This report was prepared for the President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection, 

and informed its deliberations and recommendations. The report represents the opinions and 

conclusions solely of its developer, the International Association of Fire Chiefs.

Report to the 

President’s Commission 

on Critical Infrastructure Protection

1997
ii

CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 1 

2.0 OVERVIEW OF THE FIRE SERVICE................................................................................. 1 

3.0 MISSION OF THE FIRE SERVICE...................................................................................... 2 

3.1 Fire Suppression........................................................................................................... 3 

3.2 Emergency Medical Service ........................................................................................ 3 

3.3 Rescue .......................................................................................................................... 4 

3.4 Hazard Control, Risk Abatement and Technical Operations ....................................... 4 

3.5 Fire Prevention & Public Education............................................................................. 4 

3.6 Law Enforcement ......................................................................................................... 4 

4.0 FIRE DEPARTMENT ORGANIZATION ............................................................................ 5 

 4.1 Local Government........................................................................................................ 5

4.2 Other Public Fire Department ...................................................................................... 6 

4.3 Private Fire Protection.................................................................................................. 6

4.4 Industrial Fire Departments.......................................................................................... 7 

5.0 INTERNAL ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE................................................................... 27 

5.1 Fire Marshals................................................................................................................ 8 

5.2 Sworn Versus Civilian Employees............................................................................... 8 

6.0 FIRE SERVICE RESOURCES.............................................................................................. 9 

6.1 Mobilization Capabilities............................................................................................. 9 

7.0 RISK MANAGEMENT....................................................................................................... 11 

8.0 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT RELATIONSHIP.................................................................. 12 

9.0 STATE GOVERNMENT RELATIONSHIPS..................................................................... 13 

10.0 INCIDENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS .......................................................................... 14 
iii

11.0 TECHNICAL OPERATIONS.............................................................................................. 15 

12.0 RESPONSE TO TERRORISM INCIDENTS...................................................................... 16 

 12.1 Vulnerability to Attack............................................................................................. 17 

12.2 Other Public Fire Department .................................................................................. 17 

12.3 Current Programs ..................................................................................................... 18 

13.0 REGIONAL AND NATIONAL RESPONSE TEAMS....................................................... 18 

14.0 VULNERABILITY TO DISRUPTION OF SERVIES........................................................ 19 

14.1 Water Supply ........................................................................................................... 19 

14.2 Fire Stations and Equipment .................................................................................... 20 

14.3 Communications Systems ........................................................................................ 20 

14.4 Communications Centers ......................................................................................... 20 

14.5 Telephone Systems................................................................................................... 21 

14.6 Radio Systems .......................................................................................................... 21 

15.0 RADIO SPECTRUM ........................................................................................................... 22 

RECOMMENDED ACTIONS ..................................................................................................... 24 
1

Our Nation’s First Line of Domestic Defense: 

The Fire Service Relationship to the 

National Critical Infrastructure National Critical Infrastructure

1.0 Introduction 

The fire service represents the first level of defense against a variety of threats to the physical 

safety and health of people and property in the United States. The fundamental mission of the fire 

service is to prevent, control or reduce the harmful consequences of dangerous situations, 

including expected, unexpected and unanticipated occurrences. This unique mission requires the 

fire service to be well prepared to deal with risks that are known and recognized and to be 

equally prepared to adapt to unexpected situations. 

The critical nature of the fire service mission goes beyond providing fire suppression, rescue, 

emergency medical and other services that protect individual citizens and their property. The fire 

service also has significant responsibilities for ensuring that the other components of the critical 

infrastructure will be able to function without interruption, in order to fulfill their respective 

missions. Effective intervention by the fire service could play an important role in preventing or 

limiting the disruption of several other critical functions and services. 

This paper addresses the vulnerability of the fire service to threats that could reduce its ability to 

fulfill its mission, with an emphasis on exceptional circumstances, threats and hostile actions. It 

also addresses the ability to mobilize additional fire service resources in response to these 

situations, recognizing that the specific plans to implement this type of mobilization do not 

currently exist in most areas. 

2.0 Overview of the Fire Service 

The fire service exists in many different forms throughout the United States and encompasses a 

very large number of individuals and organizations. Although it is primarily associated with local 

emergency response organizations, the fire service operates at all levels of government as well as 

the private sector. The total size of the public fire service is estimated as 30,000 fire departments 

with approximately 1.1 million members1. 

All of the major metropolitan cities in the United States and most cities with more than 50,000 

population are protected by municipal fire departments and career firefighters. The career fire 

service is estimated to include about 3,000 fire departments and approximately 250,000 full-time 

paid fire fighters. The largest career fire department has more than 11,000 full time employees 

(New York City), while the majority have fewer than 50 employees. 

 

1These estimates do not include wildland fire fighting organizations (most of which are operated by state or federal 

government agencies) or private sector industrial fire brigades. 
2

Volunteer fire departments protect most of the rural areas and smaller communities in the United 

States, as well as many of the suburban areas surrounding large cities. There are estimated to be 

approximately 27,000 volunteer fire departments and more than 850,000 volunteer2 firefighters 

in the United States, although there is no definitive inventory of the departments or their 

membership. The individual organizations range in size from fewer than 10 to several hundred 

members. 

The distinction between career and volunteer fire departments is not absolute, since many fire 

departments include both career and volunteer firefighters in varying proportions. Combination 

systems are often found in small to medium sized cities, as well as some suburban counties with 

more than 500,000 population. 

Due to the concentration of population in and around the major metropolitan cities, it is 

estimated that more than 60% of the total population of the United States is protected by fewer 

than 300 of the largest fire departments. This figure is also difficult to establish because many 

people live in areas that are protected by volunteer or combination career/volunteer fire 

departments and work in areas that are served by career departments, or vice-versa. 

3.0 Mission of the Fire Service 

The image of the fire service is most often associated with fire suppression activities, however 

fire departments have evolved into multi-hazard risk management and emergency response 

forces. The mission has expanded to include a wide range of threats to public health and safety 

and the fire department is expected to take whatever action is necessary in any situation. The fire 

service has also become increasingly involved in protecting the environment. 

While the specific functions performed by different fire departments vary considerably, the 

overall fire service mission can be described as encompassing five primary areas: 

1. Fire Suppression 

2. Emergency Medical and Rescue Services 

3. Hazard Control and Risk Abatement 

4. Fire Prevention and Public Education 

5. Enforcement of Fire and Safety Codes, Laws and Regulations 

This broad definition of the fire service mission includes the primary responsibility for 

emergency response and intervention in situations that have the potential to harm persons or 

 

2 The term volunteer generally applies to individuals who do not consider fire fighting to be their career occupation; 

this includes some who are compensated for their time and many who receive very little or no compensation for their 

activities. 
3

property, as well as efforts to manage risks, reduce vulnerability to potential threats and prepare 

for situations that could occur at some time in the future 

3.1 Fire Suppression - The United States has more fire suppression capability, in 

terms of firefighters, vehicles and equipment, than any other industrialized nation. The United 

States also has a relatively high rate of fires in comparison with other industrialized nations, 

which tends to justify the emphasis on fire suppression capability. The rate of fires is particularly 

high in low income areas and older urban areas, many of which would be highly susceptible to 

very large and damaging fires if they did not have effective fire fighting forces. 

The basic strategy of fire suppression combines rapid response to control fires while they are 

small (offensive strategy), along with the ability to confine and overwhelm any fires that exceed 

the capabilities of the initial attack (defensive strategy). The great majority of fires are 

successfully controlled, particularly in urban areas where fire departments are generally deployed 

to respond within 3 to 5 minutes to any fire that occurs - most structure fires do not spread 

beyond the room of origin and very few involve more than a single building. The total capability 

of the fire suppression resources that are available in most urban areas can confine or control 

very large fires 

The fire suppression capability does not always equal the level of fire risk, particularly in smaller 

communities and rural areas. The massive “wildland interface” fires that often threaten suburban 

areas and small communities in the western states, illustrate that the combination of high winds, 

low humidity and limited water supplies can overwhelm the capabilities of any fire suppression 

forces. 

3.2 Emergency Medical Service - In most cities the fire department responds to 

more medical calls than fires or any other types of incidents. Over the past 20 years there has 

been a major shift by fire departments toward providing emergency medical service (EMS), 

accompanied by very significant advances in the accepted standards of emergency medical care. 

Approximately 60 percent of the emergency medical service in the United States is provided by 

fire department-based organizations. 

This expansion of the mission has resulted in a large increase in the total number of emergency 

responses by fire departments. In some cases the fire suppression and emergency medical service 

functions are fully integrated, with personnel trained and equipped to perform both missions, 

while other fire departments have separate EMS or ambulance divisions. 

Where the fire department is not the primary provider of EMS, it is often the "first responder" 

agency, working with a separate EMS department or a private ambulance company. A "first 

responder" is dispatched to situations where a patient's condition requires rapid intervention and 

a fire suppression unit can reach the patient more quickly than an ambulance. Whether it is the 

primary provider or a first responder agency, the fire suppression force is likely to be a major 

component of the medical response capability for a mass casualty incident, as well as the primary 

rescue resource. 
4

3.3 Rescue - In most areas the fire department is also responsible for conducting 

rescue operations, which range from relatively simple to highly complex and dangerous 

situations. All firefighters have at least basic rescue skills and many fire departments have rescue 

companies that are trained and equipped to perform more complicated rescue operations. There 

have been major advances in training, equipment and technical skills related to rescue over the 

past two decades, which have resulted in the development of many specialized technical rescue 

teams for particular types of incidents. 

The list of rescue specialties includes vehicle extrication, confined space rescue, swift water and 

underwater rescue, urban search and rescue (rescue of victims from collapsed structures), high 

angle rope rescue, mountain rescue and several others. Specialized rescue teams are usually 

developed to deal with the types of incidents that are most likely to occur in a particular 

community or region. In many cases the teams are made-up of individual fire fighters who have 

the advanced training, while others involve fire suppression companies that have been designated 

to perform specific technical rescue functions in addition to their regular duties. 

3.4 Hazard Control, Risk Abatement and Technical Operations - Fire 

departments are generally responsible for the regulation and control of other types of hazards 

particularly the transportation, storage, handling and use of hazardous materials (hazmat). This 

includes the responsibility for responding to incidents that involve spills and releases of 

hazardous substances, which would also include terrorist incidents that involve explosives, 

nuclear materials and biological or chemical agents. 

Some fire departments, particularly in major cities, have dedicated hazardous materials units that 

specialize in performing the technical response functions, while others have organized special 

teams similar to the special rescue teams. Regional response teams often involve participants 

from more than one fire department. 

3.5 Fire Prevention & Public Education - During the past 20 years there has been a 

significant decline in the number of fires and in the number of fire deaths and injuries in the 

United States, most of which can be attributed to improvements in fire prevention and public fire 

safety education. Fire prevention measures decrease the level of fire risk by eliminating hazards, 

requiring safe construction and ensuring that systems to detect and control fires are installed and 

properly maintained. Public education efforts are designed to increase public awareness of 

hazards and to teach safe practices. Public education programs have also become a vehicle to 

train the public in appropriate self-help procedures and to develop community based response 

capabilities for other types of emergency situations, such as earthquakes and hurricanes. 

3.6 Law Enforcement - The fire department is usually responsible for investigating 

and determining the causes of fires, which is the first step in most arson investigations. Some fire 

departments have the full responsibility for investigating arson, while others work with state fire 

marshals or with police investigators on criminal cases. Federal law enforcement agencies, 

particularly the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms and the FBI, have increased their 

involvement in arson cases and expanded their relationships with local fire investigations units in 

recent years. 
5

In addition to regulating the storage and use of explosives within local jurisdictions, several fire 

departments are directly involved in investigating bombings and some operate the local bomb 

squads. The fire service is likely to be the first responding agency to most terrorist incidents to 

provide medical treatment, conduct search and rescue operations, control fires and deal with 

explosives, chemical agents and other types of hazards. This involvement in terrorist incidents 

requires a close working relationship with investigating agencies to identify, protect and recover 

evidence. 

Many fire departments also work closely with the Drug Enforcement Administration and other 

law enforcement agencies in shutting down drug labs that utilize dangerous chemicals. Some fire 

departments have assigned medical personnel to train with police SWAT teams and support their 

operations. 

The application of fire prevention codes, life safety codes and building codes to limit the level of 

fire risk is an additional law enforcement function. The fire service is also increasingly involved 

in the enforcement of environmental protection regulations relating to the storage and use of 

hazardous materials. 

4.0 Fire Department Organization 

Most of the fire departments in the United States operate at the local government level, however 

there are many variations in their organization and structure in different states and regions. Fire 

department organization structures are often based on a combination of history and tradition, as 

well as state legislation. 

4.1 Local Government - Most career fire departments are organized as part of a 

municipal government and supported by local tax revenues. The Fire Chief usually reports 

directly to the Mayor or City Manager or to an appointed Public Safety Director or 

Commissioner. While most towns and cities operate their own fire departments, others have 

joined with neighboring communities to operate unified fire departments and some obtain 

services from a neighboring community or from a county or regional fire department. 

Fire districts are separate governmental bodies that are organized specifically to collect and 

appropriate tax revenues for the limited purpose of provide fire department services. Most fire 

districts are established by counties to protect unincorporated areas and they often have their own 

elected fire commissioners or appointed governing bodies. Incorporated communities sometimes 

contract with fire districts to serve their areas or delegate a portion of their local taxing authority 

to a fire district to obtain their services. Fire districts also have the option of contracting with 

another provider, such as a nearby town or city, instead of operating their own fire department to 

deliver the service. 

The relationships between volunteer fire departments and local governments are much more 

variable, particularly from state to state. Volunteer fire departments are often established as 
6

independent non-profit corporations and many are supported by non-tax revenues, including a 

wide range of fund raising activities. In other cases they are supported by fire district taxes or 

direct appropriations from counties or municipalities. 

In some states volunteer fire departments are established by state charter and are independent of 

any local government authorities. While there may be no direct structured relationship between 

the volunteer organization and the local government, there is usually some form of official 

authorization or delegation of responsibility to the volunteer fire department to provide 

emergency services to the community. These relationships are often based on local history and 

regional traditions. 

Volunteer fire chiefs and officers are often elected by the members of their departments, although 

their authority to act as public safety officials is generally established through state legislation or 

through official appointment by the local governmental body. In many cases an elected volunteer 

fire chief has the same legal authority and responsibilities as a fire chief who is appointed by the 

chief executive of a city or town, although this varies considerably with state and local laws. 

4.2 Other Public Fire Departments - The Federal Government, many state 

governments and other quasi-governmental bodies, such as airport authorities and port 

authorities, also operate fire departments. Some of these fire departments are highly specialized, 

such as airport fire departments, while others are very similar to local fire departments. The onsite fire departments often have reciprocal mutual aid relationships with surrounding fire 

departments and some routinely respond to calls in the immediate area around their facilities. 

Each of the armed forces operates its own network of fire departments to protect their larger 

bases and facilities. Several other federal agencies operate fire departments to protect their large 

and high risk facilities, particularly where the risks exceed the capabilities of the local fire 

service; an increasing number of these fire departments are operated by private contractors 

instead of government employees. 

Federal agencies have no direct authority or responsibility to provide fire protection outside the 

boundaries of federal property or to require fire protection to be provided by other levels of 

government. Local fire departments generally do not have authority or jurisdiction within federal 

facilities, although they often provide protection for federally owned and operated properties 

within their geographic areas, including many smaller military installations. 

4.3 Private Fire Protection - There are a few private companies that provide fire 

department services as contractors to municipalities or fire districts. Where there is no public fire 

protection, some of these companies offer their services to individual property owners on a 

subscription basis. The relationship of these private fire departments with surrounding public fire 

departments is often limited. 
7

4.4 Industrial Fire Departments - Many large industrial facilities operate their own 

fire departments or fire brigades3, particularly large installations that involve exceptional risks or 

have special requirements. These on-site fire departments protect many strategically significant 

facilities, such as nuclear power stations, oil refineries and chemical plants that require very 

specialized capabilities, however built-in fire protection systems also play a significant role in 

limiting the risk levels at these facilities. The on-site fire departments may have to be selfsufficient, particularly where the location is geographically isolated or the risks are beyond the 

capabilities of conventional fire departments. In a few areas, where there are many facilities with 

their own fire departments, they have established extensive mutual aid arrangements with each 

other, similar to mutual aid agreements among public fire departments4. 

When the facility is located within a jurisdiction that has a public fire department, the operations 

of the industrial fire department are usually subject to the command authority of the local fire 

chief, who has the legal responsibility to ensure that public safety is the first priority. In addition 

to providing the expertise and specialized equipment that may be essential for an on-site 

emergency, these organizations can often be a valuable resource to the public fire service - some 

participate in mutual aid networks as specialized resources and respond outside their facilities to 

assist public fire departments. 

5.0 Internal Organization Structure

Fire departments are almost always structured as paramilitary organizations under the command 

of a Fire Chief5, however the size and complexity of their organization structures vary 

significantly. In a large fire department there may be several Assistant Chiefs, Deputy Chiefs or 

Division Chiefs in charge of major functions or large geographic areas. District or Battalion 

Chiefs would be responsible for managing operations in smaller areas. The ranks of Captain and 

Lieutenant usually refer to the officer in charge of a single fire station or the crew assigned to a 

specific vehicle. 

The rank of the officer in charge of a particular incident would escalate as the magnitude of the 

incident increases. In a city, a Battalion Chief is likely to be in charge of a routine incident, while 

 

3 There are many more fire brigades than fire departments in the industrial sector. An industrial fire brigade is 

generally comprised of an organized group of employees who have been trained to take limited action in the event of 

fire or emergency, while an industrial fire department often has full-time employees who perform similar duties to 

public fire departments within a particular facility or complex. 

4 One example is the Houston Ship Canal, which is lined with more than 100 large and high risk industries. Many of 

these facilities have their own fire departments which have developed their own mutual aid network, known as the 

Channel Industries Mutual Aid network. In the Corpus Christi area several petroleum companies have established the 

Refinery Terminal Fire Company, which protects several refineries and related facilities. 

5The title of Fire Chief is usually reserved for the highest ranking officer in charge of a fire department, whether it is 

a large or small organization. A number of specific duties, responsibilities and empowerments often accompany the 

official designation of an individual as the Fire Chief of a local jurisdiction, depending on state and local laws. The 

titles of Director or Superintendent are sometimes used in place of Fire Chief, particularly in large cities. The term 

Commissioner usually applies to an elected or appointed official with administrative authority over the fire 

department, including the members of an elected governing body that oversees a fire district, however some Fire 

Commissioners also perform the functions of the Fire Chief. 
8

an Assistant or Deputy Chief is likely to respond and assume command of a larger incident. The 

Fire Chief may personally take command of an exceptionally large or complex incident. 

A similar rank structure is used in most small fire departments, including many volunteer 

departments. A volunteer fire department with one fire station could have a Fire Chief, Deputy 

and Assistant Chiefs, Captains, Lieutenants and several other officers, however the senior 

officers may have much more limited command and management responsibilities than the 

equivalent officers in a large department. In some areas, particularly on the east coast, there may 

be dual levels of responsibility, with a paid Fire Chief in overall charge of the community’s fire 

services and a volunteer fire chief in charge of each independent volunteer fire company. 

5.1 Fire Marshals - The title of Fire Marshal is usually applied to an individual who 

is responsible for law enforcement functions related to fire safety, as well as fire cause 

investigations. The State Fire Marshal is responsible for enforcing codes that are adopted at the 

state level and often has authority over all local enforcement officials. A city or county fire 

marshal would have similar responsibilities at the local level and may be deputized to enforce the 

state laws and regulations as well as local codes and ordinances. In some areas the term “fire 

marshal” is applied to the entire law enforcement staff and the individual in charge could be a 

“Chief Fire Marshal.” 

Where the fire department is operated by a city or county, the Fire Marshal is usually subordinate 

to the Fire Chief. Some smaller towns and cities that are protected by volunteer fire departments 

have paid fire marshals to perform the fire prevention, code enforcement and investigative 

functions. In rural and unincorporated areas, where volunteers or fire districts may be responsible 

for fire suppression, the code enforcement and investigative functions may be assigned to a 

County Fire Marshal or a Deputy State Fire Marshal. 

Many state and county fire marshals have additional responsibilities related to the coordination, 

support and training of firefighters, particularly volunteers6. Each state has a designated 

individual or organization responsible for coordinating firefighter training, who may or may not 

come under the state fire marshal. Some states have extensive networks of full-time and parttime instructors to provide training to fire departments, while others leave this function entirely 

to local jurisdictions. 

 

5.2 Sworn Versus Civilian Employees - The employees of career fire departments 

are often divided into sworn (or “public safety”) and civilian groups. The sworn personnel are 

generally those involved in emergency response functions that involve an elevated level of risk, 

while the civilian employees usually perform non-hazardous support and technical functions, 

including fire prevention and code enforcement. In most cases the civilians are considered to be 

outside the rank structure and are not covered by public safety pension plans, which allow for 

earlier retirement and special benefits. This distinction usually does not apply to volunteer fire 

departments, although many have membership categories for “non-combat” members. 

 

6 Some states have very specific and demanding training requirements for volunteer fire fighters, while others have 

no regulations or requirements. 
9

6.0 Fire Service Resources 

The overall distribution of fire suppression resources in the United States, in terms of equipment 

and personnel per capita, is believed to be greater than in any other country. This is primarily due 

to the high degree of decentralization of the fire service, with each local jurisdiction evaluating 

and meeting its own needs. The combined resources of the fire service have the ability to provide 

tremendous quantities of personnel and equipment for fire suppression and other types of 

emergencies, particularly in the highly industrialized and populated areas. 

Most urban areas have fire stations distributed to be capable of responding to any built-up area 

within 3 to 5 minutes and have the ability to assemble large quantities of resources very quickly 

for a major incident. While large cities usually have the resources to conduct large scale 

operations with the forces that are on-duty in their own fire stations, the surrounding suburban 

areas are often served by dozens of much smaller fire departments, often a mixture of career, 

volunteer and combination organizations. The smaller fire departments usually have extensive 

mutual aid networks, which often include the central city. 

Mutual aid networks can provide for the response of very large fire suppression forces, even to 

relatively small communities. Mutual aid networks are often organized at the county or regional 

level and many utilize a central facility to provide dispatch and communications services for 

several local fire departments. Some of these systems coordinate the operations of numerous 

individual fire departments as if they were a single department, while others are only utilized for 

exceptional situations. 

Small towns and rural communities often have very limited fire suppression resources, in 

comparison with cities, and many have only limited mutual aid resources available to assist the 

local forces. While the major risks that require large concentrations of fire suppression resources 

are more often found in cities, many small communities have the potential for equally large fires 

and other types of emergency incidents. Response time is often a problem in rural areas, due to 

the long travel distances that may be involved, however the level of fire risk tends to be much 

lower in rural areas than in urban areas. 

6.1 Mobilization Capabilities - A few states, notably California, Washington, 

Missouri and Florida, have developed extensive statewide fire service mobilization plans. These 

systems provide the capability for a prompt and well organized response to large scale incidents, 

particularly wildland fires and natural disasters. California has the most experience in this type of 

operation, based on its history of wildland fires, earthquakes and civil disturbances that often 

involve hundreds of vehicles and thousands of fire fighters. The fire service in California 

routinely assembles units from different departments to form task forces, which may then 

respond long distances to assist on major incidents. These task forces may be committed for 

several days or weeks and are supported by an extensive statewide communications and logistics 

system. 
10

Most metropolitan areas have the capability to assemble hundreds of firefighters, with more than 

enough fire apparatus and equipment for almost any situation, although there is always a 

possibility that the capacity of local forces will be overwhelmed by a single incident or a 

combination of simultaneous incidents and circumstances. Large cities often have the capability 

to handle very large and complex incidents with their on-duty forces and may rarely need to call 

for any additional resources. Many suburban and rural areas have the ability to assemble equally 

large forces through their mutual aid networks, including career and volunteer personnel, 

although it may take considerably longer to assemble them at the scene of an incident. 

Career fire departments usually have only 25% to 35% of their personnel are on duty at any given 

time - the remainder can be considered as a strategic reserve for exceptional situations. While 

many smaller career departments routinely utilize their off-duty personnel to reinforce their onduty forces, some large departments may not need to recall their off-duty personnel for even the 

largest incidents. The larger departments often have very limited procedures in place to recall 

their off-duty forces. 

Volunteer fire departments have to depend on their individual members to be available and to 

respond when they are needed and many have very limited resources on weekdays, when most of 

their members are at work. Many suburban volunteer departments are adding career personnel to 

provide daytime weekday coverage, but have an excess of personnel available at night and on 

weekends. 

Experience has shown that it is seldom a problem to convince fire fighters, particularly 

volunteers, to respond to a serious incident - there is a tendency to respond to any incident where 

there is a possibility of providing assistance, even over long distances. Most major incidents will 

prompt the response of more than enough resources, with or without the organization and 

coordination to utilize them effectively. This type of response can demonstrate the quantities of 

resources that are available and emphasize the need for command and control7. 

Fire fighters are also usually willing to remain on duty as long as they are needed, particularly 

when they are actually involved in emergency operations. A long duration commitment could be 

a problem for volunteers, particularly if the primary need is for stand-by resources as opposed to 

conducting operations. Very few fire departments have the funding that would be needed to 

mobilize their off-duty career personnel for extended periods or to support long duration 

commitments of their career or volunteer forces. When this type of commitment is required, the 

funds usually comes from state or federal disaster relief. 

 

7 It is not unusual for individual or small groups of fire fighters to transport themselves to the scene of a disaster and 

to offer their services, if they have reason to believe that they are needed. This indicates that there is a wealth of 

willing and available resources, anxious to participate in emergency operations. The weakness is often the ability to 

organize and effectively utilize these resources, as well as inconsistencies in training, insurance coverage and 

potential liability exposure. 
11

7.0 Risk Management

The basic role of the fire service can be viewed as a form of risk management at the community 

level. The primary duty of the fire department is to protect the community from fires, which is 

accomplished through a combination of fire prevention and fire suppression efforts. Fire 

prevention and public education programs should reduce the probability that fires will occur and 

limit the consequences if a fire does occur. In theory, the appropriate level of fire suppression 

capability could be determined through a cost/benefit analysis, balancing the fire prevention and 

fire suppression efforts. If all of the situations and consequences could be accurately predicted, 

the fire suppression capability should balance with the level of fire risk in the community. 

It is feasible to reduce the level of fire risk by eliminating potential fire causes, establishing 

physical limitations on the potential magnitude of a fire and ensuring that the occupants will be 

able to escape, however it is not feasible to completely eliminate the possibility that a fire will 

occur. Fire suppression capability is essential in most communities, however the fire suppression 

resources can also be utilized to perform other important functions, including emergency medical 

service and rescue operations. 

Public fire protection requirements are generally not determined by applying sophisticated risk 

management models or evaluation systems, because there are too many variables involved in 

protecting the community and the population at large. Risk management models can be applied 

to the protection of individual facilities within a community and are particularly applicable to the 

components of the critical infrastructure. 

The risk analysis should consider the possibility of a fire that originates within the critical facility 

as well as a fire that threatens to spread to the facility from an adjacent property. It should also 

consider the possibility that a relatively minor fire could disable or interrupt the operations of the 

critical facility or that a fire at a different location could have the same effect. The risk analysis 

should also consider the risk that the facility presents to the surrounding area, such as the 

potential release of a hazardous material that could cause death or injury to people or severe harm 

to the environment. 

When evaluating the capabilities of the fire department that protects the facility, the risk analysis 

should consider the need to rescue and provide medical treatment for injured persons and the 

ability to assist individuals who are needed to operate essential systems under high risk 

circumstances, as well as the ability to control a fire. All of these functions could be required 

simultaneously, particularly if a deliberate attempt is made to disable the critical facility. 

The concept of acceptable loss is particularly significant in relation to protection of the critical 

infrastructure. The fundamental strategy of public fire protection is defensive - to protect the 

community at large by limiting any fires that occur to a magnitude that can be considered an 

acceptable loss to the community. Confining a fire to a single property may be an acceptable loss 

to the community, but it may be unacceptable in relation to that particular facility, which may 

require automatic fire protection systems, fire resistive construction or its own fire department to 

provide an acceptable level of protection. 
12

The public fire service may or may not have a significant role in protecting individual 

components of the critical infrastructure. Some critical facilities are located in areas where there 

is no public fire department. Even a large fire department with strong resources may not have the 

capability to adequately protect a property that presents a very high risk. For example, a 

petrochemical plant may present risks of fires or explosions that are much greater than any fire 

department can be expected to control, but its separation from other properties may limit the 

potential loss to that single facility. At the opposite end of the scale, a telephone switching center 

or a computer center, which could have tremendous strategic significance, could be totally 

disabled within a few minutes by a relatively minor fire. In each of these cases a risk 

management analysis would determine the level of fire protection that should be engineered into 

the facility, taking all of these factors into account. 

8.0 Federal Government Relationships

The Federal Government has a major role in relation to emergency management and disaster 

planning, as well as the response to and recovery from declared disasters. The Federal 

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) manages the disaster assistance programs that support 

and assist state and local jurisdictions when a federal disaster is declared. When this occurs a 

strong temporary relationship is often established with the local fire service, particularly where 

the fire chief is also responsible for a community’s emergency management functions. 

In most cases the mobilization of local resources to assist in disaster response and recovery 

operations is coordinated through state emergency management agencies. FEMA operates the 

Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) Program, which involves 27 locally based response teams. 

The USAR teams can be dispatched to major incidents anywhere in the United States8 that 

involve heavy rescue operations, such as collapsed buildings9. Most of the USAR teams are 

operated by fire departments and fire department members are involved in all of the teams. These 

teams are an integral component of the response plan for earthquakes and hurricanes, as well as 

major terrorist incidents, such as the Oklahoma City bombing. 

FEMA also includes the United States Fire Administration and its National Fire Academy, which 

are responsible for several programs and advanced education opportunities for the fire service. 

Both of these agencies are located at the National Emergency Training Center in Emmitsburg, 

Maryland, which is also the focal point for training state and local officials in emergency 

management. The US Fire Administration programs provide valuable assistance to local fire 

departments, but the agency does not directly fund, regulate or participate in the delivery of fire 

services. 

 

8 The State Department supports a related program to make this capability available for disasters in other countries. 

9 Approximately 20 of the 27 authorized USAR teams are considered to be fully trained and equipped, ready for 

immediate deployment. The remaining teams are in the process of becoming certified for operational deployment. 
13

Several other Federal agencies have programs that support or involve relationships with the fire 

service. These include the Department of Transportation, which is particularly involved with 

hazardous materials transportation, as well as the Coast Guard and the Environmental Protection 

Agency, which are concerned with spills and releases of hazardous materials. The Department of 

Energy works with FEMA in providing training programs for emergency responders relating to 

radioactive materials. The Federal Aviation Administration provides funding for many airport 

fire departments and conducts research related to aircraft fire fighting and rescue operations. 

The Department of Transportation supports emergency medical services through the National 

Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The Public Health Service is also involved in supporting 

emergency medical services and recently initiated the Metro Medical Strike Team (MMST) 

program, which involves the fire departments in several metropolitan areas. 

The Department of Justice is working with fire departments on counter-terrorism training 

programs. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms and the FBI both work with local fire 

investigators on arson investigations, bombings and related cases and the Drug Enforcement 

Administration has a relationship with many fire department hazardous materials teams due to 

the problem of hazardous chemicals that are involved in many drug labs. The Department of 

Justice also operates the Public Safety Officer Benefits Program, which covers deceased and 

disabled firefighters 

The Department of Defense has begun to provide training to the fire departments in major 

metropolitan areas to plan and prepare for terrorist activities that involve nuclear, chemical and 

biological agents. The fire departments that are operated by the Department of Defense often 

work closely with local fire departments and provide a valuable back-up resource for many 

communities. The Department of Defense has also assisted fire departments in training with 

explosive devices and sponsors many research projects that have proven to be valuable to the 

public fire service. 

The Federal and state governments have the major responsibility for fighting wildland fires, 

particularly on state and federal lands. The forces that provide wildland fire protection are usually 

seen as a separate branch of the fire service and have a fairly limited relationship to the fire 

departments that protect most urban and built-up areas, although it is not unusual for urban fire 

departments to become involved in wildland interface fire fighting operations10. Some local fire 

departments have contractual agreements to provide the initial attack on wildland fires on state or 

federal lands and participate in the nationwide system for major wildland fires. 

9.0 State Government Relationships

The states have the exclusive authority to enact laws and regulations relating to public fire 

protection and each state has somewhat different legislation governing the organization and 

 

10The wildland interface issue is most prominent in the western states, particularly California. California's Division 

of Forestry and Fire Protection, which is one of the largest wildland fire fighting organizations, also provides 

structural fire protection for many small local communities through contractual relationships. Most of the urban fire 

departments in California are routinely called-upon to fight massive brush fires that threaten urban areas. 
14

operation of fire departments by local jurisdictions. The differences in state regulations, as well 

as history and tradition, account for the major differences in the organization of fire departments 

in different states and regions. 

None of the states requires local government agencies to provide public fire protection or 

specifies the type of fire department or the level of fire suppression service that must be 

provided, although some require local jurisdictions to enforce mandatory state fire and safety 

codes. Fire protection is considered as one of the fundamental reasons for establishing local 

government structures and it is generally left to local jurisdictions to decide if fire protection will 

be provided and to determine the type of fire department and the level of service. While the state 

laws and regulations that apply to the establishment of fire departments are generally permissive, 

very few organized communities are without some form of fire fighting organization. 

Each state has a State Fire Marshal who is responsible for enforcing fire safety regulations, 

however the placement and functions of these positions and the size of the supporting staff vary 

considerably among the states. Some states have very stringent fire safety regulations, while 

others have much more limited requirements. In some states the Fire Marshal also has a major 

responsibility for supporting and coordinating fire departments, while others have very limited 

relationships with local fire services. 

Each state also has some type of state level organization that is involved in firefighter training, 

however these vary significantly in the scope of their activities. Some states have mandatory 

training and certification requirements for all firefighters, while others simply provide a network 

to inform fire departments of training opportunities that are available to them. The training 

coordination functions may or may not be assigned to the state fire marshal. 

10.0 Incident Management Systems

Effective command and coordination are essential components of an effective emergency 

operation. Several variations of incident command (or incident management) systems were 

developed by different fire service organizations during the 1970s and 80s and there has been a 

major effort during the 1990s to blend these models into a single system that can be used for all 

types of emergency incidents. 

The same basic incident command system (ICS) is now used by most fire departments and by 

many other public safety agencies, as well as FEMA and most state emergency management 

agencies. The use of ICS provides a common structure for effective coordination and 

cooperation, which is essential when multiple agencies are involved in a large scale situation. All 

federal agencies that respond to emergency incidents should be required to adopt and utilize ICS. 

Radio communications are an essential element of an effective command and control system. 

Most fire department radio systems have limited capabilities for interagency communications and 

usually cover only limited geographic areas. The units from neighboring fire departments may be 

unable to communicate with each other, unless regional mutual aid channels are available and 
15

incorporated into the incident command procedures. This can present a severe problem when 

units from different fire departments have to work together at the same incident, particularly if 

they leave the geographic areas where their radio systems are designed to function. 

This problem is even more complex when other agencies become involved in an incident. Law 

enforcement and emergency management agencies often use radio systems that do not allow for 

communications with each other or with local fire departments. State and federal agencies also 

utilize different radio systems and may be unable to communicate outside their normal 

geographic areas. (Refer to the following section on Radio Spectrum.) 

The actual operations of different fire departments can also be difficult to blend, since they often 

use different equipment and tactics. These differences tend to be resolved through the use of ICS 

and standard operating procedures. Fire departments that routinely operate together tend to adopt 

compatible procedures, however units from fire departments that do not normally operate 

together may have significant coordination problems. These differences are most pronounced 

between rural and urban fire departments and between different geographic regions, however 

there are many cases where the fire departments that respond to the opposite sides of the same 

street have never worked or planned together. 

11.0 Technical Operations

The field of technical operations (or special operations) for fire departments has been growing in 

scope and complexity over the past decade. The fire department has always been the primary 

rescue service in most communities, however the level of sophistication in performing different 

types of technical rescue operations has increased very significantly. Most fire departments are 

also the primary responders to hazardous materials spills and releases. 

While most firefighters have at least a basic level of training in several different types of 

technical and rescue operations, many fire departments have developed specialized teams that 

have advanced training and equipment for specific types of incidents. The technical rescue field 

involves a large number of specialties, including extrication of persons from transportation 

accidents, from machinery, from collapsed buildings, trenches and tunnels, from elevated 

structures, from water, or from anywhere else they become trapped. These teams usually involve 

firefighters who are trained to a technician or specialist level in a specific technical area, which 

usually relates to the types of incidents that are most likely to occur in that geographic area. 

Most large cities and metropolitan areas have highly trained and well equipped hazmat teams, 

which are prepared to deal with the types of incidents that are most likely to occur in the local 

area. In less populated areas the response may involve a regional team with members from 

several different fire departments and other public safety agencies. Fire department hazmat teams 

often train and work with teams from particular industries, particularly at large facilities that 

produce or use large quantities of hazardous materials. They also develop relationships with 

other governmental agencies that have specialized capabilities or responsibilities, such as Coast 

Guard units and radiation response teams from the Department of Energy. 
16

12.0 Response to Terrorism Incidents 

The threat of terrorist attack is a major concern to the fire service. The combination of emergency 

medical service, technical rescue and hazardous materials response places fire departments in a 

critical position for response to these incidents. The fire service would have the primary role in 

any incident that involves injuries or entrapment, which would include bombings and 

explosions11. The fire department is also the only agency that can provide the rapid intervention 

that is essential to rescue and treat individuals who have been exposed to a toxic material, which 

would be critical for situations similar to the Tokyo subway incident. Several of the hazardous 

materials teams from metropolitan cities have begun to train with military teams to prepare for 

this possibility. 

The fire department is likely to arrive first at the scene of a terrorist incident and would be 

expected to retain command of the incident until search and rescue operations are completed and 

all physical hazards have been stabilized. The fire department would be the primary agency to 

identify and isolate the hazardous area, conduct rescue operations, decontaminate victims and 

initiate medical treatment, which could expose the emergency responders to the same hazards as 

the victims they are attempting to rescue and treat. This could place the rescuers in very high risk 

situations for which they are not adequately trained, equipped or funded at the present time. Fire 

department hazardous materials teams could also be involved in stopping the release, 

neutralizing the agent and recovering the remaining product. 

The increasing risk of terrorist incidents requires the establishment of improved working 

relationships among all of the public safety and law enforcement agencies that would be expected 

to respond, beginning with integrated incident command procedures and compatible radio 

systems. Most fire departments have established working relationships with their local law 

enforcement agencies, since they are usually organized under the same local government 

structure and routinely respond to many of the same incidents. There is a particular need for 

increased coordination and cooperation between the federal military and law enforcement 

agencies and the fire service, since they usually do not have the same type of established working 

relationships. 

The fire service should also be included in the sharing of intelligence and in developing plans 

and preparations for potential acts of terrorism. The law enforcement and national security 

agencies that deal with this type of information generally do not consider the fire service as part 

 

11 The search and rescue operations that followed the Murrah Building and World Trade Center bombings were 

among the largest rescue operations conducted in recent years and the local fire departments had overall command of 

both incidents until all search and rescue operations were concluded. The New York City Fire Department 

committed more than 500 personnel to the World Trade Center incident and New York City EMS, which is now part 

of the Fire Department, committed an equivalent force. Their functions included controlling the fires which were 

burning in the basement and filling the towers with smoke, evacuating the towers, searching for and rescuing persons 

who were trapped in the rubble, as well as passengers trapped in elevators, evaluating the toxicity of the smoke, 

determining if toxic products were present in the bomb residue and dealing with ruptured gas and water lines. The 

EMS forces treated and transported approximately 1000 patients. 
17

of the anti-terrorism intelligence network, so potentially critical information is often not shared 

with the primary emergency responders. In some cases law enforcement agencies have developed 

elaborate plans for responding to anticipated situations, including actions to be taken by the fire 

department, without involving the fire service in the planning process. 

12.1 Vulnerability to Attack - In addition to being involved with the consequences of 

a terrorist incident, there is an increasing concern that the fire service and other emergency 

responders may themselves become terrorist targets. This could include direct attacks on fire 

department or public safety facilities intending to incapacitate emergency response capabilities in 

advance of a major attack at some other location. The decentralization of fire department 

facilities provides a degree of security, since it would be necessary to attack several different 

locations to incapacitate the emergency response forces in most cities, however disabling a 

central communications facility or its essential radio, telephone or computer systems could have 

a major impact on emergency response capabilities. 

Deliberate attempts to interfere with operations at the scene of an incident have been reported in 

many incidents that occurred in other countries and have been anticipated in the United States. 

Two recent bombings in the Atlanta area involved secondary devices that were placed to target 

responders to the first explosion. 

12.2 Training and Equipment Requirements - Most of the terrorist incidents that 

have occurred in the United States, up to this point, have required the fire service to apply basic 

skills and capabilities that are applicable to other types of situations, although some of the larger 

incidents have presented tremendous challenges in relation to their scale and complexity. 

Experience has shown that the fire service and other locally based emergency response agencies 

are the only forces that can be expected to respond and take action quickly enough to save lives 

and control escalating situations when these incidents occur, however this can only occur when 

the local forces have the necessary training and equipment to take effective action. 

The possibility of a terrorist attack involving nuclear, biological or chemical agents, similar to 

the Tokyo subway incident, is an increasing concern, particularly due to the number of patients 

that could be involved and the complex locations where an incident could occur in a major city. 

The fire service provides the only capability that can respond, initiate rescue operations and 

provide treatment for the victims quickly enough to save lives in this type of incident. In most 

urban area the fire service would be on the scene and ready to initiate action within 5 minutes, 

but lacks the equipment and training to operate safely and effectively. The potential exposure of 

responders before the nature of the incident is recognized is a particular concern, because it is 

often difficult to determine that these agents are involved during the first few critical minutes. 

The military forces currently have almost all of the expertise, equipment and trained personnel to 

deal with these types of situations, however the specialized military units may take several hours 

to respond, once they are notified. The primary responders must have the appropriate training 

advanced equipment to take effective action very quickly in order to save lives and control 

escalating situations. Most fire departments are not even aware of how to request the appropriate 

assistance, if they encounter this type of incident. 
18

Even fire departments that have fully trained and well-equipped hazardous materials teams are 

generally unprepared for this type of incident. Most hazmat team operations are planned around 

the very cautious entry of a small team into a contaminated area, while wearing fully 

encapsulated protective clothing. This would be far from adequate for a situation that could 

involve dozens or hundreds of contaminated victims in a stadium or subway system, particularly 

if the incident involved several different locations at the same time. Most fire departments and 

EMS systems are also ill-prepared to deal with more than a few contaminated patients at the 

same time, from the perspectives of providing appropriate treatment and decontamination and 

protecting the rescuers from the toxic agents. 

12.3 Current Programs - In response to requests from the fire service, more than $30 

million has been authorized for federal agencies to provide training to local response forces in 

chemical/biological and nuclear threats, however, the actual delivery of the programs has not yet 

begun. Under the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, the Department of Justice is 

scheduled to provide awareness level training for local fire and emergency responders in the 120 

largest jurisdictions. This training is being developed in cooperation with Federal Emergency 

Management Agency and the National Fire Academy, which have a close relationship to local 

fire and emergency medical service responders. 

The Nunn-Lugar II provision of the Department of Defense Authorization Act includes a 

program for the military to provide “hands-on” operational training for responders in 27 large 

metropolitan areas over the next two years. This program is intended to establish local response 

capabilities in the most likely target areas, which can be supplemented by highly specialized 

military teams. 

13.0 Regional and National Response Teams

The development of regional and national response teams is a relatively new concept to the fire 

service. The network of Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) teams, which is supported by FEMA, 

has become a primary rapid deployment resource for large scale incidents. The USAR teams are 

designed to be self-contained units that can be transported by military aircraft to the area 

impacted by a natural disaster, such as a hurricane or earthquake. The network is authorized to 

establish 27 that can each deploy approximately 54 highly trained and fully equipped rescue 

specialists. Most of the USAR teams are based in metropolitan areas and organized by the local 

fire departments, although they usually involve members from several agencies. 

The role of the USAR teams has expanded since the Murrah Building incident to focus on 

terrorist incidents as well as natural disasters. Fifteen of the USAR teams were dispatched to 

Oklahoma City and each operated on the scene for several days. The program is also being 

expanded to improve its geographic coverage and several additional USAR teams are being 

developed outside the FEMA program. 
19

A similar network of Metro Medical Strike Teams (MMST) for mass casualty incidents is being 

developed by the Public Health Service, with a particular emphasis on response capabilities for 

terrorist incidents. The first team has been established and is based in Washington DC and 

involves most of the fire departments in the metropolitan area. Similar teams are being developed 

in the 20 largest metropolitan areas and at least three of these teams will be designated for rapid 

deployment, similar to the USAR teams. This capability would be particularly significant for a 

terrorist attack that involved the release of toxic materials or biological agents in areas where a 

large number of patients would be involved. 

The ability to provide rapid response is particularly significant to the fire service. Specialized 

resources, such as the USAR and MMST teams could take several hours to respond to an 

incident that does not occur in one of the metropolitan areas that will have these capabilities. 

Until this assistance arrives, it would be up to the local fire service to take whatever action is 

possible. 

14.0 Vulnerability to Disruption of Services

The fire service is vulnerable to many of the same potential threats that would have an 

incapacitating impact on the nation as a whole, particularly during the time that would be 

required to implement effective contingency plans. Most fire departments have developed plans 

to prepare for situations that can be anticipated locally, such as earthquakes and hurricanes, 

which disrupt electrical and telephone service, rupture gas and water lines, damage buildings, and 

cause an immediate increase in the demand for fire, rescue, medical and most other types of 

emergency services. 

There has been much less planning to prepare for major disruptions in fire department service 

delivery capabilities on a regional or national level. A nationwide disruption of the supply and 

distribution system for diesel fuel and gasoline would render fire department vehicles inoperative 

within hours or days. An epidemic would incapacitate firefighters as quickly as the general 

population. While there are several potential threats that could at least temporarily disrupt the 

ability of the fire service to perform its mission, the depth of resources that exists within the fire 

service would provide the ability to restore basic services fairly quickly in most situations. 

The logistical support requirements that are needed to provide basic fire services are not 

particularly complex - firefighters require food, water and basic supplies, fire trucks require fuel 

and tires, and fire suppression generally requires an adequate water supply. If these basic 

resources are available, the fire service can provide its essential services at a basic level. 

Firefighters are usually skilled at adaptation and, if necessary, the fire service can commit large 

numbers of trained and equipped personnel to deal with specific situations or to increase the level 

of protection in areas that are threatened12. 

 

12 This theoretical discussion does not address the mechanisms that would have to be utilized to implement the 

conceptual responses to different types of situations. 
20

14.1 Water Supply - Public water supplies are essential components of the municipal 

infrastructure and critical to the fire risk balance in most urban areas. Without the complex 

system of pumps, storage tanks and mains that delivers water to hydrants, the fire department 

would be limited to fighting fires with the water that could be obtained from lakes, rivers, 

swimming pools and other sources or transported to the scene by tanker trucks. The risk of 

conflagrations would be greatly increased, particularly during periods of strong winds and low 

humidity13. 

Many large buildings and industrial facilities depend on public water supplies for their internal 

fire protection systems and would be extremely vulnerable if a fire occurred while the water 

supply to these systems was disrupted. Some of these facilities have on-site water storage tanks 

to provide for service interruptions. 

 

Underground water systems are particularly vulnerable to earthquakes and some of the west coast 

cities have developed extensive contingency plans to fight the fires that can be anticipated after 

an earthquake occurs. San Francisco and Oakland have developed temporary above-ground water 

supply systems for this contingency. There have been several instances where the public water 

distribution systems in smaller communities have been temporarily disrupted and the local fire 

departments were able to provide limited service by stretching hose lines to bodies of water or 

adjoining communities. 

14.2 Fire Stations and Equipment - In many cities the fire stations, fire apparatus 

and fire fighting equipment, including the public water supply systems, reflect the deteriorating 

condition of the municipal infrastructure. The economic forces that have allowed this 

deterioration to occur are no less significant in relation to fire protection and fire department 

services than to any other critical service. Fire departments require trained personnel, operational 

equipment and functional facilities to effectively perform their mission.

14.3 Communications Systems - Most fire departments are highly dependent on their 

communications systems, particularly radio and telephone systems. The most critical 

communications requirements are: 

• processing requests for service 

• dispatch and coordination of units responding to those requests 

• command and control of operations at the incident scene 

• logistical support for operations 

14.4 Communications Centers - The central communications centers used by many 

fire departments are vulnerable to a variety of internal and external risks. Some of these centers 

are located in structures that are susceptible to a fire, a broken water pipe or an electrical failure 

within the facility itself, while others could be seriously damaged by an earthquake, flood, 

windstorm or other natural forces. In many cases the communications facilities for police, fire, 

 

13The combination of high winds, low humidity, limited access, inadequate water supplies and available fuel can 

result in the types of urban conflagrations that occurred in Oakland, California in 1991 and Chelsea, Massachusetts 

in 1973. These fires could not be stopped by huge forces of fire fighters as long as all of the extreme conditions 

persisted. 
21

and emergency medical services are located under the same roof and could be incapacitated by a 

single event or terrorist action. Where back-up facilities are provided, most have limited 

capabilities and many are even more vulnerable than the primary facilities. 

Many communications facilities have been designed to withstand particular threats, but are 

vulnerable to others. Some large cities have their public safety communications centers in well 

guarded locations, but depend on computer systems that have no back-up capabilities and 

inadequate emergency power supplies. The original fire communications centers in many cities 

were isolated and built to resist fires, while those designed during the 1940s and 50s were built in 

bunkers to provide protection from air raids. The newer communications centers in several west 

coast cities have been designed to withstand earthquakes, while those in Florida are built to resist 

hurricane force winds. 

14.5 Telephone systems - The public telephone system is the primary means that 

citizens have to notify the fire department of emergency situations. In most areas virtually all 

requests for service reach the fire department via the telephone network, including calls from 

cellular and wireless telephones and alarms that are transmitted by automatic systems14. 

Outbound communications to the fire stations and to other agencies also utilize the telephone 

system, including the telephone lines between the communications center and radio transmitter 

and receiver sites. 

A major disruption of the telephone system could occur at a telephone company central office, in 

the 9-1-1 trunks between the central office and the fire department communications center, or 

within the communications center itself. Different telephone systems have a variety of 

redundancies and safeguards against disruption, however many are highly vulnerable, particularly 

at the point where the lines from different central offices enter the fire department or public 

safety communications center. 

14.6 Radio systems - All fire departments rely on radio systems to communicate with 

units that are away from their stations and to coordinate operations at the scene of incidents. 

Many fire departments also transmit all dispatch messages to their stations by radio. The use of 

advanced communications technologies, such as mobile computers and terminals, automatic 

vehicle locators and tracking systems is increasing rapidly as these systems become feasible and 

affordable. (Refer to the following section on Radio Spectrum.) 

The primary radio transmitter and receiver sites are often vulnerable to attack or damage from 

natural forces, which could partially or totally disable a radio system. In many cases the radio and 

telephone systems are intimately related, because telephone lines are used to connect remote 

transmitter and receiver sites with the communications center, so a major disruption of the 

telephone network would also incapacitate the radio system. The degrees of redundancy and 

back-up capability vary considerably among different systems, however many are extremely 

vulnerable to accidental disruption or sabotage. 

 

14 Only a few cities, mostly in the northeast, have maintained separate fire alarm telegraph systems with their own 

overhead or underground wiring throughout the community. 
22

Although fire departments are highly dependent on electronic communications systems for 

normal operations, their distributed resources allow individual units to function independently if 

their communications systems are disrupted. In a worst case scenario, most fire departments 

could restore at least rudimentary communications with their units within 24 to 48 hours, but the 

ability of the public to call 9-1-1 for emergency assistance could be disrupted for much longer. 

Some fire departments have procedures to establish patrols to look for problems in the 

community while communications systems are disrupted, while others utilize their stations as 

local community resources. These strategies have been reasonably successful in the immediate 

aftermath of natural disasters, such as Hurricane Andrew. 

15.0 Radio Spectrum

The fire service is particularly concerned with the limited availability of radio spectrum in 

relation to the increasing demand for advanced communications systems. Most fire departments 

operate on frequencies within one of four widely separated segments of the frequency spectrum 

and there are no additional frequencies available in the highly populated areas to expand the 

existing systems or upgrade their capabilities. Increasing workloads and growing populations are 

creating the need to expand or replace existing communications systems, while advances in 

technology are making much more sophisticated systems available to the fire service and other 

public safety agencies. In many cases the ability to adopt these new technologies is severely 

limited by the lack of available of radio spectrum as well as the high cost. 

Inter-operability is an important consideration in the design of new radio systems, to support the 

operations of units from different fire departments and multiple agencies at major incidents. The 

need for improved inter-agency and inter-jurisdictional communications has been recognized in 

several metropolitan areas, particularly in the analysis of the Murrah Building and World Trade 

Center bombings. The technology is available to address these needs, however the advanced 

systems cannot be utilized unless the necessary radio spectrum is available and all of the agencies 

agree to plan and develop coordinated systems using compatible technologies. 

The Federal Communications Commission is currently involved in the process of allocating 

critical portions of the radio spectrum for different uses, particularly the group of frequencies that 

is immediately adjacent to the group of 800 megahertz frequencies that have been available to 

public safety agencies for the past two decades. All of the available frequencies in the currently 

allocated range have been assigned in most highly populated areas and additional frequencies are 

needed to meet the current and projected future needs. The operational advantages and cost 

avoidance that cold be achieved by reserving this band of frequencies for their use have been 

documented in several studies. 

The fire service and other public safety groups believe that their communications requirements 

should have priority over commercial broadcasting and other uses and cannot afford to compete 

with private sector in bidding for rights to the limited spectrum that is available. These needs 

were expressed by the Public Safety Wireless Communications Advisory Committee (PSWAC) 
23

report that was transmitted to the President, members of Congress and the Federal 

Communications Commission earlier this year. 

The reservation of the needed spectrum for public safety agencies is a critical issue for the fire 

service. An allocation of 24 megahertz of spectrum is needed immediately and a total of 70 

megahertz will be needed by 2010. The immediate requirements include a reservation of 2.5 

megahertz for frequencies that will provide the needed inter-operability among systems. All 

federal agencies should be required to adopt technologies that will support inter-operability and 

the efficient use of spectrum, particularly in high demand areas. 

The fire service strongly supports proposed legislation that would reserve the needed spectrum 

for current and future needs and also allocate a portion of the revenue that is anticipated from 

auctioning other available spectrum to commercial users. This revenue would allow public safety 

services to adopt the advanced technologies that are currently beyond their fiscal capabilities. 
24

Recommended Actions 

1. Automatic fire alarm and sprinkler systems should be installed in all industrial, 

commercial and residential buildings. This proven technology of early warning and 

fire suppression capability needs to be required in all new construction of nay kind, 

required to be retrofitted in all appropriate critical infrastructure facilities and 

required in existing industrial, commercial and multi-residential facilities. 

Automatic fire detection and suppression systems enhance the protection of the 

critical infrastructure from the threat of fire. (Section 7.0) 

2. The current programs to provide awareness and operational training for fire service 

responders should be continued and expanded to reach a larger segment of the fire 

service. (Section 12.3) 

3. The fire service also needs the advanced detection and monitoring devices and 

protective clothing for nuclear, biological and toxic agents that are currently 

available to military teams. (Section 12.2) 

4. The fire service encourages the designation of FEMA to coordinate all of the future 

training and preparedness programs for local responders through the Senior 

Interagency Coordinating Group. This is the most effective structure to coordinate 

the efforts of the different federal agencies and ensure that the training reaches the 

appropriate responders. (Section 8.0) 

5. A suitable site should be established for large scale simulation and technical training 

exercises. The establishment of this capability was authorized by Congress in the 

Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 and is considered a major 

priority by the fire service. The training facility must meet stringent requirements for 

technical capabilities and should be fully funded by the federal government, 

including stipends for trainees from local government agencies. (Sections 12.2 and 

12.3)

6. Future training should be directed to the strategic level, in addition to the 

tactical/operational and awareness levels. This training should develop improved 

interagency coordination for large scale operations. (Section 13.0) 

7. The Incident Command System should be adopted and used by all federal, state and 

local agencies that respond to emergency and terrorist incidents. (Section 10.0)

8. The fire service should be included in the sharing of intelligence information and the 

planning for anticipated terrorist incidents. (Section 12.0)

9. The Metro Medical Strike Team concept should also be continued and expanded to 

provide coverage for additional areas. Specialized medical supplies and equipment, 
25

which have previously been limited to the military forces, should also be made 

available to local responders. (Section 13.0) 

10. Asset forfeiture funds are recommended as a source of revenue to support increased 

training and preparedness activities. Local revenue sources do not provide the 

additional funds that are needed to support expenditures related to terrorism training 

and preparedness, as well as improved coordination with law enforcement agencies. 

(Section 12.0) 

11. The recommendations of the Public Safety Wireless Communications Advisory 

Committee should be adopted by the Federal Communications Commission. 

(Section 15.0)

12. A specified amount of the total moneys received by the federal government from 

FCC spectrum auction sales should be set aside to create a fund from which low 

interest loans can be made to state and local governments to purchase necessary 

communications equipment to keep pace with the rapid changes in technology and to 

promote interoperability. (Section 15.0)