CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF 

NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE

APRIL 2012

The Hexagon Story

CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF 

NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE

CHANTILLY, VA

APRIL 2012

Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics 

Foreword 

This volume re-publishes The Hexagon Story as part of the Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance’s 

(CSNR) Classics series. The introductory information explains how this history of the Hexagon program focuses 

on the Air Force involvement with the program as it became operational and matured and contains limited 

discussion of the early Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) contributions to development of the program.

The history includes a 98-page annex that focuses on the role of the Intelligence Community in identifying 

collection requirements and the impressive results of that collection. The author of that annex, John Schadegg 

(a former Air Force officer and senior CIA official) was responsible for managing the collection operations and 

had first-hand insight. The annex has 57 pages of illustrative imagery examples, but all of the KH-9 panchromatic 

images are redacted because the primary film record remains classified at this writing in March 2012, pending 

review by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. However, we included sixteen KH-9 panchromatic imagery 

products that the Director of National Intelligence declassified from this volume for the NRO to use during the 

turnover of Hexagon artifacts to the National Museum of the United States Air Force (NMUSAF). 

 The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics is a series of occasional CSNR publications 

whose purpose is to inform our readers about classic issues from the past. The books and monographs in the 

series most typically are histories, but they also could address lessons-learned topics, the legacy recognition 

of people and programs, insights into historically significant artifacts, or tutorials on the discipline of national 

reconnaissance. We issue the publications in the series on both an ad hoc basis, or in connection with a significant 

event. We are issuing a Gambit-Hexagon collection of histories in response to Director of the NRO Bruce 

Carlson’s decision in June 2011 to declassify the programs and his subsequent declassification announcement 

on 17 September 2011. The Historical Documentation and Research (HDR) Section of the CSNR selected five 

classic histories of the Gambit and Hexagon programs:

•	 A History of Satellite Reconnaissance—The Perry Gambit & Hexagon Histories (by R. L. Perry)

•	 The Gambit Story (by F. C. E. Oder, J. C. Fitzpatrick, & P. E. Worthman)

•	 The Hexagon Story (F. C. E. Oder, J. Fitzpatrick, & P. E. Worthman)

•	 Hexagon Mapping Camera Program and Evolution (M. Burnett)

•	 A History of the Hexagon Program—The Perkin-Elmer Involvement (by R. J. Chester)

On 21 January 2012, the CSNR published the first volume in the Gambit-Hexagon CSNR Classics series, 

A History of Satellite Reconnaissance—The Perry Gambit & Hexagon Histories. We did this in support of the 

ceremony that marked the NRO turning over a collection of Gambit and Hexagon artifacts to the NMUSAF and 

their exhibit opening of these artifacts to the public. The opening of this exhibit represented the largest collection 

of satellite reconnaissance artifacts ever assembled and put on public display. That exhibit can serve as a 

companion resource to those who read the histories in this CSNR Classics collection. 

Each of these histories offers a different perspective on the programs; the Perry Gambit and Hexagon histories 

are from the viewpoint of a former Air Force historian at RAND writing in response to tasking from the then NRO 

Program A (Air Force program); the Oder, et. al. Gambit and Hexagon histories are from the viewpoint of authors 

with program experience working under the sponsorship of the Deputy Director of the NRO; the Burnett Hexagon 

mapping system history is from the viewpoint of the Hexagon program office working under the direction of two 

Air Force officers in the program and the NRO Program A Director; and the Chester Hexagon history is from the 

viewpoint of Perkin-Elmer, which was an associate contractor for the Hexagon program.

All of the authors researched and wrote their histories during what some observers might describe as the 

height of the Cold War, from 1964 to 1985. This influenced them to react to and focus heavily on the threat from 

the former Soviet Union and its allies. Also, all of the authors had at least some degree of first-hand knowledge 

about these programs, and in many cases, they had first-hand experience working in the programs. This gives 

you a window into what it was like to be a participant-observer in the development and operation of these filmreturn satellite photoreconnaissance systems during the Cold War. 

Dr. James D. Outzen, the NRO Senior Historian and Chief of the CSNR’s HDR section, is the editor for the 

Gambit-Hexagon CSNR Classics series. Dr. Outzen selected the five histories for this CSNR Classics series 

from the NRO Records Center and CIA archives that collectively best retell the impressive Cold War story about 

these programs. He has prepared a brief preface and introduction for each history to provide context and explain 

its significance. 

When you read the histories you will note that some information is missing. Even though the Director of the 

NRO authorized the declassification of almost all the programmatic information about these programs, some 

information, because of its potential impact on other sources and methods, remains classified. Dr. Outzen usually 

let the redacted text stand on its own, but in some instances he has done some editing for readability. For some 

of the histories, Dr. Outzen has incorporated supplemental reference material into the publication.

Robert A. McDonald, Ph.D.

Director

Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

Preface

Coinciding with the commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the National Reconnaissance Office 

(NRO), the Director of the NRO, Mr. Bruce A. Carlson, publicly announced the declassification of the 

Gambit and Hexagon imagery satellite systems on 17 September 2011. This announcement constituted 

the NRO’s single largest declassification effort in its history. The Gambit and Hexagon programs were 

active for nearly half of the organization’s history by the time of the declassification announcement. 

Their history very much represents the NRO’s history—one that is defined by supremely talented 

individuals seeking state of the art space technology to address difficult intelligence challenges. 

The United States developed the Gambit and Hexagon programs to improve the nation’s means 

for peering over the iron curtain that separated western democracies from east European and Asian 

communist countries. The inability to gain insight into vast “denied areas” required exceptional systems 

to understand threats posed by US adversaries. Corona was the first imagery satellite system to help 

see into those areas. It could cover large areas and allow the United States and trusted allies to identify 

targets of concern. Gambit would join Corona in 1963 by providing significantly improved resolution 

for understanding details of those targets. Corona provided search capability and Gambit provided 

surveillance capability, or the ability to monitor the finer details of the targets. 

For many technologies that prove to be successful, success breeds a demand for more success. 

Once consumers of intelligence—analysts and policymakers alike—were exposed to Corona and 

Gambit imagery, they demanded more and better imagery. Consequently, the Air Force, who operated 

the Gambit system under the auspices of the NRO, entertained proposals for an improved Gambit 

system shortly after initial Gambit operations commenced. They received a proposal from Gambit’s 

optical system developer, Eastman Kodak, for three additional generations of the Gambit system. 

Ultimately the Air Force settled on only developing the proposed third generation because the proposed 

second generation offered minimal incremental improvement and the fourth generation appeared 

technologically unachievable at the time. The third generation became known as Gambit-3 or Gambitcubed while it was under development. Once it replaced the first generation, it simply became Gambit. 

The new Gambit system, with its KH-8 camera system, provided the United States outstanding imagery 

resolution and capability for verifying strategic arms agreements with the Soviet Union. 

Corona was expected to serve the nation for approximately two years before being replaced 

by more sophisticated systems under development in the Air Force’s Samos program. It turned out 

that Corona served the nation for 12 years before being replaced by Hexagon. Hexagon began as a 

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) program with the first concepts proposed in 1964. The CIA’s primary 

goal was to develop an imagery system with Corona-like ability to image wide swaths of the earth, 

but with resolution equivalent to Gambit. Such a system would afford the United States even greater 

advantages monitoring the arms race that had developed with the nation’s adversaries. The system that 

became Hexagon faced three major challenges. The first was development of the technology, which 

was eventually overcome by the Itek and Perkin-Elmer Corporations. The second was bureaucratic, 

deciding how the CIA and Air Force would cooperate in building such a system because they each 

had strengths and weaknesses in the development of national reconnaissance systems. The third 

challenge was to secure the resources that were required to build the most complicated and largest 

reconnaissance satellites at the time. By 1971, the NRO overcame the challenges to successfully 

launch the Hexagon satellite and fulfill, or even exceed, expectations for unparalleled insight into 

capabilities of US adversaries. 

At the time of the Gambit and Hexagon declassification announcement, the NRO released a 

number of redacted Gambit and Hexagon documents and histories on its public website. One of the 

histories is contained in this volume. 

The Hexagon Story was written in 1988 by Frederic Oder, James Fitzpatrick, and Paul Worthman. 

Since its publication in 1992, The Hexagon Story has served as a critical reference for the Hexagon 

program, alongside the work of Robert Perry. Oder, Fitzpatrick, and Worthman each had varied and 

rich backgrounds in Air Force national reconnaissance programs that provided a strong foundation 

for researching and writing the histories of satellite imagery programs. They were asked by then NRO 

Deputy Director, Jimmie D. Hill, to write individual histories of the Corona, Gambit, and Hexagon 

systems. All three have since preserved the essential history of the programs.

The Hexagon Story is very rich in detail. The authors carefully document the Air Force’s management 

of the Hexagon system once it was turned over to the Air Force program element at the NRO in 

1973 by the CIA program element at the NRO. The authors include a wide range of summary tables 

and information including details of each launch, companies and personnel involved in the launches, 

photographs and illustrations, and the capabilities of the systems. The history is well-documented and 

sourced.

Since the authors’ backgrounds are in national reconnaissance programs—and primarily in the 

Air Force element of the NRO—they offer unique insight into the Air Force’s perspectives on the 

development, controversies, and management of the Hexagon program. If there is one shortcoming 

of this program history, it is the authors’ minimization of the CIA’s development and early management 

of the Hexagon program. Although both the Air Force and CIA elements at the NRO developed 

approaches for broad-area satellite search capabilities in the 1960s, the NRO eventually chose the 

CIA approach for what became the Hexagon program. Much of the CIA Hexagon story remains silent 

in this history.

The Hexagon Story joins five other volumes of Gambit and Hexagon histories that the Center for 

the Study of National Reconnaissance is reprinting in conjunction with the program declassifications. 

Those other volumes include The Gambit Story also written by Oder, Fitzpatrick, and Worthman, 

Robert Perry’s histories of Gambit and Hexagon, a history of the Hexagon mapping camera, a PerkinElmer history of Hexagon, and a compendium of key Gambit and Hexagon program documents. In 

total, this collection of Gambit and Hexagon publications provides the public with broad insight into 

previously classified programs. The volumes complement each other in providing details not found 

exclusively in any single program history volume.

I have chosen not to reprint pages that were redacted in their entirety in The Hexagon Story. Those 

pages are: 149, 152, 156, 168 – 173, 180, 182 – 183, 187 – 204, 206 – 208, 210 – 211, 216, 223 – 224, 

and 226. We also did not reprint blank pages, which consist of pages vi, 6, 18, 108, 122, 126, 226, 236, 

240, 244, 248, 254, and 260. The unedited redacted Hexagon Story can be found in the declassified 

records section of NRO.gov for those interested in reviewing a document with the completely redacted 

and blank pages.

The Gambit and Hexagon systems became reliable means for addressing difficult intelligence 

challenges once they became operational. The Hexagon systems, in particular, provided broad area 

imagery that was essential for understanding the strategic capabilities and arms control compliance 

of the Soviet Union and other Cold War adversaries. These national reconnaissance systems dutifully 

provided the nation reliable vigilance from above until the next generation of imagery satellites 

advanced the United States’ intelligence collection capabilities.

James D. Outzen, Ph.D.

Chief, Historical Documentation and Research

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance (CSNR) is an independent 

National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) research body reporting to the NRO Deputy Director, 

Business Plans and Operations. Its primary objective is to ensure that the NRO leadership 

has the analytic framework and historical context to make effective policy and programmatic 

decisions. The CSNR accomplishes its mission by promoting the study, dialogue, and 

understanding of the discipline, practice, and history of national reconnaissance. The CSNR 

studies the past, analyzes the present, and searches for lessons-learned.

Contact Information: Please phone us at 703-488-4733 or email us at csnr@nro.mil

To Obtain Copies: Government personnel can obtain additional printed copies directly 

from CSNR. Other requestors can purchase printed copies by contacting Government 

Printing Office (GPO):

The Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800

Fax: (202) 512-2104 Mail: Stop IDCC, Washington, DC 20402-0001

ISBN: 978-1-937219-06-2

Published by

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Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

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Chantilly, Virginia 20151-1715
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THE HEXAGON STORY

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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THE HEXAGON STORY

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
THE HEXAGON STORY

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Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
THE HEXAGON STORY

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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THE HEXAGON STORY

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Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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THE HEXAGON STORY

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THE HEXAGON STORY

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Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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THE HEXAGON STORY

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
THE HEXAGON STORY

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
THE HEXAGON STORY

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
THE HEXAGON STORY

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

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RELEASE 17 September 2011
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RELEASE 17 September 2011


CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF 

NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE

APRIL 2012