600

MAY

500

400 5

300 5

200 5

100 +

CUMULATIVE NUMBER OF SEEDLINGS

JUNE

AUGUST

JULY

0+ =

ee

JUNE JULY
1959

T T T
15 30 15 30 1S

AUGUST

T T t T T T
30 15 30 15 30 15 30

SEPTEMBER | JUNE JULY
1960

OBSERVATION DATE

Figure 22.—Germination progress of yellow-poplar seed on seedbeds scarified in spring and summer months.

groups of trees best satisfy the silvical requirements
of the upland hardwood species. Even so, the diver-
sity of species and the range of conditions many will
tolerate allow forest managers flexibility in choosing
or modifying harvest cutting methods to satisfy
owner and managentent objectives.

Where production of high-value timber products
ina relatively short time is the major objective, clear-
cutting should be used for regeneration. This type of
cutting has consistently resulted in the greatest
numbers of the most desirable timber species and the
fastest. growth of all species. On the other hand,
there are areas where esthetics or recreation are more
important, and for these areas, group selection
cutting may be the most desirable method.

The cutting method used will largely determine
wildlife habitat conditions, and thus the wildlife
species expected to inhabit or use a particular area.
Under single-tree selection cutting, mast production
will probably be near maximum, but production of
browse and herbaceous vegetation will be low. Mast
production will probably also be high where shelter-
wood cutting is used, at least until the final removal
cut is made. Production of both browse and herba-

18

ceous vegetation will probably be higher than under
single-tree selection cutting. Clearcutting and group
selection cutting will provide a wide diversity of
habitat. On recently cut areas, herbaceous vegeta-
tion and browse will be plentiful and intervening
uncut areas will produce mast. The edge habitat
needed by certain wildlife species also will be
provided.

To satisfy management objectives or to coordinate
multiple uses, cutting methods may have to be modi-
fied or used in combination. These modifications will
result in sacrifice of values for some uses to enhance
those for others. Whatever the objective, forest
managers must decide what species are wanted in
the new stand, and then use the cutting methods that
will best meet the silvical requirements of those
species.

Single Tree Selection

Single-tree selection cutting will probably leave
harvest areas with optimum esthetic qualities. How-
ever, tolerant species such as blackgum, maples,
beech, hickory, and dogwood can be expected to



Seabee lias

ad

=

Figure 14.—A 35-year-old oak stand that followed clearcutting on an average site.

Kinds of Reproduction

Early height growth of the different kinds of repro-
duction differed greatly. In southern Illinois, new
sprouts from advance reproduction grew much faster
than either new seedlings or old advance reproduc-
tion after both clearcutting and partial cutting (fig.
18 and 19). Liming and Seizert (1943) and Paulsell
(1963) have reported similar results in studies in
Missouri. The new sprouts were more than twice as
tall as the stems of old advance reproduction 6 years
after cutting. The tops of some stems of advance
reproduction died back the first year after cutting,
and this resulted in a net reduction in average total
height after one growing season. But in the second
year, either live branches began to grow and assert
dominance over the old tops, or new sprouts started
to grow from the lower parts of the stems. From then
on, annual growth was about half that of the new
sprouts.

12

New oak seedlings grew very slowly and after 6
years were suppressed to the point where they did
not have a, chance to catch up with either of the other
kinds of reproduction.

Consequently, most of the oldadvance reproduction
is now intermediate or suppressed; only a few stems
are in the dominant stand. The oak seedlings that
became established after the cutting will never grow
into the main stand; most, if not all, will probably
die within a few years.

In the stand resulting from partial cutting, height
growth of the new sprouts began to slow down after
the second year. As the residual overstory continues
to expand and the crowns close, the height growth
of the new sprouts will slow down even more. The
same thing will happen to the advance reproduction.
As long as an overstory is maintained on these plots,
growth will be slow.

Stump sprouts were not included in the Illinois
study, but Kuenzel (1935) found that they grew


Tables

TABLE 1.—Description of timber stands cut

‘Type of Basal ; ;
Stand Location stand and Site _area_~— Volume per acre? Major species in overstory in descending
number age (years) quality per acre! order of abundance
Sq. ft. Cu. ft. Bad. ft.
1 Iilinois_~—-Even-aged Average «65 — 4,700 White, black, northern, red and scarlet oaks;
(70-80) hickory; and blackgum.
2 Indiana Uneven-aged Good 98 — 8,900 White, black and northern red. oaks; sugar maple;
(60-150) white ash; beech; hickory; slippery elm; yellow-
poplar; and scattered black walnut.
3 Kentucky Uneven-aged Average 79 — 5,300 Chestnut, scarlet, white, black and northern red
(80-200+) oaks; hickory; blackgum; red and sugar maples.
4 Kentucky Uneven-aged Good 72 — 5,400 White oak; Yyellow-poplar; eastern hemlock:
(60-2004) black, chestnut and northern red oaks; hickory;
beech; white ash; red maple; and blackgum,
5 Kentucky Uneven-aged Good 63 — 5,000 Beech; hickory; white, black, northern red and
(50-200+3 chestnut oaks; eastern hemlock; yellow-poplar;
cucumber magnolia; blackgum; red and suger
maples; and scattered black walnut.
6 Ohio Even-aged Average 88 — 6,200 Scarlet, chestnut, black and white oaks; hickory;
(90-100) blackgum; and red maple.
7 Ohio Even-aged Good 105 — 11,900 Black, white, chestnut and northern red oaks;
(90-100) hickory; blackgum; yellow-poplar; red maple:
and scattered black cherry.
8 Ohio Even-aged Average 100 «3,060 += —_—_Chestnut, scarlet, black, white and northern red
(60-70) oaks; hickory; blackgum; and red maple.
9 Ohio Uneven-aged Good 100 3,700 += —_— White, black,’ northern red and chestnut oaks;
(60-150-+) yellow-poplar; white ash; hickory; blackgum?

red maple; and scattered black ‘cherry and
black walnut. ony

1In trees 4 inches d.b.h. and larger.
? Cubic volume is in trees 4 inches d.b.h. and larger.

Board foot volume is in trees 12 inches d.b.h. and larger, Int. 4 inch rule.

TABLE 2.--Cutting methods used in reproduction studies of upland central hardwoods

; Type of Stand : Type of Stand
Location cutting number * Description Location cutting number * Description

Illinois Heavy partial 1 — Removed 50 percent of Kentucky Heavypartial 5 Removed 55 percent of
basal area and 60 per- basal area and 2,600
cent of board-foot vol- board feet per acre.
ume. Kentucky Complete 3&4 Removed al ees over 2

ino clearcut inches d.b.h.
Tlinois Complete, 1 Removed all trees over Ohio Medium 8&9 Removed 35 percent of
; } partial basal area and 35 per-

Indiana Selection 2 Removed 10 square feet cent of cubic-foot vol-
of basal area and 1,000 ume.
board feet per acre in Ohio Medium 6 — Removed 35 percent of
trees 12 inches d.b.h. partial basal aroa and 20 per-
and larger. cent of board-foot vol-

i , ume.

Indiana Shelterwood 2 eee eee ae Ohio Shelterwood 8&9 Removed 50 percent of
cent of board-foot vol- basal area, and 50 per-
ume. ‘oval cut 5 cent of cubic-foot vol-

me. Rem ume. Removal cut 5
¥ 7 . . years later.

Indiana — Complete 2 Removed all trees over Ohio Commercial 6 — Removed 66 percent of

clearcut 2-4 inches d.b.h. clearcut, basal area and 100 per-
cent of board-foot vol-

Kentucky Selection 5 — Removed 10 percent of ume.
basal area and 1,300 Ohio Complete 6&7 Removed all trees over
board feet per acre. clearcut 2-3 inches d.b.h.

1 See Table 1.

22


F-512067

Figure 2.—A mature even-aged stand on a good site in Ohio.

cuttings were aimed at improving the composition,
quality, and diameter distribution of the residual
stands. Trees that were removed were mature or cull,
had poor quality, form, or vigor, or were crowding
better trees. Some cuttings that were combined har-
vest and improvement cuttings were too heavy to be
classed as true selection cuttings, so for convenience
and lack of better terminology they are simply called
partial cutting hereafter.

The shelterwood cuttings were done in two stages.
The first was a combination preparatory and seed
cutting that removed trees in the suppressed- and
intermediate-crown classes and some of the poorer
quality codominant or dominant trees. The trees
that were left as a seed source were primarily oaks
and other desirable species. This first cutting was
aimed at stimulating seed production and getting
new reproduction of desirable species established.
The final cutting then removed the rest of the stand
when the reproduction was well established.

In the complete clearcuttings, all merchantable

trees were harvested and all unmerchantable trees
killed. But in the commercial clearcutting, only trees
that were merchantable for sawlogs were removed,
and everything else was left. Residual stocking
varied, of course, depending on the structure and
stocking of the original stand.

Classification of Reproduction

Four categories of reproduction were recognized,
based on how the stems originated and whether or
not they were present at the time of cutting. They
were: (1) New seedlings established after the har-
vest; (2) advance reproduction, which included all
stems up to 2 inches in diameter at the ground
established before the harvest; (3) new sprouts that
developed after the harvest from advance repro-
duction less than 2 inches in diameter at the ground;
and (4) stump sprouts that arose after the harvest
from stumps over 2 inches in diameter at the ground.



dominate the reproduction. The more valuable
species such as the oaks, white ash, yellow-poplar,
and black cherry may be present following a cut,
and if conditions are right, a few may grow into the
main stand. However, most of these will not persist
very long, and yellow-poplar will not survive. Conse-
quently, single-tree selection has little merit for tim-
ber production in upland central hardwoods.

Group Selection

Group selection cutting may meet esthetic or
recreation objectives almost as well as single-tree
selection. In addition, the reproduction and growth
requirements of the more desirable timber species
will be better satisfied and the timber production
opportunities greater.

Silviculturally, there is little difference between
group selection cutting and clearcutting. Although
group selection cutting generally means creating
small openings, the environmental conditions within
the openings, particularly if they are at least 14
acre, are similar to those in larger clearcuttings.
Openings smaller than 14 acre will work, but the
smaller the opening, the more reproduction growth
will be retarded by competition from the surrounding
stand. The oaks, as well as the most tolerant species,
will tolerate smaller openings than yellow-poplar and
black cherry. However, growth may be slow in all
but the center of the opening. The amount of repro-
duction of oak, hickory, and other heavy-seeded
species present in the openings depends directly on.
the amount of advance reproduction before the
cut.

Clearcutting

Clearcutting will be the most efficient method
for timber production but its use requires advance
reproduction of oaks, hickories, and to some extent
white ash and black cherry. Advance reproduction
of these species, while not abundant on every area
studied, was generally adequate for restocking.

There are areas where advance reproduction may
be scarce or lacking. In such cases, clearcutting
should be delayed unless there is an excellent chance
to reproduce desirable species such as yellow-poplar.
On good sites, numerous yellow-poplar seedlings can
be expected if an adequate seed source is present.
And the reproduction of all species will grow rapidly
over most of the clearcuttings if they are at least 1
acre in size. Larger cuttings have proportionately less
area in a border zone where reproduction growth is
retarded. Although these studies showed no silvicul-
tural basis on which to recommend a maximum
clearcutting size, consideration of other important
forest uses or management objectives may well
determine optimum clearcutting size.

Clearcutting has greater adverse effects on
esthetics than any other harvest method. These
effects can be reduced by varying the size, shape, and
location of clearcuts to blend them into the land-
scape as naturally as possible. Large areas should not

be clearcut at one time. Rather, openings should be
kept relatively small, surrounded by uncut timber,
and not enlarged until reproduction is well estab-
lished. Felling unmerchantable remnants of the old
stand instead of leaving them standing improves
the appearance of clearcut areas.

Shelterwood

Shelterwood cutting offers a good way to increase
oak and hickory in the new stand if advance repro-
duction is scarce or absent. Since few new oak and
hickory seedlings became a part of the new stand
after the shelterwood cuttings in these studies, some
modifications are needed. The combined preparatory
and seed cuttings in these studies were heavy cuts in
previously unmanaged, mature stands. Advance
reproduction was well established, and these pre-
liminary cuts were heavy enough to permit it to
develop into a dense understory. This understory
hindered seedling establishment and suppressed the
growth of new seedlings. A series of light cuts that
gradually opens the old stand is better than one
heavy cut.

After new oak and hickory seedlings are estab-
lished, they must be allowed to develop into
relatively large, sturdy stems before the final removal
cut is made. The length of time required for this
development is uncertain, but it may be as long as
20 years. During this period, it may be necessary to
further reduce the overstory to keep the reproduction.
vigorous.

Under mature stands, where advance reproduction
is well established and adequate for restocking, shel-
terwood cutting is not necessary. It can be used,
however, to reduce the visual impact of harvest
cutting and to prolong the period of mast and browse
production.

When applying the shelterwood cutting method,
some reproduction will be damaged each time a
stand is entered. A small proportion may be killed,
but most damaged stems will resprout and become a
part of the new stand. Removal cuts must be timed
to avoid excessive reduction of reproduction
growth or possible elimination of such species as
yellow-poplar.

SUMMARY

Studies of natural regeneration of upland hard-
woods in southern Illinois, southern Indiana, eastern
Kentucky, and southeastern Ohio covered a wide
range of cutting methods, stand conditions, and site
quality. Results represent an accumulation of data
from more than 200 experimental plots.

Cutting method had no consistent effect on the
total amount of reproduction established; no matter
how a mature stand was cut, abundant tree reproduc-
tion followed. Yellow-poplar was the only species
whose numbers varied by cutting method; it repro-
duced much more abundantly after clearcutting
than after any other cutting method, and most of
the yellow-poplar present in the new stand were new

19


TABL!

E 8.—Average height of dominant and

codominant reproduction by species 5 years

after harvest cutting in Indiana

Cutting method

Species
Complete
Selection Shelterwood _Clearcut
Feet
Red oak group 21 2.0 8.5
White oak group 1.4 4:8 11.0
Yellow-poplar @) 6.6 12.0
White ash 2.9 4.0 1115
Black cherry 1.3 7.0 11.3
Black walnut é) 47 10.5
Hickory 2.0 3.2 11.0
Sugar maple 3.9 45 1412
Blackgum 46 6.0 11.6
Dadwood +3 a3 no
. 5.8 .
Sassafras 3.0 8.3 13.3
Redbud 47 6.7 10.4

+ No dominant or codominant stems present in the repro-

duction.

TABLE 9.—Number of stems of natural reproduction per acre 2 years after clearcutting openings of
different sizes on good and average sites in Ohio

Red White

Size of oak oak Yellow- White Black Red Other Woody Total
opening group group poplar ash cherry Hickory maple trees brush stems
GOOD SITE
Acres
¥% 1,060 1,360 8,8 70 130 760 2,160 490 10,530 14,890
% 2,730 2,030 15,530 330 100 900 1,130 1,100 11,600 23,850
% 1,300 620 11,850 30 300-1, 150 730 1; 13/450 17,880
1 900 1,050 11,180 100 70 1,110 1,450 1,890 8,630 17,750
3 1,690 1,130 10,690 20 70 1,310 2,020 1,740 11,730 18,690
5 1,140 730 10,590 260 110 920 1,670 1,200 9,5 16,620
AVERAGE SITE
% 2,960 2,030 2,160 0 330 700 60 1,300 10,730 9,540
ye 2,930 1,230 3,760 0 70 1,860 530 1,590 18,170 11,970
% 4;310 1/350 1480 0 0 13110 1,430 3,060» 7,280 »=-12,740
1 2,910 530 4,080 0 130 1,360 1,630 2,150 10,870 12.790
3 4/450 1,630 3,530 0 60 17230 610 1'520 113070 ‘13,030
5 3,630 1,230 2,870 0 80 860 490 2,410 11,975 11,570
TABLE 10.—Natural reproduction per acre 2 years after clearcutting on good
and average sites in Kentucky and Ohio in percentage of total stems
Red White
. oak oak Yellow- White Black Red Other Total Woody Total
Site group group poplar ash _—cherry ‘Hickory maple trees _—trees~=—s brush __ stems
Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Number
KENTUCKY
Good site _ 2 8 19 0) 0 4 18 6 57 43 11,060
Average site 4 8 7 1 0 8 8 1 37 63 7;770
OHIO
Good site 1 6 29 7 1 2 19 8 64 36 26,590
Average site 12 18 4 2 3 3 6 3 51 49 10,140

"Less than 1 percent.

3X U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1971 0415-265

25


—

, and McGuire, John R.

1942. Response of chestnut oak reproduction to
clear and partial cutting of overstory.
J. Forest. 40:238-243, illus.

Leak, William B.
1963. Delayed germination of white ash seeds
under forest conditions. J. Forest. 61:768-
770, 772, illus.

Liming, Franklin G., and Seizert, B. F.

1943. Relative height growth of planted short-
leaf pine and cut-back and uncut hardwood
reproduction after release. J. Forest. 41:
214-216.

Little, Elbert L., Jr.
1953. Check list of native and naturalized trees
of the United States (including Alaska).
US. Dep. Agr., Agr. Handb. 41, 472 p.

Merz, Robert W., and Boyce, Stephen G.
1958. Reproduction of upland hardwoods in
southeastern Ohio. USDA Forest Serv.
a Forest Exp. Sta. Tech. Paper 155, 24 p.,
illus.

Minckler, Leon S., and Jensen, Chester E.
1959. Reproduction of upland central hardwoods
as affected by cutting, topography, and
litter depth. J. Forest. 57:424-428, illus.

, and Woerheide, John D.

1965. Reproduction of hardwoods 10 years
after cutting as affected by site and open-
ing size. J. Forest. 63:103-107, illus.

Paulsell, Lee K.
1963. Development of young oak. Forest
Farmer. Feb. 1963:10-11.

Roach, B. A., and Gingrich, S. F.

1968. Even-aged silviculture for upland central
hardwoods. U.S. Dep. Agr., Agr. Handb.
355, 39 p., illus.

Phillips, John J.

1963. Advance reproduction under mature oak
stands of the New Jersey Coastal Plain.
USDA Forest Serv. Res. Note NE-4, 5 p.

Scholz, Harold F.

1955. Effect of scarification in the initial estab-
lishment of northern red oak reproduction.
USDA Forest Serv., LS. Forest Exp. Sta.
Tech. Note 425, 2 p.

Spaeth, J. Nelson.

1928. Twenty years growth of a sprout hard-
wood forest in New York: a study of the
effects of intermediate and reproduction
cuttings. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 465,
49 p., illus.

Trimble, George R., Jr., and Hart, George.

1961. An appraisal of early reproduction after
cutting in northern Appalachian hardwood
stands. USDA Forest Serv. NE. Forest
Exp. Sta. Paper 162, 22 p., illus.

Tryon, E. H., and Carvell, K. L.

1958. Regeneration under oak stands. W. Va.

Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 424T, 22 p., illus.
USDA Forest Service.

1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States.
vs. Dep. Agr., Agr. Handb. 271, 762 p.,
ilus.

Weitzman, Sidney, and Trimble, George R., Jr.

1957. Some natural factors that govern the
management of oaks. USDA Forest Serv.
NE. Forest Exp. Sta., Sta. Paper 88, 40 p.,
lllus.

APPENDIX

Common and Scientific Names

The common and scientific names of the species
mentioned in this paper are:

American basswood. . . . Tilia americana L.
American beech- -Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.
American hornbeam----Carpinus caroliniana Walt.
Bitternut hickory -____- Carya cordiformis
(Wangenh.) K. Koch
.--Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.
-Prunus serotina Ehrh.
-Quercus velutina Lam.
-Juglans nigra L.
-Quercus prinus L.
~--Quercus muehlenbergit

(Engelm.)

Eastern hophornbeam - -Ostrya pirginiana (Mill.) K.
Koel

Eastern redbud _____-_- Cercis canadensis L.

Flowering dogwood.
Hazelnut-______
Northern red oak_

-Cornus florida L.
-Corylus L.
~--Quercus rubra L.

---Aesculus glabra Willd.

Pignut hickory -Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet
Pitch pine_ Pinus rigida Mill.
Post oak__ -Quercus stellata var. stellata
Red maple -Acer rubrum L.
Sassafras__._ ..-Sassafras albidum (Nutt.
Nees)
Scarlet oak__ -Quercus coccinea Muenchh.
Serviceberry_ -Amelanchier arborea
(Michx. f.) Fern
Shagbark hickory _____Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch
Shortleaf pine- -Pinus echinata Mill.
Slippery elm_ ~Ulmus rubra Muhl.
Sourwood_ ~Oxydendrum arboreum L.

-Acer saccharum Marsh.
-Pinus virginiana Mill.
-Fraxinus americana L.
-Quercus alba L.
-Hamamelis virginiana L.
_Liriodendron tulipifera L.

Sugar maple.
Virginia pine___
White ash_
White oak.
Witch-hazel_
Yellow-poplar_

21


F-52061

Figure 20.—Five years after cutting, reproduction next to the old stand is much shorter than in the center of this }4-acre opening

(right edge of photo).

growth the first year after clearcutting, and their sub-
sequent growth was less than that of the new sprouts.

Site Quality

Most species of upland central hardwoods will
grow on a wide range of sites, and the presence or
absence of a particular species in the reproduction
may be influenced by factors other than site quality.
However, a few generalizations are possible.

There are generally more northern red and white
oaks than chestnut and scarlet oaks on the good sites,
and just the reverse on the average sites. Yellow-
poplar is much more abundant on good sites,
especially after clearcutting (table 10). Hemlock was
found only on good sites in Kentucky. Ash, cherry,
and walnut did not occur in the mature stands on
enough plots to establish trends. Black oak occurred
frequently on all sites. Aside from these generaliza-
tions, site quality per se had little influence on the
amount or composition of 2-year-old reproduction.

16

Seedbed Conditions

It is well known that yellow-poplar seed germin-
ates best in contact with mineral soil. However, a
scarified seedbed of mineral soil does not appear to
be a critical factor in reproducing yellow-poplar.
Studies in Indiana showed that 17 percent of the
ground surface was scarified in horse-logging clear-
cut plots, while 15 percent was scarified in the first
cutting on shelterwood plots and only 4 percent on
selection cutting plots. One year after cutting there
were 4,000 yellow-poplar seedlings per acre on the
clearcut plots, 4,800 per acre on the shelterwood
plots, and 700 per acre on the selection plots.
Although the seedling density was not as high as
that obtained in other studies because of limited
seed supply, yellow-poplar reproduction was ade-
quate and distributed well enough to form excellent
new stands on the clearcut and shelterwood plots.

Extreme treatments in Kentucky after clear-
cutting also promoted the establishment of yellow-
poplar seedlings. Bulldozing scarified most of the plot


F-520064

Figure 10.—A stem of northern red oak advance reproduction
that persisted without sprouting.

reproduction have been cut or broken off during
logging. Red maple sprouts prolifically, the new
sprouts grow vigorously, and stems of the more desir-
able species—particularly yellow-poplar seedlings—
have difficulty competing with them.

Sassafras

After complete clearcutting, sassafras reproduction
was primarily from root sprouts originating from
sapling and pole-size trees present in the old stand.
These sprouts grow rapidly, but the more desirable
species can compete successfully with them except
where they occur in dense sprout thickets. New
sassafras seedlings were abundant after all types of
cuttings, although the percentage of new seedlings

8

was low under clearcutting because of the numerous
root sprouts there. New sassafras seedlings are rela-
tively unimportant because they do not grow fast
enough to compete with other reproduction.

Stand Development

Early Mortality

The condition of the reproduction 2 years after
harvest cutting represents only the first stage in the
formation and development of new stands. Com-
petition among the new stems or between the new
stems and residual trees is severe and may drastically
alter the density and composition of the final stand.

Cutting method appears to have an effect on the
mortality of reproduction in the early years after
cutting. In Indiana, mortality was lower 5 years
after clearcutting than after shelterwood or selection
cutting (table 6). In fact, there was a net increase
on the clearcut plots, showing that some new stems
originated 3 or more years after cutting. This in-
crease was the result of increases in the number of
black walnut, sugar maple, and slippery elm seed-
lings, which were small and probably will not sur-
vive. Observations indicate that unless a stem is
established the first year after clearcutting, it is at a
distinct disadvantage and will seldom grow into the
dominant canopy of the new stand.

Part of the relatively high mortality on the shelter-
wood plots can be attributed to the destruction of
reproduction when the residual overstory was re-
moved. In this study, the second reproduction inven-
tory was made right after the removal cutting was
completed, and the reproduction had not recovered.
With this exception, competition for light and mois-
ture was probably responsible for most of the
mortality on all plots.

At 5 years after cutting, competition was still
intense, mortality was still high, and the character
of the new stand was still changing rapidly.

Early Growth

The early growth of the new stands resulting from
different cutting methods has differed according to
the amount of the overstory that was removed.
Growth differences among partial cuttings have not
been as great as those between partial cuttings and
clearcuttings.

In Ohio, there were more stems over 4.5 feet tall
on the completely clearcut plot 7 years after cutting
than on any of the other plots (table 7). At 10 years,
the completely clearcut plot had almost four times
as many stems larger than 0.6 inch in diameter at
breast height as the plots treated with a medium
partial cutting, and there were about twice as many
stems on the completely clearcut plot larger than 2.5
inches in diameter at breast height as on any of the
other plots. As would be expected, there was more
basal area in every diameter class up through 4 inches
on the completely clearcut plot than on any other
plot (fig. 11).


but the oaks, hickories, blackgum, and dogwood
resulted from advance reproduction. Black cherry,
red maple, and sassafras reproduction was both of
seedling origin and from advance reproduction.

Yellow-Poplar

Most of the yellow-poplar present in the reproduc-
tion originated from seed that had accumulated in
the litter, rather than from the current seed crop.
Where yellow-poplar seed-bearing trees are present
in the overstory, a reservoir of seed will be stored in
the litter and will germinate when favorable tem-
perature, light, and seedbed conditions are created
through cutting and logging. A study in Indiana and
Illinois showed that yellow-poplar seed remained
viable in the litter for at least 4 years (Clark and
Boyce 1964). Later tests showed that seed germin-
ated after being in the litter for as long as 8 years.
This explains the presence of the large numbers of
yellow-poplar seedlings usually present after clear-
cutting on good sites. Much of this stored seed will
germinate after partial cuttings too, but most of
these seedlings do not survive under even a light
overstory.

Oaks and Hickories

About 90 percent of the oak and hickory stems
present 2 years after cutting resulted from advance
reproduction (table 5). Apparently these stems be-
come established over a period of time under an
overstory. Most stems do not remain true seedlings
more than a few years because drought, frost, fire,
rodents, mechanical agents, poor light, and moisture
conditions (or a combination of these) kill the tops
but not the roots. When this happens, one or more
new sprouts usually develop from dormant buds near
the root collar. Sometimes only part of the top dies
back and a new sprout from somewhere on the lower
part of the stem assumes dominance. In Illinois, a
study of 1,000 oak stems less than 4.5 feet tall in the
understory beneath mature stands showed that
about half of them had died back to the ground at
least once by the time the root system was 15 years
old (fig. 4). The dying back and resprouting process
may occur several times, forming the typical crooked,
forked, flat-topped reproduction found in the under-
story (fig. 5).

After a harvest cutting, new sprouts develop when
stems of advance reproduction are cut, broken off,
knocked over, or held down by slash during logging,
or when the old stem simply dies back to neat ground
level (figs. 6 to 8). Some old stems may persist while
the new sprouts grow up and overtop them; others
may persist without sprouting (figs. 9 and 10). The
new sprouts are generally straight, have good form,
and grow rapidly. Consequently, they are the best
kind of oak and hickory reproduction in the new
stand. The smaller number of new seedlings of these
species that do become established after cutting grow
slowly and seldom get into the dominant canopy
of the new stand.

N19}

6
8

++
1220.89
Syat= 10.37

2
8

>
2
8

2
é

TREE SEEDLINGS, PERCENTAGE
8

15 20 25 30

10
ROOT AGE , YEARS

Figure 4.—Relationship between the root age of oak advance
reproduction and the percentage of the total number of
stems that have the same stem and root age.

i
#
bg
i!

F-520669

Figure 5.—A typical forked, flat-topped, crooked stem of
‘oak advance reproduction,



RESEARCH RESULTS

Reproduction Before Cutting

Previous studies have shown that advance regen-
eration is important in reproducing certain upland
central hardwoods. Merz and Boyce (1958) con-
cluded that nearly 90 percent of the oaks present 2
years after harvest cutting in southeastern Ohio
originated before the stands were cut. In southern
Illinois, Minckler and Jensen (1959) classified over
half of all stems present 4 years after harvest cutting
as advance reproduction.

In later studies, wide variation was found in both
numbers and composition of the advance reproduc-
tion (table 3). This was not unexpected, because
these stands contain variable overstory species
mixtures and occur over a wide range of site quality.
Furthermore, the intensity, frequency, and type of
previous commercial harvesting has varied widely,
as has the amount of grazing and burning. All of
these factors have influenced both the composition
of the present overstories and the advance repro-
duction beneath them.

The amount of advance reproduction of a particu-
lar species was often poorly related to the amount of
that species present in the overstory. In Ohio, the
hickories usually accounted for less than 5 percent
of the basal area of the overstory stands, yet the
amount of hickory in the advance reproduction
ranged from 5 to 30 percent. Up to 30 percent of the
advance reproduction on many plots was either red
maple or blackgum, but these species were rarely
present in the overstory stands. Even the oaks
showed a poor relationship between advance repro-
duction and the percentage of oaks in the overstory.
Generally, if oaks were scarce in the overstory, oak
advance reproduction was scarce; and if oaks were
numerous in the overstory, advance oak reproduction
was more abundant. But stands in Ohio that con-
sistently had 80 percent or more of their overstory
basal area in oaks also had oak advance reproduc-
tion that ranged from 20 to 80 percent of the total
reproduction. Tryon and Carvell (1958) concluded
that factors other than the amount of white and red
oak in the overstory influence the number of seedlings
of these species under oak stands in West Virginia.

The amount of oak advance reproduction appeared
to be related to site quality. In Ohio, there was con-
sistently more oak advance reproduction on average
sites than on good sites. And in Illinois there were
1,800 stems per acre on average sites as compared
with 1,000 stems per acre on good sites. This same
relationship has been found in West Virginia, Michi-
gan, and New Jersey (Weitzman and Trimble 1957;
Arend and Gysel 1952; and Phillips 1963). In West
Virginia, Carvell and Tryon (1961) found the amount
of oak advance reproduction was directly related to
the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor.
Their findings suggest that low light intensity on the
forest floor beneath mature stands on good sites may
be at least partially responsible for the scarcity of

4

oak reproduction on these sites. On good sites, the
overstory canopy is generally denser, and competi-
tion for light from shrubs and herbaceous vegeta-
tion is greater than on drier sites. Thus, even when
new oak seedlings become established, they cannot
survive very long, and the buildup of oaks in the
understory is limited.

Although the number of stems of oak advance
reproduction was greater on good sites than on aver-
age sites in Kentucky, the oaks made up the highest
proportion of the total advance reproduction on both
sites.

Reproduction After Cutting
Establishment

All cutting methods resulted in enough natural
reproduction 2 years after cutting to produce stands
with a satisfactory proportion of desirable species
(table 4). Though there was much variation among
plots and between study areas, cutting method did
influence the composition of the reproduction.

Generally, clearcutting resulted in many more
stems of yellow-poplar than partial cutting. After
partial cutting, the reproduction was mostly oaks
and more tolerant species. These results are similar to
those reported from Ohio, Illinois, and West Virginia
(Merz and Boyce 1958; Minckler and Jensen 1959;
and Trimble and Hart 1961). Aside from these gen-
eralizations, no definite relationship between cutting
method and species composition of the new stands
could be detected.

Cutting method did affect the proportion of new
sprouts and advance reproduction present after
cutting (table 5). Except for yellow-poplar, which
reproduced mostly from seed after all cuttings, most
of the reproduction after partial cutting consisted of
old stems of advance reproduction; while reproduc-
tion after clearcutting was largely new sprouts that
came up from advance reproduction. This results
from differences in the amount of area disturbed
during logging. When an area is clearcut, a much
higher proportion of it is disturbed; consequently,
many more stems of old advance reproduction are
cut, broken, or knocked over than when an area is
partially cut. These damaged stems subsequently
sprout, resulting in the higher proportions of new
sprouts after clearcutting.

Cutting method had little effect on the proportion
of stump sprouts in the reproduction. Stumps of all
species will sprout, and some stump sprouts will
always be present. However, 2 years after cutting,
they generally make up a small proportion of the
total reproduction of all species no matter how the
stands were cut (table 5).

The silvical characteristics of the species also had
an effect on the proportion of reproduction in each
category. Regardless of the cutting method used,
yellow-poplar reproduction was primarily seedlings;


3
38

®
38

BORDER ZONES.

2
3

rn
ry

°

AREA IN BORDER ZONE, PERCENTAGE
°

AREA OF OPENING, ACRES

Figure 21.—Relationship between the total area of circular
“Openings and the percentage of area of the opening con-
tained in border zones 10 to 30 feet wide.

area, and there were four times as many yellow-
poplar seedlings as on the check plots (table 11).
However, in the check plots scarification due to
logging was kept at a minimum; and results for these
plots are conservative. Other cuttings with no logging
restrictions have in every case produced an adequate
stand of yellow-poplar where seed-bearing trees were
on or near the plots. Thus in harvest cutting there is
no real need for scarification beyond that created by
logging.

Though treatments designed to encourage desir-
able reproduction did increase the amount of yellow-
poplar in the new stands, such treatments did not
result in increased oak reproduction, nor did they
effectively reduce the number of undesirable trees.
The treated plots had as many or more stems of un-
desirable species as the check plots (table 11). For
real control of species composition, we must find
more effective means of controlling the composition
of the advance reproduction. Preharvest cutting
treatments to encourage advance oak reproduction
and eliminate undesirable species in the understory
will probably be required.

Season of Logging

Season of logging was not critical in reproducing
yellow-poplar. One study in Indiana showed that
spring logging produced as many new seedlings per
acre as fall logging. This is to be expected because
most of the new seedlings came from seed already
stored in the litter and not from the current year’s

crop.

In a seedbed scarification study in Indiana, seed
lots of 1,000 yellow-poplar seeds were sown on plots
scarified at different seasons of the year. Plots scari-
fied in June, July, and August had fewer seedlings

i 2 3 4 5 6

than plots scarified in May (fig. 22), because most of
the seed on the summer-scarified plots did not ger-
minate until the second growing season. Seedlings
that germinated the second year were too small to
compete with the rank vegetation that had de-
veloped the previous year on these good forest sites.
Nevertheless, experimental cuttings in summer
months have always produced enough yellow-poplar
seedlings to form good stands if a seed source was
previously present.

In an Ohio study, summer clearcutting produced
an average of 6,000 yellow-poplar seedlings per acre
while winter clearcutting produced 10,000. Even
though summer logging produced fewer seedlings,
the 6,000 thus produced were more than enough to
restock the stand. There were numerous seed-bearing
trees on and adjacent to these plots, and apparently
a large amount of seed was stored in the litter. Where
the seed supply is expected to be scarce, logging
should probably take place in spring, fall, or winter
to obtain maximum numbers of yellow-poplar.

White ash, another important species, has seed
that germinates as well or better on unscarified as on
scarified seedbeds. In our studies in Indiana, there
were twice as many ash on unscarified ground as on
disturbed ground.

Some effort has been made to increase the number
of oak seedlings established through scarification
treatments. Litter was shown to have an adverse
effect on establishment of oaks in Iowa (Krajicek
1960). In a small test in Indiana, more white oak
seedlings became established on shelterwood plots
that were disked after a newly fallen seed crop than
on plots that were not disked. However, 2 years later
most of the white oak seedlings on all plots had died
because of the competition from the dense stand of
other trees and shrubs that developed.

Scholz (1955) concluded that neither disking nor
hand-hoeing appeared to offer a practical solution
to the problem of getting natural reproduction of
northern red oak in Wisconsin, even though both
treatments resulted in more seedlings per acre than
the control. Cost of hand-hoeing and inefficient and
unsafe operation of the disk on steep slopes were the
reasons.

Effective cultural practices that favor establish-
ment and development of oak seedlings as a direct
result of treatment remain to be developed. To con-
trol either the number or species composition of oaks
in the next stand, it will be necessary to get oak
seedlings established through cultural treatments
some years before the harvest cutting.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The research undertaken shows that many upland
central hardwood species will reproduce under a
range of cutting methods. However, the amount of
residual overstory has a direct effect upon survival
and growth of the reproduction. Harvest cutting
methods that result in new, even-aged stands or

17


F-520666

Figure 8—A 2-year-old black oak seedling sprout. The old
stem died during the first year after clearcutting.

Red Maple

Red maple is generally an understory species in
upland central hardwood stands. Occasionally it
reaches sawtimber size, but quality is poor. Thus, it is
considered an undesirable species, important pri-
marily because it competes with more desirable
species.

F-520665

Figure 9.—A I-year-old northern red oak seedling sprout.
he old stem is still alive but has poor vigor.

Most red maple reproduction present after cutting
came from advance reproduction (table 5). Where a
seed source was available, however, new seedlings
also became established. They were most numerous
on partially cut plots, and the highest proportion
was found on plots that received the lightest cut.
Partial cutting appears more favorable for establish-
ing new red maple seedlings; because the seed germi-
nates in early summer, soon after falling, it does not
need much light to germinate, and a thin layer of leaf
litter does not hinder germination (USDA Forest
Service 1965). New red maple seedlings were scarce
on the clearcut plots, probably because the current
seed supply was eliminated on plots clearcut during
the fall, winter, and spring. On plots clearcut during
the summer, logging probably destroyed most of the
newly germinating seedlings.

The new seedlings are not nearly as important as
the new sprouts that come up after stems of advance

7


TABLE 3.—Advance reproduction per acre of upland central hardwoods on good and average sites, by species!

Red White
Loca- oak oak —-Yellow- White Black Black Slippery Other Total Woody Total
tion group? group? poplar ash cherry walnut Hickory Maplet elm trees trees brush _stems

Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Number

GOOD SITE
Indiana 1 1 2 5 10) (0) 4 12 58 7 90 10 13,370
Kentucky 6 13 2 0) (0) (0) 8 m 1G) 9 62 38 7,680
Ohio WwW 8 3 1 1 0 7 il 2 2 52 48 7,860

AVERAGE SITE

Kentucky 12 10 3 1 0 @ 12 18
Ohio 21 12 1 0 0) 0 5 3

69 31 4,860
6 48 52 14,050

oo
6

1 Before logging in Indiana; immediately after logging in Kentucky and Ohio.
* Black, scarlet, and northern red oaks.

+ White and chinkapin oaks in Indiana; white and chestnut oaks in Kentucky and Ohio.
4 Sugar maple in Indiana; red maple in Kentucky and Ohio.

* Indiana: hackberry, American beech, and basswood.
Kentucky: blackgum on average sites; Eastern hemlock, American beech, and blackgum on good sites.

Ohio: blackgum.
* Dogwood, sassafras, redbud, American hornbeam, witch-hazel, hazelnut, and sourwood.

7 Less than 1 percent.

TABLE 4.—Natural reproduction per acre 2 years after harvest cutting in upland central hardwood stands in
Indiana, Kentucky, and Ohio (in percentage of total stems)

Red White
Type of oak oak Yellow- White Black Black Other Total Woody Total
Gutting group! group? poplar ash cherry walnut Hickory Maplet trees! trees brush —_stems

Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Number

INDIANA
Selection 2 6 4 10 1 CO) 4 9 55 91 9 19,080
Shelterwood OF 5 21 18 1 1 3 4 34 87 13 21,930
Complete clearcut. = 1 2 26 7 1 1 4 5 2 69 31 «15,780
KENTUCKY
Selection 7 7 1 2 0) 0) 6 16 6 45 55 «12,420
Heavy partial 2 5 3 2 © } 6 15 8 41 59 16,180
Complete clearcut. 3 8 14 1 0 0 6 15 4 51 49 9,080
OHIO
Medium partial 6 13 12 7 1 0 5 10 3 87 43 16,830
Shelterwood 10 10 3 u 2 0 7 12 “4 69 31:18, 110
Complete clearcut 7 3 37 5 1 0 2 7 5 67 33 22,810

1 Black, scarlet, and northern red oak at all locations.

? Indiana: white and chinkapin oaks.

Kentucky and Ohio: white and chestnut oaks.

"Indiana: sugar maple.

Kentucky and Ohio: red maple.

«Indiana: mostly slippery elm; but includes American beech, hackberry, basswood, and blackgum.
Kentucky: hemlock, blackgum, American beech, slippery elm, basswood, and cucumber magnolia.
Ohio: blackgum, slippery elm, American beech, and bigtooth aspen,

* Indiana: mostly sassafras, dogwood, and mulberry; but includes redbud, paw paw, and American hornbeam.
Kentucky: dogwood, sourwood, and sassafras.

Ohio: dogwood, sassafras, sourwood, witch-hazel, hazelnut, and American hornbeam.

Less than 1 percent.

23


Reproduction of UPLAND HARDWOOD FORESTS
in the CENTRAL STATES

Agriculture
Handbook 405

Forest Service
U.S. Department
of Agriculture



10

F-520662, F-520663

Figure 12.—Reproduction 5 years after clearcutting: A, On a good site; and B, on an average site.
eight of all species was about equal at this time.


COMPLETE CLEARCUTTING
ALL BASAL AREA REMOVED
SJ] COMMERCIAL CLEARCUTTING
2 SSS SAiKSal area remove
wu [MM MEDIUM HEAVY PARTIAL CUTTING
e V3 BASAL AREA REMOVED
S
<i94
a
a
a
bE
a
w 8
ine
w
@
<
3
ae
<
a
<
a4
=
Fi
2-
o =

0.1-0.5,

O6-1.5 1.6-2.5
DIAMETER AT BREAST HEIGHT

26-35 36-45

Figure 11.—Basal area of reproduction 10 years after harvest
cutting in Ohio.

The big surge of reproduction growth came only
after all the overstory of the original stand was re-
moved, and cutting two-thirds of the basal area
allowed only slightly better growth than cutting one-
third. A study in Missouri also showed that the
reproduction grew rapidly only after all of the orig-
inal yiand was removed (Brinkman and Liming
1961).

After Clearcutting

There was not much difference in growth rates
among species during the first 4 or 5 years after clear-
cutting, so less desirable species often appeared
prominent during this period (fig. 12). And where red
maple sprouts occurred, they were frequently taller
than any other stems, adding to the unfavorable
impression. Between the fifth and tenth year, how-
ever, the oaks and yellow-poplar began to emerge and
appear in the dominant and codominant classes.
Their growth rate also came closer to that of red
maple during this period. So, even though a clearcut,
area appears to contain many undesirable stems in a
prominent position during the early years after
cutting, more desirable stems usually become
dominant by the time the stand reaches 12 to 15
years old.

On the good sites, new stands will contain a high

proportion of dominant and codominant yellow-
poplar while those on average-to-poor sites will
contain mostly oaks (fig. 13). This observation is
supported by examination of many other young
stands and the results of older studies.

The oldest clearcutting experiments in upland
central hardwood stands are 30 to 35 years old and on
average sites. These plots now support fine, fully-
stocked, pole-size stands composed mostly of oaks
(fig. 14 and Bey 1964).

After Selection or Partial Cutting

Development of reproduction after selection or
light partial cutting was markedly different from
that after clearcutting. Although the seedlings and
saplings had a surge of growth the first 3 or 4 years
after a partial cutting, the understory growth slowed
down drastically as the residual stand closed (fig. 15).
All species, tolerant as well as intolerant, need in-
creasing amounts of light as they increase in size in
order to maintain rapid growth. This requirement,
combined with the closing of the overhead canopy,
naturally results in the slow development of repro-
duction after partial cuttings. However, tolerant
species, although slow growing, continue to expand
at the expense of the more intolerant species. Thirty-
five years after one selection cutting, none of the
reproduction had grown into pole-size trees, and the
and gored the same as it did 5 years after cutting

ig. 16).

After Shelterwood Cutting

The development of reproduction after shelter-
wood cutting was better than after selection or other
partial cuttings. Growth was fairly good for 4 or 5
years after the preparatory and seed cutting; but
from then until the final cutting, growth was slowed
(fig. 17). The logging operation that removed the
shelter destroyed much of the established reproduc-
tion. Although many of these stems resprouted,
several years’ growth had been lost. None of the
shelterwood cuttings resulted in significant increases
in the amount of reproduction of the oaks and other
heavy seeded species.

Height Growth
Effect of Cutting Method

In Indiana, the dominant and codominant stems
of all species in the reproduction averaged 4 to 6 feet
taller 5 years after clearcutting than after shelter-
wood cutting and 6 to 10 feet taller than after selec-
tion cutting (table 8). Average height of the different
species did not vary much on either the clearcut plots
or the shelterwood plots. On the selection plots, how-
ever, height did vary; and the more tolerant and
undesirable species, such as blackgum and dogwood,
were taller than the desirable species. Although some
stems of yellow-poplar and black walnut were present
on the selection plots, neither species was present in
the dominant or codominant reproduction.

9


F-520668

Figure 6.—A 1-year-old northern red oak seedling sprout.
‘he old stem lying on ground in front of sprout was broken
off during logging.

Black Cherry

Seedbed, light, and moisture conditions for black
cherry seed germination are not exacting (USDA
Forest Service 1965). Consequently, the variation in
the proportion of new seedlings (table 5) is probably
due more to variation in the amount of available
seed than to cutting method. Although not numer-
ous, there were some black cherry seedlings on most
plots, even though seed-bearing trees were scarce or
absent in the overstory. Obviously, birds play a
major role in the dissemination of black cherry seed.
New cherry seedlings grow rapidly; consequently
seedlings, advance reproduction, and new sprouts
are all important in reproducing black cherry.

White Ash

The exact requirements for white ash regeneration
have not been established (USDA Forest Service
1965), but the percentage of new white ash seedlings
was greater after clearcutting than after partial
cutting (table 5). White ash seed remains viable
in the litter and duff for at least 2 years (Clark 1962;

6

‘F-520667

Figure 7.—A I-year-old northern red oak seedling sprout.
The old stem was knocked over and held down by the top
in lower left of photo.

and Leak 1963). Thus, where white ash seed-bearing
trees are present, there is usually a good seed supply.
This, along with the full light and favorable
moisture conditions created by clearcutting, prob-
ably accounts for the higher proportion of new white
ash seedlings on these plots. However, the presence
of white ash advance reproduction shows that some
seed will germinate and the seedlings will survive
under a closed canopy. More than half the white ash
reproduction came from advance reproduction re-
gardless of cutting method. Since new sprouts and
stems of advance reproduction grow much faster
than new seedlings, they are important in reproduc-
ing white ash.


seedlings. Most of the reproduction of species other
than yellow-poplar was present as advance Tepro-
tion before cutting.

Reproduction present after any cutting method
was composed of various atiounts of old advance re-
production, new sprouts from advance reproduction,
new seedlings, and stump sprouts. The abundance of
these kinds of reproduction was influenced by cutting
method. Clearcutting resulted in more seedlings and
more new sprouts than any other cutting method.
Reproduction that followed partial cuttings was
mostly old advance reproduction.

Advance reproduction was particularly important
for the oaks. None of the cutting methods produced
many new oak seedlings, and most of the new seed-
lings that were established after cutting died. If oak
advance reproduction was scarce, there were few
oaks in the new stand, regardless of cutting method
used.

This means that the oak component of the new
stand is fixed when the harvest cutting is made; and
to obtain adequate stocking of oaks in the new stand,
careful attention should be given to the amount of
oak advance reproduction under the old stand.

Yellow-poplar was the only species that repro-
duced almost entirely from seed that germinated
after harvest cutting. Even so, it is not necessary to
leave yellow-poplar seed trees because of the reser-
voir of seed that remains viable for up to 8 years in
the litter and duff.

Although yellow-poplar seed germinates best on a
mineral seedbed, we found that deliberate site prep-
aration and ground scarification treatments to
increase yellow-poplar reproduction were unneces-
sary if an adequate seed source was present. Extra
scarification resulted in some increase in the numbers
of yellow-poplar seedlings on some plots, but un-
scarified plots had enough yellow-poplar seedlings to
form acceptable stands.

A residual overstory inhibited the growth rate of
reproduction of all species, and in some cases elim-
inated intolerant species. Where adequate moisture
and light were present, yellow-poplar and black
cherry seedlings as well as new sprouts of oak, white
ash, and black cherry wére able to compete success-
fully with reproduction of red maple, blackgum, dog-
wood, and other undesirables. Reproduction of all
species grew fastest after clearcutting.

Within the limits of our studies, we found no prac-
tical differences in numbers, distribution, or species
composition of reproduction due to size of area clear-
cut. However, every opening has a border in which
reproduction growth is reduced. The smaller the
opening, the greater the percentage of area occupied
by the border. Thus, there are silvicultural limits to
the minimum size of opening for satisfactory repro-
duction growth. Openings should be at least 1 acre.
We could find no silvicultural basis for recommend-
ing a maximum size for a clearcut area.

Although this research shows that many species of
upland central hardwoods tolerate a range of condi-
tions created by harvest cutting, most species are
best suited to even-aged silviculture. Even so, all
cutting methods tested or some modification of them
may have a place in regenerating hardwoods to meet
specific management objectives. The silvical require-
ments for successful establishment and acceptable
growth of the species wanted in the next stand are
important, and must be considered to determine
when and how a harvest cutting method can be
applied or modified. The application of any cutting
method requires sound judgment along with careful
planning and execution to produce new timber crops
and to protect and improve water quality, wildlife
populations, and esthetic values.

(More information on even-aged silviculture ¢an be found in

Roach & Gingrich's “E ed Silviculture for Upland Cen-
tral Hardwoods," AH 355, 1968.)

LITERATURE CITED

Arend, John L., and Gysel, Leslie W.

1952. Less oak reproduction on better sites,
USDA Forest Serv., LS. Forest Exp. Sta.
Tech. Note 378, 1 p.

Bey, Calvin F.

1964. Advance oak reproduction grows fast,
after clearcutting. J. Forest. 62:339-340,
illus.

Brinkman, Kenneth A., and Liming, Franklin G.

1961. Oak and pine reproduction responds to
gyethead release. J. Forest. 59:341-346,

us.
Carvell, K. L., and Tryon, E. H.
1961. The effect of environmental factors on the
abundance of oak regeneration beneath
mature oak stands. Forest Sci. 798-105,
illus.

20

Clark, F. Bryan.

1962. White ash, hackberry, and yellow poplar
seed remain viable when stored in the forest
litter. Indiana Acad. Sci. Proc. 1962:112—
114, illus.

, and Boyce, Stephen G.

1964. Yellow poplar seed remains viable in the

forest litter. J. Forest. 62:564-567, illus.
Krajicek, John E.

1960. Some factors affecting oak and black wal-
nut reproduction. Iowa State J. Sci. 34:
631-634.

Kuenzel, Jolin G.

1935. The influence of degree of cutting on the
survival and early growth of chestnut oak
seedlings. USDA Forest Serv. CS. Forest
Exp. Sta. Note 23, 3 p.



of the Mississippi River, the northern boundary gen-
erally follows the southern limit of glaciation. The
eastern hill country of Missouri is included because
timber conditions there are similar to those further
east. However, the glaciated areas in the northern

part of the Central States, the prairie peninsula
areas, the fertile limestone areas of Kentucky, and
the Ozark region of Missouri are excluded because
timber and soil conditions differ from those in the
areas where these data were collected.

TIMBER TYPES

The upland central hardwood types contain mostly
white, black, and scarlet oak; ! but they also include
several other species. On the drier sites, chestnut,
chinkapin, or post oak may be numerous. Pignut
hickory, blackgum, red maple, and—depending upon
locality—occasional small groups of shortleaf, pitch,
or Virginia pine may be present. On the moister
sites, many species may occur. They include yellow-
poplar, northern red oak, white ash, black cherry,
black walnut, American beech, American basswood,
sugar maple, slippery elm, Ohio buckeye, shagbark
hickory, bitternut hickory, red maple, and blackgum.

Flowering dogwood, sassafras, and sourwood are
the most numerous understory species in these types,
but others may also be present. Locally abundant,
species include downy serviceberry and eastern
hophornbeam on the drier sites, and eastern redbud,
witch-hazel, hazelnut, and American hornbeam on
the moister sites.

These upland timber types usually occur on
residual soils derived from sandstone and shale, but
are also found on shallow limestone soils and in areas
covered by varying thicknesses of loess.

STUDY METHODS

Areas Studied

The studies were made on sites of both average
and good quality. Average sites were generally
located on middle and lower southeastern to south-
western slopes, upper northwestern to eastern slopes,
and low ridges with well-drained soils. Such areas
have a black oak site index? of 55 to 75. The good
sites were generally found in coves and on lower
northeastern to eastern slopes; such areas have a
black oak site index of 75 to 95.

The timber stands used in these studies varied in
composition, age, size of timber, and past treatment
(table 1).? The even-aged stands (fig. 2)—which had
originated after clearcutting or fire—were uniform
and well stocked. The uneven-aged stands—which
commonly resulted from past high-grading in which
only the best timber was taken (fig. 3)—contained
two or three age classes and varied in degree of
stocking.

Cutting Methods

The cutting methods ranged from selection or light
partial cuttings to complete clearcuttings (table 2).
Aside from stimulating reproduction, the selection

1 All common names are according to Little (1953). See
appendix for scientific names.
2 Average total height of dominant and codominant black

oaks at age 50.
* All tables are in the Appendix, p. 21.

2

‘F-520670
Figure 3.—An uneven-aged stand on a good site in Kentucky.


i
'
i
'

cutting. Reproduction was more dense in (B) but

faster than any other kind of oak reproduction.
Spaeth (1928) found that oak stump sprouts grew
faster in diameter than seedlings or seedling sprouts
up to about 10 inches; but beyond this, the diameter
growth of all three kinds of reproduction was about
equal.

Although stump sprouts make up a relatively small
percentage of the total reproduction in the new
stands, they are important because they grow so fast
and compete with the other kinds of reproduction.
However, stump sprouts are not necessarily undesir-
able components in the new stands. Stump sprouts of
desirable species that originate at the ground line and
from small stumps are evidently not very susceptible
to rot. Many sprouts of this kind will undoubtedly
develop into good quality trees.

Factors Affecting Establishment
and Growth of Reproduction

Size of Opening

Within the limits studied, the size of the area clear-
cut did not affect the amount or composition of re-
production 2 years after cutting. In Ohio, openings
ranging from )% acre to 5 acres all had enough stems
of timber species to form well-stocked stands (table
9). Two larger areas in Ohio (one 30 acres, the other

F-520653, F-520654
Figure 15.—Reproduction in a small opening created by cutting one large tree: A, 2 years after cutting; and B, 10 years after

grown little in 8 years.

40 acres) were also well stocked with reproduction
of timber species 2 years after cutting. The same re-
sults were found in Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky
in openings ranging from 1/20 acre to 4 acres.

However, opening size did affect growth of the
reproduction. Four years after cutting, Smith‘ found
that yellow-poplar stems in 14-acre openings were
taller than those in either 14-acre or 1/10-acre open-
ings. All openings, regardless of size, are bordered
by a zone where reproduction growth is retarded
(fig. 20). Small circular openings have a much higher
percentage of their total area in this border zone
than do large ones (fig. 21). Though the exact width
of this zone has not been determined, it is likely to
extend more than 10 feet but less than 30 feet from
the boles of surrounding trees. Regardless of the
exact width of this border zone, the percentage of
area in it increases greatly for openings smaller than
about 14 acre. Thus, for the best growth of the re-
production, the minimum size circular opening
should not be less than 14 acre; 1 acre is probably
more ideal. Openings of any other shape will have a
higher percentage of their total area in the border
zone. Thus, the minimum size square or rectangular
opening should be not less than 1 acre.

‘Smith, Henry W., Jr. Establishment of yellow poplar
(Liriodendron_ tulipifera L.) in canopy openings. Ph.D.
thesis, Yale Univ. School of Forestry, 1963.

13


paar

‘F-520656, F-520657

Figure 17.—Reproduction under shelterwood: A, 5 years after cutting; and B, 9 years after cutting.

After 6 years, all three kinds of oak reproduction
were taller after clearcutting than after partial
cutting. The new sprouts on the clearcut plots were

TOTAL HEIGHT, FEET

NEW SEEDLINGS

° r r T
' 2 3 4 5

YEARS SINCE CUTTING

Figure 18.—Height growth of different kinds of oak repro-
Guetion after elesreutting in Illinois.

more than 5 feet taller than those on the partially cut
plots, the old advance reproduction was 3.5 feet
taller, and the new seedlings 0.5 foot taller. Kuenzel
and McGuire (1942) found the same general relation-
ships for chestnut oak reproduction in Indiana.

In the 6-year-old stand resulting from clearcutting,
most of the dominant and codominant oaks were new
sprouts from advance reproduction. Stems of old
advance reproduction did not respond with increased

0

NEW SPROUTS FROM
REPRODUCTION

‘OL0 ADVANCE
REPRODUCTION.

TOTAL HEIGHT, FEET

NEW SEEDLINGS

T T T T T T
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

YEARS SINCE CUTTING

Figure 19.—Height growth of different kinds of oak repro-
duction after partial cutting in Illinois.

15


INTRODUCTION

Present upland hardwood stands in the central
United States are a patchwork of species and con-
ditions that reflect past stand treatment. Some
stands that have developed under favorable circum-
stances are well stocked with high-value trees of the
most desirable species. But many stands that have
grown under less favorable circumstances because of
such abuses as high-grading, “opportunistic” har-
vesting, overgrazing, or fire have few high-quality,
vigorous trees of desirable species.

The reproduction that appears after a harvest
cutting is often unsatisfactory in species composi-
tion, growth rate, or even survival. Simply avoiding
stand abuses will not guarantee reproduction of fast-
growing new stands of desirable species in upland
hardwoods. To obtain the best species composition
and fastest growth rate of reproduction after harvest
cutting, forest managers need a more complete
understanding of how the various upland hardwood

species reproduce and develop after different types
of harvest cuttings.

This handbook summarizes results of reproduction
studies conducted in southern Illinois, southern
Indiana, eastern Kentucky, and southeastern Ohio.
Early results of some of these studies were published
previously by Minckler and Jensen (1959), Minckler
and Woerheide (1965), and Merz and Boyce (1958).

These studies provide data from more than 200
experimental plots covering a wide range of cutting
methods, site qualities, and stand conditions.
Although direct comparisons among the various
study locations were not always possible, the studies
all had a common objective: to find out what factors
affect the establishment of reproduction and how all
reproduction grows and develops when a stand is cut
in a specific manner.

In general, these data and discussions apply within
the physiographic areas designated in figure 1. East

Figure 1.—Area of applicability and location of reproduction studies in upland central hardwoods.


TABLE 5.—Kinds of reproduction present 2 years after harvest cutting in upland central hardwood stands in Ohio

(Percent)
All Yellow- Black Red Black- Dog- Sassa-
Kind of reproduction oaks poplar Ash cherry Hickory maple gum wood fras

COMPLETE CLEARCUT

New seedlings 1 98 43 33 2 4 1 0 21
‘Advance reproduction 19 1 5 6 30 21 28 22 2
New sprouts 76 0 51 61 56 74 68 7 76%
Stump sprouts 4 1 1 0 12 1 3 7 1
SHELTERWOOD
New seedlings 1 100 35 7 2 u 14 0 41
Advance reproduction 65 0 34 66 77 67 72 9
New sprouts 27 0 30 7 21 20 14 32 501
Stump sprouts 7 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0
MEDIUM PARTIAL
New seedlings 4 98 18 33 2 23 0 0 73
Advance reproduction 69 1 38 56 73 54 40 65 7
New sprouts 25 1 23 i py 13 60 33 1Bt
Stump sprouts 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 7

1 Includes root sprouts.

TABLE 6.—Number of stems of natural reproduction per acre 5 years after harvest cutting in Indiana and percent
change from the number 2 years after cutting

Species Selection Shelterwood __Clearcut Selection  Shelterwood __Clearcut
Number Number Number Percent Percent Percent

Red oak group 160 30 0 —87 ~87 —8
White oak group 570 210 330 —46 -81 14
Yellow-pop! 10 1,620 2,800 -99 —64 —30
White ash 2,700 1,480 1,050 +43 -49 4
Black cherry 100 50 130 “63 -74 —35
Black walnut 40 90 240 +33 —47 +100
Hickory 530 300 500 24 —49 —16
Sugar maple 2,320 730 1,250 +27 -i +41
er trees 7/130 4,340 6,350 = 33 —43 +80
‘Woody brush 1400 1;680 3,300 -18 —41 —30
Total trees 13,560 8,900 12,940 —20 —53 +19

TABLE 7.—Number of stems of natural reproduction per acre 2, 7, and 10 years after harvest cuttings of
different intensities in Ohio

Species
_ | All Yellow- Other

Criterion Type of cutting oaks poplar trees Total

All stems 2 years after cutting Medium heavy partial 9,310 1,180 2,290 12,780
Commercial clearcut for sawtimber 5,140 3,020 1,600 9,760

Complete clearcut 27960 6,340 2}270 11570

All stems taller than 4.5 feet Medium heavy partial 590 40 860 490
after 7 years Commercial clearcut for sawtimber 810 290 1,090 2,190
Complete clearcut 590 550 1,980 3,120

All stems larger than 0.6 inches Medium heavy partial 200 20 390 610
d.b.h. after 10 years Commercial clearcut for sawtimber 370 100 500 970
Complete clearcut 490 310 1,430 2,230

All stems 2.5 to 5.5: inches Medium heavy partial 53 6 55 1i4
d.b.b. after 10 years , Commercial clearcut for sawtimber a 4 46 121
Complete clearcut 76 30 120 226

24


REPRODUCTION OF UPLAND HARDWOOD
FORESTS IN THE CENTRAL STATES

by
Ivan L. Sander, Research Forester
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station

and

F, Bryan Clark, Principal Silviculturist
North Central Forest Experiment Station

Agriculture Handbook No. 405

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service

Issued June 1971

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402—Price 40 cents



good site, where the stand was almost pure
site, where the dominant stand was mostly o:

F-520660, F-520659
Figure 13.~-Twelve-year-old stands that developed after clearcutting: A, On a

yellow-poplar; B, on an average
aks,

ll


F-00873, F-520655

35 years after cutting, Note

‘Figure 16.—Rey

,

and B,

, 5 years after cutting;

partially cut plot in southern Indiana: A,

ny new pole-size trees.

production in
of a

absence

14