may have been created or 

revised to meet our inclusion criteria after fiscal year 2010.

We designed a web-based survey to collect information on program 

background, eligibility requirements and populations served, services, 

 

3

Specifically, we excluded: the Department of Health and Human Services’ (HHS) 

Demonstration to Maintain Independence and Employment because program officials 

reported that the program was not funded in fiscal year 2010; the Department of Labor’s 

(Labor) Homeless Veterans Reintegration Program and the Department of Veteran Affairs’ 

Educational and Vocational Counseling program because program officials reported that 

the programs did not provide any special consideration to people with disabilities in 

eligibility determinations; the Section 1915(b) waivers program (HHS) and the Section 

1115 Medicaid demonstration projects (HHS) because officials reported that the programs 

did not provide any of the employment-related services listed in the survey; and Disability 

Program Navigator (Labor) because officials reported that the program was a subprogram 

of another program included in our scope (Work Incentive Grants).

4

GAO-12-342SP. 

Surveying Programs
Page 39 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

outcome measures, and budget information. In designing this survey, we 

reviewed our prior surveys used to collect similar information.5

From August through October 2011, we fielded the web-based survey of 

56 federal programs that support employment for people with disabilities. 

Program representatives were identified by the agencies. Where 

programs were jointly administered by two or more federal agencies, we 

consulted with the agencies and asked them to designate one official to 

fill out the survey and respond to questions for that program. In March 

2012, we fielded the web-based survey to two additional programs that 

were later determined to meet our inclusion criteria (Army Warrior Care 

and Transition Program and the Marine Corps Wounded Warrior 

Regiment, discussed earlier). We received completed questionnaires 

from 58 programs, for a 100 percent response rate.

We 

pretested the survey with three programs to minimize errors that may 

arise from differences in how questions might be interpreted and ensure 

that response categories were appropriate.

We used standard descriptive statistics to analyze responses to the 

questionnaire. Because this was not a sample survey, there were no 

sampling errors. To minimize other types of errors, commonly referred to 

as nonsampling errors, and to enhance data quality, we employed 

recognized survey design practices in the development of the 

questionnaire and in the collection, processing, and analysis of the survey 

data. For instance, as previously mentioned, we pretested the 

questionnaire with program officials. We further reviewed the survey to 

ensure the ordering of survey sections was appropriate and that the 

questions within each section were clearly stated and easy to 

comprehend. To reduce nonresponse, another source of nonsampling 

error, we sent out e-mail reminder messages and made telephone calls to 

encourage officials to complete the survey.

 

5

For example, we reviewed the survey used in the following GAO reports: Multiple 

Employment and Training Programs: Providing Information on Colocating Services and 

Consolidating Administrative Structures Could Promote Efficiencies, GAO-11-92 

(Washington, D.C.: Jan. 13, 2011), and Federal Disability Assistance: Wide Array of 

Programs Needs to Be Examined in Light of 21st Century Challenges, GAO-05-626 

(Washington, D.C.: June 2, 2005). 

Quality Assurance
Page 40 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

In reviewing the survey data, we performed automated checks to identify 

inconsistent answers. We further reviewed the data for missing, 

ambiguous, or illogical responses and followed up with agency officials 

when necessary to clarify their responses. In addition, we compared 2010 

obligations data provided by survey respondents with data provided to us 

in a previous survey and with appropriations data from the Consolidated 

Federal Funds Report. Where obligations differed from the comparison 

sources by 10 percent or more, we contacted program officials to confirm 

reported data. Finally, in March and April 2012, we collected some 

additional data from agencies and verified select data collected during the 

initial survey. Because we updated selected data and the list of programs 

included in our analyses, some data in our analyses have changed since 

our February 2012 report. On the basis of our application of recognized 

survey design practices and follow-up procedures, we determined that the 

data were sufficiently reliable for our purposes. We did not conduct an 

independent legal analysis to verify the program information provided by 

survey respondents.

We have defined fragmentation to be when more than one federal agency 

is involved in the same broad area of national need. To further expand on 

this definition, we used the survey responses to identify: the number of 

programs created in statute and variability in definitions of disability and 

the ways in which programs deliver supports (e.g., directly to individuals, 

or through federal, state, or local entities).

We have defined overlap to be instances where programs provide similar 

services to similar populations. To identify areas of potential overlap 

among programs that support employment for people with disabilities, we 

reviewed survey responses from agency officials. We analyzed 

responses to survey questions regarding any limitations in eligibility 

based on populations or disability.

We sorted the 45 programs into 4 groups:

Survey Analysis

Fragmentation, Overlap, 

and Potential Duplication
Page 41 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

1. Programs that limit eligibility to servicemembers and veterans (19 

programs).6

2. Programs that limit eligibility to students, transition-age youth and/or 

young adults (5 programs).

3. Programs that limit eligibility to other populations or specific types of 

disabilities (14 programs).

4. Programs that serve all people with disabilities (7 programs).

We have defined duplication as when the same beneficiaries receive the 

same or similar services. Although fragmentation and overlap may 

indicate the potential for duplication, we did not identify actual duplication 

in programs that provide employment support to people with disabilities 

because (1) due to data limitations, we did not attempt an intensive data 

matching among our universe of programs to identify instances where 

programs were providing the same or similar services to the same 

beneficiaries, and (2) programs do not consistently collect information on 

beneficiaries.

Instead, we examined the potential for duplication by more closely 

examining the reported eligibility requirements among programs in our 

four groups.

We asked survey respondents if their program coordinated with each of 

the other programs in our scope to reduce duplication and gaps and 

services. While we surveyed federal program officials, our survey 

question did not specify if we were requesting information on coordination 

at the federal level, or at the state and local level where services and 

supports may be delivered. We analyzed the data to identify mismatches 

in reported coordination. For example, we identified cases in which 

program A reported that they coordinated with program B, but program B 

did not report coordinating with program A.

To further understand the nature and challenges of coordination, we 

selected a subgroup of programs with which to hold further discussion on 

 

6

We combined programs serving servicemembers and those serving veterans because 

four programs reported serving both populations.

Coordination 
Page 42 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

coordination. Specifically, we selected six programs—administered by 

three different agencies—that served only people with disabilities:

• Assistive Technology State Grant program [Department of Education 

(Education)]

• Disability Employment Initiative (a new program that replaced the 

Work Incentive Grants) [Department of Labor (Labor)] 

• State Vocational Rehabilitation Cost Reimbursement Program [Social 

Security Administration (SSA)]

• Ticket to Work program (SSA)

• State Vocational Rehabilitation Services program (VR) (Education)

• Work Incentives Planning and Assistance program (SSA)

We interviewed agency representatives for each program regarding their 

coordination efforts, challenges to coordination, and factors that facilitate 

or create barriers to coordination.

We asked all survey respondents to provide information on any 

performance evaluations that have been completed since 2006 related to 

employment for people with disabilities for their program and to provide 

citations to those studies. We selected 2006 because studies conducted 

in the past 5 years were most likely to include services still offered by 

each program and be relevant to the employment market participants are 

currently facing. We reviewed the findings and conclusions of a total of 14 

studies identified by programs in our scope to determine the elements of 

program performance that had been evaluated. Although programs 

identified a total of 18 program studies, 1 was not publicly available and 2 

programs had identified a GAO report that had been published prior to 

2006. In addition, we evaluated the methodology section of 11 of those 

studies, which were identified as impact studies by 7 programs, to 

determine if they met our criteria for an impact study—that is, the study 

provides an assessment of the net effect of a program by comparing 

program outcomes with an estimate of what would have happened in the 

absence of the program.

We conducted this performance audit from April 2011 through June 2012 

in accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. 

Performance 

Evaluations: Impact 

Studies and Other 

Studies 
Page 43 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain 

sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our 

findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that 

the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and 

conclusions based on our audit objectives.
Page 44 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program name 

(agency)

Number of people 

with disabilities 

receiving 

employment 

services (fiscal year 

2010) Services Details on status 

Medicaid 

Infrastructure 

Grant Program 

(Department of 

Health and 

Human Services)

Program did not 

provide data

• Employment-related information 

dissemination

• Support services to employers of people with 

disabilities

The program, authorized for 11 years, 

expired at the close of fiscal year 2011.

Mental Health 

Treatment Study 

(SSA) 

Program did not 

provide data

• Employment counseling, assessment and 

case management a

• Assistance in earning a high school diploma 

or its equivalent

• Job development

• Job readiness skills

• Job recruitment and referrals

• Job retention training

• Job search or placement activities

• On-the-job training

• Occupational or vocational training

• Vocational rehabilitation

• Supported employment

• Remedial academic, English language skills, 

or adult literacy

• Employment-related information 

dissemination

• Entrepreneurship training and support

• Assistive technology and workplace 

accommodation

• Case management and nurse care 

coordinators

The study to test how better access to 

treatment and employment services 

would affect outcomes such as 

medical recovery, employment, and 

benefit receipt for Social Security 

Disability Insurance ended field 

operations on July 31, 2010.

According to the agency’s budget 

justification for fiscal year 2013, the 

project’s funding continued and, going 

forward, the agency will focus on best 

practices in services to individuals with 

schizophrenia and affective disorder 

and track employment and benefit 

payments. 

Appendix II: Selected Survey Data from 

Programs That Have Ended Since Fiscal Year 

2010 
Page 45 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program name 

(agency)

Number of people 

with disabilities 

receiving 

employment 

services (fiscal year 

2010) Services Details on status 

National 

Organization on 

Disability 

Wounded Warrior 

Career 

Demonstration 

Project 

(Department of 

Defense)

1,300 • Employment counseling, assessment and 

case management

• Job development

• Job readiness skills

• Job recruitment and referrals

• Job retention training

• Job search or placement activities

• Occupational or vocational training

• Vocational rehabilitation

• Supported employment

• Remedial academic, English language skills, 

or adult literacy

• Work experience

• Employment-related information 

dissemination

• Entrepreneurship training and support

• Support services to employers of people with 

disabilities

• Assistive technology and workplace 

accommodation

• Funding may be provided to the veteran

This program, administered by the 

National Organization of Disability, 

provided services to wounded, ill, and 

injured U.S. Army personnel through a 

memorandum of agreement, which 

ended October, 2010.

Projects with 

Industry 

(Education)

5,454 • Employment counseling, assessment, and 

case management

• Assistance in earning a high school diploma 

or its equivalent

• Job development

• Job readiness skills

• Job recruitment and referrals

• Job retention training

• Job search or placement activities

• Occupational or vocational training

• Vocational rehabilitation

• On-the-job training

• Employment-related information 

dissemination

• Support services to employers of people with 

disabilities

• Assistive technology and workplace 

accommodation

The program was eliminated in the 

fiscal year 2011 appropriation. 
Page 46 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program name 

(agency)

Number of people 

with disabilities 

receiving 

employment 

services (fiscal year 

2010) Services Details on status 

Work Incentive 

Grant/ Disability 

Program 

Navigator (Labor)

Program did not 

provide data

Employment counseling, assessment and case 

management

Employment-related information dissemination

Entrepreneurship training and support

Support services to employers of people with 

disabilities

Assistive technology and workplace 

accommodation

Medicaid services

The Work Incentives Grant funded the 

Disability Program Navigator Initiative. 

Both programs ended effective June 

30, 2010. A new program, the 

Disability Employment Initiative, was 

informed by the best practices learned 

through the Work Incentive 

Grant/Disability Program Navigator 

initiative.

Youth Transition 

Demonstration 

Project (SSA)

1,290 Employment counseling, assessment and case 

management

Assistance in earning a high school diploma or its 

equivalent

Job development

Job readiness skills

Job recruitment and referrals

Job retention training

Job search or placement activities

On-the-job training

Remedial academic, English language skills, or 

adult literacy

Work experience

Employment-related information dissemination

Entrepreneurship training and support

Support services to employers of people with 

disabilities

Assistive technology and workplace 

accommodation. 

The program suspended services at 

the end of calendar year 2011. A 36-

month evaluation of the impact of the 

program is scheduled to follow. 

Funding was approximately $1.35 

million in fiscal years 2012 and 2013.

Sources: GAO survey and agency interviews. 

a

This program enrolled participants on a rolling basis between 2006 and 2009 and served 1,121 

individuals over the course of the project.
Page 47 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program

Fiscal year 2010 

obligation

Portion of fiscal year 

2010 obligation for 

employment-related 

services and support 

for people with 

disabilities

Number of people with 

disabilities provided 

employment services, 

fiscal year 2010 a

U.S. AbilityOne Commission

AbilityOne Program $5,380,775 $0 47,000

Department of Agriculture

Assistive Technology Program for Farmers with 

Disabilities: AgrAbility Project

4,667,107 4,667,107 1,304

Department of Defense

Air Force Warrior and Survivor Care Data not availableb 0 Data not available

Army Warrior Care and Transition Program

b

1,374,360,000 Data not available c 4,368 b

Computer/Electronic Accommodations Program

d

8,847,404 8,847,404 11,775

Marine Corps Wounded Warrior Regiment 0 0 Data not available

Marine Corps Wounded Warrior Intern Program

b

0 0 115

Navy Safe Harbor Program

e

2,400,000 24,000 78

Recovery Care Coordinator Program

f

3,825,960 0 Data not available

Recovery Coordination Program – Operation 

Warfighter (Internships)

b

966,502 966,502 Data not available

U.S. Special Operations Command Care Coalition

b

3,592,700 Data not available Data not available b

Department of Education

b

American Indian Vocational Rehabilitation 

Services 

42,822,202 42,822,202 8,395

Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind Youths 

and Adults

9,181,000 9,181,000 1,576

Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers 2,197,283 g 2,197,283 137

Model Comprehensive Transition and 

Postsecondary Programs for Students with 

Intellectual Disabilities

11,000,000 

g

11,000,000 Data not available

Randolph-Sheppard Vending Facility Program

b

0h 0 2,319

Rehabilitation Services Demonstration and 

Training Programs

11,601,000 5,800,000 Data not available

Assistive Technology State Grant program

b

25,660,000 Data not availableb 5,882

Supported Employment State Grants 28,889,190 g 28,889,190 35,668

State Vocational Rehabilitation Services 3,041,746,049 3,041,746,049 1,011,395

Department of Health and Human Services

1915(c) Home and Community Based Services 

Waiver

Data not available Data not available b Data not available b

Appendix III: Reported Program Obligations 

and Number of People with Disabilities 

Served

b
Page 48 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program

Fiscal year 2010 

obligation

Portion of fiscal year 

2010 obligation for 

employment-related 

services and support 

for people with 

disabilities

Number of people with 

disabilities provided 

employment services, 

fiscal year 2010 a

1915(i) State Plan Home and Community-Based 

Services 

Data not available 0 b Data not available

Medicaid State Plan Services

b

Data not available Data not available b Data not available b

Money Follows the Person Rebalancing 

Demonstration

b

105,596,872 0 Data not available

Department of Labor

b

America’s Heroes at Work 300,000 300,000 No response

Disabled Veterans’ Outreach Program 

i

81,251,000 Data not available 46,887 b

Employer Assistance and Resource Network 1,600,000 1,600,000 Not applicable (program 

serves employers)

Job Accommodation Network 2,366,318 2,366,318 12,800

Job Corps

j

1,712,000,000 k Data not available 12,079 b

Local Veterans’ Employment Representatives 

program 

76,481,000 Data not available 36,322 b

REALifelines Initiative Data not available Data not available b b 9,376

Registered Apprenticeship for Youth and Young 

Adults with Disabilities Initiative

l

0m 0 21

Community Service Employment for Older 

Americans/Senior Community Service 

Employment Program

n

825,400,000 

o

Data not available 17,885 b

Veterans’ Workforce Investment Program

p

9,493,707 q Data not available 669 b

Work Opportunity Tax Credit (joint with the Internal 

Revenue Service)

r

18,520,000s 0 33,644

Workforce Investment Act Youth Activities

t

910,207,965 Data not available 15,105 b

Workforce Recruitment Program (joint with the 

Department of Defense)

u

211,377 211,377 2,157

YouthBuild 97,375,000 v Data not available 425 b

Department of Veterans Affairs

r

Compensated Work Therapy program 0 0 30,000

Disabled Transition Assistance Program Data not available Data not available b 36,386 b

Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment 768,000,000 768,000,000 94,912

Vocational Training and Rehabilitation for Vietnam 

Veterans’ Children with Spina Bifida or Other 

Covered Birth Defects

Data not available Data not available b 14 b

Social Security Administration

Work Incentives Planning and Assistance 

program

27,328,266 w 27,328,266 51,395x
Page 49 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program

Fiscal year 2010 

obligation

Portion of fiscal year 

2010 obligation for 

employment-related 

services and support 

for people with 

disabilities

Number of people with 

disabilities provided 

employment services, 

fiscal year 2010 a

State Vocational Rehabilitation Cost 

Reimbursement Program

106,000,000 106,000,000 7,768

Ticket to Work program

y

22,100,000z 22,100,000 55,093

Source: GAO survey.

a

Some programs were not able to identify obligations related to providing employment supports to 

people with disabilities.

b

”Data not available” indicates that the program was not able to provide data on obligations or the 

number of people with disabilities served. For example, some programs—like Labor’s Workforce 

Investment Act Youth and YouthBuild programs—reported that they are not required to track the 

portion of obligations for employment-related services and support for people with disabilities.

c

A significant portion of these obligations ($578,500,000) was for constructing healing campuses for 

wounded, ill, and injured soldiers.

d

Data are from December 2010 to September 2011.

e

Data are from June to October 2010.

f

Data are from October to December 2010.

g

This program was proposed to be consolidated or eliminated in Education’s fiscal year 2012 budget 

request, but the department reported that funds were appropriated in fiscal year 2012. The program 

was also proposed to be consolidated or eliminated in Education’s fiscal year 2013 budget request. In 

addition, Education officials noted that the Supported Employment Services program provides 

supplemental funding to help state VR agencies cover the costs of Supported Employment State 

Grants participating in the State Vocational Rehabilitation Services program.

h

According to Education officials, there is no federal appropriation for this program. Direct federal 

costs to administer this program, including the costs of arbitrations, are covered by the Rehabilitation 

Services Administration’s salaries and expenses budget. Costs at the state level are paid from 

various sources, including vocational rehabilitation formula grant funds (the state VR agency serving 

individuals who are blind administers the program), state funds, program income and set-aside funds 

from vendor income. Exact funding mechanisms vary by state.

i

”No response” indicates that the program did not respond to this survey question or otherwise provide 

this information.

j

Data are from September 2009 to September 2010. According to Labor, people with disabilities 

account for only about one third of the 36,500 individuals who contacted JAN for services. In addition, 

officials reported JAN receives 3.1 million Web page requests annually.

k

Total program obligations for Job Corps includes $102 million in American Recovery and 

Reinvestment Act obligations. Data on participants is from program year 2009, and is based on selfdisclosed and readily observable disabilities.

l

Data are from May 2008 to October 2010. This data includes the number of participants contacted 

and services provided, including to spouses and caregivers.

mAccording to Labor, this program did not receive funds in fiscal year 2010 and continued operating 

on previous year’s funding.
Page 50 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

n

Data are from June 2010 to June 2011.

o

This program was proposed to be transferred to the Department of Health and Human Services in 

Labor’s fiscal year 2013 budget request.

p

Data are from July 2010 to June 2011.

q

This program was proposed to be consolidated or eliminated in Labor’s fiscal year 2013 budget 

request.

r

Data are from July 2009 to June 2010.

s

Reported obligations for the Work Opportunity Tax Credit are for Labor’s administration of the 

program, according to agency officials. According to the Internal Revenue Service, in tax year 2009—

the most recent data available—there were more than $600 million in Work Opportunity Tax Credits 

that were eligible to be claimed by individuals. In addition, for tax year 2009, there were more than $1 

billion in Work Opportunity Tax Credits that were eligible to be claimed by corporations (including S 

corporations).

t

According to Labor, this number represents certifications issued by State Workforce Agencies to 

employers that an employee has met the eligibility requirements for a Work Opportunity Tax Credit 

target group for individuals with disabilities.

u

Data are from April 2009 to March 2010.

v

Program reported appropriated funds instead of obligations.

w

According to program officials, this program is expected to end by the end of fiscal year 2012.

x

According to SSA officials, this number only indicates those enrolled and served in fiscal year 2010 

and not those enrolled in a previous year and served in fiscal year 2010.

y

This number represents the number of people who achieved the outcome of 9 months of working 

and earning at the substantial gainful activity level. As of October 25, 2010, the State Vocational 

Rehabilitation Cost Reimbursement Program had served 235,346 people. In addition, an SSA official 

noted that these participants may also be counted as participants in Education’s State Vocational 

Rehabilitation Services program.

z

Obligations reported for the Ticket to Work program in fiscal year 2010 represent the cost of funding 

the Employment Networks and not the total cost of the program. Data on total obligations for fiscal 

year 2010 will be available later in fiscal year 2012.
Page 51 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

U.S. AbilityOne Commission

AbilityOne Program The purpose of the Javits-Wagner-O’Day Act is to 

generate employment and training opportunities for 

people who are blind or have other severe 

disabilities in the manufacture and delivery of 

products and services to the federal government. 

The law requires federal agencies to procure certain 

products and services that are produced and 

provided by community-based nonprofit agencies 

that are dedicated to training and employing 

persons who are blind or have other severe 

disabilities.

The primary requirement for a nonprofit agency to 

participate in the AbilityOne Program is that, on an 

annual basis, 75 percent of all of the direct labor done 

at a nonprofit agency be performed by people who are 

blind or severely disabled. The term ‘‘blind’’ refers to 

an individual or class of individuals whose central 

visual acuity does not exceed 20/200 in the better eye 

with correcting lenses or whose visual acuity, if better 

than 20/200, is accompanied by a limit to the field of 

vision in the better eye to such a degree that its widest 

diameter subtends an angle of no greater than 20 

degrees. The term “severely disabled” refers to an 

individual or class of individuals who has a severe 

physical or mental impairment other than blindness, 

which so limits the person’s functional capabilities 

(mobility, communication, self-care, self direction, work 

tolerance, or work skills) that the individual is unable to 

engage in normal competitive employment, over an 

extended period of time.

Department of Agriculture

Assistive Technology 

Program for Farmers 

with Disabilities: 

AgrAbility Project

AgrAbility increases the likelihood that individuals 

with disabilities and their families engaged in 

production agriculture (AgrAbility’s customers) 

become more successful. The program supports 

cooperative projects in which State Cooperative 

Extension Services based at either 1862 or 1890 

Land-Grant Universities or the University of the 

District of Columbia subcontract to private, nonprofit 

disability organizations. Measures of success may 

include improvements in customers’ financial 

stability or access to life activities and in the 

capacity of the states and regions to deliver 

services this population requires in a timely and 

satisfying manner. To address the specialized 

needs of AgrAbility’s customers, the program builds 

service capacity on national, regional, state, and 

local levels through education and networking. In 

the absence of capacity, projects provide assistance 

to customers. The primary function of the National 

AgrAbility Project is to support the state and 

regional projects in developing their capacity to 

meet these objectives.

The program targets accommodating disability in 

production agriculture. It provides education and 

awareness to the public, agricultural, and rehabilitation 

professionals on what can be done to accommodate 

disability in the agricultural workplace. The program 

does not fund rehabilitation equipment or payments to 

individuals.

Appendix IV: Reported Program Objectives

and Eligibility Requirements 
Page 52 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Department of Defense

Air Force Warrior and 

Survivor Care

Develop programs to help identify all airmen that 

need assistance; continue to build mentorship 

program to aid and benefit recovering airmen; 

employ dedicated qualified staff as Recovery Care 

Coordinators and provide them with tools and 

support needed to be successful; provide 

comprehensive policy for Mortuary, Casualty Affairs, 

Wounded Warrior, and Recovery Care Coordinator 

programs.

The Air Force Warrior and Survivor Care programs are 

made available to all Active Duty, Air National Guard, 

and Air Force Reserve members and their families to 

provide support in the event an airman is seriously 

wounded, ill, or injured while serving. The level of 

support and benefit assistance provided is dependent 

solely on need and is provided throughout the 

continuum of care. If injuries or illness warrant, airmen 

may enter the program at any time by self-referral or 

be referred by commander, spouses, supervisors, and 

medical personnel.

Army Warrior Care and 

Transition Program

An Army-wide structure to provide support and 

services for wounded, ill, and injured soldiers. The 

program enables the Army to evaluate and treat 

soldiers through a comprehensive, soldier-centric 

process of medical care, rehabilitation, professional 

development, and achievement of personal goals.

The Warrior Care and Transition Program is available 

to soldiers of all components (active and reserve 

components/active guard and reserve) on active duty 

who require complex medical care management of 6 

months or longer duration. Additionally, eligibility is 

extended to activated reserve component soldiers 

requiring definitive medical care who have been 

approved by a Medical Review Board.

Computer/ Electronic 

Accommodations 

Program 

The Computer/Electronic Accommodations Program 

(CAP) is a program in the TRICARE Management 

Activity, under the direction of the Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs. CAP’s 

mission is to provide assistive technology and 

accommodation services to federal employees with 

disabilities and wounded servicemembers to 

increase access to information environment and 

employment opportunities in the federal 

government.

To be eligible for CAP services, an individual must be 

a federal employee with a disability in the Department 

of Defense or an employee with a disability at one of 

the federal partners with CAP or an active duty 

wounded or ill servicemember.

Marine Corps Wounded 

Warrior Regiment

To maintain a high level of coordination through a 

single command structure that delivers or facilitates 

delivery of nonmedical care to wounded, ill, or 

injured Marines and their families.

Must be an active duty, reserve, retired, or veteran 

wounded, ill, or injured Marine.

Marine Corps Wounded 

Warrior Intern Program

To provide job skills and training to wounded, ill, 

and injured Marines pending medical separation.

The Marine Corps Wounded Warrior Intern Program is 

open to all wounded, ill, and injured Marines. Spouses 

and caregivers of active duty wounded, ill, and injured 

Marines are eligible for some of the program benefits.
Page 53 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Navy Safe Harbor 

Program 

1. Provide optimal nonmedical care to all Safe 

Harbor enrollees and their families throughout 

recovery, rehabilitation and reintegration

2. Cultivate and institutionalize external and 

internal partnerships

3. Provide focused outreach opportunities for 

wounded, ill, or injured sailors’ and Coast 

Guardsmen’s family members, caregivers and 

their support network

4. Increase awareness of Navy Safe Harbor

5. Align resources to effectively and efficiently 

execute the Safe Harbor mission

6. Attract and retain sustained superior 

performers with demonstrated leadership 

expertise to the Safe Harbor staff.

All seriously wounded, ill, or injured sailors and Coast 

Guardsmen not likely to return to duty in 180 days and 

likely to be medically retired or separated; and highrisk, nonseriously wounded, ill, or injured sailors, 

Coast Guardsmen and their families (case-by-case). 

Recovery Care 

Coordinator Program

The Recovery Care Coordinators (RCC) assist in 

the creation and management of the 

Comprehensive Recovery Plans for Wounded 

Warriors—Army, Marines, Navy, Air Force, and U.S. 

Special Operations Command—until they are either 

returned to duty or separated from the service due 

to the extent of their injuries. The RCCs act as the 

single point of contact for the Wounded Warriors 

and their families as they receive care from multidisciplinary support teams, both medical and 

nonmedical, in helping them obtain required 

treatment, care, and family assistance.

Populations served by the RCCs are wounded, ill and

injured warriors and their families: troop program unit, 

Active Guard Reserve, Individual Mobilization 

Augmentee, Individual Ready Reserve, retirees, and 

veterans.
Page 54 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Recovery Coordination 

Program-Operation 

Warfighter (internships)

Operation Warfighter (OWF) is a federal internship 

program for wounded, ill, and injured 

servicemembers. The main objective of OWF is to 

place servicemembers in supportive work settings 

that positively impact their recuperation. The 

program represents a great opportunity for 

transitioning servicemembers to augment their 

employment readiness by building their resumes, 

exploring employment interests, developing job 

skills, benefiting from both formal and on-the-job 

training opportunities, and gaining valuable federal 

government work experience that will help prepare 

them for the future. Operation Warfighter strives to 

demonstrate to participants that the skills they have 

obtained in the military are transferable into civilian 

employment. For servicemembers returning to duty, 

the program enables these participants to maintain 

their skill sets and provides the opportunity for 

additional training and experience that can 

subsequently benefit the military. Operation 

Warfighter simultaneously enables federal 

employers to better familiarize themselves with the 

skill sets and challenges of wounded, ill, and injured 

servicemembers as well as benefit from the 

considerable talent and dedication of these 

servicemembers.

Eligibility criteria require participants to be 

servicemembers in an active duty status assigned to a 

military treatment facility or a service wounded warrior 

program. If not assigned to one of these programs, 

servicemembers can still be eligible if they are going 

through the medical evaluation board and their chain 

of command approves their participation.

U.S. Special Operations 

Command Care 

Coalition

To provide Special Operations Forces warriors and 

their families a model advocacy program in order to 

enhance their quality of life and strengthen overall 

readiness of Special Operations.

Special Operations Forces wounded, ill, or injured 

servicemembers and their families

Department of Education

American Indian 

Vocational 

Rehabilitation Services 

To provide vocational rehabilitation services to 

American Indians with disabilities who reside on or 

near federal or state reservations in order to 

achieve gainful employment.

American Indians with disabilities residing on or near a 

federal or state reservation (including Native Alaskans) 

who meet the definition of an individual with a disability 

in Section 7 (8)(A) of the Rehabilitation Act.

Assistive Technology 

State Grant program

To provide states with financial assistance that 

supports programs designed to maximize the ability 

of individuals of all ages with disabilities and their 

family members, guardians, advocates, and 

authorized representatives to obtain assistive 

technology devices and assistive technology 

services.

Individuals with disabilities.
Page 55 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Helen Keller National 

Center for Deaf-Blind 

Youths and Adults

Authorized by an Act of Congress in 1967, the 

Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind Youths 

and Adults is a national rehabilitation program 

serving youth and adults who are deaf-blind. The 

purposes of the Center are to (1) provide 

specialized intensive services, or any other

services, at the Center or anywhere else in the 

United States, which are necessary to encourage 

the maximum personal development of any 

individual who is deaf-blind; (2) train family 

members of individuals who are deaf-blind at the 

Center or anywhere else in the United States, in 

order to assist family members in providing and 

obtaining appropriate services for the individual who 

is deaf-blind; (3) train professionals and allied 

personnel at the Center or anywhere else in the 

United States to provide services to individuals who 

are deaf-blind; and (4) conduct applied research, 

development programs, and demonstrations with 

respect to communication techniques, teaching 

methods, aids and devices, and delivery of services.

The Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind 

Youths and Adults provides services on a national 

basis to adults who are deaf-blind, their families, and 

service providers. The term “individual who is deafblind” means any individual - (A)(i) who has a central 

visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with 

corrective lenses, or a field defect such that the 

peripheral diameter of visual field subtends an angular 

distance no greater than 20 degrees, or a progressive 

visual loss having a prognosis leading to one or both 

these conditions; (ii) who has a chronic hearing 

impairment so severe that most speech cannot be 

understood with optimum amplification, or a 

progressive hearing loss having a prognosis leading to 

this condition; and (iii) for whom the combination of 

impairments described in clauses (i) and (ii) cause 

extreme difficulty in attaining independence in daily life 

activities, achieving psychosocial adjustment, or 

obtaining a vocation; (B) who despite the inability to be 

measured accurately for hearing and vision loss due to 

cognitive or behavioral constraints, or both, can be 

determined through functional and performance 

assessment to have severe hearing and visual 

disabilities that cause extreme difficulty in attaining 

independence in daily life activities, achieving 

psychosocial adjustment, or obtaining vocational 

objectives; or (C) meets such other requirements as 

the Secretary may prescribe by regulation.”

Migrant and Seasonal 

Farmworkers 

The Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers program 

provides comprehensive vocational rehabilitation 

(VR) services available to migrant and seasonal 

farmworkers with disabilities with the goal of 

increasing employment opportunities for these 

individuals. Projects also develop innovative 

methods for reaching and serving this population. 

Projects are required to coordinate with the VR 

State Grants program.

Individuals with disabilities and individuals with 

significant disabilities as defined in Sections 7(9)(A)(B) 

and 7(20)(A), respectively, of the Rehabilitation Act of 

1973, as amended.

Model Comprehensive 

Transition and 

Postsecondary 

Programs for Students 

with Intellectual 

Disabilities

Create or expand model comprehensive transition 

and postsecondary programs for students with 

intellectual disabilities. Funds also support a 

coordinating center that provides related services.

Students with intellectual disabilities enrolled in model 

programs or other comprehensive transition and 

postsecondary programs.
Page 56 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Randolph-Sheppard 

Vending Facility 

Program 

According to the statute creating the RandolphSheppard program, the objectives of this initiative 

include providing blind persons with remunerative 

employment, enlarging the economic opportunities 

of the blind, and stimulating the blind to greater 

efforts in striving to make themselves selfsupporting. Toward this end, blind persons licensed 

under the provisions of this chapter shall be 

authorized to operate vending facilities on any 

federal property. In layman language, the program’s 

objectives are to create employment opportunities 

by creating a priority for eligible blind people to 

operate entrepreneurial ventures on federal and 

other designated state properties. Throughout the 

country, states have created similar priorities to 

mirror the federal program in their specific 

jurisdictions.

To be eligible for this program, participants must be 

blind, citizens of the United States, and meet any other 

specific standards that individual state licensing 

agencies may require.

Rehabilitation Services 

Demonstration and 

Training Programs

To provide financial assistance to projects and 

demonstrations for expanding and improving the 

provision of rehabilitation and other services 

authorized under the Rehabilitation Act, or that 

further the purposes of the act, including related 

research and evaluation activities.

Individuals with disabilities.

a

State Vocational 

Rehabilitation Services 

To assist states in operating comprehensive, 

coordinated, effective, efficient, and accountable 

programs of vocational rehabilitation; to assess, 

plan, develop, and provide vocational rehabilitation 

services for individuals with disabilities, consistent 

with their strengths, resources, priorities, concerns, 

abilities, and capabilities so they may prepare for 

and engage in competitive employment.

Eligibility for vocational rehabilitation services is based 

on the presence of a physical or mental impairment, 

which for such an individual constitutes or results in a 

substantial impediment to employment, and the need 

for vocational rehabilitation services that may be 

expected to benefit the individual in terms of an 

employment outcome.

Supported Employment 

State Grants

To provide grants for time-limited services leading 

to supported employment for individuals with the 

most severe disabilities to enable such individuals 

to achieve the employment outcome of supported 

employment.

Individuals with the most severe disabilities whose 

ability or potential to engage in a training program 

leading to supported employment has been 

determined by evaluating rehabilitation potential. In 

addition, individuals must need extended services in 

order to perform competitive work and have the ability 

to work in a supported employment setting.

Department of Health and Human Services

1915(c) Home and 

Community-Based 

Services Waiver

The Medicaid Home and Community-based 

Services waiver program is authorized in section 

1915(c) of the Social Security Act. The program 

permits a state to furnish an array of home and 

community based services that assist Medicaid 

beneficiaries to live in the community and avoid 

institutionalization.

In order to participate in a waiver, a person must meet 

the level of care specified for the waiver and also be a 

member of a Medicaid eligibility group that a state 

includes in the waiver. A state may include a Medicaid 

eligibility group in the waiver only when it includes the 

same group in its state plan.
Page 57 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

1915(i) State Plan 

Home and CommunityBased Services

1915(i) allows states the option to add home and 

community-based services to their Medicaid State 

Plans.

Financial eligibility requirements: (1) eligible for 

Medicaid and have income up to 150 percent of the 

federal poverty level, and (2) at the state’s option, 

eligible through a new Medicaid eligibility category at 

income up to 300 percent of Supplemental Security 

Income Federal Benefit Rate and eligible for a 1915(c) 

waiver or 1115 demonstration program in their state.

Other eligibility requirements: (1) meet state-defined 

needs-based criteria, and (2) at the state’s option, 

meet the state-specified targeted population group for 

the 1915(i) benefit.

Medicaid State Plan 

Services 

To provide parameters for the coverage of services 

authorized by the Social Security Act to be part of 

the Medicaid State Plan.

Each state plan service contains, either in statute or 

regulation, parameters for service provision, including 

any functional eligibility requirements to be met.

Money Follows the 

Person Rebalancing 

Demonstration

The Money Follows the Person (MFP) Rebalancing 

Demonstration, authorized by section 6071 of the 

Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 (Pub. Law No.109-

171), was designed to assist States to balance their 

long-term care systems and help Medicaid enrollees 

transition from institutions to the community. 

Congress initially authorized up to $1.75 billion in 

funds through federal fiscal year 2011. With the 

subsequent passage of the Patient Protection and 

Affordable Care Act (Pub. Law No.111-148) in 

2010, Section 2403 extended the program through 

September 30, 2016. An additional $2.25 billion in 

federal funds was appropriated through federal 

fiscal year 2016. The MFP Demonstration supports 

state efforts to rebalance their long-term support 

system so that individuals have a choice of where 

they live and receive services. Transition individuals 

from institutions who want to live in the community.

As defined in Section 6071(b)(2) of the DRA and 

amended by Section 2403 of the Affordable Care Act, 

the term “eligible individual” means an individual in the 

state who, immediately before beginning participation 

in the MFP demonstration project: (1) resides (and has 

resided, for a period of not less than 90 consecutive 

days) in a qualified institution or inpatient setting 

(excluding days solely for the purpose of short-term 

rehabilitation services); (2) is receiving Medicaid 

benefits for services furnished by such qualified 

institution or inpatient setting; and (3) with respect to 

whom a determination has been made that, but for the 

provision of home and community-based long-term 

care services, the individual would continue to require 

the level of care provided in a qualified institution or 

inpatient setting.

Department of Labor

America’s Heroes at 

Work

America’s Heroes at Work is a Department of Labor 

project that addresses the employment challenges 

of returning servicemembers living with Traumatic 

Brain Injury (TBI) or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 

(PTSD)—an important focus of the President’s 

veterans agenda. The project equips employers and 

the workforce development system with the tools 

they need to help returning servicemembers 

affected by TBI and/or PTSD succeed in the 

workplace—particularly servicemembers returning 

from Iraq and Afghanistan.

No eligibility requirements. Support services (website, 

toll-free assistance, and presentations) are available to 

any group or individual that requests them.
Page 58 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Community Service

Employment for Older 

Americans/Senior 

Community Service 

Employment Program

The purpose of the Senior Community Service 

Employment Program (SCSEP) program is to 

provide, foster, and promote useful part-time work 

opportunities (usually 20 hours per week) in

community service training and employment 

activities for unemployed low-income persons who 

are 55 years of age and older. To the extent 

feasible, SCSEP assists and promotes the transition 

of program participants into unsubsidized 

employment.

Unemployed persons 55 years or older whose family is 

low-income (i.e., income does not exceed the lowincome standards defined in 20 CFR section 641.507) 

are eligible for enrollment (20 CFR section 641.500). 

Low-income means an income of the family which, 

during the preceding 6 months on an annualized basis 

or the actual income during the preceding 12 months, 

at the option of the grantee, is not more than 125 

percent of the poverty levels established and 

periodically updated by the Department of Health and 

Human Services (42 USC 3056p(a)(4)). The poverty 

guidelines are issued each year in the Federal 

Register and the Department of Health and Human 

Services maintains a page on the Internet which 

provides the poverty guidelines 

(http://www.aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/index.shtml, 

accessed May 30, 2012). Enrollee eligibility is redetermined on an annual basis (20 CFR section 

641.505).

Disabled Veterans’ 

Outreach Program 

To provide intensive services to meet the 

employment needs of disabled and other eligible 

veterans with maximum emphasis in meeting the 

employment needs of those who are economically 

or educationally disadvantaged, including homeless 

veterans and veterans with barriers to employment.

Eligible veterans and eligible persons with emphasis 

on Special Disabled veterans, disabled veterans, 

economically or educationally disadvantaged veterans, 

and veterans with other barriers to employment.

Employer Assistance 

and Resource Network 

(EARN) 

EARN is a resource for employers seeking to 

recruit, retain and advance individuals with 

disabilities. (www.askearn.org, accessed May 30, 

2012)

Any public or private employer seeking to advance the 

employment of individuals with disabilities is eligible for 

services.

Job Accommodation 

Network (JAN)

The mission of JAN is to facilitate the employment 

and retention of workers with disabilities by 

providing employers, employment providers, people 

with disabilities, their family members, and other 

interested parties with technical assistance on job 

accommodations, entrepreneurship, and related 

subjects. JAN’s efforts are in support of the 

employment, including self-employment and small 

business ownership, of people with disabilities. This 

free, confidential technical assistance is provided in 

English and Spanish via telephone, email, chat, and 

postal mail.

JAN services are available to all interested parties.
Page 59 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Job Corps Job Corps is the nation’s largest federally funded 

training program that provides at-risk youth, ages 

16-24, with academic instruction, toward the 

achievement of a High School Diploma or General 

Education Development (GED) certificate, and 

career training in high-growth, high-demand 

industries. Upon exit from the program, participants 

receive transition assistance to employment, higher 

education, or the military. The program is primarily 

residential, serving nearly 60,000 students at 125 

centers nationwide.

To be eligible to become an enrollee, an individual 

shall be: (1) not less than age 16 and not more than 

age 21 on the date of enrollment, except that (a) not 

more than 20 percent of the individuals enrolled in the 

Job Corps may be not less than age 22 and not more 

than age 24 on the date of enrollment, and (b) either 

such maximum age limitation may be waived by the 

Secretary, in accordance with regulations of the 

Secretary, in the case of an individual with a disability; 

(2) a low-income individual; and (3) an individual who 

is one or more of the following: (a) basic skills 

deficient; (b) a school dropout; (c) homeless, a 

runaway, or a foster child; (d) a parent; (e) an 

individual who requires additional education, 

vocational training, or intensive counseling and related 

assistance, in order to participate successfully in 

regular schoolwork or to secure and hold employment.

Local Veterans’ 

Employment 

Representatives 

program

Conduct outreach and provide seminars to 

employers which advocates hiring of veterans; 

facilitate Transition Assistance Program 

employment workshops to transitioning 

servicemembers; establish and conduct job search 

workshops; facilitate employment, training, and 

placement services furnished to veterans in a state 

under the applicable state employment service or 

one-stop career center delivery systems whose sole 

purpose is to assist veterans in gaining and 

retaining employment.

Eligible veterans and eligible persons.

REALifelines Initiative The objective of REALifelines is to support the 

economic recovery of transitioning servicemembers 

and veterans who were wounded or injured while 

serving in Operation Iraqi Freedom or Operation 

Enduring Freedom. The transition services are 

extended to spouses and caregivers through the 

resources at the one-stop career centers. Intensive 

services are provided by our Disabled Veterans 

Outreach Program specialists. The specialized 

services are intended to identify and address any 

barriers to employment.

Transitioning servicemembers and veterans who were 

wounded or injured while serving in Operation Iraqi 

Freedom or Operation Enduring Freedom.

Registered 

Apprenticeship for 

Youth and Young 

Adults with Disabilities 

Initiative

Increases systems capacity for integrated, inclusive 

apprenticeship training for youth and young adults 

with a full range of disabilities

Youth and young adults with disabilities ages 16 

through 27.

Veterans’ Workforce 

Investment Program

To provide services to assist in reintegrating eligible 

veterans into meaningful employment within the 

labor force and to stimulate the development of 

effective service delivery systems that will address 

the complex problems facing eligible veterans.

Service-connected disabled veterans, veterans who 

have significant barriers to employment, veterans who 

served on active duty in the armed forces during a war 

or in a campaign or expedition for which a campaign 

badge has been authorized, and veterans who are 

recently separated from military service (48 months).
Page 60 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Workforce Investment 

Act Youth Activities

To help low-income youth, between the ages of 14 

and 21, acquire the educational and occupational 

skills, training, and support needed to achieve 

academic and employment success and 

successfully transition to careers and productive 

adulthood.

An eligible youth is an individual who: (1) is 14 to 21 

years of age; (2) is an individual who received an 

income or is a member of a family that received a total 

family income that, in relation to family size, does not 

exceed the higher of (a) the poverty line or (b) 70 

percent of the lower living standard income; and (3) 

meets one or more of the following criteria: is an 

individual who is deficient in basic literacy skills, a 

school dropout, homeless, a runaway, a foster child, 

pregnant or a parent, an offender, or requires 

additional assistance to complete their education or 

secure and hold employment.

There is an exception to permit youth who are not lowincome individuals to receive youth services. Up to 5 

percent of youth participants served by youth 

programs in a local area may be individuals who do 

not meet the income criterion for eligible youth, 

provided that they are within one or more of the 

following categories: school dropout; basic skills 

deficient; are one or more grade levels below the 

grade level appropriate to the individual’s age; 

pregnant or parenting; possess one or more 

disabilities, including learn disabilities; homeless or 

runaway; offender; or face serious barriers to 

employment as identified by the local board.

Work Opportunity Tax 

Credit (joint with the 

Internal Revenue 

Service) 

The tax credit was designed to help individuals from 

12 target groups who consistently have faced 

significant barriers to employment move from 

economic dependency to self-sufficiency by 

encouraging businesses in the private sector to hire 

target group members and be eligible to claim tax 

credits based on the wages they paid to the new 

hires during the first year of employment, up to a 

dollar wage limit.

All employers seeking Work Opportunity Tax Credit 

target group workers and target group members 

seeking employment. The members of the different 

target groups have statutory definitions (per Pub. Law 

No. 109-188, as amended) with specific eligibility 

requirements that must be verified by the state 

workforce agencies before a certification can be 

issued to an employer or his representatives. 

Participating employers and their representatives must 

file their certification requests using Internal Revenue 

Service Form 8850 and ETA Form 9061 or 9062 within 

28 days after the employment-start day of the new 

hires. This timeliness requirement cannot be waived 

and must be met before a state can issue a 

certification for eligible target group members.

Workforce Recruitment 

Program (joint with the 

Department of Defense)

The Workforce Recruitment Program is a 

recruitment and referral program that connects 

federal and private sector employers nationwide 

with highly motivated postsecondary students and 

recent graduates with disabilities who are eager to 

prove their abilities in the workplace through 

summer or permanent jobs.

The Workforce Recruitment Program for College 

Students with Disabilities serves individuals who have 

disabilities, are enrolled at an accredited institution of 

higher learning on a substantially full-time basis 

(unless the severity of the disability precludes the 

student from taking a substantially full-time load) to 

seek a degree or are enrolled at such an institution as 

a degree-seeking student taking less than a 

substantially full-time load in the enrollment period 

immediately prior to graduation or have graduated with 

a degree from such an institution within the past year, 

and are U.S. citizens.
Page 61 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

YouthBuild Provides disadvantaged youth with education and 

employment skills necessary to achieve economic 

self sufficiency in high demand occupations

Youth ages 16 through 24 and a member of a 

disadvantaged population, such as: low-income, foster 

care (including youth aging out of foster care), youth 

offender, youth with a disability, child of an 

incarcerated parent, high school dropout, or migrant 

youth.

Department of Veterans Affairs

Compensated Work 

Therapy program

Compensated Work Therapy is a recovery-oriented, 

vocational model integrated into the continuum of 

Veterans Health Administration’s services, as 

authorized by 38 USC § 1718. Department of 

Veterans Affairs (VA) medical centers offer 

Compensated Work Therapy with both Transitional 

Work Experience and Supported Employment 

services for veterans with occupational dysfunctions 

resulting from their mental health conditions, or who 

are unsuccessful at obtaining or maintaining stable 

employment patterns due to mental illnesses or 

physical impairments co-occurring with mental 

illnesses. The scope of Therapeutic and Supported 

Employment Services (TSES) includes skill 

development opportunities both for veterans for 

whom the primary objective is competitive 

employment, and for veterans in need of therapeutic 

pre-employment services designed to ameliorate 

the consequences of long standing mental health 

problems alone or with co-occurring physical illness. 

The mission of TSES is to improve the veteran’s 

overall quality of life through a vocational 

rehabilitation experience in which the veteran learns 

new job skills, strengthen successful work habits, 

and regains a sense of self-esteem and self-worth. 

The vision of TSES is that all veterans challenged 

with physical or mental illness can obtain 

meaningful competitive employment in the 

community, working in jobs of their choice, while 

receiving necessary and appropriate support 

services. The goal of TSES is to provide a 

continuum of therapeutic and skill development 

services for veterans who have difficulty obtaining 

or maintaining stable employment patterns due to 

mental illnesses or physical impairments cooccurring with mental illnesses. The objectives of 

TSES are to provide an opportunity for work 

hardening and skill development services to eligible 

veterans regardless of diagnosis, disability, or 

treatment goals; Collaborate with veterans and their 

primary treatment team to assure each veteran has 

the support necessary to achieve his or her 

vocational goals; Ensure access to all components 

in the continuum of TSES services as the veteran’s 

needs change over the course of treatment, 

rehabilitation, and recovery.

A person who served in the active military, naval, or air 

service and who was discharged or released under 

conditions other than dishonorable may qualify for VA 

health care benefits. Reservists and National Guard 

members may also qualify for VA health care benefits 

if they were called to active duty (other than for training 

only) by a federal order and completed the full period 

for which they were called or ordered to active duty.
Page 62 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Disabled Transition 

Assistance Program 

(DTAP) 

DTAP is an integral component of transition 

assistance that involves intervening on behalf of 

servicemembers who may be released because of a 

disability or who believe they have a disability 

qualifying them for VA’s Vocational Rehabilitation 

and Employment program (VR&E). The goal of 

DTAP is to encourage and assist potentially eligible 

servicemembers in making an informed decision 

about VA’s VR&E program. It is also intended to 

facilitate the expeditious delivery of vocational 

rehabilitation services to eligible persons by 

assisting them in filing an application for vocational 

rehabilitation benefits.

Servicemembers who may be released because of 

injuries or diseases that happened while on active 

duty, or were made worse by active military service.

Vocational 

Rehabilitation and 

Employment (VR&E)

To provide all services and assistance necessary to 

enable service-disabled veterans and service 

persons hospitalized or receiving outpatient medical 

care services or treatment for a service-connected 

disability pending discharge to gain and maintain 

suitable employment. When employment is not 

reasonably feasible, the program can provide the 

needed services and assistance to help the 

individual achieve maximum independence in daily 

living.

The VR&E program is a comprehensive vocational 

rehabilitation program that provides up to 48 months 

of extensive services leading to employment. Every 

VR&E program participant is provided a 

comprehensive vocational evaluation to determine 

transferable skills, aptitudes, and interests; explore 

labor market and wage information; and to focus on 

vocational options that will lead to a viable suitable 

employment or independent living goal. Results 

from the evaluation help determine which of the five 

tracks to success (Reemployment, Rapid Access to 

Employment, Self Employment, Employment 

Through Long-term Services, or Independent 

Living) is most appropriate. Depending on the 

rehabilitation needs of the individual, services may 

include training such as on-the-job, 

vocational/technical school, college-level 

(certificate, 2-year degree, 4-year degree, or 

beyond). VR&E pays for tuition, fees, books, and 

supplies associated with training, as well as a 

monthly subsistence allowance.

Veterans of World War II and later service with a 

service-connected disability or disabilities rated at 

least 20 percent compensable and certain servicedisabled servicepersons pending discharge or release 

from service if VA determines the servicepersons will 

likely receive at least a 20 percent rating and they 

need vocational rehabilitation because of an 

employment handicap. Veterans with compensable 

ratings of 10 percent may also be eligible if they are 

found to have a serious employment handicap. To 

receive an evaluation for vocational rehabilitation 

services, a veteran must have received, or eventually 

receive, an honorable or other than dishonorable 

discharge, have a VA service-connected disability 

rating of 10 percent or more, and apply for vocational 

rehabilitation services.
Page 63 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program title Program objectives Beneficiary eligibility requirements 

Vocational Training and 

Rehabilitation for 

Vietnam Veterans’ 

Children with Spina 

Bifida or Other Covered 

Birth Defects

To provide vocational training and rehabilitation to 

certain children born with spina bifida or other 

covered birth defects who are children of Vietnam 

veterans and some Korean veterans.

A child born with spina bifida or other covered birth 

defects, except spina bifida occulta, who is the natural 

child of a Vietnam veteran and some Korean veterans, 

regardless of the age or marital status of the child, 

conceived after the date on which the veteran first 

served in the Republic of Vietnam during the Vietnam 

era and in particular areas near the demilitarized zone 

(DMZ) in the Korean conflict. VA must also determine 

that it is feasible for the child to achieve a vocational 

goal.

Social Security Administration

Work Incentives 

Planning and 

Assistance program

To comply with the Ticket to Work and Work 

Incentives Improvement Act which was passed in 

December 1999, and reauthorized by the Social 

Security Protection Act of 2004, which requires SSA 

to establish a community based work incentives 

planning and assistance program. The purpose of 

this program is to disseminate accurate information 

to SSA disability beneficiaries (including transition to 

work aged youth) about work incentives programs, 

and issues related to such programs, to enable 

them to make informed choices about working and 

whether or when to assign their Ticket to Work, as 

well as how available work incentives can facilitate 

their transition into the workforce. The ultimate goal 

of the Work Incentives Planning and Assistance 

program is to assist SSA disability beneficiaries 

succeed in their return to work efforts.

All individuals within the state who are entitled to 

Social Security Disability Insurance benefits or eligible 

for Supplemental Security Income payments based on 

disability or blindness.

State Vocational 

Rehabilitation Cost 

Reimbursement 

Program 

Makes vocational rehabilitation services more 

readily available to disabled or blind SSA disability 

beneficiaries.

Social Security Disability Insurance beneficiaries and 

Supplemental Security Income disability recipients

Ticket to Work program Provides SSA disability beneficiaries more choices 

for receiving employment services.

Social Security Disability Insurance beneficiaries and 

Supplemental Security Income disability recipients 

ages 18 through 64.

Source: GAO survey.

a

In commenting on a draft of this report, Education noted that Rehabilitation Services Demonstration 

and Training Programs grantees may use funds to conduct a broad range of activities, the ultimate 

goal of which is to improve services for individuals with disabilities. However, in some cases, 

individuals with disabilities may not be the direct target population. For example, some of the program 

funds are used for providing training and technical assistance to service providers and parents of 

individuals with disabilities.
Page 64 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Table 5: Services Provided by 19 Programs That Limit Eligibility to Servicemembers, Veterans, and/or Their Families Employment counseling, assessment, and case management Assistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalent Job development Job readiness skills Job recruitment and referrals Job retention training Job search or job placement activities Occupational or vocational training Vocational rehabilitation Supported employment On-the-job training Remedial academic, English language skills, or adult literacy Work experience Employment-related information dissemination

Entrepreneurship training and supportTax expenditures related to workers with disabilitiesSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

Air Force Warrior and 

Survivor Care ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ○ * ● ●

America’s Heroes at 

Work ○ ○ * ● ○ * * * ● * ● ●

Army Warrior Care and 

Transition Program ● ○ ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ● ● ●

Compensated Work 

Therapy program ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ * 

Computer/Electronic 

Accommodations 

Program 

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ●

Disabled Transition 

Assistance Program * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 

Disabled Veterans’ 

Outreach Program ● ○ ● ● ○ ● * ○ * * 

Local Veterans’ 

Employment 

Representatives 

program 

○ ● ● ○ ○ ● * ● * 

Appendix V: Services Reported to Be

Provided in Fiscal Year 2010, by Population 

and Program
Page 65 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Employment counseling, assessment, and case managementAssistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalentJob developmentJob readiness skillsJob recruitment and referralsJob retention trainingJob search or job placement activitiesOccupational or vocational trainingVocational rehabilitationSupported employmentOn-the-job trainingRemedial academic, English language skills, or adult literacyWork experienceEmployment-related information disseminationEntrepreneurship training and supportTax expenditures related to workers with disabilitiesSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

Marine Corps Wounded 

Warrior Intern Program ● * ● ● ● * ● ● ○ ● ● ● ● * ● ○

Marine Corps Wounded 

Warrior Regiment ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ○

Navy Safe Harbor 

Program ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Operation Warfighter ● ● ● * ● * ● ○ ○ ● ● ○ ○ * ○

REALifelines Initiative ● ● ● ● ● ○ ● * * ● ● ● ●

Recovery Care 

Coordinator Program ○

U.S. Special Operations 

Command Care Coalition * * * * 

Veterans’ Workforce 

Investment Program ● * ● ● ● ○ ● ● ○ ○ ○

Vocational Rehabilitation 

and Employment ● * ● ● ● ● ● ● ● * ● * ● ● ● ● ●
Page 66 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Employment counseling, assessment, and case managementAssistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalentJob developmentJob readiness skillsJob recruitment and referralsJob retention trainingJob search or job placement activitiesOccupational or vocational trainingVocational rehabilitationSupported employmentOn-the-job trainingRemedial academic, English language skills, or adult literacyWork experienceEmployment-related information disseminationEntrepreneurship training and supportTax expenditures related to workers with disabilitiesSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

Vocational Training and 

Rehabilitation for 

Vietnam Veterans’ 

Children with Spina 

Bifida or Other Covered 

Birth Defects

● * ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● * 

Work Opportunity Tax 

Credit ● ● ○

Source: GAO survey.

● Service provided to more than 50 percent of program participants

○ Service provided to less than 50 percent of program participants

* Service provided, but extent unknown
Page 67 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Table 6: Services Provided by Five Programs That Limit Eligibility to Students, Transition Age Youth, and/or Young Adults Employment counseling, assessment, and case management Assistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalent Job development Job readiness skills Job recruitment and referrals Job retention training Job search or job placement activities Occupational or vocational training Vocational rehabilitation Supported employment On-the-job training Remedial academic, English language skills, or adult literacy Work experience Employment-related information dissemination

Entrepreneurship training and supportTax expenditures related to workers with disabilitiesSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

Model Comprehensive 

Transition and 

Postsecondary 

Programs for Students 

with Intellectual 

Disabilities

* * 

Registered 

Apprenticeship Youth 

and Young Adults with 

Disabilities Initiative

○ * * * * * * * * * * * * * 

Workforce Investment 

Act Youth Activities ● * * * * * * * * * * * * * 

Workforce Recruitment 

Program * * ● * ● ● ○ * 

YouthBuild ● ● ● ● * * ● ● * * ● ● ● * 

Source: GAO survey.

● Service provided to more than 50 percent of program participants

○ Service provided to less than 50 percent of program participants

* Service provided, but extent unknown
Page 68 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Table 7: Services Provided by Seven Programs That Serve All People with Disabilities Employment counseling, assessment, and case management Assistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalent Job development Job readiness skills Job recruitment and referrals Job retention training Job search or job placement activities Occupational or vocational training

Vocational rehabilitationSupported employmentOn-the-job trainingRemedial academic, English language skills, or adult literacyWork experienceEmployment-related information disseminationEntrepreneurship training and supportTax expenditures related to workers with disabilitiesSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

1915(i) State Plan Home 

and Community-Based 

Services 

* * * * * * * ○ * * * 

Job Accommodation 

Network ● ○ ● ●

Job Corps ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ ○

Medicaid State Plan 

Services * * * * 

Rehabilitation Services 

Demonstration and Training 

Programs 

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 

Assistive Technology State 

Grant program * ●

State Vocational 

Rehabilitation Services ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○

Source: GAO survey.

● Service provided to more than 50 percent of program participants

○ Service provided to less than 50 percent of program participants

* Service provided, but extent unknown
Page 69 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Table 8: Services Provided by 14 Programs That Limit Eligibility to Other Populations

Population 

served

Employment counseling, assessment, and case managementAssistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalentJob developmentJob readiness skillsJob recruitment and referralsJob retention trainingJob search or job placement activitiesOccupational or vocational trainingVocational rehabilitationSupported employmentOn-the-job trainingRemedial academic, English language skills, or basic adult literacyWork experienceEmployment-related information disseminationEntrepreneurship training and supportTax expendituresSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

1915(c) Home 

and Community 

Based Services 

Waiver

Low-income 

persons * * * * * * * * * * * 

AbilityOne 

Program 

People who are 

blind or visually 

impaired or have 

other significant 

disabilities

American Indian 

Vocational 

Rehabilitation 

Services 

American Indians 

with disabilities ● ○ ● ● ● ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ○ * * * * * * 

Assistive 

Technology 

Program for 

Farmers with 

Disabilities: 

AgrAbility Project

Professionspecific persons

● * * * 
Page 70 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Population 

served

Employment counseling, assessment, and case managementAssistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalentJob developmentJob readiness skillsJob recruitment and referralsJob retention trainingJob search or job placement activitiesOccupational or vocational trainingVocational rehabilitationSupported employmentOn-the-job trainingRemedial academic, English language skills, or basic adult literacyWork experienceEmployment-related information disseminationEntrepreneurship training and supportTax expendituresSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

Community 

Service 

Employment for 

Older 

Americans/Senior 

Community 

Service 

Employment 

Program 

Unemployed lowincome persons 

55 and older

● ○ ● ● ● ● ○ * * * * ● ● * * ○

Employer 

Assistance and 

Resource 

Network

Employers of 

people with 

disabilities ○

Helen Keller 

National Center 

for Deaf-Blind 

Youths and 

Adults

People who are 

deaf-blind

● ○ ● ○ ● ● ● ● ○ ● ○ ● ○ * 

Migrant and 

Seasonal 

Farmworkers 

Other population 

groups ● * ● ● ● ● ● ● ● * ● ○ ○ ○ ○
Page 71 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Population 

served

Employment counseling, assessment, and case managementAssistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalentJob developmentJob readiness skillsJob recruitment and referralsJob retention trainingJob search or job placement activitiesOccupational or vocational trainingVocational rehabilitationSupported employmentOn-the-job trainingRemedial academic, English language skills, or basic adult literacyWork experienceEmployment-related information disseminationEntrepreneurship training and supportTax expendituresSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

Money Follows 

the Person 

Rebalancing 

Demonstration

People with other 

types of 

disabilities * * * * * * * * * * * * 

RandolphSheppard 

Vending Facility 

Program 

People who are 

blind * * ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ● ○ ● * ● * * 

State Vocational 

Rehabilitation 

Cost 

Reimbursement 

Program 

People who 

receive 

Supplemental

Security Income 

or Social Security 

Disability 

Insurance 

benefits

● ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ● ○ ● ○ ○ * ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Supported 

Employment 

State Grants

People with the 

most significant 

disabilities 

● ○ ● ● ○ ○ ● ○ ● ● ○ ○ ● ○ ○ ○ ○
Page 72 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Population 

served

Employment counseling, assessment, and case managementAssistance in earning a high school diploma or its equivalentJob developmentJob readiness skillsJob recruitment and referralsJob retention trainingJob search or job placement activitiesOccupational or vocational trainingVocational rehabilitationSupported employmentOn-the-job trainingRemedial academic, English language skills, or basic adult literacyWork experienceEmployment-related information disseminationEntrepreneurship training and supportTax expendituresSupport and services to employers of people with disabilitiesAssistive technology and workplace accommodations

Ticket to Work 

program

People who 

receive 

Supplemental 

Security Income 

or Social Security 

Disability 

Insurance 

benefits

● * * * * * ● * * * * * ● * * * 

Work Incentives 

Planning and 

Assistance 

program

People who 

receive 

Supplemental 

Security Income 

or Social Security 

Disability 

Insurance 

benefits

●

Source: GAO survey.

● Service provided to more than 50 percent of program participants

○ Service provided to less than 50 percent of program participants

* Service provided, but extent unknown
Page 73 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Educational 

attainment

Credential 

attainment

Entered the 

military, 

postsecondary 

education, or 

vocational 

training program

Entered 

employment

Employment 

retention

Wage 

gain or 

change

Customer 

satisfaction

Reduced 

reliance on 

federal 

cash 

benefits Other

Measures 

tracked 

specifically 

for people 

with 

disabilities

U.S. AbilityOne Commission

AbilityOne Program ● ● ● ● ●

Department of Agriculture

Assistive 

Technology 

Program for 

Farmers with 

Disabilities: 

AgrAbility Project

Department of Defense

Air Force Warrior 

and Survivor Care

Army Warrior Care 

and Transition 

Program 

Computer/Electronic 

Accommodations 

Program 

● ● ●

Marine Corps 

Wounded Warrior 

Intern Program

● ● ●

Marine Corps 

Wounded Warrior 

Regiment 

● ● ● ●

Appendix VI: Employment-Related Outcome 

Measures Programs Reported Tracking for 

People with Disabilities in Fiscal Year 2010
Page 74 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Educational 

attainment

Credential 

attainment

Entered the 

military, 

postsecondary 

education, or 

vocational 

training program

Entered 

employment

Employment 

retention

Wage 

gain or 

change

Customer 

satisfaction

Reduced 

reliance on 

federal 

cash 

benefits Other

Measures 

tracked 

specifically 

for people 

with 

disabilities

Navy Safe Harbor 

Program ● ● ● ● ●

Recovery Care 

Coordinator 

Program 

Recovery 

Coordination 

Program–Operation 

Warfighter

● ● ● ●

U.S. Special 

Operations 

Command Care 

Coalition

● ● ●

Department of Education

American Indian 

Vocational 

Rehabilitation 

Services 

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Helen Keller 

National Center for 

Deaf-Blind Youths 

and Adults

● ● ●

Migrant and 

Seasonal 

Farmworkers 

● ● ●
Page 75 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Educational 

attainment

Credential 

attainment

Entered the 

military, 

postsecondary 

education, or 

vocational 

training program

Entered 

employment

Employment 

retention

Wage 

gain or 

change

Customer 

satisfaction

Reduced 

reliance on 

federal 

cash 

benefits Other

Measures 

tracked 

specifically 

for people 

with 

disabilities

Model 

Comprehensive 

Transition and 

Postsecondary 

Programs for 

Students with 

Intellectual 

Disabilities

● ●

Randolph-Sheppard 

Vending Facilities 

Program 

● ● ●

Rehabilitation 

Services 

Demonstration and 

Training Programs

●

a

● ● ● ● ● ●

Assistive 

Technology State 

Grant program

● ●

Supported 

Employment State 

Grants

● ● ● ● ●

State Vocational 

Rehabilitation 

Services 

● ● ● ● ●
Page 76 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Educational 

attainment

Credential 

attainment

Entered the 

military, 

postsecondary 

education, or 

vocational 

training program

Entered 

employment

Employment 

retention

Wage 

gain or 

change

Customer 

satisfaction

Reduced 

reliance on 

federal 

cash 

benefits Other

Measures 

tracked 

specifically 

for people 

with 

disabilities

Department of Health and Human Services

1915(c) Home and 

Community Based 

Services Waiver

1915(i) State Plan 

Home and 

Community-Based 

Services 

Medicaid State Plan 

Services 

Money Follows the 

Person Rebalancing 

Demonstration

Department of Labor

America’s Heroes at 

Work

Disabled Veterans’ 

Outreach Program ● ● ● ●

Employer 

Assistance and 

Resource Network

● ● ●

Job Accommodation 

Network ● ● ●

Job Corps ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Page 77 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Educational 

attainment

Credential 

attainment

Entered the 

military, 

postsecondary 

education, or 

vocational 

training program

Entered 

employment

Employment 

retention

Wage 

gain or 

change

Customer 

satisfaction

Reduced 

reliance on 

federal 

cash 

benefits Other

Measures 

tracked 

specifically 

for people 

with 

disabilities

Local Veterans’ 

Employment 

Representatives 

program 

● ● ● ●

REALifelines 

Initiative

Registered 

Apprenticeship for 

Youth and Young 

Adults with 

Disabilities Initiative

● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Community Service 

Employment for 

Older 

Americans/Senior 

Community Service 

Employment 

Program 

● ● ● ● ● ●

Veterans’ Workforce 

Investment Program ● ● ● ●

Work Opportunity 

Tax Credit (also 

under the Internal 

Revenue Service)

Workforce 

Investment Act 

Youth Activities

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Page 78 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Educational 

attainment

Credential 

attainment

Entered the 

military, 

postsecondary 

education, or 

vocational 

training program

Entered 

employment

Employment 

retention

Wage 

gain or 

change

Customer 

satisfaction

Reduced 

reliance on 

federal 

cash 

benefits Other

Measures 

tracked 

specifically 

for people 

with 

disabilities

Workforce 

Recruitment 

Program (also 

under the 

Department of 

Defense)

● ●

YouthBuild ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Department of Veterans Affairs

Compensated Work 

Therapy program ● ● ● ● ● ●

Disabled Transition 

Assistance Program

Vocational 

Rehabilitation and 

Employment

● ● ● ● ● ●

Vocational Training 

and Rehabilitation 

for Vietnam 

Veterans’ Children 

with Spina Bifida or 

Other Covered Birth 

Defects
Page 79 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Educational 

attainment

Credential 

attainment

Entered the 

military, 

postsecondary 

education, or 

vocational 

training program

Entered 

employment

Employment 

retention

Wage 

gain or 

change

Customer 

satisfaction

Reduced 

reliance on 

federal 

cash 

benefits Other

Measures 

tracked 

specifically 

for people 

with 

disabilities

Social Security Administration

State Vocational 

Rehabilitation Cost 

Reimbursement 

Program 

● ● ● ●

Ticket to Work 

program ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Work Incentives 

Planning and 

Assistance program

● ● ● ● ● ●

Source: GAO survey.

a

In commenting on a draft of this report, Education officials noted that Rehabilitation Services Demonstration and Training Programs may track 

some of these measures on a project-specific basis, depending on the purpose of the demonstration project.
Page 80 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilities

Program (agency) Impact study Other study a

AgrAbility (Department of Agriculture) ●

Compensated Work Therapy program (Department of 

Veteran Affairs) ●

Employer Assistance and Resource Network (Labor)b ●

Helen Keller National Center (Education) ●

Job Corps (Labor) ●

Mental Health Treatment Study (SSA) ● c

Randolph Sheppard Vending Facilities Program 

(Education)d ●

Recovery Care Coordinator–Operation Warfighter 

(Department of Defense) ●

Ticket to Work program (SSA) ●

Work Incentives Planning and Assistance program (SSA) ●

Youth Transition Demonstration Projects (SSA) ● c

YouthBuild (Labor) ●

Source: GAO survey.

a

In response to our survey questions that asked whether any impact studies had been conducted, 

officials from five program provided references. We evaluated the methodology of each study and 

determined that three of them met the definition of an impact study provided in our questionnaire—a 

study that assessed the net effect of a program by comparing program outcomes with an estimate of 

what would have happened in the absence of the program—and had been completed since 2006.

The other studies either did not meet our definition or were not available for review.

b

This program reported having conducted an impact study, but that it was still in progress as part of a 

larger effort.

c

Two of the three programs that conducted impact studies were excluded from our scope because 

they ended prior to April 2012, but are listed here because the studies are discussed in the report.

d

This program cited a previous GAO study, which is not an program evaluation.

Appendix VII: Programs That Identified 

Performance Reviews Completed Since 2006, 

by Type of Study
Appendix VIII: Agency Comments from the 

Department of Agriculture

Page 81 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilties

Appendix VIII: Agency Comments from the 

Department of Agriculture
Appendix IX: Agency Comments from the Department of 

Education

Page 82 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilties

Appendix IX: Agency Comments from the 

Department of Education
Appendix IX: Agency Comments from the Department of 

Education

Page 83 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilties
Appendix X: Agency Comments from the 

Department of Labor

Page 84 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilties

Appendix X: Agency Comments from the 

Department of Labor
Appendix XI: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

Page 85 GAO-12-677 Employment for People with Disabilties

Daniel Bertoni, (202) 512-7215 or bertonid@gao.gov

Michele Grgich, Assistant Director; Rachael Chamberlin Valliere, Analystin-Charge; Margaret J. Weber; and Miriam Hill made significant 

contributions to all aspects of this engagement. Stuart M. Kaufmann, 

Christine C. San, and Walter Vance assisted with the methodology, 

survey development, and data analysis. Jessica A. Botsford and Sheila 

McCoy provided legal assistance. Kate van Gelder and James Bennett 

helped prepare the final report and graphics. Tom Moscovitch, John S. 

Townes, and Jacques Arsenault verified our findings.

Appendix XI: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

GAO Contact

Staff 

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