Open-File Report 2011–1229

USGS Afghanistan Project Product No. 201

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for

Business and Stability Operations and the Afghanistan Geological Survey

Identification of Mineral Resources in Afghanistan—

Detecting and Mapping Resource Anomalies in 

Prioritized Areas Using Geophysical and Remote 

Sensing (ASTER and HyMap) Data

 

Identification of Mineral Resources in Afghanistan—

Detecting and Mapping Resource Anomalies in Prioritized 

Areas Using Geophysical and Remote Sensing 

(ASTER and HyMap) Data 

Edited by Trude V.V. King, Michaela R. Johnson, Bernard E. Hubbard, and Benjamin J. Drenth

Open-File Report 2011–1229

USGS Afghanistan Project Product No. 201

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

For product and ordering information:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth,

its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

Suggested citation:

King, T.V.V., Johnson, M.R., Hubbard, B.E., and Drenth, B.J., eds., 2011, Identification of mineral resources in 

Afghanistan—Detecting and mapping resource anomalies in prioritized areas using geophysical and remote sensing 

(ASTER and HyMap) data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1229, 327 p.

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual 

copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report.

ii
Contents

Chapter 1: Detecting and Mapping Resource Anomalies—Introduction and Background............................................. 1 

1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Anomaly Identification and Compilation ................................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Datasets Used for Evaluation................................................................................................................................... 2

1.4 Data Application....................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.5 References Cited ..................................................................................................................................................... 4 

Chapter 2: Description of Structure and Content of Spatial Dataset of Identified Anomalies in Afghanistan................. 6 

2.1 Anomaly Geodatabase Overview............................................................................................................................. 6

2.1.1 Geodatabase Structure and Contents ............................................................................................................... 6

2.1.2 Availability of Anomaly Data .............................................................................................................................. 8

2.2 References Cited ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 

Chapter 3: Identification of Gravity, Magnetic, and Radiometric Geophysical Anomalies in Afghanistan....................10

3.1 Geophysical Anomalies..........................................................................................................................................10

3.1.1 Magnetic Anomalies ........................................................................................................................................10

3.1.2 Gravity Anomalies ...........................................................................................................................................10

3.1.3 Radiometric Anomalies....................................................................................................................................10

3.2 Presentation of Geophysical Anomalies.................................................................................................................11

3.3 References Cited ...................................................................................................................................................34

Chapter 4: Identification of Mineral Anomalies in Afghanistan Using Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission 

and Reflection Radiometer...........................................................................................................................................36

4.1 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Overview ..................................................36

4.1.2 ASTER Mapped Minerals ................................................................................................................................37

4.1.3 ASTER Identified Anomalies ...........................................................................................................................38

4.2 Presentation of ASTER Anomalies ........................................................................................................................38

4.3 References Cited .................................................................................................................................................156

Chapter 5: Mapping Anomalous Mineral Zones Using HyMap Imaging Spectrometer—Data for Selected Areas 

of Interest in Afghanistan............................................................................................................................................158

5.1 Imaging Spectrometer Overview..........................................................................................................................158

5.2 Imaging Spectrometer Data ................................................................................................................................. 158

5.2.1 Iron-Bearing Minerals and Other Materials....................................................................................................158

5.2.2 Carbonates, Phyllosilicates, Sulfates, Altered Minerals, and Other Materials................................................159

5.3 HyMap Identification of Anomalies .......................................................................................................................159

5.4 Presentation of HyMap Anomalies .......................................................................................................................160

5.5 References Cited .................................................................................................................................................319

Chapter 6: Discussion of Anomaly Overlap Areas and Potential for Economic Development...................................321

6.1 Anomaly Overlap—Conclusions and Discussion..................................................................................................321

6.1.1 Anomaly Overlap Priority 1............................................................................................................................322

6.1.2 Anomaly Overlap Priority 2............................................................................................................................323

6.1.3 Anomaly Overlap Priority 3............................................................................................................................323

6.1.4 Anomaly Overlap Priority 4............................................................................................................................324

6.1.5 Anomaly Overlap Priority 5............................................................................................................................324

6.2 Potential for Economic Development from Mineral Resources ............................................................................325

6.3 References Cited .................................................................................................................................................326

iii
Figures

1. Mineral areas of interest identified in Afghanistan..................................................................................................... 2 

3.1.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Aynak Area of Interest in Afghanistan........................................12

3.1.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Aynak Area of Interest in Afghanistan .........13

3.2.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Bakhud Area of Interest in Afghanistan .....................................14

3.2.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Bakhud Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................15

3.3.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest in Afghanistan............................16

3.3.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................17

3.3.3. Radiometric geophysical anomalies located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest in Afghanistan....................18

3.4.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................19

3.4.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Khanneshin Area of Interest in Afghanistan...............................20

3.4.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Khanneshin Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................21

3.5.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................22

3.6.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Kundalan Area of Interest in Afghanistan ..................................23

3.7.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................24

3.8.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the North Herat Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...............................25

3.8.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the North Herat Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................26

3.8.3. Radiometric geophysical anomalies located in the North Herat Area of Interest in Afghanistan .......................27

3.9.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the North Takhar Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................28

3.10.1.–3.10.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the South Helmand Area of Interest 

in Afghanistan .................................................................................................................................................29

3.11.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................31

3.11.2. Radiometric geophysical anomalies located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest in Afghanistan......................32

3.12.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................33

4.1.1. Study area map showing extent of ASTER mapped industrial minerals data, mineral areas of interest, 

cities, and major roads in Afghanistan ............................................................................................................37

4.2.1.–4.2.2. ASTER mineral occurrence anomalies located in the Aynak Area of Interest in Afghanistan.................40

4.2.3.–4.2.7. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Aynak Area of Interest in Afghanistan ................................42

4.3.1. ASTER anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest in Afghanistan....................................................47

4.3.2.–4.3.4. ASTER color anomalies located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest in Afghanistan .............................48

4.4.1.–4.4.3. ASTER color anomalies located in the Baghlan Area of Interest in Afghanistan ....................................51

4.4.4.–4.4.12. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Baghlan Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...........................54

4.5.1.–4.5.2. ASTER color anomalies located in the Dudkash Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...................................63

4.5.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest in Afghanistan..........................................65

4.5.4.–4.5.6. ASTER color anomalies located in the Dudkash Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...................................66

4.5.7.–4.5.9. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Dudkash Area of Interest in Afghanistan ............................69

iv
4.5.10.–4.5.14. ASTER color anomalies located in the Dudkash Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...............................72

4.5.15. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest in Afghanistan........................................77

4.5.16.–4.5.17. ASTER color anomalies located in the Dudkash Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...............................78

4.6.1.–4.6.8. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest in Afghanistan..................80

4.6.9.–4.6.10. ASTER mineral occurrence anomalies located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest in 

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................................88

4.7.1.–4.7.13. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest in Afghanistan ..........................90

4.8.1. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Katawas Area of Interest in Afghanistan ........................................103

4.9.1.–4.9.4. ASTER color anomalies located in the Kunduz Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...................................104

4.10.1.–4.10.15. ASTER color anomalies located in the North Takhar Area of Interest in Afghanistan ....................108

4.10.16.–4.10.17. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the North Takhar Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...........123

4.10.18.–4.10.22. ASTER color anomalies located in the North Takhar Area of Interest in Afghanistan ..................125

4.11.1.–4.11.5. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...........130

4.12.1. ASTER color anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest in Afghanistan................................................135

4.12.2.–4.12.5. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Takhar Area of Interest in Afghanistan .........................136

4.12.6.–4.12.8. ASTER color anomalies located in the Takhar Area of Interest in Afghanistan ................................140

4.13.1.–4.13.8. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest in Afghanistan ..................143

4.14.1.–4.14.5. ASTER alteration anomalies located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...................151

5.1.1.–5.1.5. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Aynak Area of Interest in Afghanistan....................................161

5.2.1.–5.2.9. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest in Afghanistan..........................166

5.3.1.–5.3.5. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Baghlan Area of Interest in Afghanistan................................. 175

5.4.1.–5.4.6. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Bakhud Area of Interest in Afghanistan..................................180

5.5.1.–5.5.10. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Balkhab Area of Interest in Afghanistan...............................186

5.6.1.–5.6.3. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Daykundi Area of Interest in Afghanistan...............................196

5.7.1.–5.7.5. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Dudkash Area of Interest in Afghanistan................................199

5.8.1.–5.8.4. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest in Afghanistan........................204

5.9.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest in Afghanistan...............................................208

5.9.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest in Afghanistan......................................209

5.9.3.–5.9.16. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest in Afghanistan..............................210

5.10.1.–5.10.2. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Katawas Area of Interest in Afghanistan ............................224

5.11.1.–5.11.12. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest in Afghanistan...............226

5.12.1.–5.12.13. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Kundalan Area of Interest in Afghanistan.........................238

5.13.1.–5.13.2. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Kunduz Area of Interest in Afghanistan..............................251

5.14.1.–5.14.7. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest in Afghanistan.........................253

5.15.1.–5.15.10. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the North Herat Area of Interest in Afghanistan .....................260

5.16.1.–5.16.7. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest in Afghanistan.................270

5.17.1.–5.17.12. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the South Helmand Area of Interest in Afghanistan ...............277

5.18.1.–5.18.3. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Takhar Area of Interest in Afghanistan...............................289

5.19.1.–5.19.14. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest in Afghanistan......................292

5.20.1.–5.20.13. Hyperspectral anomalies located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest in Afghanistan.......................306

6.1.1. Location map of selected overlapping anomalies defined by the source data (geophysical, 

GEO; ASTER, AST; or hyperspectral, HSD) within mineral areas of interest in Afghanistan ........................322

v
Tables

2.1. Contents and description of anomaly database.................................................................................................... 6

2.2. Mineral anomaly polygon guide (for HyMap- and ASTER-mapped anomalies only). Criteria based on 

tables 1 and 2 of Thompson and others (2009)................................................................................................. 7

Conversion Factors

SI to Inch/Pound 

Multiply By To obtain

Length

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

Area

square kilometer (km2) 247.1 acre

square kilometer (km2) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84). 

vi
Chapter 1: Detecting and Mapping Resource Anomalies—

Introduction and Background

By Trude V.V. King, Michaela R. Johnson, Bernard E. Hubbard, and Benjamin J. Drenth

1.1 Introduction

As part of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and Department of Defense Task Force for 

Business and Stability Operations (TFBSO) natural resources revitalization activities in Afghanistan 

(Peters and others, 2011), three new datasets have been collected, compiled, and analyzed. These data 

have been used to more fully evaluate the areas of interest (AOIs; fig. 1 ) where, on the basis of previous 

U.S.S.R. and Afghanistan studies, the opportunity for early economic development of a number of 

different mineral, commodity, and deposit types had been identified (Peters and others, 2007; Peters and 

others, 2011). The new data compilations include (1) regional magnetic and gravity data for use in the 

characterization of subsurface composition and structure (Sweeney and others, 2006a,b; Ashan and 

others, 2007; Sweeney and others, 2007; Ashan and others, 2008; Shenwary and others, 2011), (2) 

Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data to identify and 

evaluate surficial alteration patterns related to industrial minerals and other selected targets, and (3) 

HyMap imaging spectrometer data for characterization and mapping of surficial mineralogy (Cocks and 

others, 1998; Kokaly and others, 2008; Peters and others, 2011). These datasets have served as 

fundamental building blocks for the resource evaluation by Peters and others (2011). 

During the independent analysis of the geophysical, ASTER, and imaging spectrometer 

(HyMap) data by USGS scientists, previously unrecognized targets of potential mineralization were 

identified using evaluation criteria most suitable to the individual dataset. These anomalous zones offer 

targets of opportunity that warrant additional field verification. This report describes the standards used 

to define the anomalies, summarizes the results of the evaluations for each type of data, and discusses 

the importance and implications of regions of anomaly overlap between two or three of the datasets. 

1.2 Anomaly Identification and Compilation

A geodatabase of anomalies was created to facilitate the population and sharing of locations of 

anomalies identified using geophysical (GEO), ASTER (AST), and HyMap imaging spectrometer data

(also called hyperspectral data or HSD). The anomaly was identified within an AOI boundary, but in 

some cases it was extended beyond the AOI to capture the actual extent of the anomaly. The 

geodatabase was constructed with drop-down lists of categorical classes providing identifying 

characteristics for each anomaly with an additional text field in the attribute table to provide an extended 

description. The categorical classes were set up to keep the database consistent and minimize data entry 

errors. Name and description were the only fields with free text.

1
Figure 1. Mineral areas of interest (AOIs) identified in Afghanistan (Peters and others, 2007; Peters and others, 

2011).

1.3 Datasets Used for Evaluation

Geophysical data collected during airborne and ground surveys (Sweeney and others, 2006a,b; 

Sweeney and others, 2007; Ashan and others, 2007; Ashan and others, 2008; Shenwary and others, 

2011) were used on a regional scale to assess the subsurface features within the areas of interest, 

including those features that may be related to anomalies identified by the remotely sensed data 

(ASTER and HSD). The geophysical data are particularly useful for mapping the extent of rocks with 

strong physical property contrasts with surrounding rocks, such as strongly magnetized intrusions 

related to mineral deposits, volcanic rocks, and areas covered by sedimentary rocks. 

ASTER is a spaceborne multispectral instrument aboard the Terra satellite, launched in 

December 1999 (http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/index.asp, accessed 8/23/2011). ASTER has three 

subsystems that operate in a total of 14 spectral bands. The visible near-infrared (VNIR) subsystem 

measures solar reflectance in three visible and near-infrared bands (0.52–0.86 microns [μm]), the short 

wavelength infrared (SWIR) subsystem measures solar reflectance in six shortwave infrared bands 

(1.00–2.43 μm), and the thermal infrared (TIR) subsystem measures thermal infrared emissivity in five 

2
bands (8.125–11.650 μm). The five bands of the TIR subsystem are most useful for mapping primary 

rock-forming silicate minerals and their related impurities within surficial deposits, including preciousand base-metal mineral deposits and industrial mineral deposits. The nine bands of reflectance data 

(VNIR and SWIR subsystems) are useful for mapping broad suites of spectrally similar minerals and 

mineral mixtures such as ferric iron, clays, carbonates, sulfates, and other hydrous phases resulting from 

alteration of primary rock-forming silicates. Collectively, all 14 wavelength bands of ASTER 

reflectance and emissivity data can be used to discriminate between minerals that are spectrally similar 

in certain wavelengths (for example, calcite and chlorite in the SWIR), but spectrally different in other 

wavelengths (for example, calcite-bearing carbonate rocks and chlorite-bearing ultramafic rocks in the 

TIR).

HyMap imaging spectrometer data were used to identify the occurrence of selected materials at 

the surface based on the presence and wavelength position of absorption features in the 0.45- to 2.48-

μm-wavelength region (Cocks and others, 1998; Kokaly and others, 2008; Kokaly and others, in press; 

King and others, in press). Two general categories of minerals are recognized: (1) iron-bearing minerals 

that have characteristic spectral absorption features that occur at wavelengths near the 1-μm region, and 

(2) a wide variety of minerals, including carbonates, mica and clay minerals, and sulfates, that have 

diagnostic spectral absorptions near the 2-μm region. The identified minerals, mineral groups, and suites 

of minerals were used to define anomalous zones in the data. 

1.4 Data Application

Each of the datasets were evaluated independently to define potential zones of anomalous 

mineralization and subsequently examined as a three-part data compilation to further examine common 

alteration zones between the three datasets. These areas of commonality show the locations of highpriority targets for future ground-based mineral exploration activities within 16 of the 24 areas already 

targeted for future economic development. The anomalies identified in this report will support and 

expand the summarized and interpreted information that were prepared in each of the information 

packages that are intended to be delivered to the Afghanistan Ministry of Mines for development of 

bidding packages (Peters and others, 2011). These bidding packages will be designed to attract investors 

and mining firms to Afghanistan to develop the mineral wealth of the country. This report along with 

high-resolution images may be accessed at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1229/. 

3
1.5 References Cited

Ashan, S., Hussain, S., Kohistany, A.H., Shenwary, G.S., Mutty, A.S., Daud, M.A., Abraham, J.D., 

Anderson, E.D., Drenth, B.J., Finn, C.A., Kucks, R.P., Lindsay, C.R., Phillips, J.D., Sweeney, R.E., 

Brozena, J.M., Ball, D.C., Childers, V.A., Gardner, J.M., Jarvis, J.L., and Liang, R.T., 2007, 

Aeromagnetic survey in Afghanistan: A website for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1247, accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1247/.

Ashan, S., Hussain, S., Kohistany, A.H., Shenwary, G.S., Mutty, A.S., Daud, M.A., Brozena, J.M., Ball, 

D.C., Childers, V.A., Gardner, J.M., Jarvis, J.L., Liang, R.T., Abraham, J.D., Anderson, E.D., Drenth, 

B.J., Finn, C.A., Kucks, R.P., Lindsay, C.R., Phillips, J.D., and Sweeney, R.E., 2008, Airborne 

gravity survey and ground gravity in Afghanistan: A website for distribution of data: U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 2008–1089, accessed August 19, 2011, at pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1089/. 

Cocks T., Jenssen, R., Stewart, A., Wilson, I., and Shields, T., 1998, The HyMap airborne Hymap 

sensor: The system, calibration and performance, in Schaepman, M., Schlapfer, D., and Itten, K.I., 

eds., Proceedings of the 1st EARSeL Workshop on Imaging Spectroscopy, 6–8 October 1998, Zurich: 

Paris, EARSeL, p. 37–43, accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://www.neodc.rl.ac.uk/docs/Hymap_specs.pdf. 

King, T.V.V., Kokaly, R.F., Hoefen, T.M., Dudek, K. and Livo, K.E., in press, Surface materials map of 

Afghanistan: Iron-bearing minerals and other materials: U. S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Map 3152-B.

Kokaly, R.F., King, T.V.V., Hoefen, T.M., Dudek, K., and Livo, K.E., in press, Surface materials map 

of Afghanistan: Carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other materials: U. S. 

Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3152-A.

Kokaly, R.F., King, T.V.V., and Livo, K.E., 2008, Airborne hyperspectral survey of Afghanistan 2007: 

Flight line planning and HyMap data collection: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008–

1235, 14 p., accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1235/. 

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and the U.S. 

Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource Assessment team, 2007, 

Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD-ROM, accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/. 

Peters, S.G., King, T.V.V, Mack, T.J., Chornack, M.P., eds., and the U.S. Geological Survey 

Afghanistan Mineral Assessment Team, 2011, Summaries of important areas for mineral investment 

and production opportunities of nonfuel minerals in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2011–1204, 1,810 p. plus appendixes on DVD. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1204/.) 

Shenwary, G.S.; Kohistany, A.H.; Hussain, Sardar; Ashan, Said; Mutty, A.S.; Daud, M.A.; Wussow, 

M.W.; Sweeney, R.E.; Phillips, J.D.; Lindsay, C.R.; Kucks, R.P.; Finn, C.A.; Drenth, B.A.; Anderson, 

E.D.; Abraham, J.D.; Liang, R.T.; Jarvis, J.L.; Gardner, J.M.; Childers, V.A.; Ball, D.C.; and Brozena, 

J.M., 2011, Aeromagnetic surveys in Afghanistan—An updated website for distribution of data: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1055, 8 p., accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1055/.

Sweeney, R.E., Kucks, R.P, Hill, P.L., and Finn, C.A., 2006a, Aeromagnetic and gravity surveys in 

Afghanistan: A website for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–1204, 

accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1204/. 

Sweeney, R.E., Kucks, R.P, Hill, P.L., and Finn, C.A., 2006b, Aeromagnetic survey in western 

Afghanistan: A web site for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–

1325, accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1325/. 

4
Sweeney, R.E., Kucks, R.P., Hill, P.L., and Finn, C.A., 2007, Radiometric survey in western 

Afghanistan: A website for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007–1042, 

accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1042/. 

5
Chapter 2: Description of Structure and Content of Spatial 

Dataset of Identified Anomalies in Afghanistan

By Michaela R. Johnson

2.1 Anomaly Geodatabase Overview

An Environmental Systems Research Institute geodatabase (Zeiler, 2010) of anomalies was 

created to facilitate the population and sharing of anomaly geographic locations and anomaly sourcedata types. Data types were identified using GEO for geophysical data, AST for ASTER data, and HSD 

for imaging spectrometer (HyMap) data. The anomaly was identified within an area of interest (AOI) 

boundary (Peters and others, 2007) but, in some cases, extended beyond to capture the actual extent of 

the anomaly. The geodatabase was constructed with drop-down lists of categorical classes providing 

identifying characteristics for each anomaly with an additional text field in the attribute table to provide 

an extended text description (table 2.1). The categorical classes were set up to keep the database 

consistent and minimize data entry errors. Area name and description were the only fields with free text. 

Table 2.1. Contents and description of anomaly database.

Field name Field 

type Description

Source_data pick-list Pick-list by data type, ex. Geophysics, hymap, aster

Anomaly_type pick-list Pick-list by anomaly type name

HSD_mineral_type pick-list HyMap mineral type

Geophys_mineral_type pick-list Geophysical anomaly type

Aster_mineral_class pick-list Pick-list by ASTER mineral class

Aster_mineral_subclass pick-list Pick-list by ASTER mineral subclass

HSD_aster_mineral_deposit_type pick-list Pick-list by categories in table 2.2

Area_name text Unique name for mapped anomaly

Size pick-list Pick-list (local or regional)

Size_description pick-list Pick-list (description of local/regional size)

Description text Descriptive text about the anomaly

2.1.1 Geodatabase Structure and Contents

The geodatabase houses an anomaly polygon-feature class, Afghan_anomaly, and an anomaly 

point-feature class, Afghan_anomaly_point. Polygon features approximating the geographical extent of 

the anomaly were delineated for each anomaly type (GEO, AST, and HSD). The anomaly point features 

were generated as another option to identify the anomalies. Using the same structure as the anomaly 

polygon attribute table, the point features were created from the polygon features using the ArcToolBox 

6
geoprocessing tool, Feature_To_Point, which creates a point inside each of the polygon features and 

retains all of the attributes (Environmental Systems Research Institute, 2010). 

Attributes were set up to be populated by pick-list to be consistent across the anomaly data 

source types and to reduce data entry errors. The anomaly was described by its source-data type (GEO, 

AST, or HSD) and further classified by anomaly type: mineral occurrence, alteration assemblage, color, 

and geophysical method (gravity, magnetic, or radiometric). The mineral occurrence type of anomaly 

was determined based on the occurrence of a high concentration of a single mineral. A typical situation 

would be a high concentration of hematite, kaolinite, or dolomite that appears anomalous in comparison 

to the dominant mineral concentration in a given area. The color type of anomaly was defined by 

anomalous areas of color from imagery—iron-stained (typically red or green in color) or bleached areas. 

Both colors (red and green) can be attributed to iron-staining depending on the wavelength bands used 

to produce the color composite image. Landsat natural- and false-color composites were ancillary data 

used with AST and HSD data to verify the identification of the color anomalies (Davis, 2006). These 

may not be associated with a single mineral and commonly are not related to the geology. Alteration 

assemblage types of anomalies were based on categorical deposit types containing key minerals given in 

table 2.2 (Thompson and others, 2009). 

Table 2.2. Mineral anomaly polygon guide (for HyMap- and ASTER-mapped anomalies only). Criteria based on 

tables 1 and 2 of Thompson and others (2009). 

Deposit types Mineral assemblages Comments

Propylitic

(chloritic/

albitic)

calcite, epidote, chlorite 

(wairakite, mg-chlorites, 

chlinochlore), illite/smectite, 

montmorillonite, actinolite

Includes porphyry zones, massive sulfides and sedex 

(mg/fe-chlorites), and linear epithermal veins and 

polymetallic zones.

Phyllic

(sericitic)

sericite (muscovite, illite, 

paragonite, phengite, 

celedanite), apatite, biotite

Includes sericitic zones of massive sulfide and sedex deposits.

Argillic

kaolinite, dickite, 

montmorillonite, illite/smectite, 

chlorite, calcite and epidote

Mostly well exposed in porphyry (intrusive) mineral deposits 

(usually too small to see or map in linear-dominated epithermal 

and polymetallic vein systems).

Advanced argillic

kaolinite, dickite, alunite, 

diaspore, pyrophyllite, zunyite, 

cristobalite (opal/chalcedony), 

jarosite, topaz, tourmaline

Includes all types ranging from sulfide bodies with supergene 

jarosite, and high- to low-sulfidation. Typically small or 

isolated pixels in linear vein systems.

Greisen topaz and tourmaline Mostly in tin-bearing areas and the largest granitic and 

pegmatite exposures.

Ferric/laterite/bauxite kaolinite, gibbsite, goethite, 

quartz

Lumped class that includes strong goethite, mineral gossanized 

areas, unusual ferricrete-indistinguishable deposits, and 

paleo-bauxite and laterite deposits rich in Al.

Each anomaly was identified by a unique name and a description of the defining anomaly 

features. The anomaly name was determined from the data source type, from the priority area name, and 

numbered sequentially when there was more than a single anomaly. For example, 

HSD_(priority_area)_(seq_no) would result in HSD_Balkab_1. The description was populated with a 

short description of the anomaly. 

7
Additional categorical data were defined for the anomaly. The geophysical anomalies were 

divided into subclasses for the magnetic and gravity anomalies: magnetic high, magnetic low, gravity 

high, and gravity low. ASTER (AST) anomalies were divided into mineral classes and subclasses. The 

primary ASTER mineral class was broken into carbonates, clays and micas, and other minerals of 

interest. These classes were divided into subclasses of minerals: calcite, dolomite, calcite-dolomite and 

clays, illite and (or) muscovite, smectite, kaolinite, ferric iron and (or) gossanized zones, gypsum, 

gibbsite, sulfur, and magnesite. The HyMap (HSD) anomalies were classified into mineral types of ironbearing minerals, alteration minerals, or both. Additionally, the AST and HSD alteration assemblage 

anomalies were categorized by criteria described by Thompson and others (2009) (table 2.2). The size 

of the anomaly was also described categorically as a primary size class (local or regional) and further 

subdivided by size and (or) whether it had structural control: 0–1 km across (broadest expanse), 1–5 km 

across, greater than 5 km across, not structurally controlled (based on mapped faults), or structural 

control (based on mapped faults). 

2.1.2 Availability of Anomaly Data

The anomaly polygon and point feature classes in the geodatabase were exported to nonproprietary formats to facilitate sharing across various software platforms: shapefile (Environmental 

Systems Research Institute, 1998) and a compressed (zipped) Keyhole Markup Language (KMZ) 

(http://code.google.com/apis/kml/documentation/kml_tut.html, accessed 8/23/2011). The drop-down 

lists and values in the anomaly tables in the geodatabase were coded domains. For example, in the field 

Source_data, the actual value was a 1, 2, or 3, which corresponded to a coded domain of Hyperspectral, 

Geophysical, or ASTER. The value shown in the geodatabase table was the coded domain value, but the 

value exported to the shapefile was the raw value: 1, 2, or 3. The coded domains within the geodatabase 

were saved as tables and used to populate the shapefile attribute table. Federal Geographic Data 

Committee (FGDC) compliant metadata were provided with the shapefiles of anomaly polygon and 

point locations. The data were provided with this report as shapefiles and KMZ files. 

Afghanistan anomaly polygon 

shapefile 

KMZ

Afghanistan anomaly point 

shapefile 

KMZ

8
2.2 References Cited

Davis, P.A., 2006, Calibrated Landsat ETM+ nonthermal-band image mosaics of Afghanistan: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–1345, 16 p., accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1345/. 

Environmental Systems Research Institute, 1998, ESRI Shapefile technical description: Redlands, 

Calif., Environmental Systems Research Institute, accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://www.esri.com/library/whitepapers/pdfs/shapefile.pdf.

Environmental Systems Research Institute, 2010, ArcGIS desktop 9.3 help: Feature to point (data 

management) (ArcInfo only): Redlands, Calif., Environmental Systems Research Institute, accessed 

August 19, 2011, at 

http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.3/index.cfm?id=1798&pid=1790&topicname=Feature_To_

Point (Data_Management). 

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and the U.S. 

Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource Assessment team, 2007, 

Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD-ROM, accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/. 

Thompson, A.J.B, Hauff, P.L., and Robitaille, A.J., 2009, Alteration mapping in exploration: 

Application of short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectroscopy: Society of Economic Geologists (SEG) 

Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 16, p. 12–23. 

Zeiler, M., 2010, Modeling our world, 2nd ed.: The ESRI guide to geodatabase concepts: Redlands, 

Calif., ESRI Press, 308p. 

9
Chapter 3: Identification of Gravity, Magnetic, and 

Radiometric Geophysical Anomalies in Afghanistan

By Benjamin J. Drenth

3.1 Geophysical Anomalies

Two major types of regional geophysical data are available for Afghanistan: magnetic 

and gravity. The significance of each for anomaly mapping in Afghanistan is summarized here. 

Radiometric anomalies are also presented here.

3.1.1 Magnetic Anomalies

Magnetic anomalies reflect spatial variations of total magnetization—the vector sum of 

induced and remnant magnetizations (Blakely, 1995). Induced magnetization, an instantaneous 

property, is proportional to magnetic susceptibility and has the same direction as the present-day 

ambient field. Remnant magnetization is permanent, is related to the formation of a rock and 

geologic history, and may be directed in a different direction than the induced magnetization. 

Large-magnitude components of remnant magnetization are common in volcanic rocks but rare 

in nonmafic/ultramafic plutons (Clark, 1999). At a regional scale, magnetic data are useful for 

mapping granitoid plutons related to arc tectonic environments, which commonly produce 

magnetic highs (Clark, 1999). This is important in Afghanistan where many mineral deposits are 

associated with arc-related plutons. The current magnetic map of Afghanistan (Shenwary and 

others, 2011) is merged from several different data sources, including vintage airborne surveys 

from the 1960s (Sweeney and others, 2006a) and 1970s (Sweeney and others, 2006b), as well as 

airborne and ground data collected between 2006-2008 (Ashan and others, 2007; Shenwary and 

others, 2011). 

3.1.2 Gravity Anomalies

Gravity anomalies reflect lateral variations of density, with gravity highs occurring over 

regions of relatively high densities, such as crustal blocks that include dense basement, and 

gravity lows occurring over large volumes of low-density materials, such as sedimentary basins 

and silicic intrusions. The current gravity map of Afghanistan (Ashan and others, 2008) is 

merged from ground data collected in the mid-20th century (McGinnis, 1971) and around 2006 

(Ashan and others, 2008). 

3.1.3 Radiometric Anomalies

Radiometric data are also available for a portion of western Afghanistan (Sweeney and 

others, 2007). Major anomalies and anomaly patterns are mentioned in the anomaly database, but 

these data have not been interpreted in detail.

10
3.2 Presentation of Geophysical Anomalies

This chapter and series of maps summarize existing geologic interpretations of anomalies 

in several different areas of interest (AOI) for mineral exploration (figs. 3.1.1–3.11.1). For 

example, magnetic anomalies in several areas are interpreted to reflect plutons that may be parts 

of systems that host porphyry copper deposits. 

The maps display the geophysical dataset (gravity, magnetic, or radiometric) within the 

corresponding AOI as an image with the mapped values scaled in a color range from dark blue to 

pink. Solid black lines define the approximate shape and extent of the identified anomaly 

polygons. Point features shown on the map are color-coded categorical representations of the 

type of anomaly and subtype. For example, a magnetic-high geophysical anomaly is shown as a 

small red square (Type of anomaly: Magnetic) overlain on a larger burgundy circle (Geophysical 

anomaly subclass: Magnetic high). The point features on the maps are displaying some of the 

additional categorical descriptions about the anomalies that are contained in the attribute table of 

the shapefile and contained in the KMZ file provided in chapter 2 of this report. 

11
Figure 3.1.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

12
Figure 3.1.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Aynak Area of Interest 

(AOI) in Afghanistan.

13
Figure 3.2.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Bakhud Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

14
Figure 3.2.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Bakhud Area of Interest 

(AOI) in Afghanistan.

15
Figure 3.3.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan.

16
Figure 3.3.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of 

Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

17
Figure 3.3.3. Radiometric geophysical anomalies located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan.

18
Figure 3.4.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of 

Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

19
Figure 3.4.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Khanneshin Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan.

20
Figure 3.4.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Khanneshin Area of Interest 

(AOI) in Afghanistan.

21
Figure 3.5.1 Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of 

Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

22
Figure 3.6.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

23
Figure 3.7.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest 

(AOI) in Afghanistan.

24
Figure 3.8.1. Gravity geophysical anomalies located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan.

25
Figure 3.8.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the North Herat Area of Interest 

(AOI) in Afghanistan.

26
Figure 3.8.3. Radiometric geophysical anomalies located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan.

27
Figure 3.9.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the North Takhar Area of 

Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

28
Figure 3.10.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the South Helmand Area of 

Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

29
Figure 3.10.2. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the South Helmand Area of 

Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan.

30
Figure 3.11.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Tourmaline Area of 

Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

31
Figure 3.11.2. Radiometric geophysical anomalies located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan.

32
Figure 3.12.1. Reduced-to-pole magnetic geophysical anomalies located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest 

(AOI) in Afghanistan.

33
3.3 References Cited

Ashan, S., Hussain, S., Kohistany, A.H., Shenwary, G.S., Mutty, A.S., Daud, M.A., Abraham, 

J.D., Anderson, E.D., Drenth, B.J., Finn, C.A., Kucks, R.P., Lindsay, C.R., Phillips, J.D., 

Sweeney, R.E., Brozena, J.M., Ball, D.C., Childers, V.A., Gardner, J.M., Jarvis, J.L., and 

Liang, R.T., 2007, Aeromagnetic survey in Afghanistan: A website for distribution of data: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007–1247, accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1247/. 

Ashan, S., Hussain, S., Kohistany, A.H., Shenwary, G.S., Mutty, A.S., Daud, M.A., Brozena, 

J.M., Ball, D.C., Childers, V.A., Gardner, J.M., Jarvis, J.L., Liang, R.T., Abraham, J.D., 

Anderson, E.D., Drenth, B.J., Finn, C.A., Kucks, R.P., Lindsay, C.R., Phillips, J.D., and 

Sweeney, R.E., 2008, Airborne gravity survey and ground gravity in Afghanistan: A website 

for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008–1089, accessed 

August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1089/.

Blakely, R.J., 1995, Potential theory in gravity and magnetic applications: Cambridge, United 

Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 441 p. 

Clark, D.A., 1999, Magnetic petrology of igneous intrusions: Implications for exploration and 

magnetic interpretation: Exploration Geophysics, v. 30, p. 5–26. 

Debon, F., Afzali, H., Le-Fort, P., and Sonet, J., 1987, Major intrusive stages in Afghanistan; 

typology, age and geodynamic setting: Geologische Rundschau, vol. 76, no. 1, p. 245–264. 

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–1038, 1 sheet, scale 1:850,000, available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1038. 

Kirsanov, V.N., and Derzhimanov, R.S., 1976, Map of thorium contents of Afghanistan (western 

area), scale 1:100,000. 

Kleimenev, M.A., Kamaev, S.V., and Kelesnichenke, V.A., 1974, Report on the results of 

geophysical investigations carried out in 1973–beginning of 1974 for solid minerals: Part 1: 

Republic of Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industries Department of Geology and Mineral 

Survey, 74 p. 

McGinnis, L.D., 1971, Gravity fields and tectonics of the Hindu Kush: Journal of Geophysical 

Research, v. 76, p. 1894–1904. 

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and 

the U.S. Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource 

Assessment team, 2007, Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD-ROM, accessed August 

19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/. 

Shenwary, G.S.; Kohistany, A.H.; Hussain, Sardar; Ashan, Said; Mutty, A.S.; Daud, M.A.; 

Wussow, M.W.; Sweeney, R.E.; Phillips, J.D.; Lindsay, C.R.; Kucks, R.P.; Finn, C.A.; Drenth, 

B.A.; Anderson, E.D.; Abraham, J.D.; Liang, R.T.; Jarvis, J.L.; Gardner, J.M.; Childers, V.A.; 

Ball, D.C.; and Brozena, J.M., 2011, Aeromagnetic surveys in Afghanistan—An updated 

website for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1055, 8 p., 

accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1055/. 

Sweeney, R.E., Kucks, R.P, Hill, P.L., and Finn, C.A., 2006a, Aeromagnetic and gravity surveys 

in Afghanistan: A web site for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

2006–1204, accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1204/. 

34
Sweeney, R.E., Kucks, R.P, Hill, P.L., and Finn, C.A., 2006b, Aeromagnetic survey in western 

Afghanistan: A web site for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

2006–1325 accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1325/. 

Sweeney, R.E., Kucks, R.P, Hill, P.L., and Finn, C.A., 2007, Radiometric survey in western 

Afghanistan: A website for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

2007–1042, accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1042/. 

35
Chapter 4: Identification of Mineral Anomalies in 

Afghanistan Using Advanced Spaceborne Thermal 

Emission and Reflection Radiometer

By Bernard E. Hubbard

4.1 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer 

Overview

Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data were 

initially used to map key industrial rocks and minerals for building and construction throughout the 

major population and transportation corridor of east-central Afghanistan, which is centered on Kabul, 

the capital and largest city (fig 4.1.1). ASTER is a spaceborne multispectral instrument aboard the 

Terra satellite, which was launched in December 1999 and has been operational since February 2000. 

The ASTER instrument consists of three subsystems, each operating in a different spectral region 

(http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/index.asp, accessed 8/23/2011). The subsystems measure reflected and 

emitted radiation in 14 spectral bands, with an additional measurement in Band 3 for generating stereo 

digital elevation models (DEMs). The VNIR subsystem measures reflected radiation in three bands in 

the Visible and Near-InfraRed wavelengths (0.52–0.86 microns [μm]); the SWIR subsystem measures 

reflected radiation in six bands in the ShortWave InfraRed wavelengths (1.00–2.43 μm); and the TIR 

subsystem measures emitted radiation in five bands in the Thermal InfraRed wavelengths (8.125–

11.650 μm). Ground resolution is 15, 30, and 90 meters for the VNIR, SWIR, and TIR subsystems, 

respectively.

36
Figure 4.1.1. Study area map showing extent of ASTER mapped industrial minerals data, mineral areas of 

interest, cities, and major roads in Afghanistan.

4.1.2 ASTER Mapped Minerals

Four classes of industrial rocks and minerals were mapped over an approximately 146,000-km2

region (shown on fig. 4.1.1 as a red outline representing 22.5 percent of the country and containing 

over 60 percent of the total population) using nine-band ASTER level-1B radiance data calibrated to 

reflectance (VNIR and SWIR image data with radiometric and geometric coefficients applied) (Mars 

and Rowan, 2010) which will be discussed in a forth coming report, “Regional mapping of industrial 

rock and mineral resources in east-central Afghanistan using spaceborne ASTER imagery” (B.E. 

Hubbard, USGS, written commun., 2011). Ancillary compositional information was provided using 

ASTER spectral emissivity derived from the five atmospherically corrected TIR bands of “radiance at 

surface” data (Gillespie and others, 1998; Ninomiya and others, 2005; Rockwell and Hofstra, 2008). 

Targeted industrial rocks and minerals include (1) carbonate rocks containing either abundant 

calcite, dolomite mixtures, argillaceous and (or) weathered carbonate rocks containing residual clay 

minerals; (2) clay mineral deposits of a variety of origins containing either mixtures of or abundant 

amounts of kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite and (or) muscovite; (3) gypsum and other sulfate minerals 

as detectable (Oztan and Suzen, 2011); and (4) ferricrete, gossan, laterite, bauxite, magnesite, sulfur, 

and other materials that are either abundant enough and (or) have uniquely strong spectral signatures 

that can be detected easily using two or more ASTER bands (using band ratios, relative band-depth 

37
images, and spectral matched-filtering [Rowan and others, 2003; Rowan and Mars, 2003; Rowan and 

others, 2005]). The TIR emissivity data were also used to distinguish carbonate rocks from nearby 

ultramafic rocks containing chlorite and (or) epidote (for example, Rowan and Mars, 2003; Dalton and 

others, 2004; Ninomiya and others, 2005). 

4.1.3 ASTER Identified Anomalies

Several of these ASTER-mapped industrial minerals, such as kaolinite, ferric iron, and sericite, 

also are associated with hydrothermally altered rocks that contain either precious- and (or) base-metal 

ore deposits (Crowley, 1994). In total, 108 anomalies were identified based on ASTER regional 

mapping of industrial rocks and minerals throughout all or part of 12 mineralized areas of interest 

(AOI) defined by Peters and others (2007). Most of the anomalies were discovered as a coincidence, 

since the main goal was not targeted hydrothermal alteration mineral mapping over igneous and 

volcanic rocks (see for example, Mars and Rowan, 2007). 

Mineral anomalies include areas identified as possible hydrothermal alteration of igneous, 

sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, including supergene alteration potentially related to bedded 

massive sulfide deposits, epithermal and (or) polymetallic veins. Also identified were areas of ferriciron dominant gossan, laterite (possible bauxite resource), high-value industrial minerals, such as 

magnesite, and sulfur- and phosphate-bearing minerals of evaporitic and (or) biogenic origin. 

In addition to mineral assemblages, such as unusual spatial and spectral mixing patterns 

between the most abundant clay- and ferric-iron mineral types, other criteria used to facilitate the 

identification of mineral anomalies included (1) color, using false-color Landsat 7-4-2 and ASTER 6-

3-1 composite images to enhance “bleached” and “iron-stained” rocks; (2) geometric shape, such as 

circular features indicative of an igneous intrusion with associated hydrothermal circulation or linear 

features suggesting structural control of hydrothermal fluids; (3) large size of feature and (or) large 

strength of related mineral absorption feature; (4) topographic features suggesting widespread erosion 

and removal of often “clay-rich” altered rocks in areas of high concentration of bedrocks; and (5) 

correlation of mapped features with geochemical stream-sediment halos (for example, Peters and 

others, 2007), including those representing downstream areas of sediment accumulation. 

Hydrothermally altered areas were also categorized by deposit type, including argillic, phyllic, and 

propylitic as defined by Thompson and others (2009) for a variety of hypogene and supergene mineral 

assemblages including those typical of porphyry, vein, stockwork, and bedded sulfide deposits. 

Using a single ASTER scene that was processed differently from those in the ASTER industrial 

minerals area shown in fig. 4.1.1, an additional eight mineral anomalies were identified in the 

Tourmaline AOI (Peters and others, 2007). In this case, all potential hydrothermal-alteration-related 

minerals, including chlorite, epidote, and other phyllosilicates (Thompson and others, 2009) not found 

in this AOI, were targeted using image end members extracted from Eocene to Oligocene volcanic and 

intrusive rocks (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) exposed throughout the Tourmaline AOI. Image endmember extraction, n-dimensional spectral-band analysis, and partial spectral unmixing were applied 

following the more detailed methods presented by Hubbard and others (2007) for mapping volcanichosted massive sulfide and porphyry deposits in the Alaska Range and Talkeetna Mountains of Alaska. 

4.2 Presentation of ASTER Anomalies

A total of 116 ASTER anomalies were identified throughout 13 mineralized AOIs (Peters and 

others, 2007), some of which have commonality with anomalies identified through HyMap image 

analysis, geophysical data, and (or) both (figs. 4.2.1–4.14.5). The maps display the ASTER-mapped 

industrial minerals dataset as an image color-coded by mineral class and described in the map 

explanation under the heading: ASTER mineral classes. Solid black lines with a white outline define 

the approximate shape and extent of the identified anomaly polygons. Point features shown on the 

maps are a three-layer color-coded categorical representation of the ASTER mineral class and 

subclass, mineral deposit type (Thompson and others, 2009), and type of anomaly. For example, an 

38
"Alteration assemblage" type of anomaly, categorized as a "Phyllic (Sericitic)" mineral deposit type 

and further identified by mineral class and subclass as a "Clays & Micas: Illite and/or Muscovite" 

anomaly is shown as a large green square (Type of anomaly: Alteration assemblage) overlain by a 

smaller dark blue circle (Mineral deposit type [Thompson and others, 2009]: Phyllic [Sericitic]) and 

again overlain by a smaller bright green square (ASTER mineral class and subclass: Clays & Micas: 

Illite and/or Muscovite). The point features on the maps are displaying some of the additional 

categorical descriptions about the anomalies that are contained in the attribute table of the shapefile 

and contained in the KMZ file provided in chapter 2 of this report. 

39
Figure 4.2.1. ASTER mineral occurrence anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Ferric iron-bearing gossan discovered above Aynak sedimentary exhalative deposits associated with 

Gezghay Copper occurrence (Orris and Bliss, 2002).

40
Figure 4.2.2. ASTER mineral occurrence anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Ferric iron-bearing gossan discovered above Aynak sedimentary exhalative deposits associated with 

Gezghay Copper occurrence (Orris and Bliss, 2002).

41
Figure 4.2.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Bleached 

and/or iron-stained areas containing mixtures of carbonates, ferric iron, illite and/or muscovite with smectiterich cores.

42
Figure 4.2.4. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Bleached 

and/or iron-stained areas containing mixtures of carbonates, ferric iron, illite and/or muscovite with smectiterich cores.

43
Figure 4.2.5. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Bleached 

and/or iron-stained areas containing mixtures of carbonates, ferric iron, illite and/or muscovite with smectiterich cores. Anomaly is a larger and regionally more extensive mapped area that encompasses the smaller 

local-scale anomaly, AST_Aynak_3.

44
Figure 4.2.6. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Visual 

appearance of anomaly area shows dark rocks lacking the bleaching/iron-staining as displayed by anomalies 

AST_Aynak_3 and AST_Aynak_4, although mineralogy is same. Anomaly area contains mixtures of 

carbonates, ferric iron, illite and/or muscovite with smectite-rich cores.

45
Figure 4.2.7. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Visual 

appearance of anomaly area shows dark rocks lacking the bleaching/iron-staining as displayed by anomalies 

AST_Aynak_3 and AST_Aynak_4, although mineralogy is same. Anomaly area contains mixtures of 

carbonates, ferric iron, illite and/or muscovite with smectite-rich cores.

46
Figure 4.3.1. ASTER alteration assemblage anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan. Kaolinite-, calcrete- and ferricrete-bearing area that may be related either to an "in place" sulfide 

lode deposit or to sulfide weathering within "paleo" placer Au deposits.

47
Figure 4.3.2. ASTER color anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Carboniferous age mafic volcanic rocks with unusual bright red color in ASTER RGB=631 and 

mapping high in ferric iron abundance (volcanic-hosted massive sulfide potential, though additional mapping 

of possible chlorite/epidote needed).

48
Figure 4.3.3. ASTER color anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Carboniferous age mafic volcanic rocks with unusual dark-red color in ASTER RGB=631 and mapped as 

being high in ferric iron abundance (volcanic-hosted massive sulfide potential, though additional mapping of 

possible chlorite/epidote needed).

49
Figure 4.3.4. ASTER color anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

ferricrete-cemented surficial deposits related to placer sulfide weathering and spatially correlated with Au 

stream geochemistry anomaly.

50
Figure 4.4.1. ASTER color anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Montmorillonitedominated areas appear as bleached areas within darker rocks.

51
Figure 4.4.2. ASTER color anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Montmorillonitedominated areas appear as bleached areas within darker tightly folded rocks.

52
Figure 4.4.3. ASTER color anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Montmorillonitedominated areas appear as bleached areas within darker fault-controlled rocks.

53
Figure 4.4.4. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Contains a 

mixture of smectite and ferric iron gossans associated with Late Triassic intrusive rocks, primarily granodiorite 

(Doebrich and Wahl, 2006), and is upstream source of a lead and copper stream-geochemistry anomaly.

54
Figure 4.4.5. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Contains a 

mixture of smectite and ferric iron gossans associated with Late Triassic intrusive rocks, primarily granodiorite 

(Doebrich and Wahl, 2006), and is co-extensive with a mercury stream-geochemistry anomaly.

55
Figure 4.4.6. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan in latest 

Triassic (Rhaetian) age volcanic rocks dominated by smectite and/or strong ferric iron alteration (potentially 

volcanic-hosted massive sulfides) near an unnamed polymetallic vein occurrence (Orris and Bliss, 2002).

56
Figure 4.4.7. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan in latest 

Triassic (Rhaetian) age volcanic rocks dominated by smectite and/or strong ferric iron alteration (potentially

volcanic-hosted massive sulfides).

57
Figure 4.4.8. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Kaolinitebearing possible continuation of anomaly, AST_Baghlan_2, with mineral areas appearing as bleached areas 

within darker tightly folded rocks.

58
Figure 4.4.9. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Kaolinitedominated area with numerous nearby associated mineral occurrences (Orris and Bliss, 2002). The origin of 

the kaolinite may be hydrothermally altered rhyolitic-tuff deposits.

59
Figure 4.4.10. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Kaolinitedominated area that appears to be westward continuation of anomaly, AST_Baghlan_9. The origin of the 

kaolinite may be hydrothermally altered rhyolitic-tuff deposits.

60
Figure 4.4.11. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Kaolinitedominated area that appears to be westward continuation of the anomalies, AST_Baghlan_9 and 

AST_Baghlan_10. The origin of the kaolinite may be hydrothermally altered rhyolitic-tuff deposits.

61
Figure 4.4.12. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Kaolinitedominated area that displays an iron-staining coloration, which is mapped in green as a ferric iron abundant 

zone.

62
Figure 4.5.1. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from 

strong ferric iron.

63
Figure 4.5.2. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from 

strong ferric iron.

64
Figure 4.5.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

has kaolinite zones associated with lead and copper stream-geochemistry anomaly, which is either coal or 

mineral-alteration related.

65
Figure 4.5.4. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

montmorillonite-dominated area, which appears as bleached areas within darker rocks.

66
Figure 4.5.5. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

montmorillonite-dominated area, which appears as bleached areas within darker rocks.

67
Figure 4.5.6. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

montmorillonite-dominated area, which appears as bleached areas within darker rocks.

68
Figure 4.5.7. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

contains locally bleached kaolinite/smectite-bearing areas within otherwise dark rocks, although 

illite/muscovite/smectite appears to be more widespread. Anomaly encompasses smaller AST_Dudkash_6 

anomaly.

69
Figure 4.5.8. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

dominated by sericitic alteration minerals and contains locally bleached patches of kaolinite.

70
Figure 4.5.9. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

dominated by illite/muscovite/smectite with a few small pixels containing some kaolinite, appears darker than 

surrounding carbonate rocks, and shares a similar extent with the AST_Dudkash_5 anomaly.

71
Figure 4.5.10. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area excluding downstream alluvial fan areas. Further spectral 

analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

72
Figure 4.5.11. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from 

strong ferric iron.

73
Figure 4.5.12. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from 

strong ferric iron.

74
Figure 4.5.13. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from 

strong ferric iron.

75
Figure 4.5.14. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is a 

possible sulfur and/or phosphate-bearing area. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from 

strong ferric iron.

76
Figure 4.5.15. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

is near a copper-sulfide occurrence (Orris and Bliss, 2002) and is an area of localized kaolinite in bleached 

rocks, dominated by sericitic/phyllic alteration minerals, which could be related to Triassic granodiorite 

intrusions (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006).

77
Figure 4.5.16. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

sharing a similar extent as anomaly, AST_Dudkash_1, is a possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area. 

Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

78
Figure 4.5.17. ASTER color anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

shares a similar extent with another anomaly, AST_Dudkash_2, and is a possible sulfur- and/or phosphatebearing area. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

79
Figure 4.6.1. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is defined by large areas of kaolinite and ferric iron in the foothills of the Tora Bora Mountains and 

cave complex. The origin of the anomaly is most likely from intense weathering, although hydrothermal 

alteration is also possible.

80
Figure 4.6.2. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is defined by large areas of kaolinite and ferric iron in the foothills of the Tora Bora Mountains and 

cave complex. The origin of the anomaly is most likely from intense weathering, although hydrothermal 

alteration is also possible.

81
Figure 4.6.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is defined by large areas of kaolinite and ferric iron in the foothills of the Tora Bora Mountains and 

cave complex. The origin of the anomaly is most likely from intense weathering, although hydrothermal 

alteration is also possible.

82
Figure 4.6.4. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is defined by large areas of kaolinite and ferric iron in the foothills of the Tora Bora Mountains and 

cave complex. The origin of the anomaly is most likely from intense weathering, although hydrothermal 

alteration is also possible.

83
Figure 4.6.5. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is defined by large areas of kaolinite and ferric iron in the foothills of the Tora Bora Mountains and 

cave complex. The origin of the anomaly is most likely from intense weathering, although hydrothermal 

alteration is also possible.

84
Figure 4.6.6. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is an area of kaolinite and ferric iron in the upper/alpine and often snow-covered slopes of the Tora 

Bora Mountains. The origin of the anomaly is more likely to be from hydrothermal alteration than from 

weathering.

85
Figure 4.6.7. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is an area of kaolinite and ferric iron in the upper/alpine and often snow-covered slopes of the Tora 

Bora Mountains. The origin of the anomaly is more likely to be from hydrothermal alteration origin than from 

weathering.

86
Figure 4.6.8. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is defined by large areas of kaolinite and ferric iron in the foothills of the Tora Bora Mountains and 

cave complex. The origin of the anomaly is most likely from intense weathering, although hydrothermal 

alteration is also possible.

87
Figure 4.6.9. ASTER mineral occurrence anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan. Anomaly is defined by a large dolomite-hosted magnesite deposit and was catalogued as an 

ultramafic-hosted talc occurrence (Orris and Bliss, 2002).

88
Figure 4.6.10. ASTER mineral occurrence anomaly located in the Ghunday-Achin Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan. Anomaly is defined by smaller dolomite-hosted magnesite deposits.

89
Figure 4.7.1. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

defined by kaolinite cores surrounded by illite/muscovite and carbonate mixtures with ferric iron most 

abundant.

90
Figure 4.7.2. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

defined by kaolinite cores surrounded by illite/muscovite and carbonate mixtures with little or no ferric iron 

present.

91
Figure 4.7.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

defined by small (less than 200 m) zones of kaolinite surrounded by larger circular patterns of argillaceous 

carbonates and illite/smectite clays.

92
Figure 4.7.4. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

defined by linearly trending zones of illite and/or muscovite with embedded pixels dominated by kaolinite 

showing a possible epithermal or polymetallic vein.

93
Figure 4.7.5. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

defined by eroded ridge-forming bedrock and downstream talus/alluvial deposits enriched in kaolinite and 

strong ferric iron.

94
Figure 4.7.6. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

defined by eroded ridge-forming bedrock and downstream talus/alluvial deposits enriched in kaolinite and 

strong ferric iron.

95
Figure 4.7.7. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is 

linearly controlled, dominated by smectite and ferric iron, and overlaps eastern extent of anomaly 

AST_Haji_Gak_1.

96
Figure 4.7.8. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly is

defined by kaolinite cores surrounded by illite/muscovite with strong ferric iron signatures. Anomaly is linearly 

trending and shares a similar extent with another anomaly, AST_Haji_Gak_4.

97
Figure 4.7.9. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is defined by ridge-forming bedrock, locally enriched with kaolinite, and strong ferric iron with

illite/muscovite/smectite all dominant.

98
Figure 4.7.10. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

is defined by localized kaolinite- and sericite-bearing zones within a massive complex dominated by smectite 

and strong ferric iron alteration.

99
Figure 4.7.11. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

is a potential volcanic-hosted massive sulfide zone defined by strong ferric iron and smectite forming a 

circular zone with clay-carbonate mixtures within greenschist facies metavolcanic rocks (Doebrich and 

Wahl, 2006).

100
Figure 4.7.12. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

is defined by abundant argillic cores (kaolinite-bearing) surrounded by argillic and phyllic zones in areas 

mapped as predominantly Oligocene age granite intrusive rocks (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006).

101
Figure 4.7.13. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Anomaly 

is a kaolinite-dominated alteration zone.

102
Figure 4.8.1. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Katawas Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Linear 

splay along the Chaman fault zone with possible epithermal gold and mercury based on streamgeochemistry-anomalies data.

103
Figure 4.9.1. ASTER color anomaly located in the Kunduz Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area in tightly folded dolomitic rocks with downstream alluvium. Further 

spectral analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

104
Figure 4.9.2. ASTER color anomaly located in the Kunduz Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area in tightly folded dolomitic rocks. Further spectral analysis needed 

to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

105
Figure 4.9.3. ASTER color anomaly located in the Kunduz Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area in tightly folded dolomitic-rocks. Further spectral analysis needed 

to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

106
Figure 4.9.4. ASTER color anomaly located in the Kunduz Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible sulfurand/or phosphate-bearing area within argillaceous/dolomitic carbonates. Further spectral analysis needed to 

distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

107
Figure 4.10.1. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area hosted within weathered dolomitic carbonates. Further spectral 

analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

108
Figure 4.10.2. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area hosted within weathered dolomitic carbonates. Further spectral 

analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

109
Figure 4.10.3. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area hosted within weathered dolomitic carbonates. Further spectral 

analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

110
Figure 4.10.4. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area hosted within weathered dolomitic carbonates. Further spectral 

analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

111
Figure 4.10.5. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area hosted within weathered dolomitic carbonates, excluding downstream 

alluvial fan areas. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

112
Figure 4.10.6. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area hosted within weathered dolomitic carbonates, excluding downstream 

alluvial fan areas. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

113
Figure 4.10.7. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Extensive 

areas of ferricrete-bearing bedrock, excluding alluvial areas related to placer sulfide weathering.

114
Figure 4.10.8. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Extensive 

areas of ferricrete-bearing bedrock, excluding alluvial areas related to placer sulfide weathering.

115
Figure 4.10.9. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Extensive 

areas of ferricrete-bearing bedrock, excluding alluvial areas related to placer sulfide weathering.

116
Figure 4.10.10. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area hosted within weathered carbonates and/or bedrock units 

containing clay and/or carbonate cements.

117
Figure 4.10.11. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous dolomitic carbonate rocks. 

Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

118
Figure 4.10.12. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous dolomitic carbonate rocks. 

Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

119
Figure 4.10.13. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous dolomitic carbonate rocks.

Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

120
Figure 4.10.14. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Possible sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous dolomitic carbonate 

rocks. Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

121
Figure 4.10.15. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous dolomitic carbonate rocks. 

Further spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

122
Figure 4.10.16. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly located along the border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan within mapped Miocene stratified clay 

deposits (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) with kaolinite locally dominant along Amu Darya floodplain (paleolaterite/ferricrete deposits). 

123
Figure 4.10.17. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly located along the border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan within mapped Miocene stratified clay 

deposits (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) with kaolinite locally dominant along Amu Darya floodplain (paleolaterite/ferricrete deposits).

124
Figure 4.10.18. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Extensive areas of ferricrete-bearing bedrock (alluvial fan and terrace areas intentionally excluded) perhaps 

related to placer sulfide weathering (abundant kaolinite zones locally throughout) and associated with 

downstream mercury geochemistry anomaly.

125
Figure 4.10.19. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

sulfur- and/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous, or clay-rich, carbonate and 

carbonate-cemented clastic rocks. Further spectral analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric 

iron.

126
Figure 4.10.20. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

ferricrete-cemented surficial deposits related to placer sulfide weathering.

127
Figure 4.10.21. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

ferricrete-cemented surficial deposits related to placer sulfide weathering.

128
Figure 4.10.22. ASTER color anomaly located in the North Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible 

ferricrete-cemented surficial deposits related to placer sulfide weathering.

129
Figure 4.11.1. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly defined by ferric iron-staining with localized, linear kaolinite-rich bleach zones based on spectral 

mapping results.

130
Figure 4.11.2. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is defined as a linear zone with abundant illite/muscovite, which is red in color differing from the 

surrounding darker rocks.

131
Figure 4.11.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly defined by intensely bleached, kaolinite-abundant, bright rocks within alpine-glaciated rocks.

132
Figure 4.11.4. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly contains ferric iron and illite/muscovite abundant rocks, which are red in color differing from the 

surrounding darker rocks.

133
Figure 4.11.5. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly based on intensely iron-stained rocks with abundant illite/muscovite.

134
Figure 4.12.1. ASTER color anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible sulfurand/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous dolomitic carbonate rocks. Further 

spectral analysis is needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

135
Figure 4.12.2. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Bleached 

area displayed indication of hydrothermal alteration origin with strong ferric iron mixing with sericitic clays and 

micas. 

136
Figure 4.12.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Ironstained and bleached area displayed rocks exhibiting mixtures of clays, carbonates, ferric iron, 

illite/muscovite, kaolinite, and smectite, with the latter being the most dominant. Argillic zones were the most 

spatially extensive.

137
Figure 4.12.4. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Advanced 

argillic, argillic, and phyllic/sericitic zones form the center of overlapping lead and mercury streamgeochemistry anomalies hosted by rocks mapped as Late Triassic intrusive rocks.

138
Figure 4.12.5. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Mostly 

bleached appearing rocks dominated by mixtures of kaolinite, smectite, illite, and/or muscovite.

139
Figure 4.12.6. ASTER color anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible sulfurand/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous carbonate rocks. Further spectral 

analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

140
Figure 4.12.7. ASTER color anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible sulfurand/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous carbonate rocks. Further spectral 

analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

141
Figure 4.12.8. ASTER color anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. Possible sulfurand/or phosphate-bearing area within weathered and/or argillaceous carbonate rocks. Further spectral 

analysis needed to distinguish sulfur from strong ferric iron.

142
Figure 4.13.1. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Regionally extensive and linearly trending zone of mostly kaolinite, sericite, strong ferric iron, and localized 

areas containing either jarosite-sulfate and/or hydrous-silica minerals.

143
Figure 4.13.2. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Broadly circular-shaped region dominated by strong ferric iron and phyllic alteration minerals, overlapping with 

anomaly AST_Tourmaline_1.

144
Figure 4.13.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Regionally extensive area of strong ferric iron staining, with localized areas of argillic/advanced-argillic 

alteration (larger kaolinite-dominated areas) and phyllic alteration (smaller illite- and/or muscovite-dominated 

areas).

145
Figure 4.13.4. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Regionally extensive area of mostly clay/mica alteration with large areas of overlapping ferric iron staining 

with argillic/advanced-argillic alteration mineral areas surpassing phyllic/sericitic alteration mineral areas.

146
Figure 4.13.5. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Localized area of mixed argillic/advanced-argillic alteration and phyllic/sericitic alteration, perhaps epithermal 

vein or volcanic-hosted sulfide-related.

147
Figure 4.13.6. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Localized area of mostly argillic/advanced-argillic alteration assemblage dominated by kaolinite.

148
Figure 4.13.7. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Localized area of mostly argillic/advanced-argillic alteration with lesser amounts of phyllic/sericitic alteration 

and ferric iron-staining. Anomaly has potential for linearly trending vein alteration with volcanic-hosted sulfide 

sources. 

149
Figure 4.13.8. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Regionally extensive and linearly trending zone of strong ferric iron mixed with localized phyllic/sericitic 

alteration minerals and could be structurally related to the AST_Tourmaline_1 anomaly.

150
Figure 4.14.1. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Anomaly is a circular-shaped upstream source area from a mercury stream-geochemistry anomaly.

151
Figure 4.14.2. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Phyllic/sericitic and strong ferric iron-alteration associated with a Zarkashan skarn mineralized zone. Further 

ASTER mapping needed to map extent of noncarbonate-related propylitic minerals such as chlorite and/or 

epidote.

152
Figure 4.14.3. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Phyllic/sericitic alteration along a linear zone associated with Zarkashan skarn mineralized zone. Further 

ASTER mapping needed to map extent of noncarbonate-related propylitic minerals such as chlorite and/or 

epidote.

153
Figure 4.14.4. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Phyllic/sericitic alteration containing small kaolinite-abundant zones possibly the result of acid-sulphate leach 

processes in acid-neutralizing carbonate host rocks. Further processing of ASTER needed to show 

chlorite/epidote.

154
Figure 4.14.5. ASTER alteration anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. 

Phyllic/sericitic alteration surrounded by strong ferric iron along a regional structural trend. Further ASTER 

mapping needed to map extent of noncarbonate related propylitic minerals such as chlorite and/or epidote.

155
4.3 References Cited

Crowley, J.K., 1994, Remote-sensing spectral properties of selected industrial minerals and ores, chap. 

F of Advances in research on mineral resources, 1994: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2081, p. 43–

51. 

Dalton, J.B., Bove, D.J., Mladinich, C.S., and Rockwell, B.W., 2004, Identification of spectrally 

similar materials using the USGS Tetracorder algorithm: The calcite-epidote-chlorite problem: 

Remote Sensing of Environment, v. 89, p. 455–466. 

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–1038, 1 sheet, scale 1:850,000, available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1038. 

Gillespie, A.R., Matsunaga, T., Rokugawa, S., and Hook, S.J., 1998, Temperature and emissivity 

separation from Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) 

images: IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, v. 36, p. 1113–1126. 

Hubbard, B.E., Rowan, L.C., Dusel-Bacon, C., and Eppinger, R.G., 2007, Geologic mapping and 

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157
Chapter 5: Mapping Anomalous Mineral Zones Using 

HyMap Imaging Spectrometer—Data for Selected Areas 

of Interest in Afghanistan

By T.V.V. King, T.M Hoefen, M.R. Johnson., R.F. Kokaly, and K.E. Livo

5.1 Imaging Spectrometer Overview

The HyMap imaging spectrometer measures the reflected visible and near-infrared light from the 

Earth’s surface in many narrow data channels, producing a reflectance spectrum for each pixel in the 

image. Calibrated HyMap reflectance spectra can be interpreted and used to identify surface materials 

and their composition. As part of a collaborative effort between the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), U.S. Department of State, Afghan Geological 

Survey, and Afghanistan Ministry of Mines, an airborne hyperspectral survey using the HyMap sensor 

(Cocks and others, 1998) was conducted in Afghanistan from August 22 to October 2, 2007. 

The HyMap imaging spectrometer has 512 cross-track pixels and covers the wavelength range 

0.43 to 2.48 microns (μm) in 128 channels. HyMap was flown on a WB-57 high-altitude aircraft at 

approximately 50,000 ft and collected 218 flight lines covering a total surface area of 438,012 km2

(Kokaly and others, 2008). The resulting dataset includes more than 800,000,000 pixels of imaging 

spectrometer data. After conversion to reflectance and georegistration, these data were analyzed by 

comparing each pixel’s reflectance spectrum against entries in a library of reference spectra (97 spectral 

standards) of various surface materials (Kokaly, 2011). The results were then used to create maps of 

minerals, vegetation, and other materials (Peters and others, 2011). 

5.2 Imaging Spectrometer Data

The results of the spectroscopic analysis are presented in two maps. One map shows the 

distribution of iron-bearing minerals, with absorption features in the visible and near-infrared 

wavelength region; this map is referred to as the iron-bearing minerals and other materials map or, 

alternatively, as the 1-μm map (King and others, in press). The second map shows the distribution of 

carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other minerals that have their primary 

absorption features in the shortwave infrared wavelength region; this map is referred to as the 

carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other materials map or, alternatively, as the 

2-μm map (Kokaly and others, in press). Some mineral classes in the two maps are composites of results 

of multiple reference spectra with similar composition (for example, the kaolinite class is a combination 

of results for two reference spectra—well-crystalline kaolinite and poorly crystalline kaolinite). The 

compositing of results reduced the number of mineral classes for clarity of presentation. 

5.2.1 Iron-Bearing Minerals and Other Materials

The results of the 1-μm analysis—the iron-bearing minerals and other materials map—were 

grouped into 28 mineral classes. Iron-bearing minerals with different mineral compositions but similar, 

broad spectral features are difficult to classify as specific minerals. Thus, generic spectral mineral 

158
classes, including several minerals with similar absorption features, such as Fe3+ Type 1 and Fe3+ Type 

2, are depicted on the map. 

5.2.2 Carbonates, Phyllosilicates, Sulfates, Altered Minerals, and Other Materials

The results of the 2-μm analysis, the carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and 

other materials map, were grouped into 32 classes. Minerals with slightly different mineral 

compositions but similar spectral features are less easily distinguished; thus, some identified mineral 

classes consist of several minerals with similar spectra, such as the chlorite or epidote class. In both 

analyses, when a comparison with reference spectra produced no viable match, a designation of “not 

classified” was assigned to a pixel.

5.3 HyMap Identification of Anomalies

In collaboration with the Department of Defense Task Force for Business and Stability 

Operations (TFBSO), the HyMap imaging spectrometer data and Landsat broad-band sensor data of 21 

Areas of Interest (AOI; fig. 1) were analyzed to better define the magnitude and extent of previously 

known mineral occurrences and to identify potential areas of mineralization (Peters and others, 2011). 

During the analysis of these AOIs, 158 anomalies were observed in the HyMap mineral maps (figs. 

5.1.1–5.20.13). Criteria used to identify the anomalies included (1) spatially coherent distinct mineral 

occurrences that differed from the composition of surrounding material, (2) mineral assemblage 

anomalies based on the composition of coherently mapped groups of pixels, (3) shape of anomalous 

zone, and (4) color of physical features using HyMap data. When color variations were observed in the 

HyMap data, the Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) data (Davis, 2006) were used as a 

secondary reference for comparison.

Mineral assemblage anomalies included areas of potential hydrothermal alteration of 

sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. For areas that were defined by a specific variety of 

mineral assemblages, hydrothermally altered rocks were further categorized by mineral alteration types 

(for example, argillic, phyllic, and propylitic) as defined by Thompson and others (2009). 

Color anomalies were generally related to areas of intense alteration that commonly resulted in 

light-colored or bleached patterns: red coloring of rocks related to iron-oxidation and green coloring of 

host rocks related to clay content. The most common geometric anomalies consist of rounded features, 

associated with surficial expressions of intrusions or buried intrusions, and linear expressions of 

alteration, generally associated with faults or fractures that act as conduits for fluids associated with 

mineral alteration.

Although the occurrence of certain minerals, such as pyrophyllite, buddingtonite, dickite, and 

jarosite, suggest that mineralization processes may have operated in the area, these minerals can occur 

through common rock-forming processes. Consequently, the distribution patterns of the identified 

minerals are extremely important in understanding the geologic framework of mapped anomalous zones

and are also important in evaluating the potential for mineral deposits in these zones. Further field 

verification and geochemical sampling of these anomalous zones are recommended to corroborate the 

imaging spectroscopy data and to understand the geologic framework of the area. 

No anomalies were identified in areas of previously known mineral prospects, although 

correlations between the minerals mapped in the HyMap data and reported mineral alteration of the 

prospects was common (Abdullah and others,1977; Peters and others, 2007; Peters and others, 2011). 

In some instances anomalies identified in the HyMap data are congruous with anomalies in the 

geophysical data (Drenth and others, chap. 3, this volume; Sweeney and others, 2006; Shenwary and 

others, 2011) and ASTER data (Hubbard, chap. 4, this volume). Such areas should be considered prime 

targets for detailed site characterization because each of the anomalous areas were identified 

independently in the respective dataset. 

159
5.4 Presentation of HyMap Anomalies

All HyMap identified anomalies are displayed in a series of maps showing both the 1-μm and 

2-μm data (figs. 5.1.1–5.20.13). The maps display the imaging spectrometer (HyMap) datasets in 

separate map windows as images color-coded by mineral class names and described in the map 

explanation under the headings, “Mineral class name–Iron-bearing minerals” and “Mineral class name–

Alteration minerals.” Solid black lines with a white outline define the approximate shape and extent of 

the identified anomaly polygons. Point features shown on the map are color-coded categorical 

representations of the type of anomaly and when applicable, alteration assemblage deposit type 

(Thompson and others, 2009). For example, an anomaly with an "Advanced argillic" alteration 

assemblage deposit type and "Alteration assemblage" type of anomaly is shown as a small black square 

(Type of anomaly: Alteration assemblage) overlain on a larger red circle (Alteration assemblage deposit 

type: Advanced argillic). The point features on the maps are displaying some of the additional 

categorical descriptions about the anomalies that are contained in the attribute table of the shapefile and 

contained in the KMZ file provided in chapter 2 of this report.

160
Figure 5.1.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Serpentine, Illite, Dolomite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Goethite minerals.

161
Figure 5.1.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Serpentine, Dolomite minerals, and Fe3+ Type 1.

162
Figure 5.1.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Serpentine, Dolomite minerals, and Fe3+ Type 1.

163
Figure 5.1.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Serpentine, and Fe2+ Fe3+ Type 1.

164
Figure 5.1.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Aynak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dolomite minerals, Carbonate (iron-bearing), and Chlorite or Epidote.

165
Figure 5.2.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Serpentine, Dolomite minerals, Tremolite or Talc, and Ferrihydrite.

166
Figure 5.2.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Dolomite minerals, Serpentine, Montmorillonite, Fe-Hydroxide, and Goethite minerals.

167
Figure 5.2.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite minerals, Dolomite minerals, Chlorite or Epidote, Serpentine, Illite, Goethite minerals, 

and Fe3+. 

168
Figure 5.2.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine, Dolomite minerals, Epidote, and Fe2+ Type 1.

169
Figure 5.2.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Serpentine, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Goethite minerals, Fe2+ Fe3+ Type 2, 

and Muscovite.

170
Figure 5.2.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Serpentine, Dolomite minerals, and Fe2+ Fe3+ 

Type 1.

171
Figure 5.2.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Kaolinite minerals, and Fe-Hydroxide.

172
Figure 5.2.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Carbonate (iron-bearing) and Dolomite minerals.

173
Figure 5.2.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Badakhshan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Dolomite minerals, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Serpentine, and Epidote. 

174
Figure 5.3.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Kaolinite minerals, Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2 and Fe2+ Type1.

175
Figure 5.3.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, Serpentine minerals, Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2, 

Hematite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Goethite minerals, and Epidote.

176
Figure 5.3.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Montmorillonite, Fe-Hydroxide, and Goethite minerals.

177
Figure 5.3.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Dolomite minerals, Dickite, Montmorillonite, Goethite minerals, 

Hematite minerals, and Jarosite.

178
Figure 5.3.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Baghlan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Calcite, Kaolinite minerals, Dolomite minerals, Epidote, Goethite minerals, and Hematite minerals.

179
Figure 5.4.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Bakhud Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, Hematite minerals, and Fe-Hydroxide.

180
Figure 5.4.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Bakhud Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Montmorillonite, Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Epidote, and 

Hematite.

181
Figure 5.4.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Bakhud Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Hematite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Goethite minerals, and Muscovite.

182
Figure 5.4.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Bakhud Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Hematite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide.

183
Figure 5.4.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Bakhud Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Epidote, and Jarosite.

184
Figure 5.4.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Bakhud Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Calcite, Muscovite, Chlorite or Epidote, Fe3+ Type 1, Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe2+ Fe3+ Type 2.

185
Figure 5.5.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, Goethite minerals, Hematite minerals, 

Jarosite, Maghemite, and Fe3+ Type 1.

186
Figure 5.5.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Serpentine minerals, Goethite minerals, 

Hematite minerals, Jarosite, and Fe3+ Type 1.

187
Figure 5.5.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Chlorite or Epidote, Dolomite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and 

Fe3+ Type 1.

188
Figure 5.5.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Illite, Muscovite, Chlorite or Epidote, Goethite minerals, and Hematite minerals.

189
Figure 5.5.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Carbonate (iron-bearing), and Goethite minerals.

190
Figure 5.5.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, Chlorite or Epidote, Pyrophyllite, Alunite minerals, Goethite minerals, 

Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe3+ Type 1.

191
Figure 5.5.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Calcite, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe-Hydroxide.

192
Figure 5.5.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Hematite minerals and Goethite minerals.

193
Figure 5.5.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dolomite minerals, Serpentine, Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, FeHydroxide, and Fe3+ Type 1.

194
Figure 5.5.10. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Balkhab Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, Pyrophyllite, Dolomite minerals, Montmorillonite, Chlorite or Epidote, 

Muscovite, Goethite minerals, and Hematite minerals.

195
Figure 5.6.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Daykundi Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Montmorillonite, Dolomite Minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type1, and Fe-Hydroxide.

196
Figure 5.6.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Daykundi Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Montmorillonite, Chlorite or Epidote, Dolomite minerals, Tremolite or Talc, 

and Goethite minerals.

197
Figure 5.6.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Daykundi Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Montmorillonite, and Chlorite or Epidote.

198
Figure 5.7.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Hematite and Fe-Hydroxide.

199
Figure 5.7.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Hematite, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe-Hydroxide.

200
Figure 5.7.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Montmorillonite, Hematite, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and 

Epidote.

201
Figure 5.7.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Goethite minerals, Hematite, Fe-Hydroxide, Epidote, Kaolinite minerals, Dolomite minerals, 

Muscovite, and Alunite.

202
Figure 5.7.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dudkash Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Chlorite or Epidote, Muscovite, Kaolinite minerals, Illite, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe-Hydroxide.

203
Figure 5.8.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Kaolinite minerals, Illite, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type1, Fe-Hydroxide, and Jarosite.

204
Figure 5.8.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Buddingtonite.

205
Figure 5.8.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Buddingtonite.

206
Figure 5.8.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Calcite, Chlorite or Epidote, Fe3+ Type1, Hematite minerals, Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2, and Goethite minerals.

207
Figure 5.9.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Calcite, Chlorite or Epidote, Dolomite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Fe3+ Type1, Fe2+ Fe3+ 

Type2, and Goethite minerals.

208
Figure 5.9.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Dusar-Shaida Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Hematite minerals and Goethite minerals. 

209
Figure 5.9.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Calcite, Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Tremolite or Talc, Hematite minerals and Goethite minerals.

210
Figure 5.9.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Calcite, Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Muscovite, Maghemite, 

Jarosite, Goethite minerals, Ferrihydrite, and Hematite minerals.

211
Figure 5.9.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Serpentine minerals, Chlorite or Epidote, and Dolomite minerals.

212
Figure 5.9.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Chlorite or Epidote, Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Tremolite or Talc, Goethite 

minerals, and Jarosite.

213
Figure 5.9.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Tremolite or Talc, Serpentine minerals, Chlorite or Epidote, Maghemite, Fe3+ Type 1, and Goethite minerals.

214
Figure 5.9.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Serpentine minerals, Alunite minerals, Chlorite or Epidote, Dolomite minerals, Goethite minerals, and FeHydroxide.

215
Figure 5.9.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Serpentine, Tremolite or Talc, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe-Hydroxide.

216
Figure 5.9.10. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote.

217
Figure 5.9.11. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Dolomite minerals, Serpentine minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Chlorite or Epidote, Hematite minerals, 

Goethite minerals, and Fe-Hydroxide.

218
Figure 5.9.12. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Illite, Kaolinite minerals, Chlorite or Epidote, Serpentine minerals, Montmorillonite, Jarosite, 

Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and Hematite minerals.

219
Figure 5.9.13. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Chlorite or Epidote, and Tremolite or Talc.

220
Figure 5.9.14. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Serpentine minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Fe-Hydroxide, and Goethite minerals.

221
Figure 5.9.15. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Ferrihydrite and Serpentine.

222
Figure 5.9.16. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Haji-Gak Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Illite, Goethite minerals, Maghemite, Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe3+ Type 1.

223
Figure 5.10.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Katawas Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Muscovite, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Calcite, and Calcite mixtures. May be 

geologically controlled.

224
Figure 5.10.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Katawas Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Chlorite or Epidote, Muscovite, and Goethite minerals.

225
Figure 5.11.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, and Goethite minerals.

226
Figure 5.11.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Geothite minerals, Hematite minerals, and Fe-Hydroxide.

227
Figure 5.11.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Geothite minerals, Hematite minerals, and Epidote.

228
Figure 5.11.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Pyrophyllite, Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Dickite, Geothite minerals, and Fe-Hydroxide.

229
Figure 5.11.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, Fe3+ Type1, 

Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2, and Epidote.

230
Figure 5.11.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dolomite minerals, Alunite minerals, Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, 

Maghemite, Epidote, and Fe-Hydroxide.

231
Figure 5.11.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Goethite minerals, and Hematite minerals.

232
Figure 5.11.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Montmorillonite, Buddingtonite, Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and Hematite minerals.

233
Figure 5.11.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Geothite minerals, and Fe-Hydroxide.

234
Figure 5.11.10. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Geothite minerals, Epidote, Fe2+ and Fe3+ Type 2, and FeHydroxide.

235
Figure 5.11.11. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Muscovite, Geothite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, Fe2+ and Fe3+ Type 

2, and Epidote.

236
Figure 5.11.12. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kharnak-Kanjar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Carbonate (iron-bearing), Chlorite or Epidote, Muscovite, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and FeHydroxide.

237
Figure 5.12.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Epidote.

238
Figure 5.12.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Illite, Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Epidote.

239
Figure 5.12.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Fe-Hydroxide, and Epidote.

240
Figure 5.12.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Fe-Hydroxide, and Epidote.

241
Figure 5.12.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Calcite, Goethite minerals, and Hematite minerals.

242
Figure 5.12.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, and Fe3+ Type 1.

243
Figure 5.12.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Fe-Hydroxide, and Epidote.

244
Figure 5.12.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Dolomite minerals, Muscovite, Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, 

and Fe-Hydroxide.

245
Figure 5.12.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Dolomite minerals, Serpentine minerals, Tremolite or Talc, Kaolinite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Epidote, 

Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, and Fe-Hydroxide.

246
Figure 5.12.10. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Tremolite or Talc, Alunite, Dickite, Chlorite 

or Epidote, Fe3+ Type 1, and Geothite minerals.

247
Figure 5.12.11. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, Jarosite, and Goethite minerals.

248
Figure 5.12.12. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, Jarosite, and Goethite minerals.

249
Figure 5.12.13. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kundalan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, Jarosite, and Goethite minerals.

250
Figure 5.13.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kunduz Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Hematite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe2+ Type1.

251
Figure 5.13.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Kunduz Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on presence 

of Hematite minerals and Fe2+ Fe3+ Type 2.

252
Figure 5.14.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dolomite minerals, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Dickite, and Fe3+ Type1.

253
Figure 5.14.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Dolomite minerals, Dickite, Alunite, Fe-Hydroxide, Goethite minerals, and Hematite 

minerals.

254
Figure 5.14.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Dolomite minerals, Dickite, Alunite, Fe-Hydroxide, Goethite minerals, 

and Hematite minerals.

255
Figure 5.14.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Dolomite minerals, Alunite, Fe-Hydroxide, Goethite minerals, and 

Hematite minerals.

256
Figure 5.14.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Montmorillonite, Kaolinite minerals, Gypsum, Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, and Fe3+ Type1.

257
Figure 5.14.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Buddingtonite.

258
Figure 5.14.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Nalbandon Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Dolomite minerals, Serpentine, and Goethite minerals.

259
Figure 5.15.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Calcite (iron-bearing), Serpentine minerals, Muscovite, Dolomite minerals, 

Tremolite or Talc, Fe2+ Fe3+ Type 1, Fe2+ Type 1, and Fe3+ Type 1.

260
Figure 5.15.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Carbonate (iron-bearing), Chlorite or Epidote, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe2+ Type 1.

261
Figure 5.15.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Dickite, Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and 

Fe3+ Type1.

262
Figure 5.15.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Gypsum, Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Chlorite or Epidote, Illite, Hematite minerals, Goethite 

minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, Maghemite, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe2+ Fe3+ Type 2.

263
Figure 5.15.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Carbonite (iron-bearing), Alunite, Dickite, Chlorite or Epidote, 

Montmorillonite, Fe3+ Type 1, Goethite minerals, Hematite minerals, and Maghemite.

264
Figure 5.15.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Fe3+ Type1 and Fe-Hydroxide.

265
Figure 5.15.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Carbonate (iron-bearing), Chlorite or Epidote, Kaolinite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe2+

Fe3+ Type2.

266
Figure 5.15.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, and Chlorite or Epidote.

267
Figure 5.15.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Gypsum.

268
Figure 5.15.10. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the North Herat Area of Interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan based on presence of Kaolinite minerals, Alunite minerals, Dickite, Hematite minerals, 

Maghemite, Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe3+ Type1.

269
Figure 5.16.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Muscovite, Illite, and Goethite minerals.

270
Figure 5.16.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Goethite minerals, and Fe3+ Type1.

271
Figure 5.16.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2, and Fe3+ Type1.

272
Figure 5.16.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Goethite minerals, and Fe3+ Type1.

273
Figure 5.16.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals.

274
Figure 5.16.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Goethite minerals, and Jarosite.

275
Figure 5.16.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Panjsher Valley Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Jarosite, Hydrated Silica, and Montmorillonite minerals.

276
Figure 5.17.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Gypsum, Kaolinite minerals, and Montmorillonite.

277
Figure 5.17.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Pyrophyllite, Alunite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, Chlorite or Epidote, Goethite minerals, 

Jarosite, and Hematite minerals.

278
Figure 5.17.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Pyrophyllite, Alunite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, and Chlorite or Epidote.

279
Figure 5.17.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Pyrophyllite, Alunite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, and Chlorite or Epidote.

280
Figure 5.17.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Pyrophyllite, Alunite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, and Chlorite or Epidote.

281
Figure 5.17.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on

presence of Alunite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Dickite, Goethite minerals, Jarosite, and Fe3+ Type 1.

282
Figure 5.17.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Montmorillonite, Chlorite or Epidote, Carbonate (iron-bearing), Dolomite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, 

Hematite minerals, Fe3+ Type1, Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2, Fe-Hydroxide, and Jarosite.

283
Figure 5.17.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Calcite, Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Hematite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, Goethite minerals, Fe3+

Type1, and Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2. 

284
Figure 5.17.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type1, Hematite minerals, and 

Jarosite.

285
Figure 5.17.10. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Muscovite, Illite, Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type1, 

Fe-Hydroxide, and Hematite minerals.

286
Figure 5.17.11. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Jarosite, Hematite minerals, and Goethite minerals.

287
Figure 5.17.12. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the South Helmand Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Jarosite, Hematite minerals, and Goethite minerals.

288
Figure 5.18.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Epidote.

289
Figure 5.18.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Hematite, Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe3+ Type 1.

290
Figure 5.18.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Takhar Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote, Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Goethite minerals, and Fe3+ Type 1.

291
Figure 5.19.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, Jarosite, Goethite minerals, FeHydroxide, Fe3+ Type1, and Hematite minerals.

292
Figure 5.19.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Calcite, Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Jarosite, Hydrated 

Silica, Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and Hematite minerals. 

293
Figure 5.19.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Illite, Serpentine minerals, Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, Jarosite, Hematite 

minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and Jarosite. 

294
Figure 5.19.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Montmorillonite, Serpentine minerals, Buddingtonite, Hematite minerals, and Fe3+ Type1.

295
Figure 5.19.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Montmorillonite, Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, Illite, Buddingtonite, Hematite minerals, and 

Fe-Hydroxide.

296
Figure 5.19.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Muscovite, and Illite.

297
Figure 5.19.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Calcite (iron-bearing), Chlorite or Epidote, Montmorillonite, Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2, Fe3+ Type1, 

and Fe-Hydroxide.

298
Figure 5.19.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Illite, Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, Kaolinite minerals, Jarosite, Hematite 

minerals, and Fe-Hydroxide.

299
Figure 5.19.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Dolomite minerals, Serpentine minerals, Montmorillonite, and Buddingtonite.

300
Figure 5.19.10. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Illite, Kaolinite minerals, Montmorillonite, Jarosite, Dolomite minerals, Goethite 

minerals, Hematite minerals, and Fe2+ Type 1.

301
Figure 5.19.11. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Dolomite minerals, Montmorillonite, Jarosite, Goethite minerals, and Hematite minerals.

302
Figure 5.19.12. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Calcite, Dolomite minerals, and Serpentine minerals.

303
Figure 5.19.13. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Illite, Montmorillonite, Kaolinite minerals, Hematite minerals, Goethite minerals, and 

Fe3+ Type1.

304
Figure 5.19.14. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Tourmaline Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Illite, Chlorite or Epidote, Carbonate (iron-bearing), and Fe2+ Fe3+ Type2.

305
Figure 5.20.1. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Montmorillonite, Hydrated Silica, Dolomite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe3+

Type 1.

306
Figure 5.20.2. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Montmorillonite, Dolomite minerals, and Fe3+ Type 1.

307
Figure 5.20.3. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Dolomite minerals, Serpentine minerals, Hematite minerals, and Goethite minerals.

308
Figure 5.20.4. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe-Hydroxide.

309
Figure 5.20.5. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Chlorite or Epidote and Fe3+ Type 1.

310
Figure 5.20.6. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, and Fe3+ Type 1.

311
Figure 5.20.7. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Carbonate (iron-bearing), Calcite minerals, Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Epidote, 

Fe3+ Type 1, Goethite minerals, and Hematite minerals.

312
Figure 5.20.8. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Carbonate (iron-bearing), Calcite minerals, Serpentine minerals, Dolomite minerals, Muscovite, 

Chlorite or Epidote, Fe3+ Type 1, Goethite minerals, and Hematite minerals.

313
Figure 5.20.9. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based 

on presence of Carbonate (iron-bearing), Calcite minerals, Dolomite minerals, Muscovite, Chlorite or Epidote, 

Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe-Hydroxide.

314
Figure 5.20.10. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Kaolinite minerals, Goethite minerals, Epidote, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe-Hydroxide.

315
Figure 5.20.11. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Chlorite or Epidote, Dolomite minerals, Fe-Hydroxide, and Fe3+ Type 1.

316
Figure 5.20.12. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Muscovite, Chlorite or Epidote, Kaolinite minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, and Fe2+ Fe3+ Type 2.

317
Figure 5.20.13. Hyperspectral anomaly located in the Zarkashan Area of Interest (AOI) in Afghanistan based on 

presence of Dolomite minerals, Serpentine minerals, Fe3+ Type 1, Fe-Hydroxide, and Goethite minerals.

318
5.5 References Cited

Abdullah, S., Chmiriov, V.M., Stazhilo-Alekseev, K.F., Dronov, V.I., Kofarsky, A.K., and Malyarov, 

E.P., 1977, Mineral resources of Afghanistan—Republic of Afghanistan: Ministry of Mines and 

Industries, Afghan Geological and Mines Survey, 419 p., accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/browse.cfm?sec=7&cat=83. 

Cocks T., Jenssen, R., Stewart, A., Wilson, I., and Shields, T., 1998, The HyMap airborne Hymap 

sensor: The System, calibration and performance, in Schaepman, M., Schlapfer, D., and Itten, K.I., 

eds., Proceedings of the 1st EARSeL Workshop on Imaging Spectroscopy, 6–8 October 1998, Zurich: 

Paris, EARSeL, p. 37–43, accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://www.neodc.rl.ac.uk/docs/Hymap_specs.pdf. 

Davis, P.A., 2006, Calibrated Landsat ETM+ nonthermal-band image mosaics of Afghanistan: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–1345, 16 p., accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1345/. 

King, T.V.V., Kokaly, R.F., Hoefen, T.M., Dudek, K., and Livo, K.E., in press, Surface materials map 

of Afghanistan: Iron-bearing minerals and other materials: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Map 3152-B. 

Kokaly, R.F., 2011, PRISM: Processing routines in IDL for spectroscopic measurements (installation 

manual and user's guide, version 1.0): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1155, 512 p., 

accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1155/.

Kokaly, R.F., King, T.V.V., and Livo, K.E., 2008, Airborne hyperspectral survey of Afghanistan 2007: 

Flight line planning and HyMap data collection: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008–

1235, 14 p., accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1235/. 

Kokaly, R.F., King, T.V.V., Hoefen, T.M., Dudek, K. and Livo, K.E., in press, Surface materials map of 

Afghanistan: Carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other materials: U.S. 

Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3152-A.

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and the U.S. 

Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource Assessment team, 2007, 

Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD-ROM, accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/. 

Peters, S.G., King, T.V.V, Mack, T.J., Chornack, M.P., eds., and the U.S. Geological Survey 

Afghanistan Mineral Assessment Team, 2011, Summaries of important areas for mineral investment 

and production opportunities of nonfuel minerals in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2011–1204, 1,810 p. plus appendixes on DVD. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1204/.) 

Shenwary, G.S.; Kohistany, A.H.; Hussain, Sardar; Ashan, Said; Mutty, A.S.; Daud, M.A.; Wussow, 

M.W.; Sweeney, R.E.; Phillips, J.D.; Lindsay, C.R.; Kucks, R.P.; Finn, C.A.; Drenth, B.A.; Anderson, 

E.D.; Abraham, J.D.; Liang, R.T.; Jarvis, J.L.; Gardner, J.M.; Childers, V.A.; Ball, D.C.; and Brozena, 

J.M., 2011, Aeromagnetic surveys in Afghanistan—An updated website for distribution of data: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1055, 8 p., accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1055/. 

Sweeney, R.E., Kucks, R.P, Hill, P.L., and Finn, C.A., 2006, Aeromagnetic and gravity surveys in 

Afghanistan: A web site for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–

1204, accessed August 19, 2011, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1204/. 

319
Thompson, A.J.B, Hauff, P.L., and Robitaille, A.J., 2009, Alteration mapping in exploration: 

Application of Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR) spectroscopy, in Bendell, R., Crosta, A.P., and Grunsky, 

E., eds., Remote sensing and spectral geology: Society of Economic Geologists (SEG) Reviews in 

Economic Geology, v. 16, p. 12–23.

320
Chapter 6: Discussion of Anomaly Overlap Areas and 

Potential for Economic Development

By Bernard E. Hubbard, Trude V.V. King, Michaela R. Johnson, and Benjamin J. Drenth

6.1 Anomaly Overlap—Conclusions and Discussion

A total of 334 mineral anomaly polygon locations were mapped using geophysical data (GEO), 

ASTER data (AST), and HyMap imaging spectrometer data (also referred to as hyperspectral data, 

HSD). Although each dataset covers different parts of Afghanistan, they provide overlapping coverage 

within 16 of 24 mineral areas of interest (AOIs) targeted for economic development (Peters and others, 

2011). Because each of the three datasets were processed and interpreted independently of one another, 

and two in particular (HSD and AST) yield similar spectral information related to various types of 

hydrothermal alteration products (for example, Thompson and others, 2009), overlapping anomalies 

between two or three of these datasets represent high-priority targets for future ground-based 

exploration activities and targeted economic development. As a result, the anomalies have been 

catalogued totaling 225 overlapping anomalies, of which 55 are between AST and HSD, 107 are 

between HSD and GEO, 34 are between AST and GEO, and 29 are between AST, HSD, and GEO. 

These overlapping anomalies were further prioritized based on (1) the number of datasets that provide 

overlapping agreement; (2) other known and nearby mineral occurrences in the area (for example, Oriss 

and Bliss, 2002; Doebrich and Wahl, 2006); (3) proximity to roads, infrastructure, and major population 

centers; and (4) the knowledge base regarding the geology and processes related to mineral formation 

based on analyses and interpretations (this study) and prior studies (for example, Peters and others, 

2007; Peters and others, 2011). Figure 6.1.1 shows the location and distribution of five anomaly overlap 

areas discussed as follows.

321
Figure 6.1.1. Location map of selected overlapping anomalies defined by the source data (geophysical [GEO], 

ASTER [AST], or HyMap hyperspectral [HSD]) within mineral areas of interest (AOI) in Afghanistan. (1) 

GEO/AST/HSD overlap in the Tourmaline AOI, (2) GEO/AST/HSD overlap in the Zarkashan AOI, (3) 

GEO/HSD overlap in the Bakhud and Kundalan AOIs, (4) AST/HSD overlap in the Dudkash and Kunduz AOIs, 

and (5) GEO/AST overlap in the North Takhar AOI. 

6.1.1 Anomaly Overlap Priority 1

The highest-priority anomaly-overlap areas occur within the tin-vein Tourmaline AOI (fig. 

6.1.1). This is one of two AOIs where all three datasets (HSD, AST and GEO) overlap. Proximal to 

these anomaly overlap areas are known tin and tungsten greisen deposits associated with Oligocene age 

granite and granodiorite intrusive rocks (Peters and others, 2007; Peters and others, 2011). Some of the 

intrusive rocks are characterized by magnetic highs, which suggest shallow plutons or groups of plutons 

associated with the Cretaceous-Oligocene age Farah Rod plutonic belt (Debon and others, 1987). In the 

areas of overlap shown in figure 6.1.1, a multitude of magnetic highs (and a few sharp lows) are located 

over Cenozoic volcanic rocks and intrusions. Radiometric highs are located over mapped Cenozoic 

322
sediments and volcanic rocks (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006). Mapped within the AST and HSD datasets, 

linearly trending hydrothermal alteration patterns suggest possible structural control (such as a “paleograben”) of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids that could be driven by a shallow anomaly identified in the 

airborne geophysical data (GEO). 

Both AST and HSD data map corresponding broad areas of advanced argillic alteration 

containing mixtures of kaolinite with illite and (or) muscovite, as well as smaller localized areas 

containing jarosite and (or) hydrous silica minerals. In addition, HSD mapping suggests the presence of 

buddingtonite, which was not detected in AST data. The presence of buddingtonite suggests either 

exposure of the uppermost portions of the hydrothermal system, or more preferably, that sufficient 

erosion has occurred within the volcanic rocks to expose the core of a possible porphyry system (Krohn 

and others, 1993). The latter would contain concentrated amounts of precious- and base-metal sulfide 

minerals.

6.1.2 Anomaly Overlap Priority 2

The second-highest-priority anomaly overlap occurs within the Zarkashan AOI (fig. 6.1.1). 

Zarkashan AOI is the second area that represents commonality between mapped anomalies derived from 

all three—HSD, AST, and GEO—datasets. This area is a single, small (4.3 km2

) polygon representing 

an unmapped bedrock outcrop surrounded by a large plain of Quaternary basin-fill alluvium (Doebrich 

and Wahl, 2006). This topographically “higher” bedrock-outcrop feature and the surrounding “lower” 

alluvial plains are well depicted in shaded relief maps derived from the 90-m-resolution Shuttle Radar 

Topography Mission (SRTM) DEM. 

This anomaly overlap area is characterized by one of three magnetic-high anomalies in the 

Zarkashan AOI; the area is interpreted to reflect strongly magnetized Late Cretaceous/Paleocene gabbro 

and monzonite plutons (Kleimenev and others, 1974; Doebrich and Wahl, 2006; Peters and others, 

2007). These plutons likely provided the heat source for hydrothermal alteration of the surrounding 

(predominantly carbonate) bedrock to yield known skarn gold deposit occurrences in three nearby areas 

(that is, Bolo, Luman Tamaki, and Zarkashan Mine subareas [Peters and others, 2011]). 

AST mapping suggests a possible lithologic contact between rocks containing a clay + carbonate 

mixture, with rocks containing mixtures of ferric iron, smectite clays, and minor amounts of illite and 

(or) muscovite. The HSD data suggest that much of this carbonate + clay mixture may be dominated 

more specifically by dolomite + montmorillonite (King and Johnson, 2011). However, imaging 

spectrometer maps, derived from the 1-μm-wavelength region, suggest the presence of a Fe3+ Type 1 

mineral (King and Johnson, 2011) that was not mapped in other rocks containing this same dolomite 

and (or) dolomite + montmorillonite mixture. This anomalous bedrock outcrop is less than 5 km from 

the main road linking Kabul and Kandahar between the cities of Qalat and Ghazni (fig. 6.1.1). Stream 

geochemistry data, collected downstream of this bedrock outcrop near the main road, suggest high 

concentrations of mercury, which is a gold-compatible element.

6.1.3 Anomaly Overlap Priority 3

The third-highest-priority anomaly-overlap areas occur within the fluorite Bakhud AOI and the 

porphyry Kundalan AOI (fig. 6.1.1). These areas represent overlap between anomalies identified within 

the HSD and GEO datasets. Within the Bakhud AOI and the northwesternmost four polygons shown as 

Group 1 (fig. 6.1.1) within the Kundalan AOI, the anomaly overlaps represent either (1) gravity lows 

interpreted to reflect a relatively thick portion of the Arghandab granitoid batholith (Debon and others, 

1987; Doebrich and Wahl, 2006; Peters and others, 2007), or (2) magnetic highs interpreted to reflect 

strongly magnetized portions of the Arghandab granitoid batholith (Debon and others, 1987; Doebrich 

and Wahl, 2006; Peters and others, 2007). In the southeast section of the Kundalan AOI, the remaining 

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three overlap areas shown as Group 2 (fig. 6.1.1) include a gravity high caused by an unknown source 

and two magnetic highs. The magnetic highs are interpreted to reflect strongly magnetized Late 

Cretaceous/Paleocene gabbro and monzonite plutons (Kleimenev and others, 1974; Doebrich and Wahl, 

2006; Peters and others, 2007) similar to the one characterizing the unmapped bedrock exposure 

discussed above within the Zarkashan AOI. In particular, the Arghandab batholith could have provided 

an excellent heat source for the surface alteration detected in the HSD data, which are dominated by 

dolomite, serpentine, tremolite or talc, muscovite, and kaolinite minerals in the 2-μm-wavelengthderived maps, and hematite, Fe 3+ Type 1, epidote, goethite, and Fe-hydroxide minerals in the l-μmwavelength-derived maps.

6.1.4 Anomaly Overlap Priority 4

Although known to host numerous occurrences of gypsum, sulfur, and celestite deposits (Orris 

and Bliss, 2002), both AST and HSD mapping in the Dudkash and Kunduz AOIs identify overlapping 

anomalous areas (fig. 6.1.1). These areas contain ferric iron and clay minerals, which may be associated 

with either coal deposits and karst-hosted laterite and (or) bauxite deposits. Much of these two AOIs 

were mapped as various carbonate mineral mixtures using both AST and HSD datasets, which would be 

expected given their locations on the Asian-Afghan carbonate platform north of the Hari Rud 

accretionary fault zone (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006). 

The two southeasternmost anomaly overlap areas within the Dudkash AOI (fig. 6.1.1) may 

alternatively be phyllic to argillic hydrothermal alteration in origin, and they are possibly related to 

Mississippian age diorite, granodiorite, and granites and Late Triassic granitic rocks intruding 

Namurian, Ordovician, and Silurian-Devonian sedimentary rocks (Kokaly and Johnson, 2011). These 

areas should be further explored as targets for precious- and base-metal sulfide mineralization.

As mapped using the AST dataset, most of the other anomaly overlap areas are dominated by 

strong abundance of ferric iron, which was mapped more specifically as goethite, other iron oxyhydroxides, and nano-crystalline forms of hematite in the HSD data. All of these minerals may occur as 

either cements within mapped sandstone units (Kokaly and Giles, 2011; Kokaly and Johnson , 2011), or 

the matrix of karst-hosted bauxite and laterite deposits, which are known to occur in the area based on 

prior field investigations (John Sanfilipo, written commun., December 12, 2004). 

Kaolinite mixtures also dominate the largest overlap polygon within the Dudkash AOI, as 

mapped using both the AST and HSD datasets. These areas may be associated with abundant coal 

deposits (Kokaly and Johnson, 2011). However, neither sulfur nor celestite were considered during HSD 

classification using either the 1-μm wavelengths (for sulfur) or the 2-μm wavelengths (for celestite) 

(Kokaly and Johnson, 2011). Additional understanding of the spectral characteristics of both minerals 

and their deposits is needed in order to derive methods for differentiating these deposits from host 

carbonate rocks mapped using either AST or HSD. 

6.1.5 Anomaly Overlap Priority 5

The North Takhar AOI is the fifth-highest priority area (fig. 6.1.1) containing anomalies that 

represent geospatial overlap between those identified using the AST and GEO datasets. In this case, the 

GEO anomaly characterizes a magnetic high, interpreted to reflect strongly magnetized basement rocks 

at great depths beyond economic exploitation. In contrast, the surface cover is dominated by strongly 

ferric-iron-cemented quartz sand and conglomerate deposits (that is, ferricrete), perhaps related to 

valley-filling placer gold deposits and fluvial terraces eroded from upstream lode sources known to 

occur in the nearby Badakshan AOI (Chirico and others, 2011). The lack of a relation between ASTmapped alteration patterns on the surface and GEO-identified anomalies at depth demonstrates why 

caution should be exercised when interpreting the origin and type of mineral anomalies based on 

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overlapping optical and geophysical remote sensing datasets from various sources. However, thick 

deposits of both modern floodplain and older terrace-related gold placers (Chirico and others, 2011) still 

makes the North Takhar AOI the fifth-highest priority area to consider for ground-based exploration and 

exploitation.

6.2 Potential for Economic Development from Mineral Resources

The potential for undiscovered porphyry-related precious and base metals in hydrothermally 

altered volcanic rocks, in addition to nearby known greisen occurrences in the neighboring intrusive 

rocks, makes the tin-vein Tourmaline AOI anomaly overlap areas the highest priority areas for more 

intensive ground-based exploration and future development. Such development could benefit 

communities in and around the nearby cities of Hirat and Farah (fig. 6.1.1). 

The Zarkashan AOI anomaly overlap area provides the greatest potential for an undiscovered, 

unmapped bedrock area that may host additional skarn gold deposits, which could provide economic 

benefits to communities near and within the cities of Qalat and Ghazni. 

All of the Bakhud and some of the Kundalan anomaly overlap areas are characterized by strong 

surface alteration (HSD) and subsurface geophysical (GEO) expression. These areas may be related to 

the Arghandab batholith, which is known to host several nearby fluorite, gold, and copper porphyry 

deposits (Peters and others, 2007; Peters and others, 2011). From an economic development vantage 

point, most of these anomaly overlap areas lay within the triangular-shaped region of the country 

bounded by the cities of Kandahar, Tirin Kot and Qalat (fig. 6.1.1), each of which could benefit from 

future ground-based exploration and eventual exploitation of newly discovered mineral deposits. 

Overlapping mineral anomalies in the Dudkash and Kunduz AOIs may represent coal and (or) 

bauxite-related sources of kaolinite for raw materials needed to make both bricks and cement. The only 

working cement plant in the country is located at Puli Khumri, just south of the provincial capital of 

Baghlan (fig. 6.1.1). These two cities, as well as Kunduz to the north, could benefit from these newly 

discovered sources of fuel and raw materials. 

The North Takhar AOI overlapping anomalies have no relation to each other; surface anomalies 

mapped within the AST dataset are unrelated to the deep-seated strongly magnetized basement rocks 

mapped using the GEO dataset. However, exploitation of placer gold deposits within the North Takhar 

AOI could economically benefit people living within and near the city of Talaquan (fig. 6.1.1). 

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6.3 References Cited

Chirico, P.G., Stamm, R.G., Moran, T.W., and Chaihorsky, A., 2011, Information package summary for 

the North Takhar Placer Gold Area of Interest, chap. 12A of Peters and others, Summaries of 

important areas for mineral investment and production opportunities of nonfuel minerals in 

Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1204, 1,810 p. plus appendixes on 

DVD. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1204/.) 

Debon, F., Afzali, H., Le-Fort, P., and Sonet, J., 1987, Major intrusive stages in Afghanistan; typology, 

age and geodynamic setting: Geologische Rundschau, vol. 76, no. 1, p. 245–264. 

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–1038, 1 sheet, scale 1:850,000, available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1038. 

King, T.V.V., and Johnson, M.R., 2011, Analysis of imaging spectrometer data for the Zarkashan Area 

of Interest, Afghanistan, chap. 15B of Peters and others, Summaries of important areas for mineral 

investment and production opportunities of nonfuel minerals in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2011–1204, 1,810 p. plus appendixes on DVD. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1204/.) 

Kleimenev, M.A., Kamaev, S.V., and Kelesnichenke, V.A., 1974, Report on the results of geophysical 

investigations carried out in 1973–beginning of 1974 for solid minerals: Part 1: Republic of 

Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industries Department of Geology and Mineral Survey, 74 p. 

Kokaly, R.F., and Giles, S.A., 2011, Analysis of imaging spectroscopy data for the Kunduz Area of 

Interest, Afghanistan, chap. 22B of Peters and others, Summaries of important areas for mineral 

investment and production opportunities of nonfuel minerals in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2011–1204, 1,810 p. plus appendixes on DVD. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1204/.) 

Kokaly, R.F., and Johnson, M.R., 2011, Analysis of imaging spectroscopy data for the Dudkash Area of 

Interest, Afghanistan, chap. 19B of Peters and others, Summaries of important areas for mineral 

investment and production opportunities in nonfuel minerals in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2011–1204, 1,810 p. plus appendixes on DVD. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1204/.) 

Krohn, M.D., Kendall, C., Evans, J.R., and Fries, T.L., 1993, Relations of ammonium minerals at 

several hydrothermal systems in the western U.S.: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 

v. 56, p. 401–413. 

Orris, G.J., and Bliss, J.D., 2002, Mines and mineral occurrences of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 2002–110, 95 p., accessed August 19, 2011, at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2002/110/. 

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and the U.S. 

Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource Assessment team, 2007, 

Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD-ROM, accessed August 19, 2011 at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/. 

Peters, S.G., King, T.V.V, Mack, T.J., Chornack, M.P., eds., and the U.S. Geological Survey 

Afghanistan Mineral Assessment Team, 2011, Summaries of important areas for mineral investment 

and production opportunities of nonfuel minerals in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2011–1204, 1,810 p. plus appendixes on DVD. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1204/.) 

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Thompson, A.J.B, Hauff, P.L., and Robitaille, A.J., 2009, Alteration mapping in exploration: 

Application of Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR) spectroscopy: Society of Economic Geologists (SEG)

Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 16, p. 12–23. 

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King and others—Identification of Mineral Resources in Afghanistan—Open-File Report 2011–1229