# U ni te d S ta te s Co ur t of A pp ea ls

For the Eig hth Circu it

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No. 1 6- 32 10

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Larry Bal l

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Pla in ti

ff - App el la nt

v.

Ci ty of Lin co ln , Nebr as ka

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Defe nd

an t - Ap pe ll ee

Ch ris Bu et le r, Mayor of th e Ci ty of Lin co ln ; Ja m es Pes ch on g, Lin co ln Ch ie f of Po li ce

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Defe nd

an t s

SMG, a Pe nn sylva ni a Gen eral Part ne rs hi p

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Defe nd

an t - Ap pe ll ee

__ __ __ __ __ __

App eal fro m

Uni te d S ta te s Di st ric t Co ur t

fo r th e Dis tri ct of Ne br as ka - Om ah a

__ __ __ __ __ __

Su bm it te d: Marc h 8 , 20 17

Fil ed : Au gu st 29 , 20 17

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Befo re WOL LMAN, MELLOY, and SHEPHERD, Circ ui t J ud ge s.

__ __ __ __ __ __

W OLLMAN, Circ ui t J ud ge

.Larry Bal l ap pe al s fro m th e di st ric t co ur t’s or de r gr an ti ng su m m ary jud gm en t 1

to th e Ci ty of Lin co ln

, N e b r a sk a (Ci ty), an d SMG (co ll ect iv el y , App el le es ) on hi s

cl ai m th at th e App el le es vi ol at ed hi s Fi rs t Am en dm en t free -s pe ech rig ht s. Bal l was 2

ti ck et ed an d a rres te d for t res pa ss in g a fte r he di st rib ut ed lea fle ts in th e p la za ar ea o f

th e Pi nn acl e Ban k Aren a (Pl aza Area)

, whi ch act iv it y was pr oh ib it ed by th e Aren a’s

Ext eri or Acces s an d Us e Po li cy (Po li cy ). Bal l ar gu es th at th e di st ric t cou rt erred in

co nc lu di ng th at th e Pl aza Area is a no np ub li c fo ru m an d t h a t t h e Po li cy is a

reas on ab le res tri ct io n o n s pe ech . W e affi rm

.

“ W e rev ie w a gr an t of su m m ary jud gm en t de no vo an d wil l affi rm whe n ‘the re

is no ge nu in e d is pu te as to an y m at eri al fact an d t he m ov an t i s en ti tl ed to jud gm en t

as a m at te r of la w.’ ” Gran t v. Ci ty of Bl y th ev il le

, 84 1 F.3 d 76 7, 77 0 (8 th Ci r. 20 16 )

(q u o t i ng Torg ers on v. Ci ty of Ro ch es te r, 64 3 F.3 d 10 31

, 10 42 (8 th Ci r. 20 11 ) (en

ba nc )). W e vi ew th e ev id en ce in th e li gh t m os t fav or ab le to th e no nm ov in g pa rty an d

dr aw al l reas on ab le in fere nc es in th at pa rty’ s fav or

. To r g e r s o n, 64 3 F.3 d at 10 42

. The n on m ov in g pa rty “ m ay no t rel y on al le ga ti on s or de ni al s,” ho wev er, bu t m us t

su bs ta nt ia te h i s al le ga ti on s wit h “ su ffi ci en t pr ob at iv e ev id en ce [th at ] wou ld pe rm it

a fin d i n g i n [ h i s] fav or on m or e th an m ere sp ecu la ti on [o r] co njec tu re.” Man n v.

Yarn el l, 49 7 F.3d 82 2, 82 5 (8t h Ci r. 20 07 ) (q uo ti ng Greg or y v. Cit y of Ro ge rs
, 97 4

F.2 d 10 06

, 10 10 (8 th Ci r. 19 92 )). Eve n if so m e fact ua l di sp ut e ex is ts

, th e m ov an t is

en ti tl ed to su m

m ary jud gm en t if th e ev id en ce, ta ke n as a who le

, is so on e-s id ed th at

a fai r-m in de d tri er o f f

act co ul d no t fin d fo r th e no nm ov in g pa rty. And ers on v.

Lib ert y Lob by, In c., 47 7 U.S. 2 42 , 2 52 (1 98 6)

. In ot he r wor ds , th ere i s n o g en ui ne

is su e fo r tri al if “ th e reco rd ta ke n as a who le co ul d no t le ad a rat io na l tri er of fact to

The Hon or ab le Lau rie Sm it h Cam p, Ch ie f Ju dg e, Uni te d St at es Dis tri ct Co ur t 1

fo r th e Dis tri ct of Ne br as ka

.

T he dis tr ic t co ur t di sm is se d wit h pr ejud ic e Bal l’s cl ai m s ag ai ns t Ch ris Bu et le r, 2

th e Ci ty Mayor, an d Ja m es Pes ch on g, th e Ci ty Ch ie f of Po li ce, an d Bal l do es no t

ap pe al fro m

th at ord er.

-2

-fin d fo r th e no nm ov in g par ty.” Torg ers on
, 64 3 F.3d at 10 42

. W e rel at e th e fact s in

li gh t o f th es e st an da rd s.

I. Back gr ou nd

In 20 10

, th e Ci ty an d th e Uni ve rs it y of Neb ras ka (Un iv ers it y ) en te red in to an

ag reem en t to crea te th e W es t Hay m ark et Jo in t Pub li c Age nc y (Ag en cy ), whi ch was

fo rm ed to faci li ta te th e red ev el op m en t o f t h e C i t y’ s W es t Hay m ark et di st ric t. The

red ev el op m en t p la n i nc lu de d t he co ns tru ct io n o f th e Pi nn acl e Ban k Aren a (Aren a),

a la rg e, m od ern sp or ts an d en te rta in m e n t ve nu e. The red ev el op m en t pl an in cl ud ed

se ve ral pa rk in g ga rag es to th e wes t an d s ou th of t he Aren a; a fes ti va l s pa ce/ su rfac e

pa rk in g lo t to th e no rth of th e Aren a; a pe de st ria n br id ge co nn ect in g th e fes ti va l sp ace

an d pa rk in g lo ts to th e Aren a; an d ne w ro ad s, st reet s, an d si de walk s pr ov id in g acce ss

to all th es e faci li ti es

. Am on g it s ot he r us es , t he Aren a was to fu nc ti on as th e ho m e

co ur t fo r th e Uni ve rs it y ’s ba sk et ba ll te am s. It was bu il t to rep la ce th e Ci ty’ s fiftyy ear- ol d Pers hi ng Cen te r, whi ch ha d be en op erat ed by SMG fo r m or e th an a de cad e

un ti l it s cl os in g in 20 14

. Und er t h e red ev el op m en t pl an
, th e Ci ty wou ld own th e

Aren a an d it s as so ci at ed im pr ov em en ts an d faci li ti es fo r th e be ne fit of th e Ci ty’ s

res id en ts an d c it iz en s.

The Ci ty en te red in to a Faci li ti es Agr eem en t wit h th e Age nc y , un de r whi ch th e

Ci ty wou ld co ns tru ct th e A ren a an d rel at ed faci li ti es
, in cl ud in g th e ad jacen t ro ad s,

st reet s, an d si de walk s
, an d wou ld th erea fte r op erat e, m ai nt ai n, an d m an ag e th em

. Co ns tru ct io n of ne w ro ad s, st reet s, an d si de walk s ad jacent to th e Aren a was ne ces sa ry

be cau se
, pr io r t o it s red ev el op m en t, th e si te ha d be en oc cu pi ed by rai lro ad tra ck s,

whi ch were rel oc at ed to acco m m od at e th e Aren a an d rel at ed faci li ti es

. The Ci ty al so

en te red in to a Man ag em en t Agr eem en t wit h SMG, gr an ti ng SMG th e “ ex cl us iv e rig ht

to m an ag e, m ark et

, pr om ot e an d op erat e” th e Aren a an d rel at ed faci li ti es

. The Aren a

op en ed in th e fal l o f 20 13

.

-3

-The Po li cy
, whi ch SMG ad op te d in O c to be r 20 14

, in cl ud es di ag ram s of th e

Aren a area an d go ve rn s ex te rio r acce ss an d us e of th e Aren a an d rel at e d faci li ti es

. The Po li cy an d di ag ram s were th en po st ed on th e Aren a’s web si te

, an d pa pe r co pi es

were m ad e av ai la bl e to th e pu bl ic

. The Po li cy was co ns is te nt w i t h th e un writ te n

acce ss an d us e po li c y t h a t S M G h ad be en en fo rci ng si nc e th e Aren a’s op en in g an d

whi ch SMG ha d earl ie r en fo rced at th e Pers hi ng Cen te r fro m 1 9 96 un ti l it s cl os in g

in 20 14

. The Po li cy ’s p ur p o s e w as to pr ov id e Aren a pa tro ns —s om et im es as m an y

as 15 ,00 0 at a si ng le ev en t— sa fe an d effi ci en t acce ss to th e Aren a an d rel at ed

faci li ti es
, as well as to al lo w fo r th e fu ll us e of th e Aren a by th e p e rfo rm ers
, sp or ts

te am s, tra de sh ows
, co nv en ti on s, an d ot he rs who le as ed th e Aren a fo r va rio us ev en ts

(Aren a Ten an ts ). Cert ai n ex te rio r area s aro un d th e Aren a an d rel at ed faci li ti es were

de si gn at ed by th e Po li cy as “ no np ub li c fo ru m area s” an d were sp eci fic al ly res erv ed

fo r u s e b y Aren a Ten an ts an d th ei r au th or iz ed pr od uc ti on s an d affi li at es (Po li cy

Zon e). The Po li cy Zon e, whi ch was de fin ed in th e te xt an d de pi ct ed on th e di ag ram s

acco m pa nyin g th e Po li cy
, in cl ud ed th e Pl aza Area— th e ex te rio r pl aza lo cat ed at th e

so ut he as t co rn er of t h e A r e n a pr op ert y ne ar th e so ut he as t do or s to th e Aren a. The

Po li cy an d acco m

pa nyin g di ag ram s al so pr ov id ed fo r an d id en ti fie d pu b l i c area s

ou ts id e th e Po li cy Zon e. The Po li cy Zon e di d no t in cl ud e th e pe de st ria n br id ge or a

pa th ru nn in g al on g th e eas te rn ed ge of th e Pl aza Area fr o m th e bo tt om of th e

pe de st ria n b rid ge to th e ad jacen t p ub li c si de walk

.

-4

-Ima ge of th e Pla za Area lo ca te d at th e so ut he as t co rn er of th e Pol ic y
Zo ne

. Th e pe ri mete r of th e Pla za Area is in di ca te d in bl ac k fo r ea se of

re fe re nc e, al th ou gh it is sh ow n in or an ge in th e Ci ty ’s Su pp l e m e n t al App en di x. Su pp l. Ap p. a t 2 4.

Bal l, a ci ti zen an d res id en t of th e Ci ty, pa ss es ou t le afl et s co nt ai ni ng Ch ris ti an

m es sa ge s t o m em

be rs of t he pu bl ic . B al l ha s ha nd ed ou t le afl et s n ear t he Aren a o n

at le as t fo ur oc cas io ns

. O n Mar ch 15

, 20 14

, th e bo y s’ st at e hi gh sc ho ol ba sk et ba ll

to ur na m en t w a s be in g he ld at th e Aren a. Bal l ha nd ed ou t le afl et s to to ur na m en t

at te nd ees whi le st an di ng in th e Pl aza Area, at ti m es st an di ng di rect ly in fro nt of th e

do or s to th e Aren a. SMG st aff ap pr oa ch ed Bal l se ve ral ti m es an d as ke d hi m to m ov e

fro m th e Pl aza Area to th e ad jacen t pu bl ic si de walk

. Bal l ag reed to le av e bu t st at ed

th at he w o u l d r et ur n la te r to co nt in ue le afl et ti ng

. Bal l ret ur ne d th at aft ern oo n an d

be ga n le afl et ti ng ag ai n in th e Pl aza Area. W he n Bal l refu se d to m ov e fro m th e Pl aza

Area, SMG st aff cal le d th e Lin c o l n Po li ce Dep art m en t. The of fic ers as ke d Bal l to

m ov e to th e pu bl ic si de walk ou ts id e th e Pl aza Area. Bal l refu se d to m ov e, as se rti ng

th at he ha d a rig ht to le afl et in th e Pl aza Area. Bal l wa s arre st ed an d ci te d fo r

tre sp as si ng in vi ol at io n of th e un writ te n Aren a us e po li cy an d fo r refu si ng to co m pl y

-5

-w it h th e of

fic ers ’ di rect iv es to m ov e to an ot he r lo cat io n. The ch arg es were la t e r

di sm is se d.

Bal l ret ur ne d to th e Ar e n a on Mar ch 5, 20 15

, to ha nd ou t le afl et s to pe op le

at t e n d i n g t he gi rls ’ st at e hi gh sc ho ol ba sk et ba ll to ur na m en t an d ag ai n st oo d in th e

Pl aza Area ro ug hl y 15 to 25 feet fro m th e Aren a do or s. Bal l co nc ed es th at he ha d by

th at ti m e read th e writ te n Po li cy an d kn ew th at it pr oh ib it ed hi s le afl et ti ng act iv it y

. Offi cers ag ai n cit ed Bal l for tres pa ss in g bu t di d no t arres t h im . Ball ret ur ne d t o t he

Pl aza Area on Mar ch 7, 20 15

, en ga ge d in th e sa m e co nd uc t, an d was ag ai n ci te d fo r

tre sp a s s i n g i n vi ol at io n of th e Po li cy bu t was no t arre st ed

. Dur in g th e se co nd

week en d of Mar ch 20 15

, Bal l di st rib ut ed le afl et s ou ts id e th e Aren a du rin g th e bo y s’

st at e hi gh sc ho ol ba sk et ba ll to ur na m en t, bu t th is ti m e he rem ai ne d on t he pu bl ic

si d e walk ou ts id e th e Pl aza Area an d was no t ap pr oa ch ed by SM G s ta ff or ti ck et ed

.
In Ju ly 20 15

, Bal l was fo un d gu il ty of tre sp as si ng fo r th e ci ta ti on s is su ed on Mar ch

5 an d 7, 20 15

, an d was fin ed $5 0 fo r each vi ol at io n. The Lin co ln Po li ce Dep art m en t

ha s no t ci te d an y ot he r in di vi du al fo r tre sp as si ng or fo r ot he r cri m in al vi ol at io ns

rel at ed to th e Po li cy

.

Bal l fil ed th is la wsu it on Mar ch 12

, 20 15

, al le gi ng th at th e Ci ty an d SMG ha d

vi ol at ed hi s Fi rs t Am en dm en t free -s pe ech rig ht s by is su in g th e Mar ch 20 14 an d

Mar ch 20 15 ci ta ti on s fo r tre sp as si ng on th e Pl aza Area i n v io la ti on of th e Po li cy

. Bal l so ug ht pe rm an en t in jun ct iv e rel ie f a n d m on et ary da m ag es

. The di st ric t co ur t

gr an te d su m

m ary jud gm en t in fav or of th e Ci ty an d SMG, co nc lu di ng th at th e Pl aza

Area was a no np ub li c fo ru m fo r pu rp os es of th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t an d th at th e Po li cy

was a reas on ab le re s t r i c t io n on sp eech , c on cl us io ns th at Bal l ch al le ng es on ap pe al

.

II. Dis cu ss io n

The Fi rs t Am en dm en t pr ov id es th at s t a t e a c t or s “ sh al l m ak e no la w

. . . ab rid gi ng th e free do m of sp eech .” U.S. Co ns t. am en d. I; am en d. XIV. The App el le es

are st at e act or s fo r pu rp os es of th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t, se e Bren two od Acad

. v. Ten n.

-6

-S e co nd ary Sch

. Ath le ti c Ass ’n, 53 1 U.S. 28 8, 29 5- 98 (2 00 1)

, an d th e le afl et ti ng a t

is su e he re is wit hi n th e sc op e of sp eech pr ot ect ed by th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t, se e In t’l

So c’y fo r Kris hn a Co ns ci ou sn es s, In c. v. Lee, 50 5 U.S. 6 72 , 6 77 (1 99 2) . The Fi rs t

Am en dme n t d o e s no t, ho wev er, pr ov id e Bal l wit h un fet te red la ti tu de to en ga ge in

le afl et ti ng wher ev er an d when ev er he m ig ht ch oo se

. In st ead

, th e “ go ve rn m en t, ‘no

le ss th a n a p r i v a te own er of pr op ert y , h as th e po wer to pr es erv e th e pr op ert y un de r

it s co nt ro l fo r th e us e to whi ch it is la wfu ll y de di cat ed .’ ” Uni te d St at es v. Grace

, 46 1

U.S. 17 1, 17 8 (1 98 3) (q uo ti ng Add erl y v. Fl or id a, 38 5 U.S. 39

, 47 (1 96 6) ). In de ed

, it is “ well se tt le d th at th e go ve rn m en t ne ed no t pe rm it al l fo rm s of sp eech on pr op ert y

it own s an d co nt ro ls .” Lee

, 5 0 5 U

. S. at 67 8. Thi s is so be cau se “ [n ]oth in g in th e

Co ns ti tu ti on req ui res th e [g ]ove rn m en t free ly to gr an t acce s s t o a l l who wis h to

ex erci se th ei r rig ht to free sp eech on ev ery type of [g ]ove rn m en t pr op ert y w i t ho ut

reg ard to th e na tu re of th e pr op ert y or to th e di sr up ti on th at m ig ht be cau se d b y th e

sp eak er’s act iv it ie s.” Co rn el iu s v. NAACP Leg al Def. & Edu c. Fu nd

, In c., 47 3 U.S.

78 8, 79 9- 80 0 (1 98 5) ; se e a l s o Uni te d St at es v. Kok in da

, 49 7 U.S. 72 0, 72 5 (1 99 0)

(n ot in g th at whi le th e go ve rn m en t is su bjec t to ce r t a i n co ns tra in ts in it s ab il it y to

co nt ro l acce ss to it s pr op er t y, “the [g ]ove rn m en t’s own ers hi p of pr op ert y do es no t

au to m at ic al ly op en th at pr op ert y to th e pu bl ic ”). W hi le th e go ve rn m en t is ge ne ral ly

p e r mi t t ed to ex erci se co nt ro l ov er ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s on it s pr op ert y , th e

co ns ti tu ti on al ly pe rm is si bl e ex te nt of th at co nt ro l tu rn s on th e na tu re of th e pr op ert y

in vo lv ed an d th e res tri ct io ns im po se d. See Co rn el iu s, 47 3 U.S. at 79 7. The Su pr em e

C o u r t “h a s ad op te d a fo ru m an al y si s as a m ean s of de te rm in in g whe n th e
[g ]ove rn men t ’s i n te res t in li m it in g th e us e of it s pr op ert y to it s in te nd ed pu rp os e

ou twei gh s t he in te res t o f th os e wis hi ng to us e th e pr op ert y for ot he r pu rp os es .” Id

.

at 80 0; se e al so Perr y Edu c. Ass ’n v. Perr y Loc al Edu cat or s’ Ass ’n, 46 0 U.S. 37

, 45

-

46 (1 98 3) ; Mi nn

. Majo rit y v. Man sk y , 70 8 F.3 d 10 51

, 10 56 (8 th Ci r. 20 13 ). In ot he r

wor ds

, “ th e ex te nt to whi ch th e [g ]ove rn m en t can co nt ro l acce s s d e pe nd s on th e

na tu re of th e rel ev an t fo ru m .” Kok in da

, 49 7 U.S. at 72 6 (q uo ti ng Co rn el iu s, 47 3 U.S.

at 80 0)

.

-7

-A tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m is pu bl ic pr op ert y th at h a s “t r a d it io na ll y be en

av ai la bl e fo r pu bl ic ex p r e s s i o n
, ” Lee, 50 5 U.S. at 67 8, an d “ th e free ex ch an ge of

id eas ,” Co rn el iu s, 47 3 U.S. at 80 0. The “ qu in te ss en ti al ” ex am pl es of su ch tra di ti on al

pu bl ic fo ru m s are s t r e e ts

, si de walk s, an d pu bl ic pa rk s, be cau se th es e ve nu es “ ha ve

im m em or ia ll y be en he ld in tru st fo r th e us e of th e pu bl ic

, an d, ti m e ou t of m in d, ha ve

be en us ed fo r pu rp os es of as se m bl y , co m m un ic at in g th ou gh ts be twee n ci ti zen s, an d

di sc us si ng pu bl ic qu es ti on s.” Perry Educ . Ass ’n, 46 0 U.S. a t 45 (ci ta ti on om it te d)

.

“ A tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m is a type of pr op ert y th at ‘has th e ph y si cal ch arac te ris ti cs

of a pu bl ic th or ou gh fare

, . . . [th at ha s] th e ob jecti ve us e an d pu rp os e of op en pu bl ic

acce ss or so m e ot he r ob

jecti ve us e an d pu rp os e in he ren tl y co m pa ti bl e wit h ex pr es siv e

co nd uc t, [an d th at ha s] hi st or ic al [ly] an d tra di ti on al [ly]

. . . be en us ed fo r ex pr es si ve

co nd uc t.’” Bo wm an v. W hi te

, 44 4 F.3 d 96 7, 97 5 (8 th Ci r. 20 06 ) (ci ta ti on om it te d)

. A “ de si gn at ed ” pu bl ic fo ru m , a s th e na m e im pl ie s, is crea te d whe n t he go ve rn m en t

“ in te nt io na ll y

op en [s ] a no nt rad it io na l foru m fo r pu bl ic di sc ou rs e.” Co rn el iu s, 47 3

U.S. at 80 2. “ Alt ho ug h [th e go ve rn m en t] is no t req u i r ed to in de fin it el y ret ai n th e

op en ch arac te r of th e faci li ty, as lo ng as it do es so it is bo un d by th e sa m e st an da rd s

as ap pl y in a tra di ti on al pu b l i c f o r u m.” P erry Edu c. Ass ’n, 46 0 U.S. at 46

. In a

tra di ti on al or de si gn at ed pu bl ic fo ru m
, “ th e go ve rn m en t’s a b i li ty to pe rm is si bl y

res tri ct ex pr es si ve co nd uc t is ve ry li m it ed .” Grace

, 46 1 U.S. at 17 7. The go ve rn m en t

m ay im po se a co nt en t-b as ed res tri ct io n on sp eech on ly if th e res tri ct io n “ is ne ces sa ry

t o s e r ve a co m

pe ll in g st at e in te res t an d

. . . i s na rro wly d rawn to ach ie ve th at en d.”

Per ry Edu c. Ass ’n, 46 0 U.S. at 45

. The go ve rn m en t m ay im po se a co nt en t-n eu tra l

ti m e, pl ace, an d m an ne r res tri ct io n on sp eech as lo ng as su ch res tri ct io n is “ na rro wly

t a i l o r e d to se rv e a si gn ifi can t go ve rn m en t in te res t, an d le av e[s ] op en am pl e

al te rn at iv e ch an ne ls of c om m un ic at io n.” Id.

A no np ub li c fo ru m is go ve rn m e n t pr op ert y th at “ is no t by tra di ti on or

d e s i g n a t i o n a fo ru m fo r” ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s by th e pu bl ic

. Id

. at 46

. Th e

go ve rn m en t ret ai ns m

uc h b r o a d er di sc ret io n to res tri ct ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s in a

no np ub li c fo ru m

. The go ve rn m en t “ m ay res erv e [a no np ub li c] fo ru m fo r it s in te nd ed

-8

-pu rp os es
, co m m un ic a t i v e o r ot he rwis e, as lo ng as th e reg ul at io n on sp eech is

reas on ab le an d no t an effo rt t o s up pr es s ex pr es si on m erel y be cau se pu bl ic of fic ia ls

op po se th e sp eak er’s vi ew.” Id .; se e al so Hod ge v. Talk in

, 79 9 F.3 d 11 45

, 11 53 (D.C.

Ci r. 20 15 ) (n ot in g th at th e go ve rn m en t “ en joy s si gn ifi can tl y gr e a t e r l a ti tu de to

reg ul at e ex pr es si ve act iv it y ” in a no np ub li c fo ru m
, “ in cl ud in g th e ab il it y ‘in so m e

ci rcu m st an ces ’ to ‘ban th e en try

. . . of al l pe rs on s ex cep t th os e who ha ve le gi ti m at e

bu si ne ss on th e pr em is es ’” (q uo ti ng Grace

, 46 1 U

. S

. at 17 8) ). A res tri ct io n on

ex pr es si ve act iv it y in a no np ub li c fo ru m “ ne ed on ly be re as on ab le ; it ne ed no t be th e

m os t reas on ab le or th e on ly reas on ab le li m it at io n” to be co ns ti tu ti on al ly pe rm is si bl e.

Kok in da , 49 7 U.S. at 73 0.

Bal l arg ue s th at th e di st ric t co ur t erre d in co nc lu di ng th at th e Pl aza Are a is a

no np ub li c fo ru m

. He fir st co nt en ds th at b e c a u s e t he Pl aza Area is ph y si cal ly an d

sp at ia ll y in d is ti ng ui sh ab le fro m th e ad jacen t pe de st ria n br id ge an d ot he r pu bl ic

si de walk s, i t i s, “ wit ho ut m or e,” a t rad it io na l p ub li c fo ru m

. See Grace , 4 61 U.S. at

17 7 (n ot in g th at pu bl ic ve nu es su ch as si de walk s th at ha ve be en “ hi st or ic al ly

as so ci at ed ” wit h ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s “ are co ns id ered

, wit ho u t mo r e, to be ‘pub li c

fo ru m s’”). In de te rm in in g whe th er go ve rn m en t pr op ert y co ns ti tu te s a tra di ti on al

pu bl ic fo ru m
, h owe ve r, th e ph y si cal ap pe aran ce of th e pr op ert y is on ly on e of th e

fact or s we m

us t co ns id er. See Kok in da

, 49 7 U.S. at 72 7 (“ Th e mer e ph y si cal

ch ar ac te rist ic s of th e pr op ert y can no t di ct at e fo ru m an al y si s.”) ; se e al so Bo wm an
, 44 4

F.3 d at 97 8. W e m

us t al so ta ke in to acco un t “ th e tra di ti on al us e of th e pr op ert y , th e

ob jecti ve us e an d p ur

po se s o f th e sp ace, a nd th e g ov ern m en t i nt en t an d p ol ic y wit h

res pe ct to th e p ro pe rty, not m erel y it s ph y si cal ch arac te ris ti cs an d lo cat io n.” Id . In

ad di ti on
, we m

us t co ns id er “ th e pr es en ce of an y sp eci al ch arac te ris ti cs reg ard in g th e

en vi ro nm en t in whi ch ” th e area in qu es ti on ex is ts

. Id

. No si ng le fact or is di sp os it iv e.

Id . at 9 78 n.6

.

-9

-A. Physica l Ch arac te ris ti cs of t he Pla za Area

Sev eral co ur ts ha ve co ns id ered th e ph y si cal ch arac te ris t i c s o f a ve nu e in

de te rm in in g it s fo ru m st at us

. In Grace

, th e Su pr em e Co ur t co ns id ered whe th er th e

“ pu bl ic si de walk s su rro un di ng th e [Un it ed St at es Su pr em e] Co ur t bu il d in g” were

tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m s fo r pu rp os es of th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t. 46 1 U.S. at 17 5, 17 8.

The Co ur t co nc lu de d th at th es e si de walk s, whi ch m ark ed th e pe rimeter of th e Co ur t

gr ou nd s
, were “ in di st in gu is ha bl e fro m an y ot he r si de walk s in W as hi ng to n, D.C.,”

pa rti cu la rly no ti ng th at th ere was “ no se pa rat io n, n o f en ce, an d no in di cat io n

wha te ve r to pe rs on s st ep pi ng fro m th e st reet to th e cu rb ” an d on to th e si de walk s th at

“t he y [h ad ] en te red so m e sp eci al type of en cl av e.” Id

. at 17 9- 80

. Thu s
, t h e C o u r t

ex pl ai ne d, th ere was “ no reas on why [th es e si de walk s] sh o u l d b e tre at ed an y

di ffer en tl y ” fro m typic al pu bl ic si de walk s, whi ch are “ co ns id ered

, ge ne ral ly wit ho ut

fu rth er in qu iry, to be pu bl ic fo ru m pr op ert y .” Id

. at 17 9; bu t se e Greer v. Sp oc k, 42 4

U.S. 82 8, 83 8 (1 97 6) (h ol di ng th at th e st reet s an d si de walk s wit hi n Fo rt Dix m il it ary

ba se were no np ub li c fo ru m s in pa rt be cau se th ey were se pa rat ed fro m th e st reet s an d

si de walk s of ne ig hb or in g m un ic ip al it ie s) ; Kok in da

, 49 7 U.S. at 72 9- 30 (h ol di ng th at

Po st al Serv ic e si de walk co nn ect in g po st of fic e bu il di ng w i t h pa rk in g lo t was

no np ub li c fo ru m ). Alt ho ug h th e Co ur t di d no t di rect ly ad dr es s th e st at us of th e Co ur t

g ro un ds

, it no te d th at

, whi le “ pu bl ic ly own ed ,” th e gr ou nd s “ ha [d ] no t be en

tra di ti on al ly he ld op en fo r th e us e of th e pu bl ic fo r ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s.” Grace

, 46 1

U

. S

. a t 17 8. The Co ur t fu rth er ob se rv ed th at , e ve n th ou gh th e Co ur t gr ou nd s w e r e

ge ne ral ly op en to th e pu bl ic

, th ey were “ no t tra ns fo rm ed in to ‘pub li c fo ru m ’ pr op ert y

m erel y be cau se th e pu bl ic [was ] p e r m it te d to free ly en te r an d le av e th e gr ou nd s at

pr act ic al ly all t im es .” Id

.

In Uni te d Ch ur ch of Ch ris t v. Gate way Eco no m ic Dev el o pm en t Co rp

. of

Great er Cl ev el an d, In c., 38 3 F.3 d 44 9, 4 5 2

- 5 3 (6 th Ci r. 20 04 ), th e Si xt h Ci rcu it

co nc lu de d th at th e “ Gate way Si de walk ” e n c i r c l i ng a pr iv at el y own ed st ad iu m an d

aren a was a tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m fo r pu rp os es of th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t. The co ur t

f ou nd rel ev an t th e fact th at th e Gate way Si de walk “ bl en d[ ed ] in to th e ur ba n g r i d

,

-1 0-bo rd er[e d] th e ro ad

, . . . lo ok [ed ] jus t li ke an y pu bl ic si de walk ,” an d was “ m ad e of th e

sa m e m at eri al s an d s h a r e [ d] th e sa m e de si gn ” as th e pu bl ic si de walk ru nn in g

al on gs id e it

. Id

. at 45 2. Tha t th e Ga t e w a y S i de walk ’s bo rd er was “ ro ug hl y

de li ne at ed ” by la rg e pl an te r bo xe s was no t de te rm in at iv e, be cau se “ th e av erag e

ob se rv e r w o u l d be un fam il ia r wit h th e ge og rap hi c si gn ifi can ce of th is sp or ad ic

ve ge ta ti on .” Id

. The fact th at th e Gate way Si de walk was “ fu ll y in te gr at ed ” in to “ th e

Ci ty’ s do wnt own tra ns po rta ti on gr id ,” jus t “ li ke it s pu bl ic ly ow ne d co unt er pa rt s,” an d

was ph y si cal ly “ in di st in gu is ha bl e fro m ” ad jacen t pu bl ic si de walk s, weig he d in fav or

of th e co ur t’s h ol di ng th at it was a pu bl ic for um . Id. at 45 2- 53

.

In Hod ge v. Tal ki n, 7 99 F.3 d 11 45 , 1 14 9- 50 (D.C. Ci r. 20 15 ), th e Dis tri ct of

Co lu m bi a Ci rcu it to ok up a qu es ti on le ft op en in Grace

, na m el y , whe th er th e Su pr em e

Co ur t p l a z a w a s a tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m

. The co ur t di st in gu is he d th e pu bl ic

si de walk s co n s i d e r ed in Grace fro m th e Co ur t pl aza, “ th e el ev at ed m arb le te rrac e”

ad jacen t to th e pu bl ic si de walk s an d co nc lu de d th at th e pl aza was a no np ub li c fo ru m

fo r pu rp os es of th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t. Id

. at 1 1 5 0

. Th e co ur t reas on ed th at th e

“ pl aza’s ap pe aran ce an d de si gn vi vi dl y m an ife st it s arch it ect ur al in te gr at io n wit h th e

Su pr em e Co ur t bu il di ng
, as well as it s se pa rat io n fro m th e pe rimeter si d e w al ks ”

su rro un di ng th e gr ou nd s. Id

. at 11 58

. The co ur t ob se rv ed th at th e st ep s, wall s,

fo un ta in s, an d fl oo rs m ak in g u p t he pl aza we re al l co ns tru ct ed of whi te m arb le th at

was vi su al ly si m il ar to th e whi t e mar b le of th e Co ur t bu il di ng ’s faca de an d was

vi su al ly di st in ct fro m th e ad jacen t con cret e si de walk s. Id. at 11 51 . Thes e fea tu res
, th e co ur t co nc lu de d, “ co nv ey [ e d ] in m an y di st in ct iv e way s th at a pe rs on ha [d ]

‘ent ered so m e sp eci al type of en cl av e.’” Id

. at 11 59 (q uo ti ng Grace

, 46 1 U.S. at 18 0)

. Thu s, whi le th ere was “ no th in g t o i nd ic at e to th e pu bl ic th at [th e] s id ewal ks [were ]

pa rt of th e Su pr em e Co ur t gr ou nd s, th ere [was ] ev erythi ng to in di cat e to th e pu bl ic

th at th e p la za [was ] an in te gr al pa rt o f th os e g ro un ds .” Id . (ci ta ti on s o m it te d)

.

Bal l po in ts to th e lo cat io n of th e pe de st ria n br id ge a n d th e pr es en ce of si gn s

di sp la yi n g map s of th e Hay m ark et di st ric t as ph y si cal feat ur es su pp or ti ng a

-1 1-co nc lu si on th at th e Pl aza Area is a pu bl ic f o r u m. Alt ho ug h th e pe de st ria n br id ge

en ds ne ar the Pl aza Area, pe de st ria ns ne ed no t ent er or p as s t hr ou gh th e Pl aza Are a

to acce ss ot he r area s of th e Hay m ark et di st ric t. Nor are th ey req ui red to en te r or pa ss

th ro ug h th e Pl aza Area to co ns ul t a di st ric t m ap
, fo r on e su ch m ap is po st ed on a si gn

lo cat ed on th e p ub li c si de walk ou ts id e th e Po li cy Zon e. True , th e p at hwa y run ni ng

al on g th e eas te rn ed ge of th e Pl aza Area fro m th e ba se of th e pe de st ria n br id ge to th e

pu bl ic s i d e w a l k s ad

jacen t to th e Pl aza Area— a pa th way th at is ex cl ud ed fro m th e

Po li cy Zon e—i s no t as co ns pi cu ou sl y m ark ed as th e ot he r bo rd ers of th e Pl aza Area.

W ere th es e ph y si cal feat ur es pr ed om in an t, th e Pl aza Area m ig ht be c o n s i d e r e d a

pu bl ic fo ru m

. Bu t we m

us t al so co ns id er “ th e pr es en ce of an y sp eci al ch arac te ris ti cs

reg ard in g th e en vi ro nm en t in whi ch [th e Pl aza Area] ex is t[s ],” se ve ral of whi ch

di st in gu is h th e Pl aza Area fro m th e ad jacen t pu bl ic si de walk s. See Bo wman
, 44 4

F.3 d a t 9 78

.

Par ti al vi ew of

th e Pla za Area . The gr ey a rr ow in th e le ft ph ot og ra ph

sh ow s th e po te nt ia l pa th of pe de st ri an s exi ti ng th e p e de st ri an br id ge

. Th e pe ri mete r of th e Pla za Area is in di ca t e d i n bl ac k fo r ea se of

r e f e r en ce, al th ou gh it is sh ow n in or an ge in th e Ci ty ’s Su pp le men t a l App en di x. Su pp l. Ap p. a t 2 5- 26

.

Alt ho ug h th e ph y si cal ch arac te ris ti cs of th e Pl aza Area are no t as do m in an t or

di st in ct iv e as th e rai se d an d wall ed m arb le pl aza l e a di ng in to th e Su pr em e Co ur t

bu i ld in g, se ve ral feat ur es se rv e to se t th e Pl aza Area ap art fro m it s su rro un di ng s.

Unl ik e a typic al pu bl ic si de walk

, th e bo rd ers of th e Pl aza Area are cu r v ed an d

-1 2-irr eg ul ar an d are id en ti fie d by co ns pi cu ou s m ark ers su ch as cem en t pl an te rs
, m et al

st an ch io ns or bo ll ard s, an d fla gp ol es

. The su rfac e of th e Pl aza Area is co m po se d of

co lo red an d pa tt ern ed co nc ret e, as well as by br ic k- li ke pa ve rs
, al l of whi ch ge ne ral ly

di st in gu is h th e Pl aza Area fro m th e ad jacen t pu bl ic si de walk s. The se p h ys i c al

feat ur es
, co up le d wit h th e ge ne ral si ze, uni qu e sh ap e, an d ov eral l app eara nc e of th e

Pl aza Area, se rv e to di st in gu is h it fro m th e ad jacen t pu bl ic si de walk s. In de ed

, as

no te d by th e di st ric t co ur t, “ th e ve ry pr es en ce of la rg e pu bl ic si de walk s bo rd eri ng th e

Pl aza Area si gn al s th at th e Pl aza Area is in te nd ed to se rv e a m or e li m it ed fu nc ti on .”

D. Ct

. Ord er of J u n e 23

, 20 16

, at 14 ; se e Lee, 50 5 U.S. at 68 0 (“ [S]epa rat io n fro m

ack no wled ge d pu bl ic area s m ay se rv e to in di cat e th at th e se pa rat ed pr op ert y is a

sp eci al e n c l a ve
, su bjec t to gr eat er res tri ct io n.” ). Thu s, whi le a si de walk typic al ly

m ai nt ai ns a co ns is te nt wid th

, ru ns pa ral le l to a pu bl ic st reet

, an d bl en ds in to th e ur ba n

or tra ns po rta ti on gr id

, th e sa m e can no t be sa id of th e Pl aza Area. See Uni te d Ch ur ch

of Ch ris t, 38 3 F.3 d at 45 2 (n ot in g th at th e “ Gate way Si de walk bl en ds in to th e ur ba n

gr id

, bo rd ers th e ro ad

, an d lo ok s jus t li ke an y pu bl ic si de walk ”); Hot el Em ps

. & Res t.

Em ps

. Uni on
, Loc al 10 0 v. Ci ty of N.Y. Dep ’t of Park s & Rec

., 31 1 F.3 d 53 4, 55 0 (2 d

Ci r. 20 02 ) (n ot in g th at th e pl aza area in fro nt of Lin co ln Cen te r pe rfo rm in g art s

co m pl ex “ co nn ect s wit h walk way s le ad in g to su rro u n d i n g st reet s, [b ut ] it do es no t

fo rm pa rt of th e Ci ty’ s tra ns po rta t i o n g r i d in th e way th at tra di ti on al st reet s an d

si de walk s do ”). W hi le th e ph y si cal ch arac te ris ti cs of th e Pl aza Area m ay be

su gg es ti ve of a co nc lu si on th at it is a pu bl ic fo ru m
, “ [t]he m ere ph y si cal

ch arac te ris ti cs of th e pr op ert y can no t di ct at e fo ru m an al y si s.” Kok in da

, 49 7 U.S. at

72 7. W e th eref

or e pr oc eed to co ns id er th e rem ai ni ng rel ev an t fact or s. See Bo wm an
, 44 4 F.3 d at 97 8 (n ot in g th at we m us t co ns id er pr op ert y ’s ph y si cal ch arac te ris ti cs
, it s

“ tra di ti on al ” an d “ ob

jecti ve us e[s ] an d pu rp os es ,” an d th e go ve rn m en t’s “ in te nt an d

po li cy ”).

B. Use o f th e Pl aza Are a

Bal l arg ue s th at

, be cau se m em be rs of th e pu bl ic us e th e pe de st ria n br id ge an d

pa ss th ro ug h th e Pl aza Area en ro ut e to th e Hay m ark et di st ric t an d ot he r de st in at io ns
,

-1 3-th e Pl aza Area fu nc ti on s as a th or ou gh fare fo r th e pu bl ic to tra ve l am on g an d be twee n

th e pe de st ria n br id ge
, th e Hay m ark et di st ric t, an d th e Aren a. Thu s, he co nc lu de s, th e

Pl aza Are a is a pu bl ic for um

.

In Bo wm an
, we no te d th at “ st reet s, si de walk s, an d ot he r op en area s th at m ig ht

ot he rwis e be tra di ti on al pu bl ic [fo ru m s] m ay be tre at ed di ffer en tl y whe n th ey fal l

wit hi n th e bo un da rie s” of a un iv ers it y cam pu s, be cau se th e tra di t i o n a l u se of

un iv ers it y pr op ert y was to se rv e th e “ un iv ers it y ’s m is si on [o f] ed uc at io n an d th e

se arch fo r kn owl ed ge ,” to fu nc ti on “ as a sp eci al type of en cl av e de vo te d to hi gh er

ed uc at io n,” an d no t “ to pr ov id e a fo ru m for all pe rs on s t o tal k abo ut al l to pi cs at al l

ti m es .” 44 4 F.3 d at 97 8 (q uo ta ti on m ark s an d ci ta ti on s om it te d)

. Si m il arl y , in Hot el

Em pl oyees, th e Seco nd Ci rcu it he ld th a t t h e pl aza ou ts id e th e Lin co ln Cen te r

pe rfo rm in g art s co m

pl ex was no t a tra di ti on al pu b l i c f o ru m
, de sp it e th e fact th at it

was us ed by th e pu bl ic to “ tra ve rs [e] be twee n su rro un di ng st reet s” an d to “ read or eat

lu nc h.” 31 1 F.3 d at 55 0. The co ur t no te d sp eci fic al ly th at th e pl a z a ’s “ pr im ary

fu nc ti on an d pu rp os e” was to se rv e as th e “ fo r e c o ur t” fo r th e art s co m pl ex
, “ to

faci li ta te pa tro ns ’ pa ss ag e” i nt o th e co m pl ex , a nd to “ sym

bo li cal ly .

. . pr om ot e th e

cu lt ur al art s fo r th e be ne fit of th e co m m un it y .” Id

. at 55 1- 52 ; cf. Gate way Eco n. Dev

. Co rp
., 38 3 F.3 d at 45 2- 53 (n ot in g th at

, in ad di ti on to it s ph y si cal ch arac te ris ti cs
, th e

Gate way Si de walk was in te nd ed to be “ op en to th e pu bl ic fo r ge ne ral pe de st r ia n

pa ss ag e” as a “ pu bl ic th or ou gh fare ”). The pl aza “ was no t crea te d pr im ari ly to op erat e

as a pu bl ic art ery, [o r] to pr ov id e an op en fo ru m fo r al l fo rm s of pu bl ic ex pr es si on ,”

an d “ ha [d ] no t tra di ti on al ly be en av ai la bl e fo r pu bl ic ex pr es si on ,” de sp it e th e fact th at

“ th e [p ]laza’s de si gn cle arl y in vi te [d ] pa ss ers -b y

to st ro ll th ro ug h or li ng er.” Hot el

Em ps
., 31 1 F.3 d at 55 2 (ci ta ti o n s om it te d)

. The co ur t co nc lu de d th at “ pe rm it ti ng

sp eech on al l m an ne r of pu b l i c is su es in th e [p ]laza wou ld co m pr om is e th e Ci ty’ s

ab il it y to est ab li sh a sp eci al iz ed sp ace d ev ot ed to

. . . th e art s.” Id

.

Here, th e Pl aza Area is no t pr im ari ly us ed as th or ou gh fa r e f o r t h e pu bl ic to

tra ve l am on g an d be twee n th e pe de st ria n br id ge
, th e Hay m ark et di st ric t, an d th e

-1 4-Aren a. Rat he r, it fu nc ti on s as a ve nu e fo r co m m erci al us e by Aren a Ten an ts

, as a

m ean s t o fa ci li ta te sa fe and ord erl y acce ss to th e Aren a fo r it s p at ro ns , as a sec ur it y

sc reen in g area
, an d as a ga th eri ng pl ace an d en tryway fo r Aren a pa tro ns

. Use of th e

Pl aza Area is sp eci fic al ly res erv ed fo r Aren a Ten an ts who le as e th e faci li ty, an d th ey

ha ve us ed it to se ll co nc ert so uv en i r s a n d o t h e r m erch an di se an d to se t up ph ot o

bo ot hs an d ot he r ex hi bi ts

. The Pl aza Area is al so us ed to faci li ta te th e sa fe an d

effi ci en t m ov em en t of la rg e cr o w d s o f Aren a pa tro ns whi le th ey en te r an d ex it th e

Aren a. It h as als o in crea si ng ly be en us ed by SMG for secu rit y sc reen in gs of Aren a

pa tro ns pr io r to th ei r en try in to th e ve nu e. Giv en th e rece nc y of t h e Aren a’s

co ns tru ct io n, th ere is no ev id en ce of th e Pl aza Area’s “ h i s t or ic ” us e, bu t it ha s

co ns is te nt ly be en us ed as in te nd ed —co m m erci al pu rp os es a s s o ci at ed wit h ev en ts

oc cu rri ng in si de th e Aren a—s in ce th e Aren a’s op en in g in 20 13

. Cf. Ven et ia n Cas in o

Res or t, LLC v. Loc al Jo in t Exe c. Bd

. of Las Veg as
, 25 7 F.3 d 93 7, 94 7 (9 th Ci r. 20 01 )

(co nc lu di ng th at si de walk rel oc at ed to pr iv at e pr op ert y aft er st reet -wid en in g pr ojec t

rem ai ne d tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m in pa rt be cau se it ha d h i s t o r i c al ly be en us ed as

su ch ).

As Bal l po in ts ou t, th e pe de st ria n br id ge en ds ne ar th e P l aza Area an d no npa tro ns of th e Aren a m ay pa ss th ro ug h th e Pl aza Area en ro ut e to ot he r de st in at io ns

. Bu t t he fact th at “ m em

be rs of t he pu bl ic are perm it te d to co m e an d g o a t wi ll ” d oe s

no t tra ns fo r m t h e P l a z a A rea in to a pu bl ic fo ru m

. See Bo wm an
, 44 4 F.3 d at 97 8

(q uo ti ng Grace, 4 61 U.S. at 17 7) ; see als o Hod ge
, 79 9 F .3d at 1 16 0 (o bs erv in g t ha t

“ th e Su pr em e Co ur t pl aza’s st at us as a no np ub li c fo ru m is un affe ct ed by th e pu bl ic ’s

un res tri ct ed acce ss to th e pl aza at vi rtu al ly an y ti m e”). Lik e th e Lin co ln Cen te r pl aza,

t h e P la za Area is us ed as th e fo reco ur t or en tryway to th e Aren a, an d it faci li ta te s

pa tro ns ’ sa fe and effi ci en t pas sa ge in to an d ou t o f th e Aren a. In ad di ti on
, th e Pl aza

Area se rv es as ad di ti on al co m m erci al sp ace fo r us e by Aren a Ten an ts

. The fact th at

th e Pl aza Area, li ke th e Lin co ln Cen te r pl aza, co nn ect s to su rro un di ng si de walk s an d

m ay be us ed by the ge ne ral pu bl ic to acce ss th os e si de walk s i s m erel y in ci de nt al to

t h e Pl aza Area’s pr im ary us es

. See Hot el Em ps
., 31 1 F.3 d at 55 0 (“ The ab il i t y o f

-1 5-pe de st ria ns to cro ss th e [Lin co ln Cen te r p l a z a ] as a sh or t-c ut be twee n su rro un di ng

st reet s is m erel y an in ci de nt al feat ur e of it s pr in ci pa l fu nc ti on as t he en tra nc e pl aza

fo r th e Lin co ln Cen te r co m pl ex .”). Bal l po in ts to no ev id en ce th at th e Pl aza Area ha s

be e n us ed fo r pu bl ic ex pr es si on or th at it ha s be en m ad e av ai la bl e fo r ex pr es si ve

act iv it y by th e pu bl ic . Accor di ng ly, th e u se for whi ch th e Pl aza Area w as de si gn ed

do es no t s ug ge st th at it sh ou ld be co ns id ered a tr ad it io na l p ub li c fo ru m

.

C. Gov ern m en t In te nt , Pur po se , and Po li cy

Fi na ll y , we m

us t al so co ns id er th e Ci ty’ s in te nt

, p u r p o s e, an d po li cy to

de te rm in e whe th er th e Pl aza Area is a pu bl ic fo ru m

. Bal l co nt en ds th at th e Ci ty di d

no t in te nd fo r th e Pl aza Area t o be a no np ub li c fo ru m be cau se it di d no t en act th e

Po li cy de si gn at in g it as su ch un ti l aft er he w a s ci te d an d arre st ed fo r le afl et ti ng

. Gran te d, th e Ci ty m ay no t “ tra ns fo rm th e ch arac te r of th e pr op ert y by th e ex pe di en t

of in cl ud in g it wit hi n th e st at ut or y de fin it io n of w h a t m ig ht be co ns id ered a no npu bl ic fo ru m pa rcel of pr op ert y .” Grace

, 46 1 U.S. at 18 0 (n ot in g th at th e go ve rn m en t

“ m ay no t b y it s o wn ip se di

xi t de st ro y th e ‘pu bl ic for um ’ st at us of st reet s an d p ark s

whi ch ha ve hi st or ic al ly be en pu bl ic fo ru m s” (ci ta ti on s om it te d) ). As no t e d ab ov e,

ho wev er, th ere is no ev id en ce th at th e Ci ty ev er in te nd ed th at th e Pl aza Area be op en

to th e p ub li c fo r ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s o r th at th e Pl aza Area h as ev er b een reg ul arl y

us ed fo r su ch act iv it ie s. In st ead

, th e reco rd es ta bl is he s th at th e C i t y’s p r i n ci pa l

pu rp os e wit h res pe ct to th e Pl aza Area ha s be en to pr ot ect th e co nt ract u a l rig ht s of

Aren a Ten an ts

, to al lo w fo r cro wd m an ag em en t an d sa fet y , to pr ov id e a fo reco ur t or

ga th eri ng pl ace fo r Aren a pa tro ns
, an d to pr ov id e an area fo r se cu rit y sc reen in g.

Alt ho ug h th e Po li cy de fin in g an d ou tl in in g th e Po li cy Zon e was no t in it ia ll y

co m m it te d to writ in g, th e reco rd de m on st rat es th at th e App el le es at al l ti m es in te nd ed

th at th e Pl aza Area be us ed in co nju nc t i o n w i t h Aren a ev en ts an d th at op en in g th e

Pl aza Area fo r al l fo rm s of ex pr es si ve act iv it y wou ld be in co m pa ti bl e wit h th at

pu rp os e. See Fam il ie s Ach ie vi ng In de p. & Res pe ct v. Neb

. Dep ’t of So c. Serv s., 11 1

F.3 d 14 08

, 14 19 (8 th Ci r. 19 97 ) (n ot in g th at lo bb y of lo cal so ci al se rv ic es of fic e was

a n on pu bl ic for um

be cau se it s pri nc ip al pu rp os e was no t t he free ex ch an ge of i de as

-1 6-bu t th e pr ov i s i o n o f se rv ic es to welf are reci pi en ts ); Hub ba rd Bro ad ., In c. v. Met ro

. Sp or ts Faci li ti es Co m

m ’n, 79 7 F.2 d 55 2, 55 5 (8 th Ci r. 19 86 ) (n ot in g th at

Met ro do m e’s pr in ci pa l pu rp os e was to fu nc ti on as a sp or ts co m pl ex an d co m

m erci al

ve nt ur e, no t to pr ov i d e v e n u e f or ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s; fact th at ci ty al lo wed so m e

ad ve rti si ng di d no t crea te pu bl ic fo ru m ); In t’l So c’y fo r Kris hn a Co ns ci ou sn es s, In c.

v. N.J. Sp or ts & Exp os it io n Aut h., 69 1 F.2 d 15 5, 16 0- 61 (3 d Ci r. 19 82 ) (co nc lu di ng

th at pu rp os e of Mea do wlan ds sp or ts co m pl ex was “ to br in g eco no m ic be ne fit s” to th e

area , no t t o p ro vi de a ve nu e fo r ex pr es si ve act iv it y ).

Afte r co ns id eri ng each of th e rel ev an t fact or s
, i

. e. , th e Pl aza Area’s ph y si cal

ch arac te ris ti cs ; it s us e, fu nc ti on
, an d pu rp os e; an d th e Ci ty’ s in te nt in co ns tru ct in g th e

sp ace, we ag ree wit h th e di st ric t co ur t th at th e Pl aza Area is a no np ub li c f o r um

. Alt ho ug h th e Pl aza Area sh ares so m e ph y si cal ch arac te ristic s wit h a tra di ti on al pu bl ic

fo ru m
, th ere is no ev id en ce th at it ha s be en us ed f o r ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s by th e

pu bl ic

. Rat he r, th e reco rd es ta bl is he s th at th e Pl aza Area ha s be en us ed pr im ari ly in

co nju nc ti on wit h Aren a act iv it ie s. Mo reo ve r, th ere is no ev id en ce th at th e App el le es

ev er i n t e nd ed to op en th e Pl aza Area fo r ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s by th e pu bl ic

. Acco rd in gl y , th e di st ric t co ur t di d no t err in co nc lu di ng th at th ere is no ge nu in e is su e

of m at eri al fact reg ard in g t he Pla za Area ’s st at us as a no np ub li c fo ru m

.

D. Reas on ab le ne ss of t he Po li cy 3

W e tu rn th en to th e qu es ti on whe th er th e Po li cy res tri ct in g sp eech in th e Pl aza

Area is pe rm is si bl e. “ A res tri ct io n on sp eech in a no np ub li c fo ru m is

. . . pe rm is si bl e

To th e ex te nt Bal l arg ue s on ap pe al th at th e Po l i c y vi ol at es hi s du e-p ro ces s 3
rig ht s, he di d no t rai se a F o u r t e e n t h Am en dm en t cl ai m in hi s co m pl ai nt

, he

ch arac te riz ed hi s la wsu it as a “ Fi rs t Am en dm en t cas e” in hi s op po si ti on to su m m ary jud gm en t, an d th e di st ric t co ur t di d no t ad dr es s an y su ch cl ai m

. W e th eref or e de cl in e

to ad dr es s th is cl ai m rai se d fo r th e fir st ti m e on ap pe al

. Cf. Exc al ib u r G r p., In c. v. Ci ty o f Mi nn eap ol is , 1 16 F.3 d 12 16 , 1 22 3 n.5 (8 th C i r

. 1 9 9 7 ) (co ns id eri ng a cl ai m th at was no t rai se d in th e co m pl ai nt bu t was br ie fed in op po si ti on to su m m ary jud gm en t be cau se th e di st ric t co ur t ad dr es se d th e cl ai m on th e m eri ts an d th e

op po si ng pa rty did no t ra is e an ob jecti on ).

-1 7-if it is vi ewp oi nt ne ut ral an d ‘reaso na bl e in li gh t of th e p ur po se whi ch th e fo ru m at

is s u e s e r v e s .’ ” Mi nn

. Majo rit y , 70 8 F.3 d at 10 57 (q uo ti ng Perr y Edu c. Ass ’n, 46 0

U .S. at 49 ). Su ch a res tri ct io n “ ne ed no t be th e m os t reas on ab le or th e o n l y

reas on ab le li m it at io n” to be pe rm is si bl e. Co rn el iu s, 4 73 U.S. at 8 08

.

The Po li cy

im po se s t he fol lo win g re st ric ti on s o n “ pu bl ic co m m un ic at io ns ”:

Leafl et in g, si gn at ur e ga th eri ng
, pr om ot io na l m at eri al di s tri bu ti on
,

m erch an di se sa le s, an d pi ck et in g are on ly al lo wed wit hi n th e Aren a an d

th e no n -p ub li c fo ru m ex te rio r Aren a area s at th e req ue st of [an Aren a
Ten an t], th e Ten an t’s co nt ract ua l en ti ty an d/ or th e art is ts or pr od uc ti on s th ey rep res en t.

W e ag ree wit h th e di st ric t co ur t th at th e Po l i c y i s v ie wpo in t ne ut ral on it s face

, br oa dl y pr oh ib it in g sp eci fic ex pr es si ve act iv it y in si de th e Aren a an d th e Po li cy Zon e

wit ho ut reg ard to th e co nt en t of th e sp eech

. See W ard v. Ro ck Aga in st Rac is m
, 49 1

U.S. 78 1, 79 1 (1 98 9) (“ A reg ul at io n th at se rv es pu rp os es un rel at ed to th e co nt en t of

ex pr es si on is de em ed ne ut ral

, ev en if it ha s an in ci de nt al effe ct on so m e sp eak ers or

m es sa ge s bu t no t ot he rs .”). Bal l do es no t ch al le ng e th is co nc lu si on
, arg ui ng in st ead

th at th e Po li cy is no t vi ewp oi nt ne ut ral as ap pl ie d to hi m b e c a u s e it was en act ed

sp eci fic al ly to ta rg et hi m an d hi s m es sa ge a n d be cau se he is th e on ly in di vi du al

ag ai ns t who m th e Po li cy ha s be en en fo rced

. He no te s t ha t Ap pe ll ees ha ve al lo wed

po li ti cal m es sa ge s an d m erch an di se to be di sp la y ed an d di st rib ut ed in th e Pl aza Area

du rin g cert ai n Aren a ev en ts

. The e v i d e n c e e st ab li sh es th at Bal l ha s be en th e on ly

in di vi du al to vi ol at e t h e P o li cy an d, th us
, th e on ly in di vi du al to be ci te d th eref or

. Oth er de m on st rat or s an d pr ot es to rs ha ve co m pl ie d wit h th e Po li cy an d ha ve no t be en

ci te d. The ev id en ce al so es ta bl is he s th at an y po li ti cal sp eech th at ha s oc cu rred in th e

Pl aza Area ha s be en in co nn ect io n wit h a n A r e n a Ten an t’s us e of th e faci li ty an d

th eref or e pe rm is si bl e un de r th e Ten an t’s le as e. Acco rd in gl y , B al l a n d hi s m es sa ge

ha ve no t b een tar ge te d b y th e Po li cy ’s enf

or cem en t.

-1 8-B a l l al so arg ue s th at th e Po li cy is no t a reas on ab le res tri ct io n in li gh t o f t h e

Pl aza Area’s in te nd ed us e an d pu rp os e. In New Je rs ey Sp o r ts & Exp os it io n

Aut ho rit y , 6 91 F.2 d at 16 1- 62 , t he Thi rd Ci rcu it co nc lu de d th at a po li cy res tri ct in g

le afl et ti ng an d so li ci ta ti on in th e Mea do wlan ds sp or ts co m pl ex was a reas on ab le

res tri ct io n in a no np ub li c fo ru m
, ob se rv in g th a t th e pr oh ib it ed ex pr es si ve act iv it y

co ul d ha ve ad ve rs e effe ct s on co nc es si on ai re bu si ne ss
, su bjec t pa tro ns to un wan te d

in tru si on
, an d im

pe de cro wd m ov em en t. Id

. at 16 2. The po li cy wa s r e a s o n a b l e

be cau se it was de si gn ed to ad dr es s le gi ti m at e co nc ern s rel at in g to th e op erat io n of th e

sp or ts co m

pl ex . Id.

The Po li cy in th is cas e is de si gn ed to ad dr es s so m e of th e sa me c on cern s,

na m el y to pr ev en t in te rfer en ce wit h Aren a Ten an ts ’ co nt ract ua l us es of th e Pl aza Area

an d to faci li ta te sa fe an d effi ci en t acce ss to th e Aren a fo r pa tro ns of th e ve nu e. The

Pl aza Area, whi ch is sp eci fic al ly in cl ud ed in th e pr em is es le as ed by Aren a Ten an ts

, is us ed by Ten a n t s f

o r co m m erci al pu rp os es

. Res tri ct in g ex pr es si ve act iv it y in th e

P l a z a Area is a reas on ab le m an ne r of ad dr es si ng th os e co nc ern s an d of fu rth er i n g

th os e p u r p os es

. Alt ho ug h Bal l was at al l ti m es pe acef ul an d res pe ct fu l whi le

le afl et ti ng
, pe rm it ti ng su ch co nd uc t wit hi n th e Pl aza Area am id la rg e cro wds of

pe op le in te nt on en te rin g th e Aren a be fo re or exit in g th e Aren a aft er an ev en t co ul d

res ul t i n a n i m

pe di m en t t o t he flo w of t raff ic an d t hu s en da ng er t he saf et y of Are na

pa tro ns

. See Po well v. Nob le

, 79 8 F.3 d 69 0, 70 1 (8 th Ci r. 20 15 ). Viewe d in li gh t of

th e co m m erci al an d sa fet y pu rp os es se rv ed by th e Pl aza Area, th e ex pr es si ve act iv it y

Bal l se ek s to en ga ge in wou ld be di sr up ti ve of th e no rm al act iv it ie s wit hi n th e Pl aza

Area.

The av ai la bi li ty of ne arb y area s op en fo r ex pr es si ve act iv it y al so su pp or ts a

fin di ng th at th e Po li cy is reas on ab le

. “ The reas on ab le ne ss of a res tri ct io n on acce ss

is su pp or te d whe n ‘sub st an ti al al te rn at iv e ch an ne ls ’ rem ai n op en fo r th e res tri ct ed

co m m un ic at io n.” Vict or y Thro ug h Je su s Sp or ts Mi ni st ry Fo un d. v. Lee’s Su m m it R7 Sch

. Dis t., 64 0 F.3 d 32 9, 33 5 (8 th Ci r. 20 11 ) (q uo ti ng Perr y Edu c. Ass ’n, 46 0 U.S.

-1 9-at 53 ). The Pl aza Area li es be twee n th e m ai n Aren a en tra nc e an d th e Hay m ark et

di st ric t. The Po li cy do es no t de pr iv e Bal l of acce ss to hi s de si red au di en ce— th e la rg e

cro wds th at bo tt le ne ck at th e Aren a do or s— fo r Bal l ne ed on ly st an d on th e pu bl ic

si de walk di rect ly ad

jacen t to th e Pl aza Area to co m m un ic at e wit h th os e p ers on s

be fo re th ey reac h th e co ng es ti on po in t. The di st ric t co ur t di d no t err in co nc lu di ng

th at th e Po li cy is reas on ab le an d th us co ns ti tu ti on al as no t un du ly res tri ct iv e of Bal l’s

Fi rs t Am en dm en t ri gh ts to en ga ge in ex pr es si ve act iv it y in a no np ub li c fo ru m

.

Bal l ha s no t po in te d to “ su ffi ci en t pr ob at iv e ev id en ce [ t ha t] wou ld pe rm it a

fin di ng in [h is ] fav or on m or e th an m er e s p e c u l a ti on .” Man n, 49 7 F.3 d at 82 5

(ci ta ti on s om it te d)

. Co ns id er i n g th e reco rd as a who le

, th en
, th ere is no ge nu in e

di sp ut e as to an y m at eri al fact

, an d th us su m m ary jud gm en t was pr op erl y gr an te d to

th e Ci ty and SMG.

The jud gm en t i s af

fir m ed

.

MELLOY, Circu it Ju dg e, co nc ur rin g i n p art an d d is se nt in g i n p art

.

The m ajor it y ho ld s t ha t t he en ti re Pl aza Are a is a no np ub li c fo ru m an d, th us
, th e Ext eri or Acces s an d Use Po li cy is reas on ab le

. I wou ld ho ld th at on ly pa rt of th e

Pl aza Area is a no np ub li c fo ru m ; th e se ct io n of th e Pl aza Area di rect ly in fro nt of th e

pe de st ria n br id ge , h owe ve r, is a tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m

. Acco rd in gl y , I c on cu r in

pa rt a nd di ss en t i n p art

.

A tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m is pr op ert y th e go ve rn m e n t ha s hi st or ic al ly ke pt

op en fo r pu bl ic di sc ou rs e, in cl ud in g pa rk s, st reet s, an d si de walk s. See Co rn el iu s v.

NAACP Leg al Def. & Edu c. Fu nd

, In c., 47 3 U.S. 78 8, 80 2 (1 98 5) ; se e al so Bo wm an

v. W hi te

, 44 4 F.3 d 96 7, 97 5 (8 th Ci r. 20 06 ). “ A tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m is a type of

p r o p e r t y t h a t ‘has th e ph y si cal ch arac te ris ti cs of a pu bl ic th or ou gh fare

, . . . th e

ob jecti ve us e an d pu rp os e of op en pu bl ic acce ss or so m e ot he r ob jecti v e u s e a nd

-2 0-pu rp os e i n h e r e nt ly co m pa ti bl e wit h ex pr es si ve co nd uc t, [an d] hi st or ic al [ly] an d

tra di ti on al [ly] ha s be en us ed fo r ex pr es si ve co nd uc t

. . . .’ ” Bo wm an
, 44 4 F.3 d at 97 5

(al te rat io ns in or ig in al ) (q uo ti ng W arre n v. Fai rfax Ct y ., 19 6 F.3 d 18 6, 19 1 (4 th Ci r.

19 99 )). A no np ub li c fo ru m
, in co nt ras t, is “ [p ]ubl ic pr op ert y whi ch is no t by tra di ti on

or de si gn at io n a fo ru m fo r pu bl ic co m m un ic at io n.” Perr y Edu c. Ass ’n v. Perr y Loc al

Edu cat or s’ Ass ’n, 46 0 U.S. 3 7, 4 6 (1 98 3)

.

Bas ed on th e ph y si cal ch arac te ris ti cs an d th e tra di t io na l an d ob jecti ve us e of

th e Pl aza Area, an d th e go ve rn m en t ’s i n t e nt wit h res pe ct to th e Pl aza Area, se e

Bo wm an , 44 4 F .3d at 9 78 , th e fac ts of t hi s ca se sh ow th at th e Pl aza Area cann ot be

la be le d as on ly on e type of fo ru m

. Alt ho ug h a m ajor it y of th e Pl aza Area su rro un di ng

th e en tra nc e to th e Aren a is a no np ub li c fo ru m fo r th e reas on s di sc us se d by th e

m ajor it y , th e Pl aza Area le ad in g fro m th e pe d e s t r ia n br id ge to th e si de walk is a

tra di ti on al pu bl ic for

um

.

To th e eas t of th e Aren a, th ere is a pe de st ri a n b r i d g e t h a t is he ld op en to th e

pu bl ic

. The br id ge feed s di rect ly in to th e Pl aza Area; th ere is no se pa rat io n be twee n

th e br id ge an d th e Pl aza Area. The br id ge is co m m on ly us ed to acce ss th e Hay m ark et

di st r i c t a n d to m ov e be twee n th e ba se ba ll st ad iu m
, th e Aren a, an d th e Hay m ark et

di st ric t. The br id ge al so co nn ect s to a pa rk in g lo t reg ul arl y he ld op en to th e pu bl ic

. The pu bl ic can pa rk in th e lo t an d walk ov er th e br id ge an d m us t walk th ro u g h t h e

Pl aza Are a to ge t t o t he Hay m ark et di st ric t.

Dis cu ss in g th e ph y si cal feat ur es of th e Pl aza Area, th e m ajor it y no te s, an te

, at

13

, th at “ [t]he su rfac e of th e Pl aza Area is co m po se d of co lo red an d pa t t e r n e d

co nc ret e, as well as by br ic k- li ke pa ve rs
, al l of whi ch ge ne ral ly di st in gu is h th e Pl aza

Area fro m th e ad

jacen t pu bl ic si de walk s.” True

, t he Pl aza Area do es ha ve co lo red

an d pa tt ern ed co nc ret e an d br ic k- li ke pa ve rs

. Howev er, th e co lo red co nc ret e an d

pa ve rs do no t cl earl y di st in gu is h th e pa rt of th e Pl aza Area th at is op en to th e pu bl ic

. Rat he r, a rev ie w of th e im ag es su bm it te d sh ows th at th e co lo red co nc r e t e i s n ot

-2 1-li m it ed to th e Pl aza Area; th e co lo red co nc ret e co nt in ue s pa st th e bo ll ard s on to th e

pu bl ic si de walk

.

Fu rth er, an in di vi du al us in g th e pe de st ria n br id ge m us t cro ss th ro ug h th e Pl aza

A r e a t o r e a c h th e res t of th e Hay m ark et di st ric t. The m ajor it y , an te

, at 12

, st at es
,

“ Alt ho ug h th e pe de st ria n br id ge en ds ne ar th e Pl aza Area, pe de st ria ns ne ed no t en te r

or pa ss th ro ug h th e Pl aza Area to acce ss ot he r area s of th e Hay m ark et di st ric t.” The

m ajor it y reac he s th is co nc lu si on be cau se th e Po li cy ex cl ud es a st rip of la nd al on g th e

ed ge of th e Pl aza Area th at pe de st ria ns are pe rm it te d to walk on t o a c c e s s th e
Hay m ark et di st ric t. Bu t th ere are no ph y si cal m ark ers or ba rri ers to in di cat e th at su ch

a pe rimeter ex is ts

. Rat he r, to in di cat e t h i s p e rimeter, th e Po li cy su pe r-i m po se s an

or an ge li ne on pi ct ur es of th e Pl aza Area. And th e co lo red co nc ret e th e m ajor it y sa y s

di st in gu is he s th e Pl aza Area fro m th e pu bl ic si d e w a lk do es no t al ig n wit h th is

pe rimeter. In fact

, th e im ag e in cl ud ed wit h th e Po l i c y it se lf sh ows th at th e pa th

ex cl ud ed fro m

th e Po li cy

in cl ud es bo th th e co lo red an d u nc ol or ed co nc ret e.

A c lo se lo ok at th e im ag e in t h e m ajor it y op in io n, an te , a t 5, m ay be he lp fu l.

In th e up pe r rig ht co rn er of th e im ag e th ere are two pa ral le l li ne s, on e of whi ch ru ns

al on g th e pe rimeter li ne

. The sp ace be twee n th os e li ne s is th e pe de st ria n br id ge

. As

th e im ag e sh ows
, th e pe rimeter is alm os t flu sh wit h th e en d of th e br id ge

. To avo id

th e Pl aza Area co ve red by th e Po li cy
, on e m us t tu rn an d walk to th e le ft im m ed ia te ly

up on ex it in g t he bri dg e.

Fi na ll y , th e pl acement of th e co lo red co nc ret e su pp or ts a fin di ng th at th e

se ct io n of th e Pl aza Area le ad in g fro m th e br i d g e t o t he si de walk is a tra di ti on al

pu bl ic fo ru m

. The re is a s tri p o f co lo red co nc ret e whe re t he br id ge m eet s th e Pl aza

Area th at is th e sa m e wid th as th e br id ge

. Tha t co lo red co n c r e t e l ead s acro ss th e

Pl aza Area to th e si de walk

. In Hod ge v. Ta l k in

, 79 9 F.3 d 11 45

, 11 58 (D.C. Ci r.

20 15 ), th e co ur t ex pl ai ne d th at th e Su prem e Co ur t pla za w as archi te ct ur al ly in te gr at ed

wit h th e Su pr em e Co ur t bu il di ng an d, “ [f]rom th e pe rs pe ct iv e of a Co ur t vi si to r (an d

-2 2-al so th e pu bl ic ), th e ph y si cal an d sym bo li c pa th way to [th e Su pr em e Co ur t] ch am be r

be gi ns on th e pl aza.” (s eco nd al te rat io n i n o rig in al ) (ci ta ti on an d i nt ern al qu ot at io n

m ark s om it te d)

. By co nt ras t, he re, fro m th e pe rs pe ct iv e of a pe de st ria n us in g th e

br id ge , th e co lo red co nc ret e act s as a “ ph y si cal an d sy m bo li c pa th way ” to an d from

th e si de walk

.

Alt h o u g h I wou ld ho ld th at th is se ct io n of th e Pl aza Area ha s th e ph y si cal

ch arac te r i st ic s of a pu bl ic fo ru m
, “ [p ]ubl ic ly own ed or op erat ed pr op ert y do es no t

be co m e a ‘pub li c fo ru m ’ si m pl y be cau se m em

be rs of th e pu bl ic are pe rm it te d to co m e

an d go at wil l.” Bo wm a n
, 4 4 4 F

. 3 d at 97 8 (al te rat io n in or ig in al ) (q uo ti ng Uni te d

St at es v. Grace

, 46 1 U.S. 17 1, 17 7 (1 98 3) ). I do no t di sa gr ee wit h th e m ajor it y , an te

,

at 15

, t h a t “ th e Pl aza Area is us ed as th e fo reco ur t or en tryway to th e Aren a, an d it

faci li ta te s pa tro ns ’ sa fe an d effi ci en t pa ss ag e in to an d o u t o f th e Aren a,” or th at it

“ se rv es as ad di ti on al co m

m erci al sp ace fo r us e by Aren a Ten an ts .” I wou ld

, ho wev er,

li m it th os e co nc lu si on s to th e Pl aza Area be twee n th e Aren a an d th e wes t si de of th e

br id ge an d t he st rip of c ol or ed co nc ret e.

It is un di sp ut ed th at p e op le who us e th e pe de st ria n br id ge al so us e th e Pl aza

Area. And

, in hi s de po si ti on
, Tom Lore nz
, an SMG of fic ia l

, s t a t e d th at th e Pl aza

Area can be us ed reg ul arl y by th e pu bl ic fo r pu rp os es ot he r th an en te rin g an d ex it in g

th e Aren a. Add it io na ll y , it is un di sp ut ed th at th e pe de st ria n br id ge is op en to th e

pu bl ic an d m ean t to co nn ect th e pa rk in g lo t to th e Aren a an d th e Hay m ark et di st ric t.

Fi na ll y , it is un di sp ut ed th at pe de st ria ns m us t cro ss at le as t pa rt of th e Pl aza Area to

reac h th e st reet

. As su ch

, th e Pl aza Area in vi te s th e pu bl ic to pa ss th ro ug h an d

“ op erat e[s ] as a pu bl ic art ery. ” See Hot el Em ps

. & Res t. Em

ps

. Uni on
, Loc al 10 0 v.

Ci ty of N.Y. Dep’t of Park s & Rec

., 31 1 F.3d 53 4, 5 52 (2d Cir . 20 02 ). Fur th er, t he

Pl aza Area is us ed in th e m an ne r ci te d by th e m ajor it y on ly du rin g ev en ts

, whi le

pu bl ic pa ss ag e th ro ug h th e Pl aza Area occu rs whe ne ve r pe op le pa rk in th at pa rk in g

lo t to go to th e Hay m ark et di st ric t. As a res ul t, it is d i f f i c ul t to co nc lu de th at th e

en ti re Pla za Area ’s pri m ary pu rp os e is for Aren a u se

.

-2 3-Fi na ll y , co ns id eri ng th e Ci ty’ s in te nt

, pu rp os e, an d po li cy
, th e m ajor it y , an te

,

at 16

, st at es th at “ th e reco rd es ta bl is he s th at th e Ci ty’ s pr in ci pa l pu rp os e wit h res pe ct

to th e Pl aza Area ha s be en to pr ot ect th e co nt ract ua l rig ht s of Aren a Ten an ts

, to al lo w

fo r cro wd m an ag em en t an d sa fet y , to pr ov id e a fo reco ur t or ga th eri ng pl ace fo r Aren a

pa tro ns
, an d to pr ov id e an area fo r se cu rit y sc reen in g.” I di sa gr ee. The fir st in st an ce

of th e Pl aza Area be in g us ed fo r se cu rit y sc ree n i n g was in Feb ru ary 20 16

, ne arl y

th ree y ears aft er th e Aren a op en ed

. Add it io na ll y , as pr ev io us ly no te d, th e pe de st ria n

br id ge was in te nd ed to co nn ect pe de st ria ns to th e Aren a an d th e Hay m ark et di st ric t,

th e on ly way to ge t fro m th e br id ge t o t h e Hay m ark et di st ric t is to cro ss th ro ug h at

le as t pa rt of th e Pl aza A r e a
, an d bo th th e br id ge an d th e si de walk al on g th e Pl aza

Area are pu bl ic

. Thu s, th e lo gi cal in fere nc e is th at th e Ci ty in te nd ed th at at le as t pa rt

of th e P l a z a A r e a b e in co rp or at ed in to th e “ tra ns po rta ti on gr id an d

. . . op en to th e

pu b l i c f o r ge ne ral pe de st ria n pa ss ag e.” Uni te d Ch ur ch of Ch ris t v. Gate way Eco n.

Dev . Cor p. o f Great er Cl ev el an d, 3 83 F.3d 44 9, 4 52 (6t h C ir. 2 00 4)

.

Bas ed on th e fo reg oi ng di sc us si on
, I wou ld ho ld th at th e pa rt of th e Pl aza Area

be twee n th e pe de st ria n br id ge an d th e si de walk is a tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m

. I ag ree

wit h t he m ajor it y

as t o t he res t o f th e Pl aza Are a.

Bec au se I wou ld ho ld t h a t th e pa rt of th e Pl aza Area be twee n th e pe de st ria n

br id ge an d th e si de walk is a tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m
, I tu rn to th e qu es ti on of whe th er

th e Po li cy is pe rm is si bl e wit h res pe ct to th at pa rt of th e Pl aza Area. I ag ree wit h th e

m ajor it y th at th e Po li cy is reas on ab le wit h res pe ct to t h e p a r t of th e Pl aza Area I

w ou ld ho ld to be a no np ub li c fo ru m

. In a tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m
, ho w e v e r
, w e

ap pl y a di ffer en t le ve l of sc ru ti ny an d th e g o v e r n men t ’s ab il it y to res tri ct sp eech is

th e m os t li m it ed

. Bo wm an
, 44 4 F.3 d at 97 5. St ric t sc ru ti ny ap pl ie s to co nt en t-b as ed

res tri ct io ns : th e reg ul at io n m us t be ne ces sa ry to se rv e a co m pe ll in g st at e in te res t an d

be na rro wly ta il or ed to th at in te res t. Id

. Alt ern at iv el y , a co nt en t-n eu tra l, ti m e, pl ace,

or m an ne r res tri ct io n m

us t be “ na rro wly ta il or ed to se rv e a si gn ifi can t go v ern m en t

in te res t an d l eav e[ ] op en am pl e al te rn at iv e ch an ne ls of c om m un ic at io n.” Id.

-2 4-I ag ree wi th th e m ajor it y , an te , at 1 8, “ th at th e Po li cy is vi ewp oi nt ne ut ral on

it s face

, br oa dl y pr oh ib it in g sp eci fic ex pr es si ve act iv it y in si de th e Aren a an d th e

Po li cy Zon e wit ho ut reg ard to th e co nt en t o f th e sp eech .” Thu s, wi th res pe ct to th e

pa rt of th e Pl aza Area I wou ld ho ld is a pu bl ic fo ru m
, th e P o l i c y w i l l pa ss

co ns ti tu ti on al m

us te r if “ th e fact ua l si tu at io n de m on st rat es a real ne ed fo r th e

go ve rn m en t to act to pr ot ect it s in te res ts .” Jo hn so n v. Mi nn eap ol is Park & Rec

. Bd

., 72 9 F.3 d 10 94

, 10 99 (8 th Ci r. 20 13 ) (q uo ti ng Ass ’n of Cm ty. Org s. fo r Refo rm Now

v. St

. Lo u i s C t y., 93 0 F.2 d 59 1, 59 5 (8 th Ci r. 19 91 )). “ In ot he r wor ds

, it is no t

en ou gh fo r th e [g ov ern m en t] to reci te an in te res t th at is si g n i f i can t in th e ab st ract ;

th ere m us t be a ge nu in e ne xu s be twee n th e reg ul at io n an d t h e i n t eres t it se ek s to

se rv e.” Id

.

App el le es co nt en d th at th e Po li cy is na rro wly ta il or ed to se rv e th ree in te res ts :
(1 ) to pr ev en t sa le s an d so li ci ta ti on s th at co m pe te wit h te na nt s’ us e of th e Pl aza Area;

(2 ) to en su re sa fet y an d cro wd m an ag em en t; an d (3 ) to ke ep th e Pl aza Area op en fo r

se cu rit y scr een in g.

“ In th e ab st ract

, co nt ro ll in g cro wds can co ns ti tu te a si gn ifi can t go ve rn m en ta l

i n t e res t th at be ars di rect ly on pu bl ic sa fet y .” Id

. at 11 00 ; se e al so Heffro n v. In t’l

So c’y fo r Kris hn a Co ns ci ou sn es s, In c., 45 2 U.S. 64 0, 65 0 (1 98 1) (“ Bec au se th e Fai r

at tra ct s la rg e cro wds

, it is ap pa ren t th at th e St at e’s in te res t in th e or de rly m ov em en t

an d co nt ro l of su ch an as se m bl y of pe rs on s is a su bs ta nt ia l co n s i d e r a t i on

. As a

ge ne ral m at t e r
, it is cl ear th at a St at e’s in te res t in pr ot ect in g th e ‘safet y an d

co nv e n i e n c e ’ of pe rs on s us in g a pu bl ic fo ru m is a va li d go ve rn m en ta l ob jecti ve .”

(ci ta ti on om it te d) ). App el le es
, ho wev er, ha ve pr es en te d li tt le e v id en ce th at

pr oh ib it in g s ol ic it at io ns an d pu bl ic co m m un ic at io ns fu rth ers th at in te res t. It i s t ru e

th at cert ai n ev en ts at th e Aren a dr aw cro wds of 12 ,00 0 to 15 ,00 0 pe op le

. Howev er,

th e as se rti on th at th e ex pr es si ve act iv it ie s res tri ct ed by t he Po li cy cau se co ng es ti on

ne ar th e en tra nc e to th e Aren a is in su ffi ci en t. See Jo h n s o n
, 72 9 F.3 d at 11 00

. App el le es ha ve no t su bm it te d an y ev id en ce th at in di vi du al s ha nd in g ou t le afl et s ha ve

-2 5-act ua ll y cau se d in crea se d co ng es ti on

. Add it io na ll y , Bal l wou ld no t ha ve vi ol at ed th e

po li cy if h e st oo d in th e Pl aza Are a an d p reac he d a t t he cro wd wi th ou t al so pa ss in g

ou t le afl et s. And th e Pl aza Area rem ai ns op en to th e pu bl ic du rin g ev en ts at th e

Aren a. Cf. i d. (c it in g S ai eg v. Ci ty of Dearb or n, 64 1 F.3 d 72 7, 73 7 (6 th Ci r. 20 11 )

(co nc lu di ng th at ci ty’ s in te res t in cu rta il in g ex pr es si on on si de walk s was “ no t

su bs ta nt ia l,” whe re si de walk s rem ai ne d op en to th e pu bl ic du rin g a fes ti va l, an d were

no t re st ric te d t o a tt en de es pa y in g a n a dm is si on fee) ).

Fu rth er, th e Po li cy is un de rin cl us iv e. “ W he re a reg ul at io n res tri ct s a m ed iu m

of sp eech in th e na m e of a pa rti cu la r in te res t bu t le av es un fet te red ot h e r m od es of

ex pr es si on th at im

pl ic at e th e sa m e in te res t, th e reg ul at io n’s un de rin cl us iv en es s m ay

‘dim in is h th e cred ib il it y of th e go ve rn m en t’s rat io na le fo r res tri ct in g sp eech in th e

fir st pl ace.’” Id

. (q uo ti ng Ci ty o f Lad ue v. Gil le o, 51 2 U.S. 4 3, 52 (1 99 4) ). In th is

cas e, th e Po li cy do es no t pro hi bi t an ind iv id ua l from st an di ng in th e Pl aza Area an d

pr each in g. Nor do es it pr oh ib it st reet pe rfo rm ers fro m pe rfo rm in g in th e Pl aza Area.

Arg ua bl y , th es e act iv it ie s are m or e li ke ly to dr aw cro wds th an so m eo ne pa ss in g ou t

li te rat ur e. See i d. at 1 10 1 (“ W e th in k i t o bv io us , ho wev er, t ha t a s tre et pe rfo rm er’s

ve ry pu rp os e is to dr aw a cro wd. Bu sk ers li ke m im es
, m us ic ia ns
, an d li vi ng st at ue s

ai m t o a t t r a c t a n au di en ce, an d pa ss ers by m us t st op to li st en or ob se rv e. W it h

li te rat ur e di st rib ut io n, by co nt ras t, a reci pi en t ‘need no t po nd er th e co nt en ts of a

le afl et or pa m

ph le t in or de r m ech an ic al ly to ta ke it ou t of so m eo ne ’s ha nd .’ ” (q uo ti ng

Uni te d S ta te s v . Kok in da , 49 7 U.S. 7 20 , 73 4 (1 99 0) (pl ur al it y op in io n) )).

Fi na ll y , th e Po li cy is no t na rro wly ta il or ed b e c a u s e so li ci ta ti on s an d pu bl ic

co m m un ic at io ns are pr oh ib it ed in th e Pl aza Area at al l ti m es ; th e Po li cy do es no t

res tri ct th os e ex pr es s i v e a c t i v i t i es so le ly whe n th ere is an ev en t at th e Aren a. The

Po li cy wou ld be m or e na rro wly ta il or ed to se rv e A p p e ll ees ’ st at ed in te res ts if it

ap pl ie d d ur in g e ve nt s o nl y

.

-2 6-As a res ul t, I wou ld ho ld th at th e Po li c y d oe s no t pa ss co ns ti tu ti on al m us te r

wit h r e s p e ct to th e pa rt of th e Pl aza Area be twee n th e pe de st ria n br id ge an d th e
Hay m ark et di st ric t. The fact th at th e r e a r e al te rn at iv e ch an ne ls of co m m un ic at io n,

in cl ud in g th e si de walk jus t ou ts id e t h e Pl aza Area, can no t cu re th e Po li cy ’s

un de rin cl us iv en es s an d fai lu re to be na rro wly ta il or ed

. Acco rd in gl y , I wou ld affi rm

th e d is tri ct co ur t i n p art , and rev ers e an d re m an d i n p art

.

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

-2 7-