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Breeding and Raising

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE • AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 394
24G621

BREEDING 4ND ÉAISING HORSES

By

M. E. Ensminger, collaborator,

Animal Science Research Division,

Agricultural Research Service

Agriculture Handbook No. 394

\ Agricultural Research Service

U^fCTED SAPATES DEPMfflWENlV OF AGRICULTURE, ^ - ^

Washington, P.C. I^sued j^jy jg^g

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402-Price $1
COVER:

Courtesy of Mrs. Margit Sigray Bessenyey, Hungarian Horse Association.

CREDIT:

The author adapted some of the narrative and illustrations used in this handbook from the book HORSES and HORSEMANSHIP with permission of the

publisher, The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois.
6821

The breed pictures in this handbook were supplied by the following persons and organizations, listed in order of discussion of the several breeds.

American Albino Association, Inc.

American Buckskin Registry Association

Krona Horse Farms

American Paint Horse Association

American Saddle Horse Breeders Association

Appaloosa Horse Club, Inc.

International Arabian Horse Association

Mr. A. Mackay-Smith

Mavis Connemara Farm

Galiceno Horse Breeders Association, Inc.

American Hackney Horse Society and Kennedy Pony Farm

Mrs. Margit Sigray Bessenyey

Missouri Fox Trotting Horse Breed Association, Inc.

American Morgan Horse Association, Inc.

Mr. Sam Roberts

Mr. George LaHood, Jr.

American Association of Owners and Breeders of Peruvian Paso Horses

Pinto Horse Association of America, Inc.

Pony of the Americas Club, Inc.

Mr. Lewis J. Moorman, Jr.

American Shetland Pony Club

Mr. Robert E. Brislawn

United States Trotting Association

Voice Publishing Co, (Voice of the Tennessee Walking Horse)

The Jockey Club

Welsh Pony Society of America, Inc.

Ill
Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 353, "Horsemanship

and Horse Care/' also gives information on horses, but in a

more condensed form.
CONTENTS

Page

Introductioni

Breeds and their characteristics1

Selecting and judging horsesn

Breeding horses 21

Feeding horses g^

Management of horses 40

Buildings and equipment 44

Diseases and parasites 50

Horsemanship^ QI

Breed registry associations 79

Horse magazines gQ

Precautions g]^
BREEDING AND RAISING HORSES

By M. E. ENSMINGER, collaborator, Animal Science Research Division, Agricultural Research Service

INTRODUCTION

Light horses and ponies have continued to

increase in numbers and importance. Saddle

clubs are growing in membership. Horse shows

are increasing in size and number. More people

are riding horses for pleasure than ever before.

Projects in 4-H Horse Clubs outnumber projects in 4-H Beef Clubs.

On the western ranges, cow ponies are still

used in the traditional manner; mechanical

replacement has not yet been devised. Horseracing has become one of America's leading

spectator sports.

Horses may be classified as light horses,

ponies, or draft horses, according to size, build,

and use.

Light horses stand 14-2 to 17 hands high (a

hand is 4 inches). They weigh 900 to 1,400

pounds, and are used primarily for riding,

driving, or racing, or for utility purposes on the

farm. Light horses generally are more rangy

and are capable of more action and greater

speed than draft horses.

Ponies are under 14-2 hands high and weigh

up to 900 pounds.

Draft horses stand 14-2 to 17-2 hands high.

They weigh 1,400 pounds or more and are used

primarily for drawing loads and for other

heavy work.

Light horses and ponies are discussed in this

handbook.

BREEDS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

A breed of horses may be defined as a group

of horses having a common origin and possessing certain well-defined, distinctive, uniformly

transmitted characteristics that are not

common to other horses.

The common breeds of light horses and

ponies are discussed in the following list.^

^ No person or department has authority to approve a

breed. The only legal basis for recognizing a breed is

contained in the Tariff Act of 1930, which provides for

the duty-free admission of purebred breeding horses

provided they are registered in the country of origin.

But this applies to imported animals only. In this handbook, therefore, no oñicial recognition of any breed is

intended or implied. Rather, every effort has been made

to present the factual story of the breeds. In particular,

information about the new or less widely distributed

breeds is needed and often difficult to obtain.

American Albino Horse

American Albino Horses, or American White

Horses and Ponies, originated in the United

States, in Naper, Nebr. They have snow-white

hair, pink skin, and light blue, dark blue (near

black), brown, or hazel eyes. The breed ranges

from 8 to 17 hands high and includes both

ponies and horses.

American Albinos are used as riding and

utility horses. Their snow-white color makes

them attractive as trained horses for exhibition

purposes and as parade and flag bearer horses.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

the color is pale cream or off white.
BN-32S66

PICURE 1.—American Albino stallion, "White Wings,"

first permanently registered stallion of the breed.

American Buckskin

American Buckskin horses originated in the

United States. Coat colors are buckskin, red

dun, or grulla (mouse-dun). They have a dorsal

stripe, and usually a transverse stripe over the

withers and shoulders and zebra-type stripes on

the legs.

American Buckskins are used as stock

horses, pleasure horses, and show horses.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they have white markings above the knees and

hocks or white spots on the body.

American Gotland Horse

American Gotland Horses originated on the

Baltic island of Gotland, a part of Sweden. Coat

colors are bay, brown, black, dun, chestnut,

roan, or palomino, and some leopard and blanket markings. They average about 51 inches

high, with a range of 11 to 14 hands.

American Gotland Horses are used for harness racing (trotting), as pleasure horses and

jumpers, and as riding horses for children and

medium sized adults.

Pintos and animals with large markings are

disqualified for registration.

BN-32669

FIGURE 3.—American Gotland stallion, "Gulldson 40,"

sire of show, pleasure, jumping, and trot racing

ponies.

American Paint Horse

American Paint Horses^ originated in the

United States. Coat colors are white plus any

other color, but the coloring must be a recognizable paint. No discrimination is made against

glass, blue, or light-colored eyes.

BN-32575

FIGURE 2.—American Buckskin stallion, "Davis Poco

Don," a champion in breeding and performance competition.

' Two different associations have evolved for the registration of these vari-colored horses. In the Pinto Horse

Association of America, Inc., which is the older of the

two registries, the breed is known as Pinto Horse,

whereas in the American Paint Horse Association, the

breed is known as the American Paint Horse. Both

groups of horses are similar in color.
BN-32892

FIGURE 4.—American Paint Horse stallion, "Yellow

Mount," first American Paint Horse Association

champion and two-time National Champion Halter

Stallion.

American Paint Horses are used as pleasure

horses and for showing and racing.

Animals are disqualified for registration

unless they have natural white markings above

the knees or hocks, except on the face ; if they

have appaloosa coloring or breeding; if they

are adult horses under 14 hands high; or if

they are five-gaited horses,

American Saddle Horse

American Saddle Horses originated in the

United States, in Fayette County, Ky. Coat

colors are bay, brown, gray, chestnut, or black.

Gaudy white markings are undesirable. Animals have a long, graceful neck and proud

action. They furnish an easy ride with great

style and animation.

American Saddle Horses are used as threeand five-gaited saddle horses, and as harness,

pleasure, and stock horses.

Appaloosa

Appaloosa horses originated in the United

States—in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho—

from animals that first came from Fergana,

Central Asia. They have variable coat coloring

but usually there is white over the loin and hips,

with round or egg-shaped dark spots on the

white areas.

The eyes show more white than most breeds,

BN-32664

FIGURE 5.—American Saddle mare, "Plainview's Julia,"

twice winner of the five-gaited championship at the

Kentucky State Fair.

the skin is mottled, and the hoofs are striped

vertically black and white. Appaloosas are used

as stock, parade, race, and pleasure horses.

Animals are disqualified for registration

unless they have Appaloosa characteristics; if

they have draft horse, pony, albino, or pinto

breeding; if they are cryptorchids; or if they

are under 14 hands high at maturity, which is 5

years old or more.

BN-32B68

FIGURE 6.—Appaloosa stallion, "Little Navajo Joe,"

a champion stallion.
Arabian

Arabian horses originated on the Arabian

Peninsula. Coat colors usually are bay, gray, or

chestnut, and occasionally white or black.

White marks on the head and legs are common.

The skin is always dark.

These animals have a beautiful head, short

coupling, docility, great endurance, and a gay

way of going. They are used as saddle, stock,

show, race, and pleasure horses.

BN-32B57

FIGURE 7.—Arabian mare, "Domaba," U.S. National

Champion Mare and Canadian Champion Mare.

Cleveland Bay

Cleveland Bay horses originated in England,

in the Cleveland district of Yorkshire. The coat

color is always solid bay on the body and black

on the legs. These horses are larger than most

light horse breeds; they weigh from 1,150 to

1,400 pounds.

Cleveland Bays are used for riding, driving,

and all kinds of farm work. They also are used

in crossbreeding to produce heavyweight hunters.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they are any color but bay, although a few

white hairs on the forehead are permissible.

Connemara Pony

Connemara Ponies originated on the west

coast of Ireland. Coat colors usually are gray,

BN-32676

FIGURE 8.—Cleveland Bay stallion,

"Cleveland Farnley."

black, bay, dun, brown, or cream, and occasionally roan or chestnut.

These ponies are heavy boned, hardy, and

docile ; the average height is 14 hands. They are

used as jumpers, as show ponies under saddle

BN-32569

FIGURE 9.—Connemara Pony stallion, "Camus John's

Gladiator."
or in harness, and as riding ponies for both

adults and children.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they have piebald or skewbald coloring.

Galiceno

Galiceno horses originated in Galicia, a province in northwestern Spain. Horses of this

lineage were first brought to America by the

conquistadores, but these horses were not introduced to the United States as a breed until

1958. The most common coat colors are bay,

black, chestnut (sorrel), dun (buckskin), gray,

brown, or palomino.

At maturity, Galicenos are 12 to 13 hands

high and weigh 625 to 700 pounds. They are

used as riding horses.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they have albino, pinto, or paint coloring, or if

they are cryptorchids or monorchids.

FIGURE 11.—Hackney stallion, "May Day Creation,"

champion stallion and sire of champion ponies.

BN-32B67

FIGURE 10.—Galiceno stallion, "Gray Badger," cham-

• pion at the Southwestern Exposition and Fat Stock

Show, Port Worth, Tex.

Hackney

Hackney horses originated on the east coast

of England, in Norfolk and adjoining counties.

The most common colors are chestnut, bay, or

brown, and occasionally roan or black. White

marks are common and desirable.

In the show ring, custom decrees that

Hackney horses and ponies be docked and have

their manes pulled. They have a high natural

action.

Hackneys are used as heavy harness or

carriage horses and ponies, and for crossbreeding purposes to produce hunters and jumpers.

Hungarian Horse

Hungarian Horses are a very old breed that

originated in Hungary. The coat may be any

color, either broken or solid.

BN-32B72

FIGURE 12.—Hungarian mare, "Hungarian Barna."
6

These horses have a unique combination of

style and beauty with ruggedness. They are

used as stock, cutting, and pleasure horses, as

hunters and jumpers, and for trail riding.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they are cryptorchids or have glass eyes.

Missouri Fox Trotting Horse

Missouri Fox Trotting Horses originated in

the United States, in the Ozark Hills of Missouri and Arkansas. They usually are sorrel but

any color is accepted.

These horses are distinguished by the fox

trot gait. They are used as pleasure and stock

horses and for trail riding.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they cannot fox trot.

BN-32578

FIGURE 14.—Morgan stallion, "Rex's Major Monte."

FIGURE 13.—Missouri Fox Trotting Mare,

"Bay Jeannie."

Morgan

Morgan horses originated in the United

States, in New England. Coat colors are bay,

brown, black, or chestnut; extensive white

markings are uncommon.

Morgan horses are noted for their easy keeping qualities, endurance, and docility. They are

used as saddle and stock horses.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they are wall eyed or have white markings

above the knee or hock, except that white

markings on the face are acceptable.

Palomino

Palomino horses originated in the United

States from animals of Spanish extraction.

These horses are golden colored. They have a

light colored mane and tail of white, silver, or

ivory; the mane and tail may not have more

than 15 percent dark or chestnut hair. White

markings on the face or below the knees are

acceptable.

BN-32577

FIGURE 15.—Palomino stallion, "Mach I," a show

champion and winning racehorse.
Palominos are used as stock, parade, pleasure, saddle, and harness horses.

Animals of draft horse or pony breeding and

the offspring of piebald or albino breeding are

not eligible for registration.

Paso Fino

Paso Fino horses'* originated in the Caribbean

area, where they have existed for over 400

years. They have been registered in stud books

in Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Colombia.

The coat may be any color. Bay, chestnut, or

black with white markings are most common.

Occasionally, palominos and pintos appear.

Paso Finos are used as pleasure, cutting, and

' In the United States, two different breed associations

have evolved for the registration and promotion of horses

of Paso Fino background. But each of the registries has

slightly different standards. The American Paso Fino

Pleasure Horse Association, Inc., calls its breed Paso

Fino, whereas the American Association of Owners

and Breeders of Peruvian Paso Horses calls its breed

Peruvian Paso.

parade horses and for endurance riding and

drill team work.

Paso fino is Spanish, meaning fine step. The

paso fino gait may be described as a broken

pace. The legs on the same side move together,

but the hind foot strikes the ground a fraction

of a second before the front foot, producing a

four-beat gait.

Animals that do not possess the paso fino gait

or do not trace directly to purebred Paso Fino

ancestry are not eligible for registration.

Peruvian Paso

Peruvian Paso horses * originated in Peru.

The coat may be any color, but solid colors are

preferred.

These horses are naturally five gaited—walk,

paso, trot, huachano (broken pace), and canter.

They are used as pleasure, parade, and endurance horses.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they have light forequarters, coarseness, or

extreme height.

FIGURE 17.-

BN-32674

-Peruvian Paso stallion, "Broche del Oro."

Pinto Horse

Pinto Horses'^ originated in the United

States from horses brought in by the conquistadores. The coat should be half color or colors

and half white, with many spots well placed.

FIGURE 16.—Paso Fino gelding, "Sortibras," champion

on the Continent.

See footnote 3.

See footnote 2, p. 2.
8

The two distinct pattern markings are overo

and tobiano. Overo is a colored horse with

white areas extending upward from the belly

and lower regions, and there may be other

white markings ; but in tobiano the white areas

on the back extend downward, and there may

be other white markings as well. Glass eyes are

acceptable. The registry association has a separate registry for ponies and horses under 14

hands high.

Pintos are used for any light horse purpose,

but especially as show, parade, pleasure, and

stock horses.

FIGURE 18.—Pinto stallion, "Sabino Creek,"

a stock-horse tjrpe.

Pony of the Americas

Ponies of the Americas originated in the

United States, in Mason City, Iowa. Their coloring is like the Appaloosa. They have white over

the loin and hips and round or egg-shaped dark

spots on the white areas.

These ponies have the characteristics of Arabian and Quarter Horses in miniature. They

range in height from 46 to 54 inches and are

used as western-type riding ponies for children.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they are not within the height range; do not

have appaloosa coloring, including mottled skin

and large whites of the eyes ; if they have pinto

markings ; or if they are loud-colored roans.

FIGURE 19.—Pony of the Americas stallion, "Tomahawk's Big Creek," an international Grand Champion

Stallion and a winning performance pony.

Quarter Horse

Quarter Horses originated in the United

States. The most common colors are chestnut,

sorrel, bay, or dun and sometimes black, palomino, roan, or brown.

These horses are well muscled and powerfully built; they have small, alert ears and

sometimes heavily muscled cheeks and jaw.

They are used as stock, race, and pleasure

horses.

BN-32673

FIGURE 20.—Quarter Horse stallion, "Forecast," an

American Quarter Horse Association champion and

AAA racehorse.
Animals are disqualified for registration if

they have pinto, appaloosa, or albino coloring

or white markings on the underline.

Shetland Pony

Shetland Ponies originated in the Shetland

Islands. The coat may be any color, either

broken or solid.

These ponies are small. Two class sizes are

recognized by the breed registry: (1) 43 inches

and under and (2) 43 inches to 46 inches. They

are used as mounts for children, harness and

racing ponies, and roadsters.

Animals are disqualified for registration if

they are over 46 inches high.

BN-32826

FIGURE 21.—Shetland Pony stallion, "Curtiss Frisco

Pete," winner of six consecutive grand championships

at the National Shetland Congress.

Spanish Barb

Spanish Barbs originated in the United States,

in Oshoto, Wyoming. The coat can be any color,

solid or broken, except tobiano.

These horses have only five lumbar (loin

region) vertebrae; most breeds have six. Also,

they are characterized by short ears, a low-set

tail, and round leg bones. They are used for

trail riding and as cow ponies.

BN-32B66

FIGURE 22.—Spanish Barb stallion, "Syndicate."

Standardbred

Standardbred horses originated in the United

States. The most common colors are bay,

brown, chestnut, or black and occasionally

gray, roan, or dun.

Standardbreds are smaller, less leggy, and

more rugged than Thoroughbreds. They are

used for harness racing, either trotting or

pacing, and as harness horses in horse shows.

BN-32571

FIGURE 23.—Standardbred stallion, "Adios," leading

sire of money winners of the breed.
10

Tennessee Walking Horse

Tennessee Walking Horses originated in the

United States, in the Central Basin of Tennessee. Coat colors are sorrel, chestnut, black,

roan, white, bay, brown, gray, or golden. White

markings on the face and legs are common.

These horses are characterized by their running walk. They are used as plantation walking

horses and as pleasure and show horses.

FIGURE 24.—Tennessee Walking Horse stallion,

"Sun's Delight," a World Grand Champion.

BN-32B60

FIGURE 25.—Thoroughbred stallion, "Buckpasser,"

winner of more than $1.4 million.

These ponies are an intermediate size between

Shetland Ponies and other light horse breeds.

The American Welsh Stud Book stipulates two

height divisions: Division A cannot exceed

12-2 hands and Division B must be over 12-2

and not more than 14 hands.

Welsh Ponies are used for racing, trail

riding, parading, stock cutting, and hunting,

and as roadsters and mounts for children and

small adults.

Thoroughbred

Thoroughbred horses originated in England.

The most common coat colors are bay, brown,

black, or chestnut and, less frequently, roan or

gray. White markings on the face and legs are

common.

These horses are noted for their fineness of

conformation and their long, straight, wellmuscled legs. They are used as hunters and as

saddle, stock, race, and polo horses.

Welsh Pony

Welsh Ponies originated in Wales. The coat

may be any color except piebald or skewbald,

but gaudy white markings are not popular.

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BN-32663

FIGURE 26.—Welsh Pony stallion,

"1740 Liseter Shooting Star."
11

SELECTING AND JUDGING HORSES

Relatively few horses are inspected and evaluated by experienced judges. Most of them are

bought by persons who lack experience in judging but who have a practical need for the

animal and take pride in owning a good horse.

Before buying a horse, an amateur should get

the help of a competent horseman.

How to Select a Horse

When selecting a horse, the buyer must first

decide what kind of horse he needs. This means

that he must consider the following points.

(1) The mount should be purchased within a

price range that the buyer can afford.

(2) The amateur or child should have a quiet,

gentle, well-broken horse that is neither headstrong nor unmanageable. The horse should

never be too spirited for the rider's skill

(3) The size of the horse should be in keeping with the size and weight of the rider.

A small child should have a small horse or pony,

but a heavy man should have a horse of the

weight-carrying type. Also, a tall man or

woman looks out of place if not mounted on a

horse of considerable height.

(4) Usually the novice will do best to start

with a three-gaited horse and first master the

three natural gaits before attempting to ride a

horse executing the more complicated gaits.

(5) Other conditions being equal, the breed

and color of horse may be decided on the basis

of preference.

(6) The mount should be suited to the type of

work to be performed.

After deciding on the kind of horse needed

and getting an ideal in mind, the buyer is ready

to select the individual horse. Selection on the

basis of body conformation and performance is

the best single method of obtaining a good

horse. Of course, when animals are selected for

breeding purposes, two additional criteria

should be considered. These are (1) the record

of the horse^s progeny if the animal is old

enough and has reproduced and (2) the animal's pedigree. Also, show-ring winnings may

be helpful.

Proficiency in judging horses necessitates a

knowledge of: (1) The parts of a horse, (2) the

proper value assigned to each part (a score

card may be used for this purpose), (3) blemishes and unsoundnesses, (4) ways to determine age, (5) the gaits, and (6) colors and

markings.

Parts of a Horse

In selecting and judging horses, horsemen

usually refer to parts rather than the individual as a whole. Nothing so quickly sets a real

horseman apart from a novice as a thorough

knowledge of the parts and the language

commonly used in describing them. Figure 27

shows the parts of a horse.

Horse Score Card

A horse must conform to the specific type

that is needed for the function he is to perform.

Secondly, he should conform to the characteristics of the breed that he represents. The use of

a score card is a good way to make sure that no

part is overlooked and a proper value is

assigned to each part.

A score card is a listing of the different parts

of an animal, with a numerical value assigned

to each part according to its relative importance. Also, breed characteristics may be

considered in a score card. An all-breed horse

score card is shown on page 13.

Blemishes and Unsoundnesses

An integral part of selecting a horse lies in

the ability to recognize common blemishes and

unsoundnesses and the ability to rate the

importance of each.

A thorough knowledge of normal, sound

structure makes it easy to recognize imperfections.

Any deviation from normal in the structure

or function of a horse constitutes an unsoundness. From a practical standpoint, however, a

differentiation is made between abnormalities

that do and those that do not affect serviceability.
12

1. Muzzle

2. Nostril

3. Jaw

4. Cheek

5. Face

6. Eye

7. Forehead

8. Poll

9. Ear

10. Mane

11. Crest

FIGURE 27,—Parts of a horse.

12. Neck

IS. Throatlatch

14. Withers

15. Back

16. Loin

17. Croup

18. Hip

19. Coupling

20. Tail

21. Point of buttocks

22. Thigh

23. Quarter

24. Stifle

25. Rear flank

26. Sheath

27. Underline

28. Gaskin

29. Point of hock

30. Hock

31. Foot

32. Coronet

33. Pastern

BN-15178

34. Fetlock

35. Cannon

36. Knee

37. Forearm

38. Point of elbow

39. Arm

40. Point of shoulder

41. Ribs

42. Heart girth

43. Shoulder
13

ALL-BREED HORSE SCORE CARD

Characteristics

u

o

ce

.S'o

Breed type

Animals should possess the distinctive characteristics of the breed represented, including—

Color :

Height at maturity :

Weight at maturity :

Form

Style and beauty: Attractive, good carriage, alert, refined, symmetrical,

and all parts nicely blended together.

Body: Nicely turned; long well-sprung ribs; heavily muscled.

Back and loin: Short and strong, v^ide, well muscled, and short coupled.

Croup: Long, level, wide, muscular, with a high-set tail.

Rear quarters : Deep and muscular.

Gaskin: Heavily muscled.

Withers: Prominent, and of the same height as the high point of the

croup.

Shoulders: Deep, well laid in, and sloping about a 45-degree angle.

Chest: Fairly wide, deep, and full.

Arm and forearm : Well muscled.

Feet and legs

Legs: Correct position and set when viewed from front, side, and rear.

Pasterns : Long, and sloping at about a 45-degree angle.

Feet: In proportion to size of horse, good shape, wide and deep at heels,

dense texture of hoof.

Hocks: Deep, clean-cut, and well supported.

Knees: Broad, tapered gradually into cannon.

Cannons: Clean, flat, with tendons well defined.

Head and neck

Alertly carried, showing style and character.

Head: Well proportioned to rest of body, refined, clean-cut, with chiseled

appearance; broad, full forehead with great width between the eyes;

ears medium sized, well carried, and attractive; eyes large and prominent

Neck: Long, nicely arched, clean cut about the throatlatch, with head well

set on, gracefully carried.

Quality

Clean, flat bone; well-defined and clean joints and tendons, and fine skin and

hair.

Action

Walk: Easy, springy, prompt, balanced, a long step, with each foot carried

forward in a straight line ; feet lifted clear of the ground.

Troi; Prompt, straight, elastic, balanced, with hocks carried closely, and

high flection of knees and hocks.

Discrimination: Any abnormality that affects the serviceability of the horse.

Disqualiñcation: In keeping with breed registry or show regulations.

Total points or percent

15

35

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15

15

10

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S

0 ..

tí Oí

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PI 0)

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10

^ 15

100
14

BN-15177

FIGURE 28,—Location of points of common unsoundnesses in horses.

1. Undershot jaw

2. Parrot mouth

3. Blindness

4. Moon blindness

5. Poll evil

6. Fistulous withers

7. Stifled

8. Thoroughpin

9, Capped hock

10. Stringhalt

11. Curb

12. Bone spavin or jack

13. Bog spavin

14. Blood spavin

15. Bowed tendons

16. Sidebones

17. Cocked ankles

18. Quittor

19. Ring bone

20. Windpuffs

21. Splints

22. Knee sprung

23. Calf kneed

24. Capped elbow

25. Sweeney

26. Contracted feet, corns,

founder, thrush, quarter

or sand crack, scratches

or grease heel.

General : Heaves, hernia,

thick wind, roaring.

Blemishes include abnormalities that do not

affect serviceability^ such as wire cuts, rope

burns, nail scratches, or capped hocks.

Unsoundnesses include more serious abnormalities that affect serviceability.

Figure 28 shows the location of common

blemishes and unsoundnesses.

A buyer should consider the use to which he

intends to put the animal before he buys a

blemished or unsound horse.

How to Determine Age

The lifespan of horses averages about 18

years. Horses generally are at their best

between 3 and 12 years of age. This may vary

because of individual differences in animals or

because of differences in the kind of work they

do.

The age of horses is, therefore, important to

breeder, seller, and buyer.
15

TABLE 1.—Types and number of teeth in horses

Number of teeth

Types of teeth

Mature

male

-Mature

female

Young

animal,

either

sex

Molars or grinders 24

12

4

24

12

0

12

Incisors or front teeth

The 2 central incisors

are known as centrals

or nippers; the next 2,

1 on each side of the

nippers, are called intermediates or middles; and the last, or

outer pair, are the

corners.

Tushes or pointed teeth

These are located between the incisors and

molars in males. Females do not have

tushes as a rule.

12

0

Total teeth 40 36 24

The approximate age of a horse can be determined by noting time of appearance, shape, and

degree of wear of temporary and permanent

teeth. Temporary, or milk, teeth are easily distinguishable from permanent ones because they

are smaller and whiter.

The best way to learn to determine age in

horses is by examining the teeth of individual

horses of known ages.

A mature male horse has 40 teeth and a

mature female has 36, as shown in table 1.^

A foal of either sex has 24. The mare does not

have tushes as a rule.

Figures 29 to 43 are guides for determining

the age of horses by their teeth.

Even experienced horsemen cannot determine the age of an animal accurately after it is

^ Quite commonly, a small, pointed tooth, known as a

"wolf tooth,'* may appear in front of each molar in the

upper jaw, thus increasing the total number of teeth to

42 in the male and 38 in the female. Less frequently, two

more wolf teeth in the lower jaw increase the total number of teeth in the male and female to 44 and 40, respectively.

12 years old. After this age, the teeth change

from oval to triangular and they project or

slant forward more and more as the horse

becomes older.

Side views of the mouths of 5-, 7-, and 20-

year-old horses are shown in figure 44.

An animal's environment can aifect wear on

the teeth. Teeth of horses raised in dry sandy

areas, for example, will show more than normal

wear; a 5-year-old western horse may have

teeth that would be normal in a 6- to 8-year-old

horse raised elsewhere. The teeth of cribbers

also show more than normal wear. The age of

such animals is hard to determine, and the age

of horses with a parrot mouth also is difficult to

estimate.

The Gaits

A gait is a particular way of going, either

natural or acquired, that is characterized by a

distinctive rhythmic movement of the feet and

legs (fig. 45).

The walk is a natural, slow, flatfooted, fourbeat gait. A four-beat gait is one in which each

foot leaves and strikes the ground at separate

intervals. The walk should be springy, regular,

and true.

The trot is a natural, rapid, two-beat, diagonal gait in which a front foot and the opposite

hind foot take off and strike the ground simultaneously. There is a brief moment when all

four feet are off the ground and the horse seems

to float through the air.

The canter is a slow, restrained, three-beat

gait. Two diagonal legs are paired and produce

a single beat that falls between the successive

beats of the two unpaired legs. The canter imposes a special wear on the leading forefoot and

its diagonal hindfoot. It is important, therefore,

to change the lead frequently.

The lope is the western adaptation of a very

slow canter. It is a smooth, slow gait in which

the head is carried low.

The run or gallop is a fast, four-beat gait in

which the feet strike the ground separately—

first one hind foot, then the other hind foot,

then the front foot on the same side as the first

hind foot, and then the other front foot, which

decides the lead. There is a brief interval when

all four feet are off the ground. The gallop is the
16

FIGURE 29.—Temporary incisors to 10 days of aget

First or central upper and lower temporary incisors

appear.

FIGURE 30.~Temporary incisors at 4 to 6 weeks of

age: Second or intermediate upper and lower temporary incisors appear.

FIGURE 31,—Temporary incisors at 6 to 10 months:

Third or corner upper and lower temporary incisors

appear.

FIGURE 32.—^Temporary incisors at 1 year: Crowns of

central temporary incisors show wear.

FIGURE 34.—Temporary incisors at 2 years:

All show wear.

FIGURE 33.—Temporary incisors at 1% years:

Intermediate temporary incisors show wear.

FIGURE 35.—Incisors at 4 years: Permanent incisors

replace temporary centrals and intermediates; temporary corner incisors remain.

Figs. 29 to 36,

BN-37807

FIGURE 36.—Incisors at 5 years: All permanent;

cups in all incisors.
17

FIGURE 37.—Incisors at 6 years: Cups worn out of

lower central incisors.

FIGURE 39.—Incisors at 8 years: Cups worn out of all

lower incisors, and dental star (dark line in front of

cup) appears on lower central and intermediate pairs.

FIGURE 38.—-Incisors at 7 years: Cups worn out of

lower intermediate incisors.

FIGURE 40.—Incisors at 9 years: Cups worn out of

upper central incisors; dental star on upper central

and intermediate pairs.

FIGURE 41.—Incisors at 10 years: Cups worn out of

upper intermediate incisors, and dental star is present in all incisors.

FIGURE 42.—Incisors at 11 or 12 years: Cups worn in

all incisors (smooth mouthed), and dental star approaches center of cups.

FIGURE 43.—Characteristic shape of lower incisors at 18 years.

Figs. 37 to 43,

BN-37808
18

BN-5969

FIGURE 44.—Side view of 5-, 7-, and 20-year-old mouth. Note that as the horse advances, in age, the teeth change

from nearly perpendicular to slanting sharply toward the front.

WALK

Triangular support

TROT

" Diagonal

linear support

PACE

Lateral linear support

FIGURE 45.—The gaits of horses.
19

fast natural gait of both wild horses and Thoroughbred racehorses.

The pace is a fast two-beat gait in which the

front and hind feet on the same side start and

stop simultaneously. The feet rise just above

the ground level. There is a split second when

all four feet are off the ground and the horse

seems to float through the air.

Colors and Markings of Horses

Within certain breeds, some colors are preferred or required, and others are undesirable

or constitute disqualifications for registration.

A good horseman needs a working knowledge

of horse colors and patterns because they are

the most conspicuous features by which a horse

can be described or identified.

Body colors

The five basic body colors of horses are as

follows :

Bay.—Bay is a mixture of red and yellow. It

includes many shades, from a light yellowish

tan (light bay) to a dark, rich shade that is

almost brown (dark bay). A bay horse usually

has a black mane and tail and black points.

Star Stripe Blaze

Star, stripe, Snip Bald Star and stripe

and snip

BN-37794

FIGURE 46.—The head marks of horses. Star is any white mark on the forehead located above a line running from

eye to eye ; stripe is a narrow white marking that extends from about the line of the eyes to the nostrils; blaze

is a broad, white marking covering almost all the forehead but not including the eyes or nostrils; star, stripe,

and snip includes all three of these marks; snip is a white mark between the nostrils or on the lips ; bald is a

bald, or white, face including the eyes and nostrils, or a partially white face; star and stripe incudes both a

star and stripe.
20

Black.—A black horse is completely black,

including the muzzle and flanks. If in doubt

whether the horse is dark brown or black, note

the color of the fine hairs on the muzzle and the

hair on the flanks ; tan or brown hairs at these

points indicate the horse is not a true black, but

a seal brown.

Brown.—A brown horse is almost black but

can be distinguished by the fine tan or brown

hairs on the muzzle or flanks.

Chestnut (sorrel).—A chestnut horse is basically red. The shades vary from light washy

yellow (light chestnut) to a dark liver color

(dark chestnut). Between these come the brilliant red-gold and copper shades. Normally, the

mane and tail of a chestnut horse are the same

shade as the body, although they may be

lighter. When they are lighter, the coloring is

called flaxen mane and tail. Chestnut color is

never accompanied by a black mane and tail.

White.—A true white horse is born white

and remains white throughout life. White

horses have snow-white hair, pink skin, and

brown eyes (rarely blue).

Besides the five basic colors, horses have five

major variations to these coat colors. The variations are as follows :

Dun (buckskin).—Dun is a yellowish color

of variable shading from pale yellow to a dirty

canvas color. A dun horse has a stripe down

the back.

Gray.—This is a mixture of white and black

hairs. Sometimes a gray horse is difíicult to

distinguish from a black horse at birth, but

gray horses get lighter with age.

Palomino.—This is a golden color. Palomino

horses have a light colored mane and tail of

white, silver, or ivory.

Pinto (calico or paint).—Pinto is a Spanish

word that means painted. The pinto color is

characterized by irregular colored and white

areas in either piebald or skewbald patterns.

Piebald horses are black and white, and skewbald horses are white and any other color except

black.

Roan.—Roan is a mixture of white hairs with

one or more base colors. White with bay is red

roan; white with chestnut is strawberry roan;

and white with black is blue roan.

Head marks

When identifying an individual horse, it is

generally necessary to include more identification than just body color. For example, it may

be necessary to identify the dark sorrel as the

one with the blaze face. Some common head

markings are shown in figure 46.

Leg marks

Leg marks are often used, along with head

marks, to describe a horse. The most common

leg marks are shown in figure 47.

A B D

ff

H

BN-37811

FIGURE 47.—The leg marks of horses. (A) Coronet, a

white stripe covering the coronet band; (B) Pastern,

white extends from the coronet to and including the

pastern; (C) Ankle, white extends from the coronet

to and including the fetlock; (D) Half stocking,

white extends from the coronet to the middle of the

cannon; (E) Stocking, white extends from the coronet to the knee, and when the white includes the knee

the mark is called a full stocking; (F) White heels,

both heels are white; (G) White outside heel, outside heel only is white; (H) White inside heel, inside

heel only is white.
21

BREEDING HORSES

Horse owners who plan to breed one or more

mares should have a working knowledge of

heredity and know how to care for breeding animals and foals. The number of mares bred that

actually conceive varies from about 40 to 85

percent, with the average running less than 50

percent. Some mares that do conceive fail to

produce living foals. This means that, on the

average, two mares are kept a whole year to

produce one foal, and even then, some foals are

disappointments from the standpoint of quality.

Heredity in Horses

The gene is the unit that determines heredity.

In the body cells of horses there are many chromosomes. In turn, the chromosomes carry pairs

of minute particles, called genes, which are the

basic hereditary material (fig. 48). The nucleus

of each body cell of horses contains 32 pairs of

chromosomes, or a total of 64; whereas there

are thousands of pairs of genes.

When a sex cell (a sperm or an egg) is

formed, only one chromosome and one gene of

each pair goes into it. Then, when mating and

fertilization occur, the 32 single chromosomes

from the germ cell of each parent unite to form

new pairs, and the chromosomes with their

size

BN-37810

FIGURE 48.—A pair of bundles, called chromosomes,

carrying minute particles, called genes. Tlie genes

determine all the hereditary characteristics of living

animals, from length of leg to body size.

genes are again present in duplicate, in the

body cells of the embryo. Thus, with all possible

combinations of 32 pairs of chromosomes and

the genes that they bear, it is not strange that

full sisters (except identical twins from a

single egg split after fertilization) are so

different. Actually we can marvel that they bear

as much resemblance to each other as they do

Because of this situation, the mating of a

mare with a fine track record to a stallion that

transmits good performance characteristics

will not always produce a foal of a merit equal

to its parents. The foal could be markedly

poorer than the parents or, in some cases, it

could be better than either parent.

Simple and multiple gene inheritance occurs

m horses, as in all animals. In simple gene

inheritance, only one pair of genes is involved ;

thus, a pair of genes may be responsible for

some one specific trait in horses. However, most

characteristics, such as speed, are due to many

genes; hence, they are called multiple-gene

characteristics.

For most characteristics, many pairs of

genes are involved. For example, growth rate

m foals is affected by (1) appetite and feed

consumption, (2) the proportion of the feed

eaten that is absorbed, and (3) the use to which

the nutrients are put—whether they are used

for growth or fattening, and each in turn is

probably afiiected by different genes. Because

multiple characteristics show all manner of

gradation from high to low performance, they

are sometimes referred to as quantitative

traits. Thus, quantitative inheritance refers to

the degree to which a characteristic is inherited. For example, all racehorses can run and

all mherit some ability to run, but it is the degree to which they inherit the ability that is

important.

Dominant and recessive factors exist in

horses. Some genes have the ability to prevent

or mask the expression of others, with the

result that the genetic makeup of such animals

cannot be recognized with accuracy. This is

called dominance. The gene that is masked is

recessive. Because black is dominant to chestnut, all of the offspring will be black when a
22

pure black stallion is crossed with a chestnut

mare.

The resulting black offspring are not genotypically pure ; they are Bb, where B stands for

the dominant black and b for the recessive chestnut. These black, or Fi (first cross), animals

will produce germ cells carrying black and

chestnut genes in equal proportion (fig. 49).

Then if an Fi stallion is crossed with Fi

mares, the F2 (second cross) population will

on the average consist of three blacks to one

chestnut.

The chestnut in the F2 population, being a

recessive, will be pure for color. That is, the

mating of any two chestnut horses will

produce, according to the most authoritative

work, chestnut offspring; this is the situation

in the Suffolk breed of draft horses where all

animals of the breed are chestnuts. Of the three

Black Stallion Chestnut Mare

Intermating of 1st Generation

Br

^

r^B

Arrows indicate possible ways

gametes can unite

2d Generation

1@ 2@ 1@

Pure

Black

Impure or

Hybrid Blacks

Pure

Chestnut

FIGURE 49.—Gene inheritance in horses.

blacks in the Fo, however, only one is pure for

black wiih the genetic constitution BB. The

other two will be Bb in genetic constitution and

will produce germ cells carrying B and b in

equal proportion.

Dominance often makes it difficult to identify

and discard all animals carrying an undesirable

recessive factor. In some cases, dominance is

neither complete nor absent, but incomplete, or

partial, and expressed in a variety of ways. The

best known case of partial dominance in horses

is the palomino coloring.

Heredity and environment in quantitative

traits function in horses just as they do in all

animals. Therefore, maximum development of

characteristics of economic importance such as

growth, body form, or speed cannot be achieved

unless horses receive proper training, nutrition,

and management.

The problem of the horse breeder is to select

the best animals available genetically to be parents of the next generation. Because only 15 to

30 percent of the observed variation among animals may be due to heredity, and because environmental differences can produce misleading

variations, mistakes in the selection of breeding

animals are inevitable.

The sex of an animal is determined by chromosomes. The mare has a pair of similar chromosomes called X chromosomes, and the stallion has a pair of unlike sex chromosomes

called X and Y chromosomes.

The sex chromosomes in each pair separate

from one another when the germ cells are

formed. Thus, each of the ova or eggs produced

by the mare contains the X chromosome; but

the sperm of the stallion are of two types, onehalf containing the X chromosome and the

other half the Y chromosome (ñg. 50). Since,

on the average, the eggs and sperm unite at

random, it can be understood that half of the

progeny will contain the chromosomal makeup

XX (female) and other half XY (male).

Both the stallion and the mare are equally

important to any one offspring. But a stallion

generally can have many more offspring than a

mare can and, from a hereditary standpoint, is

more important to the herd or breed.

Prepotency is the ability of an animal to

stamp its characteristics on its offspring so the
23

BN-37800

FIGURE 50.—An illustration of the mechanism of sex determination in horses, showing how sex is determined

by the chromosomal makeup of the individual.

offspring resemble that parent or they resemble

each other more than usual.

Nicking results when the right combination

of genes for good characteristics is contributed

by each parent. Thus, animals nick well when

their respective combinations of good genes

complement each other.

Family names of horses have genetic significance only if (1) they are based on a linebreeding program that keeps the family closely

related to the admired stallion or mare carrying

the particular name and (2) members of the

family have been rigidly culled. Family names,

therefore, lend themselves to speculation, and

often have no more significance than human

family names.

Systems of breeding, whether planned or by

chance, have made it possible to produce horses

specially adapted to riding, racing, or driving.

There is no one best system of breeding or

secret of success for all conditions. Each breeding program is an individual case, requiring

careful study. The choice of the system of

breeding should be determined primarily by the

size and quality of the herd, by the finances and

skill of the operator, and by the ultimate goal

ahead.

The systems of breeding from_ which the

horseman may select are discussed as follows:

(1) Purebreeding is the system in which the

lineage, regardless of the number of generations

removed, traces back to the foundation animals

accepted by the breed or to animals that have

been subsequently approved for infusion. Purebreeding may be conducted as either inbreeding

or outcrossing, or part of each.

(2) Inbreeding is the mating of animals

more closely related than the average of the

population from which they came. It may be

done either by closebreeding or linebreeding.

(a) Closebreeding is breeding closely

related animals such as sire

to daughter, son to dam, or brother

to sister.

(5) Linebreeding is breeding related

animals so as to keep the ofi'spring

closely related to some highly

admired ancestor such as half

brother to half sister, female descendent to grandsire, or cousin to

cousin.

(3) Outcrossing is the mating of animals

that are members of the same breed but that

show no relationship in the pedigree for at

least four to six generations.

(4) Grading up is breeding a purebred sire

of a given breed to a native, or grade, female.

(5) Crossbreeding is mating animals of

different breeds.

The Stallion

The stallion should be a purebred animal, a

good representative of the breed selected, and a

superior individual in type and soundness. If he

is an older horse with progeny, the progeny

should be of uniformly high quality and of

approved type and soundness.

Reproductive organs of the stallion

The stallion's functions in reproduction are

(1) to produce the male reproductive cells, the

sperm, or spermatozoa, and (2) to introduce

sperm into the female reproductive tract at the

proper time. Figure 51 is a schematic drawing

of the reproductive organs of the stallion.

The two testicles are the primary sex organs

of the stallion. They produce the sperm and a
¿4

Bladder

I

Vas deferená^

Seminal vesicle

Prostate gland

Urethra

Cowper's gland

Epididymis

Testicle

Scrotum

BN-37805

FIGURE 51,—Reproductive organs of the stallion.

hormone called testosterone, which regulates

and maintains the male reproductive tract in

its functional state and is responsible for the

masculine appearance and behavior of the stallion.

Sperm are produced in the inner walh or

surface of the seminiferous tubules, which are

a mass of minute, coiled tubules. These tubules

merge into a series of larger ducts that carry

the sperm to a coiled tube called the epididymis.

The epididymis is the place where the sperm

are stored and where they mature, or ripen.

The testicles and epididymides are enclosed

in the scrotum, the chief function of which is

thermoregulatory. The scrotum maintains the

testicles at temperatures several degrees cooler

than the rest of the body.

From the epididymis, the sperm move

through a tube, the vas deferens, into the urethra. The urethra has a dual role. It carries

urine from the bladder through the penis and

sperm from the junction with the vas deferens

to the end of the penis.

Along the urethra are the accessory glands.

These are the prostate, the seminal vesicles,

and cowper's gland. Their fluids nourish and

preserve the sperm and provide a medium that

transports the sperm. The fluids and sperm

combined are called semen.

Care and management of the stallion

The following points are pertinent to the care

and management of the stallion.

Quarters.—The most convenient arrangement is a roomy box stall that opens directly

into a 2- or 3-acre pasture.

Feeding.—The feed requirements are covered

in the section on feeding horses.

Exercise.—Allow the stallion the run of a

sizeable pasture but also provide additional,

unhurried exercise either under saddle or

hitched to a cart; by longeing; or by leading.

Grooming.—Groom the stallion daily to make

him more attractive and to assist in maintaining his good health and condition.

Age and service.—Limit the mature stallion

to not more than two services per day, one

early in the morning and the other late in the

afternoon ; allow 1 day of rest each week.

The number of hand matings per year for

stallions of different ages should be limited as

follows : 2 years old, 10 to 15 ; 3 years old, 20 to

40 ; 4 years old, 30 to 60 ; mature horses, 80 to

100; and over 18 years old, 20 to 40. Limit the

2-year-olds to two to three services per week;

the 3-year-oIds to one service per day ; and the

4-year-oIds or over to two services per day. A

stallion may remain a vigorous and reliable

breeder up to 20 to 25 years of age.

There are breed differences. Thus, when first

entering stud duty, the average 3-year-old

Thoroughbred should be limited to 20 to 25

mares per season, but a Standardbred of the

same age may breed 25 to 30 mares. A 4- to

5-year-old Thoroughbred should be limited to

30 to 40 mares per season, but a Standardbred

of the same age may breed 40 to 50 mares.

Stallion Breeding Contract

The stallion breeding contract should always

be in writing; and the higher the stud fee, the

more important it is that good business methods are practiced. Neither ''gentlemen's agreements'' nor "barn door records" will suffice,

A breeding contract is binding on the parties

who sign it. Thus, the contract should be carefully read and fully understood before it is

signed.

A sample stallion breeding contract is shown

on page 25. The contract should be executed in

duplicate for each mare, one copy to be retained

by each party.

The Mare

Characteristics found in the broodmare are

likely to be reflected in the offspring. It is fun-
25

Breeding Contract

This contract for the breeding season of made and entered into by and between

( year) ( owner of stallion )

, herein after designated stallion owner, and

(address) (owner of mare) (address)

hereinafter designated mare owner.

This contract covers—

The stallion, , whose service fee is % ; $ of which is paid

(name of stallion)

with this contract and the balance will be paid before the mare leaves .

(name of farm or ranch)

and

The mare, , reg. no. , by . out of , ,

(name of mare) (sire) (dam)

age , , color

The mare owner agrees that—

Upon arrival, the mare will (a) be halter broken, (b) have the hind shoes removed, and (c) be accompanied by a health certificate signed by a veterinarian, certifying that she is healthy and in sound breeding condition.

Stallion owner will not be responsible for accident, disease, or death to the mare, or to her foal (if she has

a foal).

Stallion owner may, at his discretion, have his veterinarian (a) check and treat the mare for breeding condition or diseases, and (b) treat her for parasites if needed, with the expenses of such services charged to

the mare owner's account and paid when the mare leaves the farm or ranch.

He will pay the following board on his mare at the time the mare leaves the farm or ranch : Feed and facilities $ per day.

Should the mare prove barren, or should the foal die at birth, he will send notice of same, signed by a

licensed veterinarian, within 5 days of such barren determination or death.

Should he fail to deliver the above mare to the stallion owner's premises on or before , stallion

(date)

owner shall be under no further obligation with respect to any matter herein set forth.

This contract shall not be assigned or transferred. In the event the mare is sold, any remaining unpaid fee

shall immediately become due and payable and no refund shall be due anyone under any circumstances.

The stallion owner agrees that—

He will provide suitable facilities for the mare and feed and care for her in a good and husbandlike manner.

Mare owner will not be responsible for any disease, accident, or injury to stallion owner's horses.

A live foal is guaranteed—meaning a foal that can stand up alone and nurse.

The stallion owner and mare owner mutually agree that—

This contract is not valid unless completed in full.

Should the above named stallion die or become unfit for service, or should the above named mare die or become unfit to breed, this contract shall become null and void and money paid as part of this contract

shall be refunded to mare owner.

Should the mare prove barren, or should the foal die at birth, with certification of same provided to stallion

owner within the time specified, the stallion owner has the option either to (a) rebreed the mare the

following year, or (b) refund the $ portion of the breeding fee, thereby cancelling this entire contract.

The mare will not receive more than covers during the breeding season, and she will not be

(number)

bred before , 19 , or after ., 19^

(date) (signature, mare owner or rep.) (address)

(date) (signature, stallion owner or rep.) (address)
26

damental that ''like tends to produce like/' The

broodmare should possess an abundance of femininity in addition to being sound and of good

type. She should be of good ancestry, whether

purebred or grade.

Reproductive organs of the mare

The mare's functions in reproduction are to

(1) produce the female reproductive cells, the

eggs or ova; (2) develop the new individual,

the embryo, in the uterus; (3) expel the fully

developed young at the time of birth, or parturition; and (4) produce milk for the nourishment of the young.

The part played by the mare in the generative process is much more complicated than

that of the stallion. It is imperative, therefore,

that the modern horseman have a full understanding of the anatomy of the reproductive

organs of the mare and the functions of each

part. Figure 52 show^s the reproductive organs

of the mare.

The two ovaries are the primary sex organs

of the mare. They are somewhat bean-shaped

organs 2 to 3 inches long. The ovaries produce

eggs. Each egg is contained in a bubblelike sac

on the ovary, called a follicle. There are

hundreds of follicles on each ovary. Generally,

the follicles remain unchanged until puberty

when one of them begins to grow because of an

increase in the follicular liquid in it; the others

remain small. The egg is suspended in the follicular fluid.

When the growing follicle is about an inch in

diameter, a hormone causes it to rupture and

Cervix (section of vagina wall removed)

Broad ligament

BN-37804

FIGURE 52.—Reproductive organs of the mare.

discharge the egg. This is known as ovulation

and is the time when mating should take place.

The egg is trapped in a funnel-shaped membrane, called the infundibulum., that surrounds

the ovary. The infundibulum narrows into a

tube called the oviduct. The oviduct then

carries the egg to the uterus, or womb, the

largest of the female reproductive organs,

where the unborn young, or fetus, will develop.

The lining of the uterus is soft and spongy.

It contains a vast network of blood vessels that

provide a "bed'' for the fertilized egg to settle

into and develop. At birth, the heavy layers of

muscles of the uterus wall contract wdth great

pressure to force the new animal out through

the cervix and vagina.

Breeding habits and care of the mare

A knowledge of the mare's normal breeding

habits will help to improve the fertility rate.

However, not all mares that conceive give birth

to live foals. So, improved care and management of the pregnant m.are are important also.

The age of puberty for mares is 12 to 15

months ; the duration of heat ranges from 1 to

37 days, and averages 4 to 6 days ; the interval

between heat periods ranges from 10 to 87

days, and averages 21 ; and the gestation period

ranges from 310 to 370 days, and averages 336.

The following points are pertinent to the

care and management of the mare:

Age to breed.—Well-grown fillies may be

bred as 2-year-olds, but most fillies are not bred

until they are 3 years old.

Normal breeding season and time of foaling,

—•Spring is the ideal season for both breeding

and foaling. Persons who race or show horses

want foals to be born as soon as possible after

January 1.

Conditioning for breeding.—Mares are conditioned by proper feeding and adequate exercise.

Signs of heat.—In season, mares generally

exhibit (1) relaxation of the external genitals,

(2) more frequent urination, (3) teasing of the

other mares, (4) apparent desire for company,

and (5) slight mucus discharge from the

vagina.

The breeding operation.—No phase of horse

production has become more unnatural or more

complicated with domestication than the actual
27

breeding operation. This is so because breeders

try to get mares bred in about 4 months instead

of 12 and have arbitrarily limited the breeding

season to late winter and early spring. The following facts and pointers are pertinent to the

breeding operation :

(1) Hand mating, in which the animals are

coupled under supervision, is the most common.

It guards against injury to both the stallion

and the mare. However, corral or pasture

breeding may be preferable under certain

conditions. For example, corral breeding may

be resorted to when only one person is handling

the breeding operation, and pasture breeding is

sometimes followed on the ranges of the West.

In corral breeding, the stallion and the mare

are turned together in a corral; in pasture

breeding, the stallion is turned to pasture with

a band of mares.

(2) Breed only healthy mares to a healthy

stallion. Require that all mares from the outside be accompanied by a health certificate

signed by a veterinarian.

(3) Teasing is the best way in which to make

certain that a mare is in season.

(4) Serve the mare daily or every other day

during the heat period, beginning with the

third day.

(5) After making certain that the mare is in

season, wash the reproductive organs of the

stallion and the external parts of the mare that

are likely to come in contact with the reproductive organs of the stallion ; bandage the upper 6

to 8 inches of the mare's tail. Place a twitch

and hobbles on the mare and allow the sexual

act to be completed. Return the mare for retrial

approximately 21 days later.

Signs and tests of pregnancy.—The signs of

pregnancy are (1) cessation of the heat period

and (2) observed movement of the fetus

through the abdominal walls. A veterinarian or

an experienced horseman can determine pregnancy by making a rectal examination 40 to 60

days after the last service. Also, tests can be

made by a laboratory.

Quarters for the pregnant mare.—Pregnant,

idle mares should be turned to pasture. Pregnant mares that are used under saddle or in

harness may be given quarters like those of

other horses used similarly.

Feeding the pregnant mare.—Nutritive

requirements are discussed in the feeding

section of this handbook.

Exercise.—Mares that have the run of a

large pasture will usually get sufficient exercise.

Stabled mares should be exercised moderately

for an hour daily under saddle or hitched to a

cart. Continue this routine to within a day or

two of foaling. During the last couple of days,

mares may be led.

Signs of approaching parturition.—These

signs are a distended udder, which may be

observed 2 to 6 weeks before foaling ; a shrinkage or falling away of the buttocks muscles

near the tailhead and a falling of the abdomen

7 to 10 days before foaling; filling out of the

teats 4 to 6 days before foaling; and the

appearance of wax on the ends of the nipples 4

to 6 days before foaling. As foaling time draws

nearer, the vulva becomes full and loose; milk

drops from the teats; and the mare becomes

restless, may break into a sweat, urinates frequently, and lies down and gets up. But there

are times when all signs fail, so be prepared

30 days in advance of the expected time.

Foaling place.—When the weather is warm

and it can be arranged, allow the mare to foal

in a clean pasture away from other livestock.

During bad weather, use a box stall which has

been cleaned and disinfected with 13 ounces of

lye in 10 gallons of water; use one-half

strength solution in scrubbing mangers and

grain boxes. Sprinkle the floor and walls lightly

with quick lime or burnt lime. Provide plenty

of bedding for the occasion.

Foaling time.—The following information

and procedure may be helpful during foaling:

(1) The feed should be decreased and wheat

bran should be added.

(2) An attendant should be near but not in

sight.

(3) Normal presentation consists in the

front feet coming first with the heels down (fig.

53). If there is any other presentation, a veterinarian should be summoned at once.

(4) Make certain that the newborn foal is

breathing and that the membrane has been

removed from its mouth and nostrils. Then rub

and dry the foal with towels, treat the navel

cord with tincture of iodine, and let the mare
28

BN-33854

FIGURE 53.-—Normal presentation. The back of the fetus

is directly toward that of the mother, the forelegs are

extended toward the vulva with the heels down, and

the nose rests between the forelegs.

and foal rest for a time. Remove the expelled

afterbirth from the stall and burn or bury it ; it

is usually expelled within 1 to 6 hours after

foaling. Clean and rebed the stall after the

mare and foal are up. Give the mare small

quantities of lukev^arm water at intervals and

feed considerable wheat bran for the first few

days after foaling; take 7 to 10 days to get the

mare on full feed. Be observant; if the mare

has much temperature, call a veterinarian. The

normal temperature is 100.5^ F.

Breeding after foaling.—Some horsemen

rebreed mares during the first heat after foal=

ing, usually on the 8th or 9th day, providing the

birth was normal and the mare suffered no

injury or infection. Other horsemen prefer to

rebreed mares during the heat period that follows the foal heat (25 to 30 days from foaling),

provided there is no discharge or evidence of

infection.

The Foal

After the newborn foal starts breathing and

has been rubbed dry, put it in one corner of the

stall on clean, fresh straw. The mare usually

will be less restless if this corner is in the

direction of her head.

Protect the eyes of a newborn foal from

bright lights.

Treatment of the navel cord

If left alone, the navel cord of the newborn

foal usually breaks within 2 to 4 inches of the

belly. If it does not break, cut it about 2 inches

from the belly with clean dull shears or scrape

it in two with a knife. A torn or broken blood

vessel win bleed very little, but one cut directly

across may bleed excessively. Treat the severed

cord immediately with tincture of iodine, or

other reliable antiseptic; then leave the mare

and foal alone so they can rest and gain

strength.

Value of colostrum

Colostrum is milk secreted by the dam for

the first few days after parturition. It differs

from ordinary milk in that it is more concentrated ; is higher in protein content, especially

in globulin; is richer in vitamin A; contains

antibodies that protect the foal temporarily

against certain infections ; and is a natural purgative that removes fecal matter accumulated

in the digestive tract.

Do not dissipate the benefits of colostrum by

''milking out'' a mare shortly before foaling

time.

The first nursing

A strong, healthy foal will be on its feet and

ready to nurse within i/o to 2 hours after birth.

Before allowing the foal to nurse for the first

time, wash the mare's udder with a mild disinfectant and rinse thoroughly with clean, warm

water.

A big, awkward foal occasionally needs

assistance and guidance when it nurses the first

time. If the foal is stubborn, forced feeding will

be useless. Back the mare onto additional bedding in one corner of the stall and coax the foal

to the teats with a bottle and nipple. An attendant may hold the bottle while standing on the

opposite side of the mare from the foal.

A very weak foal should be given the mare's

first milk even if it is necessary to draw this

milk into a bottle and feed the foal one or two
29

times by nipple. An attendant sometimes must

steady a foal before it will nurse.

Bowel movement

Regulation of the bowel movement of the foal

is very important. Constipation and diarrhea

(scours) are common ailments.

Excrement impacted in the bowels during

prenatal development—material called meconium—may kill the foal if it is not eliminated

promptly. A good feed of colostrum usually will

cause natural elimination. This is not always

the case, however, especially when foals are

from stall-fed mares.

Observe the foaFs bowel movement 4 to 12

hours after birth. If there has been no fecal

discharge by this time, and the foal seems sluggish and fails to nurse, give it an enema. Use 1

to 2 quarts of water at body heat (101° F.)

mixed with a little glycerin, or use 1 to 2 quarts

of warm, soapy water. Inject the solution with

a baby syringe that has about a 3-inch nipple,

or use a tube and can. Repeat the treatment

until normal yellow feces appear.

If the foal is scouring, reduce the mare's feed

and take away part of her milk from the foal at

intervals by milking her out.

Diarrhea or scours in foals may result from

infectious diseases or dirty surroundings. It is

caused by an irritant in the digestive tract that

should be removed. Give an astringent only in

exceptional cases and on the advice of a veterinarian.

Conditions that may cause diarrhea are contaminated udder or teats, nonremoval of fecal

matter from the digestive tract, fretfulness or

temperature above normal in the mare, too

much feed affecting the quality of the mare's

milk, a cold damp bed, or continued exposure

to cold rains.

Care of the suckling foal

Weather conditions permitting, there is no

better place for a mare and foal than on pasture. When the foal is from 10 days to 3 weeks

old, it will begin to nibble on a little grain and

hay. To promote thrift and early development,

and to avoid any setback at weaning time, encourage the foal to eat supplementary feed as

early as possible (fig. 54). The foal should be

provided with a low-built grain box especially

BN-33851

FIGURE 54.—-A foal creep. With this arrangement, the

foal can be fed separately from the dam.

for this purpose, or, if on pasture, the foal may

be creep fed.

Rolled oats and wheat bran, to which a little

brown sugar has been added, is especially palatable as a starting ration. Crushed or ground

oats, cracked or ground corn, wheat bran, and a

little linseed meal may be provided later with

good results. Or a good commercial ration may

be fed if desired and available.

Give the foal good hay, preferably a legume,

or pasture in addition to its grain ration. A

normal healthy foal should be eating one-half

pound of grain daily per 100 pounds of body

weight at 4 to 5 weeks of age. This ration

should be increased by weaning time to about

three-fourths of a pound or more per 100

pounds of body weight. The exact amount of

the ration varies with the individual, the type

of feed, and the development desired.

Foals normally reach one-half of their

mature weight during the first year under such

a system. Most breeders of Thoroughbreds and

Standardbreds plan to have their 2-year-old

animals at full height. Such results require liberal feeding from the beginning, A foal stunted

in the first year by insufficient feeding cannot

be developed properly later in life. It is well

recognized that forced development must be

done expertly if the animals are to remain

durable and sound.

Training the foal

If the foal is trained early, it will be a better

disciplined, more serviceable horse. Give les-
30

sons to the foal one at a time and in proper

sequence ; that is, be sure the pupil masters one

lesson before it is given the next one.

Put a well-fitted halter on the foal when it is

10 to 14 days old. When the foal has become

accustomed to the halter, in a day or so, tie the

foal securely in the stall beside the mare, Try to

keep the foal from freeing itself from the rope

or from becoming tangled up in it.

Leave the foal tied 30 to 60 minutes each day

for 2 or 3 days. Groom the animal carefully

while it is tied. Rub each leg and handle each

foot so that the foal becomes accustomed to

having its feet picked up. After the foal has

been groomed, lead it around with the mare for

a few days and then lead it by itself. Lead it at

both the walk and the trot. Many breeders of

Thoroughbreds teach a foal to lead simply by

leading it with the mare from the stall to the

paddock and back again.

At this stage of the training, be sure the foal

executes your commands to stop and go as soon

as you give them. When halted, make the foal

stand in show position—-squarely on all four

legs with its head up.

Use all your patience, gentleness, and firmness in training the foal. Never let your temper

get the best of you.

Weaning

Foals usually are weaned at 4 to 6 months of

age. Thorough preparation facilitates weaning.

It may be advisable to wean the foal at a

comparatively early age if either the foal or

mare is not doing well, if the mare is being

given heavy work, or if the mare was rebred on

the ninth day after foaling.

If by using a creep or a separate grain box

the foal has become accustomed to eating a

considerable amount of hay and about threefourths of a pound of grain daily per 100

pounds of body weight, weaning will cause only

a slight disturbance or setback. If the ration of

the dam is cut in half a few days before the

separation, her udder usually will dry up without difficulty.

Move the mare to new quarters from the stall

she shares with the foal Remove anything in

the stall on which the foal might hurt itself

during the first unhappy days that it lives

alone. Make the separation of the foal from the

mare complete and final. If the foal sees, hears,

or smells its dam again, the separation process

must be started all over again.

Decrease the mare's ration before and during

weaning. Rub camphorated oil or a mixture of

lard and spirits of camphor on the udder, but

do not milk out the udder until 5 to 7 days later

when it is soft and flabby.

Turn the foal out on pasture after a day or

two. If there are several weanlings together,

some of them might get hurt while running and

frolicking in the pasture. Guard against this by

first turning out two or three less valuable individuals and letting them tire themselves ; then

turn out the rest.

At this stage, if numerous weanlings are

involved, separate them by sexes. Put the more

timid ones by themselves. Do not run weanlings

with older horses.

Castration

Geldings, or castrated males, are safer and

easier to handle than stallions. Therefore, a colt

should be castrated unless he is to be saved for

breeding purposes. Have a veterinarian perform this operation. A colt may be castrated

when only a few days old, but most horsemen

prefer to delay the operation until the animal is

about a year old. While there is less real danger

to the animal and much less setback with early

altering, it results in imperfect development of

the foreparts. Delaying castration for a time

results in more muscular, bolder features and

better carriage of the foreparts.

Weather and management conditions permitting, the time of altering should be determined

by the development of the individual Underdeveloped colts may be left uncastrated 6 months

or even a year longer than overdeveloped ones.

Breeders of Thoroughbred horses usually

prefer to race them first as uncastrated animals.

There is less danger of infection if colts are

castrated in the spring soon after they are

turned out on clean pasture and before hot

weather and ''ñy time'' arrive. This is

extrem.ely important in the Southern States

because of the danger of screwworm infestation.
31

Breaking

A foal will not need breaking if it has been

trained properly. When a young horse can be

saddled or harnessed with satisfactory ease, it

is because the suggested training program has

been followed. Saddling and harnessing are

just additional steps. A good time to harness

and work the horse for the first time is during

the winter as a rising 2-year-old.

Raising the orphan foal

Occasionally, a mare dies during or immediately after parturition, leaving an orphan foal

to be raised. At other times, a mare may fail to

give sufficient milk, or she may have twins. In

such cases, the foal may be (1) shifted to

another mare^ known as a foster mother or

nurse mare, or (2) placed on mare's milk replacer, or synthetic milk, that is mixed and fed

according to the manufacturer's directions.

It is important, however, that the orphan

foal receive colostrum, preferably for about the

first 4 days of life. For this purpose, colostrum

from a mare that produces excess milk or one

that has lost her foal should be collected and

frozen from time to time; then, as needed, it

may be thawed and warmed to 100° to 105° F.

and fed.

For the first few days, the orphan foal should

be fed with a bottle and rubber nipple. Within

about 2 weeks, it may be taught to drink from a

pail. All receptacles must be kept sanitary

(clean and scald each time they are used) and

feeding must be at regular intervals. Dry feeding should be started at the earliest possible

time with the orphan foal.

The following formula may be used for feeding the orphan foal if a substitute milk must be

used:

1 pint of low fat cow's milk (2% fat).

4 ounces of lime water.

1 teaspoon of sugar.

Two teaspoons of lactose or corn sirup may

be used to replace the sugar and one large can

of evaporated cow's milk can be used with one

can of water to replace the fresh milk. The foal

should be fed about one-half pint every hour.

Give large foals slightly more than a pint.

After 4 or 5 days increase the interval to 2

hours. After a week, feed every 4 hours and

increase the quantity accordingly.

Feeding practices vary from one locality to

another—and among horsemen. The size of

individual horses, the use to which they are

put, the availability of feed, and the size of the

enterprise also cause differences.

Fundamentally, the nature of horses remains

the same. For this reason, successful feeding in

one stable is not much different from successful

feeding in another stable.

Skill and good judgment are essential in

feeding horses. Horsemen may secure widely

different results under similar conditions.

Horses may be in the best of condition in one

stable and have animation, nerve, speed, and

endurance. In another stable, listless animals

with dull eyes and rough coats testify to lack of

judgment in their feeding and management.

The unsatisfactory condition in the latter

stable may not mean that the owner tried to

economize on feed; horsemen who feed their

animals the most economically may have the

best horses.

FEEDING HORSES

The Digestive System

The alimentary canal includes the entire tube

extending from the mouth to the rectum.

Figure 55 and table 2 show the comparative

TABLE 2.—Capacities of digestive tracts of horsCf cow,

and pig ^

Parts of digestive tract Horse Cow Pig

Stomach

Quarts

8 to 16

Quarts

160

10

15

15

62

Quarts

6 to 8

Rumen (paunch)

Reticulum (honeycomb)

Omasum (manyplies)

Abomasum (true stomach of cow)

Small intestine

Cecum

48

28 to 32

80

9

Large intestine 40 10

^Values are for average size horses of 1,000 to 1,200

lb.
32

HORSE

Esophagus

Cecum28-32qt.

A /<^ Pelvic

^y^/?l Flexure

Stomach 8-16qt. Large Intestine 80 qt

^ ReticulumlOqt. ^^. „

, "^ \ At- -*(- i. Ooloni

Esoph-/^ I ^ Abomasum15qt.

agus ——.— -^

I , 1 Omasum (

V \/ 15 qt ^

X»,^^^,^ Rumen 160 qt.

Large ,

^ Small t-fIntestine 40 qt

JntestineJ^Y

62 qt. Cecum

PIG

Esophagus

Stomach 6-8 qt

Rectum

Large Intestine

10qt.

BN-37792

FIGURE 55.—Digestive tracts of the horse, cow, and pig.

structures and sizes of the digestive tracts of

farm animals. As noted, the digestive tract of a

horse is anatomically and physiologically quite

different from that of a ruminant. The digestive tract of horses is much smaller, with the

result that horses cannot eat as much roughage

as cattle. Also, the primary seats of microbial

activity in ruminants and horses occupy

different locations in the digestive system in

relation to the small intestine. In cows and

sheep, the rumen precedes the small intestine;

in horses, the cecum follows it.

Both the amount of bacterial synthesis and

the efficiency of absorption of nutrients synthesized by the micro-organisms are likely to be

lower in a horse than in a ruminant. In

comparison to a cow, therefore, a horse should

be fed less roughage, more and higher quality

protein (no urea), and added B vitamins. Actually, the nutrient requirements of a horse appear more nearly parallel to those of a pig than

a cow.

RecoHiinended Nutrient Allowances

Unfortunately, little experimental work has

been done on the minimum nutritional requirements of horses. However, presently available

information indicates that the nutrient allowances recommended in tables 3 and 4 will meet

the minimum requirements for horses and provide a reasonable margin of safety. A margin

of safety is important owing to (1) variations

in feed composition because of the soil on which

it was grown, stage of maturity when it was

harvested, amount of weathering, and losses in

processing and storage; and (2) differences in

environment and individual animals.

Minerals

The classical horse ration of grass, grass hay,

and farm grains is usually deficient in calcium,

but adequate in phosphorus. Also, salt is almost

always deficient ; and many horse rations do not

contain sufficient iodine. Thus, horses usually

need special mineral supplements. But do not

feed them either more or less minerals than

needed.

On the average, a horse will consume about 3

ounces of salt daily or 11/3 pounds per week,

although the salt requirements vary with work

and temperature.

The salt requirements, and any calcium or

phosphorus requirements not met by feeds, can

TABLE 3.—Recommended allowances of protein,

fiber, and total digestible nutrients (TDN)

Type of horse

Most mature horses

used for race, show,

or pleasure

Broodmares

Stallions _-

Young equines :

Foals, 2 weeks to 10

months old

Weanlings to 18

months old

18 months to 3 years

old

Minimum

crude

protein

Percent

12

13

14

21

14

13

Maximum

crude

fiber

Percent

25

25

25

8

20

25

Minimum

TDN

Percent

' 53 to 70

50 to 60

' 50 to 68

68 to 74

60

50 to 60

^ The heavier the work, the more energy is required.

^ Increase the energy immediately before and during

the breeding season.
TABLE 4.—Recommended allowances of

minerals and vitamins

Kind of mineral

or vitamin

Minerals :

Salt

Calcium

Phosphorus

Magnesium

Iron

Zinc

Manganese

Copper

Iodine

Cobalt

Vitamins:

Vitamin A USP

Vitamin Ds USP.

Vitamin E lU.

Choline mg.

Pantothenic acid-__mgNiacin mg.

Riboflavin mg.

Thiamine (Bi) ____mg.

Vitamin K mg.

Folie acid mgVitamin B12 fig ^

Daily

allowance

per 1,000-

pound

horse ^

2oz.

70.0 g.

60.0 g.

3,200 mg.

640 mg.

400 mg.

340 mg.

90 mg.

2.6 mg.

1.5 mg.

50,000

7,000

200

400

60

50

40

25

8

2.5

125

Allowance

per ton of

finished feed

(hay and

grain

combined)^

101b.

12.33 lb.

10.57 lb.

256 g.

51.2 g.

32.0 g.

27.2 g.

7.2 g.

.21 g.

.12 g.

4,000,000

560,000

16,000

32,000

4,800

4,000

3,200

2,000

640

200

10,000

^ This is based on an allowance of 25 pounds of feed

per l,000=pound horse per day, or 2.5 pounds of feed

per 100 pounds of body weight.

'Where hay is fed separately, double this amount

should be added to the concentrate.

^ Micrograms.

best be supplied by allowing free access to a

two-compartment box containing minerals. One

compartment should have iodized salt and the

other should contain a suitable mineral mixture.

It is important to have slightly more calcium

than phosphorus in horse rations. Although the

correct calcium to phosphorus ratio is not

known, it is suggested that it be kept at between

one to two parts calcium to one part phosphorus. A ration low in calcium and high in

phosphorus may cause osteomalacia in mature

horses. This condition may develop when rations with a Ca : P ratio of 0.8 to 1 are fed 6 to

33

12 months, and it will progress rapidly when

the ratio is 0.6 to 1. Either a home-mixed or a

commercial mineral may be used.

Vitamins

Certain vitamins are necessary to the

growth, development, health, and reproduction

of horses. Deficiencies of vitamins A and D are

sometimes encountered. Also, indications are

that vitamin E and some of the B vitamins

(riboflavin and perhaps thiamine) are required

by horses. Further, it is recognized that single,

uncomplicated vitamin deficiencies are the

exception rather than the rule.

High-quality, leafy, green forages plus plenty

of sunshine generally give horses most of the

vitamins they need. Horses get carotene (which

the animal can convert to vitamin A) and

riboflavin from green pasture and green hay

not over a year old. Horses get vitamin D from

sunlight and sun-cured hay.

Severe deficiency of vitamin A may cause

night blindness, reproductive difficulties, poor

or uneven hoof development, difficulty in

breathing, inr^oordination, and poor appetite.

There is also some evidence that deficiency of

this vitamin may cause or contribute to certain

leg bone weaknesses. When vitamin A

deficiency symptoms appear, the horseman

should add a stabilized vitamin A product to

the ration.

Foals sometimes develop rickets because of

insufficient vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus.

This can be prevented by exposing the animal

to direct sunlight as much as possible, by allowing it free access to a suitable mineral mixture,

or by providing it with good-quality sun-cured

hay or luxuriant pasture grown on well-fertilized soil. In northern areas that do not have

adequate sunshine, many horsemen provide the

foal with a vitamin D supplement.

Horses seem to require vitamin E. Most

practical rations contain liberal quantities of it,

perhaps enough except under conditions of

work stress or reproduction, or where there is

interference with its utilization. Rather than

buy and use costly vitamin E concentrates

indiscriminately, add them to the ration only on

the advice of a nutritionist or veterinarian.

A deficiency of riboflavin may cause periodic
34

ophthalmia (moon blindness), but it is known

that lack of this vitamin is not the only factor

in producing this condition. Sometimes moon

blindness follows leptospirosis in horses and it

may be caused by a localized hypersensitivity or

allergic reaction. Periodic ophthalmia caused

by lack of riboflavin may be prevented by feeding green hay and green pasture, supplying

feeds high in riboflavin, or by adding crystalline riboflavin to the ration at the rate of 40

mg. per horse per day.

A thiamine deficiency has been observed in

horses fed on poor quality hay and grain.

Although sufficient thiamine may be synthesized in the digestive system, the amount

absorbed may not always meet the full requirements. Other vitamins of the B complex may be

essential. Healthy horses usually get enough of

them either in natural rations or by synthesis

in the intestinal tract. When neither green pasture nor high-quality dry roughage is available,

B vitamins may be provided by adding to the

ration distillers dried solubles, dried brewers

yeast, or animal liver meal.

Water

Horses should have ample quantities of clean,

fresh, cool water. They will drink 10 to 12 gallons daily; the amount depends on weather,

amount of work done, and rations fed.

Free access to water is desirable. When this

is not possible, horses should be watered at

approximately the same times daily. Opinions

vary among horsemen as to the proper times

and method of watering horses. All agree, however, that regularity and frequency are desirable. Most horsemen agree that water may be

given before, during, or after feeding.

Frequent, small waterings between feedings

are desirable during warm weather or when the

animal is being put to hard use. Do not allow a

horse to drink heavily when he is hot, because

he may founder ; and do not allow a horse to

drink heavily just before being put to work.

Home-Mixed Feeds

A horse feeding guide is given in table 5. In

selecting rations, compare them with commercial feeds. If only small quantities are required

or Httle storage space is available, it may be

more satisfactory to buy ready-mixed feeds.

When home-mixed feeds are used, feeds of

similar nutritive properties can be interchanged in the ration as price relationships

warrant. This makes it possible to obtain a balanced ration at lowest cost. Among the feeds

that may be interchanged are grains such as

oats, corn, barley, wheat, and sorghum ; protein

supplements such as linseed meal, soybean

meal, and cottonseed meal; and hays of many

varieties.

More than one kind of hay provides variety

and appetite appeal. In season, any good pasture can replace part or all of the hay unless

work or training conditions make substitution

impractical.

During winter months, add a few sliced

carrots to the suggested ration, an occasional

bran mash, or a small amount of linseed meal.

Also, use bran mash or linseed meal to regulate

the bowels.

The proportion of concentrates must be

increased and the roughages decreased as

energy needs rise with a greater amount of

work. A horse that works at a trot needs

considerably more feed than one that works at

a walk. For this reason, riding horses in

medium to light use require somewhat less

grain and more hay in proportion to body

weight than horses that are racing.

In feeding horses, as with other classes of

livestock, it is recognized that nutritional

deficiencies (especially deficiencies of certain

vitamins and minerals) may not be of sufficient

proportions to cause clear-cut deficiency symptoms. Yet, such deficiencies without outward

signs may cause great economic losses because

they go unnoticed and unrectified. Accordingly,

sufficient additives (especially minerals and

vitamins) should always be present, but care

should be taken to avoid imbalances.

Cominercial Feeds

Commercial feeds are feeds mixed by manufacturers who specialize in the feed business.

Today, about 60 million tons of commercial

feeds are marketed each year.

Commercial feed manufacturers are able to
35

purchase feed in quantity lots, making possible

price advantages and the scientific control of

quality. Many horsemen have found that

because of the small quantities of feed usually

involved, and the complexities of horse rations,

they have more reason to rely on good commercial feeds than do owners of other classes of

farm animals.

Currently, horsemen are much interested in

complete, all-pelleted feed, in which the hay and

grain are combined. Pelleted feeds may be prepared from concentrates alone, forage alone, or

concentrates and roughage combined in a

complete ration.

Compared to conventional long hay and grain

concentrate fed separately, all-pelleted feed has

the following advantages :

(1) It is less bulky and easier to store and

handle, thus lessening transportation, building,

and labor costs. Pelleted roughage requires

one-fifth to one-third as much space as is

required by the same roughage in loose or

chopped form.

(2) Pelleting prevents horses from selectively refusing ingredients likely to be high in

certain dietary essentials; each bite is a balanced feed.

(3) Pelleting practically eliminates waste;

therefore, less pelleted feed is required. Horses

may waste up to 20 percent of long hay. Waste

of conventional feed is highest where low quality hay is fed or feed containers are poorly

designed.

(4) Pelleting eliminates dustiness and lessens

the likelihood of heaves.

(5) Pellet-fed horses are trimmer in the

middle and more attractive because they

consume less bulk.

The following points are pertinent to the

proper understanding and use of all-pelleted

rations :

(1) One-half-inch pellets are preferred for

mature horses, and one-fourth-inch pellets for

weanlings and short yearlings. Also, very hard

pellets should be avoided ; if horses cannot chew

them, they will not eat them.

(2) The ratio of roughage to concentrates

should be higher in all-pelleted rations than

when long hay is fed. For most horses, the ratio

may range from 60.5 percent roughage to 39.5

percent concentrate up to 69 percent roughage

to 31 percent concentrate.

(3) Any horse feed should form a loose mass

in the stomach to assure ease of digestion,

fewer digestive disturbances, and less impaction. To this end, in a complete all-pelleted

ration, such feeds as oats and barley should be

crimped or steam rolled but not finely ground.

The roughage should be 14-inch chop or

coarser. Otherwise, a couple of pounds of long

hay may be fed daily to each horse.

(4) Young horses and horses at heavy work

need more energy. They should be fed less

roughage and more concentrate.

(5) When less roughage and more concentrate is fed, horses are likely to be overfed and

get too fat if they are idle or at light to medium

work. But if the total feed consumption is lim^-

ited too severely to keep the weight down, the

problem of wood chewing is increased because

of a lack of physical filling of the digestive

tract.

(6) When the roughage consists of high quality legume hay, a higher percentage of roughage may be used than when all or part of the

roughage is grass or other nonlegumes.

(7) If more energy is needed for racing or

young stock on an all-pelleted ration, it can be

provided either by increasing the daily allowance of the all-pelleted ration, and/or replacing

a portion of the all-pelleted ration with a suitable concentrate or supplement.

(8) Because waste is eliminated, less all-pelleted feed is required than conventional feed.

For a horse at light work, give 14 to 18 pounds

of all-pelleted feed daily per 1,000 pounds of

body weight. Use a feed that contains 51 to 58

percent total digestible nutrients (TDN).

Increase the feed allowance with the severity of

work.

(9) As with any change in feed, the switch to

an all-pelleted ration should be made gradually, otherwise such vices as wood chewing

and bolting (eating feed too rapidly) may be

induced. At first, continue to offer all the long

hay the horse wants and slowly replace the

grain portion of the conventional ration with

the complete pelleted feed. Increase the pelleted

feed by 1 to 2 pounds daily and begin gradually

lessening the hay. After a few days, the horse
36

TABLE 5.—Light horse feeding guide

Daily allowance Kind of hay

Suggested grain rations

Age, sex, and use Rations No. 1 Rations No. 2 Rations No. 3

Pounds Pounds Pounds

Stallions in breed- % to 11/2 lb. grain Grass -legume Oats - 55 Corn 35 Oats 100

ing season per 100 lb. body mixed; or Vs to Wheat 20 Oats 35

(weighing 900 weight, together 1/2 legume hay, Wheat bran __ 20 Wheat 15

to 1,400 lb.). with a quantity

of hay within

same range.

with remainder grass hay. : Linseed meal _ 5 Wheat bran— 15

Pregnant mares % to 11/2 lb. grain Grass-legume Oats 80 Barley 45 Oats __- 95

(weighing 900 per 100 lb. body mixed; or Vs to Wheat bran __ 20 Oats 45 Linseed meal _ 5

to 1,400 lb.). weight, together

with a quantity

of hay within

same range.

V2 legume hay,

with remainder grass hay

(straight grass

hay may be

used first half

of pregnancy).

Wheat bran __ 10

Foals before wean- V2 to % lb. grain Legume hay Oats 50 Oats 30 Oats 80

ing (weighing per 100 lb. body Wheat bran __ 40 Barley 30 Wheat bran __ 20

100 to 350 lb. weight, together Linseed meal _ 10 Wheat bran __ 30

with projected with a quantity 1 Linseed meal _ 10

mature weights of hay within Rations balanced on basis of following assumption:

of 900 to 1,400 same range. Mares of mature weights of 600, 800, 1,000, and 1,200

lb.). lb, may produce 36, 42, 44, and 49 lb. of milk daily.

Weanlings (weigh- 1 to 1% lb. grain Grass -legume Oats — 30 Oats 70 Oats 80

ing 350 to 450 and IV2 to 2 lb. mixed; or % Barley ______ 30 Wheat bran _^ 15 Linseed meal _ 20

lb.). hay per 100 lb. legume hay. Wheat bran __ 30 Linseed meal _ 15

body weight. with remainder grass hay.

Linseed meal _ 10

Yearlings, 2d sum- Good, luxuriant

mer (weighing pasture (if in

450 to 700 lb.). training or for

other reasons

without access

to pasture, the

ration should be

intermediate between the adjacent upper and

lower groups).

YerrlingSj or ris- V2 to 1 lb. grain Grass-legume Oats 80 Barley 35 Oats _-_ 100

ing 2-year-olds, and 1 to 11/2 lb. mixed; or % to Wheat bran __ 20 Oats 35

second winter hay per 100 lb. V2 legume hay, Bran 15

(weighing 700 to body weight. with remain- Linseed meal -15

1,000 1b.). der grass hay.

See note at end of table.

usually will stop eating the hay and it can be

removed completely from the ration.

(10) The feces of pellet-fed horses are softer

than the feces of those not fed pellets.

Among many horsemen, the feeling persists

that horses fed all-pelleted rations are more
37

TABLE h,—Light horse feeding guide—Conimueá

Age, sex, and use

Light horses at

work; riding,

driving, and racing (weighing

900 to 1,400 lb.).

Daily allowance

Mature idle horses; stallions,

mares, and geldings (weighing

900 to 1,400 lb.).

Hard use—l^i, to

1% lb. grain and

1 to 11^ lb. hay

per 100 lb. body

weight.

Medium use — %

to 1 lb. grain

and 1 to lii lb.

hay per 100 lb.

body weight.

Light use--% to 1/2

lb. grain and

IVé to 11/2 lb.

hay per 100 lb.

body weight.

Kind of hay

Suggested grain rations

Grass hay

iy2 to 1% lb. hay

per 100 lb. body

weight.

Rations No, 1

Pounds

Oats -100

Pasture in season; or grasslegume mixed

hay.

Rations No. 2

Pounds

Rations No. 3

Oats

Corn

70

30

Pounds

Oats 70

Barley 30

(With grass hay, add %

ment daily.)

lb. of a high protein suppleiodizAîrfid'(2? fSure'ofT llffiTA^ZlÎ'^^^^^^^^^ T'''' 'f ^l^^^ '^ -P^^*^ --^--- of (1) supplement. mixiure 1 part salt and 2 parts steamed bonemeal or other suitable calcium-phosphorous

likely to chew wood than those fed long hay.

This may be true to some degree. But some

horses will chew wood regardless of what they

are fed. This leads to the conclusion that the

way to prevent wood chewing is simply to use

metal, masonry, or other nonwood materials for

all buildings, fences, and other equipment. Of

course, this is not always practical.

Wood chewing can be lessened, although not

prevented entirely, through one or more of the

following practices :

(1) Increase the exercise.

(2) Feed three times a day, rather than

twice a day, even though the total daily feed

allowance remains the same.

(3) Spread out the pellets in a larger feed

container or place a few large stones about the

size of a baseball in the feed container, thereby

making the horse work harder and longer to

obtain the pellets.

(4) Provide 2 to 4 pounds of straw or coarse

grass hay per animal per day, thereby giving

the horse something to nibble on when he is

idle.

How to Feed

Feeding horses is both an art and a science.

The art is knowing how to feed and how to take

care of each horse's individual requirements.

The science is meeting the nutritive requirements with the right combination of ingredients.

Amount to feed

Because the horse has a limited digestive

capacity, the amount of concentrates must be

increased and the roughages decreased when

the energy needs rise with more work. The following general guides may be used for the daily

ration of horses under usual conditions.

Horses at light work (1 to 3 hours per day of

riding or driving).—Allow two-fifths to one-
38

half pound of grain and II4 to 11,4 pounds of

haj^per day per 100 pounds of body weight.

Horses at medium work (3 to 5 hours per day

of riding or driving).—Allow about threefourths of a pound of grain and 1 to 114

pounds of hay per 100 pounds of body weight.

Horses at hard work (5 to 8 hours per day of

riding or driving).—Allow about 11^ to IV3

pounds of grain and 1 to li/4 pounds of hay per

100 pounds of body weight.

As will be noted from these recommendations, the total allowance of both concentrates

and hay should be about 2 to 2V¿ pounds daily

per 100 pounds of body weight.

About 6 to 12 pounds of grain daily is an

average grain ration for a light horse at

medium or light work. Racehorses in training

usually consume 10 to 16 pounds of grain per

day; the exact amount varies with the individual requirements and the amount of; work. The

hay allowance averages about 1 to 1% pounds

daily per 100 pounds of body weight, but it is

restricted as the grain allowance is increased.

Light feeders should not be overworked.

The quantities of feeds recommended are

intended as guides only. The allowance, especially the concentrates, should be increased

when the horse is too thin and decreased when

the horse is too fat.

Starting horses on feed

Horses must be accustomed to changes in

feed gradually. In general, they may be given

as much nonlegume roughage as they will

consume. But they must be accustomed gradually to high-quahty legumes, which may be

very laxative. This can be done by slowly

replacing the nonlegume roughage with greater

quantities of legumes. Also, as the grain ration

is increased, the roughage is decreased.

Starting horses on grain requires care and

good judgment. Usually it is advisable first to

accustom them to a bulky type of ration ; a

starting ration with considerable rolled oats is

excellent for this purpose.

The keenness of the appetite and the consistency of the droppings are an excellent index of

a horse's capacity to take more feed. In all

instances, scouring should be avoided.

Frequency, regularity, and order of feeding

The grain ration usually is divided into three

equal feeds given morning, noon, and night.

Because a digestive tract distended with hay is

a hindrance in hard work, most of the hay

should be fed at night. The common practice is

to feed one-fourth of the daily hay allowance at

each of the morning and noon feedings and the

remaining one-half at night when the animals

have plenty of time to eat leisurely.

Horses learn to anticipate their feed. Accordingly, they should be fed at the same time each

day. During warm weather, they will eat better

if the feeding hours are early and late, in the

cool of the day.

Usually the grain ration is fed first and then

the roughage. This way, the animals can eat the

bulky roughages more leisurely.

Sudden changes in diet should be avoided,

especially when changing from a less concentrated ration to a more concentrated one. If

this rule of feeding is ignored, horses have

digestive disturbances and go "off feed.'' When

ingredients are added or omitted, the change

should be made gradually. Likewise, caution

should be exercised in turning horses to pasture

or in transferring them to more lush grazing.

Attention to details

A successful horseman pays great attention

to details. In addition to maintaining the health

and comfort of his animals, he also considers

their individual likes and temperaments. Nervousness and inefficient use of feed are caused by

excessive exercise to the point of undue fatigue

and stress, rough treatment, noise, and excitement.

General feeding rules

Observance of the following rules will help

avoid some of the common difficulties that result

from poor feeding practices :

(1) Know the approximate weight and age of

each animal.

(2) Never feed moldy, musty, dusty, or

frozen feed.

(3) Inspect the feed box frequently to see if

the horse goes off feed.

(4) Keep the feed and water containers

clean.
39

(5) Make certain that the horse's teeth are

sound.

(6) Do not feed concentrates to a hot horse;

allow time for his feed to digest before he is

worked.

(7) Feed horses as individuals. Learn the

peculiarities and desires of each animal because

each one is different.

(8) See that horses get enough exercise. It

improves their appetite, digestion, and overall

well-being.

(9) Do not feed from the hand; this can lead

to ^^nibbling."

Horses fitted for show or sale should be let

down in condition gradually. Many horsemen

accomplish this difficult task, and yet retain

strong vigorous animals, by cutting down gradually on the feed and increasing the exercise.

Signs of a well-fed, healthy horse

The signs of a well-fed, healthy horse are

listed as follows :

Contentment.—The horse looks completely

unworried when resting.

Alertness.—The horse is ^^bright eyed and

bushy tailed," and he will perk up his ears at

the slightest provocation.

Good appetite.—The appetite is good, as indicated by neighing and pawing before he is fed

and attacking the feed with relish.

Sleek coat and pliable, elastic skin.—A sleek

coat and a pliable, elastic skin characterize a

healthy horse. When the hair loses its luster and

the skin becomes dry, scurfy, and hidebound,

usually trouble is ahead.

Pink eye membranes.—The eye membranes,

which can be seen when the lower lid is pulled

down, should be pink and moist.

Normal feces and urine.—The consistency of

the feces varies with the diet. For example,

lush pasture usually causes looseness, and pellets generally cause moist feces. Neither extreme

dryness nor scouring should exist. Both the

feces and urine should be passed without effort

and free of blood, mucus, or pus.

Normal temperature, pulse, and breathing.—^ The average rectal temperature of horses is

100.5° F., with a range of 99" to 100.8°. The

normal pulse rate is 32 to 44 beats per minute,

and the normal breathing rate is 8 to 16

breaths per minute.

In general, any marked and persistent deviations from these normals are signs of ill health.

Pastures

It is becoming difficult to provide good pasture for horses, especially in suburban areas.

The use of a temporary pasture grown in regular crop rotation is recommended instead of a

permanent pasture that may become infested

with parasites. Legume pasture is excellent for

horses because they are less subject to bloat

than cattle or sheep. The specific grass or

grass-legume mixture will vary from area to

area according to differences in soil, temperature, and rainfall. Your county agricultural

agent or a specialist at your State agricultural

college can furnish recommendations for pastures.

Horse pastures should be well drained and

not too rough or stony. All dangerous places

such as pits, stumps, poles, and tanks should be

guarded. Shade, water, and suitable minerals

should be available in all pastures.

Most horse pastures can be improved by

seeding new and better varieties of grasses and

legumes and by fertilizing and management.

Also, horsemen need to give attention to supplementing some pastures with additional feed.

Pastures early in the season have a high water

content and lack energy. Mature, weathered

grass is almost always deficient in protein, with

as little as 3 percent or less, and low in carotene, the precursor of vitamin A. However,

these deficiencies can be corrected by proper

supplemental feeding.

Feeding the Broodmare

Regular and normal reproduction is the basis

for profit on any horse breeding establishment.

However, only 40 to 60 percent of mares bred

produce foals. There are many causes of

reproductive failure, but inadequate nutrition

is a major one. The following pointers are pertinent to feeding a broodmare properly :

(1) Condition the mare for breeding by providing adequate and proper feed and the right
40

amount of exercise prior to the breeding

season.

(2) See that adequate proteins, minerals, and

vitamins are available during the last third of

pregnancy when the fetus grows most rapidly.

(3) Lessen and lighten the ration at and

after foaling; give less feed and add some

wheat bran to the feed. During cool weather, it

is important to take the chill off water at foaling time.

^ (4) Provide adequate nutrition during lactation, because the requirements during this

period are more rigorous than the requirements

during pregnancy.

(5) Make sure that young growing mares

receive adequate nutrients; otherwise, the fetus

will not develop properly or the dam will not

produce milk except at the expense of her body

tissues.

Feeding the Stallion

The ration exerts a powerful eifect on sperm

production and semen quality. Successful

breeders adhere to the following rules :

(1) Feed a balanced ration, giving particular

attention to proteins, minerals, and vitamins.

(2) Regulate the feed allowance because the

stallion can become infertile if he gets too fat.

Also, increase the exercise when the stallion is

not a sure breeder.

(3) Provide pasture in season as a source of

both nutrients and exercise.

Horse management practices vary between

areas and individual horsemen. In general,

however, the principles of good management

are the same everywhere.

Stable Management

The following stable management practices

are recommended :

(1) Remove the top layer of clay floors

yearly; replace with fresh clay, then level and

tamp. Keep the stable floor higher than the surrounding area so the floor will stay dry.

(2) Keep stalls well lighted.

(3) Use properly constructed hay racks to

lessen waste and contamination of hay. Do not

have hay racks in maternity stalls.

(4) Scrub concentrate containers as often as

necessary and always after feeding a wet mash.

(5) Remove excrement and wet or soiled

material from the bedding daily, and provide

fresh bedding.

(6) Practice strict stable sanitation to prevent fecal contamination of feed and water,

(7) Lead foals when taking them from the

stall to the paddock and back as a way to further their training.

(8) Restrict the ration when horses are idle,

and provide either a wet bran mash the evening

before an idle day or turn idle horses to pasture.

(9) Provide proper ventilation at all times by

means of open doors, windows that open inMANAGEMENT OF HORSES

wardly from the top, or stall partitions slatted

at the top.

(10) Keep stables in repair at all times to

lessen injury hazards.

Kind and amount of bedding

Select bedding material by availability and

price, absorptive capacity, and potential value

as a fertilizer. Bedding should not be dusty, too

coarse, or too easily kicked aside. Cereal grain

straw or wood shavings generally make the

best bedding material.

A soft, comfortable bed should insure proper

rest. The animal will be much easier to groom

I'f his bedding is kept clean. A minimum daily

allowance of clean bedding is 10 to 15 pounds

per animal.

Ways of handling horse manure

Clay floors cannot be cleaned by flushing with

water, and hard stable floors of concrete,

asphalt, or wood require considerable bedding

to provide softness and comfort. These conditions make it impractical to handle horse manure as a liquid. But horse manure is relatively

dry and well adapted to handling as a solid.

In large horse establishments, the use of

automatic gutter cleaners can eliminate much

of the hand labor in handling manure as a

solid. Automatic gutter cleaners may be (1)

located in the alleyway or immediately outside

the barn, (2) covered except for trapdoors, and
41

(3) designed to carry the manure from the

gutter directly into a spreader.

Some large establishments fork the manure

from the stalls into the alley and then load it by

means of a scraper or power loader. But this

method is more messy and less convenient than

an automatic gutter cleaner.

Both small and large horse establishments

face the problem of what to do with horse

manure after it is removed from the stable.

Because the feces of horses are the primary

source of infection by internal parasites, fresh

horse manure should never be spread on pastures grazed by horses. The alternatives for the

disposal of horse manure are as follows :

(1) Spread fresh manure on fields that will

be plowed and cropped if there is sufficient land

and this is feasible.

(2) Contract with a nearby vegetable grower

to remove the manure.

(3) Store the manure in a tightly constructed

pit for at least 2 weeks before spreading it;

this allows the spontaneously generated heat to

destroy the parasites.

(4) Compost the manure in an area where it

will neither pollute a stream nor offend the

neighbors ; then spread it on the land.

Care of the Feet

The value of a horse lies chieñy in his ability

to move; therefore, good feet and legs are

necessary. The important points in the care of

a horse's feet are to keep them clean, prevent

them from drying out, trim them so they retain

proper shape and length, and shoe them

correctly when shoes are needed.

Each day, clean the feet of horses that are

shod, stabled, or worked and inspect them for

loose shoes and thrush. Thrush is a disease of

the foot caused by a fungus and characterized

by a pungent odor. It causes a deterioration of

tissues in the cleft of the frog or in the junction

between the frog and bars. This disease produces lameness and can be serious if not

treated.

Trimming and shoeing

Before trimming or shoeing, a horseman

should be able to recognize proper and faulty

conformation. Figure 56 shows the proper posture of the hoof and incorrect postures caused

by hoofs grown too long either in toe or heel.

The slope is considered normal when the toe of

the hoof and the pastern have the same direction. This angle should be kept in mind and

changed only as a corrective measure. If it

should become necessary to correct uneven wear

of the hoof, correct gradually over a period of

several trimmings.

Before the feet are trimmed, the horse should

be inspected while standing squarely on a level,

hard surface. Then he should be seen at both

the walk and the trot.

The hoofs should be trimmed every month or

6 weeks whether the animal is shod or not. If

shoes are left on too long, the hoofs grow out of

proportion. This may throw the horse off

balance and put extra stress on the tendons.

Always keep the hoofs at proper length and

BN-5966

FIGURE 56.—Left, properly trimmed hoof with normal foot axis: 0, Coffin bone; X, short pastern bone; Y, long

pastern bone; Z, cannon bone. Center, toe too long, which breaks the foot axis backward; horizontal dotted line

shows how hoof should be trimmed to restore normal posture. Right, heel too long, which breaks the foot axis

forward; horizontal dotted line shows how trimming will restore the correct posture.
42

correct posture. Trim the hoofs near the level

of the sole ; otherwise, they will split off if the

horse remains unshod. Trim the frog carefully

and remove only ragged edges that allow filth

to accumulate in the crevices. Trim the sole

very sparingly, if at all, and never rasp the

wall of the hoof.

The following list describes the common

faults of the foot and tells how to correct them

by proper trimming.

Splayfoot.—The front toes are turned out

and the heels are turned in. Trim the outer half

of the foot.

Pigeon-toe,—The front toes are turned in

and the heels are turned out, the opposite of

splayfoot. Trim the inner half of the foot more

heavily ; leave the outer half relatively long.

Quarter crack.—A vertical crack appears on

the side of the hoof. Keep the hoof moist.

Shorten the toe of the hoof and use a corrective

shoe.

Cocked ankles.—The horse stands with the

fetlocks bent forward, most frequently the hind

ones. Lower the heels to correct. However, raising the heels gives the horse more immediate

comfort.

Contracted heels.—The heels are contracted

or shrunken. Lower the heels and allow the

frog to carry more of the weight. This tends to

spread the heels apart.

Horses should be shod when they are used on

hard surfaces for any length of time. Also,

shoes may be used to change gaits and action,

correct faulty hoof structure or growth, protect

the hoof from such conditions as corns, contraction, or cracks, and aid in gripping the track.

Shoes should be made to fit the foot and not the

foot to fit the shoe. Reshoe or reset at 4- to

6-week intervals. Do not attempt to shoe a

horse without first getting instructions from a

farrier.

Care of the foaFs feet

Foals may damage their limbs when the

weight is not equally distributed because of unshapely hoofs. On the other hand, faulty hmbs

may be helped or even corrected if the hoofs are

trimmed regularly. Also, trimming helps

educate the foal and makes shoeing easier at

maturity. If the foal is run on pasture, trim^

ming the feet may be necessary long before

weaning time. A good practice is to check the

feet every month or 6 weeks and, if necessary,

trim a small amount each time rather than a

large amount at one time. Tendons should not

become strained because of incorrectly trimmed

feet. Usually, only the bottom rim of the hoof

should be trimmed, although sometimes the

heel, frog, or toe of the hoof may need trimming. The hoofs are trimmed with a rasp, farrier's knife, and nippers. A rasp is used more

than the other tools.

Before the feet are trimmed, the foal should

first be inspected while standing squarely on a

hard surface and then inspected at the walk

and the trot.

Treatment of dry hoofs

Hoofs may become dry and brittle; sometimes they split and cause lameness. The frogs

lose their elasticity and are no longer effective

shock absorbers. If the dryness is prolonged,

the frogs shrink and the heels contract.

Dry hoofs usually can be prevented by

packing them with a specially prepared formulation, applying a good hoof dressing, keeping

the ground wet around the watering tank,

and/or attaching wet burlap sacks around

them.

Exercise

Horses should exercise as much as possible

on pasture. They will develop strong, sound feet

and legs from outdoor exercise. If no pasture is

available, exercise mature animals for an hour

or two a day under saddle or in harness.

Horses with bad feet frequently cannot exercise on roads. Those with faulty tendons may

not be able to exercise under saddle. Allow

these animals to exercise in a large paddock, by

longeing on a 30- to 40-foot rope, or by leading.

Transporting Horses

Horses can be transported by trailer, van,

truck, rail, boat, or plane. Most horses are

transported in a one- or two-horse trailer

drawn behind a car or truck. The requisites for

good motor transportation, regardless of type,

are as follows :
43

Provide good footing.—The floor of the

vehicle should be covered with heavy coco matting made for the purpose, sand covered with

straw or other suitable bedding material, or

rubber mats. Clean the floor covering at frequent intervals while in transit to avoid

ammonia and heat.

Drive carefully,—Drive at a moderate,

constant speed as distinguished from fast or

jerky driving, which causes added stress and

tiring. If weather conditions make the roads

unsafe, the vehicle should be stopped.

Make nurse stops.—Nurse stops should be

made at about 3-hour intervals when mares and

foals are transported together.

Provide proper ventilation.—Provide plenty

of fresh air without drafts.

Teach horses to load early in life.—When

horses will be transported later in life, they

should be accustomed to transportation as

youngsters before they get too big and strong.

This can be done by moving them from one part

of the farm to another.

Provide health certificate and statement of

ownership.—A health certiñcate signed by a

licensed veterinarian is required for most interstate shipments. Foreign shipments must be

accompanied by a health certificate that has

been approved by a government veterinarian.

This takes several days. Branded horses must

be accompanied by a brand certificate, and all

horses should be accompanied by a statement of

ownership.

Schedule properly.—Schedule the transportation so that animals will arrive on time. Show,

sale, and race animals should arrive a few days

early.

Have the horses relaxed.—Horses ship best

if they are relaxed and not overtired before

they are moved.

Clean and disinfect public conveyance.-~Before using any type of public conveyance, thoroughly clean and disinfect it. Steam is excellent

for this purpose. Remove nails or other hazards

that might cause injury.

Have a competent caretaker accompany horses.—Valuable horses should not be shipped in

the care of an inexperienced person.

Use shanks except on stallions.—^When animals are tied, use a 5/e-inch cotton rope shank

that is 5 feet long and has a big swivel snap at

the end. Chain shanks are too noisy. Always tie

the shank with a knot that can easily and

quickly be released in case of an emergency.

Feed lightly.—Allow horses only a half feed

of grain before they are loaded for shipment

and at the first feed after they reach their destination. In transit, horses should be given all

the good quality hay they will eat, preferably

alfalfa, to keep the bowels open, but no concentrates should be fed. Commercial hay nets or

homemade burlap containers may be used to

hold the hay in transit, but they should not be

placed too high.

Water liberally.—When transporting horses,

give them all the fresh, clean water they will

drink at frequent intervals unless the weather

is extremely hot and there is danger of gorging.

A tiny bit of molasses may be added to each

pail of water, beginning about a week before

the horses are shipped, and the addition of

molasses to the water may be continued in

transit. This prevents any taste change in the

water.

Pad the stalls.—Many experienced shippers

favor padding the inside of the vehicle to lessen

the likelihood of injury, especially when a valuable animal is shipped. Coco matting or a sack

of straw properly placed may save the horse's

hocks from injury.

Take along tools and supplies.—The following tools and supplies should be taken along in

a suitable box: pinch bar, hammer, hatchet,

saw, nails, pliers, flashlight, extra halters and

shanks, twitch, canvas slapper or short piece of

hose, pair of gloves, fork and broom, fire extinguisher, and medicine for colic and shipping

fever provided by a veterinarian.

Check shoes, blankets, and bandages.-—

Whenever possible, ship horses barefoot. Never

allow them to wear calked shoes during a long

shipment. They may wear smooth shoes. In cool

weather, horses may be blanketed if an attendant is present in case a horse gets entangled.

The legs of racehorses in training should be

bandaged to keep the ankles from getting

scuffed or the tendons bruised. Bandages are

not necessary on breeding stock except for valuable stallions and young animals. When bandages are used, they should be reset often.
44

Be calm when loading and unloading.—In

loading and unloading horses, always be patient

and never show anger. Try kindness first ; pat

the horse and speak to him to reassure him. If

this fails, it may be necessary to use one of the

following techniques:

(1) Sometimes the use of the twitch at the

right time is desirable, especially ifthe horse is

tossing his head about.

(2) When a horse must be disciplined, a

canvas slapper or a short rubber hose can be

used effectively; these make noise without

causing much hurt.

(3) If a horse gets very excited and is about

to break out, dash a bucket of water in his

face ; usually he will back off and calm down.

(4) A nervous, excitable horse may be

calmed by a tranquilizer, which should be

administered by a veterinarian.

(5) If a horse will not move or is kicking,

grab his tail and push it over his back. In this

position, he cannot kick but can be pushed

along.

Control insects.—In season, flies and other

insects molest animals in transit. When necessary, use a reliable insecticide to control

insects. Follow directions on the container

label.

BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT

Properly designed, constructed, and arranged

horse buildings and equipment give increased

animal comfort and performance, greater

efficiency in the use of feed, and less expenditure of labor in the care of horses. Also, attractive barns add to the beauty of the landscape.

In serving these purposes, barns need not be

elaborate or expensive.

Buildings

The primary reasons for having horse buildings are (1) to provide a place in which to

confine horses and store feed and tack and (2)

to modify the environment by controlling temperature, humidity, and other factors.

Types and sizes of horse barns

Needs for housing horses and storage of materials vary according to the intended use of the

buildings. Broadly speaking, horse barns are

designed to serve either (1) small horse establishments that have one to a few animals, (2)

large horse breeding establishments, or (3)

riding, training, and boarding stables.

Various types and sizes of stalls and sheds

are used in horse barns. However, in all types

except the breeding shed, ceilings should be 9

feet high and doors should be 8 feet high and 4

feet wide. The breeding shed should have a

ceiling 15 to 20 feet high and a door wide

enough to permit entrance of vehicles.

The recommended plans for different kinds

of horse barns are as follows :

Small horse establishments.—These horse

barns are for housing pleasure horses or ponies

or raising a few foals (fig. 57). Box stalls

should be 12 feet square and tie stalls should be

5 feet wide and 10 or 12 feet long.

Build the stalls in a row and provide a combination tack and feed room for units with one or

two stalls. Use separate tack and feed rooms

for units with three or more stalls. Generally,

not more than a 1-month supply of feed is

stored at a time. The use of all-pelleted feed

lessens storage space requirements.

Large horse-breeding establishments.—

Large establishments need specially designed

buildings for different purposes. They are as

follows :

(1) Broodmare and foaling barn.—This can

be a rectangular building either (a) with a

central aisle and a row of stalls along each side

or (b) of the "island" type with two rows of

stalls back to back surrounded by an alley or

runway. Most broodmare stalls are 12 feet

square, although they may be up to 16 feet

square. A stall 16 feet square is desirable for

foaling. A broodmare barn needs an office for

records ; toilet facilities ; hot water supply ; veterinary supply room; tack room; and storage

space for hay, bedding, and grain.

(2) Stallion barn.^—This barn provides

quarters for one or more stallions. It should

have a small tack and equipment room, and it

may or may not have feed storage. The stalls

should be 14 feet square.
45

Provide a paddock near the barn or, if possible, adjacent to it. The paddock can be any

shape but each side should be at least 300 feet

long.

/"^— EAVE UHE

SLIDING

SASH

BN-5964; BN-5965

FIGURE 57.—Horse barn above and floor plan below. Barn has two box stalls, a feed room, and tack room.
46

(3) Barren mare barn.—Use an open shed

or rectangular building that has a combination

rack and trough down the center or along the

wall. Provide storage space for hay, grain, and

bedding. Allow each animal 150 square feet of

space.

(4) Weanling and yearling quarters.—Either

an open shed or a barn with stalls may be used.

Both weanlings and yearlings may be kept in

the same building, but different age and sex

groups should be kept apart. When stalls are

used, two weanlings or two yearlings may be

kept together. Stalls should be 10 feet square.

(5) Breeding shed.—This should be a large,

roofed enclosure that has a laboratory for the

veterinarian, hot water facilities, and stalls for

preparing mares for breeding and for holding

foals. The shed should be 24 feet square.

(6) Isolation quarters.—These quarters are

for sick animals and animals new to the farm.

Use a small barn that has feed and water facilities and an adjacent paddock. Stalls should be

12 feet square.

Riding, training, and boarding stables.—For

this purpose, the quarters may consist of (1)

stalls constructed back to back in the center of

the barn with an indoor ring around the stalls,

(2) stalls built around the sides of the barn

with the ring in the center, or (3) stalls on

either side of a hallway or alleyway and the

ring outdoors. Box stalls should be 10 to 12 feet

square and tie stalls should be 5 feet wide and

10 to 12 feet long.

Environmental control

Animals perform better and require less feed

if they are raised under ideal conditions of temperature, humidity, and ventilation. Environmental control is of particular importance in

horse barn construction because many horses

spend most of the time in a stall. The investment in environmental control facilities must be

balanced against the expected increased returns

because there is a point where further expenditures for environmental control will not

increase returns sufficiently to justify added

cost.

Before the building is designed, it is necessary to know how much heat and moisture a

horse produces. Body heat production varies

according to body weight, rate of feeding, environmental conditions, and degree of activity.

Under average conditions, a 1,000-pound horse

produces about 1,790 British thermal units

(B.t.u.) per hour, and a 1,500-pound horse

about 2,450 B.t.u. per hour. A horse breathes

into the air approximately 17.5 pounds, or 2.1

gallons, of moisture per day.

Until more experimental information is

available, the following environmental control

recommendations, based on confinement systems used for other classes of animals, may be

followed.

Temperature.—A range of 45° to 75° F. is

satisfactory, with 55° considered best. Until a

newborn foal is dry, it should be warmed to 75°

to 80°. This can be done with a heat lamp.

Humidity.—A range of 50 to 75 percent relative humidity is acceptable with 60 percent preferred.

Ventilation.—The barn should have as little

moisture and odor as possible, and it should be

free from drafts. In a properly ventilated barn,

the ventilation system should provide 60 cubic

feet per minute (c.f.m.) for each 1,000 pounds

of horse in winter and 160 c.f.m. per 1,000

pounds of horse in summer. In summer, satisfactory ventilation usually can be achieved by

opening barn doors and by installing hinged

walls or panels near the ceiling that swing

open.

Requisites of horse barns

Whether a new horse layout is built or an old

one is altered, all buildings, fences, corrals, and

trees should be placed according to a master

plan, for once established, they usually are difficult and expensive to move. The arrangement

should make the best possible use of land and

should require little walking by attendants

when caring for horses.

All horse barns should meet the following

requisites :

Accessibility.—Barns should be on an allweather roadway or lane to facilitate the use of

horses, delivery of feed and bedding, and

removal of manure.

Dryness.—Barns should be on high ground

so water will drain away from them.

Expandable design.—Barns should be
47

designed so they are easy to expand if and

when the time comes. Often a building can be

lengthened provided no other structures or utilities interfere.

Water and electricity.—Water and electricity

should be available and convenient to use.

Controlled environment.—Barns should be

built to modify v^inter and summer temperatures, maintain acceptable humidity and ventilation, minimize stress on the horses' nerves,

and protect horses from rain, snow, sun, and

wind.

Reasonable cost.—Initial cost is important

but durability and maintenance should be

considered, as well as such intangible values as

pride and satisfaction in the buildings and

, advertising value.

Adequate space.—Too little space may jeopardize the health and well-being of horses, but

too much space means unnecessary expense.

Storage areas.—Storage space for feed, bedding, and tack should be provided in the building where they are used.

Attractiveness.—An attractive horse barn

increases the sale value of the property. A

horse barn will have aesthetic value if it has

good proportions and is in harmony with the

natural surroundings.

Minimum fire risk.—The use of fire resistant

materials gives added protection to horses.

Also, fire retarding paints and sprays may be

used.

Safety.^—Projections that might injure horses

should be removed. Feeding and watering

equipment should be arranged so attendants

need not walk behind horses.

Í Labor saving construction.—This requisite is

a must in any commercial horse establishment.

Also, where horses are kept for pleasure,

unnecessary labor should be eliminated in feeding, cleaning, and handling.

Healthful living conditions.—Healthy horses

are better performers; therefore, barns should

be easy to keep clean so they will provide

healthful living conditions.

Rodent and bird control.—Feed and tack

storage areas should be rodent and bird proof.

Suitable corrals and paddocks.—Horse barns

should have well-drained, safe, fenced corrals

or paddocks adjacent to them. If this is not

possible, the corral or paddock should be

nearby.

Flexibility,—Possible changes in use make it

desirable for horse barns to be as flexible as

possible, even to the point that they can be

cheaply and easily converted into cabins,

garages, storage buildings, or buildings for

other uses. Also, for suburbanites and renters,

permanent, portable barns are advantageous.

Materials

When building materials for horse barns are

bought, the factors to be considered are initial

cost, durability and maintenance, attractiveness, and fire resistance.

Some of the materials available and being

used are wood, including plywood; metal;

masonry, including concrete, concrete block,

cinder, pumice block, brick, and stone; and

plastics. Also, preengineered and prefabricated

horse barns are being used more often, especially on smaller horse establishments.

Building plans for a small horse barn are

shown in figure 57. Complete working drawings

may be obtained through county agricultural

agents or from extension agricultural engineers

at most State agricultural colleges. There is

usually a small charge. When asking for working drawings, specify Plan No, 5838, "Riding

Horse Barn.''

If working drawings of this plan are not

available in your State, write to the U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering Research Division, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. 20705. The U.S. Department of Agriculture does not distribute drawings but will direct you to a State that does

distribute them.

Feed and Water Equipment

The design of feed and water equipment

should fill the basic need for simple and

effective equipment with which to provide hay,

concentrates, minerals, and water without

waste or hazard to the horse. Whenever possible, for convenience and safety, feed and water

equipment should be located so it can be filled

without the caretaker entering the stall or

corral.

Feed and water equipment may be built-in or
48

detached. Because specialty feed and water

equipment is more sanitary, flexible, and suitable, many horsemen favor it over old-style v^^ood

mangers and concrete or steel tanks. Bulk-tank

feed storage may be used to advantage on large

horse establishments to eliminate sacks, lessen

rodent and bird problems, and make it possible

to obtain feed at lower prices by ordering large

amounts.

The kind, size, and location of the most

common equipment used to hold concentrates,

hay, minerals, and water are as follows :

Concentrates.—Pail, tub, or box,

(1) A pail or tub can be made of metal,

plastic, or rubber. Usually it has screw eyes

and hooks or snaps so it can be suspended. The

capacity should be 16 to 20 quarts for horses

and 14 to 16 quarts for ponies.

In a stall, the pail or tub should be at the

front of the stall. The height should be twothirds the height of the animal at the withers,

or 38 to 42 inches for horses and 28 to 32

inches for ponies.

In a corral, put the tub or pail along a fence

line and at the same height as in a stall.

For sanitary reasons rem.ovable concentrate

containers are preferable so they can be easily

and frequently cleaned. This is especially

important after feeding a wet mash.

(2) A wooden box for horses should be 12

to 16 inches wide, 24 to 30 inches long, and 8 to

10 inches deep. A box for ponies should be 10 to

12 inches wide, 20 to 24 inches long, and 6 to 8

inches deep.

The location and height of a box in a stall are

the same as for a pail or tub. Do not use a

wooden box in a corral.

If desired, a wedge-shaped metal pan set on a

wooden shelf can be mounted in a front corner

of the stall and pivoted so it can be pulled out

for filling and cleaning and then pushed back

into the stall and locked in place.

Hay.—Stall rack, manger, or corral rack.

(1) A stall rack may be made of metal, fiber,

or plastic. A rack for horses should hold 25 to

30 pounds of hay and a rack for ponies, 10 to

15 pounds. It should be in a corner of the stall.

The bottom of the rack should be the same

height as the horse or pony at the withers.

Hayracks lessen hay contamination, parasitic infestation, pawing by horses, and hay

waste. Racks should open at the bottom so dirt,

chaff, and trash may be removed or allowed to

fall out. For stallions and broodmares, use high

racks to lessen injury hazards,

(2) A wooden manger may be used. It should

be 30 inches wide and 24 to 30 inches long for

horses and 20 inches square for ponies. Put the

manger in the front or in a corner of the stall.

The height should be 30 to 42 inches for horses

and 20 to 24 inches for ponies.

(3) A corral rack is made of wood. It should

be large enough to hold a 1-day supply of hay

for the intended number of horses. Put the rack

in the fence line of the corral if horses feed

from one side only. Put it on high ground if

horses feed from both sides.

The top of the rack may be 1 to 2 feet higher

than the horses at the withers. Corral hay

racks that feed from both sides should be portable.

Minerals.—Box or self-feeder,

A box may be made of wood and a self-feeder

may be made of metal or wood. In a stall, the

box or self-feeder should be in a corner of the

stall and should be the same height as the box

or pail used for concentrates.

In a corral, mineral containers should be in a

fence corner. The height should be two-thirds

the height of the horse at the withers. If a

mineral container is in the open, it should be

protected from wind and rain. Mineral containers should have two compartments, one for

mineral mix and the other for salt.

Water.—Automatic stall waterer, automatic

corral waterer, pail, or tank.

(1) Automatic waterers are made of metal.

Waterers should be located in a front corner of

a stall or in a fence corner of a corral or pasture.

Watering equipment should be designed to

facilitate draining and cleaning. Locate waterers a considerable distance from feed containers if possible. Otherwise, horses will carry

feed to the waterer or drip water in the concentrate container. A large 20- by 30-inch automatic waterer will accommodate about 25

horses ; a two-cup waterer, about 12.

The daily water requirements for horses are :

Mature horse, 12 gallons; foal to 2-year-old,
49

and pony, 6 to 8 gallons. In cold areas,waterers

should be heated and equipped with thermostatic controls. A satisfactory water temperature range in winter is 40° to 45° F. and in

summer 60° to 75°.

Check automatic waterers daily.

(2) A water pail may be made of metal,

plastic, or rubber. It should be located in the

front of the stall. The height should be twothirds the height of the horse at the withers, or

38 to 42 inches for horses and 28 to 32 inches

for ponies.

(3) A water tank may be concrete or steel. It

is used in a corral and should be set in the

fence so there are no protruding corners. If it

is out in a corral or pasture away from a fence,

it should be painted white so the horses can see

it at night.

A tank should be 30 by 36 inches high. Allow

1 linear foot of tank space to each five horses. A

tank should be equipped with a float valve that

is protected from the horses.

Fences for Horses

Good fences (1) maintain boundaries, (2)

make horse training and other operations possible, (3) reduce losses to both animals and

crops, (4) increase property values, (5) promote better relationships between neighbors,

(6) lessen the likelihood of car accidents from

animals getting on roads, and (7) add to the

attractiveness and distinctiveness of the premises.

Large pastures in which the concentration of

horses is not too great may be fenced with

woven wire. The mesh of the woven wire fence

should be small so horses cannot get their feet

through it. Corrals, paddocks, and small pastures require stronger materials. The deficiencies of board and pole fences are : They must be

kept painted ; they splinter, break, and rot ; and

they are chewed by horses.

Until recently, conventional metal fences of

steel, aluminum, wrought iron, chain link, or

cable had one or more deficiencies. But metal

fences have greatly improved in recent years.

Table 6 lists the materials and specifications

commonly used for horse fences.

Show-Rings

Show-rings have no standard or required

specifications for ring size, type of construction, or maintenance.

For most purposes, a ring 125 x 250 feet will

suffice. However, many good show-rings are

either smaller or larger than this. For example,

the ring of the famous Devon Horse Show,

v/hich is often used for jumpers, is 150 x 300

feet. But the ring at the Spanish Riding School

in Vienna is only 59 x 180 feet.

TABLE 6.—Horse fences

Post and fencing

material

Post length

a-^d

diameter

Size of rails,

boards, or

poles and

gage of wire

Fence

height

Number of rails,

boards, or

poles and

mesh of wire

Distance

between

posts on

centers

Steel or aluminum IV2 ft _-_

71/2 ft

8V2 ft

10 or 20 ft, long

Inches

60

60

72

3 rails

Feet

10

posts and rails.^ 10 or 20 ft. long 4 rails 10

10 or 20 ft. long 4 rails 10

Wooden posts and

boards.

71/2 ft.; 4 to 8 in

SV2 ft.; 4 to 8 in

2 X 6 or 2 X 8 in. boards

2 X 6 or 2 X 8 in. boards

60

72

4 boards

5 boards

8

8

Wooden posts and

poles.

71/2 ft.; 4 to 8 in

8^/2 ft.; 4 to 8 in

4 to 6 in. diameter

4 to 6 in. diameter

60

72

4 poles

5 poles

8

8

Wooden posts and

woven wire.^

71/2 ft.; 4 to 8 in 9 or 11 gage staywire 55 to 58 12-in. mesh 12

^ Because of the strength of most metal, fewer rails and posts are necessary than when wood is used.

* Use 1 or 2 strands of barbed wire—with barbs 3 to 4 inches apart—on top of the fence.
50

The surface of a show-ring must be resilient

and firm to assure proper footing, and it also

must be free of dust. In outdoor rings, proper

drainage and a good track base are necessary

for all-weather use. A ring can be drained by

(1) locating it high enough for water to drain

away from it and (2) when necessary, installing drainage tile or perforated steel pipe underneath the track, v/ith the perforations on the

bottom side of the pipe.

The track usually will be firm if it is covered

with a mixture of organic matter and dirt or

sand. For example, the ring at the Spanish

Riding School is covered with a mixture of

two-thirds sawdust and one-third sand. It is

sprinkled with water at intervals to keep down

the dust.

In many indoor rings in the United States, 6

to 8 inches of tanbark are used on a dirt base.

Unless tanbark is watered frequently, it will

pulverize and give poor footing. Some rings are

covered 18 to 24 inches deep with shavings or

sawdust mixed with dirt or sand. Other rings

are covered with approximately 9 inches of

wood shavings, 2 inches of sawdust, and 4

inches of sand all mixed together and oiled. Salt

may be added because it holds moisture when

wetted down and reduces dust.

In outdoor rings, organic matter for resilience is sometimes provided by seeding rye or

other small grain on the track during the offseason and disking under the green crop.

No matter how good the construction, a

show-ring must be maintained. It must be

smoothed and leveled, holes must be fiJled, and

when it gets too hard, the ground must be

broken. A flexible, chain-type harrow is recommended for show-ring maintenance.

Besides ring size, construction, and maintenance, other factors to be considered are (1)

ring layout to facilitate reversing a performance class in a ring that has turf or other decorative material in the center; (2) attractiveness of the ring; (3) spectator seating capacity,

comfort, and visibility; (4) nearby parking;

and (5) handling the crowd.

DISEASES AND PARASITES

Horse owners and caretakers have a responsibility for the horses in their care. They must

protect their animals from diseases and parasites. The information given here on diseases

and parasites is intended only as a guide for

horse owners. It is not intended to be used in

lieu of the services of a veterinarian. At the

first sign of illness in their horses, owners should

call a veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment.

General Health Program

A strict program of sanitation, disease prevention, and parasite control is necessary to

protect the health of horses. Although the exact

program will vary from farm to farm, the basic

principles are the same. A horseman may

compare the following general program with

his existing program and use it to develop similar and more specific programs.

(1) Avoid public feeding and watering facilities.

(2) Read the sections in this handbook that

discuss the diseases and parasites of horses;

become familiar with symptoms and treatments.

(3) When signs of infectious disease appear,

isolate affected animals promptly, provide them

with separate water and feed containers, and

follow the instructions and prescribed treatment of a veterinarian,

(4) Prevent or control parasites by adhering

to the following program:

(a) Provide good sanitation and a high

level of nutrition,

(&) Have adequate acreage. Use temporary seeded pasture rather than permanent pasture, and practice rotation grazing.

(c) Pasture young animals on clean

pastures. Never allow them to graze

on an infested area unless the area

has been either plowed or left idle

for a year.

(d) Do not spread fresh horse manure

on pastures grazed by horses.

Either store the manure in a suita-
51

ble pit for at least 2 weeks or spread

it on fields that are to be plowed

and cropped.

(e) When small pastures or paddocks

must be used, pick up droppings at

frequent intervals,

(/) Keep pastures mowed and harrowed. Use a chain harrow.

(g) Prevent fecal contamination of feed

and water.

(h) Administer suitable vermifuges

when internal parasites are present.

The choice of vermifuges and

administration of them should be by

a veterinarian. Later move horses

to a clean area.

(i) Apply the proper insecticide when

external parasites are present.

(/) If cattle are on the farm, alternate

the use of pastures between cattle

and horses because horse parasites

die in cattle.

(fc) Avoid overgrazing because more

parasites are present on the bottom

inch of grass.

(l) As a disease preventive measure,

arrange a scheduled yearly vaccination program with your veterinarian.

Health Program for Breeding

and Foaling

(1) Mate only healthy mares to healthy stallions and observe scrupulous cleanliness at the

time of service and examination. Never breed

a mare that has any kind of discharge.

(2) Provide plenty of exercise for the stallion and pregnant mare in harness, under

saddle, or by turning them loose in a large pasture where plenty of shade and water are available.

(3) During spring and fall when the weather

is warm, allow the mare to foal in a clean, open

pasture away from other livestock. During bad

weather, keep the mare in a roomy, welllighted, well-ventilated box stall that is provided with clean bedding. Before using the

stall, thoroughly disinfect it with a lye solution

made by adding one can of lye to 12 to 15

gallons of water. After the foal is born,

remove all wet, stained, or soiled bedding and

dust the floor lightly with lime. Do not use too

much lime because it irritates the eyes and

nasal passages of foals. When the afterbirth

has been completely discharged, it should be

buried in lime or burned. The mare should be

kept isolated until all discharges have stopped.

(4) To lessen the danger of navel infection,

promptly treat the navel cord of the newborn

foal with tincture of iodine.

(5) As a precaution against foaling diseases

and other infections, a veterinarian may

administer antibiotics to both the mare and foal

on the day of foaling.

Health Program for New Horses

and Visiting Mares

(1) Isolate new animals for 3 weeks before

adding them to the herd. During this period, a

veterinarian may administer sleeping sickness

vaccine in season and tetanus toxoid, make a

thorough general and parasitic examination,

make a genital examination of breeding animalSj and treat animals when necessary.

(2) Make sure that mares brought in for

breeding are accompanied by a health certificate issued by a veterinarian. Closely watch

mares that have had trouble foaling or have

lost foals,

(3) If possible, saddle, bridle, or harness visiting mares near their own isolation quarters

and use tack and equipment that is not used by

mares kept on the establishment.

Diseases of Horses

The following summary of diseases is

intended only to supplement the services of a

veterinarian to help provide more rapid detection of trouble, and to improve nursing care for

sick horses.

(1) Anthrax (splenic fever, charbon).—An

acute, infectious disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, a large, rod-shaped organism.

Symptoms.—This disease has a history of sudden deaths. Sick animals are feverish, excitable, and later depressed. They carry

the head low, lag behind the herd, and breathe

rapidly. Swellings appear over the body and
52

around the neck region. Milk secretion may

turn bloody or stop entirely, and there may be a

bloody discharge from all body openings.

Treatment.—Isolate all sick animals. At

the first sign of any of the above symptoms, a

veterinarian should be called at once. The veterinarian may give large quantities of antibiotic (3 to 12 million units of penicillin). In

the early stages of the disease, 50 to 100 milliliters (ml.) of antianthrax serum may also be

helpful. Provide good nursing care.

Control.—Quarantine infected herds.

All carcasses and contaminated material should

be burned completely or buried deeply and

covered v^ith quicklime, preferably on the spot.

Vaccinate all exposed but healthy animals,

rotate pastures, and initiate a rigid sanitation

program. Spray sick and healthy animals with

an insecticide to avoid fly transmission of the

infection.

Prevention.—In infected areas, vaccination should be repeated each year, usually in

the spring. Provide fly control by spraying animals during the insect season.

Discussion.—The disease is general

throughout the world in so-called anthrax districts. Cattle are more susceptible to anthrax

than horses. A farmer or rancher should never

open the carcass of a dead animal suspected of

having died from anthrax. Instead, a veterinarian should be summoned at the first sign of an

outbreak. Control measures should be carried

out under the supervision of a veterinarian. The

bacillus that causes anthrax can survive for

years in a spore stage, resisting all destructive

agents.

(2) Distemper (strangles).-—^A widespread

contagious disease caused by Streptococcus

6gmV a bacterium.

Symptoms.—-Sick animals show depression, loss of appetite, high fever, and a discharge from the nose. By the third or fourth

day of the disease, the glands under the jaw

start to enlarge, become sensitive, and eventually break open and discharge pus. A cough is

present.

Treatment.—Good nursing is the most

important treatment. This includes clean, fresh

water, good feed, uniform temperature, and

shelter away from drafts. A veterinarian may

prescribe one of the sulfas or antibiotics, or

both.

Control.—Put affected animals in strict

quarantine. Clean and disinfect contaminated

quarters and premises.

Prevention.—Prevention consists of

avoiding contact with infected animals or

contaminated feeds, premises, and equipment.

The injection of animals with bacterin containing killed Streptococcus equi will help raise the

level of immunit}^ and may prevent the disease.

However, the use of bacterins is not always

beneficial.

Discussion.—The disease is worldwide

and it attacks animals of any age, but it is most

common in young stock. Death losses are low.

Affected animals are usually immune for the

remainder of life.

(3) Encephalomyelitis (sleeping sickness).

—A virus, epizootic (epidemic) disease that

may be carried by birds and mosquitoes. It is

caused by four different viruses. The two most

common ones are known as the eastern type and

the western type.

Symptoms.—In early stages, animals

walk aimlessly about, crashing into objects.

Later they may appear sleepy and stand with a

lowered head. Grinding of the teeth, inability to

swallow, paralysis of the lips, and blindness

may be noted. Paralysis may cause animals to

fall. If affected animals do not recover, death

occurs in 2 to 4 days.

Treatment.—Careful nursing is perhaps the most important treatment. Serum

treatment is sometimes effective when given

very early in the disease. A veterinarian should

be consulted about this.

Control.—Control measures include

prompt disposal of all infected carcasses;

destruction, if possible, of insect breeding

grounds ; and as little movement as possible of

animals from an epizootic area to a clean one.

Prevention.—Vaccinate all animals

before May of each year or as soon as the disease makes its appearance in a community.

Discussion.—The disease is widespread.

Since 1930, nearly a million horses and mules

have been affected in the United States. Some

animals make full recovery but other survivors

do not. The mortahty rate in the western type
53

is about 30 percent, but in the eastern type it is

90 percent or higher. Birds and wild rodents

are natural disease hosts for the western type.

Mosquitoes {Culex tarsalis) transmit the disease.

(4) Equine abortion (premature expulsion

of the fetus).—The causes of abortion may be

grouped under five headings as follows :

(a) Salmonella abortivoequina abortion

occurs most frequently in the last

half of pregnancy.

(b) Streptococcic abortion usually occurs early in pregnancy—prior to

the fifth month.

(c) Virus, or epizootic abortion (rhinopneumonitis), generally occurs late

in pregnancy—after the fifth month.

Some foals are born alive and die at

2 to 3 days of age.

(d) Viral arteritis is caused by a virus.

It produces fever, inñammation of

the mucosa in the respiratory tract,

and edema of the eyelids and legs.

As many as 50 to 80 percent of

pregnant mares may abort.

(e) Miscellaneous causes of abortion

may be due to such things as

accidents, faulty feeds, or twins.

Treatment.—Quarantine animals that

have aborted and give them good feed and care.

Control.—Burn or bury the bedding

and fetus of mares that have aborted. Disinfect

contaminated premises. Isolate newly introduced animals to the farm.

Prevention.—Prevent abortion caused

by Salmonella abortivoequina by vaccinating all

pregnant mares with a bacterin every year

where premises are infected with the organism.

Prevent streptococcic abortion by

mating only healthy animals and observing

scrupulous cleanliness at mating.

Prevent rhinopneumonitis by intranasal inoculation with hamster-adapted virus.

Inoculate all horses of both sexes and all ages

in July and October of each year.

Prevent viral arteritis by isolating new

horses to the farm and quarantining affected

animals. No vaccines are available for immunization.

VEE

In 1971, an outbreak of Venezuelan Equine

Encephalomyelitis (VEE) was reported in

Texas. This was the first time the disease had

occurred in the United States.

VEE is an infectious virus disease of the central nervous system of horses, causing mortality as high as 80 to 90 percent. The disease also

may attack humans. The symptoms of VEE in

horses are similar to those in the common eastern and western types of encephalomyelitis. In

humans the infection usually produces a mild

to severe respiratory illness with severe frontal

headache and high fever. Children usually are

affected more severely than adults. VEE is

generally not fatal in humans but some deaths

have been reported.

VEE was first diagnosed in Venezuela in

1936 and was reported in several South and

Central American countries before the outbreak

occurred in the United States.

VEE is transmitted by mosquitoes and other

insects. There is also a possibility of contact

transmission between horses. Rodents are susceptible to VEE and they may be reservoirs of

the virus in the natural spread of the disease.

In 1971, a program to control the spread of

VEE was initiated. It included spraying to control mosquitoes and the vaccination of horses.

Discussion.—It is estimated that for

the United States as a whole, one-half of all

pregnant mares either abort or produce weak

foals. Sanitation and herd health are important

factors in lessening the number of abortions

regardless of kind. Consult a veterinarian whenever abortion occurs. Cattle abortion on the

premises will not affect pregnant mares and

cause them to abort.

(5) Equine infectious anemia (swamp

fever).—An infectious virus disease.

Symptoms.—Symptoms of the disease

vary, but usually they include some of the following: high and intermittent fever; depression; stiffness and weakness, especially in the

hindquarters; anemia; jaundice; edema and

swelling of the lower body and legs ; unthriftiness; and loss of condition and weight, even
54

though the appetite is good. Most affected animals die within 2 to 4 weeks.

Treatment,—No successful treatment is

known.

Control.—Segregate infected animals

and have them use separate feeding and watering facilities. Kill sick animals and burn or

bury their carcasses.

Prevention.—Use disposable hypodermic needles when horses are vaccinated against

disease and sterilize all other skin penetrating

instruments by boiling them at least 15 minutes

after each use. Practice good sanitation and

eliminate or reduce biting insects as much as

possible. Watch for sick horses and get a diagnosis by a veterinarian if any are observed. Use

separate tack equipment on each horse. Keep

stalls, starting gates, and other facilities clean

at racetracks and shows. This disease has existed in different sections of the United States

for at least 50 years but no preventive vaccination is known.

Discussion.—Infected horses may be

virus carriers for years and are a danger to

susceptible horses.

(6) Equine influenza.—An infectious disease

caused by a myxovirus that has properties of

the Type A influenza viruses.

Symptoms.--—Young animals^ except for

very young foals that have immunity from the

dam's milk, are particularly susceptible. Older

animals are usually immune. Symptom_s develop

2 to 10 days after exposure. The onset of the

disease is marked by a rapidly rising temperature that may reach 106° F. and persist for 2 to

10 days. Other symptoms include loss of appetite, extreme weakness and depression, rapid

breathing, a dry cough, and a watery discharge

from the eyes and nostrils that is followed by a

white to yellow nasal discharge.

Treatment.—Treatment should be handled by a veterinarian. Avoid exercising the

animals during the period of elevated temperature. The use of antibiotics and/or sulfa drugs

may prevent some of the complicated secondary

conditions.

Control."—Avoid transmission of the

virus on contaminated feed, bedding, water,

buckets, brooms, clothing and hands of attendants, and transportation facilities.

Prevention.—Vaccinate with a killed

virus. Use two doses ; follow the manufacturer's

directions on the time of the second dose. Also,

give each animal an annual booster shot, or a

booster when animals are exposed or when an

epidemic occurs. Quarantine sick animals, and

isolate all new animals to the premises for 3

weeks.

Discussion,—The disease is widespread

throughout the world. It frequently appears

where a number of horses are assembled, such

as racetracks, sales, and shows. The death rate

is low but economic loss is high. The disease interrupts training, racing, and showing schedules and it may force the withdrawal of animals

from sales. Although horses, swine, and humans

are subject to influenza and the symptoms are

similar for each, there appears to be no transmission of the disease between any of them.

(7) Glanders (farcy).—An acute or chronic

infectious disease caused by Malleomyces

mallei, a bacterium.

Symptoms.—The chronic form most

often attacks horses, affecting the lungs, skin,

or nasal passages. There may be a nasal discharge that later becomes pus, and nodules and

ulcers may appear in the skin. With the lung

type, there generally is loss in condition, lack of

endurance, bleeding and a mucus discharge

from the nose, and coughing. The skin of the

extremities may develop ulcers that exude a

honeylike tenacious discharge.

The acute form more often attacks

mules and donkeys. The symptoms are similar

to the chronic form, but more severe. Death

usually occurs in a week.

Treatment.—No cure is known.

Control.—Use the mallein test to detect

infected animals or animals suspected of

having the disease. Destroy infected animals

and clean and disinfect contaminated equipment and premises.

Prevention.^^—Avoid inhalation or ingestion of the causative organism. Do not use

public watering places.

Discussion.^—Glanders is prevalent in

areas where horses still are used for transportation and work. The disease has largely disappeared from the mechanized areas of the world,

including the United States, but it is not eradi-
55

cated. Through the transport of animals, glanders can make its appearance anytime in any

area.

(8) Naval infection (joint ill, navel ill,

actinobaccillosis, streptococcus). An infectious

disease of newborn animals caused by several

kinds of bacteria.

Symptoms.—Infected animals have loss

of appetite; swelling, soreness, and stiffness in

the joints; general listlessness; and umbilical

swelling and discharge.

Treatment.—A veterinarian may give a

blood transfusion from the dam to the

offspring, or he may administer a sulfa, an

antibiotic, a serum, or a bacterin.

Control.—See prevention.

Prevention.—Practice good sanitation

and hygiene at mating and parturition. Feed

iodized salt to pregnant mares in iodine-deficient areas. Soon after birth, treat the navel

cord of newborn animals with tincture of

iodine.

Discussion.—The disease appears

throughout the United States. About 50 percent

of infected foals die and many that survive

have deformed joints. Providing clean quarters

for the newborn and painting the navel cord

with tincture of iodine are the best preventive

measures.

(9) Tetanus (lockjaw).—Chiefly a woundinfection disease caused by a powerful toxin,

more than 100 times as toxic as strychnine,

that is liberated by the bacterium Clostridium

tetani, an anaerobe.

Symptoms.—This disease usually is

associated with a wound. First sign of tetanus

is a stiffness about the head. Animals often

chew slowly and weakly and swallow awkwardly. The third or inner eyelid protrudes

over the forward surface of the eyeball. The

slightest noise or movement causes sick animals

to have violent spasms. Usually sick animals remain standing until close to death. All ages are

susceptible.

Treatment.—Place sick animals under

the care of a veterinarian and keep them quiet.

Good nursing is important. If given early in the

disease, massive doses of antitoxin, 100,000 to

200,000 units or more, may be effective. Also,

tranquilizers will reduce the extent and severity of muscular spasms, and antibiotics will

help.

Control.—See prevention.

Prevention.—Under the direction of a

veterinarian, give tetanus toxoid in two doses

at 6-week intervals, followed by a booster injection annually. If premises are unsanitary, all

surgery should be accompanied with tetanus

antitoxin.

Discussion.—Tetanus is worldwide, but

in the United States it occurs most frequently

in the South. Death occurs in over half of the

affected cases.

(10) Vesicular stomatitis.—A contagious

disease of the mouth caused by a virus.

Symptoms.—Blisters and rawness

appear mainly on the tongue but also on the

inner surfaces of the lips, angles of the mouth,

and the gums. There is considerable salivation.

Symptoms appear in 2 to 5 days after exposure.

Treatment.—Make the animal as

comfortable as possible and provide plenty of

water and soft feed.

Control.—None.

Prevention.—None. No vaccination is

available.

Discussion.—The disease may affect 50

percent of the animals on the premises.

Parasites of Horses^

Parasites live in or on the bodies of host animals. Parasites kill some horses but the main

damage is lowered efficiency. Attacks are insidious and cause damage before it is noticed.

Internal parasites

Some 150 different kinds of internal parasites attack horses throughout the world and

probably no animal is ever entirely free of them.

Parasites may be located in practically every

tissue and cavity of the body. However, most of

'^ Trade names of pesticides used to control parasites

are mentioned in this publication solely to provide specific information. Mention of a trade name does not

constitute a guarantee of the product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture nor does it imply an endorsement by the Department over comparable products that

are not named. When any trade-named compound is

used, the directions for use given on the label should be

followed very carefully.
56

them are in the alimentary tract, lungs, body

cavity, or bloodstream. Those in the digestive

system usually become localized there, but

others travel throughout different parts of the

body.

The general symptoms of parasitic infection

in horses are weakness, unthriftiness, emaciation, tucked-up flanks, distended abdomen,

rough coat, pale membranes in the eyes and

mouth, stunted growth in young animals, and

in some cases frequent cohc and diarrhea.

Affected animals usually eat well and the temperature remains normal. But an infected

animal always loses some efficiency as a working unit.

Few treatments with only one drug are

effective in removing bots and various gastrointestinal worms from horses. Usually, it is

necessary to use a combination of drugs. For

this purpose, the specific combination is

dependent upon the kinds of parasites present

in the horses to be treated. It is always wise,

therefore, to obtain a definite diagnosis from a

veterinarian or veterinary diagnostic laboratory before treatment is given. A veterinarisin

should always be consulted for safe and effective dosages of the various drugs and treatment

schedules.

The common internal parasites of horses and

some of the drugs used to treat them are as follows ;

Parasites in the stomach

(1) Stomach worms (Habronema spp., Trichostrongylus axei),—A group of parasitic

worms that produces inflammation of the

stomach.

Symptoms.—Horses suffer loss of

condition and severe gastritis. Sometimes, the

larvae of large stomach worms are partially

responsible for the skin disease of horses called

summer sores.

Treatment.—Probably the best drug to

use for Habronema spp. is carbon disulñde.

Dosage and administration should be determined by a veterinarian. No drugs have been

tested adequately against Trichostrongylus

aa?e¿, the small stomach worm.

Prevention and control.—Provide good

sanitation, proper manure disposal, and fly

control.

Discussion.—Stomach worms attack

horses throughout the United States. Wasted

feed and lowered efficiency are the chief losses.

(2) Bots (Gasterophilus sp-p.),—Four species

of bots have been found in the United States

but only three are serious pests of horses.

Symptoms.—Animals attacked by the

botfly may toss their heads in the air, strike the

ground with their front feet, and rub their

noses on each other or any convenient object.

Animals infected with bots may show frequent

digestive upsets and even colic, lowered vitality

and emaciation, and reduced work output. Bots

may penetrate the stomach wall and cause

death.

Treatment.—Use of carbon disulfide,

trichlorfon, or dichlorvos under the direction of

a veterinarian is recommended.

Prevention and control.—Frequent

grooming, washing, and clipping help prevent

bot attacks. Prevention of reinfection is best

assured through community campaigns in

which all horses within the area are treated.

Fly nets and nose covers offer some relief from

the attacks of botflies.

Discussion.—Bots are worldwide. The

presence of bots results in loss of feed to feeding worms, itching and loss of tail hair from

rubbing, lowered work efficiency, retarded

growth of young animals, lowered breeding

efficiency, and death in severe infections.

Parasites in the small intestine

(1) Large roundworms or ascarids (Parascaris equorum),—The female varies from 6 to

22 inches long and the male from 5 to 13

inches. When full grown, both are about the

diameter of a lead pencil.

Symptoms.—The injury caused by

ascarids ranges from light infections producing

moderate effects to heavy infections that may

cause death. Death usually is due to a ruptured

intestine. Serious lung damage caused by

migrating ascarid larvae may result in pneumonia. More common are retarded growth and

development manifested by a potbelly, rough

hair coat, and digestive disturbances. Ascarids

affect foals and young animals, but rarely affect
57

horses over 5 years old; older animals develop

immunity from early infections.

Treatment.—Veterinarians most commonly use one of the following compounds for

the treatment of this parasite : carbon disulfide,

piperazine compounds, trichlorfon, dichlorvos,

or thiabendazole.

Prevention and control.—Keep the foaling barn and paddocks clean, store manure in a

pit 2 to 3 weeks, provide clean feed and water,

and place young foals on clean pasture.

Discussion.—Ascarids attack horses

throughout the United States. The presence of

ascarids results in loss of feed to feeding

worms, lowered work efficiency, retarded

growth in young animals, lowered breeding

efficiency, and death in severe infections.

(2) Threadworm {Strongyloides ivesteri).—

Threadworms are also known as strongyloides.

Symptoms.—Threadworms attack foals,

causing diarrhea. The worms disappear by the

time foals are 6 months old.

Prevention and control.—Provide good

sanitation and clean, dry bedding.

Discussion.— These worms are common

where there is a concentration of foals. Losses

are primarily in stunted growth and unthriftiness.

(3) Tapeworms {Anoplocephala magna, A.

perfoUata, Paranoplocephala ma^nillana).—• Anoplocephala perfoliata is the most common

and most damaging.

Symptoms.-—Heavy infections may

cause digestive disturbances, loss in weight,

and anemia.

Treatment.—Traditional treatments

are areca nut, kamala, and oleoresin of male

fern ; no modern effective drugs have been developed for treatment of tapeworm infections in

horses.

Prevention and control.—Provide good

sanitation and husbandry, proper manure disposal, and clean bedding.

Discussion.—Tapeworms attack horses

throughout the northern part of the United

States. Losses are primarily in wasted feed and

retarded growth.

Parasites in the large intestine

(1) Large and small strongyles (Strongylus

spp. and others).—There are about 60 species

of strongyles. Three are large worms that grow

up to 2 inches long. The rest are small and

some are barely visible to the eye. Large stron»

gyles are variously called bloodworms {Strongylus vulgaris), palisade worms, sclerostomes,

and red worms.

Symptoms.—Infected horses have lack

of appetite, anemia, progressive emaciation, a

rough hair coat, sunken eyes, digestive disturbances including colic, a tucked-up appearance,

and sometimes posterior paralysis and death.

Collectively these symptoms indicate the disease known as strongylosis. Harmful effects are

greatest in young animals. One species of large

strongyles (Strongylus vulgaris) may permanently damage the intestinal blood vessel wall

and cause death at any age.

Treatment.—Use thiabendazole; phenothiazine + piperazine ; phenothiazine + piperazine-1-carbodithioic acid ; dithiazanine +

piperazine ; trichlorfon ; or dichlorvos. The decision as to which drugs to use and the dosage

level should be made by a veterinarian.

Prevention and control.—Gather

manure daily from pastures and barns and

store it in a pit 2 to 3 weeks. Rotate pastures

and avoid moist pasture and overstocking.

Discussion.—Strongyles attack horses

throughout the United States wherever horses

are pastured. Attacks of strongyles result in

loss of feed to feeding worms, lowered work

efficiency, retarded growth of young animals,

lowered breeding efficiency, and death in severe

infections.

(2) Pinworms (Oxyuris equi, Prohstmyria

vivípara),—Two species of pinworms, or rectal

worms, frequently are found in horses. Oxyuris

eqiii are whitish worms with long, slender tails,

Prohstmyria vivípara are so small they are

scarcely visible to the eye.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are irritation of the anus and tail rubbing. Heavy infections also may cause digestive disturbances and

anemia. Large pinworms are most damaging

to horses and may be seen in the feces of heavily infected animals.

Treatment.—The common drugs are

thiabendazole, trichlorfon, or dichlorvos or various combinations of trichlorfon, phenothiazine.
58

piperazine, and thiabendazole. Which drugs to

give and dosage should be determined by a veterinarian.

Prevention and control.—Provide good

sanitation and keep animals separated from

their own excrement.

Discussion.—Pinworms attack horses

throughout the United States.

Parasites in the lungs

(1) Lungworms {Dictyocmdus arnfieldi),—

The equine lungworm is very rare in the United

States.

Symptoms.—Donkeys seem to be able

to carry large numbers of lungworms without

showing any symptoms. They develop a tolerance. However, infected foals may become

unthrifty and develop a cough. There is a rise

in temperature with lungworm infection.

Prevention and control.^—Where lungworm infection is suspected, a fecal examination should be made. Infected burros should be

kept away from foals.

Discussion,—Lungworms may be found

in the air passages of the horse and other

equines. The male worm reaches a length of

about 1 inch and the female may be about 2

inches long. The eggs are laid in the lungs and

pass out of the horse's body through the intestine. They hatch into first-stage larvae that

develop eventually into the third, or infective,

stage. The infective larvae enter the body

through the mouth, travel in the lymph vessels

to the thoracic duct, then to the heart, and

eventually to the lungs.

Blood protozoan parasites

(1) Equine piroplasmosis (babesiasis).^—

Caused by Babesia caballi or B, equi, protozoan

parasites that invade the red blood cells.

Symptoms.-^—Equine piroplasmosis is

similar to equine infectious anemia but a positive diagnosis can be made by determining

whether or not protozoa are in the red blood

cells. Symptoms include a fever of 103° to lOe""

F., anemia, jaundice, depression, thirst, a discharge from the eyes, and swelling of the eyelids. Constipation and colic may occur and the

urine is a yellow to reddish color. Symptoms

appear 1 to 3 weeks after exposure.

Treatment.—A number of treatments

are used but the choice should be left to a veterinarian. Many States have laws that require

you to report this infection.

Prevention and control,— Control the

ticks that carry the parasites, especially brown

dog ticks and tropical horse ticks, both of w^hich

are found in the United States. Methods of tick

control are discussed in the section on external

parasites. Practice rigid sanitation in the use of

all syringes, needles, and medical instruments.

Recovered animals remain carriers for 10

months to 4 years and should be isolated.

Discussion.—This infection is worldwide. In the United States, it was first diagnosed in Florida in 1961. The death rate is

from 10 to 15 percent of infected animals.

External parasites

Several kinds of external parasites attack

horses. These pests lower the vitality of horses,

damage the hair and skin, and produce a generally unthrifty condition.

External parasites also are responsible for

the spread of several serious diseases of horses.

Equine piroplasmosis (babesiasis) is transmitted by a tick, Dermacentor nttens. Mosquitoes

(Culicidae) are vectors of equine infectious

anemia (swamp fever) and equine encephalomyelitis (sleeping sickness).

The common measures used to prevent and

control external parasites of horses are practic=

ing good sanitation, good grooming, avoiding a

too heavy concentration of horses, and spraying

or dusting with insecticides. Flies and lice are

the most common external parasites of horses

but some of the others can produce more severe

injury when they occur.

The common external parasites of horses and

approved control measures are as follows:

(1) Blowfly,—The blowfly group consists of

several species of nies that breed in animal

flesh.

Symptoms.—The maggots of blowflies

infest wounds and spread over the body, feeding on the skin surface, producing severe irritation, and destroying the ability of the skin to

function. Infested animals rapidly become

weak, fevered, and unthrifty.

Treatment,—A 0.25 percent coumaphos

(Co-Ral) spray is effective for controlling
59

blowfly larvae infesting soiled hair and wounds.

Prevention and controL—To control the

blowfly^ destroy dead animals by burning or

deep burial and by using traps, poisoned baits,

electrified screens, and repellents.

Discussion.—Blowfly attacks are widespread but they present the greatest problem in

the Pacific Northwest, the South, and the

Southwest. Death losses are not large but work

efficiency is lowered,

(2) House fly and stable fly.—House flies are

nonbiting, nuisance insects. Stable flies are

biting insects that bite principally on the legs.

Symptoms.—Flies annoy horses, causing them to fight. Horses may strike the ground

with their feet, toss their heads, switch their

tails, and run.

Treatment.—Treat animals infested

with house and stable flies with any of the following insecticides, using the dosages given.

Indication is shown if the treatment is also

effective against horn flies.

Carbaryl spray, 0.5 percent, 1 quart,

not more often than every 4 days. (Also for

horn flies.)

Ciodrin spray, 0.15 to 0.3 percent, 1

quart, not more often than every 7 days. (Also

for horn flies.)

Ciodrin mist spray, 2 percent in oil, 1 to

2 ounces. (Mist spray is composed of very fine,

or minute, droplets.)

Coumaphos spray, 0.06 to 0.25 percent,

1 to 2 quarts, to backs of animals every 3 weeks

or as needed. (Also for horn flies.)

Dioxathion spray, 0.15 percent, 1 to 2

quarts, not more often than once every 2 weeks.

(Also for horn flies.)

Dichlorvos mist spray, 1 percent in oil,

1 to 2 ounces. (Also for horn flies.)

Malathion spray, 0.5 percent, 2 quarts,

to backs every 3 weeks or as needed. (Also for

horn flies.)

Methoxychlor spray, 0.5 percent, 1 to 2

quarts, to backs every 3 weeks or as needed.

(Also for horn flies.)

Ronnel spray, 0.25 to 0.5 percent, 1 to 2

quarts, to backs every S weeks or as needed,

(Also for horn flies.)

Pyrethrins and synergist, 1 to 2 quarts

when used as a wet spray, or 1 to 2 ounces as a

mist spray ; repeat every 2 to 3 days as needed.

(Wet, or saturating, spray should be applied

liberally under pressure to wet the hair coat to

the skin.)

The following are effective against

house flies but not stable flies: (a) Baits

consisting of a 0.5 to 2 percent organophosphate toxicant such as dichlorvos, diazinon,

malathion, naled, or trichlorfon mixed with a

food attractant such as sugar or sirup; or (5)

treated cotton cord impregnated with 10

percent parathion or 25 percent diazinon and

suspended from the ceiling.

Prevention and control.—Practice good

sanitation, including proper disposal of all fly

breeding media such as manure and waste feed.

Use screens when practical.

Discussion.—Habronema spp., a roundworm, is transmitted by house flies. Stable flies

can carry anthrax, infectious anemia, and

surra.

(3) Horn fly.—Horn flies are primarily pests

of cattle but they sometimes seriously annoy

horses.

Treatment.—Treat infested animals

with any of the insecticides recommended for

horn flies in the treatment section under

"House Fly and Stable Fly.'^

(4) Horsefly, deerfly, and mosquito.—-All of

these are biting insects. Bites of horseflies and

deerflies are painful.

Treatment.—Use repellent sprays containing 0.05 to 0.1 percent pyrethrins, with or

without 0.5 to 0.1 percent synergist. Mists or

wet sprays of such formulations will lessen the

attacks of biting insects for several hours to a

full day. Sprays containing 0.3 percent Ciodrin

will provide short-time protection from biting

flies and mosquitoes, but do not apply more

often than every 7 days.

Prevention and control.—The best

method of controlling mosquitoes is to provide

drainage or landfill in breeding areas.

Discussion.—Mosquitoes transmit

equine encephalomyelitis,

(5) Face fly.—Face flies gather in large

numbers on the faces of horses, especially

around the eyes and nose.

Treatment.—Use a 0.3 percent Ciodrin

spray or brush the forehead lightly with a
60

sirup bait containing 0.5 percent dichlorvos

(Vapona). These two treatments are effective

for only a short time and may have to be

applied almost daily.

Prevention and control.—Shelters for

horses on pastures give some protection.

(6) Lice.—These are small, flattened, wingless insect parasites. Horses are commonly

infested by two species of lice; they are the

common horse biting louse, Damalinia eqiii^ and

the horse sucking louse, Haematopinas osinL

Symptoms.—Symptoms include intense

irritation, restlessness, and loss of condition.

There may be severe itching and the animal

may be seen scratching, rubbing, and gnawing

the skin; scabs may be evident and the hair

may be rough, thin, and without luster. Lice

are likely to be most plentiful around the root

of the tail, on the inside of the thighs, over the

fetlock region, and along the neck and shoulders.

Treatment.—Treat infested animals

with any of the following insecticides: Spray

with 0.5 percent carbaryl but do not treat more

often than every 4 days; spray with 0.3 percent

Ciodrin but do not treat more often than every

7 days; spray with 0.125 percent coumaphos

(Co-Ral) ; spray with 0.15 percent dioxathion

(Delnav), but only at 2-week intervals and do

not treat foals ; or spray with 0.5 percent malathion but do not treat foals under 1 month old.

A second application after an interval of 12 to

14 days may be required. Repeated treatments

are rarely necessary to control lice.

Prevention and control.—Because of

the close contact of horses during the winter, it

is practically impossible to keep them from

becoming infested with lice. For effective

control, all horses should be treated with insecticides simultaneously at intervals as needed,

especially in the fall about the time they are

placed in winter quarters.

Discussion.—Lice are widespread. They

retard growth, lower work efficiency, and

produce unthriftiness. They show up most

commonly on neglected animals in winter.

(7) Mites.—These are very small parasites

that cause mange (scabies, scab, and itch). The

two chief forms of mange are sarcoptic mange

caused by burrowing mites and psoroptic

mange caused by mites that bite the skin and

suck the serum and lymph but do not burrow.

Mites also may cause chorioptic mange.

Symptoms.—Symptoms are irritation,

itching, and scratching. The skin crusts over

and becomes thick, tough, and wrinkled.

Mange appears to spread most rapidly during

the winter months.

Treatment.—Treat animals with sprays

containing (a) 0.25 percent coumaphos, (5) 0.1

to 0.3 percent Ciodrin, or (c) 0.5 percent malathion; give two treatments 10 to 14 days apart.

Lime-sulfur and nicotine sprays are effective

but they are little used on horses today.

Prevention and control.—Keep healthy

horses away from diseased animals or infested

premises. Spray infested animals with insecticides and quarantine affected herds.

Discussion.—Mites are widespread.

They retard growth, lower work efficiency, and

produce unthriftiness. When sarcoptic and psoroptic mange appear, they must be reported to

State or Federal animal health agencies. Also,

in many States, chorioptic mange must be reported.

(8) Ringworm.—This is a contagious infection of the outer layers of skin caused by an

infestation of microscopic fungi.

Symptoms.—Round, scaly areas almost

devoid of hair appear mainly in the vicinity of

eyes, ears, side of the neck, or root of the tail

Mild itching usually accompanies the infection.

Treatment.—^Clip the hair from the

infected skin areas. Soften skin crusts with

warm soap and water and remove them if

desired. Let infected areas dry and then paint

them with weak tincture of iodine every 3 days

or treat them with a mixture of one part salicylic acid and 10 parts alcohol every 3 days

until the infection clears up.

Prevention and control. — Isolate

infected animals. Disinfect everything that has

been in contact with infected animals, including

curry combs and brushes. Practice strict sanitation.

Discussion.—Ringworm attacks horses

throughout the United States, primarily as a

stable infection. It is unsightly and infected

animals may have considerable discomfort, but

economic losses are low.
61

(9) Screwworm.—Maggots of the screwworm

fly require living flesh of animals on which to

feed.

Symptoms.—Symptoms include loss of

appetite, unthriftiness, and lowered activity.

Treatment.—Use ronnel smear. Brush

or smear the infected area twice the ñrst week

and then weekly until healed. A wash containing 0.25 coumaphos also is effective.

Prevention and control.—Area-wide

screwworm eradication by sterilizing pupalstage screwworms with X-rays or gamma rays

has been most effective. Try to keep animals

from wounding themselves and protect any

wounds that do occur. Schedule castrations in

winter when flies are least numerous and

active.

Discussion.—Screwworm appears mostly in the South and Southwest where it may

cause 50 percent of the normal annual livestock

losses. The screwworm has been eradicated

from the Southern United States east of the

Mississippi River.

(10) Ticks.—Several kinds may be found on

horses. The most common ones are the winter

tick, Dermacentor albipictus; the lone star tick,

Amblyomma americanum; and the spinose ear

tick, Otobius megnini.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are lowered vitality and itching; animals rub and

scratch infested parts.

Treatment.—To control winter and lone

star ticks, use the same treatments that are

used for lice. For the control of spinose ear

ticks, apply a 5 percent coumaphos dust inside

the ears, or spray inside the ears with an aerosol bomb containing 2.5 percent ronnel. Repeat

treatments as necessary.

Prevention and control.—Treatment

with insecticides will control ticks on horses

and protect them against reinfestation for several weeks.

Discussion.^—Ticks appear mostly in the

South and West. They reduce vitality of horses

and may spread piroplasmosis and African

horsesickness.

HORSEMANSHIP

For greatest enjoyment, a horseman should

have the proper tack and clothing and learn to

ride correctly. Some of the riding equipment

that horsemen need and some of the principles

of good horsemanship are discussed in this

section.

Tack

Tack includes all articles of gear, or equipment, that are used on or attached to riding

and driving horses. Each horse should have his

own saddle, bridle, halter, and lead shank so

they can be adjusted to ñt.

Superior quality tack usually is cheaper in

the long run. With proper care, it will last for

many years. Some common items of tack are

discussed in the following sections.

Bridles and haekamores

Lightweight bridles and bits usually indicate

competent horsemen and well-mannered horses.

Bridles may be either single or double. A single

bridle is equipped with one bit, whereas a

double bridle is ordinarily equipped with both a

snaffle bit and a curb bit, two headstalls, and

two pairs of reins. Only one rein is used with

western bridles.

All bridles should be properly fitted, and the

headstall should be located so that it neither

slides back on the horse's neck nor pulls up

against his ears. The cheek straps should be

adjusted in length so the bit rests easily in the

mouth without drawing up the corners. And

the throatlatch should be buckled loosely

enough to permit the hand, when held edgeways, to pass between it and the horse's throat.

The bosal hackamore and the hackamore bitbridle are used on horses with tender mouths

and as training devices for western horses.

The bosal hackamore has a pair of reins and

an ordinary headstall that holds in place a

braided rawhide or rope noseband knotted

under the horse's jaw. It is an excellent device

for controlling a young horse without injuring

his mouth and is used extensively in training

polo and cow ponies.
62

When properly adjusted, the hackamore

should rest on the horse's nose about 4 inches

from the top of the nostrils, or at the base of

the cheek bones. It should also permit the passage of two fingers held edgeways between it

and the jaw.

The hackamore bit-bridle is a *'fake" bridle;

it has the shanks on each side but no mouthpiece.

The kind of bridle or hackamore used will

depend on the horse's training and intended

use. Figures 58 and 59 show the most common

types of bridles and hackamores.

Bits

The bit is the most important part of the

bridle. In fact, the chief use of the other parts

of the bridle is to hold the bit in place in the

horse's mouth. The bit provides communication

between the rider or driver and the horse.

Figures 60, 61, and 62 show the most

common types of bits. There are many variations on each of these types.

The proper fit and adjustment of the bit is

very important. It should rest easily in the

mouth and be wide enough so it will not pinch

the cheeks or cause wrinkles in the corners of

BRIDLES

Crown piece or

headstall

Browband

Cheek piece

Throatlatch

Cavesson o

noseband

Snaffle bitWeymouth

curb bit

Curb chain

Lip strap

Snaffle rein

Crown piece or

headstall

Browband

Cavesson or

noseband

HeadstalU

Cheek piecePelham curb bitj¿

Curb chain ''

Lip strap

Curb bit-j

Curb strapJ

A B C

BN—37791

FIGURE 58.—Three types of bridles. (A) Weymouth bridle—a double-bitted, double-reined bridle used in showing

three- and five-gaited horses; (B) Pelham bridle—a single bitted, double-reined bridle used on hunters, polo ponies

and pleasure horses; (C) One ear, or split ear, bridle—a bridle often used on working stock horses.
63

HACKAMORES

Headstall

Browband

A

BN-37789

FIGURE 59.—TWO types of hackamores. (A) Bosal hackamore—a popular hackamore for breaking horses; (B) Hackamore bit-bridle—a hackamore with a removable mouthpiece that is used on western cow ponies and on young horses

when they are being broken, because it eliminates the possibility of injuring the mouth.

the mouth. As a rule, a curb-type bit rests

lower in the mouth than a snaffle. All bits

should have large rings or other devices to prevent them from passing through the mouth

when either rein is drawn in turning the horse.

The following points about bits should be

remembered :

• Usually, the snaffle bit is used when a horse

is started in training.

• The hunting, or egg butt, snaffle is used on

hunters and jumpers.

« The curb bit is a more severe bit than the

snaffle and it may be used either alone or with

the snaffle.

* The Pelham bit is one bit that is used with

two reins and a curb chain. It is a combination

of a snaffle and a curb bit and is used in park or

pleasure riding and hunting.

* The Weymouth bit combined with a snaffle

bit is known as a bit and bradoon.

Ö Western bits are similar to the curb bit but

they have longer shanks and are larger.

Usually, they are used with a solid leather curb

strap but sometimes they have a small amount

of chain in the middle of the leather curb strap.

Saddles

The English and western saddles are the two
64

ENGLISH RIDING BITS

Headstall ring

Port

Curb chain hook

Rein ring^

Points of attachment

for curb chain

Rings for two sets

of reins

Dee

D E

FIGURE 60.-Pive common types of English riding bits. (A) Weymouth curb bit-a bit used along with a snaffirbiTin

a Weymouth bridle for three- and five-gaited horses; (B) Pelham curb bit-a bit used in a Pelham bridle for

hunters, polo ponies, and pleasure horses; (C) Walking horse bit—a bit often used on Walking Horses- (D)

Snaffle bit—the most widely used of all bits; (E) Dee race bit-a bit often used on Thoroughbred racehorses'

WESTERN RIDING BITS

A

Noseband

Curb strap

Spade

Roller

Shank

•Shank

Rein chain

FIGURE 61.-Three common types of western riding bits. (A) Hackamore bit~a bit used on most cow poniesHBT

Roper curved cheeK bit=-a bit used on many roping horses; (C) Spade mouth bit-a bit used on many stock horses.
65

DRIVING BITS

Curb chain hook rRein ring f-Rein ring

iViouthpiece

Shank

A B C

BN-37788

FIGURE 62.—Three common types of driving bits. (A) Liverpool bit—a curb bit used on heavy harness horses; (B)

Bar bit—a bit used on trotting harness horses that carry checkreins and are driven with a strong hand; (C) Halfcheek snaffle bit—a bit used on harness racehorses, roadsters, and fine harness horses.

most common types, but individual styling

within the types may vary considerably.

English saddle.—English saddles include the

flat types that are modified specifically for

pleasure riding, training, racing, jumping, or

polo. The English saddle (fig. 63) is characterized by its relatively flat seat and its generally

light weight.

The following points should be remembered

about English saddles :

• When an English saddle is used on a show

horse, use a white web or linen girth.

® A saddle blanket usually is not necessary

with an English saddle.

• For English pleasure riding or showing,

use an English saddle and a double bit or Pelham bridle.

• For hunting and jumping, use a forward

seat English saddle and a hunting snaflîe or

Pelham bit.

Western saddle.-—A western saddle (fig. 64)

is the common saddle used by cowboys and

western stockmen. The essential features are a

steel, light metal, or wooden tree; a pommel,

topped by a horn for roping, and a cantle (the

height of the pommel and cantle vary according

to the uses to which the saddle is to be put and

the personal preference of the rider) ; a

comparatively deep seat ; heavy square or round

skirts; a double cinch, usually, but a single

cinch may be used ; and heavy stirrups that may

be hooded or open. A western saddle is designed

to give comfort for all-day riding and provide

enough strength to stand up under the strain of

calf roping. The average western saddle weighs

35 to 40 pounds.

Clothes for Riders

In general, riding clothes seldom change in

style. Moreover, they are utilitarian. Peg4op

breeches, for example, provide plenty of seat

room. Close fitting legs eliminate wrinkles that

might cause chafing. Chamois leather linings

inside the knees and calves keep the muscles of

the legs from pinching under the stirrup leathers and increase the firmness of the leg grip.

Boots or jodhpurs protect the ankles from the

stirrup irons. And high boots also keep the

breeches from snaring on objects along the

trail, shield the trouser legs from the saddle

straps and the horse's sides, and protect the

legs from rain and cold. For the most comfortable ride, v/ear either regulation or jodhpur type

breeches made to order.

The time of day, the kind of riding horse,

and the class in which shown at horseshows
66

Rommel

Skirt

Stirrup bar^^|||\|

Stirrup iron

Tread of

stirrup

iron

Cantle Panel

Panel

— -flap

Billets

„Stirrup

leather

FIGURE eS.—An English saddle: Left^ upright position; right, the underside,

iHorn

BN-37801

Pommel

Wool lin

Skirt

Rope strap

Lace string

Front jockey and

seat jockey,

one piece

Dee ring

Cantle

Skirt

Back housing

^ or back jockey

Lace strings

Dee ring

Leather flank

girth billet

Front tie

strap or

cinch strap

Stirrup

FIGURE 64.—A western saddle.

BN--37802
67

determine the riding attire. In addition to

selecting proper clothes, well-groomed and experienced riders place emphasis on fine tailoring, good materials, and proper fit. Also, when

riding a saddle horse, do not wear gaudy colors,

excess jewelry, or sequins except in parade

classes.

For information on clothes for riders for

specific show classes see the official rule book of

the American Horse Shows Association,

Appropriate riding clothes for the most common occasions are as follows :

English riding

(1) Informal park or school riding, morning

or afternoon classes.

Coat.—Any conservative color, tweeds

or checks.

Jodhpurs or breeches.—-Jodhpurs of

gabardine, whipcord, or cavalry twill in colors

to match or to contrast with the coat; Kentucky

style breeches with bell bottoms and no ñare at

the hips.

Vest.—Optional; light, solid color or

tattersall check.

Shirt.—Man's shirt, white or colored,

broadcloth or oxford cloth.

Neckwear.—Four-in-hand tie or bow

tie.

Hat.—^Saddle derby to match jodhpurs

or coat.

Boots.—Black or brown strap or elastic

jodhpur boots.

Gloves.—Optional ; leather gloves to

blend with habit.

Jewelry and other accessories.—-Cuff

links, tie pin, belt; spurs of unrowelled type

and whip or crop optional.

(2) Semiformal, afternoon or evening

classes.

Coat.—Gabardine, wool gabardine,

dress worsted, or other men's-wear materials;

inverted pleats in back ; dark colors preferred ;

in summer, linen or tropical worsted.

Jodhpurs or breeches.—Jodhpurs of

same material as coat to make a matching

riding habit; Kentucky style breeches with bell

bottoms, no flare at the hips, and no cuff.

Vest.—Solid color or tattersall check.

Shirt.—Man's shirt in white or light

color to match suit.

Neckwear,—Man's four-in-hand tie to

match or contrast with the coat.

Hat.—Saddle derby to match suit.

Boots.—Black or brown jodhpur boots.

Gloves.—Optional ; leather in a natural

shade or to match suit.

Jewelry and other accessories.—Tie

clasp, cuff links, belt; spurs and riding whip

optional.

(3) Formal evening riding.

(a) Five-gaited horse.

Coat.—Black or midnight blue

tuxedo style riding coat with one button in

front and inverted pleats ; men usually wear a

dark suit instead of a tuxedo.

Jodhpurs or breeches.—Material and

color to match coat.

Vest.—Any solid color to match

habit.

Shirt.—Man's shirt.

Neckwear.^—Four-in-hand or bow

tie.

Hat.—Saddle derby.

Boots.—Black jodhpur boots with

tuxedo ; brown or black with a suit.

Gloves.—Leather gloves to match

habit.

Jewelry and other accessories.—Cuff

links and tie pin ; gaited riding whip, crop, and

spurs optional.

(b) Three-gaited horse.

Coat.—Tuxedo model in black or

midnight blue; shawl collar with satin lapels;

soft pastel colored coats also can be worn;

white coat in summer. Equitation classes must

wear a dark tuxedo style coat with a silk top

hat in the evening and a matched suit with a

derby in the daytime.

Jodhpurs or breeches.—Material

and color to match coat; satin stripe down outside of jodhpurs.

Vest.^—Optional ; white pique vest or

cummerbund.

Shirt.^—Formal style, white, stifffront tuxedo; shirt with wing collar and

pleated front.

Neckwear.—Black, white, or midnight blue bow tie.

Hat.—Silk top hat.

Boots.—Black leather or patent

leather jodhpur boots.
68

Gloves.-—Leather gloves to match

habit.

Jewelry and other accessories.—Formal

shirt studs ; walk-trot stick optional.

Western riding

Coat.—Coats and jackets usually not

worn except in bad weather ; tailored equitation

suits may be worn (matching shirt and pants).

Pants.—Western cut pants of gabardine, cotton twill, cavalry twill, or wool worn

with chaps, shotgun chaps, or chinks ; conservative color and well tailored.

Vest.—Optional ; leather or cloth.

Shirt.—Western type; color to match or

contrast with western pants ; solid or patterned

fabric acceptable ; long sleeved.

Neckwear.—Knotted kerchief, dogger

type tie, choker, or silk scarf tied ascot style

and tucked into open neck of shirt.

Hat.—-Western hat, felt or straw.

Boots.—Western boots.

Gloves.—Optional ; leather.

Jewelry and other accessories.—Hand

carved belt and western belt buckle; carry a

rope or riata; if closed reins are used in trail

and pleasure horse classes, carry hobbles ; spurs

optional.

Hunting and jumping

(1) Hunting (informal).

Coat.—Black oxford or tweed.

Jodhpurs or breeches.—Jodhpurs with

peg and cuff or breeches ; colors of brick, tan,

buiï, or canaiy.

Vest.—-Optional ; hunting yellow or tattersalL

Shirt.—Stock shirt or ratcatcher.

Neckwear.—-Choker, stock, or ratcatcher tie.

Hat,—Brown or black hunting derby;

hunting cap if 18 years old or less.

Boots.—Black or brown boots; high or

jodhpur.

Gloves.—Brown leather gloves or rain

gloves of string.

Jewelry and other accessories.—Stock

or choker pin, hunting crop, and spurs with

straps that match boots.

(2) Hunt seat equitation.

Coat.-—Oxford or tweed hunt coat;

black or other conservative color.

Jodhpurs or breeches.—Buff, brick, or

canary breeches.

Vest.^—Optional; canary with black

coat

Shirt.—Stock shirt.

Neckwear.—White stock or choker.

Hat.—Hunting derby; hunting cap if

18 years old or less.

Boots.—Black or brown hunt boots.

Gloves.—Optional.

Jewelry and other accessories.—=Stock

pin worn straight across on a stock tie or choker ;

spurs of unrowelled type and crop or bat

optional.

(3) Member of a hunt (formal).

Coat.^—Black hunt coat of melton or

heavy twill; may wear a black coat of shadbelly or other cutaway-type scarlet hunt livery ;

collar should be same material and color as the

coat unless the rider has been invited to wear

hunt-club colors, in which case the collar should

conform to hunt livery.

Jodhpurs or breeches.—Buif, brick, or

canary with black coat; men wear white

breeches if they wear a scarlet coat.

Vest.-—^Buff or yellow; hunt colors if

hunt-club member.

Shirt.—White stock shirt.

Neckwear.—White stock fastened with

a plain gold safety pin worn straight across

stock.

Hat.—Silk hunting hat; hat guard

required with scarlet coat or black shadbelly;

staff members and juniors wear hunt caps;

adults wear a derby with a hat guard when a

black coat is worn.

Boots.—Regular hunting boots of black

calf with tabs; black patent leather tops permissible for women ; brown tops for men on the

staff.

Gloves.—White or yellow string rain

gloves or brown leather gloves.

Jewelry and other accessories.—^Sandwich case, flask, and regulation hunting whip;

spurs of heavy pattern with a moderately short

neck, preferably without rowels and worn high

on the heels.
69

Boot garters.—Plain black or black

patent leather with patent leather boot tops;

brown with brown boot tops ; white with white

breeches.

(4) Jumping.

Coat.—Any color of hunt coat in solid

or check; jumping coat may be of any informal

forward seat type.

Jodhpurs or breeches.^—Breeches of a

color contrasting to coat.

Vest.—Checkered or solid color.

Shirt.—Man's shirt ; ratcatcher shirt

when stock is worn.

Neckwear.—-Stock or four-in-hand tie.

Hat.—Hunting derby or hunt cap.

Boots,—Black or brown hunting boots.

Gloves.—Optional,

Jewelry and other accessories.—Stock

pin and belt ; jumping bat and spurs optional.

Other riding occasions

(1) Side saddle forward seat for hunting.—

Silk hunting hat; hat guard required; dark

melton habit with matching skirt; black boots

without tops; spurs are optional; w^hite or

colored rain gloves, neckwear, coat collar, vest,

sandwich case, and flask are the same as for a

member of a formal hunt.

(2) Side saddle show seat.—Habit of dark

blue, black, or oxford gray with matching or

contrasting skirt; black jodphur boots; four-inhand or bow tie; white shirt; hard derby;

white or pigskin gloves.

(3) Plantation walking horse (Tennessee

Walking Horse).—Clothes should be the same

as those worn for riding three- or five-gaited

horses; men can wear a soft felt hat; women

seldom wear a hat.

Riding a Horse

Mounting

Before mounting always check the cinch, or

saddle girth, for tightness and the stirrup

straps, or leathers, for length. Mount from the

left, or **near,'' side. Figures 65, 66, and 67

show the correct way to mount, and the correct

holding of the reins, in Western and English

riding.

Seat

Figures 68 and 69 show the correct riding seat

for a three-gaited horse, a five-gaited horse, a

plantation walking horse, a western horse, and

a hunter and jumper.

Rules of good horsemanship

Horsemen should always practice safety and

show consideration for other riders. The following are some of the rules of good horsemanship:

® Approach a horse on his left. Never walk

or stand behind a horse unannounced; let him

know you are there by speaking to him and

placing your hand on him. Otherwise, you may

get kicked.

• Pet a horse by first placing your hand on

his shoulder or neck. Do not dab at the end of

his nose.

® When leading a horse, grasp the reins close

to the bit on his left side.

• Walk a horse to and from the stable ; this

prevents him from running to the stable and

from refusing to leave the stable.

® Make sure the saddle blanket or pad is

clean and free of any rough places to prevent a

sore back.

® Check the saddle and bridle, or hackamore,

before mounting. The saddle should fit just

back of the withers ; it should not bear down on

or rub the withers, but also it should not be

placed too far back. The girth should be fastened snugly and should not be too close to the

forelegs. Be sure that the bridle, or hackamore,

fits comfortably and that the curb chain, or

strap, is flat in the chin groove and fastened

correctly.

^ Mount and dismount from the left side. The

horse must be made to stand still until the rider

is properly seated in the saddle or has dismounted.

® Sit in the correct position for the style of

riding.

• Keep the proper tension on the reins ; avoid

either tight or dangling reins.

® Keep the hands and voice quiet when handling a horse. Never scream, laugh loudly, or

make other noises that wifl upset the horse. Do

not slap a horse with the ends of the reins

when he is excited.
BN-37795

FIGURE 65.—(A) In English riding-, take the reins in the left hand and place the left hand on the withers. Grasp the

stirrup leather with the right hand and insert the left foot in the stirrup. Swing around to face the horse, hop off

the right foot, grasp the cantle with the right hand, and spring upward and over. Settle into the saddle and slip

the right foot into the off stirrup without looking down, (B) In western riding, take the reins in the left hand and

place the left hand on the horse's neck in front of the withers. Keep the romal or the end of the reins on the near

side. Grasp the stirrup with the right hand, place the left foot in the stirrup with the ball of the foot resting securely on the tread. Brace the left knee against the horse, grasp the saddle horn with the right hand, and spring

upward and over. Settle into the saddle and slip the right foot into the off stirrup.

HOLDING THE REINS WESTERN STYLE

BN-37798

FIGURE 66.—Holdine the reins western style: (A) Only one hand can be used and hands cannot be changed; (B) The

hand must be around the reins with no fingers between reins unless split reins are used; (C) When using split

reins, one finger between reins is permitted.
71

iilliiilliiiiil

DOUBLE-REIN BRIDLE

Right Hand

Left Hand

Arms held

horizontal

to elbow

R. Snaffle:

R. Curb^

L Curb

L. Snaffle

Arm held

horizontal

to elbow

REINS IN TWO HANDS REINS IN ONE HAND

SINGLE-REIN BRIDLE

Left Hand

Hand

Right Hand

REINS IN TWO HANDS REINS IN ONE HAND

BN-37796

FIGURE 67.—Holding the reins English style: Topj double-rein bridle; bottom, single-rein bridle.

• Warm up a horse gradually ; walk him first

and then jog him slowly.

• Keep to the right side of the road except

when passing. Yield the right-of-way courteously.

» Walk a horse across bridges, through underpasses, on pavements and slippery roads, and

when going up or down hill. Do not race a

horse ; he will form bad habits and may get out

of control

« Slow down when making a sharp turn.

• Keep a horse moving when a car passes. If

he stops, he may back into the passing vehicle.

• Anticipate such distractions as cars, stones,

paper, trees, bridges, noises, dogs, and children.

« Vary the gaits ; do not force a horse to take

a rapid gait such as a canter, rack, or trot for

more than a half mile without allowing a

breathing spell.

• Keep a horse under control at all times if

possible. Try to stop a runaway horse by sawing

the bit back and forth to break his stride and

his hold on the bit; in an open space, pull one

rein hard enough to force the horse to circle.

• Be firm with a horse and make him obey.

At the same time, love and understand him and

he will be a good friend.

• Never become angry and jerk a horse; a

bad-tempered person can make a bad-tempered

horse.
72

• Lean forward and loosen the reins if a

horse rears. Do not lean back and pull because

the horse might fall over backward.

« Pull up the reins of a bucking horse and

keep his head up,

• Loosen the reins and urge a horse forward

with your legs if he starts backing. Do not hold

the reins too tightly when a horse is standing

still.

• Walk a horse at the end of a ride to let him

get cool.

• Do not allow a horse to gorge on water

when he is hot ; allow a warm horse to drink

only a few swallows at a time.

• Do not turn a horse loose at the stall

entrance. Walk into the stall with him and turn

him around so that he is facing the door. In a

tie stall, make certain that the horse is tied

securely with a proper length rope.

• Groom a horse thoroughly after each ride.

• Wash the bit thoroughly before it is hung

in the tack room. Remove hair and sweat from

the saddle and girth before putting them on the

rack.

BN-37797

FIGURE 68.—(A) Correct show seat and riding attire for a three-gaited horse; (B) Correct show seat and riding attire for a five-gaited horse; (C) Correct show seat and riding attire for the running walk; (D) Correct seat and

riding attire for western riding.
73

WALK

BODY LINE

CANTER

ARMS

AND

BODY INCLINED

FORWARD

^^¿Jh

)

BODY LINE

HANDS

STEADY ^

TROT

NO WEIGHT

ON BUTTOCKS

BODY

FORWARD

ARMS

EXTENDED

GALLOP

BN-37809

FIGURE 69.—The correct saddle position for hunting and jumping: Note the position for the walk, the trot, the canter, and the gallop; the proper seat for all gaits requires the head to be erect, the heels down, the weight uniformly

balanced, the back concave, and the knees and thighs gripping the saddle.
74

• When riding in a group, keep about 5 feet

apart when abreast or a full horse's length

behind other mounts when in line, to prevent

kicking.

• Never rush past other riders; this may

startle the horses and riders and cause an

accident. Instead, approach slowly and pass

cautiously on the left side.

• Never dash up to another horse or group of

horses at a gallop; this can injure riders or

horses.

• Wait quietly when a rider must dismount.

Do not start moving again until he has

remounted and is ready to go.

• Never chase a mounted runaway horse

because this will only make him run faster ; if

possible, another rider should circle and come

up in front of him. In case a rider is thrown,

stop the other horses and keep quiet; generally

the loose horse will return to the group where

he can be caught.

• Do not trespass on private property.

• Leave gates closed; otherwise, livestock

may get out.

Caring for Tack

Good tack is expensive and should have good

care. If it is properly cared for, it will last for

years.

Ideally, each article should be cleaned thoroughly every time it is used on a horse. However, the owner or caretaker of pleasure horses

may not have time to do this. A busy person,

therefore, should clean the vital parts after

each use and then thoroughly clean all tack

once a week. After each use, the underside of

the saddle and the inside of the bridle should be

cleaned ; the bit should be washed ; and the pad

or blanket, if used, should be brushed after it

has dried out and before it is reused.

All tack used on race and show horses should

be thoroughly cleaned after each use.

Proper cleaning of tack will—•

« Extend the life of leather and metal.

• Make leather soft and pliable.

• Help keep the horse comfortable. He will

get fewer saddle and harness sores than he will

from dirty, crusted, or stiff leather and less

irritation and infection than he will from a

rusty, moldy, or dirty bit.

• Assure that minor tack defects are noticed

and repaired before they become serious. This

lessens the likelihood of breaking a rein or line,

girth, girth strap, stirrup leather, or other vital

part.

^ Give pride and pleasure in the ownership

and use of tack ; the horse, rider or driver, and

tack will all look good.

Equipment for cleaning

The following items of cleaning equipment

are commonly used :

(1) A saddle rack on which to clean the

saddle. Preferably, the rack should be designed

to hold the saddle with either the seat up or the

bottom up so both sides can be easily cleaned,

(2) A bridle rack, peg, or hook on which to

hang the bridle for cleaning.

(3) A rack for cleaning harness, if harness is

used.

(4) A bucket for warm water.

(5) Three sponges, preferably, although one

sponge is enough if it is rinsed properly—one

sponge for washing off sweat and dirt, another

for applying leather preservative or glycerine

soap, and a third for occasional application of

neat's-foot or similar oil.

(6) A chamois cloth for drying off leather.

(7) About a yard of cheese cloth for applying

metal polish.

(8) A flannel rag for polishing.

(9) Saddle soap or castile soap for cleaning.

(10) A leather preservative or glycerine soap

for finishing.

(11) Neat's-foot or similar oil.

(12) Metal polish.

(13) Petroleum jelly.

How to clean

To assure that all parts of all articles of tack

are properly cleaned, some practical order of

cleaning should be followed. Any order that

works is satisfactory.

Once a week all leather should be washed

with saddle soap or castile soap as described in

the section on washing the saddle and then

neat's-foot oil or other leather dressing should
75

be lightly applied. Do not use too much oil ; it

will darken new leather and soil clothing.

Wooden parts of equipment may be sanded,

varnished, and waxed whenever necessary.

The following order of cleaning is suggested

for the saddle, bridle, and saddle pad or blan-^

ket:

The saddle,—Clean the saddle as follows:

(1) Remove, the girth and clean it first, the

same way the rest of the saddle is cleaned.

(2) Turn the saddle upside down and wash

the panel (the part of the saddle that touches

the horse's back) and the gullet (the underside

center of the saddle). Use a sponge that has

been wetted in warm water and wrung out to

apply saddle soap to the leather. Rub the

leather well to work up a stiff lather that will

remove sweat and dirt before it hardens. Wash

until clean.

(3) Turn the saddle over and wash the rest

of it the same way.

(4) Dry the saddle with a chamois.

(5) Dampen a clean sponge slightly and

apply leather preservative or glycerine soap

without suds to all parts of the saddle.

The bridle,—Clean the bridle as follows :

(1) Wash the bit in warm water.

(2) Clean the leather parts the same way the

saddle was cleaned.

(3) Use a cheesecloth to apply metal polish to

all metal parts of the bridle and then use a

flannel cloth to polish them. If the bridle is not

to be used for several days, clean and dry the bit

and then apply a light coat of petroleum jelly to

keep it from pitting or rusting.

The blanket or pad.—Clean blankets and pads

as follows :

(1) Hang up or spread out blankets and pads

to dry.

(2) When dry, brush off hair and dried

sweat.

After cleaning.^—Handle tack as follows after

cleaning :

(1) Store all tack in a cool, dry place.

(2) Hang the bridle on its rack so all parts

drape naturally without bending.

(3) Put the saddle on its rack.

(4) Cover the saddle, bridle, and harness (if

harness is used).

Grooming a Horse

Proper grooming is necessary to keep a horse

attractive and help maintain his good health

and condition. Grooming cleans the hair, helps

keep the skin functioning naturally, lessens

skin diseases and parasites, and improves the

condition and fitness of the muscles.

Grooming should be rapid and thorough but

not so severe it makes the horse nervous or

irritates his skin. Horses that are kept in stables or small corrals should be groomed thoroughly at least once a day. When horses are

worked or exercised, they should be groomed

both before and after the work or exercise.

Wet or sweating animals should be handled

as follows :

(1) Remove the tack as fast as possible, wipe

it off, and put it away.

(2) Remove excess water from the horse

with a sweat scraper and then rub him briskly

with a grooming or drying cloth to dry his coat

partially,

(3) Cover the horse with a blanket and walk

him_ until he is cool

(4) Allow the horse to drink two or three

swallows of water every fev/ minutes while he

is cooling and drying.

Equipment for grooming

The following articles of grooming equipment are commonly used :

(1) A hoof pick to clean the feet.

(2) A rubber or metal curry comb to groom

horses that have long thick coats and to loosen

scurf and dirt in the hair.

(3) A body brush to brush the body. This is

the principal tool used in grooming.

(4) A dandy brush to remove light dirt from

the skin and to brush the mane and tail. The

dandy brush is made of stiff fiber, usually about

2 inches long,

(5) A mane and tail comb to comb out a

matted mane and tail.

(6) A sweat scraper to remove excess water

from wet or sweating animals.

(7) A grooming cloth to wipe and polish the

coat and for other miscellaneous cleaning. The

grooming cloth can be made from old towels or

blankets. It should be about 18 to 24 inches

square.
76

How to groom

To assure that the horse is groomed thoroughly and that no body parts are missed,

follow a definite order of grooming. This may

vary according to individual preference, but the

following order is most common :

The feet.—Use a hoof pick to clean the feet.

Work from the heel toward the toe. Thoroughly

clean the depressions between the frog and the

bars. Inspect the feet for thrush and loose

shoes.

The body.^—To groom the body, hold the

curry comb in the right hand and the brush in

the left hand. Start on the left side of the horse

and follow this order: neck, breast, withers,

shoulders, foreleg down to the knee, back, side,

belly, croup, and hindleg down to the hock.

At frequent intervals, clean the dust and hair

from the brush with the curry comb. Knock the

curry comb against some solid object to free it

of dirt.

Curry gently and in small circular strokes,

but brush vigorously. Do not use the metal

curry comb below the knees or hocks, about the

head, or over body prominences. Also, the metal

curry comb should not be used on horses that

have been clipped recently or that have a thin

coat of hair.

Brush the hair in the direction it grows.

Brush with care in the regions of the flanks,

between the fore and hindlegs, at the point of

elbows, and in the fetlocks.

After grooming the left side of the horse,

transfer the brush to the right hand and the

curry comb to the left hand and groom the

right side.

The head, mane, and tail.—Brush the head

and comb and brush the mane and tail. Use the

body brush on the head. Brush the mane and

tail downward, using either the body brush or

the dandy brush.

Clean the tail by combing upward with a

mane and tail comb, cleaning a few strands of

hair at a time, or by picking and separating a

few hairs at a time by hand. Wash the mane

and tail occasionally with warm water and soap.

Miscellaneous cleaning.—Use the grooming

cloth to wipe about the ears, face, eyes, nostrils,

lips, sheath, and dock; to give a final polish to

the coat; and to dry or ruffle the coat,before it

is brushed.

Checking the grooming.—Rub the fingertips

against the natural lay of the hair. If the coat

and skin are not clean, the fingers will get dirty

and gray lines will show on the coat where the

fingers passed. Inspect the cleanhness of the

ears, face, eyes, nostrils, lips, sheath, and dock.

Cleaning the grooming equipment.-—Wash the

grooming equipment with warm water and

soap often enough to keep it clean. Disinfect it

as a precaution against the spread of disease.

Clipping and shearing.—^Besides routine

grooming, horses should be clipped as often as

needed. Clip the long hairs from the head, the

inside of the ears, on the jaw, and around the

fetlocks. A wad of cotton may be put in the

horse's ears to cut down on noise from the clippers and to prevent hair from falling in his

ears.

According to custom, certain breeds are

clipped and sheared in different hair cuts and

hair styles. These are illustrated in figure 70.

Showing a Horse

To have success in showing horses, an exhibitor must know the rules of the class and the

correct showing techniques.

Performance classes for horses are so numerous and varied that it is not practical to

describe them here. Instead, the showman

should refer to the official rule book of the

American Horse Shows Association and to the

rules printed in the programs of local horse

shows.

Breeding classes are discussed here. They are

shown ''in hand," which means the horses are

exhibited wearing a halter, preferably, or a

bridle. The halter should be clean, properly

adjusted, and fitted with a fresh looking leather

or rope lead. If the horse is shown wearing a

bridle, the exhibitor should not jerk on the

reins hard enough to injure the mouth.

The following practices are recommended for

showing in hand, or at halter.

(1) Train the horse early.

(2) Groom the horse thoroughly.

(3) Dress neatly for the show.

(4) Enter the ring promptly and in tandem
77

The natural appearing mane and faii of the Arabian. The lightly braided mane and the docked

and tet tail of the Hackney,

Typical mane and tail treatment of the Tennessee Walking Hon«.

The shortened, pulled mane and the tightly braided tail of

the polo pony. This type of mane treatment Is also

often seen on Quarter Horses.

The clipped or roached mane and the cut, set end

shaved taif of the 3-gaited American Saddle Horse.

. . ^ „The full mane with braided'foretop end first lock

and the full water spout tail of the S-gaited American Saddle Horse,

The usual niane and tail inrntrmnt of the Queñ^r Hors«.

The mane it clipped with the foretop and a tuft of hair at the

withers left. The t«»l is shortwied and shaped by pulling. The braided nune and the thinned tail and

braided dock of the hunHr.

FIGURE 70.—Common haircuts and hairstyles for different breeds and uses of horses.

BN-37803
78

when the class is called. Line up at the location

indicated by the ringmaster or judge unless

directed to continue around the ring in tandem.

(5) Stand the horse squarely on all four feet

with the forefeet on higher ground than the

hindfeet if possible. The standing position of

the horse should vary according to the breed.

For example, Arabians are not stretched, but

American Saddlers are trained to stand with

their front legs straight under them and their

hindlegs stretched behind them_. Other breeds

generally stand in a slightly stretched position,

somewhat intermediate between these two

examples. When standing and facing the horse,

hold the lead strap or rope in the left hand 10

to 12 inches from the halter ring. Try to make

the horse keep his head up.

(6) Unless the judge directs otherwise, the

horse should first be shown at the walk and

then at the trot. Move the horse as follows :

(a) Reduce the length of the lead strap

or rope by a series of ^'figure 8"

folds or by coils held in the left

hand. Hold the upper part of the

lead strap or rope in the right hand

and lead from the left side of the

horse. If the horse is well-mannered, give him 2 to 3 feet of lead so

he can keep his head, neck, and

body in a straight line as he moves

forward. But keep the lead taut so

the horse is always under control.

Do not look back.

(h) The exhibitor should keep the

horse's head up and briskly move

him forward in a straight line for

50 to 100 feet as directed.

(c) At the end of the walk, turn to the

right. That is, the exhibitor should

turn the horse away from him.self

and walk around the horse. If the

horse is turned toward the exhibitor, the horse is more likely to step

on the exhibitor. Make the turn in as

small a space as practical, and as

effortless as possible. When showing

at the trot, bring the horse to a

walk and move him slightly in the

direction of the exhibitor before

turning.

(d) The exhibitor should lift his knees a

little higher than usual when he is

showing in the ring.

(e) Trail the horse with a whip if it is

permitted and desired. Most light

horses are given early training by

trailing with the whip but usually

they are shown without this aid. If

a ^'trailer*' is used, he should follow

at a proper distance. The distance

should not be so near he might get

kicked but not so far he would be

ineffective. The trailer should keep

the animal moving in a straight line,

avoid getting between the judge and

the horse, and always cross in front

of the horse at the turn.

(7) Walk the horse down about 50 feet and

walk back; then trot down about 100 feet and

trot back. To save time, the judge may direct

that horses be walked down and trotted back,

w^hich is a proper procedure. After the horse

has been walked and trotted, stand him

promptly in front of the judge. After the judge

has made a quick inspection, move to the location in the line indicated by the ringmaster or

judge.

(8) Keep the horse posed at all times; keep

one eye on the judge and the other on the horse.

(9) When the judge signals to change positions, the exhibitor should back the horse out

of line, or if there is room, turn him to the rear

of the line and approach the new position from

behind.

(10) Try to keep the horse from kicking

when he is close to other horses.

(11) Keep calm; a nervous showman creates

an unfavorable impression.

(12) Work in close partnership with the horse.

(13) Be courteous and respect the rights of

other exhibitors.

(14) Do not stand between the judge and the

horse.

(15) Be a good sport; win without bragging

and lose without complaining.
79

BREED REGISTRY ASSOCIATIONS

The names and addresses of some of the breed registry associations for

some of the breeds of horses are as follows—

American Albino Association, Inc., Box 79, Crabtree, Oregon 97335

American Association of Owners and Breeders of Peruvian Paso Horses, P.O. Box 371, Calabasas,

California 91302

American Buckskin Registry Association, P.O. Box 1125, Anderson, California 96007

American Connemara Pony Society, Route 2, Featherbed Lane, Ballston Spa, New York 12020

American Gotland Horse Association, R.R. #2, Box 181, Elkland, Missouri 65644

American Hackney Horse Society, 527 Madison Avenue, Room 725, New York, N.Y. 10022

American Morgan Horse Association, Inc., Box 265, Hamilton, New York. 13346

American Mustang Association, Inc., 997 South Douglas Street, Calimesa, California 92320

American Paint Horse Association, P.O. Box 12487, Fort Worth, Texas 76116

American Paso Fino Pleasure Horse Association, Inc., Arrott Building, 401 Wood Street,

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15222

American Quarter Horse Association, P.O. Box 200, Amarillo, Texas 79105

American Remount Association, 20560 Perris Boulevard, Perris, California 92370

(Half"Thoroughbred Registry)

American Saddle Horse Breeders Association, 929 South Fourth Street, Louisville, Kentucky

40203

American Shetland Pony Club, P.O. Box 2339, West Lafayette, Indiana 47902

Appaloosa Horse Club, Inc., Box 403, Moscow, Idaho 83843

Arabian Horse Club Registry of America, One Executive Park, 7801 Belleview Avenue, Englewood,

Colorado 80110

Cleveland Bay Society of America, White Post, Virginia 22663

Galiceno Horse Breeders Association, Inc., 708 Peoples Bank Building, Tyler, Texas 75701

Hungarian Horse Association, Bitterroot Stock Farm, Hamilton, Montana 59840

International Arabian Horse Association, 224 East Olive Avenue, Burbank, California 91503

Jockey Club, The, 300 Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022

(Thoroughbred horses)

Missouri Fox Trotting Horse Breed Association, Inc., P.O. Box 637, Ava, Missouri 65608

Morocco Spotted Horse Cooperative Association of America, Route 1, Ridott, Illinois 61067

Palomino Horse Association, Box 128, Chatsworth, California 91311

Palomino Horse Breeders of America, P.O. Box 249, Mineral Wells, Texas 76067

Pinto Horse Association of America, Inc., Box 3984, San Diego, California 92103

Pony of the Americas Club, Inc., P.O. Box 1447, Mason City, Iowa 50401

Spanish Mustang Registry, Inc., Cayuse Ranch, Oshoto, Wyoming 82724

Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders* Association of America, P.O. Box 286, Lewisburg, Tennessee

37091

United States Trotting Association, The, 750 Michigan Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43215

(Standardbred horses)

Welsh Pony Society of America, Inc., 202 North Chester Street, West Chester, Pennsylvania

19308
80

HORSE MAGAZINES

The horse magazines publish news and other information of special interest to

horsemen. The names and addresses of some of these magazines are listed as

follows—

American Shetland Pony Journal, Box 2339, West Lafayette, Indiana 47906

Appaloosa News, Box 403, Moscow, Idaho 88843

Arabian Horse News, Box 1009, Boulder, Colorado 80302

Arabian Horse World, 2650 East Bayshore, Palo Alto, California 94303

Arizona Horseman, The, 2517 North Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona 85004

Arizona Thoroughbred, 3723 Pueblo Way, Scottsdale, Arizona 85251

Baekstretch, The, 19363 James Couzens Highway, Detroit, Michigan 48235

Blood Horse, The, P.O. Box 4038, Lexington, Kentucky 40504

British Columbia Thoroughbred, The, 4023 East Hastings Street, North Burnaby, British

Columbia, Canada

Chronicle of the Horse, Middleburg, Virginia 22117

Equestrian Trails, 10723 Riverside Drive, North Hollywood, California 91602

Florida Horse, Box 699, Ocala, Florida 32670

Harness Horse, Telegraph Press Building, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17101

Hoof Beats, 750 Michigan Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43215

Hoofs and Horns, 1750 Humboldt Street, Suite 21, Denver, Colorado 80218

Horse and Rider, Gallant Publishing Co., 116 East Badillo, Covina, California 91722

Horse and Show, Box 386, Northfield, Ohio 44067

Horse Lover Magazine, The, Box 914, El Gerrito, California 94530

Horse Show, 527 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022

Horse Show World, P.O. Box 39848, Los Angeles, California 90039

Horse World, P.O. Box 588, Lexington, Kentucky 40501

Horseman, 5314 Bingle Road, Houston, Texas 77018

Horsemen's Journal, 425 13th Street, N,W., Washington, D.C. 20004

Horsemen's Review, P.O. Box 116, Roscoe, Illinois 61073

Horsemen's Yankee Pedlar, Box 297, North Wilbraham, Ludlow, Massachusetts 01067

Lariat, The, Route 6,14239 N.E. Salmon Creek Avenue, Vancouver, Washington 98665

Maryland Horse, The, P.O. Box 4, Timonium, Maryland 21093

Morgan Horse, The, Box 265, West Lake Moraine Road, Hamilton, New York 13346

National Horseman, The, 933 Baxter Avenue^ Louisville, Kentucky 40204

Northeast Horseman, Box 47, Summer Street, Hampden Highlands, Maine 04445

Oregon Thoroughbred Review, 1001 North Schmeer Road, Portland, Oregon 97217

Owners and Breeders Registry, The, Drawer XX, Livingston, Alabama 35470

Paint Horse Journal, The, P.O. Box 12487, Fort Worth, Texas 76116

Palomino Horses, Box 249, Mineral Wells, Texas 76067

Pinto Horse, P.O. Box 3984, San Diego, California 92103

Pony of Americas Club Official Magazine, P.O. Box 1447, Mason City, Iowa 50401

Quarter Horse Digest, Gann Valley, South Dakota 57341

Quarter Horse Journal, Box 9105, Amarillo, Texas 79105

Rider and Driver, Box 254, lola, Wisconsin 54945

Saddle and Bridle, 2333 Brentwood Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63144

Southern Horseman, The, P.O. Box 5735, Meridian, Mississippi 39301

Spanish Mustang News, The, 2005 Ridgeway, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80906

Tack ^N Togs, The Miller Publishing Co., P.O. Box 67, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55440
81

Thoroughbred of California, Box 750, 201 Colorado Place, Arcadia, California 91006

Thoroughbred Record, P.O. Box 580, Lexington, Kentucky 40501

Trail Rider, The, Trail Rider Publications, Chatsworth, Georgia 30705

Turf and Sport Digest, 511-513 Oakland Avenue, Baltimore, Maryland 21212

Voice of the Tennessee Walking Horse, Voice Publishing Co., P.O. Box 6009, Chattanooga,

Tennessee 37401

Washington Horse, The, 13470 Empire Way, South, Seattle, Washington 98178

Welsh News, 1770 Lancaster Avenue, Paoli, Pennsylvania 19301

Western Horseman, The, 3580 North Nevada Avenue, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80907

PRECAUTIONS

Pesticides used improperly can be injurious

to man, animals, and plants. Follow the directions and heed all precautions on the labels.

Store pesticides in original containers under

lock and key—out of the reach o£ children and

animals—and away from food and feed.

Apply pesticides so that they do not endanger

humans, livestock, crops, beneficial insects, fish,

and wildlife. Do not apply pesticides when there

is danger of drift, when honey bees or other

pollinating insects are visiting plants, or in ways

that may contaminate water or leave illegal residues.

Avoid prolonged inhalation of pesticide

sprays or dusts; wear protective clothing and

equipment if specified on the container.

If your hands become contaminated with a

pesticide, do not eat or drink until you have

washed. In case a pesticide is swallowed or gets

in the eyes, follow the first aid treatment given

on the label, and get prompt medical attention.

If a pesticide is spilled on your skin or clothing,

remove clothing immediately and wash skin

thoroughly.

Do not clean spray equipment or dump excess

spray material near ponds, streams, or wells.

Because it is difficult to remove all traces of

herbicides from equipment, do not use the same

equipment for insecticides or fungicides that

you use for herbicides.

Dispose of empty pesticide containers

promptly. Have them buried at a sanitary landfill dump, or crush and bury them in a level,

isolated place.

NOTE: Some States have restrictions on the

use of certain pesticides. Check your State and

local regulations.

^ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1971 0—422-685