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TURKEY PRODUCTION

Agriculture Handbook No. 393

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TURKEY PRODUCTION

By

Stanley J. Marsden

Agriculture Handbook No. 393

Agricultural Research Service

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Washington, D.C. Issued March 1971

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402-Price 75 cents
CAUTION

FEED ADDITIVES.—When a medication or a medicated feed is used, follow the manufacturer's directions exactly. Directions on the label or feed tag are based on U.S. Food and

Drug Administration regulations governing the use of a medicated feed and its withdrawal.

For more information and regulations, write the Office of Information, Food and Drug Administration, 200 C St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20204. Please include your own ZIP code

number.

POISONS FOR CONTROLLING RATS AND MICE.—Expose poisons in areas inaccessible to children, pets, and domestic animals. Use anticoagulant rat poisons—warfarin, privai, fumarin

and diphacinone—according to the manufacturer's instructions. They may be purchased as

powdered concentrates for dry baits or in water-soluble form. Follow all directions and heed

all precautions on the label.

INSECTICIDES.—Insecticides are poisonous; use them with care. Follow all directions and

heed all precautions on container labels. Do not contaminate feed and water with insecticides.

FOLLOW THE LABEL

V.S. DtPAKTMENT OF ACRICULTURE

Trade names are used in this publication solely for the purpose of providing specific information. Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or an endorsement by the Department over other

products not mentioned.

n
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

Turkey industry of the United States 1

National Turkey Improvement Plan _ _ 1

Starting with turkeys 1

Breeds and varieties 2

Broad Breasted Bronze 3

Broad Breasted Large White 4

Beltsville Small White 5

Growth rate and feed consumption 6

Breeding practices 9

Selecting breeders 9

Blood tests and vaccinations 9

Mating procedures 9

Saddles 10

Artificial insemination 10

Pedigree breeding 13

Trapnesting 14

Strain and variety crossing 14

Out-of-season breeding 15

Second-season breeding 16

Breeder management and housing 16

Management on limited range 16

Housing on limited range 17

Wire screening 17

Partitions 17

Litter 17

Nests 18

Fences and roosts 19

Shade 19

Control of broodiness 19

Breeding in confinement 20

Breeder batteries 20

Feeding breeding stock 21

Production and care of eggs 22

Egg production 22

Egg characteristics 22

Egg gathering and storage 23

Exploding eggs 23

Artificial lighting 23

Artificial incubation 24

Incubator operation 24

Testing incubated eggs _ 26

Shipping containers for poults 27

Pag«

Artificial brooding of poults 27

Starting the poults 27

Litter for brooding 27

Litter management 28

Feeders and waterers during brooding 29

Requirements for brooding 29

Size of units and floor space 31

Housing during brooding 31

Wire floors for brooder houses 32

Slat floors for brooder houses 32

Types of brooders 33

Debeaking 35

Desnooding 36

Wing clipping and notching 36

Toe clipping 37

Separating the sexes 37

Handling turkeys 37

Feeding young turkeys 38

Force feeding 39

Starting diets 39

Growing diets 40

"Complete'' feeding program 42

General suggestions on feeding 42

Feeders and waterers 43

Range rearing 47

Minnesota Plan 48

Range rotation 48

Shade 49

Range crops 49

Protection against predators 49

Protection against weather 50

Confinement rearing 50

Stone yards 52

Rearing porches 52

Distinguishing characteristics of males

and females 53

Behavioral characteristics 53

Anatomical characteristics 53

Marking turkeys 53

Disease prevention — 54

Disinfecting and cleaning 55

Disinfectants 55

III
Page

Combatting a disease outbreak 56

Defensive measures 56

Obtaining a diagnosis 57

Post-mortem examinations 57

Common diseases and disorders 59

Airsacculitis 59

Aortic rupture 59

Arizona infections (paracolon) 60

Blackhead (histomoniasis or enterohepatitis) 60

Bluecomb 60

Bumblefoot 61

Candidiasis 61

Cholera 61

Coccidiosis 61

Coliform infections (colibacillosis) _ 61

Erysipelas 62

Fowl pox 62

Fowl typhoid 62

Fungus infections (mycoses) 62

Hemorrhagic enteritis 62

Hexamitiasis 63

Mycoplasma infections 63

Ornithosis 63

Paratyphoid 63

Poisoning 63

Pullorum disease 64

Salmonellosis and Arizona infections 64

Sinusitis 64

Synovitis 65

Page

Trichomoniasis of the upper digestive

tract 65

Typhoid (fowl) 65

Water glut 65

Miscellaneous diseases and disorders __ 65

Parasites 66

Deformities, injuries, and vices 67

Abnormal feathering 67

Blueback 68

Breast blisters and calluses 68

Bruises of the skin and flesh 68

Cannibalism 68

Deformed back 68

Deformed beak 69

Deformed breastbone 69

Impaction and penetration of the digestive tract 69

Leg deformities and weaknesses 69

Pendulous crop 71

Stampeding 71

Miscellaneous deformities 71

Marketing turkeys 72

When to market 72

Selecting for market 72

Preparing for market 73

Processing 73

Inspection 75

Grading 75

Packaging processed turkeys 76

Freezing and storing 76

Turkey meat products 76

rv
TURKEY PRODUCTION

BY STANLEY J. MARSDEN, collaborator, Animal Science Research Division,

Agricultural Research Service

INTRODUCTION

Turkeys are adaptable to a w^ide variety of

climatic conditions and can be raised successfully almost anywhere in the world if their

nutritional requirements are met and protection is provided against diseases, predatory

animals, and adverse weather conditions.

Turkey Industry of the United States

Raising turkeys has long been a profitable

farming operation in the United States, extending to all major areas of the country.

Small farm flocks of turkeys have practically

disappeared and have been replaced by larger

flocks of from 1,000 to as many as 10,000 birds.

Several of these flocks may be found on one

farm or ranch, which may produce 50,000 to

100,000 birds per year. Although the majority

of turkeys are still raised on range, confinement rearing is increasing rapidly. The turkey

industry* ^ has grown from 18,476,000 turkeys

raised in 1929, which produced a gross income

of $60,027,000, to 116,538,000 raised in 1966,

which produced a gross income of $485,725,000.

In 1967, about 126,577,000 turkeys were

raised but because of lower prices received,

produced a smaller gross income of about

$459,528,000. In 1968, about 106,419,000 turkeys were raised, which produced a gross income of about $414,629,000. In the long run.

^ Throughout this handbook an asterisk indicates some

of the subjects about which additional information is

available in Federal, State, and commercial publications.

CA 44-62, which is a list of these publications, may be

obtained free by writing to the Poultry Research

Branch, Animal Husbandry Research Division, ARS,

Beltsville, Md. 20705. Please include your own ZIP

code number when requesting copies.

further moderate growth of the industry is

expected.

Although raising turkeys for market is the

largest phase of the industry, the breeding of

turkeys, the production of hatching eggs, and

the operation of hatcheries and processing

plants are large, essential phases.

Practical knowledge of raising turkeys is

obviously important to the turkey grower, and

to help supply that knowledge is the purpose of

this handbook.

National Turkey Improvement Plan*

The National Turkey Improvement Plan, administered by the Agricultural Research Service in cooperation with official State agencies,

is designed to improve the quality of turkeys

through the administration of regulations relating to breeding and to disease control.

Starting With Turkeys

In contemplating entry into the turkey

business, the new grower must consider the

economic situation. For example, the margin

of profit in producing turkeys for the wholesale market now is relatively narrow so an

efficient, fairly large-size operation is necessary if a worthwhile profit is to be realized.

The turkey industry of the United States is

highly integrated, and a large part of it is

financed and controlled by corporations of

varying size. Contracting and other integrating arrangements''' vary considerably in different areas.

For the new grower, adequate financing and

a dependable market for the turkeys are of

first importance. Credit may be extended by
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

commercial concerns such as banks, feed manufacturers, insurance companies, cooperatives,

and various integrated organizations. Government-sponsored financing by the Farmers

Home Administration, the Production Credit

Association, and the Federal Land Bank Association may be available. The turkey grower

may join a cooperative, affiliate v^ith a commercial organization, or operate his own

business. In the last case, an opportunity exists

in the production, processing, and marketing

of ready-to-cook turkeys. Fresh-frozen and

fresh-killed unfrozen birds in home-consumer

sizes are in good demand at relatively high

prices, especially during the Thanksgiving

and Christmas holidays. Turkeys can be home

processed without expensive equipment, but

labor cost may be high and the requirement

of Federal inspection might be difficult to meet.

At present (1970), all turkeys marketed interstate must be Federally inspected, but those

marketed without crossing State lines need not

be inspected if the total number of turkeys

does not exceed 5,000.

A turkey flock can be started with hatching

eggs, day-old poults, or started poults, all of

which should originate, wherever possible,

from flocks tested for and rated free from the

Arizona and Mycoplasma infections, fowl typhoid, paratyphoid, and pullorum disease. If

turkeys beyond the day-old or battery-brooded

stage are purchased, the disease history of the

flock should be investigated and the stock

should be examined for lice, northern fowl

mites, and other external parasites when first

received. The flock should be isolated and observed for about 3 weeks to detect any signs

of diseases or internal parasites. External

parasites such as lice and northern fowl mites

are easily destroyed, but internal parasites are

difficult to identify and eliminate. Birds harboring diseases or internal parasites should not

be retained.

Obtaining brooded poults 7 to 8 weeks of

age is becoming common in some areas.

BREEDS AND VARIETIES

Seven standard varieties, popularly called

breeds, of domesticated turkeys are recognized

by the American Poultry Association and described in detail in the American Standard of

Perfection.* These seven varieties are Bronze,

White Holland, Bourbon Red, Narragansett,

Black, Slate, and Beltsville Small White

(BSW). Including wild turkeys, there are perhaps a dozen nonstandard varieties, chief of

which are the Broad Breasted Bronze (BBB)

and the Broad Breasted Large White (BBLW).

In 1966 only three varieties were commercially

important. Of the 116.5 million turkeys raised

that year, about 40 million were estimated to

be of BBB breeding; about 60 million were of

BBLW breeding; and about 15 million were

of BSW breeding. The remaining II/2 million

were those of all other varieties, chiefly those

called Medium White. It appears likely that

the large white strains will continue to increase in numbers and eventually may completely replace the BBB.

All white varieties and strains have white

plumage, which frequently contains specks of

gray or black pigment. Less frequently, whole

feathers or sizeable parts of feathers may be

off-colored. Eyes are medium to dark brown;

shanks, feet, and beak are white to pinkish

white.

Normal mature males of all varieties of turkeys have a conspicuous black beard attached

to the skin of the upper breast region. White

females occasionally have small beards but

beards are rare in females of colored varieties.

White-plumaged turkeys are not albinos and

have none of the weaknesses of albinos. They

originated as mutations, or sports, in colored

flocks and such mutations still occur. Their

white color is due to a recessive nonsex-linked

or autosomal gene that prevents almost completely the appearance of any pigmentation in

the plumage, shanks, feet, and beak. The eyes,

however, are not aiïected, so white turkeys

tend to possess the eye color determined by

the color pattern factors carried, but suppressed, by the color-inhibiting factor responsible
TURKEY PRODUCTION

for white plumage. Since most white strains

originated as mutations in Bronze flocks, they

have dark-brown eyes and carry the gene for

the bronze color pattern, which results in

newly hatched poults that are light yellow

with all upper surfaces more or less sufi'used

with light brown, heaviest on the head. Any

pure-yellow poults that appear would likely

carry the gene, or genes, for either black or

black-winged bronze, or both, or they could be

Royal Palm or some other rare mutant that

would, however, develop pigmented feathers

in the adult plumage.

White-feathered turkeys have more feathers

than colored turkeys and are difficult to drypick. However, with modern scald-pick methods, white turkey varieties can be picked as

easily as colored varieties and have the advantage that any pinfeathers present are inconspicuous and do not lower the market grade

as they do in the colored varieties.

Broad Breasted Bronze

The BEB turkey (figs. 1 and 2 and table

1) originated in England. It was imported into

Canada in the late 1920's and then into the

United States in about 1935. Within a few

years after its introduction to the United

States public in 1939, it became the most widely grown of all varieties. It has been used in

crossing to produce the BBLW and the BSW.

In color, the BBB resembles the almost-extinct, standardbred Bronze but tends to have

buffy-white instead of pure-white feather tips

and lacks the brilliant copper-colored bronzing

in back, tail, and upper thighs for which the

exhibition strains of standardbred Bronze were

noted. Its basic plumage color is black, which

Figure 1.—Broad Breasted Bronze breeding turkey toms. Note strong, straight legs, wide bodies, and upright

carriage. (Photo from Washore Turkey Assoc, Oregon City, Oreg. 97045.)
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

8272&-B

Figure 2.—Broad Breasted Bronze breeding turkey toms, New York dressed. Average weigh is 37 pounds at 36 weeks

of age.

results in dark-colored pinfeathers, a disadvantage that contributes to its replacement

by the BBLW. Normal Bronze females have

white tips on the black breast feathers, which

serve as a means of accurately determining

the sex as early as 12 weeks of age. Most BBB

turkeys are marketed as mature roasters at

23 to 26 weeks, but males sometimes are held

to 28 to 30 weeks to meet the demand for extralarge birds.

In reproductive ability, the BBB and the

BBLW are generally inferior to the BSW,

tending to produce fewer eggs, with lower

fertility and hatchability. Reproductive ability

varies, however, and in some strains of heavy

turkeys it is quite good. Artificial insemination

has become standard practice in breeding BBB,

BBLW, and other heavy broad-breasted turkeys

and is generally required to attain an acceptable level of fertility.

Broad Breasted Large White

The BBLW turkey (table 1) was developed

in the early 1950's through pedigree breeding

and selection at Cornell University, from

crosses of BBB and White Holland. Private

breeders soon began to develop other large

white strains, mostly through crossbreeding,

although a few strains were developed by taking advantage of naturally occurring white

mutations in BBB flocks. No overall variety

name was proposed and most breeders named

their own strains, very few of them using the

name White Holland. Selection for large size

and broad-breasted conformation has been

widely practiced, so most strains of BBLW

now equal the BBB in both these respects.

Although most BBLW turkeys are marketed

as heavy roasters at 23 to 26 weeks, many are

marketed at other ages (table 1). Of the 60

million raised in 1966, about 8 million (13.3
TURKEY PRODUCTION

percent) mostly hens, were sold at about 12

weeks, when they make acceptable fryerroasters. The toms, however, are not well

adapted to this use because of their lack of

finish and their coarse, large-boned appearance.

At 18 to 20 weeks, hens of the BBLW strains

fill the need for medium-size roasting turkeys

and many are marketed then. Toms sometimes

are held to 28 or even 30 weeks to produce

extra-large birds for use in further processing.

This flexibility as to age at marketing is an

important advantage of the Large White.

White turkeys in general appear to tolerate

the hot sun better than dark turkeys.

Beltsville Small White*

The BSW turkey (figs. 3 and 4 and table 2)

was developed through pedigree breeding and

selection by the U.S. Department of Agriculture at the Agricultural Research Center,

Beltsville, Md. Between 1941 and 1962, this

stock was distributed worldwide. The BSW

turkey closely resembles the BBLW in color

and body type but is smaller, as indicated in

tables 1 and 2. In general, egg production,

fertility, and hatchability tend to be higher

and broodiness tends to be lower in the BSW

than they are in the heavy varieties. Certain

American breeders of Beltsville stock have inBN-33089

Figure 3.—Beltsville Small White breeding turkeys. Male weighs 21 pounds at 34 weeks of age; female, llVi.
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

80872-B

Figure 4.—Beltsville Small White breeding turkeys, 8

months old, New York dressed: Left, Hen, 10'/2

pounds; right, torn, 19 pounds.

creased the weights (table 2), resulting in a

turkey better described as medium rather than

small, although it is officially classified as a

"light breed."

Under favorable growing conditions, including the feeding of nutritionally complete, highenergy diets, both sexes of these light-breed

turkeys reach Grade A market condition at 15

to 16 weeks, when most of them (67 percent in

1966, 71 percent in 1967, and 76 percent in

1968) were marketed as fryer-roasters, sometimes called "broilers." If held to 21 to 24

weeks, these birds are high-quality, mature

roasters of medium to small size, with the males

competing successfully with large-type hens for

the mature roaster retail market. At 16 weeks,

feed efficiency (pounds of feed per pound of

live turkey produced) should average about

2.9 pounds for flocks of mixed sexes under

favorable conditions compared with about 2.5

pounds for heavy white turkeys of mixed sexes

at 12 weeks. This difference of about 0.4 pound

in favor of the large-type fryer-roaster is

largely offset by the higher cost, 15 to 20 cents

each, for the heavy poults. The extra 3-week

production period remains a disadvantage for

the small-type bird but the better quality of

the product tends to compensate for this.

The BSW and its related strains are no

different from other varieties of turkeys in

respect to livability, susceptibility to disease,

and requirements for feeding and management.

Floor space allowances for small-type turkeys

may be reduced by about one-fifth of that recommended for large-type turkeys.

GROWTH RATE AND FEED CONSUMPTION

Large- and small-type turkeys that are well

managed, fed well-balanced, medium-energy

diets, and kept free from diseases, parasites,

and other stress factors should increase in

weight and eat feed at rates comparable with

those shown in tables 1 and 2. Under optimal

conditions and with fast-growing strains, the

feed required to produce a pound of live turkey

can be lower and average weights higher at

all ages than the figures shown (see table 1,

footnote 1 and table 2, footnote 1). Conversely,

slower growing strains, unfavorable environmental factors, and diseases and parasites can

lower the growth rate and feed efficiency by

similar or greater amounts. Consumption of

mash or of grain and mash combined can be

reduced by 10 to 15 percent by feeding or

allowing access to succulent green feed in large

quantities during the growing period, 8 weeks

to marketing.
TURKEY PRODUCTION i

TABLE l.—Growth rate and feed consumption of Broad Breasted Bronze (BBB) and Broad

Breasted Large White (BBLW) turkeys raised in confinement on medium-energy diets '

Toms Hens Both 1sexes in equal numbers

Cumula- Feed Cumula- Feed Cumula- Feed

Age Avertive

feed

per

pound Avertive

feed

per

pound Avertive

feed

per

pound

of live

bird (weeks) age

live

per

bird

of live

bird

age

weight

per

bird

of live

bird

age

live

per

bird

weight to date to date live to date to date weight to date to date

Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds

1/7 (1 day) 0.134 „.^ 0.134 — 0.134 ---

1 .29 0.20 0.69 .27 0.18 0.67 .28 0.19 0.68

2 .57 .59 1.04 .53 .53 1.00 .55 .56 1.02

3 1.00 1.19 1.19 .90 1.13 1.26 .95 1.16 1.22

4 1.7 2.1 1.24 1.4 1.8 1.29 1.55 1.95 1.26

6 3.2 4.6 1.44 2.8 4.1 1.46 3.0 4.4 1.45

8 5.1 8.8 1.73 4.4 7.9 1.80 4.8 8.4 1.75

10 7.5 15.6 2.08 6.0 13.2 2.20 6.8 14.4 2.12

12' 10.1 23.7 2.35 7.6 18.2 2.39 8.9 21.0 2.36

13' 11.4 28.0 2.46 8,4 21.0 2.50 9.9 24.5 2.47

14 12.7 32.4 2.55 9.3 24.0 2.58 11.0 28.2 2.56

16 15.4 41.4 2.69 10.9 32.2 2.95 13.2 38.8 2.79

18' 17.9 51.0 2.85 12.3 40.5 3.29 15.1 45.8 3.03

20' 20.3 61.2 3.01 13.6 49.0 3.60 17.0 55.1 3.24

22 22.7 72.5 3.19 14.7 57.7 3.93 18.7 65.1 3.48

23' 23.9 78.5 3.28 15.2 62.2 4.09 19.6 70.4 3.59

2445 25.1 85.0 3.39 15.7 67.7 4.31 20.4 76.4 3.75

25' 26.3 91.3 3.47 16.2 73.2 4.52 21.3 82.3 3.86

26' 27.4 97.8 3.57 16.6 77.9 4.69 22.0 87.9 4.00

28' 29.6 118.4 4.00 17.1 88.0 5.14 23.4 103.0 4.40

30' 31.6 134.9 4.27 17.8 96.8 5.44 24.7 116.1 4.70

32 33.0 149.8 4.54 18.6 107.3 5.77 25.8 128.5 5.00

36^ 35.0 180.3 5.15 19.5 123.6 6.34 27.3 152.1 5.57

' If growing conditions are optimal and high-energy diets are fed, weights about one-sixth higher and feed per

pound of turkey about one-tenth lower than those listed may be obtained at all ages with the larger, fast-growmg

strains of heavy-breed turkeys.

' Ages at which BBLW turkeys sometimes are slaughtered as fryer-roasters, or ^'broilers."

' Ages at which BBLW turkey hens sometimes are slaughtered as medium-size roasters.

' Ages at which BBB and BBLW turkey hens usually are slaughtered as mature roasters.

'Ages at which BBB and BBLW turkey toms usually are slaughtered as mature heavy roasters.

' Ages to which heavy-breed turkey toms of all colors sometimes are held to produce extra-heavy birds for further processing. .

' Age at which all heavy-breed turkeys may be said to attain maximum Ist-year breeding or standard weight.
8 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 2.—Growth rate and feed consumption of standard Beltsville Small White (BSW) turkeys

raised in confinement on medium-energy diets ^

Toms Hens Both sexes in equal n

Cumulaumbers

Cumula- Feed Cumula- Feed Feed tive per tive per tive per Age Aver- feed pound Aver- feed pound Aver- feed pound (weeks) age ,P.^^, of live age per of live age per of live live bird bird live bird bird live bird bird weight to date to date weight to date to date

Pounds

weight

Pounds

to date

Pounds

to date

Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds

1/7 (1 day) 0.115 0.115 0.115

1 .22 0.15 0.68 .21 0.15 0.71 .22 0.15 0.68

2 .45 .50 1.11 .40 .45 1.13 .43 .48 1.12

3 .70 1.05 1.50 .60 .92 1.53 .65 .99 1.52

4 1.00 1.95 1.95 .80 1.60 2.00 .90 1.78 1.98

6 1.8 4.1 2.28 1.2 2.8 2.33 , 1.5 3.5 2.33

8 3.0 7.2 2.40 1.8 4.5 2.50 2.4 5.9 2.46

10 4.4 10.8 2.45 2.7 7.0 2.59 3.6 8.9 2.47

12 6.1 15.6 2.56 3.8 10.2 2.68 5.0 12.9 2.58

14 8.1 21.6 2.67 5.1 14.3 2.80 6.6 18.0 2.73

15^ 9.0 24.9 2.77 5.7 16.7 2.93 7.4 20.8 2.81

16 = 9.8 28.2 2.88 6.3 19.4 3.08 8.1 23.8 2.94

17 10.6 31.7 2.99 6.8 22.8 3.35 8.7 27.3 3.14

18 11.3 35.3 3.12 7.3 26.2 3.59 9.3 30.8 3.31

20 12.2 42.6 3.49 7.8 31.2 4.00 10.0 36.9 3.69

21' 12.9 46.7 3.62 8.3 3^4.9 4.20 10.6 40.8 3.85

22' 13.6 50.3 3.70 8.7 38.3 4.40 11.2 44.3 3.96

23' 14.4 54.7 3.80 9.1 41.9 4.60 11.8 48.3 4.09

24' 15.1 60.4 4.00 9.5 45.6 4.80 12.3 53.0 4.31

26 16.6 73.0 4.40 10.0 51.0 5.10 13.3 62.0 4.66

28 18.1 83.3 4.60 10.6 58.7 5.54 14.4 71.0 4.97

30 19.4 93.1 . 4.80 11.0 64.2 5.84 15.2 78.7 5.18

32 20.2 103.1 5.10 11.3 69.7 6.17 15.8 86.4 5.47

34* 21.0 113.8 5.42 11.5 73.8 6.42 16.3 93.8 5.75

36 21.4 123.0 5.75 11.7 78.4 6.V0 16.6 100.7 6.07

'If growing conditions are optimal and high-energy diets are fed, weights about one-sixth higher and feed per

pound of live turkey about one-tenth lower than those listed may be obtained at all ages with standard BSW turkeys. Weights about one-fifth higher and feed per pound of live turkey about one-eighth lower may be obtained

with oversize BSW turkeys and those called Medium White.

'Ages at which small- or medium-type turkeys of both sexes usually are slaughtered as fryer-roasters, or

"broilers."

'Ages at which BSW and medium-size turkeys usually are suitable for slaughter as mature roasters.

^ Age at which BSW and other small-type turkeys may be said to attain maximum Isl-year breeding or "standard" weight.
TURKEY PRODUCTION

BREEDING PRACTICES

Selecting Breeders

Prospective breeding stock (breeders) of

both sexes and all types should be hatched

about 7 months (30 weeks) before artificial

lighting is to be started or 8 months (35 weeks)

before egg production is expected. Breeders

should be selected when the birds are at or near

market age and before any are marketed. At

that time, an additional one-fifth more males

than would be required should be set aside for

final selection at about 7 months.

At the final selection, birds that show defects or do not develop properly can be eliminated. The so-called dimple breast, where the

keel bone is .slightly sunken into the surrounding breast muscle, is a desirable feature in all

broad-breasted turkeys. Dimple-breasted turkeys tend to develop fewer breast blisters and

calluses and make very attractive market carcasses.

A walking test is necessary in selecting for

strong, straight legs and upright carriage.

Some defects to watch for in selecting

breeders are: blindness, crossed beak, crooked

neck, crooked or roached back, crooked or

curved breastbone, breast calluses and blisters,

split wing, pendulous crop, swelled hocks or

feet, crooked legs and toes, bowlegs, knockknees, and decided off-color or off-shape feathers. A guide for selecting breeding stock is

available.*

Blood Tests and Vaccinations

As soon after selection as officially allowed,

a blood sample should be drawn from each

prospective breeding bird. From this sample,

depending upon the disease-control programs

available, tests can be made for the presence

of pullorum disease, fowl typhoid, paratyphoid,

infectious sinusitis (Mycoplasma galKsepticum

infection), and possibly Arizona and Mycoplasma meleagridis (N-strain PPLO) infections. If necessary to their needs, the birds can

be debeaked, wing-clipped, and saddled at the

same time they are tested.

After receipt of laboratory reports of the

blood tests, unless turkeys must be retested,

vaccinations can be started.

The number and kind of vaccinations given

should be based upon the requirements set up

by the hatching-egg buyer and the advice of

competent authorities on disease problems.

Some suggestions are given in the section on

diseases beginning on page 54. When several

vaccinations are given, they should be planned

according to competent advice to avoid possible

unfavorable interactions. The adjuvant types

of vaccines may give longer immunity. In

general, preveritive vaccinations, usually of the

live-virus or killed-bacteria type (bacterins),

are given only when the disease in question

is present in the area and poses an active

threat to the health of the turkeys.

Mating Procedures

Turkeys of either sex seldom are retained

after their first breeding season but are marketed when eggs are no longer needed. However, when pedigree breeding is practiced and

records are available, hens of proven high

breeding value may be retained for a second

or third season. Males in high-producing matings likewise are valuable, but males that have

passed their first mating season tend to be

poor breeders when natural mating is used.

Matings should be made up well in advance

of the breeding season and, in naturally mated

flocks, sexually active males should be placçd

with hens when the latter are first placed under

stimulatory lighting. It usually is desirable to

place the males under stimulatory lighting for

about 4 weeks ahead of the hens in order to

have those males sexually active when the hens

begin to mate.

In single-male natural matings of small-type

turkeys, 20 hens to 1 young tom is a good

ratio; of medium-type, 18 to 1; and of largetype, 16 to 1. In natural flock matings, ratios

of 14 to 1, 12 to 1, and 10 to 1, respectively,

are practical. However, a few extra toms, preferably late-hatched or out-of-season, should

be separately maintained to replace those that

may die or become sick or crippled. To combat
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

late-season infertility, some breeders maintain

a full set of out-of-season toms to replace the

older toms about the middle of the breeding

season or when late-season infertility becomes noticeable.

Breeding units of 500 to 1,000 turkeys, including males when natural mating is used,

are suggested,as being practical and manageable. The 500-bird breeding unit may be near

optimum. When two or more naturally mated

breeding flocks are maintained, they should

be separated from each other by at least 10

feet of empty area so the toms will not distract

each other. Where separation by an empty

area is impracticable, an alternative is to

make the dividing fence or partition solid for

the first 31/2 feet above the ground so the

turkeys cannot see those in the adjoining pen.

Saddles

A canvas saddle of proper size for the breed

with a free sliding strap at the front end (fig.

5) should be placed on each naturally mated

breeder hen to protect her from injury by the

tom during natural mating. If saddles are not

obtainable, the 8 toenails of each mated tom

should be hand clipped almost to, but not into,

the bloody core and the stubs smoothed with a

coarse file. If an electric debeaking device is

available for toenail trimming, all four toenails

of each foot may be completely removed. Make

the cut just outside the outermost toepad. The

searing heat prevents serious bleeding and stubs

heal rapidly. When the toenails are already

BN-37197

Figure 5.—Saddled breeding turkey hen. Numbers are

for identification when trapnests are used.

short, smoothing with a file usually is sufficient.

The spurs of yearling or older males always

should be rounded off with a file.

Where no toms are allowed with the hens,

the latter need not be saddled. However, saddles often are used since they give some protection against rain, sleet, snow, and from

back injuries sustained during handling. They

are also useful in identifying broodiness and

other characteristics and are used in trapnesting.

Artificial Insemination

Artificial insemination (AI) has become

standard practice in breeding large broadbreasted turkeys. It may be used without natural mating, allowing no males with the hens

at any time or it may be used to supplement

natural mating, using saddles on the hens. The

former method is preferred and is widely used,

the first insemination being given when egg

production starts, followed 1 week later with

a second insemination and after that at 2-week

intervals. If and when fertility starts to decline, inseminations may be given at 1-week

intervals. However, some breeders prefer a 1-

week interval throughout the season.

The plastic straw method, using a clean

straw for each hen, is being widely used to

prevent the possible spread of infection from

hen to hen. The straws, 4 to 5 inches long,

are attached to the syringe or inseminating

gun. Care must be taken not to injure the

oviduct when the straw is inserted.

Two basic procedures are involved in AI of

poultry: obtaining semen from the male (milking) (fig. 6) and inseminating the hen (fig. 7).

The method described here requires only simple, inexpensive equipment. More detailed information, including the use of thermos-bottle

aspirators, semen metering devices, individualhen plastic straws, and diluents, will be found

in other publications.*

The minimal equipment necessary for AI

is a receiving container (receiver) and a 1-

cubic-centimeter (cc.) or 1-milliliter (ml.)

glass or plastic syringe without a needle, graduated in hundredths. The receiver may be any

small round-edge glass receptacle not over 21/2
TURKEY PRODUCTION 11

inches deep, such as a liqueur glass, a liquor

jigger, a very small beaker, an eye cup, a paraffin stoppered funnel (fig. 6) or a short test

tube. In the simplest type of operation, semen

from one or several males is collected in the

receiver, withdravi^n into the syringe in single

doses, and injected into the hens with the least

possible delay. A more efficient method is to

milk the semen from each of a dozen or more

males for a total of 3 or 4 cc, removing each

tom's contribution from the receiver with a

thermos-bottle aspirator or a syringe and depositing the contribution in a closed container

immersed in water held at about 82° F. (28°

C). The semen is thus protected from contamination, temperature shock, and drying.

The pooled semen is then injected into the

hens with an automatic "semen gun" or a

syringe equipped with a metering device.

Mated toms should be separated from the

hens at least 2 days before they are milked.

Unmated toms, used regularly, can be milked

every 3rd day, thus reducing the number of

toms required.

To obtain semen efficiently, promote ejaculation through manual stimulation that causes

the male copulatory organ to be partly extruded (fig. 6). The stimulation may be effected by massaging and stroking the abdomen

and pushing the tail and tailhead upward towards the head. A male's response has been

obtained when the copulatory organ enlarges

and partly protrudes from the vent. The operator then takes a deep grip at the rear of

the copulatory organ from above the vent with

his thumb and forefinger, thus fully extruding

the organ, and squeezes out the semen in a

short sliding motion downward. The pressure

on the rear of the copulatory organ, combined

with the short sliding motion, empties the terminal bulbs of the seminiferous tubules and

causes the semen to run down the depression

between the two parallel teatlike structures of

the copulatory organ, where it can be collected in the receiver. If feces or urine appears, brush it away before the semen is collected. With turkey toms, only one ejaculatory

response to each manipulation is the rule, but

in some cases continued massage and stroking

may induce a second. The toms can be massaged as long as semen can be obtained. As

an aid in producing clean semen, some operators withhold feed and water from the toms

for 8 to 12 hours before milking. However,

with proper pressure, expert technicians are

able to close off the cloacal opening, which is

above the sex organ, to prevent fecal contamination.

Two operators work together to milk the

toms. The first operator holds the tom on a

padded table or a canvas stand or other comfortable resting place or he may hold the bird

loosely by the thighs, supporting its weight on

his lap or on his arm. The rear of the bird is

toward the second operator, its legs slightly

spread so that the abdomen is well exposed.

The second operator uses the thumb and fingers

of one hand to hold the receiving container

and massage the lower abdomen while he

pushes the tail upward towards the bird's head

with the other hand. When the male responds

B9642-B

Figure 6.—Obtaining semen from male turltey. Male

copulatory organ is extruded (turned outward) and

squeezed to release semen, which is collected in stoppered funnel.
12 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

to these pressures by starting to extrude his

copulatory organ, the second operator forces

the organ outward from the vent and milks

the semen into the receiver, vi^hich he has held

in readiness during the massaging.

In another method of milking, the torn may

be placed breast down on a 7-inch-wide, 18-

inch-high milking stool and held between the

. knees of the first operator, who uses both

hands alternately to massage both sides of the

abdomen, starting below the vent and stroking

upward toward the tail, which may be pushed

upward on the completion of the stroke. The

second operator exerts a steady downward

pressure on both shanks of the bird and collects the semen. The downward pressure on

the shanks, the upward pressure against the

tail, and the massaging of both sides of the

abdomen combine to effect protrusion of the

tom's copulatory organ. When the technique is

learned by practicing on toms that respond

readily, work with other toms will be easier.

Turkey males may produce from 0-05 to

about 0.8 cc. (or ml.) of semen per milking,

averaging about 0.25 cc, but an occasional

male is found that will not produce any semen.

The semen of the turkey is pale cream-colored,

fairly thick, and somewhat sticky. It dries so

rapidly upon exposure to air that it should be

taken up with the syringe as soon as possible

after collection and protected from drying and

from temperature below or above a range of

77° to 86° F. (25° to 30° C). As much as 3

or 4 cc. of turkey semen may be accumulated

from a dozen or more males in one receptacle,

but it should be used within one-half hour

after collection.

A trace of blood in the semen should not be

regarded very seriously. This may occur occasionally even when the milking is done with

extreme gentleness. It is a signal to cease operations on the bird for the day. No permanent

harm appears to result from slight bleeding,

but males that continue to bleed should not be

milked any longer. Thin, watery semen is low

in fertilizing ability and should be discarded,

along with samples contaminated with feces

or chalky-white urine.

The toms used for insemination usually are

kept in a group in an isolated pen, but some

operators use single-torn cages since it has

been reported that caged toms produce more

semen than uncaged and that well-trained cooperative males can be milked without removing them from the cages.

AI of hens consists of exposing the orifice

of the oviduct and injecting semen directly

into it through the funnel-shaped end, which

is extruded (turned outward) during natural

mating or as result of manual stimulation and

pressure (fig. 7). Successful extrusion of the

oviduct can be effected only in hens that are

in laying condition.

Two operators are needed to artificially inseminate the hen effectively. In one method,

the first operator, sitting down, usually is

handed the turkey hen with her head toward

him and with the breast of the bird resting

on his lap. He then extrudes the oviduct by

exerting pressure on the abdomen of the hen

and by forcing the tail upward towards her

69541-B

Figure 7.—Starting insemination of turkey hen. Syringe

without needle is inserted about IV2 inches into extruded (turned outward) oviduct.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 13

head. Considerable pressure may be needed to

extrude the oviduct properly, but less pressure

will suffice if it is applied quickly rather than

slowly. In another method, the first operator,

standing, holds the hen between his legs

and extrudes the oviduct.

In either method when the funnel-shaped orifice of the oviduct can be plainly seen on

the hen's left side of the vent, the second operator inserts the syringe containing the semen as far as it will slide easily—about IV2

inches. At this time the pressure on the abdomen is brought to an end and a light pushing

pressure is maintained on the syringe which,

following the retraction of the oviduct, will

slide farther into the hen, another one-half

inch, which is highly desirable. The desired

amount of undiluted semen, usually 0.025 cc. is

then injected by pressing on the plunger. Not

all calibrations on the syringe can be read

when it is in place for injection because

one-half or more of the syringe is out of sight.

To remedy this, either withdraw only one semen dose into the syringe at one time or make

marks indicating the amounts of semen to be

used on the dry plunger with a sharp lead

pencil or indelible ink. However, the best method is to use a metering device or a semen gun.

Excellent fertility has been obtained in

turkey hens with as little as 0.01 cc. of undiluted semen, which can be used when semen

is scarce; or the semen can be diluted 1:1 with

isotonic salt solution (8.5 grams of plain sodium chloride, or table salt, per liter of sterile

distilled water) and the usual amount, 0.025

cc, of the diluted semen injected very

promptly. If the diluted semen is not to be used

immediately, a special diluent should be used.

Commercial diluents allowing a 3 to 1 dilution

are available.

Hens that become fertile by adequate natural or artificial insemination usually will retain their fertility quite well for 2 to 3 weeks,

and some viable embryos may be produced as

long as 41 days after insemination. A turkey

hen may fail to become fertile as the result of

a single insemination because of the presence

in the oviduct of an egg about to be laid. To

minimize this, inseminate turkey hens in late

afternoon or evening. Starting at dusk and

working into the night may be the best time

since the birds are easier to handle in darkness, and very few hard-shell eggs will be present in the oviduct. However, field data suggest

that fertility level is not significantly affected

by the time of day of insemination.

For catching hens and uncaged toms for

artificial insemination, a lighted room that can

be darkened is very useful. (See '^Handling

Turkeys.")

Pedigree Breeding

A relatively simple but effective plan for

breeding turkeys for broad-breasted conformation combined with good reproductive ability

is the rotational system. It can be practiced

with either multiple-male or, preferably,

single-male matings. At least 8, but preferably

10 to 20, breeding pens should be maintained

and at the outset should be set up to provide

as much divergence in blood lines as possible;

that is, no two matings should be alike so far

as relationship of the tom and hens is concerned. Where relationships are not known,

random selection is necessary. The hens in

these pens should be trapnested, the eggs

marked according to hen number and hatched

separately, and the resulting poults individually banded to preserve their identity and

make family selection possible.

A minimum of 10 poults, but preferably 20,

should be raised from each breeding hen with

satisfactory breeding-pen performance; none

need be raised from hens with unsatisfactory

performance. When they reach market age,

the best males and females from the 10 or more

poults raised from the best dams in each pen

are selected for the next season^s breeding.

The new females usually are returned to the

pen from which they originated. The new

males, however, are moved over one or two

pens each season. For example, females out of

Pen 1 would remain in Pen 1, but the males

out of Pen 1 would go into Pen 3 for the next

season's breeding. Pen 2 males go to Pen 4 and

so on, completing the cycle until males from

the next to last pen go into Pen 1 and those

from the last pen into Pen 2. This procedure

can be repeated indefinitely without building

up a high percentage of inbreeding. Sometimes
14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 39 3, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

the progeny from a pen must be discarded because of poor results, disease, accident, or some

other cause. Then a new pen for the next year

usually would be made up either from the

other pens or from outside stock.

Reserve toms, about three full or half

brothers of the selected male (or males) in

each breeding pen, should be retained for substitution when necessary because of disease,

injury, or poor performance. These reserve

males can be maintained separately or utilized

in flock matings.

The basis for selection of each year's young

breeding birds is primarily the dam's reproductive performance and the market quality

of her offspring. From trapnest and incubation

records, based on a breeding season of 16 to 22

weeks, the breeding hens are rated according

to performance, which includes egg production, fertility, and hatchability, including only

normal poults. All progeny from dams that

have poor performance records should be discarded either at hatching time or later, and

none, regardless of individual quality, should

be retained for breeding.

The 10 to 20 wingbanded progeny from each

breeding hen that has a good performance record should be raised to market age of about 24

weeks, using the same age each year. At that

time each bird is graded on desirable physical

characteristics.* All physically qualified progeny from dams with satisfactory breeding records are retained for final selection at about

30 weeks. At the final selection, the finest progeny from the best qualified dams are selected

as breeders.

Trapnesting

Trapnesting provides information on a hen's

egg-laying ability and makes individual pedigreeing possible. One trapnest should be provided for each two hens. With this many nests,

three visits a day by the attendant are sufficient. During the period before the beginning

of egg production, the hens should have free

access to the trapnests. They must be watched

carefully to see that they do not lay their eggs

outside the nests. Secluded places in the house

or yard should be eliminated. A satisfactory

type of trapnest is illustrated in figure 8. The

turkey enters at the front through the trapdoor, which closes authomatically when she is

inside. The door at the top of the coop is

opened to release her from the nest. Plans

for trapnests and nests with tip-ups (gates)

are available.*

The use of numbered saddles instead of legbands makes trapnesting considerably easier

because less handling of the hen is required.

The hen's number is marked on the saddle in

11/4-inch-high figures with a rubber stamp

(one for each digit) and indelible waterproof

ink (fig. 5). The number should be placed

along the lower rear edge on both sides and in

the middle, and all the large wing feathers of

both wings should be clipped so the numbers

can be read. Numbers also may be placed on

the center, the rear center, and the underside

rear center so that the numbers still may be

read if the rear of the saddle curls up. All

numbers should be readable from the rear.

Strain and Variety Crossing

Strain crossing is the crossing of diflferent

strains of the same turkey variety. It is sometimes a desirable method to use for the commercial production of poults because it

prevents inbreeding and may in some cases

produce a certain amount of hybrid vigor, or

heterosis. The large-scale breeder can use the

principle of strain crossing by developing a

female line selected with emphasis on high

reproductive ability and a relatively unrelated

male line selected for the desired size and conformation characteristics. The two lines are

then crossed to produce commercial ''hybrid"

poults to be raised only for market purposes.

Both lines should be carefully selected and retained in pure form each season as the foundation stock for the continuation of the strain

crossing project.

Variety crossing is the crossing of two different turkey varieties and in itself ofifers little

advantage because hybrid vigor does not always result and the offspring tend to vary

considerably in their physical characteristics.

Three-way crossing using three varieties or

two strains of one variety and one strain of
TURKEY PRODUCTION 15

Figure 8.—Battery of turkey nests. Each nest can be equipped with trapnest fronts, as shown, or with a tip-up

front (semitrapnest ; see fig. 9). (Photo from Colorado State University.)

a second variety offers some advantages but

may be too involved to be practicable and the

variability of the offspring remains a disadvantage.

Out-of-Season Breeding

In most areas of the northern hemisphere,

turkeys hatched between about September 1

and April 1 can be considered out-of-season

birds that become physically mature during

the period of naturally increasing light days

or while daylight is decreasing, but the

weather is warm, over about 65° F. (18.3° C),

and the light day is 11 hours or longer. Such

out-of-season hens become refractive to light

stimulation and will not lay well or very long

when given a lengthened light day.

To obtain high egg production, the out-ofseason hens, but not the toms, should be preconditioned by placing them under light restriction starting at 20 to 22 weeks of age

and continuing to about 30 weeks. During restriction, allow 6 to 9 hours of natural light

or artificial light of 1 to 2 foot-candles (11 to

22 lux) at bird height per 24-hour day. During

the remaining 15 to 18 hours, confine the hens

in almost complete darkness, not over 0.1 footcandle, in which white birds can barely be

seen and newspaper headlines barely read

(brownout). The temperature inside the building at bird height should not be allowed to go

above 85° F. (29.4° C.) Forced ventilation

and insulation combined should solve the

problem in most situations. High-ceiling buildings such as barns help to combat heat but

are difficult to darken. If the building is opened

up during the lighted period, for example, 10

a.m. to 6 p.m., some relief from the daytime

heat will be obtained.
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Out-of-season toms may be grown to physical maturity under natural light conditions if

the light days are 13 hours or longer. If the

natural daylength, sunrise to sunset, is shorter

than that, lengthen it to 13 to 15 hours with

artificial light starting at 26 weeks of age or

older and allowing about 4 weeks to bring the

toms into sexual maturity by the time they

are needed for breeding.

Out-of-season breeding stock should be fed

and managed in the same manner as normalseason birds and the intensities of light used

should be the same. Failure to obtain efficient

out-of-season production usually stems from

(1) starting the light-restriction period too

late—after production starts—or (2) allowing

too much light during the brownout hours of

the restriction period.

Second-Season Breeding

A satisfactory second round of egg production during the off-season usually can be obtained from normal-season breeding hens of all

varieties by putting them on a 6- to 9-hour

light day, as already outlined, as soon as egg

production is no longer needed. The reduction

In the length of the light day will cause egg

production to cease and a molt to start. From

12 to 15 weeks are required for the hens to

complete the molt and regain the weight lost

during the previous production period. After

the hens complete the molt and regain their

lost weight, put them on the regular 14- to

15-hour stimulatory lighting program with

full feeding of a complete breeder diet. Feed

during the short-day molting period can be

the regular breeder diet full fed in the usual

manner. Egg production during the second

production period should be about 75 percent

of the first.

The males used for second-season breeding

should be young, out-of-season birds hatched

the previous winter, but if necessary, the original males may be used. If they have already

molted or are molting when the hens go on

reduced light, the year-old males can remain

on natural daylight. If they have not started

to molt, they should be given the reduced-light

treatment along with the hens. In either case

it would be advisable to put the molted males

on stimulatory light for about 4 weeks before

the hens are lighted to be sure they are producing semen when it is needed. Hens selected

for the second season should be examined carefully to eliminate injured and sick birds and, if

records are available, the poor layers and those

persistently broody.

BREEDER MANAGEMENT AND HOUSING*

Management on Limited Range

Access to fenced range is especially desirable where natural mating is used, but the soil

must be free from diseases and parasites and

the turkeys must be protected from natural

enemies and bad weather. The use of unprotected, unlimited range is impracticable.

Select sandy soil with good natural drainage

and a good sod cover but with no brush piles

or thick vegetation of any kind. A good arrangement consists of a permanent predatorproof shelter connected with two or three

permanent yards, each yard supplying about

150 square feet of range per bird. The birds

use each yard for a week at a time, the other

yard or yards remaining vacant. Feeders and

waterers are inside the shelter; nests may be

either inside or outside, or both places. Outside

nests are arranged somewhat differently in the

two or three yards. The alternation of yards

helps in sanitation, maintenance of forage, and

discouragement of broodiness. The breeder

turkeys roost inside the building on the litter

or on low roosts, which are preferred. During

the part of the year when the breeder yards

are not used, they should be kept free from all

turkeys and other poultry; but the building, if

thoroughly cleaned, could be used for rearing

young birds in confinement without access to

the soil. The type of building used would depend somewhat on climatic conditions.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 17

Housing on Limited Range

Where winters are mild and prolonged rains

are rare, housing is not necessary, but the

birds should have roosts and shade. However,

minimum shelter consisting mainly of low

roosts under a roof is highly recommended. In

all situations the breeder area should be well

fenced (see p. 19) and if necessary, other measures should be taken to provide protection

against predatory animals. The shelter can be

pole type or conventional with the sills bolted

to a concrete foundation. It should be located

on well-drained ground and have a flood-proof

floor providing about 4 square feet per bird.

The feeders, waterers, nests, and a broody pen

can be placed under the roof. The turkeys can

roost on the litter or on low roosts under the

roof, which are preferred.

Where winters are cold, in areas north of

about the 38th parallel in North America, reasonably good housing should be provided. A

permanent, single-wall, gable-roof, 30- to 40-

foot-wide breeder house can be positioned to

face in an easterly or southeasterly direction,

assuming that prevailing winds are from the

west. Pole-type construction is widely used.

The north and south ends can be solid except

for drive-through doors. The west side can be

solid except for turkey doors and an almost

full-length, small-bird-proof, wire-covered

opening about 3 feet high placed directly under

the overhanging 6-foot-high eaves. This opening should be closable. Down-sliding glass

window sashes, solid top-hinged panels, or

roll-down, heavy, clear-plastic curtains can be

used, usually outside the wire screen. Panels or

plastic curtains can be winch operated. The

east side can be of wire and framing only, or

in very severe climates it can be made like the

west side. The littered floor can be of smoothly

packed earth or concrete or asphalt about 3

inches thick placed on a smooth, level, earthen

base graded up to prevent flooding. Concrete or

asphalt floors are preferred. Air movement

should be provided by small-bird-screened roof

ventilators or by a full-length, 1-foot-high,

small-bird-screened opening at the peak of the

roof, the opening faced away from the prevailing winds (figs. 26 and 27, p. 51).

Electricity usually is installed for lighting

and water warming.

To provide access to the yards, install turkey

doors at ground level. If these doors are not

more than about 30 inches high, the entry of

wild birds will be minimized. To provide passage for the attendant, use the Dutch door arrangement or add special full-length doors,

one opening into each yard. A building along

the lines suggested can also be used for housing growing turkeys that have access to yards,

or it can be used for housing breeding or

growing turkeys that are completely confined.

Wire Screening

Wire screening to cover openings that start

31/2 feet or more above the ground can be of

% by % inch, 17-gage hardware cloth to exclude wild birds and other intruders. Other

suitable screening wires are %-inch hexagonal

mesh, 19-gage netting, and 1/2- by 1/2-inch, 19-

gage hardware cloth. One- by lV2-inch or 1-

by 2-inch, 14-gage welded wire and 1-inchmesh chicken wire sometimes are used to

screen poultry houses, but they do not completely exclude house sparrows and other small

birds. For openings at or near ground level,

the screen should be made of 14-gage or heavier wire securely fastened to exclude dogs.

Partitions

Partitions should be installed in the house

and the yards to provide room for breeding

units of the desired size. For example, an inside area of 2,000 square feet would house a

breeding unit of 500 birds that had access to

a yard or porch.

Litter

Some materials suitable for breeder-house

litter are soft-wood planer shavings, wheat

straw, shredded cane, and peat moss. Various

other materials can be used, among them oat

straw, beardless barley straw, and soybean

straw, but they are less desirable. Peanut hulls

and crushed corncobs make good litter but

unless they are quickly and thoroughly dried,

they may carry dangerous molds. Bearded bar-
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 39 3, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

ley and other straws containing sharp particles

are not recommended because they may cause

mechanical sinusitis. Litter should first be about

4 inches deep then built up as needed to provide good floor covering and prevent excessive

dust and buildup of droppings. The litter should

be removed at the end of the season and, where

possible, the whole inside of the building washed down with water under pressure, dried

thoroughly, and allowed to remain vacant for

at least 1 month. Disinfection of the house

after cleaning may be indicated if disease has

been present, but thorough washdown, and

drying out followed by depopulation usually

are suflîcient.

Nests

Nests with tip-up fronts, or semitrapnests,

one for each four or five hens, are recommended

(fig. 9). They can be made of wood* or of

more durable welded iron or heavy plastic. The

tip-ups, or gates, must be carefully constructed and balanced or equipped with springs so

the tip-up closes behind a hen when she enters

and remains closed until she leaves. As she

Figure 9.—Interior of confinement breeder house with hanging feeders adjustable for height and double-deck nests

with tip-up fronts. Feeders are suspended from moving track and are filled mechanically at one end of building.

(Photo from Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario.)
TURKEY PRODUCTION 19

leaves, the tip-up is automatically reset so

another hen may enter. Well-ventilated nest

compartments for the tip-up nests can be in

battery form, each nest 14 to 16 inches wide

by 24 inches deep by 24 inches high with a

footboard about 5 inches high. For convenience

in egg gathering, nest batteries with floorboards can be raised 3 or 4 inches above the

floor level and lined up in a single row near

the side of the house or in a double row, with

an alley between, near the center of the house.

Single-decking is preferred but nest batteries

can be double-deck if the top deck is equipped

with walk-up ramps and a walkway about 2

feet wide (fig. 9). Broody hens and eggs are

best removed from a hinged door in the rear,

or if the batteries are single-deck, the top of

the nest. Figure 8 illustrates a nest battery

that can be equipped with either tip-ups or

trapnest fronts.

Nests of all types should be installed and

made operational well in advance of egg production; otherwise, the hens may be slow

in learning to use them.

If neither tip-up nests nor trapnests are

used, nest batteries can be the open-manger

type, about 2 feet wide by 8 or 10 feet long

with 1-foot sideboards, each battery accommodating 50 to 60 hens. A single partition in the

middle is desirable. On dry soil or a solid

floor, nests can be bottomless but should be

placed on top of a strip of smooth-surface

asphalt roofing or other resilient water-proof

material under which a smoothed, thin layer

of any available litter is placed. This arrangement provides a desirable cushioning and protection from dampness. If the nests are outside, add an overhanging roof; and if ground

flooding is a problem, add a raised wooden

floor.

Roofed nesting houses 4 or 5 feet high are

satisfactory for outside use, a 6- by 8-foot

unit accomodating about 150 hens. The houses

should be placed on a dry location or equipped

with a raised wooden floor covered with a

resilient bottom as suggested in the previous

paragraph.

For nesting litter, a variety of materials

is satisfactory—hay, straw, shredded cane,

shavings, rice hulls, and pea gravel. Use only a

moderate amount of nesting litter so eggs can

be readily found. Thick litter will cover up the

eggs and make them hard to find.

Fences and Roosts

A tightly stretched, heavy-gage poultry

fence, 6 feet high and placed close to the ground

with all depressions plugged, will confine turkeys of all ages and protect them from dogs,

foxes, and coyotes. Fencing 5 feet high is

reasonably effective but these animals sometimes can climb and lightweight turkeys can

fly over it.

Housed breeders usually are not given roosts

but breeders roosting in the open should have

them. A suggested roosting arrangement for

all types and ages of turkeys is a portable

framework topped with 2 by 4^s laid flat, all

placed on the same level, the upper surfaces

8 to 12 inches above the ground or floor

and 24 inches apart center to center.

Shade

Shade for breeders is necessary where temperatures are likely to be above 100° F. (37.8°

C). In extreme heat, higher than about 110°

F. (43° C), sprinklers may be needed in addition to shade.

Control of Broodiness

Broodiness occurs in all strains of turkeys

but is less common in some strains, notably the

BSW. The condition is difficult to identify in

turkeys, but it is practicable to assume that all

hens found on the nest around sundown or

in the early morning near sunrise are broody.

Once or twice each week, drive them into a

broody pen or yard and keep them there about

5 days. The broody pen, if inside, should be

well lighted. It should contain water and the

regular breeder feed but no nests or dark

corners. If the hens are saddled, one or more

active males may be added. Slat, wire, or gravel floors are preferred in the broody pens

but lightly littered floors are satisfactory.

Providing roosts, rotating the range areas

weekly, and chasing the hens on the nests at

every egg gathering may help to discourage

broodiness.
20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Breeding in Confinement

Breeding in complete confinement on littered floors (fig. 9) is practicable under most

conditions. Labor cost is lower, better management is possible, and disease control is easier.

Confinement is preferred when the available

range is unsuitable or contaminated, or when

predatory animals and unfavorable weather

are serious problems.

Buildings and equipment suitable for rearing young stock also are suitable for breeding

stock and vice versa, but breeding stock requires relatively more floor space. Where natural mating is used, the optimum floor space

per bird in the mated flock may be about 11

square feet for the large breeds and 9 for the

smaller breeds. Where only hens are housed,

the optimum floor space per hen may be about

6 square feet for large breeds and 5 for small

breeds if: (1) The hens are debeaked; (2)

they are artifically inseminated and no males

are allowed with them; and (3) ample ventilation, preferably mechanical, is provided.

Debeaking is recommended for all confined

breeders. If not previously debeaked, the birds

can be debeaked at the time of selection, blood

testing, or vaccination.

The lighting schedule for confined breeders can be one of those suggested for breeding

stock allowed outdoors. (See p. 23.)

In mild climates the main feature of the

confinement breeder house can be gable roof

with wide, overhanging eaves about 6 feet

above the floor (fig. 26, p. 51). All four sides

are enclosed with strong, small-mesh wire but

with enough boarding to provide stability. A

concrete or asphalt floor is best, but if a dirt

floor is used, it should be smooth, hard packed,

and well graded up to prevent flooding. Insulation and forced ventilation are not needed

but roof ventilation should be provided. Partitions about 6 feet high, either solid or solid

3 feet up from the floor, should be installed

to divide the flock into breeding units of 500

to 1,000 birds. All plywood used in turkey

buildings and equipment should be of the exterior marine water-proof types.

For year-round or early-season production

in areas with cold winters, the confinement

breeder house can be a single-wall wooden

building with closable windows as described

on page 17. However, some operators prefer a

controlled environment in which the building

is insulated, vapor sealed, mechanically ventilated, heated to about 50° F. (10° C.) in

cold weather, and air-conditioned in hot weather

to a livable 60° to 65° F. (15.5° to 18° C.)

Under these controlled conditions, floor space

could be reduced to about 41/2 square feet per

large-type hen, 31/2 per small-type hen.

Confined breeders are fed and, in general,

managed the same way as breeders on range.

Special attention should be given to the diet,

which must be nutritionally complete and well

balanced.

Breeder Batteries

Accurate egg records and egg identification

can be obtained through the use of breeder

batteries instead of trapnests. The hens are

held in individual batteries especially designed

for turkeys. Insemination is artificial. Turkey

breeding males can be held in individual batteries about 2 feet square and 2V2 feet high.

It has been reported that caged males can produce up to 30 percent more semen than males

maintained in groups on litter. Battery breeding has been found useful in research work

but its value in practical operations has not

been established. It appears to work best with

small or medium-size hens.

A battery unit 22 inches (55 cm.) wide,

20 inches (50 cm.) deep, and 22 inches (55

cm.) high will hold two medium-size turkey

hens. The wire floor can be sloped upwards

about 2.7 inches (7 cm.) from front to rear.

For one large hen the dimensions can be 16

inches (40 cm.) wide, 24 inches (60 cm.) deep,

and 24 inches (60 cm.) high; for one small or

medium-size hen, 2 inches (5 cm.) less each

way; for three large hens, 32 inches (80 cm.)

wide, 24 inches (60 cm), deep, and 24 inches

(60 cm.) high. The two- or three-hen batteries

appear to work well but individual egg pedigrees cannot be obtained.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 21

FEEDING BREEDING STOCK*

All breeding turkeys, males and females,

should be given free access to a nutritionally

complete breeder diet starting about a month

before eggs are expected. Before that time

they can be fed all they will eat of the same

growing diets as those fed to market stock.

Restricting the feed of prospective breeding

hens is not recommended. An example of a

complete all-mash ration is Breeder Diet No. 1,

as follows :

Pounds

Ingredient : Percent per ton

Yellow corn, medium grind 34.9 698

Wheat middlings, standard 20 400

Heavy oats or milo, pulverized _ _ 15 300

Dehydrated alfalfa meal, 17 per- 8 160

cent protein.*

Soybean meal, solvent, 44 percent 5 100

protein.

Fishmeal, 60 percent protein 6 120

Delactosed dried whey ^ 2.5 50

Distillers dried product (70 percent 2.5 5.0

solubles, 30 percent grains).

Ground oystershell or limestone _ _ 2.5 50

Steamed bonemeal or dicalcium 3 60

phosphate.

Finely ground salt (sodium chlor- .25 5

ide), plain or iodized.

Vitamin-trace mineral mix ^ .35 7

Total - 100 2,000

* 6 percent alfalfa leaf meal or dried cereal grass and

a 2-percent increase in corn may be substituted for the

8 percent alfalfa.

^ Dried brewer's yeast or plain dried whey may be

substituted pound for pound.

' A premixed product with approximately the following composition per pound:

Vitamin A

U.S. Pharmacopoeia (U.S.P.) units 1,000,000

Vitamin D3

International Chick Units (ICU) 300,000

Vitamin E milligrams 4,000

Vitamin K _ _ do _ _ 400

Riboflavin micrograms 800,000

Niacin milligrams 4,000

d-pantothenic acid _ „ do _ _ 2,400

Choline chloride _ _ do _ _ 40,000

Vitamin B12 micrograms 2,0Q0

Butylated hydroxytoluene milligrams 22,680

(BHT).

Manganese (Mn) percent 2.4

Zince (Zn) _^do__ 1.1

Iodine (I) __do--- .048

Breeder Diet No. 1 contains about 16.5 percent protein, 2.3 percent calcium, and 1 percent total phosphorus. Supply water and insoluble grit free choice. If a disease preventive

is needed, 50 to 100 grams of furazolidone or

a tetracycline antibiotic can be added per ton

of feed. Granulated oystershell may be fed free

choice but usually the added calcium is neither

necessary nor desirable.

If it is not practicable to obtain a complete

feed, a simplified one can be substituted, but

the birds must be given continual access to

direct sunshine and succulent, palatable green

feed. An example of a simplified all-mash ration is Breeder Diet No. 2, as follows :

Pounds

Ingredient : Percent per ton

Yellow corn, medium grind * 30 600

Wheat middlings, standard 30 600

Heavy oats, pulverized 12 240

Meat scrap, 50 to 55 percent 7 140

protein.

Fishmeal 7 140

Dehydrated alfalfa meal, 17 per- 10 200

cent protein.^

Ground oystershell or limestone _ _ 2.5 50

Steamed bonemeal or dicalcium 1 20

phosphate.

Finely ground salt (sodium .5 10

chloride), iodized preferred.

Total 100 2,000

^ Good-quality grain sorghum may be substituted

pound for pound.

^ 7.5 percent dried grass or alfalfa leaf meal and a

2.5-percent increase in corn may be substituted.

This mash contains about 19 percent protein,

2.3 percent calcium, and 1 percent total phosphorus. Clean water and free access to growing

green feed and direct sunshine must be provided. If direct sunshine tends to be restricted,

add vitamin D as fish oil or as a dry product

to provide about 900 International Chick Units

(I.C.U.) per pound of diet. Granulated oystershell may be offered free choice with this diet

but usually is not needed.

Iron (Fe) _ _ do

Copper (Cu) _ _ do

Cobalt (Co) _ _ do

.8

.08

.008
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

All-mash diets are preferred but breeder

diets of mash and grain or concentrate and

grain are satisfactory if the grain is fed in the

proportions recommended by the formulator

of the mash or the concentrate, which may

be either pelleted or fed in loose form. Pelleting may help to reduce wastage caused by wind

and billing out by the turkeys.

Feed consumption of breeding turkeys

amounts to about 0.03 pound per day per pound

of average live weight at the time the first

eggs are laid. On this basis, feed consumption

of breeding turkeys is as follows :

Feed consumed Feed consumed

by 1 hen by 1 torn

Pound Pound

Size of turkey : per day per day

Large 0.60 LOO

Medium .45 .75

Small .35 .65

Gravel or commercial insoluble grit and clean

water should be available to the birds. No feed

should be placed on the ground. Outdoor feeders and waterers should be moved frequently

or placed on a grill to avoid unsanitary conditions.

PRODUCTION AND CARE OF EGGS

Egg Production

The number of eggs per hen produced in a

season depends on the breeding as well as on

climatic conditions and management, including the use of artificial light. Without artificial light in the northern tier of States, wellmatured young turkey hens of the better

laying strains should average about 40 eggs to

June 1, and hens in their second laying season

about 30 eggs, provided broodiness is discouraged promptly. In the middle States, these

well-matured young turkey hens should lay

about 50 eggs to June 1, and in the southern

tier of States, about 60 eggs. With adequate

artificial light starting December 1, these hens

should average about 100 eggs to the following

June 1, or 160 to October 1. The poorer laying

strains usually average only about 75 percent

as many eggs as the better strains. Young

hens come into 40-percent production 20 to

30 days (average 25) after stimulatory lighting starts.

Egg Characteristics

Except after a long laying period, typical turkey eggs vary in general overall color from

light to medium dark brown and are well

sprinkled with medium- to dark-brown spots

superimposed on a light, yellowish-brown (ecru) ground color. The shell normally is strong,

with the shell membranes very tough and the

yolk quite firm but enclosed by a weak vitelline

membrane. In shape the eggs are noticeably

pointed at one end (fig. 10).

As the egg-laying season progresses and

production is heavy, shell texture may deteriorate and the shell usually becomes lighter,

sometimes almost white, with inconspicuous

spotting or none at all. Although these changes

usually can be considered normal, the occurrence of many light-colored, thin shells sugFRESH

6 DAYS >

24 DAYS

BN-33232

Figure 10.—Diagram showing proper size of air cell

in egg after 6, 12, 18, and 24 days of incubation at 60-

percent relative humidity.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 23

gests disease involvement. In this case an investigation is in order and the abnormal eggs

should not be used for hatching.

Normal turkey eggs not needed for hatching

can be used as human food for they are as

palatable and nutritious as chicken eggs. They

sometimes are broken and the contents frozen.

First-year eggs of the large broad-breasted

bronze or white varieties weigh about 38 ounces

per dozen, or 3.167 ounces (90 grams) each;

those of the medium-size standard varieties, 36

ounces per dozen, or 3 ounces (85 grams) each;

and those of the standard Beltsville Small

White, about 32 ounces per dozen, or 2.667

ounces (75.6 grams) each. Yearling hens lay

eggs averaging about 7 percent heavier than

those of the same hens in the first laying season. Lumpy shells are not uncommon and if

the shell itself is not weak or thin, the lumps

do not affect hatchability. If young hens are

well matured, 34 to 35 weeks or older when

laying starts, their first eggs are almost as

large as they will be at any time during their

first laying season. However, if brought into

production while physically immature, turkey

hens lay only a few small eggs, which increase

in size quite slowly and never become normal

in size.

Egg Gathering and Storage

Turkey hatching eggs should be gathered

three times daily. Sometimes more frequent

gathering is essential to avoid breakage, dirtying, and freezing. After the eggs are gathered,

they should be held at room temperature, 75°

to 85° F. (24° to 29° C), for about 24 hours or

at least overnight, then stored at 55° to 60°

F. (13° to 16° C.) until they are set. At 28° F.

(-2.2° C.) eggs begin to freeze, and then

are useless for hatching. During storage, eggs

can be cased with large ends up or trayed lying on their sides. Egg cases may be stood

partly on end, sloped at a 45° angle. Reversing

the cases end for end once or twice daily during storage turns the eggs. This turning is

advisable if eggs are to be stored longer than

1 week. Relative humidity of the air in the

storage facility is not too important but extremes under 40- and over 80-percent relative

humidity should be avoided. Ventilation is

needed in the egg-holding quarters if mold

growth is seen on the eggs.

Turkey hatching eggs should not be held

over 1 week, but if storage conditions are

favorable and the eggs are turned daily, hatchability will be retained quite well for 2 weeks

and fairly well for as long as 3 weeks.

Dirty eggs usually show lowered hatchability and may transmit disease. To keep eggs

clean, use well-designed and well-placed nests,

preferably with tip-up fronts, and clean litter;

gather eggs frequently ; and keep turkeys out of

mud. Eggs badly soiled should be discarded.

Eggs moderately or lightly soiled can be machine washed or hand washed by soaking in

tvarm water, 105° F. (40.5° C), for about

10 minutes, sponging off the dirt, rinsing the

eggs in clean water, and allowing them to dry

without rubbing. The warm water should contain about 200 parts per million of an acceptable quarternary ammonium disinfectant.

Fumigating clean or cleaned eggs with formaldehyde gas* is the best method of sanitizing

eggs where this is required for disease control.

Cracked eggs, if clean, sometimes can be

hatched if the cracked place is covered with

collodion or a proprietary preparation containing it. However, the danger of infection is

great so it is inadvisable to incubate cracked

eggs.

Exploding Eggs

Eggs infected with PseudoTnonas bacteria

may become rotten and explode during incubation, contaminating the incubator with foulsmelling material and necessitating thorough

cleaning and fumigation. In hot, wet weather,

eggs laid in muddy soil or contaminated with

it sometimes pick up the widespread infection, apparently absorbing it through the

shell. To prevent this infection, produce eggs

uncontaminated with soil. Washing and fumigating contaminated eggs (see above) immediately after gathering may help, but it is

advisable to discard all soil-dirtied eggs laid

in hot, wet weather.

Artificial Lighting

Egg production can be controlled by the

proper use of artificial light. Spring- and sum-
24 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

mer-hatched hens of all varieties require no

special light treatment during the growing

season, but they should be 30 to 32 weeks of

age at the time they are given stimulatory

light of 13 to 15 hours daily. Toms 26 or more

weeks of age should be given stimulatory light

3 or 4 weeks ahead of the hens with which

they are to be mated. To obtain a 14-hour

light day, turn the lights on abruptly 14 hours

before tha local hour of sunset and leave them

on each day until natural light takes over, or

later in the morning, 9 or 10 a.m., for convenience in checking for malfunctions. Starting the lights at 2:45 a.m. in mid-December

in the area of 40° north latitude provides a

light day of about 14 hours at the start. If

the same starting hour is retained until late

June, the daylength gradually increases to a

maximum of about 17 hours because of the later

occurring sunsets. If eggs are desired after

July 1, a light day equal to the maximum obtained in late June should be maintained by

starting the lights earlier as the summer days

grow shorter. A satisfactory alternative plan,

well adapted to confined breeding stock, is to

turn the lights on at 5:30 a.m. and off at 7:30

p.m. every day. This produces a reasonably

uniform 14-hour day throughout the season.

Regularity in lighting is essential. An ordinary alarm clock rigged with a simple switch

may be used to turn on the electric lamps but

they must be turned off by hand and the clock

reset each evening. A time switch can be used

to turn lights on and off automatically. Ordinary incandescent white electric light is the

most practical. Gasoline and gasmantle lanterns also are satisfactory, but must be handled

with care to prevent fire.

The intensity of artificial light supplied can

range from 0.6 to 40.0 foot-candles at bird

height. The practical optimum is between 2

and 5 foot-candles. An intensity of 21/2 to 3

foot-candles can be obtained from clean 75-

watt incandescent light bulbs without reñectors

or 60-watt bulbs with reflectors placed 6 feet

above the roosting birds' backs, 10 feet apart,

and 5 feet from the sides of the building or

roosting area. Reflectors are not necessary,

but if they are used, the wattage can be reduced by about 20 percent as noted above.

Aluminum pie pans make satisfactory reflectors, but they should not touch the base of the

bulbs, which should be cleaned occasionally.

Light the roosting, watering, and feeding

areas at about the same intensity at bird

height. If these areas are not lighted, the birds

should be confined to the lighted roosting area

until natural daylight takes over. An alternative is to use red light or low-intensity white

light, either of which will keep the birds on

the roosts until natural daylight prevails. For

red light, use 25-watt bulbs installed 31/2 feet

apart and 3^/2 feet above the roosting birds'

backs. For low-intensity white light of about

0.6 foot-candle, use 15-watt bulbs installed 10

feet apart and 6 feet above the roosting birds*

backs. Low-intensity lighting is about as effective as high-intensity lighting provided the

length of the light day is 14 to 15 hours.

Unhoused turkeys on roosts can be lighted

successfully, but the wiring and fixtures should

be waterproof and the lamps, 6 feet above the

birds' backs, should be fixed firmly in and protected by an inverted trough or similar device,

which may he painted on the underside with

aluminum paint to act as a reflector. Unstabilized reflectors are not satisfactory in outdoor

installations. Floodlamps or quartz-light lamps

encircling the roosting area are satisfactory.

There is little danger of overlighting, but light

is wasted if the intensity exceeds 5 foot-candles

at bird height.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION

Incubator Operation

Modern incubators (flg. 11) are very efficient hatching machines if properly operated.

In general, recommendations of the manufacturer should be followed.

Temperature requirements for the incubation of turkey eggs are the same as those for

chicken eggs ; but with natural-draft (flat-type)

incubators in which the thermometer is suspended from the top of the machine or sits

on a stand, a change in the position of the
TURKEY PRODUCTION 25

BN-37198

Figure 11.—Modern incubator. Drum is reversed automatically every 3 hours to turn eggs. Humidity indicator and temperature recording device are in door

at left.

thermometer must be made because of the

greater size of the turkey eggs. With incubators in which the thermometer lies on top

of the eggs and in forced-draft machines, no

adjustment is necessary and the incubators

can be operated according to temperature directions for hatching either turkey or chicken

eggs.

The proper position of the thermometer for

hatching turkey eggs usually is indicated in

the directions furnished by the manufacturer.

When such directions are not furnished, adjust the position of the thermometer so that

the bottom of the bulb is 1% inches (4.8 cm.)

above the floor of the egg tray. In this position,

the thermometer should read 100.5° F. (38.0°

C.) for the first week; 101.5° (38.6° C.) the

second; 102.5° (39.2° C.) the third; and 103°

(39.4° C.) the last. An alternative is to maintain a temperature of 102° (39° C.) throughout the hatch. At no time should the temperature exceed 103° (39.4° C). Be sure the egg

trays in natural-draft incubators do not sag

because sagging trays cause harmful variations

in temperatureForced-draft incubators usually are run at

a uniform temperature of about 99.5° F. (37.5°

C.) but temperatures may vary slightly in different types of incubators.

Humidity requirements are met when the

weight loss due to removal of moisture during

incubation, based on the weight of eggs just

before they are set, ranges within the following limits :

Weight loss

Acceptable Ideal

Days of incubation : range

Number Percent Percent

6 2 to 3 2.5

12 4 to 6 5.0

18 7to9 7.5

24 9 to 12 10.0

The ideal weight loss produces air cells of

about the size shown in figure 10.

When moisture is needed in the incubator,

as it usually is, can be provided by a humidifying device, by putting pans of water in

the incubator, or by placing burlap wicks in

pans already there. When less moisture is needed, water pans can be removed or the ventilation increased.

Modern forced-draft incubators are equipped

with a humidifier that supplies water and regulates the humidity of the air in the machine.

Relative humidity is indicated by the difference

between the wet- and dry-bulb readings. At a

dry-bulb temperature of 99.5° F. (37.5° C), a

wet-bulb reading of 87.5° (30.8° C.) shows a

difference of 12° (6.7° C). This figure indicates

a relative humidity of about 62 percent,

which is satisfactory for large turkey eggs during the first 21 to 25 days of incubation or

until they are transferred to the hatching

facilities. At a dry-bulb temperature of 99.5°

(37.5° C), a wet-bulb reading of 88.5° (31.4°

C.) shows a difference of 11° (6.1° C). This

figure indicates a relative humidity of 66 percent, which is preferred for small turkey eggs

although good hatches can be obtained with a

wet-bulb reading as low as 86° F. (30° C).

During the hatching period (after the eggs are

transferred to the hatching facilities at 21 to

25 days), a relative humidity of about 70 percent is desirable. With a dry-bulb temperature

of 97° F. (36.1° C.) in the hatcher, the wetbulb reading should be about 88° F. (31° C.) ;

with a dry-bulb temperature of 99.5° F.

(37.5° C), the wet-bulb reading should be

about 90° F. (32.2° C).

Eggs should be turned at least three and

preferably five to eight times daily, usually
26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 39 3, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

every 3 hours, day and night, during the incubation period until the eggs are transferred to

the hatching facilities. Turning after transfer is not recommended. Turkey eggs may be

transferred any time between the 21st and

early the 25th day of incubation, counting

the day after that on which the eggs were set

as the first day. However, if transfer is made

late the 25th day, an occasional small-type

poult will have hatched in the setting trays.

Incubators should be kept in a ventilated

basement or an insulated, aboveground, ventilated room. Where room ventilation is inadequate, fresh air should be conducted directly

into the incubator air intakes or close to them.

Uniform room temperature of about 70° F.

(21.1° C), a fairly high relative humidity ranging between 49 and 60 percent, and good

ventilation are desirable features in an incubator room.

Incubation at elevations over 3,500 feet above

sea level presents some difficulties because the

thin air does not provide enough oxygen for

the developing embryo. This deficiency can be

corrected by adding oxygen as suggested by the

Colorado Experiment Station.*

After the 23d or 24th day of incubation,

any glass-covered opening that exists in the

hatching chamber should be darkened and

should be kept dark until hatching is completed

so that the poults do not crowd to the light. If

incubation has been normal, hatching will be

completed after 28 days of incubation for largetype turkeys and after 2714 days for small-type

turkeys. As soon as hatching is completed, the

poults, which should weigh about 67 percent

of the egg weight before incubation, should

be removed and placed in the brooding quarters

with feed and water available.

If the poults are to be shipped, they should

be put in poult boxes and shipped as soon as

possible. If they are held in the incubator or

in a battery, the temperature should be 95°

to 99° F. (35° to 37.5° C.) and the poults

should have a rough surface, such as 0.4 inch

(No. 21/2) mesh hardware cloth, to stand on. A

slippery surface, such as that provided by

smooth paper, may cause leg injury.

Testing Incubated Eggs

Testing the eggs by candling to remove those

that are infertile or contain dead embryos

gives valuable information and eliminates waste

of space caused by incubating unhatchable

eggs. Under commercial conditions, the eggs

are usually candled only at the time they are

transferred to the hatching trays after 21 to

24, sometimes 25, days of incubation. At this

time, all clear eggs and those showing development not up to normal are removed from the

incubator trays while those with normally developing embryos are transferred to the hatching trays.

To candle eggs, pass them before a small

spot or narrow slit of strong, white light in a

darkened room. When candled after 21 to 25

days in the incubator, infertile eggs may appear relatively clear with a well-defined yolk

or they may have an irregularly outlined yolk

with one or more poorly defined dark spots

that cannot be identified as blood vessels,

embryos, or parts of an embryo. These dark

spots in infertile eggs may be caused by parthenogenetic growth, by foreign infection, or

by decomposition of the egg contents during

the relatively long period of time the eggs are

held at incubation temperature.

Eggs with dead embryos (dead germs) contain recognizable blood vessels, a blood ring,

or an undersized embryo or part of one but

never show a regularly outlined yolk.

Eggs containing normal live embryos will

have a reddish appearance, development will

be advanced according to that which is normal

for the age at the time of candling, the embryo

will be free floating, and the reddish spiderwebbed condition caused by normally functioning blood vessels will be observed.

The method just described for candling at

transfer time only is, at best, inaccurate for

determining true fertility but is considered to

be a practical compromise. Fertility can be determined accurately by candling on the 6th to

10th day of incubation, and then breaking and

examining the contents of doubtful-appearing

eggs. At this time all eggs that appear clear

with free-floating, regularly outlined yolks free
TURKEY PRODUCTION 27

from irregularities or dark spots may be counted as infertile and need not be examined further. Candled eggs that show decided irregularity of the yolk or contain dark spots, blood, or

undersized embryos should be broken out in a

shallow pan of water and examined carefully.

Dead-germ eggs always are addled (albumen

and yolk mixed) and the embryonic development is roughly circular, with a blood ring or

part of one and usually an easily recognized

embryo.

Parthenogenetic development and foreign infection sometimes are found in incubated eggs

and such eggs should be counted with the infertiles. Parthenogenetic growth may or may

not addle the eggy but it alv.ays consists of an

irregularly outlined mat of whitish tissue. Rarely, there may also be some blood or, still

more rarely, an undersized parthenogenetic embryo or part of one. Foreign infection may

cause mottling of the yolk, which usually retains its shape and does not mix with the white.

Shipping Containers for Poults

Shipping day-old poults in four-section cardboard poult or chick boxes with an excelsior

pad for the poults to stand on is satisfactory

even for long distances, but poults are injured

by being kept from feed and water for more

than about 24 hours after hatching. Ventilation in the boxes should be adjusted according to the temperatures expected to be

encountered during shipping, with more ventilation allowed for high temperatures. Boxes

should be stacked to allow free circulation of

air during transit.

ARTIFICIAL BROODING OF POULTS

Starting the Poults

Place the poults in the brooding quarters

and give them feed and water within 24 hours

after hatching, the sooner the better. Poults

may be started on covered or uncovered litter

(see ''Litter for Brooding'' and "Litter Management'') ; on asphalt roofing (not tar paper) ;

on wire or slat ñoors (see ''Wire Floors for

Brooder Houses" and "Slat Floors for Brooder

Houses") ; or in batteries (see p. 34).

To start the poults on covered litter, put

down about 2 inches of suitable litter material

distributed evenly over the brooder house floor.

On top of this litter, under the hover and 1Y¿

to 3 feet beyond it, place a layer of strong,

rough-surface paper and enclose it by a brooder

ring, or poult guard (fig. 12). After 5 or 6 days,

remove the paper and allow the poults on the

litter, which should be deepened to about 4

inches after another week.

To start a brood of 250 poults on asphalt

roofing, place a layer of the thick, waterproof

roofing directly on the brooder house floor to

cover an area about 9 feet in diameter, including the hover. The roofing helps to insulate

the poults from the floor, an especially important consideration if the floor tends to be damp

or cold. Then sprinkle a thin layer of sharp,

clay-free sand or fine gravel on top of the roofing. The poults can remain on this surface for

up to 3 weeks, after which the roofing can be

taken up for possible re-use or it can be kept

there but covered with litter. It is not necessary to use sand on top of the roofing, but it is

desirable. If sand is not used, add litter on top

of the roofing as well as on all of the brooder

house floor when the poults are 5 to 7 days old.

Litter for Brooding

For starting poults on uncovered litter, nonsplinty softwood shavings is one of the few

suitable materials generally available. Bright,

clean, wheat straw sometimes can be used, but

it must be free from chaff and all other small

particles. However, with these and most other

litter materials, it is safer either to confine

the poults on a bare rough surface or sandcovered surface for 5 or 6 days as suggested

above or start them in batteries for 5 to 10

days. There is a fairly wide choice of litter to

use after the first few days, including shavings,

wheat and beardless barley straw, peat moss,

shredded cane, rice hulls, processed flax straw,

and cedar tow. Peanut hulls, crushed corncobs,

and shredded corn stover make good litter, but

they may contain harmful molds unless they
28 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ST 1292-2(-

Figure 12.—Turkey poults on litter under a nonvented propane gas hover brooder after 5 days in starting battery.

Note wire poult guard.

are promptly and thoroughly dried. There are

other satisfactory litter materials, hut selection should be based on reliable recommendations and guaranteed freedom from molds.

Among litter materials not recommended for

brooder-house use are splinty shavings, sawdust, oat hulls, cottonseed hulls, dried beet pulp,

and the straws of rye, oats, and bearded barley.

The brooder ring, or poult guard (fig. 12),

should be 16 to 18 inches high and can be

made of I/2- to %-inch-mesh lightweight hardware cloth or %- to 1-inch-mesh lightweight

chicken wire; the %-inch mesh is preferred.

Heavy corrugated paper or lightweight aluminum roll sheeting sometimes is used as a poult

guard in cold weather in large, open brooder

houses to shield the poults from cold drafts.

If paper is used, it usually needs to be supported

by the wire ring or other stiff material. The

poult guard usually encircles the hover I14 to

3 feet out from it. After a week it can be

removed or it can be enlarged and retained for

a second week, which often is desirable.

Litter Management

To provide good litter, first put down about

2 inches of loose litter and then add to it at

intervals frequent enough to provide a dry,
TURKEY PRODUCTION 29

clean, resilient walking surface. With good ventilation and a liberal supply of litter, the

brooding environment usually remains favorable. However, if wet or caked droppings accumulate, top them with clean litter or, better,

remove them and replace with clean

litter. Turning the litter occasionally is helpful. To promote sanitation, feeders and waterers can be moved frequently or placed on wireor slat-covered platforms after the poults are

about 3 weeks old. Platforms can be about 3 by

8 feet, made of 1- by 6-inch boards on edge,

supported at 18-inch intervals, and topped

with 1- by 2-inch, 12- to 14-gage welded wire

or, better, with wooden slats 1- to 1% inches

wide and spaced V/^ inches apart. Litter usually need not be changed during the brooding, rearing, or breeding seasons ; but it should

be removed at the end of each of these seasons. Used poultry litter has good fertilizing

value, especially if composted before use on

cropland.

Feeders and Waterers During Brooding

Small trough-type metal feeders or wooden

feeders made of plaster laths (fig. 13) are

placed like spokes in a wheel, part under the

hover and part outside it, but within the brooder ring. Supply one 3-foot-long trough feeder

for each 40 poults, which is about 2 linear

inches of feeding space per poult. Heap the

troughs with mash at first to encourage eating. In addition, some operators put a little

mash in a few paper plates or egg flats the

first day or two and place some colored glass

marbles on the feed to attract the poults. After a week or so, use larger size feeders (fig.

13) but retain about 2 inches of linear feeder

space per poult during the remainder of the

brooding period, after which it can be reduced

to 1 linear inch.

To provide good watering facilities during

brooding, start with one circular 1- to 2-gallon

glass or metal baby-poult-size waterer for each

50 poults. Select a waterer with a narrow drinking space, not over 1^4 inches wide and IVi

inches deep. An alternative is to start with one

baby-poult-size automatic water trough 4 feet

long for each 80 poults. Place the waterers

around the edge of the hover and put a few

glass marbles in each one. As an extra precaution, some growers add one quart-size waterer per 50 poults for the first 2 days. After

about 2 weeks, replace the round poult-size

waterers with larger waterers that provide a

water depth of about IV2 inches and about

one-half linear inch of watering space per bird.

In making this change, move the small waterers gradually nearer the larger ones to insure that the poults will freely use the new facilities when the old ones are removed. Young

poults deprived of water for 24 hours or longer

may suffer heavy mortality if they suddenly engorge themselves with water. (See ''Water

Glut.'^)

Waterers should be washed and rinsed, not

just emptied, every day. Disinfection usually

is not needed but if necessary, the quaternary

ammonium or chlorine types are preferred.

Requirements for Brooding

TEMPERATURE.—Young poults will not live

and grow unless they are kept warm and dry.

For at least the first 2 weeks the temperature

3 inches above the floor at the edge of the hover

should be 95° F. (35° C.) for dark poults and

about 100° F. (37.8° C.) for white. Unless the

weather becomes hot, the temperature regulator

in the brooder need not be changed during the

brooding period. Temperature near the floor of

the room outside the brooding area should be

70° F. (21° C.) or a little higher and should

be maintained at about that level, using auxiliary room heat if the brooders do not supply

enough.

VENTILATION.—Ventilation during brooding

always is important, but is exceptionally so

when heat is supplied by open-flame brooders

that are not vented to carry off the smoke.

Trouble from respiratory diseases is invited

when the air in the brooder house is low in

oxygen and contaminated with exhaust gases

from the brooder stoves. Engineer-approved

air outlets in the peak of a gable roof or near

the top of a shed roof combined with adjustable

window intakes usually provide sufficient ventilation, but a well-designed system of fans and

intakes* is preferable, especially where open-
30 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

^ifH

\

\

\

\

2

k

\

\

\

\

//////

MAXIMUM PRACTICAL LENGTH; 3 FT.

ALL MATERIALS ARE PLASTER LATH

OR SIMILAR SAWED LUMBER

MAY BE ANY LENGTH IF PARTITIONS

ARE INSTALLED EVERY 3 FT.

2x2

NAILED TO

SLOTTED

ENDS AND

PARTITIONS

_^ 1"HALF ROUND

20d

NAIL

CENTERED

IN EACH END

7¥

.^6

END PIECE

OF 1" MATERIAL

^

MAY BE ANY LENGTH IF PARTITIONS

ARE INSTALLED EVERY 4-5 FT.

MAXIMUM PRACTICAL LENGTH, 4 FT.

Figure 13.—End elevations of trough feeders for turkey poults: A, Lath feeder for 1st week; B, feeder for 2d to

4th weeks; C and D, feeders for 5th to 8th or 12th weeks.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 31

flame brooders are used and minimum floor

space per bird is provided.

LIGHTING.—For the first 2 weeks of brooding

in all types of houses, the room should be well

lighted day and night at 10 to 15 foot-candles

at poult level; and, if practicable, a small 7^^-

to 15-watt light bulb should be installed under

the hover. In windowed houses after 2 weeks,

only dim lights at one-half foot-candle would

be needed at night, none in the daytime. In

windowless houses after about 2 weeks, the

intensity of the light can be reduced gradually

to about 1 foot-candle during the 16-hour day

and one-half foot-candle during the 8-hour

night. The dim lights at night may help to discourage piling and stampeding.

CORNERS.—In individual brooding rooms or

small brooder houses, corners should be rounded

with small-mesh (%/' or less) wire to prevent

or reduce losses from piling, which may be

caused by fright, drafts, or too-low floor temperature, or during catching.

ROOSTS.—Roosts seldom are used in modern

turkey brooding operations, but they may help

to prevent stampedes and piling at night. Roosts

used during brooding do not contribute to breast

blister trouble later on. If brooder-house temperature is 70° F. (21° C.) or higher at floor

level, turkeys will start roosting as early as

3 weeks of age and nearly all will be on the

roosts at 5 weeks. For the brooder house, roosts

of the stepladder type are practical, allowing

about 3 lineal inches per bird. They may be

made of IV2- to 2-inch-round poles, 2 by 2's or

2 by 3's, the lowest one about 12 inches above

the floor, each succeeding roost 2 to 4 inches

higher. The roosting units can be either removable or hinged so that they can be raised up

out of the way. The roosts should be placed near

the windows. Poults will not take to the roosts

readily if the roosts are placed in a dark part

of the house.

Size of Units and Floor Space

Although brooding units of 300 to 500 poults

sometimes are used, it is better practice and

less risky to limit the brood to 250. For brooding turkeys to 8 weeks in naturally ventilated

houses, allow about V/i square feet of floor

space in the brooder house for a large-type

poult, 1 square foot for a small. In insulated,

force-ventilated houses, 0.8 to 1 square foot is

sufficient up to 8 weeks but no longer. If porches or yards are used, inside floor space may be

reduced by one-third; if they are not used or

if they cannot be used because of the weather,

the full recommended space should be provided

in the brooder house itself. At the start of

brooding, in brooders with canopies, about 14

square inches of canopy space are needed for

each large-type poult and 12 for each small.

For growing turkeys to fryer-roaster age, 12

to 13 weeks for large-type white turkeys, usually hens only, or 15 to 16 weeks for small- or

medium-type turkeys of both sexes, allow 2VL>

square feet for each bird.

Housing During Brooding

Before constructing a brooder house, check

plans based on successful experience. Building

plans and prefabricated structures are offered

by some commercial concerns and help often

can be obtained fromi State extension or commercial services.* A few suggestions are

ofl'ered here.

Brooder houses often are used both for brooding and for rearing to market age. Width usually varies from 24 to 40 feet, length from

100 up to 600 feet. Clear-span, rigid-frame,

gable-roof houses 40 feet wide and 300 feet

long are popular. Location should be on fairly

high ground, preferably on top of a low ridge

where natural air and water drainage is good.

The soil should be graded up, smoothed, and

packed down to provide a smooth, raised floor

into which no surface water can enter. A concrete or asphalt floor 3 inches thick, level or

with a slight downslope from center to sides

or rear to front is highly desirable although

raised packed-clay floors sometimes are used

successfully. The gable roof usually is of metal

and not over about 15 feet high at the top.

The outside walls can be of tight metal or

wooden single-wall construction for use in moderate weather. For cold-weather brooding, insulation of side walls and ceiling is needed,

especially if the brooders are of the type that

do not provide an abundance of heat. Side- or

down-sliding glass windows should be evenly
32 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

spaced in front and rear walls at the rate of

about 1 square foot of glass to 10 square feet

of floor space. Mechanical ventilation is highly

desirable in all brooder houses and necessary

in those over 40 feet wide. Correct engineering principles should be followed when ventilation systems are installed.

Partitions appear not to be necessary in small

houses used for brooding and rearing but some

operators prefer to install them at intervals in

long houses so that no more than 1,000 to 1,500

turkeys are allowed in one pen. This arrangement is useful in separating the turkeys by

age and sex and can help to control stampedes

and disease outbreaks. Permanent dividing

walls about 6 feet high often are made of wire,

but solid metal or boards next to the floor provide better separation. Drive-through doors in

ends and partitions allow the use of laborsaving machinery. Removable partitions of solid material 3 to 4 feet high sometimes are used

during the first few weeks of brooding.

Electric wiring should be installed for lighting and debeaking, especially if natural light

is restricted as it usually is in wide houses.

Water should be piped to the building with

numerous frost-proof outlets or with provisions for draining if subfreezing weather is

expected.

Pole-type breeding and rearing houses* also

may be used for moderate-weather brooding

by enclosing the open sides and ends with clear

plastic, adding electricity, and installing brooders and water supply. After the brooding period, turkeys can be reared to market age in

the same building, but some should be removed

to allow enough rearing space for the remaining birds.

Wire- or slat-floored sunporches attached to

the brooder house have been widely used, but

have been largely replaced by brooder houses

without porches or outside yards.

Brooder houses as well as breeding and rearing houses should be built to exclude small

wild birds and rats as well as larger birds

and animals. Some of the requirements are

concrete foundations, tight-fitting doors and

windows, and all openings covered by %-inchmesh, or smaller, wire.

Wire Floors for Brooder Houses

Wire floors, like slats, make the use of litter

unnecessary and they tend to prevent filthboine

diseases such as coccidiosis, hexamitiasis, and

blackhead. Plenty of heat and good ventilation are essential, but to prevent floor drafts,

long stretches of unobstructed open space underneath should be broken up by solid wood or

metal partitions about every 20 feet. The wire

floor may be: (1) Galvanized welded-wire floor

sections about 3 feet square and 6 inches high,

the top of 1- by 2-inch-mesh, 12-gage wire; or

(2) wire-covered wooden sections about 3 by 8

feet, made of 1- by 6-inch boards well braced,

supported at 18-inch intervals, and surfaced

with 1- by 2-inch, 12-gage wire. These sections

should be spaced about 1^4 inches apart and

supported with the bottom surfaces about 2

inches above the floor. The long axis of the 1-

by 2-inch wire should extend from the front

to the rear of the house. At the start of brooding, strips of small-mesh wire of the types

suggested for battery brooder floors (see p. 35)

should be laid over the larger mesh. The area

covered should include that under the hover

and that normally included in the brooder

ring, which should be retained for about 2

weeks. The small-mesh starting wire is retained

for about 4 weeks and then is taken up. The

poults use the large-mesh wire for the rest of

the brooding period when most of them will

be roosting if roosts are available. Roosts during the brooding period are especially desirable when wire or slat floors are used.

Slat Floors for Brooder Houses

Removable, 4-feet-square sections composed

of plaster lath or narrow, lathlike slats mounted on metal or wooden supports are good brooder house floors. They minimize losses from

crowding and piling and help to prevent filthborne diseases. The boards or laths are held

in position three-fourths inch apart and supported with their tops about 8 inches above

the floor. For the first 2 weeks, however, the

slats in the area under the hover and within

the brooder rings should be covered with 0.4-

inch-mesh, 21-gage hardware cloth, or heavy
TURKEY PRODUCTION 33

paper or asphalt roofing, topped with a thin

layer of sand. Poults can be raised to fryerroaster age on the slats. If the space is used for

rearing, the laths or slats would then be replaced by litter after 8 to 16 weeks.

Types of Brooders

Nonvented propane radiant gas hover

brooders (fig. 12), which have no smokeexhaust or chimney pipes, are the most widely

used of the various types available. They are

portable, economical to operate, durable, reliable if burners are kept adjusted and clean,

and not affected by power failures. Good ventilation in the brooder house, which always is

important, is especially so with these brooders.

Mechanical ventilation is highly desirable. For

use in very cold weather, it may be necessary

to supply supplementary heat such as that provided by vented gas or fuel-oil space heaters.

Catalytic gas hover brooders are a new de

velopment claimed to be completely fireproof

and very efficient. With these brooders, ventilation of the brooder house would still be extremely important.

Vented gas hover brooders have smokeexhaust pipes, provide ample heat, and do not

contaminate the air of the house. They are

very desirable, especially for cold-weather

brooding, but are more expensive in first cost

and installation and are not always available.

Gas infra-red brooders in general are somewhat similar to electric infra-red brooders but

supply more heat.

Continuous hot-water brooding systems that

are properly designed and installed are well

adapted to cold-weather brooding. They are

safe, dependable, and durable, and provide a

margin of safety in case of heat interruptions.

Their chief disadvantage is the high cost of

installation which, however, may be offset by

lower operational costs. Great care should be

exercised to select equipment that has proved

satisfactory and to install it according to correct engineering principles.

A few general remarks are made regarding

hot-water brooding systems- Water for circulation is heated to 160° to 190° F. by a boiler

which may be fueled by gas, oil, wood, or coal.

For a brooder house 28 to 32 feet wide, a

hot-water brooding system can consist of three

ly^-inch (inside diameter) pipes carrying

water from the heater and three returning it,

alternately, about 6 inches apart center to center, 12 to 14 inches above the floor, and in the

center of the house or about 6 feet out from

the rear walls. A strong covering such as

asphalt roofing or plastic material can be

placed on top of the pipes to form hovers.

A poult guard is placed under and outside of

the pipes to confine each brooding unit of poults

for about the first 2 weeks. The poult guards

are placed at proper intervals along the pipes

to allow the right amount of brooder-house

floor space for starting each unit of poults. If

a chicken-wire fence about 5 feet high is placed

on top of the pipes to keep turkeys off them,

the house can be used for rearing the poults to

market age. This also applies if a removable,

sectional, flat plywood or board platform without sideboards is installed on top of the pipes

for the full length of them. On this platform

could be placed a covering of sand or the regular litter.

The pipes should be properly painted to provide efficient radiation. The system can be

designed for gravity circulation or for circulation by electric pumps. In any case, the pipes

should be provided with outlets to facilitate

draining when necessary.

Infra-red electric heat lamp brooding devices are satisfactory for brooding poults in

warm weather, but they do not supply sufficient

heat in cold weather. If these devices are used

in cold weather, supplementary heat must be

supplied. They have the advantage of low initial

cost, but are more expensive to operate than

electric hover brooders. Like other electric

brooders, they provide no reserve of heat.

From two to four 250- to 375-watt infra-red

heat lamps, preferably of the hard-glass type,

should be set in a baffle board suspended so

that the bottoms of the lamps are 18 or 19

inches above the litter or floor at the start of

brooding. Raise the lamps 2 inches each week

to a maximum of 2 feet.

The lamp assembly must be securely hung
34 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

with chains and surrounded with a metal

frame to keep these very hot lamps away from

the litter if they should fall.

Feeding and watering facilities should be at

least 4 feet away from the lighted bulbs to

prevent possible vitamin destruction in the feed

and cracking of the bulbs if water is shaken

upon them. One bulb never should be used alone

for if it should burn out during the night, the

poults would chill. Not over 50 poults should

be allowed for each infrared lamp. A wafer

thermostat is desirable when three or more

lamps are used. Such thermostats usually are

set to cut off all but one or two bulbs when the

temperature first begins to rise and the rest of

the bulbs if the heat gets too high. Some other

source of heat must be supplied to the poults

immediately if current is interrupted.

In warm weather, where the source of electric power is reliable and reasonable in cost,

electric hover brooders as the sole source of

heat are satisfactory. In moderate to cold

weather, auxiliary heat must be supplied and

the size of the brood should not exceed 200

poults.

Coal- and wood-burning colony brooder

stoves provide abundant heat and, if properly

constructed with 4- or 5-inch-diameter

smoke pipes, are dependable and efficient ; however, they are little used and now are largely

unavailable. Some disadvantages are the labor

required to operate them, the lack of flexibility

in the heat supply during warm weather, and

the danger of fire when flammable litter is

used. Either wire floors or nonflammable litter

such as sand or a mineral litter on a nonflammable floor or floor covering immediately

surrounding the stove are needed to provide

protection against fire from escaped coals.

Air-blast, oil-burning stoves supply an abundant, flexible heat supply. They usually are

built to burn kerosene, although some will burn

distillate. Many stoves can be connected to the

same oil supply. Some disadvantages are higher

fuel costs, danger of fire, and danger of gas

formation if the stove is carelessly operated or

poorly constructed. As with coal-burning

stoves, either wire floors or nonflammable litter

on a nonflammable floor surrounding the brooder are needed to provide protection against

fire. The selection of a well-constructed stove

with a 4- or 5-inch-diameter smoke pipe for

disposing of gases formed during combustion

is most important. In multiple-unit houses

equipped with coal or oil-burning brooders,

24-hour attention is a practical necessity.

Forced hot-air brooding systems provide an

economical and safe type of heat for brooding

but supply no heat reserve. Thus, stoppages,

in cold weather, even for short periods, can be

disastrous (fig. 14). Reliable electric power is

required, and in low-humidity areas it may be

desirable to humidify the air. A satisfactory

type of hot-air brooding system uses ducts and

hovers, which can be raised up out of the way

when not in use. Fresh air is heated by a

furnace and circulated through the system by

fans. To conserve heat, part of the air can be

filtered and recirculated. A minimum of labor

is required, the litter is always dry, and the air

is not polluted.

Many operators use battery brooders (fig.

15) for starting poults for 5 to 14 days or a

littla longer, then transfer them to floor-brooding quarters. The started poults have learned

^^i«?'

Figure 14.—Thermostatically controlled hot-air brooding

system. Heat is furnished by furnace and is circulated

through brooding units by fans. (Photo from Turkey

World, Mt. Morris, 111. 61054.)
TURKEY PRODUCTION 35

Figure 15.—Battery brooder with electrically heated

hover sections in center. (Photo from Petersime Incubator Co., Gettysburg, Ohio 45328.)

to eat and drink and do not require special

litter or special floor arrangements under the

hover. However, be sure they find the

new vs^ater supply promptly.

Special poult batteries should be used, but if

chick batteries are used, you may need to adjust the feeding grills to accommodate the larger heads of the turkey poults. To use battery

brooders, you vv^ill need a very well-lighted and

fan-ventilated room, heated to about 70° F.

(21° C), with about 60-percent relative humidity.

Where feed and water troughs do not extend into the battery, a shallow pan of feed

and a fruit-jar waterer should be placed inside

each battery section at the start of brooding,

to encourage early feed and water consumption. Glass marbles in feed and water help to

attract the young poults' attention.

Ample headroom, preferably 12 inches (except under the hover), and battery floor space

of about 25 square inches per bird should be

provided for each poult held up to 1 week of

age, 36 inches for each held to 3 weeks.

The vertical wires of the sides of the battery

should be 1% inches apart.

For the battery floor, the best material probably is 20- to 21-gage, 0.4- by 0.4-inch-mesh

(No. 21/2) hardware cloth. One-third-inch-mesh

(No. 3) wire is satisfactory but will clog with

droppings if it is used for more than a week.

One-half-inch-mesh wire is satisfactory for

large-type (heavy-breed) poults if it is made

of heavy, 16-gage wire. However, if lightweight

wire is used in 1/2-inch mesh, it may cause leg

injuries and loss of wingbands, which become

caught in it and are pulled out.

Battery operations are highly specialized and

the requirements are most exacting. However,

where battery operation is efficient, growth is

rapid and mortality tends to be low. Battery

manufacturers' instructions should be followed

carefully. Batteries are widely used by hatcherymen and poult dealers for the production

of started poults and for holding poults before

delivery.

Small-capacity electric hover brooders are

well adapted to brooding small groups of poults

in a warm environment. Small electric brooders may be improvised by placing two ordinary

electric light bulbs in a wooden or cardboard

box, which should be well ventilated and provided with a cloth or plastic curtain opening

onto a warm exercise and feeding area.

Feather brooders can also be used ; but these,

except in warm weather, require some sort of

auxiliary heat in connection with the feather

boards, which contain tufts of turkey feathers

closely spaced, against which the poults can

hover.

Oil-lamp brooders are of little value and are

dangerous.

Debeaking

Debeaking poults at 3 to 5 weeks of age

to prevent cannibalism is done routinely by

many growers. It is recommended for turkeys

that are to be raised in confinement. Turkeys

to be ranged should not be debeaked unless

picking or serious fighting occurs. In that case,

debeaking can be done at any age. Use an

electric cutting and cauterizing device, applying pressure with a red-hot iron bar, to cut

off the outer part of the upper beak at a point

halfway between nostril and tip (figs. 16 and

17) for confined birds, less for ranged. In lieu

of this, sharp, heavy shears or dog-toenail

clippers can be used, but without heat there

may be some danger from infection and bleeding.
36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Figure 16.—Debeaking turkey with electric cutting and cauterizing device.

Desnooding

12444-A

82233—B

Figure 17.—Debeaked and desnooded Beltsville Small

White breeder turkey hen.

Desnooding—removing the snood, or dewbill, (the tubular fleshly appendage on top of

the head near the front)—helps to prevent

head injuries from picking or fighting and may

reduce the spread of erysipelas should this disease get started in the flock. At the day-old

age, the snood can be removed by thumbnail

and finger pressure. Up to the age of about 3

weeks, it can be cut oif close to the head with

sharp, pointed scissors.

Wing Clipping and Notching

Wing feathers can be clipped with sharp,

heavy shears, with hedge clippers, or with a
TURKEY PRODUCTION 37

sharp hatchet and chopping block. With smallor medium-type turkeys, when flying must be

prevented, it is good practice to clip the flight

feathers of one wing of both hens and toms at

the time they are put on range and again at

about 16 weeks of age. If kept for breeding, the

hens should be clipped again at market age.

Large, broad-breasted turkeys of either sex

seldom need treatment to prevent flying but it

sometimes is helpful to clip the feathers of

one wing of young females when they are put

on range. If kept for breeding, toms of all

types should never have the feathers of one

wing clipped after the age of 16 weeks because this throws them off balance, which

makes roosting and natural mating difficult. If

clipping of toms is necessary, lightly clip the

flight feathers of both wings. Turkeys confined

to buildings usually require no flight-prevention treatment.

For permanent flight-prevention treatment,

almost all of the end segment of one wing

(which bears the large flight feathers and the

small pinion feathers) can be cut off at hatching time or up to 10 days of age with sharp,

strong shears or an electric beak cutter. Make

the cut just a little way out from the last

articulation of the wing bones in order not to

damage the joint itself. Flight also can be

permanently prevented by wing notching at

the age of 5 to 8 weeks. The tendon that

crosses the center of the outermost wing joint

is severed with a vertical red-hot steel bar on

the electric debeaking device. However, both

wing cutting and wing notching handicap the

birds and often result in lowered market

grades, hence are not recommended for market

turkeys nor for birds to be used in natural

matings.

Toe Clipping

Clipping the toes of each foot of day-old

poults is becoming common among turkey

growers to prevent scratched and torn backs,

which are an important cause of downgrading

of market turkeys. Clipping is best done at

the hatchery with 5-inch surgical shears, removing the tip of the toe just to the inside of

the outermost toepad, including all of the toenail. Clipping with an electric cauterizing device will prevent bleeding but is much slower.

It is preferred for clipping older turkeys. Usually the inside and center toe of each foot is

clipped, for which a charge of one-half cent per

poult sometimes is made. It has not been determined if it pays to clip three or all four toes

of eae.h foot.

Separating the Sexes

The sex of day-old poults may be determined

by examining the vent.* The procedure is the

same as with chicks, and as with chicks, both

study and practice are required to obtain accuracy and speed. Commercially sexed poults

are available at many hatcheries.

Where accurately sexed day-old poults are

available at reasonable cost, raising toms and

hens separately is practicable. Advantages are :

(1) Injuries to the hens due to treading in the

later growth stages are eliminated; (2) hens

can be marketed at an earlier age than the

toms without loss of grade due to injuries occurring when the sexes are separated during

the loading operation; (3) there appears to be

less fighting and competition among the toms

when hens are not present; and (4) sexseparated flocks sometimes can be fed more

efficiently, using the complete feeding plan.*

In mixed-sex flocks, treading by the toms

is likely to occur in the later growth stages of

early-hatched flocks but is unlikely to be noticeable in flocks hatched later than about April

15 in the central and northern areas of the

United States.

Handling Turkeys

Turkeys of all ages can be easily driven from

place to place with the aid of light poles or

sticks several feet long. With a pole in each

hand, one person is able to control a good-size

flock. However, if turkeys are able to fly well,

driving is less satisfactory because they may

take to the air if frightened. Driving entails

much less labor than crating and hauling and,

if distances are not too great, is easier on the

birds. A cloth tied to the end of each driving

stick facilitates control of the flock. Dogs can

be used for driving turkeys but they must be

well trained and gentle and the turkeys must

be accustomed to them.
38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

For catching turkeys, a darkened room is

ideal. In the dark or in semidarkness, turkeys

can be picked up by both legs without confusion or injury. For this reason, market turkeys sometimes are loaded at night. However,

a low-cost catching room, 15 by 20 feet or

larger, could be built into each confinement or

semiconfinement house, perhaps in or near the

center. The catching room should be closable

against outside light and equipped with electric

lights. The turkeys are driven into the lighted

catching room and then the lights are turned

off. The littered catching room can be part of

the regular floor space when not used for catching. The room also might be used for catching

ranged turkeys that can be driven to it.

Portable catching chutes, preferably with a

conveyor, can be used for catching and loading ranged turkeys. Chutes should be of openwire construction with wide wings to funnel

the birds into the opening. To get the turkeys

used to the chute, park it in the turkey area a

few days before the birds are to be caught.

Metal hooks of one-fourth-inch round iron

for weighing turkeys can be made up in

several sizes. For small turkeys, the hook at a

point three-eighths inch above the inside loop

is three-eighths inch wide; for mature hens

and partly grown toms, one-half inch wide;

and for large toms five-eighths inch wide. The

legs are placed in the hook with one shank

ahead of the other, the front side first (fig.

18). If hooks are the right size and the birds'

legs properly placed in them, the legs will not

be injured. However, mature heavy turkeys

should not be left hanging for more than 3

or 4 minutes and it is better to pick up

turkeys by both legs in a dark room rather

than catch them with a hook.

To make a catching hook, extend the shank

67025-B

Figure 18.—Hook made of !4-inch round iron, for

catching and weighing turkeys.

of the weighing hook to about 36 inches long

and bend the upper end of the shank into a

loop to fit the hand, or insert it into a wooden

handle.

FEEDING YOUNG TURKEYS*

Poults should be fed and watered as soon

as possible after they hatch and as soon as

they are put into the brooder house. The first

feed may be starting mash or crushed pellets

(granules), which should be placed in small

feeders and in small heaps on cardboard box

covers, clean boards, pie plates, or cup flats

underneath and close to the hover for the first

day or two. Many small lath-type feeders are

needed. (See p. 29.) These feeders should at

first be heaped with loose mash or granules

and, to attract the poults' attention, colored

glass marbles or rolled oats (oatmeal) can be

placed on the feed and in the water. The start-
TURKEY PRODUCTION 39

ing feed and water should be kept continuously

before the poults for the first 8 weeks. Pelleted

mash can be fed after the first 4 weeks, but

poults do not take well to it as their first feed.

Liquid milk is not recommended for poults,

but cottage cheese is a good supplement and is

useful in teaching poults to eat.

Although finely chopped, tender green feed

guards against nutritional deficiencies and

helps to encourage poults to eat, feeding it

usually is impracticable because of labor costs

and difficulty in obtaining suitable types of

green feed. Most turkey growers prefer to feed

a nutritionally complete starting mash. However, when green feed is fed, use tender alfalfa,

clover, onion tops, white Dutch clover, young

tender grass, or green grain sprouts, all chopped

into V|-inch lengths and fed once or twice

daily. Wilted green feeds never should be

allowed to remain before the poults. When

nutritionally complete diets cannot be obtained, green feed should be supplied.

Force Feeding

Poults that have been denied feed and water

for more than about 36 hours after hatching

do not readily learn to eat and drink. These

poults may be saved by force feeding. Make a

thin mixture of regular starting mash and

water. Take the small end of a 25-cubic centimeter glass laboratory pipette in the mouth

and by suction fill the pipette with the mixture.

Open the poult's mouth, insert the large end

of the pipette down the poult's gullet heloiv

the entrance to the windpipe, then force out

enough of the food to fill the crop comfortably.

A good-size eye dropper with the constricted

tip removed also can be used. One such feeding

usually is enough but two or three may be

needed where dehydration is severe. Instead of

the mash-water mixture, plain sweet milk,

buttermilk, diluted evaporated milk, or a dried

skim milk-water mixture can be used in force

feeding.

Starting Diets

Starting diets (starters) to be fed during

the first 8 weeks of the poults' lives can be

purchased ready-mixed; they can be homeor custom-mixed according to recommended

formulas;'' or a concentrate can be purchased

and mixed with ingredients such as ground

corn and soybean meal according to manufacturers' directions. Starting Diet No. 1 is an example of a ration suitable for feeding turkey

poults intended for any purpose, in any environment. It is an all-mash, complete, high-energy

feed, needing no supplements except water and

is capable of producing a high rate of growth.

The composition of starting diet No. 1 is as

follows :

Pounds

Ingredient : Percent per ton

Ground yellow corn 40 800

Soybean meal, dehulled, 50 per- 40 800

cent protein.

Dehydrated alfalfa meal, 17 per- 3 60

cent protein.^

Fishmeal, 60 percent protein 6 120

Delactosed dried whey ' 2.500 50

Distillery by-product (70 per- 2.500 50

cent distiller's dried solubles,

30 percent distiller's dried

grains).

D-L methionine, 98 percent .125 2.5

pure.

Vegetable, animal, or animal- 2 40

and-vegetable fat, stabilized.

Finely ground salt (sodium .250 5

chloride), plain or iodized.

Ground limestone .650 13

Dicalcium phosphate or steamed 2.6 52

bonemeal.

Vitamin-trace mineral mix for .35 7

turkey starting and growing

diets.^

Antibiotic supplement (25 grams .025 .5

of chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, or bacitracin per

pound).

Total _ 100 2,000

^ Dehydrated alfalfa leaf meal or cereal grass can be

substituted pound for pound.

- Dried brewer's yeast or plain dried whey can be

substituted pound for pound.

^ A premixed product with approximately the following composition per pound:

Vitamin A

U.S. Pharmacopoeia (U.S.P.) units 1,000,000

Vitamin D;i

International Chick Units (I.C.U.) 300,000

Vitamin E milligrams 1,200

Vitamin K . do 350

Riboflavin ^ ^ micrograms 600,000

Niacin milligrams 8,000

{Footnote continued at bottom of next page.)
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 39 3, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

This mash contains about 29 percent protein, 1.5 percent calcium, and 1.1 percent total

phosphorus. If coccidiosis seems likely to occur,

add a recommended coccidiostat at the preventive level. Supply v^ater free choice. Insoluble grit may be provided if desired.

Starting Diet No. 2 is an all-mash, complete,

medium-energy feed and can be used v^here it

is impracticable to obtain or use methionine,

fat, distillery byproduct, and a vitamin-trace

mineral supplement. Reasonably good but not

maximum early growth rate can be obtained

with this diet. The composition of Starting

Diet No. 2 is as follows :

Pounds

Ingredient : Percent per ton

Ground yellow corn or grain 22 440

sorghum.

Wheat middlings, standard 30 600

Meat scrap, 55 percent protein, _ 15 300

Fishmeal, menhaden, 60 percent 10 200

protein.

Dried whey, delactosed or plain. 2.45 49

Soybean oil meal, 44 percent 10 200

protein.

Alfalfa meal, dehydrated, 17 10 200

percent protein.^

Finely ground salt, iodized or .25 5

plain.

A & D feeding oil (600-D- .25 5

2250A).

Antibiotic supplement, 25 grams .05 1

of wide-spectrum antibiotic

per pound.

Total 100 2,000

^ Alfalfa leaf meal or dried cereal grass can be substituted pound for pound.

This mash contains about 28 percent protein, 2 percent calcium, and 1.4 percent total

phosphorus. A coccidiostat should be added if

coccidiosis seems likely to occur.

Folie acid - _ do _ _ 800

d-pantothenic acid __do__ 1,000

Choline chloride _ _ do _ _ 60,000

Vitamin B12 micrograms 1,200

Butylated hydroxytoluene milligrams 22,680

(BHT).

Manganese (Mn) percent 2.4

Zinc (Zn) __do__ 2.2

Iodine (I) _ _ do _ _ .048

Iron (Fe) „do__ .8

Copper (Cu) _ _ do _ _ .08

Cobalt (Co) _ _ do _ _ .008

Bacitracin (or aureomycin or grams .8

terramycin).

Baby poult feeds (prestarters) are recommended for the first 3 weeks by some nutritionists. These feeds contain 30 to 33 percent

protein, increased allowances of vitamins, and

a fairly high level of antibiotic. Prestarters*

are followed by the regular starter. Growers

who find it difficult to obtain fast early growth

with low mortality may wish to feed a prestarter.

When only ground feeds are supplied, the

need for insoluble grit during brooding has not

been proved. However, it has been suggested

that gizzard development and function may be

enhanced by supplying grit to young turkeys.

For this purpose, coarse sand or fine gravel

may be offered in a small feeder after the

poults have learned to eat mash. Although

gravel stones make the best grit and never are

eaten to excess, commercial chick-size insoluble

grit such as quartz or granite can be added to

the starting diet at the 1-percent level or

sprinkled lightly on top of the mash once a

week during the first 4 weeks of life. However,

commercial grit should not be fed free choice

to very young turkeys since it may be eaten

to excess instead of the feed. If sand or gravel

is used on the floor of the brooder house, additional grit need not be fed until the birds

are 4 weeks old, when larger grit, up to pea

size, is indicated. Soluble grit such as limestone or marble should not be used at any time

because it may upset the mineral balance of

the feed. After 8 weeks, turkey-size insoluble

grit, up to 0.6 inch in diameter, should be

supplied to all turkeys.

Growing Diets*

Growing diets (growers) are fed to poults

from 8 weeks of age to maturity. These diets

may consist of mash only or pellets only, or

they may include either loose or pelleted mash

plus whole or cracked grain, sometimes referred to as scratch grain. Pelleted mashes

usually must be purchased ; loose mashes can be

purchased or can be home- or custom-mixed.

A commercial concentrate can be purchased

and combined with ground grain or with soybean meal and ground corn in proportions recommended by the manufacturer and accord-
TURKEY PRODUCTION 41

ing to the age and sex of the birds. Special

methods of fattening (finishing) are unnecessary because the birds are fed all the regular

growing feed they will eat up to the time of

marketing.

Turkeys intended to be marketed as fryerroasters, or turkey broilers, should be fed a

complete, high-energy diet such as Starting

Diet No. 1 for about 8 weeks, followed by a

complete grower such as Growing Diet No. 1.

This grower can be fed alone or free choice

with heavy oats to the age of 15 to 16 weeks

for small-type turkeys or 12 or 13 weeks for

heavy white turkeys. Dark-colored turkeys

should not be marketed as fryer-roasters.

Growing Diet No. 1 is a mash-and-grain,

nutritionally complete feed suitable for turkeys

grown on range or in total confinement. The

composition of Growing Diet No. 1 is as

follows :

Ingredient :

Ground yellow corn ^

Alfalfa meal, dehydrated, 17 percent protein.^

Soybean meal, solvent, 44 percent protein.^

Meat scrap, 55 percent protein*.

Fishmeal, menhaden, 60 percent

protein.^

Steamed bonemeal or dicalcium

phosphate.

Ground limestone or oystershell

Vitamin-trace mineral mix ^

Antibiotic supplement (25 grams

of chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, or bacitracin per

pound).

Finely ground salt, plain or

iodized.

Percent

56

10

Pounds

per ton

1,120

200

20 400

5 100

3.775 75.5

3 60

1.2 24

.5 10

.025 .5

10

Total - _ 100 2,000

^ Ground sorghum grain, white corn, or wheat can be

substituted pound for pound.

^ Alfalfa leaf meal or dried cereal grass can be substituted pound for pound.

" Soybean meal (or soybean oil meal) is the processed

bean minus the oil, not ground soybeans, which are not

recommended. Corn gluten meal, hempseed oil meal,

degossypolized cottonseed meal, dehulled sunflower seed

meal, sesame meal, saflilower seed meal, peanut meal, or

dehulled soybean meal (50 percent protein) can be substituted pound for pound.

"* Poultry byproduct meal or 50 percent protein meatand-bone meal can be substituted pound for pound.

' Any good-quality fishmeal can be substituted.

Supply insoluble grit, water, scratch grain,

and the mash, all free choice. The mash contains about 21 percent protein, 2 percent calcium, and 1 percent total phosphorus.

Growing Diets No. 2 and No. 3 are mashand-grain simplified feeds for turkeys having

continual access to succulent green feed and

direct sunshine. These two are low-cost growing diets designed to make fullest use of

pasture, which must be provided.

The composition of Growing Diet No. 2 is

as follows :

Pounds

Ingredient : Percent per ton

Ground yellow corn ^ 50 1,000

Wheat middlings 30 600

Meat scrap, 50 percent protein. _ 19 380

Finely ground salt, plain or 1 20

iodized.

Total 100 2,000

* Other ground grains except wheat can be substituted

for up to 100 percent of the ground corn in Diet No. 2

and No. 3. If used in the mash, the heavy-hulled grains

such as barley and oats should be finely ground or

pulverized; if fed whole as scratch grain, they should

not also be used in the mash.

Supply insoluble grit, water, succulent green

feed, grain, and the mash, all free choice. The

mash contains about 20 percent protein, 1.9

percent calcium, and 1.3 percent total phosphorus.

The composition of Growing Diet No. 3 is

as follows :

Pounds

Ingredient : Percent per ton

Ground yellow corn ^ - 30 600

Wheat middlings - - 30 600

Soybean meal solvent, 44 per- 30 600

cent protein.

Steamed bonemeal or dicalcium 6 120

phosphate.

Ground oystershell or limestone^ 3 60

Finely ground salt, plain or 1 20

iodized.

Total ------ Tm 2,000

' See footnote 1 under Growing Diet No. 1.

Supply insoluble grit, water, succulent green

feed, grain, and the mash, all free choice. The

mash contains about 21 percent protein, 2.9

percent calcium, and 1.3 percent total phosphorus.

' See footnote 3, Starting Diet No. 1, page 39, for composition of the mix.
42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

All three growing diets are intended to be fed

free choice with one or two grains, preferably

different from those in the mash. Suitable

grains would include heavy oats, barley, spelt,

emmer, hog millet (proso), and all sorghum

grains except the brown-seeded, eastern-grown

sorghums or those shrunken by drought. The

scratch grain or grains may be offered in

separate feeders or feeder compartments.

Whole-grain corn is not eaten liberally by turkeys younger than 16 weeks of age, hence corn

should not be fed in the scratch-grain part of

the diet before then unless it is cracked and

cleaned (freed of meal). A popular feeding program calls for oats free choice as the only

scratch grain from 9 to 16 weeks, after which

whole yellow corn is added to the free-choice

offering. As the turkeys grow older, they eat

more grain and less mash thus adjusting the

protein intake to their needs. Rye, buckwheat,

wheat screenings, and rice are satisfactory

feeds for turkeys over 8 weeks of age but should

not constitute more than about 20 percent of

the total diet.

Yellow corn tends to produce light-yellow

skin in the turkey whereas most of the other

grains, including white corn, produce almostwhite skin. If fed in moderation, wheat usually

produces white skin; but if fed in large

quantities along with abundant green feed,

some wheat varieties produce decidedly yellow

skin in birds carried to a high degree of finish.

The mash formulas suggested are only a few

of many possible combinations of ingredients.*

Commercial concentrates containing 20 to 30

percent protein are available and are widely

fed along with grain free choice or mixed with

ground grain in specified amounts. Growing

mashes may be made up of other combinations

of grains, grain by-products, protein feeds,

and vitamin supplements; the exact composition depends partly on cost and availability of

ingredients.

Free-choice feeding of loose or pelleted mash

and one or more grains as suggested above is

a practical method of feeding growing turkeys.

Keep the mash and grain in separate but adjacent feeders or feeder compartments and allow the birds free access to both.

Because turkeys use all the common grains

efficiently, the choice of which to feed the

turkeys can depend largely upon cost and availability. When comparing prices, remember

that oats, common barley, emmer, spelt, rough

or paddy rice, buckwheat, and proso, because

of their higher fiber content, are worth only

80 to 85 percent as much per hundred pounds

as corn, wheat, rye, hulless barley, brown rice,

and the sorghum grains.

"Complete'' Feeding Program*

Research has shown that turkeys can be

grown at a maximum rate with early maturity, improved finish, and high feed eflSciency

by feeding them nutritionally complete, allmash, high-energy diets, graduated in the quality and quantity of protein and other nutrients

according to age and sex of the birds. This has

been called the ^'complete" feeding program and

usually involves sexing the day-old birds, rearing the sexes separately, and changing the allmash feed every 4 to 8 weeks. Although yields

can be maximum, such a program for the

average turkey farmer is likely to be more

expensive and more difficult to administer than

the mash-grain free-choice method just described. The complete program is best adapted

to large-scale operations where facilities are

available for supplying the various feeds at the

right times to birds of the right age and sex.

In utilizing a complete feeding program, follow carefully the directions of the feed manufacturer or the formulator. Some programs

involve grinding and mixing the ingredients,

for which grinder-mixer mills are available.

General Suggestions on Feeding

Feed and water should be kept before turkeys

constantly from hatching to market age and,

if turkeys are kept for breeding, during the

season before egg laying as well as during the

breeding season. Put all feed in feeders, never

on the ground. Changes from starting to growing mashes or changes in the growing mashes

can be made quickly without using special

methods, but changes in watering methods

for young birds under 5 weeks old should be

made carefully to prevent damage from water

glut (see p. 65). During the last 6 weeks before
TURKEY PRODUCTION 43

turkeys are marketed, they should not be

moved or subjected to radical changes in management or feeding because this may slow

down the finishing process.

Vitamin D, which prevents rickets, is necessary in starting diets and desirable in all diets ;

but as a rule it is not necessary in growing

and breeder feeds provided the birds have access to direct sunshine. Where direct sunshine is restricted or absent, add dry Vitamin

D, the preferred source, to the diet in quantity sufficient to provide about 1,500 chick

units of vitamin D per pound of mash that

is fed free choice with grain or about 900 units

per pound of all-mash diets.

Fishmeal, though an excellent protein supplement, may impart an undesirable fishy

flavor to turkey meat. Therefore, in growing

and finishing diets, assuming that no other

fish products are in the feed, fishmeal of good

quality should be limited to that amount that

on the basis of its oil content would not provide over 0.3 percent oil in the total diet. As

a rule of thumb, in growing and finishing diets,

a typical fishmeal containing 8 percent oil

should be limited to about 314 percent of allmash mixes and 5 percent of mashes fed with

grain.

Fish oils and poor-quality fishmeals should

be avoided in all turkey diets since they are a

prolific source of fishy flavor. However, if it is

necessary to use fish oil to supply vitamin A or

vitamin D, or both, use a concentrated product

and limit it to about 0.15 percent of total feed

consumed; also, limit fishmeal to that amount

that would provide not over 0.15 percent additional oil.

Turkeys can be pastured in grain stubble

fields to salvage waste grain or they may be

used to harvest fields of ripe proso (hog millet)

or the grain sorghums. Combined with a simplified growing mash and good pasture, feed

costs thus can be reduced to a significant degree.

Feeders and Waterers

Wooden trough feeders for turkeys up to 8

or 12 weeks of age are shown in figure 13.

Metal feeders of similar dimensions generally

are available. For turkeys to 8 weeks of age,

allow 2 linear inches of feeding space, counting

both sides of trough feeders, per bird. For older

turkeys, including breeding stock, allow 1 linear inch of feeding space per bird.

Trough-type feeders are relatively inexpensive and are easy to construct, but they require

more frequent filling and more labor to operate. The feeder shown in flgures 19 and 20 can

be used inside or, if precipitation is light, outside. It prevents roosting and can be tightly

closed if desired. This feeder can be made any

desired length, but partitions patterned after

the end piece should be installed every 4 feet

to support the reels, which are secured on center by 20-penny nails or %-inch round iron held

in place with metal clips. The covers may be

omitted if closure of the feeder is not required.

The reels may also be made of round wood or

metal about 214 inches in diameter.

The feeder shown in figures 21 and 22 is

designed for outside use. Maximum practical

length is about 8 feet.

Large-capacity, square wooden or round metal hopper-type feeders* holding one-half ton

or more of feed (fig. 23) are more efficient

than trough-type feeders and allow the use of

mechanized feed-handling equipment. Feed is

dumped or augured in at the top and is emptied by the birds from the relatively shallow

trough at the bottom.

For outside use, feeders should have a waterproof and windproof cover and a rain guard,

and be placed on skids for easy moving and for

bringing the smoothed lip of the feeder to the

proper height (fig. 24).

Round metal feeders with roll-down edges

44112-B

Figure 19.—Trough feeder for turkeys over 8 weeks old.
44 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

1x2 STRIP

1x4 STRIP

1x8 HINGED

COVER (CLOSEDI

Figure 20.—End elevation of trough feeder

shown in figure 19.

holding about 50 pounds of feed and adjustable for height above the litter can be used inside (fig. 9). They can be suspended from a

moving track and filled automatically from one

position.

Mechanical feeders such as that shown in

figure 25 are important labor savers for the

large-scale operator. On this farm is a feedprocessing center, which grinds and mixes the

feed according to the age and sex groupings

of the turkeys and delivers it to the desired

feeding station.

To reduce waste of feed by turkeys billing it

out, feeders should be supported at the proper

height. In general, the lips of all feeders should

be about the height of the average birds' backs

above the adjacent walking surface. This

amounts to about 8 inches for 8-week-old birds

and increased to about 15 inches for mature

hens and mixed flocks and 18 to 22 inches for

tom flocks. Filling trough-type feeders only to

about three-fourths capacity will reduce waste

from wind and billing. Pelleted feed is less subject to waste than loose mash.

All outside feeders should be moved often

enough to prevent excessive accumulations of

droppings near them. Inside feeders should also

be moved, or the litter around them removed

or renewed when necessary to provide sanitary conditions.

On range (pasture) water may be provided

in heavy-gage eave troughing or in 14-gage galvanized steel troughs with smoothed edges,

supported by wooden or metal framing. The

troughs can be approximately 314 inches wide

at the bottom, 5 inches wide at the top, and 4

inches deep. The troughs are connected to a

supply of water under pressure. Control can

be by continuous slow flow into a drain or by

shielded float valves. EflScient automatic waterers with control valves can be purchased. Galvanized washtubs, 20- to 30-quart trash cans,

or 12- to 16-quart water pails can be used,

but the pails should be set in a wooden rack to

prevent overturning. Waterers of all types

should be placed on top of wire-or slat-covered

platforms or at least on sloping ground to

prevent puddles from forming when control

valves fail and equipment is washed and rinsed.

Plastic hose is useful in distributing the water

from frostproof hydrants or other sources. Waterers should be moved as needed to promote

sanitation.

BN-37318

Figure 21.—Covered outdoor feeder for

turkeys over 8 weeks old.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 45

FOUR 5" RUST-PROOF

STRAP HINGES

BACKSTOP (ONE) IN

CENTER OF FEEDER

FOUR 1x3 CLEATS

ON EACH SIDE

THIS HALF OF ROOF

HINGED FOR

FILLING AND CLEANING

FULL-LENGTH KN^-

1"QUARTER ROUND \N I

(OPTIONAL) ^^^'

METAL OR WOODEN

CARRYING HANDLEONE ON EACH END

SLIDING CENTER PARTITION

-FITS INTO TROUGH

V

THIS HALF OF ROOF

NAILED TO END, SIDE,

AND CENTER PIECES

^^^^^^^^^^-^ 1x3 SKID

20'

1".

Figure 22.—End elevation of covered outdoor feeder shown in figure 21.
46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

Figure 23.—Large-capacity, portable, hopper-type feeder

with rain guard for turkeys over 8 weeks old. (Photo

from Colorado State University.)

In confinement, level troughs with float-valve

control can be attached to one side of the

house, outside, or inside with a water deflector.

No feeders should be placed farther away

than about 20 feet from the waterers. The lips

of both should be adjusted to the level of the

standing birds' backs. Provide about one-half

linear inch of watering space per bird at all

ages and maintain a depth of about 2 inches

for turkeys over 5 weeks old. All waterers

should be washed and rinsed daily.

Water for turkeys should be free from contamination by animal and plant life, hence

water from natural sources such as streams

or ponds generally should not be used unless

it is equivalent in purity to that acceptable

for human drinking water.

Figure 24.—Turkeys on well-shaded range. Note large-capacity, covered trough feeders built on skids.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 47

Figure 25.—Farmer inspecting automatic feed trough conveyer.

N-410T0

RANGE REARING

Feed costs can be minimized by rearing turkeys on range (pasture) (fig. 24), especially

if low-cost, simplified diets such as Growing

Diet No. 2 or No. 3 are fed along with locally

grown grains. Direct sunshine and green feed

obtained from the range, even though that

feed may be mediocre, usually will adequately

supplement a simplified growing diet containing proper amounts of proteins and minerals.

However, losses from soilborne diseases, insects, predatory animals, thievery, and adverse

weather conditions sometimes render range

rearing unprofitable. On account of this, confinement rearing on litter, which tends to minimize these losses, is replacing range rearing

and should be considered where protective

range management is impracticable or losses

are excessive.

Portable range shelters,* providing about I14

square feet of floor space per bird, preferably with roosts or with floors of 1- by 3-inch

wooden slats placed II/2 inches apart, are recommended for birds likely to be exposed to adverse weather conditions during their first

month on range. In any case, close supervision

is always needed during the first few days the

turkeys are on range.

Under normal conditions after June 1, with-
48 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

out range shelters, turkey poults can be moved

to the range from the brooder house when

they are about 8 weeks old. However if rain,

strong winds, or either cold or extremely hot

weather are present or predicted, delay the

move until the weather is favorable. With adequate range shelters, which are recommended,

the poults can be moved safely when they are

7 to 8 weeks old unless exceptionally severe

weather is encountered.

Moving part of the flock to range at intervals of a day or two, preferably in the morning,

helps to get the birds used to range conditions

without losses. If distances are short, the turkeys can be driven to range, otherwise they

should be hauled in well-ventilated coops or

truck bodies. Mechanical loaders are available

for moving turkeys 8 weeks or older.

Minnesota Plan

The Minnesota Plan is a method of range

rearing that is usually effective in preventing

soilborne diseases and parasites without medication. The plan involves moving the turkeys

and their equipment to an adjacent clean location once every 7 to 14 days, more frequently

in wet weather. The birds usually stay fairly

close to their feed and water and will bed down

there.

Although no fencing is required where the

available range area is ample, it is safer to enclose with portable fencing enough rangeland

to supply green feed for each 1- to 2-week period. Sheep or hog fencing 4 or 5 feet high

will confine heavy-breed turkeys quite well, but

heavy-gage poultry wire 6 feet high will provide

better protection from predatory animals and

will largely prevent the turkeys from flying

out of the enclosure. The heavy wire sometimes is fastened at the top only, with the

galvanized steel posts on the inside of the fence

to provide protection from piling if the birds

crowd into the fence.

If the range is on a slope, start at the lower

side and move the birds and equipment uphill.

Use each range only once every 2 to 4 years so

that diseases do not build up. The turkey droppings fertilize the land, which is cropped in

the intervening years.

About 1 acre of good pasture is required

each year for each 250 turkeys raised. Range

units of about 2,500 turkeys, the maximum

4,000, are suggested for this type of management.

One modification of the Minnesota Plan provides for moving the birds and their equipment less frequently than every 1 to 2 weeks.

Another modification is to move the turkey

feeders and waterers every week or two in a

wide circle around a permanent, predatorproof, usually roostless shelter, driving the

birds into that shelter at night. They will follow

the feed and water and thus be ranged on relatively clean ground with good pasture conditions. Under favorable soil and climatic conditions and when clean land is used each year,

results are satisfactory. However, if soilborne

disease occurs, either preventive medication or

a change in management, or both, would be

indicated.

A combination of confinement and range

rearing involves a permanent shelter, such as

a pole barn about 40 feet wide, and 2 fenced

range lots, one on each side of the building.

Each range lot should supply about one acre

of pasture for each 250 turkeys. The two range

lots would then be alternated yearly; one is

rested or cropped while the other is used for

range by the turkeys. The roostless, littered

building in which the turkeys are shut at night

provides shade, a safe bedding area, and protection from predatory animals and adverse

weather. Feeders and waterers should be placed

inside the building. The building should provide about 21/^ square feet of floor space for

each bird when free access to range is available. This method of rearing is practical only

where the soil is sandy, very well drained,

and clean. If the range should become contaminated with disease or otherwise unfit for turkeys, preventive medication could be used or

the building could be converted to confinement

rearing, but with more floor space provided

for each bird. Dim night lights inside the house

providing about one-fourth foot-candle at floor

level might help to prevent stampeding.

Range Rotation

A 4-year range rotation works well where

other farming operations are combined with
TURKEY PRODUCTION 49

turkey raising. The turkeys are grown the 1st

year on a range seeded that same year or the

previous year to a suitable range crop. Corn

could follow the turkeys the 2d year; then

wheat or some other grain, or perhaps corn

again the 3d year; and finally some other

suitable crop such as soybeans, grass, clover,

or alfalfa the 4th year, going back to turkeys

the 5th year.

A suitable 3-year range rotation would be

turkeys, corn, small grain, and back to turkeys, planting the range to the desired forage

crop after the grain harvest the 3d year or in

the early spring of the 4th. In such a range

rotation, the turkeys fertilize the land, and

crop yields are high during the intervening

years.

Where permanent pasture is available, it

can be used alternately by cattle and turkeys,

the latter using any given area 1 year in 3.

Because of the possibility of erysipelas infection, keep turkeys from all contact with sheep

or swine.

Shade

Turkeys can be raised successfully without

shade in low-humidity areas where temperatures do not exceed about 104° F. (40° C). In

high-humidity areas, the maximum tolerable

temperature is probably about 90° F. (32°

C.) without shade. As an emergency measure,

turkeys can be sprinkled with water or cooled

with foggers. Since most areas of the United

States are subject to periods of abnormally

high temperatures, shade of some sort for grow

ing and breeding turkeys must be provided at

the rate of about 21/2 square feet for each bird.

Trees, bushes (if not too dense), strip plantings of corn, sunflowers, or other tall leafy

crops, all provide good shade. Artificial shade

can be provided by range shelters or by a

framework of poles or sawed lumber topped

with slabwood, sheet metal, or fence wire and

coarse roughage of some sort. Shades should

be positioned north and south and should be

at least 5 feet above the ground.

Range Crops

The crop grown on the turkey range will

depend on the climate, soil, and range management. Many turkey ranges are permanently

seeded, others are part of a crop rotation plan.

As part of a 3- or 4-year crop rotation, legume

or grass pasture and annual range crops such

as soybeans, rape, kudzu, kale, sunflowers, reed

canarygrass, and sudangrass have been used

successfully. The last three provide both green

feed and shade and sometimes are sown in strips

between areas of other range crops. Combinations of two or more annual crops to provide

ample green feed throughout the season sometimes are used.

For permanent range, alfalfa, ladino clover, bluegrass, bromegrass, and orchardgrass

are popular. Other satisfactory pasture plants

are lespedeza sericea, white Dutch clover, and

various perennial grasses. Mixtures of some

of these plants often are desirable, the choice

depending upon local soil and climate. Where

alfalfa grows well, it is an excellent pasture

crop. In sections where ladino clover grows

well, where the soil is fairly well watered, ladino clover recently has become popular. Bluegrass is one of the best pasture plants for

turkeys in areas receiving sufficient summer

moisture to keep it growing. Crops not suited

to turkey range are sweetclovers and common

lespedeza because they are unpalatable to turkeys.

Protection Against Predators

Predatory wild animals and free-ranging dogs

can, and often do, cause heavy losses among

ranged turkeys by direct attack or by causing

stampedes. Double-strand electric fences effectively protect turkeys against most nonflying predators. Tightly stretched heavy-gage

poultry fencing 6 feet high effectively protects

them against dogs, coyotes, and foxes. To help

prevent these animals from crawling under

the fence, place the fence close to the ground,

add a strand of barbed wire at the bottom, and

plug all sizeable depressions under the fence.

Steel wolf traps placed in strategic locations also effectively control roving animals but must

be used with great care to avoid trapping

desirable animals, including turkeys and humans. Well-trained watchdogs are good protection. They can be tethered near the roosting
50 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 39 3, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

areas or allowed to range over them. Brush

piles and thick vegetation should be eliminated

from turkey ranges.

A rotating electric light beam or electric

lamps about 30 feet apart in a double rov^ and

completely surrounding the roosting quarters

have been used to protect the turkeys and help

prevent stampedes. Ringing the roosting area

with cannonball oil flares 30 feet apart is quite

effective. However, a continuous guard or confinement of the turkeys to a safe place during

the night and early morning hours may be required for protection against predators and

thieves.

Great horned owls and certain large hawks

sometimes cause appreciable losses among turkeys roosting in the open. These predatory birds

may be trapped by placing a steel trap on top

of a tall pole or dead tree.

Protection Against Weather

In northern areas where late-fall storms are

likely, turkey growers should plan to market

their unsheltered ranged turkeys no later than

November 1. Late-hatched birds or those retained for breeding should be given at least

minimum housing—windbreak and a roof. Portable range shelters "'^ can be drawn together to

form a long roosting shelter. Snow fences strategically placed protect the turkeys from drifting snow. Littered, roostless shelters can provide all-season protection for young stock and

housing for breeding stock.

CONFINEMENT REARING

Rearing turkeys in houses on litter (confinement rearing) without access to ouside yards

or porches is a relatively new development,

which has been widely adopted in all areas

where turkeys are raised in commercial quantities. Its chief advantages, compared with

range rearing, are: (1) Excellent protection*

against losses caused by thievery, dogs, wild

animals, adverse weather conditions, and soilborne diseases, parasites, and insects; (2)

lower land costs; (3) lower labor costs if automatic feeding and watering equipment is used ;

and (4) better control of operations. Disadvantages are: (1) Higher housing and equipment costs; (2) more risk from respiratory diseases and cannibalism; and (3) more danger

from overcrowding. The advantages and the

disadvantages listed do not always apply because of the variations in management in both

methods of rearing, but in general, the advantages of confinement rearing outweigh the disadvantages. Confined turkeys must be fed diets

that are nutritionally complete.

For large-type tom turkeys reared to market

age in naturally ventilated, noninsulated buildings and not debeaked, the optimum floor-space

allowance might be about 10 square feet each;

for hens, about 7 square feet; and for mixed

flocks, about 814 square feet. However, more

practical allowances are about 514 square

feet for large-type toms, 31/2 for hens, and 4V2

for mixed flocks. For small-type turkeys, these

allowances can be one-fifth less. With these

practical floor-space allowances, the turkeys

must be debeaked and the building must be well

ventilated to lower the risk of respiratory infections and prevent overheating in hot weather. In well-insulated, force-ventilated, aircooled or air-conditioned houses, the practical

allowances probably can be further reduced

by about one-fifth.

The litter, usually softwood shavings or

wheat straw, must be kept dry and reasonably

clean by adding to it frequently and, if necessary, removing prominent accumulations of

droppings and wet litter that may contribute

to the development of blisters, leg trouble, and

fungus diseases. (See "Litter" under ''Breeder Management and Housing.'')

Pole-type rearing houses (figs. 26 and 27)

are widely used for turkeys. A popular size is

40 by 300 feet but many houses are wider

and longer. Strong wire or solid partitions

about 5 feet high, either suspended from the

tresses or made removable, sometimes are used

to divide the flock into units no larger than

1,000 to 1,500 birds each. This arrangement is

helpful in sex and age separation and can

help to reduce or prevent losses from crowding,

stampeding, and disease. All houses should
TURKEY PRODUCTION 51

IIWII

'»^ww.^p^wff^^ •

Figure 26.—Pole-type, 40- by 300-foot, semiconfinement rearing sheltjer with a 20-foot concrete porch (apron) along

south side. Capacity of unit, including porch, is about 3,700 heavy-breed' turkeys. Note full-length roof ventilator.

(Photo from Turkey World, Mt. Morris, 111. 61054.)

Figure 27.—Pole-type house for turkeys with full-length ventilation opening in roof facing away from prevailing

winds. Plans may be obtained from Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo. 80521. (Photo from Colorado State University.)

be strongly built to withstand weather hazards

such as high winds and snow. Rearing houses

need not be well lighted because turkeys over

about 8 weeks old tend to grow faster and more

efficiently in dim light of 1/2 to 1 foot-candle.

Suggestions on housing for breeding stock generally are applicable to buildings used for confinement rearing. Plans for confinement rearing and brooder houses for turkeys can be obtained.*
52 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

Stone Yards

The capacity of confinement houses can be

increased by adding an outside yard evenly

covered with 12 to 15 inches of washed stones,

varying in diameter from 2 to about 4 inches

with fine particles removed (fig. 28). The yard

should be well drained and surrounded by

strong, tightly stretched, 6-foot fencing. About

51/2 square feet of yard space, plus 3 square

feet in the house should be provided for each

large-type turkey in mixed flocks, allowing the

birds continuous access to the stone yard. The

stones do not cause breast blisters or foot trouble and normally would not need to be cleaned,

stirred, treated, or replaced for 15 years or

longer. The turkeys benefit from the direct sunshine, exercise, and fresh air when they are in

the yards. Feeders and waterers should be inside the littered shelter, which should be built

to exclude wild birds and predatory animals.

Rearing Porches

The capacity of confinement houses can also

be increased by adding a slightly sloping concrete or blacktop porch (apron) (fig. 26).

About 2 square feet of porch space plus 3

square feet of floor space in the house should

be provided for each large-type,turkey in mixed

flocks. The porch should be surrounded by

strong 6-foot fencing and can be used with or

without litter. A house 40 by 300 with a porch

30 by 300 feet would hold about 4,000 largetype turkeys of mixed sexes to market age provided the birds are debeaked. With this type

of management, periodic cleaning or relittering

of the porch may be necessary. Feeders and

waterers should be inside the shelter, which

should be built to exclude wild birds and predatory animals. For use in extremely hot

weather, sprinklers can be installed above the

porch.

14073-A

Figure 28.—Small-scale rearing unit with cobblestone yard and shelter in which the turkeys eat, drink, and roost
TURKEY PRODUCTION 53

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF

MALES AND FEMALES

Behavioral Characteristics

Turkey males frequently strut at the dayold stage and from then on indulge in this

characteristic male behavior to a greater or lesser extent throughout life. Failure to strut is a

sign of off-condition. Young females rarely

strut, but old hens, apparently afflicted with

ovarian disorders, have been observed to strut

and to attempt to mate v^ith other hens.

Anatomical Characteristics

When first hatched, poults are covered with

soft down and have about 16 short, stubby quill

feathers on each wing, but no easily visible

tail feathers until they are 3 weeks of age.

By 2 months of age, both males and females are

reasonably well feathered. All turkeys are

quick feathering and rarely develop bare backs.

When the turkeys are about 5 weeks of age,

prominent fleshy protuberances called caruncles

begin to appear on the head of the male. When

the males are 7 weeks of age, the caruncles

begin to extend down the neck and the single

throat wattle, inconspicuous at hatching, has

become fairly prominent in both sexes. This

process has been termed "shooting the red'' and

is a natural development of no particular significance.

On top of the head, near the base of the

beak of both males and females, a fleshy protuberance, very small at hatching, develops into

what is called the tubular leader, dewbill, or

snood. On males the snood becomes relatively

large, plump, and elastic, whereas on females

it is relatively small, thin, and nonelastic.

The beard, a tuft of hairlike feathers, appears on the breast of males between 3 and 4

months of age. It is about 12 inches long in

wild turkeys, but usually not more than 6

inches long in domestic (fig. 3). Most females

are beardless but a few have small beards,

usually not more than 1 inch long. The hock

joints of males are much broader, heavier, and

more flattened in front than those of females.

The head of the males is coarser and broader

and the headgear tends to be a brighter red

than that of the females. The head, snood,

throat wattle, and the unfeathered upper part

of the neck of mature males are red, changeable to white overlaid with bright blue; the

blue is most intense on the face. Females and

immature males show only traces of the blue

color.

There also are color differences in the breast

feathers of males and females of most colored

varieties so that sex may be determined when

the adult feathers appear at the age of about

12 weeks. The adult breast feathers of the male

Bronze poults are bronze-black; whereas those

of the females are bronze-black with narrow

white edging. Narragansett poults show similar sex differences in the color of breast plumage. Breast feathers of wild turkey females

have iodine-colored tips, whereas those of males

have black tips. Breast feathers of Bourbon

Red and Buff females are white tipped, whereas those of the males are black tipped.

MARKING TURKEYS

A permanent method of marking turkeys often is needed to separate birds of different ages

and breeding. Day-old poults can be marked

easily by punching a hole in the webs between

the toes or slitting these webs with a sharp

pair of shears. If toe punching is used, the

plug of flesh produced by the punch must be

removed completely, otherwise the hole may

grow shut. Fifteen different combinations of

punch marks or slits are possible if both webs

of both feet are used.

Wingbandirig is the best method of marking

and is necessary in pedigree breeding. Unless

a permanent seal is officially required, the

double-clinch type of aluminum band one-fourth

inch wide is preferred because such bands may

be removed easily if they must be replaced or

their location changed. Wingbands usually are

inserted directly into the wing at hatching time,

using a small, thin, sharp knife blade, or better,

a small thin-blade, botanical scapel to make the

hole a little longer than the band is wide and
54 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

placed exactly three-thirty-seconds of an inch

back from the edge of the web and midway between the first and third joint of the wing. Only

by very careful placement of the slit, as directed, can band trouble be avoided.

The double-clinch type of wingband has an

overall length of 2^4 inches and measures about

three-fourths of an inch in diameter inside

measurement when molded to circular form.

When placed directly into the wing at hatching

time, the wingband must be flattened so that

the center parts touch each other. This prevents

the band from slipping around the wing tip

and causing deformity. When the bird is 4 to 6

weeks old, the bands must be opened up to allow

for wing growth, leaving the band roughly elliptical.

Molded rectangular wingbands usually are

about 1 inch long inside measurement and, to

prevent slipping around the wing tip, should

be pressed together at the center when put

on the day-old poult, then opened up to full

depth later on.

Metal legbands are a practical means of

marking breeding birds, (fig. 18). Bands should

be of strong aluminum. They are manufactured

in several sizes.

DISEASE PREVENTION*

Although effective drugs now are available

for the prevention and treatment of certain

turkey diseases, emphasis should be placed on

prevention through management. Some management practices that may help to prevent

the introduction and spread of diseases and

parasites in turkeys are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Obtain stock only from sources tested for

and rated free from Arizona infections, fowl

typhoid, Mycoplasma infections, paratyphoid,

pullorum disease, and any other diseases for

which testing of breeding stock is being conducted.

For turkey range, select naturally welldrained, clean, sandy soil, which means soil

free from contamination by poultry, hogs, or

sheep. Allow 1 acre of range for each 250

turkeys raised each year. Move the growing

turkeys and their equipment to an adjacent

clean area every week or two throughout the

rearing season, more often in warm, wet

weather, and use the same area only 1 year

in 2 or 3. Do not allow turkeys access to ponds,

streams, poorly drained areas, weed patches,

roadways, or other people's property.

Separate turkeys from chickens and other

poultry at all times; separate old from young

turkeys; do not mix young turkeys of widely

different ages; isolate turkeys from all kinds

of livestock except horses and cattle. Separation or isolation means not only complete physical separation but also the prevention of cross

contamination through droppings, equipment,

transportation, air currents, and the clothing

of caretakers.

Control rodents and flies. Screen all buildings against wild birds, which seldom enter

open turkey doors that are at floor level and

not over 21/2 feet high. Check the flocks regularly for lice and northern fowl mites and

for damage by chiggers and ticks.

Select visitors carefully and keep them out

of all poultry houses and range areas. If they

do enter, require them to first step into a

shallow pan of strong disinfectant. Try to prevent all farm personnel from visiting other

farms where dangerous infections may exist.

If such visits are made, the shoes should be

disinfected or washed when the visit is concluded and all outer clothing worn there should

be cleansed before it is worn on the home

premises.

Ventilate the brooder house well and allow

the recommended amount of floor space per

bird. Limit brooding units to 250 poults each.

Provide good ventilation in confinement

rearing quarters and do not overcrowd the

birds. Allow the recommended amount of floor

space per bird.

Feed and water the birds from equipment

that cannot be contaminated by droppings and

keep the areas around feeders and waterers

dry and clean at all times by moving, by frequent cleaning, or by using wire-covered or

slatted platforms or grills.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 55

Avoid extremely dusty or wet conditions on

range or in confinement.

Do not allow off-the-farm trucks on the

range or in the buildings. Trucks used for

hauling live turkeys to processing plants are a

special problem because, by the nature of their

use, they can easily become mechanical carriers of disease. The entire truck, including

the tires, should be thoroughly cleaned, washed

down, and disinfected at the processing plant

after each use. The turkey grower should

limit, as far as practicable, the movements of

live-turkey trucks on his farm.

Make a daily check for sick, injured, or dead

birds. Isolate the sick and injured. Autopsy

the dead birds and those that appear near

death to check for external and internal disorders and disabilities. Use professional diagnostic services promptly, as suggested later, if

conditions suggest disease.

Get rid of dead birds by incineration, deep

burial, or disposal pit. NOTE: Some States require poultry producers to have incineration

facilities or a disposal pit.

Disinfecting and Cleaning

In general, there is little to be gained in

disease prevention by routinely applying disinfectant solutions to poultry buildings, soil,

and equipment. However, when infectious disease occurs, the use of a disinfectant may

be indicated as suggested in this handbook,

recommended by competent authority, or

required by regulations. For example, it sometimes is recommended or required that hatching eggs be fumigated with formaldehyde or

dipped in an antibiotic or a quaternary ammonium solution to aid in the control of certain

egg-transmitted diseases. When infectious diseases occur, fumigate at frequent intervals the

battery brooding rooms, incubators, egg

rooms, and all egg and poult equipment that

can be tightly closed or placed in a tightly

closed room. After thorough cleaning, use formaldehyde gas according to directions of the

manufacturer.

All turkey-occupied buildings should be

cleaned thoroughly after each brooding, growing, and breeding period. To clean buildings

that have solid floors of waterproof material.

remove the birds and all the litter, scraping

off all accumulations of dirt and droppings.

Then wash down the house, including all builtin fixtures, with water under pressure. Start

with the ceiling or the underside of the roof

and remove all dust and dirt, washing it down

the drain or out the doors. Wash, rinse, and

drain the watering equipment. Scrape the

feeders clean of all loose dirt and spoiled or

dirty feed. Where practicable, expose all parts

of the portable equipment to direct sunshine

for several hours. After the cleaning, open up

the house to the fresh air and sunshine and

leave it vacant for at least 30, preferably 90,

days.

In buildings with dirt floors or where water

under pressure is not available, take the removable equipment outside and wash or dryclean it and then allow it to remain in the

sunshine for at least 3 days. Sweep down, blo\'

out, or remove by vacuum as much dust and

cobwebs as possible, preferably with a portable steam-cleaning unit with a detergent.

Then clean out all litter and dirt. If infectious

disease has been a problem, spray the cleaned

house, including the dirt floors, thoroughly

with a cresylic disinfectant recommended and

approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or with some other recommended product.

Finally, open up the house and leave it vacant

for at least 30, preferably 90, days.

Disinfectants

For general use in poultry buildings, the

saponated cresol disinfectants are effective and

relatively inexpensive but they leave a persistent disagreeable odor and are irritating to

the skin and eyes. They should not be used on

or in feeders, waterers, or any equipment concerned with human food or poultry feed. A

list of cresylic disinfectants permitted for official use is available from the Animal Health

Division, USDA, Federal Center Building,

Hyattsville, Md. 20782.

The quaternary ammonium compounds are

considered to be good disinfectants if used according to directions and not in soapy solutions or on surfaces containing residues of

soap or detergents. In the recommended solutions, they are odorless, effective, and rela403-464
56 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

tively nonirritating to eyes and skin. They

are recommended for disinfecting eggs, clothing, instruments, glassware, utensils, and

metals. They can be used on the human skin if

all soap and detergent residues are first removed.

Chlorine disinfectants such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, and the chlorinated triazinetriones are powerful disinfectants and effective deodorants and bleaches

when used as directed on clean surfaces. They

are useful in disinfecting cleaned equipment

and housing and can be used as antiseptics in

drinking water where this is prescribed. Solutions providing 1,000 parts per million of available chlorine are necessary to provide strong

disinfecting action. Calcium hypochlorite containing 70 percent available chlorine is widely

used. Because of irritation of the eyes and air

passages, chlorine disinfectants should not be

used in closed rooms containing people or animals. The free chlorine generated also is destructive to fabrics, leather, and metals, so

chlorine disinfectants must be used with care.

Formaldehyde, a gas, is sold as formalin, a

40 percent water solution, or as paraformaldehyde, a powder that liberates formaldehyde

when heated. Formaldehyde is an excellent disinfectant but its use is limited to disinfecting

relatively airtight rooms and equipment, utensils, and clothing that can be placed in them.

It does not injure equipment or utensils but is

irritating to the skin and eyes. As a rule, fumigation of poultry buildings is not effective because they cannot be made airtight.

Direct sunshine has value as a disinfectant

for use where it can be applied directly to clean

equipment, fabrics, and utensils but it is not

dependable for general use.

Depopulation, although not classed as a disinfectant, helps to combat disease because most

bacteria and viruses are unable to live for long

periods of time outside the body of the host. To

aid in eliminating these diseases from buildings,

depopulation for at least 30, preferably 90,

days, combined with cleanliness, dryness, good

air circulation, and sunshine is helpful. However, some protozoan and fungus diseases do not

die out readily and are resistant to disinfectants. These diseases are best combatted by

such control measures as range rotation, sanitation, especially around feeders and waterers,

elimination of carrier birds, and treatment

with drugs.

Miscellaneous disinfectants such as lye, carbolic acid, (phenol), sodium orthophenylphenate (Dowicide A), Beta-Propiolactone (BPL),

pine oil disinfectant, sulphuric acid, ethylene

oxide, heat from a fire gun, very hot water,

steam, quicklime, potassium permanganate,

copper sulphate (bluestone), iodine preparations, and mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) , all have value as disinfectants and some

have special uses but none are especially recommended as aids in turkey sanitation.

The common detergents are efficient cleansers and have considerable disinfecting action,

especially if applied in hot water, about 167° F.

(75° C.), 1 pound to 40 gallons.

COMBATING A DISEASE OUTBREAK

One of the first signs of an impending disease outbreak often is a lowering of feed consumption. Birds may be nervous or they may

appear droopy and listless. Coughing and

sneezing indicate respiratory infections; abnormal droppings suggest intestinal disorders.

Young poults may crowd together and seem

to be cold even though plenty of heat is available. However, external symptoms seldom can

be used to diagnose diseases; post-mortem examinations and laboratory tests usually are

necessary.

Defensive Measures

When sick or crippled birds are detected in

ranged turkeys, move them to isolation quarters and, if practicable, move the healthy birds

to a clean range area and continue to move

them twice a week. Remove all sick birds that

may appear. If isolation quarters are not avail-
TURKEY PRODUCTION 57

able, the sick birds can be left where they

were at the time the healthy birds were

moved. If the birds are confined, isolate the

sick birds and add clean litter frequently to

both the confined and the isolation quarters.

Keep the sick birds isolated from the healthy.

Keep all turkeys on the regular feed and

water and keep waterers clean by daily washing and rinsing. Do not medicate until a diagnosis is obtained, then follow directions

promptly and carefully.

Do not drench the birds, litter, range soil,

or equipment with disinfectants. Do not put

disinfectants in the drinking water unless so

directed by competent authority. Fumigation

is valuable but only in places that can be

tightly closed such as incubators and Qgg

rooms, seldom in poultry houses. Litter and soil

cannot be freed from infection through fumigation or disinfection. However, thorough

cleaning followed by disinfection of the building, exposure to direct sunshine, and depopulation of the turkey premises for at least 30,

preferably 90, days is helpful.

Obtaining a Diagnosis

As soon as all the obviously affected birds

are removed from the flock, carry or send by

private transportation about five live, very sick

(moribund) birds to a local poultry disease

diagnostic laboratory or a poultry-oriented

veterinarian for diagnosis and recommendations on treatment or control. Freshly dead

birds may be taken if moribund birds are not

available. Transport the dead birds in sealed

bags, preferably plastic, and the live birds in

closed crates or boxes from which manure or

feathers are not likely to escape. Do not attempt

to transport sick or dead birds by common carrier. All bags, boxes, or other containers that

have been in contact with such turkeys should

be burned.

Accompany the shipment with written information on symptoms, the number of sick

and dead birds observed, the medications and

vaccinations that may have been used, the

source and size of the affected flock, the management (whether range or confinement), the

feeds and litter used, and other pertinent data

such as name, address, and telephone number

of owner or caretaker.

Post-Mortem Examinations

If diagnostic facilities are not available

within transportable distance, the turkey

grower should promptly perform a postmortem examination (autopsy) of five or more

of the freshly dead or very sick birds and

record the observations. Before the autopsy,

however, the grower should first examine a

normal, healthy bird to aid him in recognizing

abnormal conditions.

To conduct autopsies, use a good-size, sharppointed knife, a bone cutter or autopsy shears,

and a small scissors for opening the digestive

tract. Set up a metal-top table or other smooth,

easily cleaned surface close to water and sewage facilities. Provide newspapers for wrapping and a disinfecting solution for the equipment. If the bird to be examined is alive, kill

it by dislocating the neck, by a sharp blow at

the top rear of the head, or by drowning (holding the head under water will do it) so that

blood will not be spilled. To avoid possible infection, use rubber gloves in handling and examining obviously diseased birds.

First examine the dead bird externally, starting with the head and mouth. A swollen darkened snood may be caused by injury or possibly

by erysipelas or cholera. An opaque retina

(clouded eye) suggests Arizona infection.

Wartlike nodules on the head and sometimes

cheesy cankers in the mouth indicate fowl pox;

swollen sinuses around the eyes indicate sinusitis; a lump in the throat and drooling indicate

a curled-back tongue, which may be caused by

eating finely ground feed.

Examine the wings, back, keel, and legs for

broken or abnormal bones. Look for skin damage, breast blisters, and abscesses and for the

sizeable yellow or brown lice and the tiny black

northern fowl or feather mites in the area

around the vent.

The crop may be pendulous with liquid or

semiliquid contents, it may be impacted with

solid material, or its contents may feel soft and
58 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

mushy. The last may indicate (1) a fungus

infection (mycosis), which appears as a yellowish-white curdlike mass if the crop is slit open

or (2) cropworm (Capillaria) infestation,

which appears as whitish thickened masses of

tissue in the crop walls, in which the threadlike worms 1/4 to 3 inches long can be seen if

the mass is carefully examined.

Breeding birds of both sexes may have (1)

scabby eyelids (keratoconjunctivitis, or blepharitis) or (2) a foul-smelling vent, or vent gleet.

In this case destroy the bird promptly and check

the flock for more infected birds. Breeding hens

may have a prolapsed and inflamed oviduct.

For the internal examination, place the dead

bird on its back, make a crosswise cut through

the abdominal skin at the rear of the breastbone and then a foward cut through all the

ribs on each side, and finally break back the

breastbone exposing the abdominal organs,

lungs, and air sacs.

Upon examining the viscera, the observer

will be able to accurately identify only a few

obvious findings such as the following. A massive hemorrhage in the abdominal cavity without other abnormalities would reliably indicate

aortic rupture. The intestines ballooned and

filled with dark-colored bloody material would

identify the disease as hemorrhagic enteritis.

Yellowish ulcers showing on the enlarged blind

pouches (ceca) of the intestine combined with

yellowish lumps or sizable whitish sunken

spots in the liver would reliably indicate blackhead. Penetrations and impactions anywhere

in the digestive tract are easily seen and the

cause usually is obvious. Accumulations of

whole eggs or their yolks occasionally occur in

breeder hens indicating a malfunction usually

unrelated to disease. Inflammation of the lining

of the abdominal cavity, with purulent adhesions (peritonitis), usually is the result of

injury or a malfunction of the abdominal organs. When the external appearance and the

internal organs of dead poults under 5 weeks

of age appear normal and the birds are in

good flesh, smothering, injury, or water glut

may be suspected. Small, dehydrated poults

a few days old showing no lesions anywhere

usually are starve-outs resulting from failure

of the poults to eat and drink.

The following findings are suggestive but

not necessarily reliable indicators of certain

diseases.

Yellowish spots on lungs or air sacs (airsacculitis) usually accompanied by lesions

(whitish deposits, reddish inflammation, cheesy

abscesses, hemorrhages) on or in the abdominal organs suggest infections due to one of

several disease-producing organisms such as

the Mycoplasma bacteria, Escherichia coli, and

the virus causing ornithosis. (See Airsacculitis,

Coliform Infections, Sinusitis, and Ornithosis.)

Accurate diagnosis depends upon laboratory

tests, but Mycoplasma meleagridis is a likely

culprit. If the air-sac spots appear greenish,

the lungs have a furry down, and the air sacs

are covered with a yellow exúdate, the disease

is likely to be aspergillosis, caused by the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus, which also may

cause blindness and cheesy deposits in mouth

and windpipe.

Fowl cholera is suggested by a salmoncolored, friable liver with whitish pin-point

spots, an enlarged heart with a whitish-yellow

exúdate, fluid in the lungs, and sometimes yellow cheesy accumulations in the air sacs. Feces

are yellow to yellow-green and there is a characteristic fetid odor in the body cavity. The

snood may be swollen as in erysipelas. These

findings in turkeys over 10 weeks old, combined

with sudden death, strongly indicate cholera.

Fowl typhoid is suggested by mahoganystreaked, sometimes greenish-yellow enlarged

liver; necrotic areas in the heart; grayish

lungs; enteritis; and a mottled, greatly enlarged spleen in poults 6 to 20 weeks old

(usually in the older birds). (See Salmonellosis

and Arizona Infections.) Turkeys sometimes

die rather quickly from typhoid but not so

suddenly as from cholera.

Soft swellings of the hock joint and feet

suggest synovitis. In addition, the liver usually

is enlarged and darkened, the feces are sulfur

colored as in blackhead, and there may be a

large abscess next to the breastbone.

Bluecomb in small poults is suggested by

emaciation with dark, dried-out flesh combined

with bulbous small intestines, their contents

watery, fetid, and gaseous. In older poults and

mature turkeys, similar lesions occur; in addi-
TURKEY PRODUCTION 59

tion, the pancreas may have small chalky

areas. (The pancreas is the two- or three-lobed

slender gland attached to a fold of the small

intestine next to the gizzard.)

Erysipelas is suggested by an enlarged friable liver, bloody areas in breast muscles, purplish blotches in the skin over the breast, inflamed intestine (enteritis), and an enlarged

mottled spleen, combined v^ith a swollen, purplish-red snood in turkeys, mostly males, over

3 months old. Handle infected birds with care

because this disease is transmittable to man.

Coccidiosis is suggested when any part of

intestines of turkeys under about 8 weeks old

is inflamed and thickened and contains a milky

fluid and the ceca (the two blind pouches of

the intestine) have small whitish ulcers.

Roundworms and tapeworms are easily seen

if the intestines are slit open with a knife or

scissors.

Hexamitiasis is suggested in turkeys under

about 10 weeks old if the flesh of the breast is

dehydrated and reddened and the small intestines are bulbous and filled with a thick mucus

or with a thin, foamy, yellowish mucus, which

is fairly characteristic. This disease is easily

confused with bluecomb but a laboratory examination will determine if the causal organism Hexamita meleagridis is present.

After the post mortem the operator should

first dispose of all the turkey material as suggested previously and then thoroughly wash

the equipment, his hands, and his arms with

soap and water or a detergent. The common

detergents are good cleansing agents and have

considerable antiseptic value, especially if applied hot at 167° F. (75° C.) or more. A cresylic disinfectant can be used on the equipment

after cleaning is completed.

COMMON DISEASES AND DISORDERS*

This discussion of turkey diseases and disorders, parasites, and disabilities is not complete but is intended to cover briefly most of

the conditions likely to affect turkeys. As noted

previously, professional assistance should be

obtained in diagnosing diseases and in planning control methods, especially those involving

the use of drugs and vaccines. In conjunction

with the following descriptive material on turkey diseases, the reader should refer to the

previous discussion of post-mortem findings.

Effective drug treatments for some turkey

diseases now are available. Drugs can be administered to groups of turkeys in drinking water

or feed, or administered individually, usually

by hypodermic injection, but their use should

be based on the directions of the manufacturer

or a qualified veterinarian. The selection of

drugs must be limited to those permitted for

such use by State or Federal authorities, including the Food and Drug Administration.

Airsacculitis

Airsacculitis is not a specific disease; it is

a condition where deposits of yellowish exúdate

are found on the air sacs and sometimes on

the lungs. These deposits, if extensive, result

in condemnations because of septicemia-toxemia when the birds are inspected after slaughter. Airsacculitis can be caused by nine or more

different bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Among

these are the organisms causing cholera, sinusitis, synovitis, N-strain infections, coliform

infections, aspergillosis, and ornithosis.

A very small bacterium, Mycoplasma meleagridis, or N-strain PPLO, appears to be an

important cause of airsacculitis, which is widespread in turkey breeding flocks in some areas.

Transmission is through eggs and through the

semen of the male. Hatching eggs can largely,

but not completely, be freed of infection by

dipping ivarm eggs for 20 minutes in a cold solution of the antibiotic tylosin, which also may

be used as a treatment in the drinking water.

It is possible to identify noncarrier males

through tests and then mate them with females

from dipped eggs to produce stock free from

the disease. No drugs are presently (1970)

available to prevent or control airsacculitis

caused by Mycoplasma meleagridis.

Aortic Rupture

Aortic rupture, or dissecting aneurism, can

cause sudden death of male turkeys in good
60 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

condition, usually those 10 to 16 weeks of age

or older. It seems to be associated with high

blood pressure and possibly with an inherited

weakness or a deficiency of copper in the diet.

It can be produced by feeding sweetpea seeds

to the turkeys. The body cavity of the affected

bird is filled with blood and no other visceral

abnormalities are noted except the ruptured

artery, often the posterior aorta near the

kidneys. Aortic rupture can be prevented by

feeding the tranquilizing drug reserpine continuously at a low level as directed by the manufacturer.

Arizona Infections (Paracolon)

(See "Salmonellosis and Arizona Infections.")

Blackhead (Histomoniasis or

Enterohepatitis)

The widespread, destructive disease blackhead is caused by the protozoan Histomonas

meleagridis, which can affect turkeys of all

ages, but especially those 8 to 16 weeks old.

Symptoms are droopiness, often with lowered

head and wings (fig. 29) ; watery, yellowcolored droppings; and sometimes darkened

head parts. When autopsied, yellowish lumps,

or more characteristically, roundish, yellowish

or whitish, slightly sunken spots are found in

the liver, usually combined with ulcers in one

68870-B

Figure 29.—Blackhead-infected turkey male, 16 weeks old.

or both of the swollen ceca (the two blind

pouches of the intestine). In a few cases, only

the cecal lesions are seen. Brooding on wire or

slats appears to be effective in preventing blackhead as well as coccidiosis and hexamitiasis in

the brooder house. Likewise, blackhead usually

does not affect unmedicated turkeys over 8

weeks old that are reared in complete confinement on clean litter or on clean range if turkeys

are moved every week or two. However, if the

infection occurs or seems likely to occur, it

would be advisable to feed one of the several

available blackhead-static drugs. These drugs

can be fed to young stock continuously at the

preventive level until a week before marketing

and to breeding stock also.

Bluecomb

The highly contagious disease bluecomb, also

called transmissible enteritis and mud fever,

affects the intestinal tract of turkeys of all

ages, including breeding stock. Bluecomb may

occur suddenly in young poults, which appear

dehydrated, are droopy, and have a gaseous,

watery diarrhea. Mortality may range from 5

to 50 percent, sometimes as high as 100 percent

of affected flocks. Survivors of an attack are

immune but remain carriers; hence they should

not be retained for breeding nor allowed to

mix with uninfected stock. Bluecomb tends to

be sporadic; it may appear suddenly, then disappear.

There is no preventive treatment for bluecomb other than good management, but losses

sometimes can be reduced by supplying extra

heat and an antibiotic such as neomycin, penicillin, or streptomycin in the drinking water,

along with molasses (1 pint per 5 gallons of

water for one day) followed by a broad-spectrum antibiotic in the feed. In breeding stock,

death losses may not be severe, but morbidity

may be high and egg production and body

weight are greatly reduced. The cause of bluecomb in unknown but a virus or a Vibrio

bacterium is suspected.

Bluecomb is not believed to be egg transmitted, but because it is a contagious disease, affected groups should be isolated. Adverse

weather conditions when turkeys become wet

and chilled seem to increase the chances of an
TURKEY PRODUCTION 61

outbreak. Wild birds and other poultry, which

may carry bluecomb, should be kept completely

out of contact with turkeys. Depopulation for

at least 30 days is an essential part of a control program. Strict isolation of the brooding

facilities from older turkeys and wild birds is

essential in preventing outbreaks.

Bumblefoot

Hard bumblefoot is a firm swelling in the

center of the foot, usually with a horny core.

Soft bumblefoot is soft-centered abscesses with

purulent-appearing edges on the soles of the

feet, particularly the toes. Severe bumblefoot

can cause lameness, retardation of growth, and,

indirectly, reduction in market grade. Male

turkeys raised on hard floors with roosts are

most susceptible to hard bumblefoot, and male

and female turkeys raised on muddy, dirty

range or litter sometimes develop soft bumblefoot. To prevent the disorder, eliminate roosts

and raise the turkeys on deep, dry litter or on

clean dry, range. Treatment is useless.

Candidiasis

(See "Fungus Infections (Mycoses).")

Cholera

Fowl cholera, a destructive disease caused

by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida, can

cause sudden death of turkeys, usually those

over 10 weeks old. There may be a yellow to

green diarrhea, a nasal discharge, a pinkish

skin or a swollen snood. The abdominal organs are seriously affected, including pin-point

spots on the liver, which have some diagnostic

value.

The infection may be introduced on equipment, feed sacks, or turkey crates, or by carriers such as houseflies and wild birds. It

seems to be triggered by exposure of the birds

to stressful conditions such as bad weather,

overcrowding, and sudden changes in feeding

or watering methods. It is not believed to be

egg transmitted.

Preventive measures against cholera are:

Provide good sanitation, clean range, and complete segregation of adult and young birds;

break all contact with wild birds and all other

poultry; retain for breeding no turkeys from

infected flocks; do not overcrowd; and avoid

stresses, especially in bad weather. Oil adjuvant

4-isolate preventive vaccines are quite effective

and are preferred to other types. Vaccines

can be used in problem areas, employing two

subcutaneous injections at 6 to 8 and at 12

to 16 weeks of age. Treatment of affected flocks

with a sulfa drug such as sulfaquinoxaline in

the water for young birds or chlortetracycline

in the feed of young or old stock may be helpful

in controlling mortality.

Coccidiosis

Coccidiosis, which can be caused by any one

of three species of Eimeria (spore-forming

protozoans), affects poults 3 to 8 weeks old. The

poults usually continue to eat, but they huddle

and cheep, with drooping wings and ruffled

feathers and a watery diarrhea sometimes

slightly tinged with blood. The small or large

intestines usually are inflamed, thickened, dilated, and whitish due to a milky-white exúdate.

The ceca may contain yellowish-brown fecal

material and the cecal walls may be abscessed

or hemorrhagic.

Treatment of affected poults is not very effective but sulfaquinoxaline or sulfamethazne

in water or feed may reduce losses.

Coccidiosis is easily prevented by including

a drug such as amprolium or sulfaquinoxaline

in the starting feed. This procedure is routinely

applied in situations where the disease is present on the premises. Brooding on wire or slat

floors usually prevents coccidiosis.

Coliform Infections (Colibacillosis)

The bacterium Escherichia coli is responsible for most coliform infections which can

be acute and cause sudden death of turkeys in

good condition. Upon post mortem, there may

be yellowish cheesy material in the air sacs

and on the heart and liver. The spleen is greatly enlarged and hemorrhagic. There may be

navel infection, small hemorrhages on the

heart, and small white spots on the enlarged

liver. Intestinal contents may be greenish and

there may be yellowish fecal material around

the vent.

A coliform infection usually occurs as a

secondary infection to the diseases caused by
62 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

the Mycoplasma organisms, but it also can

occur by itself. Some strains of the bacterium

are pathogenic, others are not. Infected poults

are usually from a few days to 2 to 3 weeks

old but older poults up to market age are also

susceptible. Breeding hens may be carriers of

E. coll bacteria and the disease may be transmitted in the egg or on the egg surface. The

. pullorum-typhoid tube test may help to identify

breeding hens that are carriers. Laboratory

tests are necessary for diagnosis because the

post-mortem findings are easily confused with

those of cholera, erysipelas, and typhoid.

Preventive measures against coliform infections are: (1) Fumigating the hatching eggs

after cleaning the slightly dirty ones and discarding those that are very dirty; (2) starting

the poults in a clean environment; (3) excluding wild birds and rodents; and (4) avoiding

contaminated feed and equipment. Medication

of affected poults is not too effective, but

neomycin or erythromycin in feed or water or

the day-old hypodermic injection of antibiotics

may reduce losses.

Erysipelas

Erysipelas caused by the swine erysipelas

organism usually affects turkeys 4 to 7 months

old. To prevent it, keep turkeys from all contact with sheep and swine and with land used

by these animals. Early debeaking and desnooding of turkeys may help to prevent the spread

of this disease. Turkeys can be vaccinated

against erysipelas and infected birds can be

treated effectively with penicillin or a bacterin,

or both. Vaccination is not indicated unless

erysipelas is present in the area. For an accurate diagnosis, laboratory tests are required

and qualified assistance usually is needed in

planning prevention and treatment programs.

(See *Tost-Mortem Examinations.")

Fowl Pox

Fowl pox is a widespread virus disease causing wartlike nodules on the head of turkeys

and yellowish white cankers in the throat,

usually on turkeys more than about 12 weeks

old. The infection is probably carried by

mosquitoes, wild birds, visitors, animals, used

feed sacks, and other turkeys. Preventive measures are suggested by the carriers listed.

There is no effective treatment for fowl pox,

but it can be prevented by vaccinating young

birds with fowl pox vaccine (a live-virus product) when they are 4 to 10 weeks old. In

some warm-winter areas, it is advisable to revaccinate breeding stock 6 months after the

first vaccination. Unless the disease is present

in the area, vaccination would not be necessary.

Fowl Typhoid

(See "Salmonellosis and Arizona Infections.")

Fungus Infections (Mycoses)

Turkeys of all ages are susceptible to fungus

infections such as candidiasis (mycosis of the

crop, moniliasis, or thrush) and aspergillosis,

which affects the respiratory tract. Sources of

infection may be high-moisture corn; warm,

damp litter, especially sawdust; dirty hatching eggs; poorly drained soil; and continually

warm and damp areas, especially those near

feeders and waterers. The causes listed suggest

methods of prevention. In the absence of effective preventive measures, calcium propionate or an antifungal antibiotic such as Mycostatin in the feed may be helpful in reducing

losses from candidiasis but there is no effective

treatment for aspergillosis. The medication

should be administered according to directions

at the first sign of the disease, before it becomes well established. Changing or covering

up infective litter or moving the turkeys to

clean ground along with removing affected

birds from the flock sometimes helps to clear

up fungal infections. The antibacterial antibiotics (penicillin, bacitracin and the tetracyclines) never should be used in the treatment of

fungus diseases.

Hemorrhagic Enteritis

Hemorrhagic enteritis can occur in turkeys

from 3 weeks to 6 months old, but is more

common in the older birds. The entire intestinal tract is ballooned and filled with darkcolored bloody material. Mortality may be

heavy but it can be largely prevented if, at
TURKEY PRODUCTION 63

the first sig-n of the disease, the turkeys are

injected intramuscularly with 0.5 cc. of antiserum prepared from turkeys recovered from

the disease. The cause may be a combination

of an unidentified virus v^ith bacteria. Suggestions for treatment and preparation of the

antiserum may be obtained from the Extension Service of Virginia Polytechnic Institute,

Blacksburg, Va. 24061. When requesting information, please include your ov^n ZIP code.

Hexamîtîasîs

Hexamitiasis is caused by the protozoan

Hexamita meleagridis and affects young poults

up to 10 weeks old. The birds at first appear

nervous; they huddle and require more heat

than is normally supplied. Later on they become listless. There is a watery, foamy, yellowcolored diarrhea. A rapid weight loss occurs

even though feed consumption tends to be

normal. The small intestine nearest the gizzard

is inflamed, bulbous, and filled with a foamy

mucus. Breast muscles are dehydrated and reddish. Accurate diagnosis is difficult and must

depend on identifying the causative organism.

So far, drugs have not been very effective in

controlling this disease, but nithiazide at the

therapeutic level in the drinking water may

help to reduce losses when an outbreak occurs.

Brooding on wire or slat floors may be the best

preventive, but a low level of nithiazide in the

feed may also have some preventive value for

poults brooded on litter. Sanitation, housefly

control, and complete separation of young from

old broods and young from old turkeys are

desirable management practices.

Myclopasma Infections

(See "Airsacculitis," ''Sinusitis," and ''Synovitis.")

Ornithosis

Ornithosis, primarily a respiratory disease

of birds, does not often affect turkeys; but it

can cause serious losses and is dangerous because it is transmittible to human beings,

sometimes with fatal results. In humans, the

disease is called psitticosis or parrot fever.

Breeding stock and young turkeys over 4

months old can be affected, the first symptoms

being coughing and sneezing. There may be

yellow droppings and a mild swelling of the

sinuses of the head. On autopsy, there are no

characterisitic lesions but pus may be found in

the air sacs and lungs and around the heart

and other visceral organs. The spleen may be

enlarged. The causative virus can be transmitted on the eg^ but apparently not in it and can

be identified only by laboratory tests. Because

wild birds often carry the disease, they should

be excluded from the turkey quarters.

Because of the hazard to human health,

any suspected outbreak of ornithosis should

be verified by laboratory tests of blood and

tissues. Anyone handling ornithosis-affected

birds should use rubber gloves, avoid prolonged

exposure, and wash and disinfect his clothing

and all exposed body areas. The organism can

be killed by fumigation.

The antibiotics chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline at 400 grams per ton of feed for 2

to 4 weeks are quite effective in treating affected turkeys, but a withdrawal period of 1 week

before marketing is necessary.

Paratyphoid

(See ''Salmonellosis and Arizona Infections.'')

Poisoning

Poisoning, which is difficult to diagnose from

symptoms and autopsy findings, can be caused

by the birds' eating or drinking toxic materials

such as decomposed animals, maggots, poisoned

insects, poisoned insect bait, orchard sprays,

disinfectants, and seed grain treated with a

fungicide. Excess amounts of copper sulfate

(bluestone) and sodium bicarbonate (baking

soda) and parts of poisonous plants also may

cause poisoning. Among the poisonous plants

are the leaves of certain lupines and milkweeds,

the young shoots of potatoes and oleander, and

the seeds of the showy crotalaria, the coffeeweed, sesbania, the locoweeds, and droughtdamaged hegari sorghum. Nitrite poisoning can

develop from their eating drought-stricken

sudangrass and possibly other forage plants.

If used as directed, ordinary weed killers apparently are not toxic to turkeys.
64 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

In poisoned turkeys, inflamation of the intestines (enteritis) usually is found, sometimes along with flabby heart, kidney lesions,

liver necrosis, excessive bile, muscular incoordination,,and convulsions. Examination of crop

and gizzard contents may give a clue. Poisoning is not common in turkeys but it is more

likely to occur in ranged birds than in conñned.

Pullorum Disease

(See "Salmonellosis and Arizona Infections.")

Salmonellosîs and Arizona Infections

Arizona infections (paracolon), fowl tyhoid, paratyphoid, and pullorum disease are

very destructive diseases caused by related

bacteria of the family Enterobactariaceae.

Arizona bacteria are not in the salmonella

group but they are closely related and produce

disease in a similar manner. All these bacteria

can be transmitted in or on the eggs or spread

by contact with infected chickens, turkeys, and

possibly other birds or animals.

Arizona infections, paratyphoid, and pullorum disease occur primarily in poults from a

few days to 1 month old. Fowl typhoid usually

occurs in poults from 6 to 20 weeks old. Survivors of these four diseases become carriers,

which can be identiñed by blood testing. Generalized visceral lesions are commonly found

in poults affected by these four diseases but

they are of little help in diagnosis. However,

Arizona infection is strongly indicated by clouded eyes.

Salmonellosis caused by fowl typhoid and pullorum disease organisms have been practically

eliminated from turkeys in the United States

by blood testing prospective breeding stock

under the National Turkey Improvement Plan.

Control of Arizona infections and paratyphoid

is more difficult but flocks intended for breeding can be blood tested for these diseases. If

any infection is found, the whole flock must

be eliminated from the breeding program. None

of the young stock from flocks having a history

of these diseases should ever be retained for

breeding. All direct or indirect contact with

chickens and wild birds should be avoided and

infected stock should not be introduced into

a flock.

Antibiotics can be injected subcutaneously

into the upper neck of 1- to 3-day-old poults

as a preventive where Arizona infection or

paratyphoid is anticipated. The new antibiotic spectinomycin shows considerable promise

here. The injection, often done at the hatchery,

may help to prevent mortality and morbidity

but does not eliminate the infection. At present

(1970) the injection practice has not been

properly evaluated. As a treatment of infected

poults, furazolidone may be put in the feed for

2 to 3 weeks at the rate of 200 grams per ton.

The sulfa drugs and broad-spectrum antibiotics also are quite effective in water or feed.

On-the-farm formaldehyde fumigation of

clean eggs and the elimination of dirty eggs are

preventive measures sometimes required by

hatcheries having trouble with these diseases.

Sinusitis

Infectious sinusitis is caused by a very small

bacterium, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, which is

egg transmitted. Sinusitis is a cause of swellhead and sometimes of air-sac infection. Turkeys of all ages can be affected and recovered

birds remain carriers. Breeding stock can be

tested with serum plate antigen. If any reactors

are found, the whole flock should be eliminated

from thé breeding program. The best preventive is to use poults from stock tested for and

found free from tfie disease. Swollen sinuses

can be treated by withdrawing the exúdate

with a large 15- or 16-gage hypodermic needle

and injecting the emptied sinus with 1 cubic

centimeter of a fresh 4-percent solution of

silver nitrate. The antibiotics chlortetracycline

aiid OJtytetracycline at high levels in the feed

have been reported as moderately effective as

a flock treatment of poults up to 1 month old.

Mechanical sinusitis can be caused by

foreign bodies such as the awns (beards) of

comrhon barley, the broken hulls of coarsely

ground barley and oats, and other sharp-pointed objects. For this reason, barley, oats, and

other heavy-hulled grains should be fed whole

or finely ground in a hammer mill, never

cracked, rolled, or coarsely ground unless they

are soaked before feeding.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 65

Synovitis

The infectious bacterial disease called synovitis or infectious arthritis often is caused by

Staphylococcus organisms, less often by Mycoplasma synoviae, which also causes airsacculitis. In synovitis, the feet and hocks swell and

there usually are lesions in the abdominal organs, including enteritis and an enlarged, darkened liver. The swellings are soft and hot and

do not contain a core. There may be an abscess

next to the breastbone. Suggestions for preventing bumblefoot may help to prevent synovitis. The antibiotic Tylan seems to be effective

as a treatment when injected into each affected poult.

Trichomoniasis of the Upper

Digestive Tract

The soilborne disease trichomoniasis caused

by the protozoan Trichomonas gallinae is rare

in well-managed turkey flocks. It can be transmitted by pigeons and wild doves and is associated with unsanitary conditions such as polluted stagnant water, poorly drained range,

spoiled feed, moldy litter, and accumulations of

wet droppings around feeders and waterers.

Turkeys over 4 months old are most susceptible. Infected birds often walk in an upright

position. Whitish ulcers or nodules are found

in the mouth, esophagus, crop, and proventriculus (the small glandular enlargement of

the esophagus where it enters the gizzard).

Preventive measures are suggested by the

causes listed. Treatment of diseased birds is

not very effective although copper sulfate (bluestone) in a 1:2,000 solution may be helpful

when used in place of regular drinking water

for 3 or 4 days, then again a few days later.

The drug metronidazole given orally at 60 milligrams per kilogram of body weight for 5 consecutive days has shown promise as a treatment of infected birds of several species.

Typhoid (Fowl)

(See ''Salmonellosis and Arizona Infection.")

Water Glut

Young poults, especially those 1 to 3 weeks

old, are susceptible to the disorder water glut

which may occur when very young poults fail

to drink, or are deprived of, water for 24 to 48

hours. When water consumption is restored,

there may be a mild to violent reaction, varying

from a depressed growth rate with little or no

mortality to a sudden high mortality. Slightly

affected poults may show no outward symptoms

but those seriously affected develop a unsteady

gait and may go into convulsions. Prevention

consists of keeping drinking water continuously

available and being certain that the poults are

drinking without interruption. Changes in the

waterers should be made gradually. No cure

has been found once a deprival period has occurred. Poults 2 to 3 weeks old seem most susceptible and those older than about 5 weeks appear not to be susceptible to damage from water

glut.

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES AND DISORDERS

The following diseases and disorders are uncommon in turkeys but can cause serious losses.

Avian influenza, a relatively new virus respiratory disease affecting both young and old

turkeys, resembles Newcastle disease and Mycoplasma infections and can be identified only by

laboratory tests. In breeding stock it can cause

lowered egg production, abnormal eggs, and a

decline in fertility and hatchability. In young

stock near market age it can cause coughing,

sinusitis, a nasal discharge, and a foamy exúdate on the air sacs. Treatment with tetracycline antibiotics may help to reduce losses.

A new disease of turkeys called degenerative

myopathy recently was described by the Oregon

Experiment Station. The inner large breast

muscle Pectoralis profwidus degenerates and

becomes discolored, usually greenish. Outwardly the only sign of the disorder is a conspicuous dent in the musculature of one or both

sides of the breast. There is no external discoloration but when the skin and the outer

breast muscle are cut away, the degerated, offcolored inner muscle is seen. Mostly breeding

hens, not the toms, are affected but hens as

young as 22 weeks sometimes show the begin-
66 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 39 3, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ning of the deformity. The cause has not been

determined but it seems likely that heredity is

involved ; hence it is suggested that all breeding

stock be carefully examined. If the defect is

found, all stock in v^hich it appears should be

eliminated from breeding programs. Market

birds in which the deformity is detected are

condemned.

Dietary diseases result from deficiencies of

minerals or vitamins and will not occur if nutritionally adequate diets are fed. When complete diets cannot be obtained, free access to

growing green feed should be supplied to turkeys of all ages. Fresh green feed will help to

provide most of the required vitamins and some

of the minerals.

Leucocytozoan infection, a protozoan malarialike disease, is transmitted by black flies

(turkey gnats) of the genus Simulium from

carrier breeding birds to young birds 1 to 5

months old. If either the adult carriers or the

gnats are eliminated, the young stock cannot

be infected. A microscopic examination of a

stained blood smear from all breeding turkeys

will identify the carrier birds, which then can

be eliminated from the breeding flocks.

Muscle degeneration in breeding toms, usually occurring after stimulatory lighting is

applied, results in neck paralysis or, less commonly, leg paralysis. Affected birds given

nursing care, sometimes including force feeding, usually recover after a few days. The

cause is unknown.

Newcastle disease, a virus respiratory infection, may affect both young and adult turkeys but it is not common. Turkey growers

should take every precaution to avoid its introduction, which usually comes from infected

chicken flocks. Where Newcastle disease has

occurred in turkeys or seems likely to occur,

the breeding stock can be vaccinated against

it, otherwise vaccination is not recommended.

Omphalitis, a destructive putrid infection

around the navel of baby poults, appears to

originate as a result of poor hatchery sanitation. Proper fumigation of incubators should

eliminate it. The cause may be a virus or a

Staphylococcus bacterium.

Peanut-meal (Turkey X) disease recently

caused losses in turkeys in Great Britain. It

was caused by a poison produced by the fungus

Aspergilliis flavus, which contaminated the

peanut meal used in feeding.

Round heart disease is a relatively new ailment of chickens and turkeys occurring mainly

in male birds 1 to 4 weeks old but sometimes

persisting to market age. The heart is enlarged,

rounded, and flabby; there is some strawcolored ascites or dropsy ; and the liver may be

yellowish. The cause is unknown but a virus or

heredity, or both, may be involved. The disease

often appears under stress conditions. Effective

treatment has not been devised. To prevent

round heart disease, avoid affected stock and

provide plenty of heat during brooding.

Tuberculosis, a bacterial disease, is uncommon in turkeys, but can occur in adult birds

where it causes yellowish-white, hard nodules

on the visceral organs. The tuberculin test can

be used to identify most of the affected birds.

Complete separation from chickens and a clean

environment are essential preventive measures.

The disorder waterbelly (ascites) resembles

round heart disease and, like it, appears in

very young poults. There is an accumulation

of fluid in the abdominal cavity and the lungs,

the heart is enlarged, and the liver may be

yellowish. The usual, but not necessarily the

only, cause is a level of common salt in the diet

that exceeds about 1.25 percent. Because there

may be other causes, the composition of the

diet and management items should be checked

carefully.

Vent gleet (see the discussion of external

autopsy findings, p. 58) may occur by itself or

in connection with internal candidiasis.

PARASITES

Infestations with internal parasites such as

cecal worms (heterakids), cropworms (Capillaria), flukes (trematodes), gapeworms {Syngamus), roundworms (ascarids), and tapeworms (cestodes) are preventable by using only

uncontaminated, well-drained range and pure

drinking water. Confined turkeys seldom acquire these parasites if houseflies are controlled.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 67

wild birds are completely excluded, and normal

sanitary precautions are taken. Medications to

expel these parasites tend to be only partly

successful and not indicated except where a

massive infestation of the large roundworm

(Ascaridia dissimilis) is found. Combination

''wormers" are not recommended for turkeys.

External parasites such as biting lice (Mallophaga), the northern feather or fowl mite

{OrnithonyssMs sylviarum), and the tropical

feather mite (Ornithonyssus bursa) may be

transmitted to turkeys from wild birds, from

chickens, and from contaminated equipment

such as market crates. These parasites can be

controlled completely by shaking 4 or 5 percent

malathion dust onto the skin of the bird (not

just into the feathers) above and below the

vent, on the thighs, and on the back. One fairly

liberal application is often sufficient, but a

second application 3 weeks later may be needed.

It is not necessary to treat the environment

to rid turkeys of lice and the northern feather

mites. Heavy infestation with these parasites

may cause infertility in breeding stock and

the scabs on the skin may cause downgrading

in market stock.

The bites of the large (one-third-inch) bluebug (Araras persicus) or poultry tick can cause

inflammation and abscesses of the skin of

turkeys and result in the downgrading of

market stock. Mosquitoes sometimes attack

turkeys, particularly those roosting in the open.

Mosquito bites can cause loss of blood and

swelled heads and necks, and can transmit

fowl pox and avian malaria. Range turkeys

roosting under shelter or turkeys reared in

confinement seldom are damaged by mosquitoes,

ticks, or mites.

The turkey chigger (Neoschongastia americana) is an orange-red mite that lives in heavy

soil, especially soil that cracks. It is becoming

a serious pest in the Southern and Midwestern

States as far north as southern Minnesota. Infestations may persist for many years. The

mites crawl onto the turkeys and bore into

the skin and flesh of the birds in groups, causing roundish, highly inflamed lesions, sometimes 1 inch or more in diameter. Upon inspection, market turkeys containing these lesions

are downgraded. Turkey chiggers are rarely

found on sandy soil and do not affect confined

turkeys unless access to the soil is allowed.

Chemical control does not seem practical although the mites can be controlled by spraying

the range soil with malathion every 5 days.

The dosage of malathion can be 25 pounds of 4

percent dust, 20 pounds of 5 percent dust, or

1 to 11/2 pints of 5 pounds per gallon emulsifiable concentrate in water to cover 1 acre. About

6 weeks are required for chigger lesions to heal

after the mites have been removed.

Chiggers that aifect humans apparently do

not attack turkeys to a significant degree.

DEFORMITIES, INJURIES, AND VICES

Abnormal Feathering

Rough, broken, or weakened feathers accompanied, in young, dark-feathered poults, by

achroma (a bar of white across the wing) can

be caused by a deficiency of the amino acid

lysine. Poults need about 1.5 percent lysine in

their starting diet. Achroma itself seldom is a

serious disorder but its presence indicates protein imbalance, which is likely to result in subnormal growth. Deficiency of other nutritive

factors such as vitamin D, biotin, and zinc may

cause rough, broken feathers without achroma.

The feathers of breeding males usually become rough and broken by rubbing against

equipment and picking by the hens. This condition, appearing mostly in birds confined to

buildings or small yards, seldom causes trouble.

Breeder hens tend to lose or wear down their

breast and body feathers during the producing

season. Debeaking will prevent serious feather

picking.

A number of abnormalities involving feathers, most of them genetic mutations, or sports,

have appeared in turkeys. Among them are

wiry, permanently twisted quill feathers, hencolored breast feathers in toms, and almost

complete lack of feathers (nakedness). Birds

having such undesirable characteristics and,

where possible, the families that produced them

should be eliminated from breeding flocks.
68 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE

Blueback

Blueback is a permanent, dark discoloration

of the skin of the back and sometimes the sides

and breast of turkeys with dark plumage but

not turkeys with white plumage. Blueback may

be caused by a rare recessive hereditary factor or, more likely, by damage to the developing feathers by picking or treading, combined

with the action of direct sunshine. Blueback

causes downgrading when the birds are marketed. In young stock, blueback will not occur

if feather picking and mating are prevented

unless the hereditary factor is involved. In naturally mated breeding stock, blueback is difficult to prevent although the use of saddles on

the hens reduces it considerably.

Breast Blisters and Calluses

Breast blisters and calluses are much more

common in toms than in hens and are less

common in dimple-breasted birds than in those

without the dimple. (See p. 9.) They are

believed to be caused by continuous irritation of

the skin that covers the breastbone. They can

cause serious losses due to downgrading under

Federal inspection. Turkeys reared in confinement on dry litter without roosts usually have

fewer blisters and calluses than those reared

on range, with or without roosts. Ranged turkeys over about 12 weeks of age should roost

on litter or on smooth, well-drained ground

free from plant burrs, sharp stones, and other

rough material. If roosts must be used, they

should be of the type described on page 19.

Bruises of the Skin and Flesh

Fresh bruises tend to be reddish and are

acquired during the handling just before and

during loading. Old bruises are dark colored,

often greenish, and are acquired on the farm

before the loading process. Both types cause

downgrading and result from activities such

as flying against hard objects, rough handling,

stampeding, driving too many birds into the

catching pen, and struggling when the bird is

caught by one leg. The causes listed suggest

methods of prevention.

Cannibalism

Feather picking is a mild form of cannibalism to which turkeys are susceptible, especially during the growing period. It results in

unsightly appearance, more trouble from pinfeathers when the birds are marketed, and

blueback in varieties with dark plumage. It

can develop into flesh picking and becomes serious enough to retard growth rate. As a rule,

feather picking reaches serious proportions

only in turkeys raised in confinement. It can be

prevented or stopped almost completely by debeaking or inserting a specially made turkey

bit resembling a li/4-inch hog ring with blunted

ends. Either treatment also prevents effective

grazing. The ring hangs between the two jaws

and is adjusted with special pliers to fit snugly

into the nostrils without penetrating the septum between them. This device pr,events the

beak from being closed completely and thus

prevents feather picking.

Management practices that tend to prevent

feather picking are: (1) Avoiding overcrowding in confinement rearing quarters; (2) feeding an adequate diet; (3) feeding pelleted

rather than loose mash; (4) allowing confined

turkeys access to baled legume hay; and (5)

not confining turkeys to roosts or other closely

restricted quarters, particularly in the early

morning.

Head and neck picking, sometimes fatal, may

result from fighting among mature or nearly

mature males. Introducing strange birds into

a flock or mixing strange flocks usually starts

the fighting. If the birds are "ringed" or debeaked, injuries are seldom serious.

Pine tar or chick-pick remedies, such as a

mixture of 4 ounces of petrolatum, one-fourth

ounce of carmine, and one-fourth ounce of aloes,

applied to the affected areas offer temporary

relief from picking and enable injured birds

to recover.

Deformed Back

Severely crooked (hunched) and roached

(arched) backs occur infrequently and their

causes are unknown. Possible causes are hereditary tendencies and injuries or vitamin deficiencies occurring early in life. Turkeys selec-
TURKEY PRODUCTION 69

ted for breeding should be free from these

deformities to prevent possible hereditarytransmission of them.

Deformed Beak

Crossbeaks, rare in turkeys, probably are

due to a genetic factor. Ostrichlike beaks, in

which the upper jaw is flattened instead of

downcurved, may be caused by injury due to

reaching through wire mesh or rubbing beaks

on poorly designed feeders or waterers. Pressure necrosis of the beaks of young poults appears to be caused by too finely ground, sticky

feed that accumulates in the beak and causes

infection and deformity. Properly formulated

feeds will prevent this deformity.

Deformed Breastbone

Severely crooked breastbones, (fig. 30) rare

in broad-breasted turkeys, may be due to grossly inadequate nutrition or possibly a genetic

factor. Deeply dented breastbones, also rare

in broad-breasted turkeys, appear to be caused

by poor nutrition or by roosts. Feeding balanced

diets and eliminating roosts for turkeys over

12 weeks old usually will prevent the occurrence

of significant numbers of these deformed breastbones in all types of turkeys. If roosts are needed, they should be 31/2 to 5 inches wide and

set 8 to 12 inches above the ground or floor.

Impaction and Penetration of the

Digestive Tract

Impaction of crop, proventriculus (glandular

stomach), gizzard, and sometimes the intestines may be caused by the liberal eating of

dry, bulky feed or litter. Young poults most

commonly are impacted, but turkeys of any

age may become impacted with a firm mass of

relatively dry, fibrous material. Lawn clippings

or other hand-fed green feed, if not finely cut

or if allowed to wilt before eating, may cause

impaction of the digestive tract. Placing dayold poults on unsuitable litter is a common

cause of impaction, which may result in starvation and death.

Penetration of crop, proventriculus, or giz-

.zard is caused by eating shiny nails, bits of

wire or other metal, or splinters from shavings.

79126-B

Figure 30.—Crooked breastbone in Broad Breasted

Bronze turkey torn. This deformity is rare in broadbreasted strains.

Penetration of the digestive tract is usually

fatal.

There is no practical cure for impaction or

penetration; methods of prevention are suggested by the causes listed.

Leg Deformities and Weaknesses

Perosis (slipped tendon) (fig. 31) is a term

used to indicate a deformity of one or both

legs in which the large tendon at the rear of

the hock slips to one side, resulting in a twisted

shank. Often the hock is enlarged but is firm

and cool, rather than soft and warm to the
70 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

touch, as in synovitis. The victim invariably

becomes crippled and should be killed because

treatment is useless. Perosis can affect turkeys,

mostly males, of any age or breed, up to about

30 weeks, after which new cases seldom develop.

The tendency toward perosis appears to be

inherited although it can be caused by a nutritional imbalance, the commonest of which is

deficiency of manganese in the diet. Deficiency

of biotin, niacin, or choline also can cause

perosis. Too much phosphorus or calcium may

be an indirect cause; hence, bonemeal, limestone, and similar supplements never should be

fed free choice or included in the diet in quantities larger than necessary for proper nutrition.

To prevent perosis, feed a balanced diet to the

turkeys and eliminate susceptible families and

strains from the breeding stocks.

Leg weaknesses other than perosis may be

caused by deficiency of vitamin D (rickets),

vitamin E, and riboflavin or by the disease

synovitis. In day-old poults a condition resembling perosis is called spraddle legs. This

may be due to a genetic factor, faulty incubation, a deficiency in the diet of the breeding

stock, or a smooth slippery floor in the hatching trays, shipping boxes, or brooders. Young

69905-B

Figure 31.—Perosis of right leg of young Bronze turkey torn.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 71

poults should be placed on wire, on rough-surfaced paper, or on reasonably thick litter.

Enlarged hock disorder starts as a slight,

often imperceptible enlargement of the hock

joint at about 2 weeks of age. The enlargement

regresses to a normal condition at about 4

weeks, then recurs in a severe form at 14 to 16

weeks, resulting in severe leg weakness, breast

blisters, and sore feet. The tendon normally

is not slipped but the bird, usually a heavytype male, becomes crippled and worthless. The

cause appears to be nutritional, a deficiency of

niacin and vitamin E in the diet. To prevent

this disorder, feed a balanced diet and if fishliver oil is fed, restrict the quantity to 0.25

percent or less.

Crooked toes may be a hereditary defect or

they may be caused by injury or by allowing

turkeys access to wire- or slat-ñoored porches

in subfreezing weather.

Pendulous Crop

Pendulous crop (fig. 32), sometimes called

baggy, sour, or dropped crop, is caused by a

weakening of the crop and supporting tissues

so that feed and water accumulate in the organ

and pass out too slowly or not at all, resulting

in a sour, ill-smelling, semiliquid accumulation

and a deterioration of the crop lining. In young

poults, a mild pendulous condition sometimes

occurs but usually corrects itself without treatment. However, seriously affected birds seldom

recover. Treatment is useless.

69906-B

Figure 32.—Young turkey torn with pendulous crop.

Some strains or families of turkeys, usually

the types that are not broad breasted, seem to

possess a genetic weakness that predisposes

them to the disorder. When these susceptible

birds are exposed to hot weather with consequent heavy consumption of liquids, the deformity develops. Preventive measures include :

(1) Selecting strains not carrying the genetic

factor; (2) avoiding exposure of turkeys to

excessive heat without shade; (3) giving continuous and easy access to cool drinking water ;

(4) providing ample shade; and (5) feeding

no liquid milk.

Pendulous crop should not be confused with

crop disorders caused by fungi (mycosis), protozoans (trichomomiasis), and cropworms

(capillariasis). In these disorders the crop is

only slightly distended and the contents may

feel curdled or mushy rather than liquid. In

crop impaction the organ is distended with a

firm mass of relatively dry material.

Stampeding

Turkeys are subject to fright, especially on

moonlit nights. Severe losses from injury,

straying, smothering, bruising, broken limbs,

and deaths by predatory animals may result

from stampedes. To prevent stampeding, avoid

disturbances of all kinds around the roosting

quarters and provide low-intensity night lighting by a rotating beam or by small light bulbs.

Occasional low-flying airplanes may cause serious daytime stampedes in turkeys on range or

in yards.

Miscellaneous Deformities

Curled tongue is a deformity in which the

tip of the tongue is folded back upon its upper

surface causing drooling and a lump in the

throat just under the beak. The condition results in lowered feed consumption and reduced

growth rate but rarely in death. It appears

to be caused by feeding very finely ground dry

mash.

Injury to the tongue may follow any attempt

to cut off any part, even the tip, of the lower

jaw during debeaking, which should be confined to the upper jaw.

Undersized blind eyes (microthalmiaj usu-
72 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ally are hereditary, only rarely the result of

injury. Gray, blue, or mottled eyes are associated with certain uncommon but suppressed

plumage patterns. They are not caused by

disease and are of no practical significance.

Clouded eyes of normal size may be caused by

Arizona infection.

Split wing is a deformity, presumably hereditary, in which the 10 large outer night, or

primary, wing feathers are definitely separated

from the more numerous inner large, or secondary, feathers, and protrude in an unslightly

manner. Split wing is of no commercial significance but birds with split wing are unslightly

and should not be selected for breeding.

MARKETING TURKEYS*

Although about 75 percent of the young turkey crop in North America is marketed from

August through December, there is a trend

towards lengthening the season by producing

fryer-roaster turkeys for marketing at other

times of the year. These lightweight birds, consisting for the most part of light-breed white

turkeys of both sexes along with some females

of the heavy-breed white turkeys, comprised

about 14 percent of the total crop, or about 15

million birds in 1968. They are marketed at a

fairly even rate throughout the 12-month year.

Most producers market their birds alive

through integrated firms, processors, or cooperative organizations. The turkeys are collected and trucked to dressing plants where

they are processed for market.

Turkey growers located near centers of population sometimes can sell their turkeys directly

to consumers or to retail dealers. These growers usually have their own processing and

freezing facilities and some of them have developed profitable gift-package businesses featuring high-quality, frozen, ready-to-cook turkeys that can be shipped long distances in

sealed packages containing dry ice—about 1

ounce per pound of turkey. (See '^Inspection

and Grading.")

When to Market

Under optimum conditions of nutrition and

management, all large broad-breasted turkeys,

including those with dark plumage, are fully

finished and ready to market as mature young

roasters at 26 weeks of age for males and 24

weeks for females; small- and medium-type

white turkeys of both sexes usually reach market maturity at 22 weeks. However, large-type

white males sometimes can be marketed at 24

weeks. Large-type white females can be marketed at 12 to 13 weeks of age as fryer-roosters

or at 17 to 20 weeks as light roasters. About 75

percent of the small- and medium-type white

turkeys raised are marketed as fryer-roasters

at 15 to 16 weeks of age when they average 8

to 9 pounds alive for both sexes combined. At

the other extreme, large-type turkey males of

all colors sometimes are grown to 28 or 30

weeks of age to produce extra-large, wellfinished birds. Because these older birds cost

more to produce, to be profitable, they should

bring a higher price.

Where growing conditions are suboptimal

or where slow-growing strains are used, turkeys may not attain the desired weights and

qualities at the ages indicated above.

Selecting for Market

If rearing conditions have been favorable,

the inspection of a few representative birds

will tell whether or not the flock as a whole is

ready for market. Under most conditions it is

important to market only birds that are moderately fat and are free of pinfeathers that are

dark or too short to be cleanly picked.

To determine market quality, first suspend

the bird by the legs and examine the skin at the

base of the wings, over the breast, and on the

drumsticks for the presence of these dark, short

pinfeathers. Such pinfeathers will leave a deposit of dark feather pigments that will lower

the market grade. Next, pull a few feathers

from the sparsely feathered area of the breast

at a point about halfway between the front

end of the breastbone and the base of the wing.

Take a fold of skin between thumb and fore-
TURKEY PRODUCTION 73

finger of each hand (fig. 33) and examine for

thickness and coloration. On a Grade A turkey,

the fold of skin in this particular spot (not in

the heavily feathered area) will be white or

yellowish white and quite thick, the minimum

about equal to a fold of average-thickness blotting paper, or 1.75 millimeters (0.07 inch.)

Well-fattened birds will have a thick creamcolored skin; under-fattened birds will have a

thin, often paper-thin, skin, which is semitransparent and tends to be reddish.

Preparing for Market

Turkeys that are to be marketed ready to

cook and quick frozen, as most are in North

America, usually are not fasted on the farm

before slaughter but are taken directly off normal feed and water and moved to the processFigure 33.—Determining finish (amount of fat) in skin

of turkey.

ing plant. The delay involved usually provides

sufficient fasting time.

Where freezing facilities are not available,

turkeys can be marketed alive, fresh-killed,

ready to cook (chilled but not frozen), ice

packed, or, rarely, chilled New York dressed

(blood and feathers removed and the head

wrapped in parchment or waxed paper) (fig.

2).

Turkeys marketed New York dressed must

be fasted on the farm before slaughter. To do

this, remove all whole or cracked grain the

morning of the day before slaughter, but leave

the ground feed before the turkeys until sundown of that day when the ground feed also is

removed. If turkeys are kept without feed for

more than about 18 hours, they lose too much

weight and are likely to eat soil, litter, droppings, or feathers, thus defeating the purpose

of fasting. Water is kept before the birds continuously as nearly as possible up to slaughter

time.

Defects due to injuries sustained just before

killing are common and cause downgrading.

Care should be taken not to allow the birds to

be bruised or scratched by flying or running

against obstructions, or by piling and trampling each other. Toenail clipping, gentle handling, and the use of a catching chute or a catching pen that can be darkened so the birds can be

picked up without confusion should reduce the

injuries.

White-plumaged turkeys, if subscalded or

slack scalded (semiscalded), usually can be

cleanly picked at all ages since any imbedded

pinfeather stubs are inconspicuous and harmless. However, all protruding pinfeathers must

be removed.

Processing

The live turkey is suspended by the legs, the

feet held in a steel shackle. The head is held

in one hand, the fingers grasping the sides, but

not the front, taking care not to compress the

jugular veins located in the throat area on

the ventral (lower) side of the neck. A strong,

deep cut is made across the throat from the

outside, close to the head, so that both branches

of the jugular vein are cleanly severed at or

close to their junction. Before the turkey is
74 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

bled, an electric stunner can be used to prevent

struggling and relax the muscles that hold the

feathers. As soon as breathing stops and bleeding is completed (II/2 to 2 minutes), the

feathers are loosened, usually by the subscald

method in which the bird is immersed in agitated water at 140° F. (60° C.) for about 30

seconds. The feathers usually are picked by a

rubber-fingered machine that also removes the

cuticle or bloom, which is the thin outer layer

of the skin. The pinfeathers are removed by

hand and the bird is immediately eviscerated,

never allowing the skin to dry out.

In one evisceration method, the turkey is suspended in the shackle by the head and both

hocks. A crosswise cut is made between the

rear end of the keel and the vent, which has

been loosened by a circular cut around it. The

intestines are loosened carefully and left hanging outside the body but still attached to it for

inspection. The lungs and the oil gland at the

base of the tailhead are removed. The kidneys

usually are left in although most consumers

prefer their removal. The head is cut off and

the neck is severed at its junction with the

body. The entire neck skin is slit along its upper surface and peeled back to the lower side

of the body where it remains attached, later to

be folded up over the neck opening. The crop,

gullet, and windpipe are loosened, cut off close

to the body, and removed. The gall bladder is

carefully removed from the liver; the heart is

trimmed; and the gizzard is split lengthwise

through the thick muscle and the horny lining

and contents of the gizzard are peeled out. The

beard is snipped off close to the skin, and the

shanks are removed by cutting down through

the flat, forward surface of the hock joint. If

desired, the bony tendons in the drumsticks of

turkeys over about 16 weeks of age can be removed, but only in part, with a tendon puller

before the shanks are cut off.

The eviscerated carcass is washed inside and

out and the parchment-wrapped giblets and

neck are placed inside the body cavity. The

bird is then trussed by forcing the legs under

the strip of abdominal skin between the crosswise cut and the opening where the vent was

removed.

The trussed eviscerated carcass then is

chilled in ice water or ice slush to an internal

temperature of 35° to 39° F. (1.7° to 4.0° C).

To prevent toughness, young fryer-roaster

turkeys of both sexes should be chilled for 12

to 24 hours; young roaster hens, 8 to 10 hours;

and young roaster toms, 4 to 6 hours. For maximum tenderness, the longer chilling times

mentioned are preferred. After chilling, the

carcass is drained, a plastic wrap is applied,

the air in it is exhausted by vacuum, and the

wrapper is sealed. The bird is then ready for

freezing or for marketing fresh killed, unfrozen.

If the slack-scald (semiscald) method of

loosening feathers is used, the dressing procedure is similar to that of the subscald method,

but the preferred scalding temperature is

126° F. (52° C.) and the time of immersion

in agitated water is about 50 seconds. Slackscalded turkeys can be picked mechanically,

but the skin almost always is damaged so that

immediate airtight wrapping or ice packing is

necessary. If an undamaged skin is required,

slack-scalded turkeys must be picked by hand

and usually should be singed by exposing them

lightly to a hot, smokeless flame.

Dry picking is little used today but is useful

in situations where scald-picking facilities are

not available or practical. However, immature

turkeys of all types and all white turkeys are

difficult to dry pick. Mature, dark-colored turkeys are best adapted to dry picking. The live

bird is suspended by the legs in a steel shackle

or by a strong cord, the end of which is passed

through a hole in the center of a block of wood

about 2 inches square. The cord is wrapped

once or twice around the shanks and the block

is tucked in snugly against the shank. The

bird's head is held as suggested on page 73 but

with the mouth held open with one finger. Into

the mouth, insert a sharp, stiff knife with a

very narrow blade about 4 inches long and

make one or two slanting cuts well back in the

upper surface of the throat to sever the jugular

veins. As soon as profuse bleeding is established, thrust the knife backward, at an angle

corresponding roughly with that of the upper

beak, through the groove in the roof of the

mouth and into the rear lobe of the brain at

the back of the skull. Rotate the point of the
TURKEY PRODUCTION 75

knife slightly to destroy enough brain tissue

to cause loosening of the feathers. When the

correct "stick'' is obtained, the bird usually

gives a characteristic squawk, the tail feathers

are spread widely and all the feathers are

loosened to permit easy picking by hand. An

electric shocker or stunner can also be used to

release the feathers.

After sticking or electrical shocking, continue to hold the bird's head and attach a

hooked, weighted blood cup to the lower jaw.

Do not lock the bird's wings or attempt to restrain its struggles. The operator can reach up

under the bird, retaining hold of the head but

allowing free movement of the wings. For

large birds, blood cups should weigh 7 to 9

pounds; for small and medium-size birds, 4 to

6 pounds. An effect similar to sticking or shocking, but not quite so effective, can be obtained

by dealing the bird a sharp but not killing

blow with a stout club on the rear bulge of

the skull.

After sticking and bleeding the bird, start

the picking by first removing the large tail

feathers, then the large wing feathers, then

the bulk of the contour feathers, starting with

the drumsticks and leaving the neck and adjacent breast feathers until last. After this

rough picking of all sections, complete the picking with the aid of a rounded, dull-blade, pinning knife. Use a twisting motion to help

loosen the large tail and wing feathers; use

brisk movements against the grain to pull contour feathers in small clusters. The skin never

should be rubbed to remove feathers but singeing after pinfeather removal is desirable.

Dry-picked turkeys usually are chilled by exposing them promptly to a free circulation of

cold air at 30° to 39° F. (-1.1° to 4.0° C.)

for 8 to 24 hours to lower the internal temperature to about 35° (1.7° C). If cold air is not

available, chilling can be done in ice water. Internal temperature is taken by inserting a

thermometer well into the vent.

Inspection*

Inspection refers to the examination of birds

for indications of disease or other conditions

that might make them unfit for human consumption. The Poultry Products Inspection

Act, which became fully effective in 1959, required all ready-to-cook poultry and poultry

products moving in interstate or foreign commerce to be federally inspected at no direct cost

to the owners. New York-dressed poultry cannot move in interstate commerce unless it is

shipped from one official plant to another for

evisceration or is intended for the ''Kosher"

trade. In both cases this poultry is exempt

from the Act. In 1968, the Act was amended

to provide free Federal inspection for poultry

and poultry products in intrastate commerce.

The States have a specified time to develop inspection systems with the assistance of the

Federal Government. If they do not provide an

inspection system within this time, the intrastate plants (those that do not ship across State

lines) also must come under Federal inspection.

Persons exempt from all provisions of the Act

are those slaughtering not more than 250 turkeys raised on their own farm and those producing for ''Kosher" trade. Those who process

or slaughter from 250 to 5,000 turkeys per year

for intrastate marketing would be required to

meet certain provisions that may be prescribed

by the Secretary of Agriculture, but would not

be required to have their birds federally inspected.

Ante-mortem inspection of poultry is required before it enters the processing plant.

This inspection is essentially a spot check of

each lot of birds, not of each individual bird.

Post-mortem inspection of each bird should

take place at the time the abdominal cavity is

opened and the visceral organs are removed.

Grading

Grading consists of identifying individual

birds according to class, quality, and weight.

Final grading of ready-to-cook poultry should

be after the birds are eviscerated and cooled

and before they are packaged, frozen, or further processed, but not while they are still

warm.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture standards of quality that have been established for

ready-to-cook poultry are A, B and C. These

grades are based on conformation, fat

covering, and degree of freedom from skin

tears, skin blemishes, and pinfeathers. The
76 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 393, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

U.S. Grade mark can be used only when the

birds have been officially graded under the voluntary U.S. Department of Agriculture grading program.'*'

The Grade A turkey is v^ell fleshed, well covered with fat all over the body, well dressed,

well bled, and practically free from skin tears,

discolorations, pinfeathers, and calluses and

blisters containing pus or blood. There are no

broken or severely crooked bones. The carcass

is clean, attractive, and wholesome.

The Grade B turkey may be slightly lacking

in meatiness and fat or may have a few scattered pinfeathers or discolorations of the skin.

There may be a broken bone or the bird may

be slightly misshapen, but the carcass must be

clean and wholesome.

The Grade C turkey may be poorly fleshed

on breast and legs, with little or no fat. It may

have a prominent breastbone and the leg, wing,

or breastbone may be misshapen, or bones may

be broken. There may be any number of skin

cuts, discolorations, or tears of the skin and a

scattering of pinfeathers. However, the body

must be free from protruding pinfeathers, the

flesh must be substantially intact, and the carcass must be clean and free from indications

of decomposition.

Packaging Processed Turkeys

All containers and packaging materials used

for processed turkeys should be new and strong

enough to carry the birds in good condition.

The containers should be made of odorless materials that will not contaminate the product.

At the time of packaging, ready-to-cook turkeys should be clean and drained free of water

and ice to avoid seepage of unsightly bloody

water into the ice or packing materials.

When ready-to-cook turkeys are marketed

fresh killed (chilled but not frozen), they usually are individually wrapped in plastic bags

and shipped refrigerated or ice packed in boxes,

barrels, or drums with parchment-paper liners.

Whole, ready-to-cook turkeys generally are

packaged individually in bags made of a plastic film that is relatively transparent and tough

and impermeable to moisture and air. If turkeys are marketed frozen, the air should first

be removed by vacuum and the wrapper then

sealed.

Freezing and Storing

Following adequate chilling, the tightly

wrapped, processed turkeys should be quick

frozen and stored at an even temperature of

-10° F. (-23.5° C.) or lower. Chilled birds

can be quick frozen by placing them on racks

and exposing them to circulating air at —20°

F. (-29° C.) or lower until frozen solid,

which should require not more than 90 minutes.

Frozen turkeys of excellent market quality

can be produced by proper processing, chilling, packaging, quick freezing and storing, and

the quality can be maintained for at least 1

year.

Turkey Meat Products

Most turkeys are marketed whole, eviscerated, and frozen. A relatively small number

are marketed whole, fresh killed, and unfrozen.

These fresh-killed birds usually bring premium

prices but they are perishable and should be

kept refrigerated at about 35° F. (1.7° C.).

Further processing of turkeys* is a relatively

new development utilizing mostly large toms

to produce turkey rolls, roasts, breasts, potpies, turkey parts, dinners, canned boned turkey, turkey soups, baby foods, steaks, patties,

fillets, croquettes, sticks, cooked sliced meat,

turkey with noodles, fricassee, and a la king.

Ready-to-eat smoked turkey is a speciality

product utilizing mostly large hens. Turkey

rolls are prepared by boning the bird and wrapping the meat tightly in the skin. Rolls are of

various sizes and contain an all-light meat, alldark meat, or mixed meat. (Fig. 34.)

Most turkeys marketed whole are Grade A.

To the greatest extent possible, grades B and

C and low-priced parts are utilized in further

processing.
TURKEY PRODUCTION 77

Figure 34.—Retail display of turkey meat products. Top to bottom: Canned turkey, large whole turkeys, mediumsize whole turkeys, turkey rolls, turkey parts. (Photo from Canada Department of Agriculture.)

¿r U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1971 O-403-464