America’s Youth: 

Transitions to Adulthood

NCES 2012-026 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

America’s Youth: 

Transitions to Adulthood

DECEMBER 2011

Susan Aud

National Center for Education Statistics

Angelina KewalRamani

Lauren Frohlich

Education Statistics Services Institute—

American Institutes for Research

NCES 2012-026 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
U.S. Department of Education

Arne Duncan

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences

John Q. Easton

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Jack Buckley

Commissioner

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Suggested Citation

Aud, S., KewalRamani, A., and Frohlich, L. (2011). America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood (NCES 2012-026). 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office.

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Content Contact

Susan Aud

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susan.aud@ed.gov
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood vSelected Findings

SELECTED FINDINGS

The transition to adulthood in the United States has 

changed in recent decades as many of the traditional 

milestones that mark adulthood, such as household 

establishment and marriage, have changed or been 

delayed (McLanahan et al. 2010; Arnett 2000). 

Among these changes are increased participation and 

attainment in education; extenuation of educational 

completion and subsequent delayed participation 

in the labor force; and delays in child rearing. 

Accordingly, America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 

examines numerous aspects of the lives of youth and 

young adults, ages 14 to 24, in the United States over 

the last several decades. The report features status and 

trend data from multiple surveys on the distribution 

of youth and their family structure; on school-, 

employment-, and health-related factors; and on 

future plans. The following section presents a range 

of findings selected from each chapter of the report. 

Demographics 

Youth Population

In 2010, there were 47.1 million youth and 

young adults between the ages of 14 and 24 in 

the United States, representing 15 percent of the 

total population. The number of youth and young 

adults in 2010 was higher than the 46.2 million in 

1980. While the number of people in this age group 

increased by 0.9 million since 1980, their share of 

the U.S. population declined from 20 to 15 percent 

between 1980 and 2010. 

Living Arrangements

Between 1980 and 2010, the percentage of persons 

ages 20 to 24 who were householders (i.e., those who 

owned or rented their own house) or the spouses of 

householders decreased from 38 to 19 percent. For 

females in this age range, the decrease was from 47 to 

25 percent between these years; for males, the decrease 

was from 28 to 13 percent.

Birth Rates

Birth rates for 15- to 19-year-olds increased from 53 

per 1,000 females in 1980 to 60 per 1,000 in 1990 

and then declined to 41 per 1,000 in 2005, increasing 

slightly to 43 births per 1,000 females in 2007, and 

decreasing again to 39 births per 1,000 females in 

2009. Birth rates for women ages 20 to 24 followed 

a similar pattern, increasing from 115 to 117 births 

per 1,000 women between 1980 and 1990 and then 

declining to 102 per 1,000 in 2005, increasing to 106 

per 1,000 women in 2007, and decreasing again to 

96 per 1,000 females in 2009. 

The birth rate per 1,000 unmarried teenage females 

ages 15 to 19 generally increased overall from 1980 

to 2008, from 28 to 37 births per 1,000, with a peak 

at 44 births per 1,000 in 1995. In general, births to 

unmarried females ages 20 to 24 and ages 25 to 29 

increased, approximately doubling between 1980 

and 2007, before decreasing slightly between 2007 

and 2008. Between these years the rate went from 

41 to 79 births per 1,000 unmarried females ages 20 

to 24 and from 34 to 76 births per 1,000 unmarried 

females ages 25 to 29.

School-Related Characteristics

School Enrollment

About 98 percent of 14- and 15-year-olds and 95 

percent of 16- and 17-year-olds were enrolled in 

school in 2009; these percentages were similar to 

those for previous generations. For young adults 

between the ages of 18 and 24, however, the current 

generation has enrolled at higher rates than their 

predecessors did in 1980. In 2009, some 69 percent 

of 18- and 19-year-olds were enrolled in school, 

compared with 46 percent in 1980. In addition, about 

52 percent of 20- and 21-year-olds were enrolled in 

school in 2009, compared with 31 percent in 1980, 

and 30 percent of 22- to 24-year-olds were enrolled in 
vi America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Selected Findings

school in 2009, compared with 16 percent in 1980. In 

contrast to 1980, a greater percentage of females than 

males were enrolled in school in 2009. For example, 

among 22- to 24-year-olds, about 15 percent of 

females and 18 percent of males were enrolled in 

school in 1980; in 2009, some 32 percent of females 

and 29 percent of males were enrolled. 

High School Coursetaking and Advanced Placement 

Participation

Over the last several decades, there have been changes 

in the courses that high school students take. In most 

cases, the percentages of students who had taken 

more advanced courses in mathematics and science 

increased between 1982 and 2009. For example, 76 

percent of 2009 high school graduates had taken 

algebra II, compared with 40 percent of their 1982 

peers. Similarly, 70 percent of graduates in 2009 

had taken chemistry, compared with 32 percent of 

graduates in 1982. In the 2009–10 school year, over 

1.8 million U.S. students took at least one Advanced 

Placement (AP) exam; this number increased from 

0.6 million students in 1996–97. Females have made 

up a majority of AP exam takers since sex was first 

reported in 1996–97. In 2009–10, females made up 

56 percent of AP test takers.

Reading and Mathematics Achievement

According to findings from the long-term trend of 

the National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP), there were no significant changes in the 

overall reading achievement of 13- and 17-yearolds from 1980 to 2008, or during the more recent 

period of 2004 to 2008. While average mathematics 

scores increased overall between 1982 and 2008 

for 13- and 17-year-olds, no measurable changes 

were found from 2004 to 2008. For both subjects, 

in 2008, differences in achievement were found by 

demographic characteristics. For example, Whites and 

Asians scored higher in both subjects, on average, than 

their Black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska 

Native counterparts. Between 1980 and 2008 for 

reading and between 1982 and 2008 for mathematics, 

the score gaps between Whites and Blacks decreased 

for both 13- and 17-year-olds. 

International Performance

In 2009, according to results from the Program for 

International Student Assessment (PISA), 6 of the 

34 Organization for Economic Cooperation and 

Development (OECD) countries scored higher than 

U.S. 15-year-olds in reading, 13 scored lower, and 

14 had scores that were not measurably different. In 

mathematics in 2009, U.S. 15-year-olds scored lower, 

on average, than their peers in 17 of the 34 OECD 

countries, higher than those in 5 countries, and not 

measurably different from those in 11 countries. 

In science, the average score for U.S. 15-year-olds 

was lower than the score for students in 12 of the 

34 OECD countries, higher than the scores in 9 

countries, and not measurably different from those 

in 12 countries. 

High School Status Dropout Rates

A higher percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who did 

not finish high school were unemployed and earned 

less than high school graduates when employed in 

2009 (Aud, Fox, and KewalRamani 2010). Between 

1990 and 2009, the percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds 

who were high school status dropouts (i.e., those who 

are not enrolled in high school and who lack a high 

school credential) decreased from 12 to 8 percent. 

Although status dropout rates decreased for Whites, 

Blacks, and Hispanics over this period, gaps by race/

ethnicity persist. For example, in 2009, some 18 

percent of Hispanic 16- to 24-year-olds were status 

dropouts, compared with 9 percent of Blacks and 5 

percent of Whites in that age group.

College Readiness

College readiness among high school students can 

be measured by the actual performance of college 

students and their correlated scores on ACT tests 

for English, mathematics, reading, and science. For 

English, 66 percent of students met college readiness 

benchmarks in 2009–10. Some 52 percent met 

benchmarks for reading, along with 43 percent for 

mathematics and 29 percent for science.

College Enrollment

Young adults who enroll in college immediately after 

high school tend to have higher completion rates 

than those who do not (Bozick and DeLuca 2005). 

The percentage of high school completers ages 16 

to 24 who enrolled in college immediately after 

high school increased for both sexes between 1980 

and 2009. For example, 66 percent of male and 74 

percent of female high school completers enrolled in 

college directly after high school in 2009, compared 

with 47 percent of male and 52 percent of female 

high school completers in 1980. Total undergraduate 

enrollment of all ages in degree-granting institutions 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood vii Selected Findings

also increased between 1980 and 2009, from 10.5 to 

17.6 million students, with enrollment increasing 

for each racial/ethnic group as well. While female 

students comprised more than half of total enrollment 

within each racial/ethnic group, the largest difference 

by sex was found among Black students: in 2009, 

Black females represented 64 percent of total Black 

enrollment in undergraduate institutions, compared 

with 57 percent of female undergraduates overall.

Educational Attainment

The percentage of young adults ages 18 to 24 who 

have completed different levels of education has 

changed over time. About 81 percent of young 

adults had obtained at least a high school diploma 

or equivalency certification in 2009. From 1980 to 

2009, the proportion of young adults whose highest 

level of education was high school completion 

decreased from 46 to 29 percent. Conversely, the 

proportion of young adults who had completed some 

college increased from 25 to 36 percent. 

Employment-Related Characteristics

Labor Force Participation

The labor force participation of young males and 

females declined between 1980 and 2010. The 

percentage of 16- to 19-year-old males in the labor 

force decreased from 61 percent in 1980 to 35 percent 

in 2010, and the percentage of 16- to 19-year-old 

females decreased from 53 percent to 35 percent over 

the same time period. The labor force participation 

of young adult males ages 20 to 24 also decreased 

between 1980 and 2010 (from 86 to 75 percent). 

Although there was no consistent pattern in the labor 

force participation of young adult females ages 20 to 

24 between 1980 and 2010, the gap between males 

and females did narrow. In 1980, about 86 percent of 

young adult males were in the labor force, compared 

to 69 percent of young adult females (a difference of 

17 percentage points). By 2010, the difference was 

6 percentage points, with 75 percent of young adult 

males and 68 percent of young adult females in the 

labor force. 

Young Adult Unemployment

In 2010, a higher percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds 

were unemployed than 25- to 29-year-olds. About 

19 percent of 16- to 24-year-olds in the labor force 

were unemployed in 2010, compared with 11 

percent of adults ages 25 to 29. In addition, among 

16- to 24-year-olds the unemployment rate varied 

by sex, educational attainment, and race/ethnicity. 

Males were unemployed at higher rates than females 

at each level of educational attainment for 16- to 

24-year-olds. The overall unemployment rate for 

Blacks in this age group (31 percent) exceeded that 

for Whites, Hispanics, and Asians (15 to 21 percent). 

Higher levels of education were associated with lower 

unemployment rates for White, Black, and Hispanic 

16- to 24-year-olds.

Median Earnings

Over time, higher levels of educational attainment 

have generally been associated with higher median 

earnings. In 2009, full-time, full-year workers, ages 

16 to 24, with a bachelor’s or higher degree had 

median earnings of $33,000, compared with earnings 

of $18,000 for their peers who had not completed 

high school. Males had higher median earnings 

than females at each educational level in 2009. For 

instance, males with a bachelor’s or higher degree 

earned $41,000, while females at this level earned 

$30,000. The median earnings were lower in 2009 

than in 1999 for 16- to 24-year-olds whose highest 

level of education was some college or an associate’s 

degree. For all other levels of educational attainment, 

there were no measurable differences between median 

earnings in 1999 and 2009. In 1999, young adults 

with a bachelor’s or higher degree earned $11,000 

more per year (in constant 2009–10 dollars), on 

average, than those who had received no education 

past high school and in 2009, this gap was $9,000. 

Poverty

About 21 percent of 18- to 24-year-olds were living 

in poverty in 2009. Poverty rates were generally lower 

for young adults with higher levels of educational 

attainment. For instance, a higher percentage of 

young adults without a high school diploma (31 

percent) were living in poverty, compared with those 

who had completed high school (24 percent) and 

those who had earned a bachelor’s or higher degree 

(14 percent). This pattern persisted by sex and race/

ethnicity. For example, among Black young adults, 

the poverty rate was 43 percent for those without a 

high school diploma and 34 percent for those whose 

highest level of educational attainment was high 

school completion.
viii America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Selected Findings

Activities Outside of Work and School

Afterschool Activities

In 2009, a greater percentage of high school seniors 

reported participating in athletic teams (38 percent), 

other school clubs/activities (32 percent), and music/

performing arts (24 percent), than in academic 

clubs (14 percent), student council/government 

(10 percent), and newspaper/yearbook (9 percent). 

Participation in these afterschool activities varied by 

sex. In 2009, the most popular afterschool activity 

for female high school seniors was other school clubs/

activities, and the most popular activity for male high 

school seniors was athletic teams.

Homework

In 2007, parents reported that their high school 

students spent an average of 7 hours per week on 

homework. This average does not include the 7 

percent of students whose parents reported that 

they did not do any homework outside school in 

2007. About 42 percent of parents reported that 

their children did homework 5 or more days per 

week, while 5 percent reported that their children 

did homework less than once per week. Overall, 

65 percent of parents reported that they checked to 

make sure that their high school students’ homework 

was done.

Volunteer Work

Approximately 8.3 million 16- to 24-year olds, or 

22 percent of this age group, reported volunteering 

through or for an organization at least once between 

September 2008 and September 2009 (U.S. 

Department of Labor 2010). This percentage was 

not measurably different from the percent of 16- to 

24-year-olds who reported volunteering during 2002. 

However, for each year between 2002 and 2009, 

females in this age group volunteered at a higher 

rate than males.

Health and Wellness

Health Status

In 2008, reports of health status for 18- to 24-yearolds varied by educational attainment. A greater 

percentage of young adults with a bachelor’s or higher 

degree (90 percent) reported being in excellent or 

very good health than did those with lower levels of 

education, ranging from 65 percent for those who 

had not completed high school, 72 percent for high 

school completers, and 82 percent each for those 

with some college education or an associate’s degree.

Personal Safety

Between 1991 and 2009, the percentages of high 

school students who reported engaging in each of 

the following behaviors declined: carrying a weapon, 

driving after drinking alcohol, riding with a driver 

who had been drinking alcohol, and engaging in a 

physical fight. For example, between these years, the 

percentage of high school students who drove after 

drinking alcohol decreased from 21 to 12 percent for 

males and from 12 to 8 percent for females.

Future Goals

Educational Expectations

Concerning future expectations, in 2004, high 

school seniors reported having higher educational 

goals than their peers did in 1972. Between these 

years, the percentage of seniors who did not expect 

to complete high school decreased (19 vs. 5 percent), 

while the percentage who expected to earn a graduate 

or professional degree increased (13 vs. 38 percent). 

This growth in educational expectations was found 

across demographic characteristics and was more 

pronounced for females than males. In 1972, more 

female than male seniors did not expect to complete 

high school (22 vs. 16 percent), whereas in 2004, 

more males than females had this expectation (8 vs. 

3 percent). In addition, more males than females 

expected to complete graduate or professional 

education in 1972 (16 vs. 9 percent), while in 2004 

more females than males had this expectation (45 

vs. 32 percent). 

Educational Progress

Among students who were high school sophomores 

in 2002, some 88 percent of this cohort had received 

a high school diploma and 4 percent had received a 

General Educational Development (GED) certificate 

or other equivalency certificate by 2006, some 2 years 

after their expected graduation. Differences in high 

school completion rates were found by demographic 

and personal characteristics, including educational 

expectations. For example, greater percentages of 

those who as sophomores had expected to complete 

a bachelor’s or higher degree (92 to 95 percent) had 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood ixSelected Findings

completed high school by 2006, compared with 

their peers who had lower educational expectations 

(63 to 79 percent). In addition, within this cohort, 

there was variation in the percentage who had ever 

enrolled in a postsecondary institution by 2006. 

Overall, 70 percent of the cohort had enrolled 

in a postsecondary institution. Again, looking at 

educational expectations, 86 percent of 2002 high 

school sophomores who expected to complete a 

graduate or professional degree had enrolled in a 

postsecondary institution by 2006, compared with 

smaller percentages of their peers who had expected to 

complete lower levels of education. These percentages 

were 75 percent for those who had expected to 

complete a bachelor’s degree, 49 percent for those 

who had expected to complete some college, and 

26 percent for those who had expected to complete 

high school.
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America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood xi Contents

CONTENTS

Selected Findings....................................................................................................................................... iii

List of Figures.............................................................................................................................................xi

List of Tables.............................................................................................................................................xv

Reader’s Guide ........................................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 1. Demographics ............................................................................... 5

Indicator 1. The Youth Population in the United States..................................................................... 6

Indicator 2. Population Projections of the Youth Population ............................................................. 8

Indicator 3. Nativity of the Youth Population.................................................................................. 10

Indicator 4. Living Arrangements of the Youth Population .............................................................. 12

Indicator 5. The Mobility of the Youth Population .......................................................................... 14

Indicator 6. Marriage....................................................................................................................... 16

Indicator 7. Birth Rates and Births to Unmarried Females............................................................... 18

Chapter 2. School-Related Characteristics................................................... 21

Indicator 8. School Enrollment ....................................................................................................... 22

Indicator 9. High School Enrollment .............................................................................................. 24

Indicator 10. High School Mathematics and Science Coursetaking ................................................ 26

Indicator 11. Advanced Placement (AP) Participation ..................................................................... 28

Indicator 12. Reading and Mathematics Proficiency of 13- and 17-Year-Olds.................................. 30

Indicator 13. International Reading, Mathematics, and Science Achievement.................................. 34

Indicator 14. Suspensions and Expulsions of High School Students................................................. 38

Indicator 15. High School Status Dropout Rates............................................................................. 40

Snapshot 15a. Dropout Rates for Institutionalized and Noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-Year-Olds..... 42

Indicator 16. College Readiness....................................................................................................... 44

Indicator 17. Immediate Transition to College................................................................................. 46

Snapshot 17a. In-state Retention of College Freshmen ..................................................................... 48

Indicator 18. Undergraduate College Enrollment............................................................................ 52

Indicator 19. College Costs ............................................................................................................. 54

Indicator 20. Financial Aid.............................................................................................................. 56

Indicator 21. Federal Aid................................................................................................................. 58

Indicator 22. Time to Completion for Undergraduate Students....................................................... 62

Indicator 23. International College Graduation Rates...................................................................... 66

Indicator 24. School Completion and Educational Attainment ....................................................... 68

Snapshot 24a. Educational Attainment by Nativity........................................................................ 70

Chapter 3. Employment-Related Characteristics.......................................... 73

Indicator 25. Employment of 16- and 17-Year-Old Students........................................................... 74

Snapshot 25a. Employment of 16- and 17-Year-Old Students by Race/Ethnicity............................... 76

Indicator 26. Labor Force Participation and Unemployment of Youth and Young Adults ................ 78
xii America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Contents

Indicator 27. Unemployment of Youth and Young Adults by Educational Attainment .................... 82

Indicator 28. Labor Force Participation of High School Dropouts................................................... 86

Indicator 29. Young Adults in the Armed Forces ............................................................................. 88

Indicator 30. Median Earnings........................................................................................................ 90

Snapshot 30a. Median Earnings by Educational Attainment........................................................... 92

Indicator 31. Poverty ....................................................................................................................... 94

Snapshot 31a. Poverty by Educational Attainment.......................................................................... 96

Indicator 32. Receiving Public Assistance ........................................................................................ 98

Snapshot 32a. Receiving Public Assistance by Educational Attainment........................................... 100

Chapter 4. Activities Outside of School and Work ...................................... 103

Indicator 33. Afterschool Activities................................................................................................ 104

Indicator 34. Computer Use for Non-Schoolwork ........................................................................ 106

Indicator 35. Homework............................................................................................................... 108

Indicator 36. Volunteer Work........................................................................................................ 110

Indicator 37. Religion.................................................................................................................... 112

Indicator 38. Voting Behavior........................................................................................................ 114

Indicator 39. Arrests...................................................................................................................... 116

Indicator 40. Victims of Violent Crime......................................................................................... 118

Chapter 5. Health and Wellness .................................................................. 121

Indicator 41. Health Insurance...................................................................................................... 122

Indicator 42. Health Status............................................................................................................ 124

Indicator 43. Weight and Obesity.................................................................................................. 126

Indicator 44. Exercise.................................................................................................................... 130

Indicator 45. Diseases.................................................................................................................... 132

Indicator 46. Disabilities ............................................................................................................... 134

Indicator 47. Depression ............................................................................................................... 138

Indicator 48. Substance Use........................................................................................................... 140

Indicator 49. Personal Safety.......................................................................................................... 142

Indicator 50. Sexual Behaviors....................................................................................................... 144

Indicator 51. Causes of Death ....................................................................................................... 146

Snapshot 51a. Causes of Death by Race/Ethnicity ......................................................................... 148

Chapter 6. Future Goals............................................................................... 151

Indicator 52. Educational Expectations ......................................................................................... 152

Indicator 53. Values....................................................................................................................... 154

Indicator 54. High School Completion Status by Spring 2002 Sophomores.................................. 156

Indicator 55. First Postsecondary Enrollment by Spring 2002 Sophomores ................................... 158

References ................................................................................................... 161

Appendix A: Technical Note and Guide to Sources ................................... 163
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood xiii List of Figures

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Youth and young adult population, by age group: Selected years, 1980 through 2010................... 7

2. Population estimates and projections for 14- to 24-year-olds, by race/ethnicity: 2005, 2015,

and 2025....................................................................................................................................... 9

3. Percentage of population born outside of the United States, by age group: Selected years, 

1990 through 2009..................................................................................................................... 11

4. Living arrangements of 20- to 24-year-olds, by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2010 .............. 12

5. Percentage of total population who moved during the year shown, by age group: Selected

years, 1981 through 2009 ........................................................................................................... 15

6. Percentage of 20- to 24-year-olds who have never married, and median age at first marriage, 

by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009................................................................................... 17

7. Birth rates for females 15 to 24 years old, by age group of mother and marital status: Selected 

years, 1980 through 2009 ........................................................................................................... 20

8. Percentage of the population 18 to 24 years old enrolled in school, by sex and age group: 

Selected years, 1980 through 2009.............................................................................................. 23

9. Actual and projected numbers for total enrollment in grades 9–12, by control of school: 

Selected years, fall 1980 through fall 2020 .................................................................................. 25

10a. Percentage of public and private high school graduates taking selected mathematics courses: 

1982 and 2009............................................................................................................................ 27

10b. Percentage of public and private high school graduates taking selected science courses: 1982 

and 2009..................................................................................................................................... 27

11a. Advanced Placement student participation, by sex: School years 1996–97 through 2009–10 ...... 29

11b. Percent of Advanced Placement exams scoring a 3 or above, by sex: School years 1996–97 

and 2009–10............................................................................................................................... 29

12a. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading scores, by age and race/ethnicity: 

Selected years, 1980 through 2008.............................................................................................. 30

12b. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics scores, by age and race/

ethnicity: Selected years, 1982 through 2008 .............................................................................. 32

13. Average scale scores among 15-year-olds on the Program for International Student Assessment 

(PISA) reading, mathematics, and science literacy assessments, by race/ethnicity in the United 

States: 2009................................................................................................................................. 35

14. Percentage of public school students in 9th through 12th grade who had ever been suspended, 

by sex and race/ethnicity: 2007 ................................................................................................... 39

15. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 

Selected years, 1990 through 2009.............................................................................................. 40

15a. Percentage of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds who were high 

school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 2009 ........................................................................... 43

16. Percentage of ACT test-taking population meeting college readiness benchmark scores, by 

subject: Academic years 1996–97 through 2009–10.................................................................... 45

17. Percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges in the 

October immediately following high school completion, by level of institution and sex: 

Selected years, 1980 through 2009.............................................................................................. 47
xiv America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood List of Figures

17a. Percentage of freshmen who graduated from high school in the previous 12 months attending

a degree-granting institution in their home state: Fall 1992 and 2008 ......................................... 50

18. Females as a percentage of undergraduate fall enrollment in degree-granting institutions, by

race/ethnicity: 1980 and 2009..................................................................................................... 52

19. Average annual total price, loans, grants, and net access price (in constant 2009–10 dollars)

for full-time, full-year dependent undergraduates, by institution control and level: Academic

years 1999–2000, 2003–04, and 2007–08 .................................................................................. 55

20. Average amount of financial aid (in constant 2009–10 dollars) awarded to full-time, full-year 

undergraduates, by control of institution and type and source of aid: Academic year 2007–08.... 57

21. Percentage of full-time and part-time undergraduates receiving federal aid, by Title IV aid

program and control of institution: Academic year 2007–08....................................................... 60

22. Graduation rates of first-time postsecondary students who started as full-time degree-seeking 

students, by level of institution, time between starting and graduating, sex, and race/ethnicity: 

2001 and 2004 starting cohorts................................................................................................... 64

23. First-time college graduation rates among 24 OECD countries: 2008......................................... 66

24. Percentage distribution of 18- to 24-year-olds, by sex and educational attainment: Selected

years, 1980, 1995, and 2009 ....................................................................................................... 68

24a. Percentage distribution of 18- to 24-year-olds according to highest level of educational

attainment, by sex, nativity, and citizenship status: 2009............................................................. 71

25. Percentage of 16- and 17-year-old students who were employed, by sex and hours worked

per week: Selected years, October 1980 through 2009 ................................................................ 74

25a. Percentage of 16- and 17-year-old students who were employed, by race/ethnicity: 2009............ 77

26a. Labor force participation rate of 16- to 24-year-olds, by sex and age group: Selected years, 

1980 through 2010..................................................................................................................... 78

26b. Unemployment rate of 16- to 24-year-olds, by sex and age group: Selected years, 1980 

through 2010.............................................................................................................................. 80

27. Unemployment rate of 16- to 24-year-olds, by race/ethnicity and educational attainment: 

2010 ........................................................................................................................................... 84

28. Labor force participation rate of 16- to 24-year-old high school dropouts in the civilian labor

force in the year that they dropped out: Selected years, 1980 to 2009 ......................................... 87

29. Number of 18- to 24-year-olds in the armed forces, by sex and age group: 2000 through 2008 .. 89

30. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 15 to 24, by sex 

and age group: Selected years, 1980 through 2009 ...................................................................... 91

30a. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 16 to 24, by 

educational attainment: 1999 and 2009...................................................................................... 93

31. Percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds in poverty, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1995 through 

2009 ........................................................................................................................................... 94

31a. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds in poverty, by sex and educational attainment: 2009 ............... 97

32. Percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds receiving public assistance, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 

1980 through 2009..................................................................................................................... 98

32a. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds living in households receiving public assistance, by educational 

attainment and sex: 2009 .......................................................................................................... 101

Figure Page
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood xvList of Figures

33. Percentage of high school seniors who participated in various afterschool activities, by type 

of activity and sex: 1990 and 2009............................................................................................ 104

34. Percentage of 9th- through 12th-grade students who played video or computer games or 

used a computer for something other than schoolwork, by hours per day and sex: 2009 ........... 107

35. Average hours 9th- through 12th-grade students spent on homework per week for those who

did homework outside of school, by race/ethnicity: 2007.......................................................... 109

36. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who volunteered, by sex and age group: September 2002 

through 2009............................................................................................................................ 111

37. Percentage of high school seniors reporting that religion is very important or not important 

in their life, by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009.............................................................. 112

38. Percentage of U.S. citizens ages 18 to 24 who reported that they voted, by educational 

attainment: November 2004 and 2008...................................................................................... 115

39. Number of arrests per 1,000 persons in the U.S. 14- to 24-year-old population, by age 

group: Selected years, 1995 through 2009................................................................................. 117

40. Number of violent crime victims per 1,000 persons, by age group and sex: Selected years, 

1995 through 2008................................................................................................................... 119

41. Percentage of 14- to 24-year-olds not covered by health insurance, by race/ethnicity and 

age group: 2009 ........................................................................................................................ 122

42. Percentage distribution of health status among persons ages 18 to 24, by educational 

attainment: 2008 ...................................................................................................................... 124

43. Percentage of persons ages 18 to 24 who were at a healthy weight, by race/ethnicity: 1999 

and 2008................................................................................................................................... 128

44. Percentage distribution of periods of vigorous physical activity per week among persons 

ages 18 to 24, by sex: 2008........................................................................................................ 130

45a. Rate per 100,000 population of reported cases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 

syphilis, tuberculosis, and Lyme disease among persons ages 15 to 24: Selected years, 1995 

through 2007............................................................................................................................ 133

45b. Rate per 100,000 population of reported cases of chlamydia and gonorrhea among persons 

ages 15 to 24: Selected years, 1995 through 2007...................................................................... 133

46. Percentage of children ages 12–17 ever having been diagnosed with a learning disability 

or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, by poverty status: Selected years, 1999 through 

2008 ......................................................................................................................................... 136

47. Percentage of 14- to 25-year-olds who experienced a Major Depressive Episode (MDE) in 

their lifetime, by sex and age group: 2006 and 2009.................................................................. 139

48. Percentage of persons ages 12–25 reporting substance use in the past month, by age group 

and type of substance: 1995 and 2009 ...................................................................................... 141

49. Percentage of high school students involved in selected behaviors that may endanger their 

safety: 1991, 1999, and 2009 .................................................................................................... 143

50. Percentage of high school students reporting selected sexual behaviors, by sex: Selected years, 

1991 through 2009................................................................................................................... 145

51. Number of deaths per 100,000 persons ages 15 to 24, by selected causes of death: Selected 

years, 1980 through 2009 ......................................................................................................... 147

Figure Page
xvi America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood List of Figures

51a. Number of deaths per 100,000 persons ages 15 to 24, by selected causes and race/ethnicity: 

2007 ......................................................................................................................................... 149

52. Percentage of high school seniors expecting to complete a bachelor’s degree or graduate or 

professional degree, by sex: 1972 and 2004 ............................................................................... 152

53. Percentage of high school seniors reporting various values as very important, by sex: 1972 

and 2004................................................................................................................................... 154

54. Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had received a high school diploma, 

by highest math course taken in school: 2006 ........................................................................... 156

55. Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores, by postsecondary enrollment and 

parental education: 2006........................................................................................................... 158

Figure Page
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood xvii List of Tables

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Youth and young adult population, by age group: Selected years, 1980 through 2010................... 6

2. Population estimates and projections for 14- to 24-year-olds, by age group and race/ethnicity: 

Selected years, 2005 through 2025................................................................................................ 8

3. Percentage of population in the United States, by age group, nativity, and sex: Selected years, 

1990 through 2009..................................................................................................................... 10

4. Living arrangements of 15- to 24-year-olds, by age group and sex: Selected years, 1980 

through 2010.............................................................................................................................. 13

5. Number and percentage distribution of total population, by mobility status and age group: 

Selected years, 1981 through 2009.............................................................................................. 14

6. Percentage of 15- to 29-year-olds who have never married, by sex and age group, and median 

age of the total population at first marriage, by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009 .............. 16

7. Birth rates for females 15 to 29 years old by marital status, age group, and race/ethnicity of 

mother: Selected years, 1980 through 2009................................................................................. 18

8. Percentage of the population 14 to 24 years old enrolled in school, by age group and sex: 

Selected years, fall 1980 through fall 2009 .................................................................................. 22

9. Actual and projected numbers for enrollment in grades 9–12, by control of school: Selected 

years, fall 1980 through fall 2020................................................................................................ 24

10. Percentage of public and private high school graduates taking selected mathematics and 

science courses in high school: Selected years, 1982 through 2009 .............................................. 26

11. Advanced Placement examinations, student performance, and participation, by sex: Selected 

school years, 1996–97 through 2009–10..................................................................................... 28

12a. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading scores, by age, sex, race/

ethnicity, and highest level of parental education: Selected years, 1980 through 2008 ................. 31

12b. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics scores, by age, sex, race/

ethnicity, and highest level of parental education: Selected years, 1982 through 2008 ................. 33

13. Average scale scores among 15-year-olds on the Program for International Student Assessment 

(PISA) reading, mathematics, and science literacy assessments, by participating country and 

race/ethnicity in the United States: 2009..................................................................................... 36

14. Percentage of public school students in 9th through 12th grade who had ever been suspended 

or expelled, by sex and race/ethnicity: 1999, 2003, and 2007...................................................... 38

15. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity and 

sex: Selected years, 1990 through 2009 ....................................................................................... 41

15a. Number and percentage of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds who 

were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 2009 ........................................................... 42

16. Number of students who took the ACT and percentage of ACT test-taking population meeting 

college readiness benchmark scores, by subject: Academic years 1996–97 through 2009–10 ....... 44

17. Percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges in the October 

immediately following high school completion, by sex and level of institution: Selected years, 

1980 through 2009..................................................................................................................... 46
xviii America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood List of Tables

17a. Residence and migration of all freshman students in degree-granting institutions who 

graduated from high school in the previous 12 months, by state or jurisdiction: Fall 1992 and 

2008 ........................................................................................................................................... 48

18. Undergraduate fall enrollment in degree-granting institutions and the percentage of 

undergraduates who are female, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1980 through 2009 ................ 53

19. Average annual total price, loans, grants, and net access price (in constant 2009–10 dollars) for 

full-time, full-year dependent undergraduates, by institution control and level: Academic years 

1999–2000, 2003–04, and 2007–08........................................................................................... 54

20. Percentage of full-time, full-year undergraduates receiving financial aid and average amount of 

financial aid awarded, by type and source of aid and control and level of institution: Academic 

year 2007–08 .............................................................................................................................. 56

21. Percentage of full-time and part-time undergraduates receiving federal aid, by Title IV aid 

program and control and level of institution: Academic year 2007–08 ........................................ 59

22. Graduation rates of first-time postsecondary students who started as full-time degree-seeking 

students, by race/ethnicity, sex, time between starting and graduating, and level of institution: 

Selected cohort entry years, 1996, 1999, 2001, and 2004 ........................................................... 63

23. First-time college graduation rates among 30 OECD countries: 1995, 2000, 2003, and 2008 .... 67

24. Percentage distribution of 18- to 24-year-olds according to highest level of educational 

attainment, by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009................................................................ 69

24a. Percentage distribution of 18- to 24-year-olds according to highest level of educational 

attainment, by nativity, sex, and citizenship status: 2009............................................................. 71

25. Percentage of 16- and 17-year-old students who were employed, by sex and hours worked per 

week: Selected years, October 1980 through 2009 ..................................................................... 75

25a. Percentage of 16- and 17-year-old students who were employed, by hours worked per week 

and race/ethnicity: 2009.............................................................................................................. 76

26. Labor force participation and unemployment rates of persons 16 years old and over, by sex 

and age group: Selected years, 1980 through 2010 ...................................................................... 79

27. Unemployment rate of 16- to 29-year-olds, by educational attainment, age group, sex, and 

race/ethnicity: 2010 .................................................................................................................... 83

28. Labor status of 16- to 24-year-old high school dropouts in the civilian labor force in the year 

that they dropped out: Selected years, 1980 through 2009.......................................................... 86

29. Number and percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds in the armed forces, by age group and sex: 

2000 through 2008..................................................................................................................... 88

30. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers, by sex and age group: 

Selected years, 1980 through 2009.............................................................................................. 90

30a. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 16 to 24, by 

educational attainment and sex: 1999 and 2009.......................................................................... 92

31. Number and percentage of people in poverty, by sex, race/ethnicity, and age group: Selected 

years, 1980 through 2009 ........................................................................................................... 95

31a. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds in poverty, by educational attainment, sex, and race/

ethnicity: 2009............................................................................................................................ 96

32. Number and percentage of people receiving public assistance, by sex, race/ethnicity, and age 

group: Selected years, 1980 through 2009................................................................................... 99

Table Page
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood xixList of Tables

32a. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds living in households receiving public assistance, by 

educational attainment, sex, and race/ethnicity: 2009 ............................................................... 100

33. Percentage of high school seniors who participated in various afterschool activities, by type of 

activity and sex: Selected years, 1990 through 2009 .................................................................. 105

34. Percentage of 9th- through 12th-grade students who played video or computer games or used 

a computer for something other than schoolwork, by sex and hours per day: 2009 ................... 106

35. Average hours spent on homework per week and percentage of 9th- through 12th-grade 

students who did homework outside of school and whose parents checked that homework 

was done, by frequency of doing homework and race/ethnicity: 2007 ....................................... 108

36. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who volunteered, by sex and age group: September 2002 

through 2009............................................................................................................................ 110

37. Percentage of high school seniors reporting various levels of importance of religion in their 

life, by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009.......................................................................... 113

38. Percentage of U.S. citizens ages 18–24 who reported that they registered to vote and that they 

voted by sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment: November 2004 and 2008................. 114

39. Number of arrests per 1,000 persons in the U.S. 14- to 24-year-old population, by age 

group: Selected years, 1995 through 2009................................................................................. 116

40. Number of violent crime victims per 1,000 persons, by type of crime, age group, and sex: 

Selected years, 1995 through 2008............................................................................................ 118

41. Number and percentage of people not covered by health insurance, by sex, race/ethnicity, 

and age group: 2000 through 2009 ........................................................................................... 123

42. Percentage distribution of health status among persons ages 18 to 24, by selected 

characteristics: 1999 and 2008 .................................................................................................. 125

43. Percentage distribution of body mass index categories among persons ages 18 to 24, by 

selected characteristics: 1999 and 2008 ..................................................................................... 127

44. Percentage distribution of periods of vigorous physical activity per week among persons ages 

18 to 24, by selected characteristics: 1999 and 2008 ................................................................. 131

45. Number of newly reported cases and incidence rate of selected notifiable diseases among 

persons ages 15 to 24: Selected years, 1995 through 2007......................................................... 132

46. Percentage of children ages 12 to 17 ever having been diagnosed with a learning disability or 

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, by selected characteristics: Selected years, 1999 

through 2008............................................................................................................................ 135

47. Percentage of 14- to 25-year-olds who experienced a Major Depressive Episode (MDE) in 

their lifetime and in the past year, by sex, year, and age group: 2006 through 2009................... 138

48. Percentage of persons ages 12 to 25 reporting substance use in the past month, by age group 

and type of substance: Selected years, 1995 through 2009......................................................... 140

49. Percentage of high school students involved in behaviors that may endanger their safety, by 

type of behavior and sex: Selected years, 1991 through 2009..................................................... 142

50. Percentage of high school students reporting selected sexual behaviors, by sex: Selected years, 

1991 through 2009................................................................................................................... 144

51. Number of deaths per 100,000 persons ages 15 to 24, by selected causes of death: Selected 

years, 1980 through 2009 ......................................................................................................... 146

Table Page
xx America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood List of Tables

51a. Number of deaths per 100,000 persons ages 15 to 24, by race/ethnicity, selected causes, and 

sex: 2007................................................................................................................................... 148

52. Percentage of high school seniors expecting to complete various educational levels, by sex, 

race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES): 1972, 1980, 1992, and 2004........................... 153

53. Percentage of high school seniors reporting various values as very important, by sex, race/

ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES): 1972, 1980, 1992, and 2004 .................................. 155

54. Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores, by high school completion status and 

selected student characteristics: 2006......................................................................................... 157

55. Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores, by timing of first postsecondary 

enrollment and selected student characteristics: 2006................................................................ 159

Table Page
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 1Reader’s Guide

READER’S GUIDE

The first edition of Youth Indicators, published 

by the National Center for Education Statistics 

(NCES) in 1988, contained statistics to describe the 

circumstances of young people’s lives both in school 

and beyond the classroom. The current report is the 

sixth edition in this series. The report acknowledges 

that learning may occur across many different 

settings and may be influenced by circumstances and 

experiences in various social contexts.

America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood is a statistical 

compilation of data on the distribution of youth, 

their family structure, economic factors, school and 

extracurricular activities, health factors, and other 

elements that constitute the world of young people 

between the ages of 14 to 24. These data present 

a composite of the youth experience, highlighting 

connections between their lives inside and outside 

of school. Much of the data in this publication are 

central to long-term policy debates on education 

issues. Where possible, trend data are provided as 

a historical context for interpretation. Some tables 

cover only more recent years, either because they show 

key details of the current status or because historical 

data are unavailable. Information on additional age 

groups is provided on many tables to relate the youth 

experience to that of people of other ages.

Some of the tables in this report use different data 

sources or different definitions of terms to present 

estimates on similar variables. It is important to 

note that comparisons between estimates with such 

differences should be made with caution, if at all, 

because they may be compromised by differences in 

populations, methodologies, question phrasing, and 

other factors.

Organization of the Report and Data 

Sources

This report presents a selection of indicators that 

provide a broad perspective on youth; it uses trend 

data that cover material across disciplines and agency 

lines and provides information on both positive 

and negative aspects of the youth experience. These 

measures are examined in six chapters: Demographics, 

School-Related Characteristics, Employment-Related 

Characteristics, Activities Outside of School and 

Work, Health and Wellness, and Future Goals. 

Each indicator contains a table, figure, and brief 

text describing the types of comparisons one might 

reasonably make. A reference list of works cited and 

a guide to sources appear at the end of the report 

in Appendix A: Technical Note and Guide to Sources.

Standard error tables are available on the NCES 

website at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012026/.

America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood contains 

indicators that have been adapted from various other 

federal reports, as well as indicators that have been 

constructed specifically for this report from NCES 

and other sources. Measures published in previous 

editions of Youth Indicators constitute the basis for 

this volume; however, many new and substantially 

revised measures were designed to address emerging 

issues and take advantage of new databases or new 

features of surveys that were not available for previous 

editions. Many of the indicators in this report use 

published and unpublished data from other federal 

agencies and organizations, including the following:

•	 U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau;

•	 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 

•	 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor 

Statistics; 

•	 U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice 

Statistics and Federal Bureau of Investigation;

•	 Organization for Economic Co-operation 

and Development’s Program for International 

Student Assessment; and

•	 University of Michigan, Institute for Social 

Research.
2 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Reader's Guide

Data Analysis and Interpretation

For all indicators in this report that report estimates 

based on samples, differences between estimates are 

stated only when they are statistically significant. 

To determine whether differences reported are 

statistically significant, two-tailed t tests at the .05 

level are typically used. When the variables to be 

tested are postulated to form a trend, the relationship 

may be tested using linear regression. For more 

information, see Appendix A: Technical Note and 

Guide to Sources. 

Classifications of Age Groups

America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood focuses 

primarily on young people ages 14 to 24. This age 

range is referred to throughout the report as the 

“youth population.” Within the youth population, 

this report discusses “youth” ages 14 to 17 and “young 

adults” ages 18 to 24. Due to differences in survey 

populations, these three general age categories vary 

slightly in certain tables. Each indicator specifies which 

population is being discussed in the table and text. 

Definitions of Race and Ethnicity 

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

is responsible for the standards that govern the 

categories used to collect and present federal data on 

race and ethnicity. The OMB revised the guidelines 

on racial/ethnic categories used by the federal 

government in October 1997, with a January 2003 

deadline for implementation (Office of Management 

and Budget 1997). The revised standards require a 

minimum of these five categories for data on race: 

American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Black or 

African American, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 

Islander, and White. The standards also require the 

collection of data on the ethnicity categories Hispanic 

or Latino and Not Hispanic or Latino. It is important 

to note that Hispanic origin is an ethnicity rather than 

a race; therefore, persons of Hispanic origin may be 

of any race. Origin can be viewed as the heritage, 

nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the 

person or the person’s parents or ancestors before their 

arrival in the United States. The races White, Black, 

Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 

and American Indian/Alaska Native, as presented in 

this report, exclude persons of Hispanic origin unless 

noted otherwise.

These racial/ethnic categories are defined as follows: 

•	 American Indian or Alaska Native: A person 

having origins in any of the original peoples of 

North and South America (including Central 

America), and who maintains tribal affiliation 

or community attachment.

•	 Asian: A person having origins in any of the 

original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, 

or the Indian subcontinent (e.g., Cambodia, 

China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, 

the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam).

•	 Black or African American: A person having 

origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa. 

•	 Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander: A 

person having origins in any of the original 

peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other 

Pacific Islands.

•	 White: A person having origins in any of the 

original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or 

North Africa.

•	 Hispanic or Latino: A person of Mexican, Puerto 

Rican, Cuban, South or Central American, or 

other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race.

Within this report, some of the category names have 

been shortened. American Indian or Alaska Native is 

denoted as American Indian/Alaska Native; Black or 

African American is shortened to Black; and Hispanic 

or Latino is shortened to Hispanic. When discussed 

separately, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 

is not shortened in the text, but is shortened in tables 

and figures to Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.

The data in this report come from a number of 

sources. Many are federal surveys that follow the 

OMB standards for racial/ethnic classification 

described above; however, many sources have not fully 

adopted the standards. Since data sources vary in their 

reporting of race and ethnicity, this report focuses on 

the six categories that are the most common among 

data sources (i.e., the categories listed above). Asians 

and Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders are 

combined into one category in tables for which the 

data were not collected separately for the two groups. 

Some of the surveys from which data are presented 

in this report give respondents the option of selecting 

either an “other” race category, a “two or more races” 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 3Reader’s Guide

or “multiracial” category, or both. Therefore, the 

remaining categories presented consist entirely of 

persons who identify as belonging to only one race 

or ethnicity. Where possible, tables present data on 

the “two or more races” category; however, in some 

cases, this category may not be separately shown, 

due to various data issues. The “other” category is 

generally not shown separately, with the exception 

of tables that use data from the National Health 

Interview Survey (see chapter 5, tables 42, 43, 

44, and 46). For these tables, the category “other 

races” includes Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific 

Islander, “other race,” and unspecified multiple race 

respondents. Any comparisons made between persons 

of one racial/ethnic group to “all other racial/ethnic 

groups” include only the racial/ethnic groups shown 

in the indicator. In some surveys, respondents are 

not given the option of selecting two or more races. 

In these surveys, respondents of two or more races 

must select a single race category. Any comparisons 

between data from surveys that give the option to 

select more than one race and surveys that do not 

offer such an option should take into account the 

fact that there is a potential for bias if members of 

one racial group are more likely than members of 

the others to identify themselves as “two or more 

races.”1

 For postsecondary data, foreign students are 

counted separately and, therefore, are not included 

in any racial/ethnic category. Please see Appendix A: 

Technical Note and Guide to Sources at the end of this 

report for specific information on each of the report’s 

data sources.

1 Such bias was found by a National Center for Health Statistics study that examined race/ethnicity responses to the 2000 

census. This study found, for example, that as the percentage of multiple-race respondents in a county increased, the likelihood of 

respondents stating Black as their primary race increased among Black/White respondents, but decreased among American Indian 

or Alaska Native/Black respondents (Parker et. al 2004).
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Chapter 1

DEMOGRAPHICS
6 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 1 — The Youth Population in the United States

1. The Youth Population in the United States

In 2010, there were 47.1 million youth and young 

adults between the ages of 14 and 24 living in the 

United States, representing 15 percent of the total 

population. The number of these youth and young 

adults in 2010 was greater than the 46.2 million in 

1980. However, the number of youth and young 

adults had declined from 46.2 million in 1980 to 

40.2 million in 1990, before beginning a gradual 

rise. Between 1980 and 2010, the total population 

increased from 227.2 to 309.6 million, resulting in a 

decrease in the proportion of youth and young adults. 

The proportion of youth and young adults ages 14 to 

24 declined from 20 percent of the U.S. population 

in 1980 to 15 percent in 2010.

Table 1. Youth and young adult population, by age group: Selected years, 1980 through 2010

Year

Total population, 

all ages

Total, 

ages 14–24 Ages 14–17 Ages 18–19 Ages 20–21 Ages 22–24

Number of persons, in thousands

1980 227,225 46,246 16,143 8,718 8,669 12,716

1985 237,924 43,790 14,888 7,637 8,370 12,895

1990 249,623 40,182 13,329 7,702 7,886 11,264

1995 266,278 40,495 15,013 7,182 7,103 11,197

2000 282,172 43,447 16,131 8,191 7,997 11,129

2001 285,082 44,222 16,221 8,200 8,294 11,508

2002 287,804 44,889 16,401 8,171 8,340 11,977

2003 290,326 45,456 16,544 8,227 8,314 12,371

2004 293,046 46,140 16,854 8,327 8,292 12,666

2005 295,753 46,508 17,104 8,324 8,361 12,721

2006 298,593 46,780 17,239 8,380 8,466 12,696

2007 301,580 46,973 17,239 8,517 8,453 12,764

2008 304,375 47,070 16,980 8,768 8,500 12,822

2009 307,007 47,174 16,761 8,872 8,631 12,908

2010 309,629 47,122 16,550 8,745 8,879 12,947

Percent of total population

1980 100.0 20.4 7.1 3.8 3.8 5.6

1985 100.0 18.4 6.3 3.2 3.5 5.4

1990 100.0 16.1 5.3 3.1 3.2 4.5

1995 100.0 15.2 5.6 2.7 2.7 4.2

2000 100.0 15.4 5.7 2.9 2.8 3.9

2001 100.0 15.5 5.7 2.9 2.9 4.0

2002 100.0 15.6 5.7 2.8 2.9 4.2

2003 100.0 15.7 5.7 2.8 2.9 4.3

2004 100.0 15.7 5.8 2.8 2.8 4.3

2005 100.0 15.7 5.8 2.8 2.8 4.3

2006 100.0 15.7 5.8 2.8 2.8 4.3

2007 100.0 15.6 5.7 2.8 2.8 4.2

2008 100.0 15.5 5.6 2.9 2.8 4.2

2009 100.0 15.4 5.5 2.9 2.8 4.2

2010 100.0 15.2 5.3 2.8 2.9 4.2

NOTE: Data are for resident population as of July 1 of the indicated year. Some data have been revised from previously published 

figures. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P-25, Nos. 1000, 1022, 1045, 1057, 1059, 

1092, and 1095; and 2000–10 Population Estimates, retrieved September 10, 2010, from http://www.census.gov/popest/national/

asrh/2009-nat-res.html.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 7

Figure 1. Youth and young adult population, by age group: Selected years, 1980 through 2010

Chapter 1 — Demographics

NOTE: Data are for resident population as of July 1 of the indicated year. Some data have been revised from previously published 

figures. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P-25, Nos. 1000, 1022, 1045, 1057, 1059, 

1092, and 1095; and 2000–10 Population Estimates, retrieved September 10, 2010, from http://www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/

2009-nat-res.html.
8 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 2 — Population Projections of the Youth Population

2. Population Projections of the Youth Population

The youth population is expected to increase between 

2005 and 2025. By 2015, it is expected that there 

will be 47.9 million youth and young adults between 

the ages of 14 and 24 years old in the United States, 

an increase of 3 percent from 2005. By 2025, the 

number is expected to be 51.4 million, an increase of 

7 percent from 2015. However, the overall population 

of the United States is expected to increase by 10 

percent between 2005 and 2015 and another 10 

percent between 2015 and 2025, meaning that the 

youth population will be a smaller proportion of the 

total population.

Shifts in the racial/ethnic composition of the youth 

population are projected between 2005 and 2025. 

While still expected to be the largest group overall, 

White youth are expected to decline in number 

between 2005 and 2025, from 28.6 to 25.7 million, 

a decrease of approximately 10 percent. The number 

of Black youth is expected to decrease from 6.8 to 

6.6 million between 2005 and 2025, with a 2 percent 

decrease between 2015 and 2025. The number 

of Hispanic youth is expected to increase from 

8.0 million to 11.0 million by 2015, a 37 percent 

increase, and then to 14.4 million by 2025, another 

31 percent increase. Increases are also projected for 

Asian youth, from 1.8 million in 2005 to 2.7 million 

by 2025, and for youth of two or more races, from 

0.8 million in 2005 to 1.5 million by 2025. The 

number of American Indian/Alaska Native youth (0.4 

million) is projected to decline by 9 percent between 

2005 and 2015, but then increase by 6 percent in the 

following decade.

Table 2. Population estimates and projections for 14- to 24-year-olds, by age group and race/ethnicity: Selected 

years, 2005 through 2025

Age group and

race/ethnicity

Population (in millions) Percent change

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

2005 to 

2015

2015 to 

2025

2005 to 

2025

Total, all ages 295.8 309.6 325.5 341.4 357.5 10.1 9.8 20.9

Total, ages 14 to 24 46.5 47.1 47.9 48.9 51.4 3.0 7.4 10.6

14 to 17 17.1 16.6 17.0 18.0 18.9 -0.5 11.0 10.5

18 to 24 29.4 30.6 30.9 30.8 32.6 5.0 5.4 10.7

White, ages 14 to 24 28.6 27.9 26.3 25.5 25.7 -7.7 -2.6 -10.1

14 to 17 10.5 9.6 9.2 9.3 9.3 -12.3 1.7 -10.8

18 to 24 18.1 18.3 17.2 16.2 16.3 -5.1 -4.8 -9.7

Black, ages 14 to 24 6.8 7.0 6.7 6.4 6.6 -0.1 -2.4 -2.4

14 to 17 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.4 -11.2 4.9 -6.9

18 to 24 4.1 4.5 4.4 4.1 4.2 6.9 -6.1 0.3

Hispanic, ages 14 to 24 8.0 8.9 11.0 12.6 14.4 36.7 31.1 79.3

14 to 17 2.9 3.3 4.1 4.8 5.4 42.4 30.3 85.6

18 to 24 5.1 5.7 6.9 7.8 9.0 33.5 31.7 75.7

Asian, ages 14 to 24 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.7 20.9 23.9 49.9

14 to 17 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 27.1 23.5 57.0

18 to 24 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 17.8 24.1 46.2

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander, ages 14 to 24 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 -2.1 14.0 11.6

14 to 17 # # # # # -4.0 22.5 17.6

18 to 24 0.1 0.1 # # 0.1 -1.1 9.4 8.2

American Indian/Alaska 

Native, ages 14 to 24 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 -9.2 5.9 -3.8

14 to 17 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 -17.3 18.9 -1.7

18 to 24 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 -4.2 -0.9 -5.1

Two or more races, 

ages 14 to 24 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 39.5 34.4 87.4

14 to 17 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 39.1 29.9 80.7

18 to 24 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 39.7 37.5 92.1

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: Data for 2005 and 2010 are estimates; data for 2015 through 2025 are projected. Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not 

shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, 2005 and 2010 Population estimates retrieved May 3, 2011, from

http://www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/2009-nat-res.html; and 2008 National Population Projections by age, sex, race and 

Hispanic origin, unpublished tabulations.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 9

Figure 2. Population estimates and projections for 14- to 24-year-olds, by race/ethnicity: 2005, 2015, and 2025

Chapter 1 — Demographics

NOTE: Data for 2005 are estimates; data for 2015 and 2025 are projected. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, 2005 Population estimates, retrieved May 3, 2011, from http://www.census.

gov/popest/national/asrh/2009-nat-res.html; and 2008 National Population Projections by Age, Sex, Race and Hispanic origin, 

unpublished tabulations.
10 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 3 — Nativity of the Youth Population

3. Nativity of the Youth Population

Changes in the demographic characteristics of today’s 

youth can also be characterized by whether they were 

born in the United States or moved here later. In 

2009, about 13 percent of the U.S. population was 

born outside of the United States (meaning the 50 

U.S. states and the District of Columbia). A smaller 

percentage of youth ages 15 to 19 (7 percent) were 

born outside of the United States compared to the 

percentage of the total population born outside of 

the United States in 2009. The percentage of young 

adults ages 20 to 24 who were born outside of the 

United States was 12 percent. 

The percentage of youth (15- to 19-year-olds) born 

outside of the United States was higher in 2000 (9 

percent) than in 1990 (7 percent); however, in 2009 it 

was back to 7 percent. The percentage of young adults 

followed a similar pattern, 10 percent in 1990, about 

15 percent in 2000, and 12 percent in 2009. For all 

the years shown, a higher percentage of young adults 

than youth were born outside of the United States. 

Table 3. Percentage of population in the United States, by age group, nativity, and sex: Selected years, 1990 

through 2009

Year and sex

Total population Ages 15 to 19 Ages 20 to 24

Born within

the United 

States1

Born

outside of

the United 

States1

Born within 

the United 

States1

Born

outside of

the United 

States1

Born within 

the United 

States1

Born

outside of

the United 

States1

19902

Total 92.1 7.9 93.4 6.6 90.4 9.6

Male 92.0 8.0 93.1 6.9 89.6 10.4

Female 92.1 7.9 93.8 6.2 91.3 8.7

2000

Total 88.9 11.1 91.2 8.8 85.3 14.7

Male 88.8 11.2 90.6 9.4 84.0 16.0

Female 89.1 10.9 91.8 8.2 86.7 13.3

2005

Total 87.6 12.4 91.6 8.4 86.3 13.7

Male 87.3 12.7 91.4 8.6 85.1 14.9

Female 87.9 12.1 91.9 8.1 87.6 12.4

2009

Total 87.5 12.5 93.1 6.9 88.2 11.8

Male 87.3 12.7 92.9 7.1 87.5 12.5

Female 87.6 12.4 93.3 6.7 89.1 10.9

1 United States refers to the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

2 1990 data are from Census Bureau population estimates, rather than the American Community Survey. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Population Estimates Program, Foreign-Born Resident Population Estimates 

and Native Population Estimates of the United States by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: July 1, 1990, released April 11, 2000; and 

American Community Survey, 2000, 2005, and 2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 11

Figure 3. Percentage of population born outside of the United States, by age group: Selected years, 1990 

Chapter 1 — Demographics

through 2009 

NOTE: 1990 data are from Census Bureau population estimates, rather than the American Community Survey. United States refers to 

the 50 states and the District of Columbia. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Population Estimates Program, Foreign-Born Resident Population Estimates 

and Native Population Estimates of the United States by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: July 1, 1990, released April 11, 2000; and 

American Community Survey, 2000, 2005, and 2009.
12 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 4 — Living Arrangements of the Youth Population

4. Living Arrangements of the Youth Population

In 2010, most youth ages 15 to 19 were living with 

their parents (82 percent).2 This percentage was 

smaller than that in 1980, when 86 percent of youth 

lived with their parents. In both years, the percentage 

of youth living with their parents was greater for 

males than for females (89 vs. 83 percent in 1980 

and 84 vs. 81 percent in 2010). In contrast, a greater 

percentage of young adults ages 20 to 24 were living 

with their parents in 2010 (42 percent) than in 1980 

(38 percent). In addition, more young adults lived 

with relatives who were not their spouse or parent or 

lived with related and unrelated subfamilies in 2010 

than in 1980 (12 vs. 6 percent). 

Between 1980 and 2010, the percentage of young 

adults ages 20 to 24 who were householders3

 or the 

spouses of householders decreased (from 38 to 19 

percent), while the percentage living in a nonfamily 

arrangement increased (from 19 to 27 percent). In 

2010, the percentage of both female and male young 

adults who maintained their own household or were 

the spouse of a householder was less than it was in 

1980. The percentage for females was 25 percent in 

2010, which was 21 percentage points lower than 

in 1980; the percentage for males was 13 percent in 

2010, which was 15 percentage points lower than 

in 1980. 

2

 This includes unmarried college students living in dormitories.

3

 Householder refers to the person (or one of the people) in whose name the housing unit is owned or rented (maintained) or, if 

there is no such person, any adult member, excluding roomers, boarders, or paid employees. If the house is owned or rented jointly 

by a married couple, the householder may be either spouse. The person designated as the householder is the “reference person” to 

whom the relationship of all other household members, if any, is recorded.

Figure 4. Living arrangements of 20- to 24-year-olds, by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2010

NOTE: “Householder” refers to the person (or one of the people) in whose name the housing unit is owned or rented (maintained) or, 

if there is no such person, any adult member, excluding roomers, boarders, or paid employees. If the house is owned or rented jointly 

by a married couple, the householder may be either spouse. The person designated as the householder is the “reference person” to 

whom the relationship of all other household members, if any, is recorded.”Child of householder” includes unmarried college students 

living in dormitories. “Not in family groups” includes nonfamily householders, unrelated persons in households, and those living in 

group quarters. “Other” includes other relatives living with the householder (not a spouse or child), as well as those in related or 

unrelated subfamilies.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1980–2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 13

Table 4. Living arrangements of 15- to 24-year-olds, by age group and sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2010

Chapter 1 — Demographics

Living arrangement 

and sex

1980 1990 2000 2010

Ages 

15–19

Ages

20–24

Ages 

15–19

Ages

20–24

Ages 

15–19

Ages

20–24

Ages 

15–19

Ages

20–24

Number (in thousands)

Total 20,267 20,046 17,269 17,990 20,101 18,442 21,078 21,141

Family householder

or spouse 944 7,544 554 5,143 719 4,531 679 4,019

Child of householder 17,422 7,535 14,547 7,241 16,337 7,361 17,313 8,863

Not in family groups 797 3,791 765 3,886 1,186 4,662 962 5,733

Other 1,104 1,176 1,403 1,720 1,859 1,888 2,124 2,526

Male 10,158 9,801 8,723 8,812 10,296 9,208 10,713 10,677

Family householder

or spouse 191 2,759 139 1,715 209 1,519 312 1,371

Child of householder 9,069 4,358 7,655 4,172 8,725 4,367 8,965 5,201

Not in family groups 383 2,105 314 2,116 547 2,440 389 2,933

Other 515 579 615 809 815 882 1,047 1,172

Female 10,109 10,245 8,546 9,178 9,810 9,233 10,364 10,464

Family householder

or spouse 753 4,785 415 3,428 509 3,012 366 2,648

Child of householder 8,353 3,177 6,892 3,069 7,614 2,994 8,348 3,663

Not in family groups 414 1,686 451 1,770 641 2,221 572 2,799

Other 589 597 788 911 1,046 1,006 1,078 1,354

Percentage distribution

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Family householder

or spouse 4.7! 37.6 ‡ 28.6 3.6! 24.6 3.2! 19.0

Child of householder 86.0 37.6 84.2 40.3 81.3 39.9 82.1 41.9

Not in family groups 3.9! 18.9 4.4! 21.6 5.9 25.3 4.6 27.1

Other 5.4 5.9 8.1 9.6 9.2 10.2 10.1 11.9

Male 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Family householder

or spouse ‡ 28.2 ‡ 19.5 ‡ 16.5 ‡ 12.8

Child of householder 89.3 44.5 87.8 47.3 84.7 47.4 83.7 48.7

Not in family groups ‡ 21.5 ‡ 24.0 5.3! 26.5 3.6! 27.5

Other 5.1! 5.9! 7.1! 9.2 7.9! 9.6 9.8 11.0

Female 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Family householder

or spouse 7.4 46.7 ‡ 37.4 5.2! 32.6 3.5! 25.3

Child of householder 82.6 31.0 80.6 33.4 77.6 32.4 80.5 35.0

Not in family groups ‡ 16.5 5.3! 19.3 6.5! 24.1 5.5! 26.7

Other 5.8! 5.8! 9.2 9.9 10.7 10.9 10.4 12.9

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. “Householder” refers to the person (or one of the people) in whose name the 

housing unit is owned or rented (maintained) or, if there is no such person, any adult member, excluding roomers, boarders, or paid 

employees. If the house is owned or rented jointly by a married couple, the householder may be either spouse. The person designated 

as the householder is the “reference person” to whom the relationship of all other household members, if any, is recorded.”Child 

of householder” includes unmarried college students living in dormitories. “Not in family groups” includes nonfamily householders, 

unrelated persons in households, and those living in group quarters. “Other” includes other relatives living with the householder (not a 

spouse or child), as well as those in related or unrelated subfamilies. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1980–2010.
14 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 5 — The Mobility of the Youth Population

5. The Mobility of the Youth Population

Youth and young adults in 2009 were generally less 

geographically mobile than their counterparts in 

1981, 1991, or 2001. In 2009, a lower percentage 

of 20-to 24-year-olds reported that they had moved 

during the year than did 20-to 24-year-olds in 1981 

(27 vs. 38 percent). In addition, a lower percentage 

of youth ages 15 to 19 moved in 2009 compared to 

1991 (13 vs. 18 percent). Approximately 9 percent 

of young adults moved to a different county in 

2009, compared to 15 percent in 1981. About 3 

percent of young adults moved to a different state 

in 2009, a percentage not measurably different from 

the 6 percent of young adults who did so in 1981. 

In comparison to the total population, a greater 

percentage of young adults moved in 1981, 1991, 

2001, and 2009, while the percentage of youth who 

moved was not measurably different from that of the 

overall population in any of the years. For each year 

shown, greater percentages of young adults ages 20 

to 24 than youth ages 15 to 19 had moved.

Table 5. Number and percentage distribution of total population, by mobility status and age group: Selected 

years, 1981 through 2009

Year and age

Total1

(in thousands)

Nonmovers

Movers

Total1

Same

county

Different county

Total1

Same

state

Different 

state

1981

All ages 221,640 82.8 17.2 10.4 6.4 3.4 2.8

Ages 15 to 19 20,200 83.6 16.4 10.0 6.4 ‡ ‡

Ages 20 to 24 20,990 61.9 38.1 23.5 14.6 7.6 5.7

1991

All ages 244,880 83.0 17.0 10.3 6.7 3.2 2.9

Ages 15 to 19 16,840 82.2 17.8 10.8 7.0 ‡ ‡

Ages 20 to 24 17,990 64.7 35.3 20.9 14.4 7.1 5.8!

2001

All ages 275,610 85.8 14.2 8.0 6.2 2.7 2.8

Ages 15 to 19 19,990 86.4 13.6 7.8 5.8! ‡ ‡

Ages 20 to 24 18,810 67.6 32.4 18.4 14.0 6.7 6.0!

2009

All ages 297,180 87.5 12.5 8.4 4.1 2.1 1.6

Ages 15 to 19 21,230 87.4 12.6 8.9 3.7! ‡ ‡

Ages 20 to 24 20,630 72.6 27.4 18.3 9.2 5.6 2.8!

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater. 1 Total includes movers from abroad (representing 1.4 to 2.4 percent of 15- to 24-year-olds) that are not shown separately.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding. Data were collected in the March following the reference year shown.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1982–2010. 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 15

Figure 5. Percentage of total population who moved during the year shown, by age group: Selected years, 1981 

Chapter 1 — Demographics

through 2009

NOTE: Data were collected in the March following the reference year shown. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1982–2010. 
16 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 6 — Marriage

6. Marriage

The percentage of youth and young adults who have 

never married increased over the last three decades. In 

1980, some 94 percent of youth (ages 15 to 19) and 

59 percent of young adults (ages 20 to 24) had never 

married. By 2009, those numbers had increased to 

98 percent of youth and 82 percent of young adults. 

The only exception to this pattern was for male youth, 

where no measurable difference could be determined 

between 1980 and 2009. 

Across all time periods, higher percentages of young 

adult males were never married than were their 

female counterparts. For example, in 2009, about 

87 percent of young adult (ages 20 to 24) males had 

never married, compared to 77 percent of females in 

the same age group. (These numbers increased from 

69 percent of males and 50 percent of females in 

1980.) The median age at first marriage also increased 

between 1980 and 2009, from 25 to 28 for males and 

from 22 to 26 for females.

Table 6. Percentage of 15- to 29-year-olds who have never married, by sex and age group, and median age of 

the total population at first marriage, by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009

Year

Percent of 15- to 29-year-olds who have never married Median age of 

total population 

Total Male Female at first marriage

15–19 20–24 25–29 15–19 20–24 25–29 15–19 20–24 25–29 Male Female

1980 94.2 59.2 26.5 97.3 68.6 32.4 91.1 50.2 20.8 24.7 22.0

1990 96.8 70.9 38.1 98.5 79.3 45.2 95.0 62.8 31.1 26.1 23.9

2000 97.2 78.2 45.2 98.5 83.7 51.7 95.9 72.8 38.9 26.8 25.1

2001 97.3 77.8 46.5 98.4 84.1 52.9 96.1 71.5 40.1 26.9 25.1

2002 97.4 79.7 47.0 98.3 85.4 53.7 96.5 74.0 40.4 26.9 25.3

2003 97.9 80.7 47.5 98.6 86.0 54.6 97.2 75.4 40.3 27.1 25.3

2004 98.1 80.9 48.7 98.7 86.4 56.6 97.4 75.4 40.8 27.4 25.3

2005 97.9 80.5 48.4 98.7 86.2 55.2 97.2 74.7 41.5 27.1 25.3

2006 97.8 81.1 50.3 98.5 86.7 57.4 97.2 75.3 43.1 27.5 25.5

2007 97.7 81.7 50.6 98.4 86.9 57.6 97.0 76.4 43.4 27.5 25.6

2008 97.6 83.2 52.3 98.2 87.3 58.8 96.9 78.9 45.5 27.4 25.6

2009 97.9 82.2 53.8 98.5 86.9 61.1 97.2 77.4 46.3 28.1 25.9

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, America’s Families and Living 

Arrangements; Table A1. Marital Status of People 15 Years and Over by Age, Sex, Personal Earnings, Race, and Hispanic Origin, various 

years; and Current Population Survey, March and Annual Social and Economic Supplements, selected years 2000–09, Marital Status 

Historical Time Series Table MS-2: Estimated Median Age at First Marriage, by Sex: 1890 to the Present, retrieved November 10, 2010 from 

http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam.html.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 17

Figure 6. Percentage of 20- to 24-year-olds who have never married, and median age at first marriage, by sex: 

Chapter 1 — Demographics

Selected years, 1980 through 2009

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, America’s Families and Living 

Arrangements; Table A1. Marital Status of People 15 Years and Over by Age, Sex, Personal Earnings, Race, and Hispanic Origin, various 

years; and Current Population Survey, March and Annual Social and Economic Supplements, selected years 2000–09, Marital Status 

Historical Time Series Table MS-2: Estimated Median Age at First Marriage, by Sex: 1890 to the Present, retrieved November 10, 2010 from 

http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam.html.
18 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 7 — Birth Rates and Births to Unmarried Females

7. Birth Rates and Births to Unmarried Females

In 2009, there were 39 live births per 1,000 females 

ages 15 to 19, about 96 births per 1,000 females ages 

20 to 24, and 111 births per 1,000 females ages 25 to 

29.4

 For 15- to 19-year-olds, the birth rate increased 

from 53 per 1,000 females in 1980 to 60 per 1,000 

in 1990 and then declined to 41 per 1,000 in 2005. 

Although they had been declining since 1990, teenage 

birth rates increased in both 2006 and 2007, with 43 

births per 1,000 females in 2007, before declining 

to 39 births per 1,000 females in 2009. Birth rates 

for women ages 20 to 24 followed a similar pattern, 

increasing from 115 to 117 births per 1,000 women 

between 1980 and 1990 and then declining to 102 

per 1,000 in 2005. In 2006 and 2007, birth rates 

increased and were 106 per 1,000 women ages 20 to 

24 in both years, before declining to 96 births per 

1,000 females in 2009. 

In 2009, Hispanics had the highest birth rate of any 

racial/ethnic group across all age groups. For Hispanic 

teenagers, the rate was more than four times that of 

Asian/Pacific Islander teenagers (70 per 1,000 vs. 15 

per 1,000 females, respectively). Among teenagers, 

Asian/Pacific Islander females had a lower birth rate 

than any other racial/ethnic group in 2009, followed 

by Whites (26 per 1,000), American Indians/Alaska 

Natives (56 per 1,000), Blacks (59 per 1,000), and 

Hispanics. A similar pattern held for women ages 20 

to 24 years old in 2009. Asian/Pacific Islander women 

had the lowest birth rate (58 per 1,000), followed 

by Whites (77 per 1,000), American Indians/Alaska 

Natives (109 per 1,000), Blacks (124 per 1,000), and 

Hispanics (151 per 1,000). 

4

 Data for 2009 were preliminary for females overall and not available for unmarried females by age.

Table 7. Birth rates for females 15 to 29 years old by marital status, age group, and race/ethnicity of mother: 

Selected years, 1980 through 2009

Year and 

race/ethnicity

Number of live births

per 1,000 females

Number of live births

per 1,000 unmarried females

Ages 

15–19

Ages

20–24

Ages

25–29

Ages 

15–19

Ages

20–24

Ages

25–29

Total

1980 53.0 115.1 112.9 27.6 40.9 34.0

1990 59.9 116.5 120.2 42.5 65.1 56.0

1995 56.0 107.5 108.8 43.8 68.7 54.3

2000 47.7 109.7 113.5 39.0 72.2 58.5

2005 40.5 102.2 115.5 34.5 74.9 71.1

2006 41.9 105.9 116.7 36.2 79.5 74.9

2007 42.5 106.3 117.5 37.4 80.6 76.9

2008 41.5 103.0 115.1 37.0 79.2 76.1

2009 39.1 96.3 110.5 — — —

White, non-Hispanic

1980 45.41 111.11 113.81 16.51 25.11 21.51

1990 42.5 97.5 115.3 25.0 37.0 36.4

1995 39.3 90.2 105.1 27.7 43.9 34.4

2000 32.6 91.2 109.4 24.7 47.0 36.9

2005 25.9 81.4 109.1 20.9 49.1 45.0

2006 26.6 83.4 109.1 21.6 51.6 47.7

2007 27.2 83.2 108.6 22.6 52.3 49.2

2008 26.7 80.7 106.0 22.4 51.6 49.1

2009 25.6 76.7 102.6 — — —

See notes at end of table.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 19

Table 7. Birth rates for females 15 to 29 years old by marital status, age group, and race/ethnicity of mother: 

Chapter 1 — Demographics

Selected years, 1980 through 2009—Continued

Year and 

race/ethnicity

Number of live births

per 1,000 females

Number of live births

per 1,000 unmarried females

Ages 

15–19

Ages

20–24

Ages

25–29

Ages 

15–19

Ages

20–24

Ages

25–29

Black, non-Hispanic

1980 97.81 140.01 103.91 87.91 112.31 81.41

1990 116.2 165.1 118.4 106.01 144.81 105.31

1995 97.2 137.8 98.5 91.21 124.61 82.31

2000 79.2 145.1 102.8 75.01 129.01 85.91

2005 60.9 126.8 103.0 60.61 120.71 93.81

2006 63.7 133.2 107.1 63.51 126.01 96.91

2007 64.3 133.6 107.5 64.1 126.51 98.31

2008 62.8 130.6 105.7 63.0 125.6 96.3

2009 59.0 123.8 101.9 — — —

Hispanic

1980 — — — — — —

1990 100.3 181.0 153.0 65.9 129.8 131.7

1995 99.3 171.9 140.4 73.2 135.8 122.3

2000 87.3 161.3 139.9 68.5 130.5 121.6

2005 81.7 170.0 149.2 68.0 150.4 153.5

2006 83.0 177.0 152.4 70.6 164.7 163.3

2007 81.8 178.6 155.7 71.0 166.8 167.8

2008 77.5 170.7 152.6 68.8 156.2 62.0

2009 70.1 151.2 145.0 — — —

Asian/Pacific Islander

1980 26.2 93.3 127.4 — — —

1990 26.4 79.2 126.3 — — —

1995 25.5 64.2 103.7 — — —

2000 20.5 60.3 108.4 15.2 24.2 25.4

2005 17.0 61.1 107.9 13.1 29.7 35.1

2006 17.0 63.2 108.4 13.4 31.4 34.5

2007 16.9 65.5 118.0 13.6 33.4 38.5

2008 16.2 64.4 120.1 13.3 33.8 41.6

2009 14.6 57.5 110.5 — — —

America Indian/Alaska Native

1980 82.2 143.7 106.6 — — —

1990 81.1 148.7 110.3 — — —

1995 72.9 123.1 91.6 — — —

2000 58.3 117.2 91.8 — — —

2005 52.7 109.2 93.8 — — —

2006 55.0 115.4 97.8 — — —

2007 59.3 116.8 96.4 — — —

2008 58.4 115.6 94.4 — — —

2009 55.5 109.1 90.8 — — —

— Not available.

1 Includes persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

NOTE: Number of live births per 1,000 females includes births to unmarried females. Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not 

shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity unless noted otherwise. Data for 2009 were preliminary for 

females overall and not available for unmarried females by age. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for 

Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 59, no. 1, Births: Final Data for 2008, released December, 2010 and Vol. 59, no. 3. 

Births: Preliminary Data for 2009, released December 21, 2010.
20 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 7 — Birth Rates and Births to Unmarried Females

In 2008, the latest year for which unmarried birth 

rates were available, the birth rate for unmarried 

teenage females was 37 per 1,000. Between 1980 and 

1995, births to unmarried teenage females increased 

from 28 to 44 births per 1,000 females, and then 

declined to 35 per 1,000 females in 2005. Between 

1980 and 2008, the number of births to unmarried 

women ages 20 to 24 increased from 41 to 79 per 

1,000 women. Similarly, among unmarried women 

ages 25 to 29, the number of births increased between 

1980 and 2008 from 34 to 76 per 1,000 women. 

Figure 7. Birth rates for females 15 to 24 years old, by age group of mother and marital status: Selected years, 

1980 through 2009

NOTE: Overall number of live births per 1,000 females includes births to unmarried females. Data for 2009 were preliminary for females 

overall and not available for unmarried females by age. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 59, no. 1, Births: Final Data for 2008, released December, 2010 and Vol. 59, no. 3. Births: 

Preliminary Data for 2009, released December 21, 2010.
Chapter 2

SCHOOL-RELATED 

CHARACTERISTICS
22 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 8 — School Enrollment

8. School Enrollment

In 2009, nearly all 14- to 15-year-olds (98 percent) 

were enrolled in school; this percentage was equivalent 

to the percentage enrolled in 1980. In addition, about 

95 percent of 16- to 17-year-olds were enrolled in 

school in 2009, representing an increase of over 5 

percentage points from 1980.

For older youth, the current generation is enrolled in 

school at consistently higher rates than previous ones 

were. In 2009, about 69 percent of 18- to 19-yearolds were enrolled in school, compared to 46 percent 

in 1980. For 20- to 21-year-olds, 52 percent were 

enrolled in school in 2009, which represented an 

increase from 31 percent in 1980. For 22- to 24-yearolds, 30 percent were enrolled in school in 2009, an 

increase from 16 percent in 1980. 

In 2009, the percentage of 18- to 19-year-olds 

enrolled in school was higher for females than for 

males (73 vs. 65 percent); in comparison, in 1980, 

there was no measurable difference in the percentage 

of males and females in this age group enrolled 

in school. Among 20- to 21-year-olds in 2009, a 

higher percentage of females were enrolled in school 

than males (55 vs. 49 percent). In contrast, a greater 

percentage of males (33 percent) than females (30 

percent) in that age group were enrolled in school 

in 1980. Similarly, for 22- to 24-year-olds, some 

32 percent of females and 29 percent of males were 

enrolled in school in 2009, a reversal from 1980 when 

a higher percentage of males were enrolled in school 

than females (18 vs. 15 percent). 

Table 8. Percentage of the population 14 to 24 years old enrolled in school, by age group and sex: Selected 

years, fall 1980 through fall 2009

Year and sex Ages 14–15 Ages 16–17 Ages 18–19 Ages 20–21 Ages 22–24

Total

1980 98.2 89.0 46.4 31.0 16.3 

1990 99.0 92.5 57.2 39.7 21.0 

1995 98.9 93.6 59.4 44.9 23.2 

2000 98.7 92.8 61.2 44.1 24.6 

2005 98.0 95.1 67.6 48.7 27.3 

2006 98.3 94.6 65.5 47.5 26.7 

2007 98.7 94.3 66.8 48.4 27.3 

2008 98.6 95.2 66.0 50.1 28.2 

2009 98.0 94.6 68.9 51.7 30.4 

Males

1980 98.7 89.1 47.0 32.6 17.8 

1990 99.1 92.6 58.2 40.3 22.3 

1995 99.0 94.5 59.5 44.7 22.8 

2000 98.7 92.7 58.3 41.0 23.9 

2005 97.5 95.1 66.5 45.3 25.2 

2006 98.2 94.1 63.6 44.0 25.0 

2007 98.4 94.4 66.3 43.7 25.4 

2008 99.0 94.9 64.0 47.4 26.3 

2009 97.6 94.5 65.0 48.7 29.0 

Females

1980 97.7 88.8 45.8 29.5 14.9 

1990 98.9 92.4 56.3 39.2 19.9 

1995 98.8 92.6 59.2 45.1 23.6 

2000 98.6 92.9 64.2 47.3 25.3 

2005 98.4 95.1 68.8 52.3 29.2 

2006 98.4 95.0 67.4 51.1 28.5 

2007 99.0 94.1 67.2 53.3 29.2 

2008 98.2 95.4 68.1 53.0 30.1 

2009 98.5 94.7 72.9 54.9 31.8 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1980–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 23

Figure 8. Percentage of the population 18 to 24 years old enrolled in school, by sex and age group: Selected 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

years, 1980 through 2009

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1980–2009.
24 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 9 — High School Enrollment

9. High School Enrollment

In 1980, there were approximately 14.6 million 

students enrolled in high school (grades 9–12) in 

the United States. Of that number, about 13.2 

million were in public schools and 1.3 million were 

in private schools. By 1990, the total number of 

high school students had decreased to 12.5 million. 

Since that time, however, high school enrollment 

has increased, reaching 16.4 million in 2008. It is 

projected that between 2009 and 2012, overall high 

school enrollment will decrease to 15.7 million and 

then increase again, to 16.3 million by 2020. It is 

projected that public school enrollment will increase 

between 2012 and 2020 from 14.5 to 15.2 million 

students, while private school enrollment is projected 

to decrease from 1.2 to 1.1 million students in this 

time period.

Table 9. Actual and projected numbers for enrollment in grades 9–12, by control of school: Selected years, fall 

1980 through fall 2020

[In thousands]

Year Total Public Private

Actual

1980 14,570 13,231 1,339

1985 13,750 12,388 1,362

1990 12,472 11,338 1,134

1995 13,699 12,502 1,197

20001 14,809 13,517 1,292

2001 15,063 13,736 1,327

20021 15,404 14,069 1,335

2003 15,678 14,339 1,338

20041 15,974 14,618 1,356

2005 16,283 14,909 1,374

20061 16,469 15,081 1,388

2007 16,481 15,087 1,394

20081 16,352 14,980 1,373

Projected

2009 16,179 14,842 1,337

2010 15,975 14,668 1,306

2011 15,797 14,530 1,266

2012 15,742 14,512 1,229

2013 15,739 14,545 1,194

2014 15,849 14,689 1,160

2015 15,964 14,830 1,134

2016 15,980 14,877 1,103

2017 16,015 14,939 1,077

2018 16,060 15,000 1,060

2019 16,135 15,083 1,052

2020 16,278 15,222 1,056

1 Since the biennial Private School Universe Survey (PSS) is collected in the fall of odd-numbered years, private school numbers for 

alternate years are estimated based on data from the PSS.

NOTE: Some data have been revised from previously published figures. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “State Nonfiscal Survey 

of Public Elementary/Secondary Education,” 1995–96 through 2008–09; Private School Universe Survey (PSS), selected school years, 

1995–96 through 2009–10; and National Elementary and Secondary Enrollment Model, 1972–2008. 
America’s Youth:Transitions to Adulthood 25 

Figure 9.	 Actual and projected numbers for total enrollment in grades 9–12, by control of school: Selected 


years, fall 1980 through fall 2020
 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics 

Number (in millions)
 

18
 

Projected 

16
 

14
 

Private 

12
 

10
 

8
 Public 

6
 

4
 

2
 

0
 

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020


Year
 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD),“State Nonfiscal Survey 

of Public Elementary/Secondary Education,” 1995–96 through 2008–09; Private School Universe Survey (PSS), selected school years, 

1995–96 through 2009–10; and National Elementary and Secondary Enrollment Model, 1972–2008. 
26 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 10 — High School Mathematics and Science Coursetaking 

10. High School Mathematics and Science Coursetaking 

This indicator examines the percentage of high school 

graduates who completed selected mathematics and 

science courses. These data only report the percentage 

of graduates who earned credit in each course while in 

high school (grades 9–12) and do not count graduates 

who took these courses prior to entering high school.

In 2009, close to 100 percent of high school graduates 

had taken a mathematics course during high school. 

Some 69 percent of high school graduates had taken 

algebra I in 2009 compared with 55 percent in 1982. 

Eighty-eight percent of high school graduates in 

2009 had taken geometry, which was an increase of 

41 percentage points from 1982, when 47 percent of 

high school graduates had taken the course. Similarly, 

between 1982 and 2009, there was an increase of 36 

percentage points in the percentage of graduates who 

had taken algebra II (from 40 to 76 percent) and of 

29 percentage points in the percentage of graduates 

who had taken analysis/precalculus (from 6 to 35 

percent). Higher percentages of graduates also had 

taken statistics/probability, calculus, and AP calculus 

in 2009 (11, 16, and 11 percent, respectively) than 

in 1982 (1, 5, and 2 percent, respectively). 

As with mathematics, nearly 100 percent of high 

school graduates in 2009 had taken a science course. 

Ninety-six percent of high school graduates in 2009 

had completed biology, compared to 77 percent 

in 1982. In 2009, some 70 percent of high school 

graduates had taken chemistry, an increase of 38 

percentage points from 1982, when 32 percent had 

taken it. Similarly, 36 percent of high school graduates 

in 2009 had taken physics, compared with 15 percent 

in 1982, and 28 percent had taken geology/earth 

science, compared with 14 percent in 1982. The 

percentages of high school graduates in 2009 who had 

taken AP/honors biology, AP/honors chemistry, and 

AP/honors physics (22, 6, and 6 percent, respectively) 

were higher than the corresponding percentages in 

1982 (10, 3, and 1 percent, respectively).

Table 10. Percentage of public and private high school graduates taking selected mathematics and science 

courses in high school: Selected years, 1982 through 2009

Course 

(Carnegie units) 1982 1987 1990 1994 1998 2000 2005 2009

Mathematics

Any mathematics (1.0) 98.5 98.9 99.9 99.8 99.8 99.8 99.9 100.0

Algebra I (1.0) 55.2 58.8 63.7 65.8 62.8 61.7 62.8 68.9

Geometry (1.0) 47.1 58.6 63.2 70.0 75.1 78.3 83.3 88.3

Algebra II (0.5) 39.9 49.0 52.9 61.1 61.7 67.8 70.3 75.5

Trigonometry (0.5) 8.1 11.5 9.6 11.7 8.9 7.5 8.3 6.1

Analysis/precalculus (0.5) 6.2 12.8 13.3 17.3 23.1 26.7 29.5 35.3

Statistics/probability (0.5) 1.0 1.1 1.0 2.0 3.7 5.7 7.7 10.8

Calculus (1.0)1 5.0 6.1 6.5 9.3 11.0 11.6 13.6 15.9

AP calculus (1.0) 1.6 3.4 4.1 7.0 6.7 7.9 9.2 11.0

Science

Any science (1.0) 96.4 97.8 99.3 99.5 99.5 99.5 99.6 99.9

Biology (1.0)1 77.4 86.1 90.9 93.2 92.7 91.2 92.3 95.6

AP/honors biology (1.0) 10.0 9.4 10.1 11.9 16.2 16.3 16.0 22.4

Chemistry (1.0)1 32.1 44.2 48.9 55.8 60.4 62.0 66.2 70.4

AP/honors chemistry (1.0) 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.9 4.7 5.8 7.6 5.9

Physics (1.0)1 15.0 20.0 21.5 24.5 28.8 31.4 32.7 36.1

AP/honors physics (1.0) 1.2 1.8 2.0 2.7 3.0 3.9 5.3 5.7

Geology/earth science (0.5) 13.6 13.4 24.7 22.9 20.7 17.4 24.7 27.7

Biology and chemistry (2.0)2 29.3 41.4 47.5 53.7 59.0 59.4 64.3 68.3

Biology, chemistry, and physics (3.0)3 11.2 16.5 18.8 21.4 25.4 25.1 27.3 30.1

1 Students who took an AP course are included in the general category for the corresponding course. 

2 At least one credit each in biology and chemistry.

3 At least one credit each in biology, chemistry, and physics.

NOTE: These data only report the percentage of students who earned the indicated credit (0.5 = one semester; 1.0 = one academic 

year) for each course while in high school. The Carnegie unit is a standard of measurement that represents one credit for the 

completion of a 1-year course. For a transcript to be included in the analyses, it had to meet three requirements: (1) the graduate 

graduated with either a standard or honors diploma, (2) the graduate’s transcript contained 16 or more Carnegie credits, and (3) the 

graduate’s transcript contained more than 0 Carnegie credits in English courses. An exception to this is that the 2005 initial release 

report contains an analysis of graduates with disabilities that included those graduates receiving special education diplomas and 

certificates of attendance in addition to those receiving honors or standard diplomas. Data differ slightly from figures appearing in 

other NCES reports because of differences in taxonomies and case exclusion criteria. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 

Sophomores (HS&B-So:80/82), “High School Transcript Study”; and High School Transcript Study (HSTS), selected years, 1987–2009. 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 27

Figure 10a. Percentage of public and private high school graduates taking selected mathematics courses: 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

1982 and 2009

1 Students who took an AP course are included in the general category for the corresponding course. 

NOTE: These data only report the percentage of students who earned credit for each course while in high school. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 1982 and 2009.

Figure 10b. Percentage of public and private high school graduates taking selected science courses: 1982 

and 2009

1 Students who took an AP course are included in the general category for the corresponding course.

NOTE: These data only report the percentage of students who earned credit for each course while in high school. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 1982 and 2009.
28 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 11 — Advanced Placement (AP) Participation

11. Advanced Placement (AP) Participation

In the 2009–10 school year, a total of 16,699 U.S. 

high schools offered Advanced Placement (AP) courses 

designed to prepare students for corresponding AP 

exams (The College Board 2011). AP exams provide 

an opportunity for students who receive scores above 

a minimum threshold to fulfill college requirements 

and complete their college coursework in a shorter 

time frame. Thirty-three AP exams were offered in 

2010; schools that offered the AP program offered 

an average of 10 different AP courses (The College 

Board 2011). 

In 2009–10, over 1.8 million students in the United 

States took at least one AP exam, a number that 

increased from 0.6 million students in 1996–97. The 

number of AP exams administered also increased, 

from 0.9 million in 1996–97 to over 3.1 million 

in 2009–10. In 1996–97, about 55 percent of the 

students who took an AP exam were female. This 

pattern has held over time, as 56 percent of the test 

takers in 2009–10 were female.

AP examinations are scored on a scale from 1 to 

5, with a 5 being the highest. The College Board 

considers a student to have been “successful” on an 

exam if he or she receives a 3 or higher. In 2009–10, 

the mean score across all exams was 2.84 (The College 

Board 2011), with 58 percent of all test scores being 

a 3 or higher. A greater percentage of exams taken 

by males (61 percent) than by females (54 percent) 

received a 3 or higher. Both of these rates decreased 

from 1996–97, when 67 percent of exams taken 

by males and 62 percent of exams taken by females 

scored a 3 or above.

Table 11. Advanced Placement examinations, student performance, and participation, by sex: Selected school 

years, 1996–97 through 2009–10

School year

Total

examination

Percentage of all 

exams scoring

a 3 or above

Student participation

Total Male Female

Total Male Female Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

1996–97 899,463 64.5 67.0 62.2 566,720 100.0 253,269 44.7 313,451 55.3

1997–98 991,952 64.1 66.9 61.7 618,257 100.0 275,160 44.5 343,097 55.5

1998–99 1,122,414 63.5 66.6 60.9 685,981 100.0 305,501 44.5 380,480 55.5

1999–00 1,242,324 63.7 66.7 61.0 747,922 100.0 332,731 44.5 415,191 55.5

2000–01 1,380,146 61.3 64.8 58.3 820,880 100.0 363,793 44.3 457,087 55.7

2001–02 1,548,999 63.1 66.4 60.4 913,251 100.0 402,565 44.1 510,686 55.9

2002–03 1,705,207 61.5 65.0 58.6 998,329 100.0 438,935 44.0 559,394 56.0

2003–04 1,852,700 61.3 64.7 58.8 1,081,102 100.0 473,296 43.8 607,806 56.2

2004–05 2,065,045 59.4 63.0 56.4 1,197,439 100.0 520,795 43.5 676,644 56.5

2005–06 2,266,038 59.4 63.2 56.3 1,312,523 100.0 571,387 43.5 741,136 56.5

2006–07 2,476,962 59.0 62.5 56.1 1,432,169 100.0 623,663 43.5 808,506 56.5

2007–08 2,674,296 57.4 61.1 54.3 1,546,020 100.0 674,299 43.6 871,721 56.4

2008–09 2,860,912 58.5 62.4 55.2 1,653,962 100.0 724,627 43.8 929,335 56.2

2009–10 3,134,686 57.5 61.2 54.5 1,802,144 100.0 792,448 44.0 1,009,696 56.0

NOTE: The grades for all AP examinations range from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest score.

SOURCE: The College Board, AP Program National Summary Reports, 1997–2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 29

Figure 11a. Advanced Placement student participation, by sex: School years 1996–97 through 2009–10

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

SOURCE: The College Board, AP Program National Summary Reports, 1997–2010.

Figure 11b. Percent of Advanced Placement exams scoring a 3 or above, by sex: School years 1996–97 and 

2009–10

NOTE: The grades for all AP examinations range from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest score.

SOURCE: The College Board, AP Program National Summary Reports, 1997 and 2010.
30 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 12 — Reading and Mathematics Proficiency of 13- and 17-Year-Olds

12. Reading and Mathematics Proficiency of 13- and 17-Year-Olds

The long-term trend National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP) has provided 

information on the achievement of 13- and 17-yearolds in the United States every 2 to 5 years since 1971 

for reading and 1973 for mathematics.5

 The content 

of these assessments is designed to measure the same 

knowledge and skills to allow for comparisons over 

a long period of time.

Between 1980 and 2008, there was no significant 

change in the overall reading scores of 13-year-olds, 

nor was there a measurable difference between the 

overall reading scores in 2004 and 2008. In 2008, 

female 13-year-olds had higher reading scores than 

their male counterparts (264 vs. 256). Also, in 2008, 

Asian/Pacific Islander 13-year-olds had higher reading 

scores (278) than their White (268), American 

Indian/Alaska Native (250), Black (247), and 

Hispanic (242) counterparts. White, Black, Hispanic, 

and Asian/Pacific Islander 13-year-olds had higher 

average reading scores in 2008 than in 1980. In terms 

of parents’ educational level, those 13-year-olds in 

2008 whose parents had at least a college degree had 

higher reading scores (270) than those whose parents 

had attended, but not graduated from college (265); 

those whose parents had graduated from high school 

(251); and those whose parents had not graduated 

from high school (239).6

5

 Although both the long-term trend NAEP and the main NAEP assess mathematics and reading, there are important differences 

in the content assessed, how often the assessments are administered, and how the results are reported. These and other differences 

mean that results from long-term trend and main NAEP cannot be compared directly. Main NAEP assessments change about every 

decade to reflect changes in curriculum in the nation’s schools; new frameworks reflect these changes, while the long-term trend 

NAEP has remained relatively unchanged since its first administration.

6

 Parents’ education level refers to the highest education level attained by either parent.

Figure 12a. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading scores, by age and race/ethnicity: 

Selected years, 1980 through 2008

NOTE: For most years, reporting standards were not met for showing American Indian/Alaska Native scores. Race categories exclude 

persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The NAEP Long-Term Trend Reading scale ranges from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between 

estimates may not be statistically significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), 

selected years, 1980–2008 Long-Term Trend Reading Assessments, NAEP Data Explorer.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 31Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

There was also no significant overall change in the 

reading scores of 17-year-olds between 1980 and 

2008, nor was there a measurable difference between 

the overall reading scores in 2004 and 2008. Again, in 

2008, female 17-year-olds had higher reading scores 

(291) than males (280). In 2008, White and Asian/

Pacific Islander 17-year-olds had higher reading scores 

(295 each) than their American Indian/Alaska Native 

(281), Hispanic (269), and Black (266) counterparts. 

Among 17-year-olds, Black, Hispanic, and Asian/

Pacific Islander students had higher average reading 

scores in 2008 than in 1980. The 2008 reading scores 

of 17-year-olds whose parents had graduated from 

college (298) were higher than the scores of those 

whose parents had attended, but not graduated from 

college (288); those whose parents had graduated 

from high school (274); and those whose parents had 

not graduated from high school (266).

Table 12a. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading scores, by age, sex, race/ethnicity, and 

highest level of parental education: Selected years, 1980 through 2008

Sex, race/ethnicity, and 

highest level of parental education 1980 1984 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999 2004 2008

13-year-olds

Total 258 257 257 257 260 258 258 259 259 260

Sex

Male 254 253 252 251 254 251 251 254 254 256

Female 263 262 263 263 265 266 264 265 264 264

Race/ethnicity

White 264 263 261 262 266 265 266 267 266 268

Black 233 236 243 241 238 234 234 238 243 247

Hispanic 237 240 240 238 239 235 238 244 242 242

Asian/Pacific Islander 269 264 273 254 270 258 254 258 269 278

American Indian/Alaska Native 238 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 250

Highest level of parental education

Less than high school 239 240 246 241 239 237 239 238 240 239

Graduated high school 253 253 253 251 262 251 251 251 251 251

Some college 268 266 265 267 265 266 268 269 264 265

College graduate 273 268 265 267 271 269 269 270 270 270

17-year-olds

Total 285 289 290 290 290 288 288 288 285 286

Sex

Male 282 284 286 284 284 282 281 281 278 280

Female 289 294 294 296 296 295 295 295 292 291

Race/ethnicity

White 293 295 295 297 297 296 295 295 293 295

Black 243 264 274 267 261 266 266 264 264 266

Hispanic 261 268 271 275 271 263 265 271 264 269

Asian/Pacific Islander 284 284 289 291 289 288 284 290 287 295

American Indian/Alaska Native ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 281

Highest level of parental education

Less than high school 262 269 267 270 271 268 267 265 259 266

Graduated high school 277 281 282 283 280 276 273 274 274 274

Some college 295 298 299 295 293 294 295 295 286 288

College graduate 301 302 300 302 301 300 299 298 298 298

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater.

NOTE: Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The 

NAEP Long-Term Trend Reading scale ranges from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically 

significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), 

selected years, 1980–2008 Long-Term Trend Reading Assessments, NAEP Data Explorer.
32 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 12 — Reading and Mathematics Proficiency of 13- and 17-Year-Olds

Between 1982 and 2008, the mathematics scores 

of 13-year-olds increased by 12 points, from 269 

to 281, but there was no measurable difference 

between 2004 and 2008. In 2008, male 13-year-olds 

had higher mathematics scores than their female 

counterparts (284 vs. 279). Also, in 2008, Asian/

Pacific Islander 13-year-olds had higher mathematics 

scores (304) than their White (290), American 

Indian/Alaska Native (274), Hispanic (268), and 

Black (262) counterparts. These average mathematics 

scores represented an increase for White, Black, 

Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander 13-year-olds 

over their average scores in 1982. In terms of parents’ 

educational level, those 13-year-olds in 2008 whose 

parents had graduated from college had higher 

mathematics scores (291) than those whose parents 

had attended, but not graduated from college (285); 

those whose parents had graduated from high school 

(272); and those whose parents had not graduated 

from high school (268).

The mathematics scores of 17-year-olds increased by 

8 points between 1982 and 2008, from 298 to 306, 

but there was no measurable difference between 2004 

and 2008. Again, in 2008, male 17-year-olds had 

higher mathematics scores than did females (309 vs. 

303). In 2008, Asian/Pacific Islander 17-year-olds 

had higher mathematics scores (321) than their 

White (314), American Indian/Alaska Native (305), 

Hispanic (293), and Black (287) counterparts. The 

average mathematics scores for 17-year-olds increased 

between 1982 and 2008 for Whites, Hispanics, and 

Asians/Pacific Islanders. The average mathematics 

score for Black 17-year-olds was higher in 2008 than 

it was in 1982, although there was no linear trend 

over the time period. The 2008 mathematics scores 

of 17-year-olds whose parents had graduated from 

college (316) were higher than the scores of those 

whose parents had attended, but not graduated from 

college (306); those whose parents had graduated 

from high school (296); and those whose parents had 

not graduated from high school (292).

Figure 12b. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics scores, by age and race/

ethnicity: Selected years, 1982 through 2008

NOTE: For most years, reporting standards were not met for showing American Indian/Alaska Native scores. Race categories exclude 

persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The NAEP Long-Term Trend Mathematics scale ranges from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between 

estimates may not be statistically significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), 

selected years, 1982–2008 Long-Term Trend Mathematics Assessments, NAEP Data Explorer.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 33

Table 12b. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics scores, by age, sex, race/

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

ethnicity, and highest level of parental education: Selected years, 1982 through 2008

Sex, race/ethnicity, and 

highest level of parental education 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999 2004 2008

13-year-olds

Total 269 269 270 273 274 274 276 281 281

Sex

Male 269 270 271 274 276 276 277 283 284

Female 268 268 270 272 273 272 274 279 279

Race/ethnicity

White 274 274 276 279 281 281 283 289 290

Black 240 249 249 250 252 252 251 261 262

Hispanic 252 254 255 259 256 256 259 264 268

Asian/Pacific Islander 280 290 274 286 286 282 286 299 304

American Indian/Alaska Native 257 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 274

Highest level of parental education

Less than high school 251 252 253 256 255 254 256 262 268

Graduated high school 263 263 263 263 266 267 264 271 272

Some college 275 274 277 278 277 277 279 283 285

College graduate 282 280 280 283 285 283 286 292 291

17-year-olds

Total 298 302 305 307 306 307 308 307 306

Sex

Male 301 305 306 309 309 310 310 308 309

Female 296 299 303 305 304 305 307 305 303

Race/ethnicity

White 304 308 309 312 312 313 315 313 314

Black 272 279 289 286 286 286 283 286 287

Hispanic 277 283 284 292 291 292 293 289 293

Asian/Pacific Islander 313 316 311 320 317 313 320 320 321

American Indian/Alaska Native 297 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 305

Highest level of parental education

Less than high school 279 279 285 285 284 281 289 287 292

Graduated high school 293 293 294 298 295 297 299 295 296

Some college 304 305 308 308 305 307 308 306 306

College graduate 312 314 316 316 318 317 317 317 316

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater.

NOTE: Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The NAEP 

Long-Term Trend Mathematics scale ranges from 0 to 500. Some apparent differences between estimates may not be statistically 

significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), 

selected years, 1982–2008 Long-Term Trend Mathematics Assessments, NAEP Data Explorer.
34 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 13 — International Reading, Mathematics, and Science Achievement

13. International Reading, Mathematics, and Science Achievement

The Program for International Student Assessment 

(PISA) is a system of international assessments 

that focus on 15-year-olds’ capabilities in reading 

literacy, mathematics literacy, and science literacy. 

PISA also includes measures of general or crosscurricular competencies, such as learning strategies. 

PISA emphasizes functional skills that students have 

acquired as they near the end of mandatory schooling. 

Sponsored by the Organization for Economic 

Co-operation and Development (OECD), an 

intergovernmental body of industrialized countries, 

PISA began in 2000 and is administered every 3 years. 

The average reading score of U.S. 15-year-olds 

(500) was not measurably different from the OECD 

average (493) in 2009. Students in the United States 

had reading scores that were lower than those in 6 

OECD countries, not measurably different than 

those in 14 OECD countries, and higher than those 

in 13 OECD countries. In the United States, Asian 

(541) and White (525) students scored higher than 

students of two or more races (502), Hispanic (466) 

and Black (441) students. 

In 2009, the average mathematics score of U.S. 

15-year-olds was 487, which was lower than the 

OECD average of 496. Seventeen of the other 33 

OECD countries scored higher than the United States 

in mathematics, 5 countries scored lower, and 11 had 

scores that were not measurably different. Within 

the United States, the average mathematics scores of 

Asian (524) and White (515) students were higher 

than the average scores of students of two or more 

races (487), Hispanic (453) and Black (423) students.

In contrast to mathematics, the average science 

score in 2009 of U.S. 15-year-olds (502) was not 

measurably different from the OECD average (501). 

In science, 12 of the other 33 OECD countries scored 

higher than the United States, 9 scored lower, and 12 

had scores that were not measurably different. In the 

United States, Asian (536) and White (532) students 

scored higher than students of two or more races 

(503), Hispanics (464), and Blacks (435).
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 35

Figure 13. Average scale scores among 15-year-olds on the Program for International Student Assessment 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

(PISA) reading, mathematics, and science literacy assessments, by race/ethnicity in the United 

States: 2009

1 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: The scale range for the PISA assessment is from 0 to 1,000. The scale was designed to have an average score of 500 points, with 

approximately two-thirds of students achieving between 400 and 600 points. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 2009.

 
36 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 13 — International Reading, Mathematics, and Science Achievement

Table 13. Average scale scores among 15-year-olds on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 

reading, mathematics, and science literacy assessments, by participating country and race/ethnicity 

in the United States: 2009

Reading Mathematics Science

Country and

race/ethnicity

Average 

score

Country and

race/ethnicity

Average 

score

Country and

race/ethnicity

Average 

score

OECD average 493 OECD average 496 OECD average 501

 

United States1 500 United States1 487 United States1 502

White 525 White 515 White 532

Black 441 Black 423 Black 435

Hispanic 466 Hispanic 453 Hispanic 464

Asian 541 Asian 524 Asian 536

Two or more races 502 Two or more races 487 Two or more races 503

Countries whose score 

was higher than the 

U.S. score

Countries whose score 

was higher than the 

U.S. score

Countries whose score 

was higher than the 

U.S. score

Korea, Republic of 539 Korea, Republic of 546 Finland 554

Finland 536 Finland 541 Japan 539

Canada 524 Switzerland 534 Korea, Republic of 538

New Zealand 521 Japan 529 New Zealand 532

Japan 520 Canada 527 Canada 529

Australia 515 Netherlands 526 Estonia 528

New Zealand 519 Australia 527

Belgium 515 Netherlands 522

Australia 514 Germany 520

Germany 513 Switzerland 517

Estonia 512 United Kingdom 514

Iceland 507 Slovenia 512

Denmark 503

Slovenia 501

Norway 498

France 497

Slovak Republic 497

See notes at end of table.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 37

Table 13. Average scale scores among 15-year-olds on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

reading, mathematics, and science literacy assessments, by participating country and race/ethnicity 

in the United States: 2009—Continued

Reading Mathematics Science

Country and

race/ethnicity

Average 

score

Country and

race/ethnicity

Average 

score

Country and

race/ethnicity

Average 

score

OECD average 493 OECD average 496 OECD average 501

Countries whose score 

was not measurably 

different from the U.S. 

score

Countries whose score 

was not measurably 

different from the U.S. 

score

Countries whose score 

was not measurably 

different from the U.S. 

score

Netherlands 508 Austria 496 Poland 508

Belgium 506 Poland 495 Ireland 508

Norway 503 Sweden 494 Belgium 507

Estonia 501 Czech Republic 493 Hungary 503

Switzerland 501 United Kingdom 492 Czech Republic 500

Poland 500 Hungary 490 Norway 500

Iceland 500 Luxembourg 489 Denmark 499

Sweden 497 Ireland 487 France 498

Germany 497 Portugal 487 Iceland 496

Ireland 496 Spain 483 Sweden 495

France 496 Italy 483 Austria 494

Denmark 495 Portugal 493

United Kingdom 494

Hungary 494

Countries whose score 

was lower than the

U.S. score

Countries whose score 

was lower than the

U.S. score

Countries whose score 

was lower than the

U.S. score

Portugal 489 Greece 466 Slovak Republic 490

Italy 486 Israel 447 Italy 489

Slovenia 483 Turkey 445 Spain 488

Greece 483 Chile 421 Luxembourg 484

Spain 481 Mexico 419 Greece 470

Czech Republic 478 Israel 455

Slovak Republic 477 Turkey 454

Israel 474 Chile 447

Luxembourg 472 Mexico 416

Austria 470

Turkey 464

Chile 449

Mexico 425

1 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: The scale range for the PISA assessment is from 0 to 1,000. The scale was designed to have an average score of 500 points, with 

approximately two-thirds of students achieving between 400 and 600 points. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 2009.
38 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 14 — Suspensions and Expulsions of High School Students

14. Suspensions and Expulsions of High School Students

High school students may be suspended (temporarily 

removed from regular school activities either in or out 

of school) or expelled (permanently removed from 

school with no services) due to behavior problems. 

In 2007, about one-fourth of public school students 

in grades 9 through 12 had ever been suspended and 

3 percent had ever been expelled. 

Differences in rates of suspension were found by 

sex and race/ethnicity. For instance, in 2007, male 

high school students had been suspended at a rate 

that was about twice as high as that of their female 

peers (32 vs. 17 percent). In addition, about half (49 

percent) of Black high school students had ever been 

suspended, a greater percentage than that of Hispanic 

(26 percent), White (18 percent), and Asian/Pacific 

Islander (13 percent) students and students of two 

or more races (29 percent). Differences in suspension 

rates between males and females were also found by 

race/ethnicity. Among Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics, 

a greater percentage of males than females in 2007 

had ever been suspended. 

The overall suspension rate in 2007 was not 

measurably different from that in 1999, but 

differences were found for Black males. A greater 

percentage of Black males had been suspended in 

2007 than in 1999 (57 vs. 41 percent).

Some similar patterns were found for expulsion rates 

by sex and race/ethnicity. In 2007, male high school 

students had been expelled at a rate that was twice 

as high as that of their female peers (4 vs. 2 percent). 

Also, a greater percentage of Black students (10 

percent) had been expelled than had White students 

(1 percent). When looking at expulsion rates over 

time, no measurable differences were found between 

1999 and 2007; however, the rate of expulsion for 

White males was lower in 2007 than in 2003 (2 vs. 

5 percent). 

Table 14. Percentage of public school students in 9th through 12th grade who had ever been suspended or 

expelled, by sex and race/ethnicity: 1999, 2003, and 2007

Race/ethnicity

1999 2003 2007

Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

Suspended

Total1 22.0 28.5 15.4 20.4 25.5 14.9 24.5 31.7 16.9

White 18.2 25.3 10.7 18.1 24.7 11.2 17.7 24.1 11.6

Black 37.0 40.9 33.6 30.2 33.1 27.2 49.0 57.0 38.5

Hispanic 22.7 30.1 14.1 21.9 25.4 17.9 26.5 35.5 17.3

Asian/Pacific Islander 18.4 28.1 ‡ 11.6! 17.6! ‡ 12.8! ‡ 19.4!

American Indian/Alaska Native 36.3 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 29.1 32.8 23.2!

Expelled

Total1 3.0 4.1 1.9 3.9 5.3 2.4 3.2 4.4 1.9!

White 1.8 2.8 0.8! 3.2 4.9 1.3! 1.1 1.6 0.7!

Black 6.5 8.3 4.9! 8.5 9.6 7.4 10.3 14.6! 4.6!

Hispanic 4.5! 6.0! ‡ 3.6 4.9 2.2! 4.1! 3.4! ‡

Asian/Pacific Islander ‡ ‡ ‡ # # # ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska Native ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of 

the National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES), 1999, 2003, and 2007.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 39

Figure 14. Percentage of public school students in 9th through 12th grade who had ever been suspended, by 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

sex and race/ethnicity: 2007

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or 

greater.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of 

the National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES), 2007.
40 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 15 — High School Status Dropout Rates

15. High School Status Dropout Rates

A higher percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who did 

not finish high school were unemployed and earned 

less than high school graduates when employed in 

2009 (Aud, Fox, and KewalRamani 2010). Status 

dropout rates represent the percentage of civilian, 

noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds who are 

not in high school and who have not earned a 

high school credential. The status dropout rate 

includes all dropouts (regardless of when they last 

attended school), as well as individuals who may 

have never attended school in the United States, 

such as immigrants who did not complete a high 

school diploma in their home country. In 2009, the 

status dropout rate for Hispanics (18 percent) was 

higher than the rate for Blacks (9 percent), Whites 

(5 percent), and Asians/Pacific Islanders (3 percent). 

Males ages 16 to 24 had higher status dropout rates 

than females overall and, specifically, among Whites 

and Blacks in the same age group. 

Between 1990 and 2009, the percentage of 16- to 

24-year-olds who were status dropouts decreased 

from 12 to 8 percent. The status dropout rate also 

decreased between 1990 and 2009 for Whites, Blacks, 

and Hispanics, as well as for White and Hispanic 

males and White, Black, and Hispanic females. 

(The status dropout rate for Black males decreased 

between 2000 and 2009.) Status dropout rates also 

declined between 1990 and 2009 for both males (12 

to 9 percent) and females (12 to 7 percent). Between 

1990 and 2009, the gap between the status dropout 

rates of Hispanics and Whites narrowed, while the 

gap between the status dropout rates of Whites and 

Blacks did not measurably change over this period. 

Figure 15. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: Selected 

years, 1990 through 2009

NOTE: Some data for Asians/Pacific Islanders and American Indians/Alaska Natives should be interpreted with caution (see table 15). 

The data presented here represent status dropout rates, which is the percentage of civilian, noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds 

who are not in high school and who have not earned a high school credential (either a diploma or equivalency credential such as 

a General Educational Development [GED] certificate). The status dropout rate includes all dropouts (regardless of when they last 

attended school), as well as individuals who may have never attended school in the United States, such as immigrants who did not 

complete a high school diploma in their home country. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1990–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 41

Table 15. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity and sex: 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

Selected years, 1990 through 2009

Year and sex Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/Pacific 

Islander

America Indian/

Alaska Native

Total

1990 12.1 9.0 13.4 32.4 4.9! 16.4!

1995 12.0 8.6 12.1 30.0 3.9 13.4!

2000 10.9 6.9 13.1 27.8 3.8 14.0

2001 10.7 7.3 10.9 27.0 3.6 13.1

2002 10.5 6.5 11.3 25.7 3.9 16.8

2003 9.91 6.3 10.9 23.5 3.9 15.0

2004 10.31 6.8 11.8 23.8 3.6 17.0

2005 9.41 6.0 10.4 22.4 2.9 14.0

2006 9.31 5.8 10.7 22.1 3.6 14.7

2007 8.71 5.3 8.4 21.4 6.1 19.3

2008 8.01 4.8 9.9 18.3 4.4 14.6

2009 8.11 5.2 9.3 17.6 3.4 13.2

Males

1990 12.3 9.3 12.0 34.3 ‡ 11.4!

1995 12.2 9.0 11.1 30.0 3.2! 14.7!

2000 12.0 7.0 15.3 31.8 4.9 10.9!

2001 12.2 7.9 13.0 31.6 5.4 10.3!

2002 11.8 6.7 12.8 29.6 4.9 21.4

2003 11.31 7.1 12.5 26.7 5.5 17.4!

2004 11.61 7.1 13.5 28.5 2.2! 12.6!

2005 10.81 6.6 12.0 26.4 2.8! 16.6

2006 10.51 6.4 9.7 25.7 4.7 16.8!

2007 9.81 6.0 8.0 24.7 5.8 21.4

2008 8.51 5.4 8.7 19.9 3.9 18.6

2009 9.11 6.3 10.6 19.0 3.3 12.3!

Females

1990 11.8 8.7 14.6 30.3 7.2 20.3

1995 11.7 8.2 12.9 30.0 4.6! 12.1!

2000 9.9 6.9 11.1 23.5 2.6! 17.8!

2001 9.3 6.7 9.0 22.1 1.6! 14.9

2002 9.2 6.3 9.9 21.2 2.8! 12.7

2003 8.41 5.6 9.5 20.1 2.3! 12.7!

2004 9.01 6.4 10.2 18.5 4.9 21.7

2005 8.01 5.3 9.0 18.1 3.0! 11.3!

2006 8.51 5.3 11.7 18.1 2.5! 12.1!

2007 7.71 4.5 8.8 18.0 6.4 17.6

2008 7.51 4.2 11.1 16.7 4.9 11.6!

2009 7.01 4.1 8.1 16.1 3.4 14.1!

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater. 

1 For 2003 through 2009, totals include other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates, which is the percentage of civilian, noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-yearolds who are not in high school and who have not earned a high school credential (either a diploma or equivalency credential 

such as a General Educational Development [GED] certificate). The status dropout rate includes all dropouts (regardless of when 

they last attended school), as well as individuals who may have never attended school in the United States, such as immigrants who 

did not complete a high school diploma in their home country. Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race 

categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1990–2009.
42 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 15 — High School Status Dropout Rates

SNAPSHOT

Dropout Rates for Institutionalized and Noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-Year-Olds

The American Community Survey allows for 

comparisons of status dropout rates for 16- through 

24-year-olds residing in households, as well as those 

in noninstitutionalized and institutionalized group 

quarters. Institutionalized group quarters include 

adult and juvenile correctional facilities, nursing 

facilities, and other health care facilities. In 2009, 

the status dropout rate among 16- to 24-year-olds 

living in institutionalized group quarters was more 

than four times the rate among 16- to 24-year-olds 

living in noninstitutionalized households or group 

quarters, such as college or military housing (40 vs. 

8 percent).7

 In that year, institutionalized 16- to 

24-year-olds had higher status dropout rates than 

noninstitutionalized youth and young adults in the 

same age group for all races and ethnicities. 

Among 16- to 24-year-olds in the institutionalized 

population in 2009, the percentages of Hispanics 

and Blacks who were status dropouts (47 and 

44 percent, respectively) were greater than the 

percentage of Whites (31 percent) who were status 

dropouts. While not measurably different from 

the rates for other races/ethnicities, approximately 

45 percent of Asians and 41 percent of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives who lived in institutionalized 

group quarters were status dropouts. Among 

noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds in 2009, 

Hispanics had the highest status dropout rate (17 

percent), compared with 15 percent of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives, 9 percent of Blacks, 9 

percent of Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders, 6 

percent of 16- to 24-year-olds of two or more races, 

5 percent of Whites, and 3 percent of Asians.8

7

 Institutionalized group quarters include adult and juvenile correctional facilities, nursing facilities, and other health care 

facilities. Noninstitutionalized group quarters include college and university housing, military quarters, facilities for workers 

and religious groups, and temporary shelters for the homeless. 

8

 This snapshot uses a different data source than table 15; therefore, total status dropout rate estimates are not directly 

comparable to the 2009 estimates in table 15.

Table 15a. Number and percentage of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds who were 

high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 2009

Race/ethnicity

Total status 

dropout

Institutionalized

group quarters

 

Households and

noninstitutionalized

group quarters

Number of

status dropouts 

Status

dropout rate

Number of

status dropouts 

Status

dropout rate

Total1 8.6 205,000 40.1 3,167,400 8.2

White 5.6 51,200 31.2 1,260,700 5.5

Black 10.7 90,200 44.3 517,800 9.5

Hispanic 17.9 53,200 46.7 1,225,500 17.5

Asian 3.3 1,900 45.2 50,200 3.2

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 9.5 ‡ ‡ 5,300 8.7

American Indian/Alaska Native 15.9 3,100 40.6 46,800 15.3

Two or more races 6.5 4,700 30.2 52,400 6.1

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases).

1 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates for 16- to 24-year-olds. The status dropout rate is the percentage of 16- 

to 24-year-olds who are not in high school and who have not earned a high school credential (either a diploma or equivalency 

credential such as a General Educational Development [GED] certificate). It includes all dropouts, regardless of when they last 

attended school, as well as individuals who may have never attended school in the United States, such as immigrants who did not 

complete a high school diploma in their home country. This table uses a different data source than table 15; therefore, total status 

dropout rate estimates are not directly comparable to the 2009 estimates in table 15. Institutionalized group quarters include adult 

and juvenile correctional facilities, nursing facilities, and other health care facilities. Noninstitutionalized group quarters, such as 

college and university housing, military quarters, facilities for workers and religious groups, and temporary shelters for the homeless 

are included in the noninstitutionalized category. Among those counted in noninstitutionalized group quarters in the American 

Community Survey (ACS), only the residents of military barracks are not included in the civilian noninstitutionalized population in 

the Current Population Survey (CPS). Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 43Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

SNAPSHOT

Figure 15a. Percentage of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school 

status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 2009

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases).

1 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates for 16- to 24-year-olds. The status dropout rate is the percentage 

of 16- to 24-year-olds who are not in high school and who have not earned a high school credential (either a diploma or 

equivalency credential such as a General Educational Development [GED] certificate). It includes all dropouts, regardless of when 

they last attended school, as well as individuals who may have never attended school in the United States, such as immigrants 

who did not complete a high school diploma in their home country. Institutionalized group quarters include adult and juvenile 

correctional facilities, nursing facilities, and other health care facilities. Noninstitutionalized group quarters, such as college and 

university housing, military quarters, facilities for workers and religious groups, and temporary shelters for the homeless are included 

in the noninstitutionalized category. Among those counted in noninstitutionalized group quarters in the American Community 

Survey (ACS), only the residents of military barracks are not included in the civilian noninstitutionalized population in the Current 

Population Survey (CPS). Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2009.
44 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 16 — College Readiness

16. College Readiness

College readiness among high school students can 

be measured by the actual performance of college 

students and their correlated scores on ACT tests for 

English, mathematics, reading, and science. As part 

of its Course Placement Service, ACT has compiled 

an extensive database of course grade and test score 

data from over 90,000 first-year students across 98 

institutions. These data provide an overall measure 

of what it takes to be successful in selected first-year 

college courses. The data were weighted so that they 

would be nationally representative of two- and fouryear postsecondary institutions nationwide. The 

college readiness benchmark scores are the minimum 

ACT subject-area scores associated with a 50 percent 

chance of earning at least a B or a 75 percent chance 

of earning at least a C in corresponding college classes 

(ACT 2010). In academic year 2009–10, about 47 

percent of high school graduates took the ACT, and 

of ACT test-takers, some 66 percent met the college 

readiness benchmark score for English, which predicts 

performance in college-level English composition 

(ACT 2010). Some 43 percent of test-takers in the 

same year met the benchmark for mathematics (a 

predictor for college-level algebra), an increase from 

39 percent in 1996–97. About 52 percent of the 

ACT test-taking population in 2009–10 met the 

benchmark for reading (a predictor of performance 

in college-level social sciences)—a decrease from 54 

percent in 1996–97—and about 29 percent met the 

benchmark for science (a predictor for college-level 

biology). No significant upward or downward trends 

were found for English or science between 1996–97 

and 2009–10. 

Table 16. Number of students who took the ACT and percentage of ACT test-taking population meeting college 

readiness benchmark scores, by subject: Academic years 1996–97 through 2009–10

Academic year

Number of

students English Mathematics Reading Science

1996–97 959,301 67.6 39.1 53.7 28.5

1997–98 995,039 68.5 40.0 53.6 28.4

1998–99 1,019,053 70.0 39.8 54.7 27.6

1999–2000 1,065,138 69.2 39.3 54.1 28.3

2000–01 1,069,772 68.7 39.3 53.4 27.8

2001–02 1,116,082 67.0 39.4 52.7 25.5

2002–03 1,175,059 67.3 39.6 51.7 25.7

2003–04 1,171,460 67.9 40.1 51.9 26.4

2004–05 1,186,251 67.9 40.6 51.4 26.5

2005–06 1,206,455 68.9 41.7 52.8 26.9

2006–07 1,300,599 69.4 42.8 52.8 28.1

2007–08 1,421,941 68.4 42.6 52.7 28.0

2008–09 1,480,469 67.3 42.2 52.6 28.3

2009–10 1,568,835 66.3 43.4 51.8 29.3

NOTE: College readiness benchmark scores are based on the actual performance of approximately 90,000 college students from a 

nationally representative sample of 98 institutions and represent the level of achievement required for students to have a 50 percent 

chance of obtaining a B or higher or about a 75 percent chance of obtaining a C or higher in corresponding credit-bearing firstyear college courses. These college courses include English Composition, College Algebra, an introductory social science course, 

and Biology. The Benchmarks are median course placement values for these institutions and as such represent a typical set of 

expectations. The benchmark scores, out of a total possible score of 36, are 18 for English, 21 for Reading, 22 for Mathematics, and 24 

for Science. Estimates are based on all students who took the ACT assessment during their sophomore, junior, or senior year and who 

graduated from high school in the spring of the respective year shown. Beginning in 2001–02, some states mandated participation in 

ACT testing for all high school seniors. Prior to that year, the test would have been taken primarily by those students who planned on 

attending college.

SOURCE: American College Testing Program, ACT National Scores Report, 1996–2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 45

Figure 16. Percentage of ACT test-taking population meeting college readiness benchmark scores, by subject: 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

Academic years 1996–97 through 2009–10

NOTE: College readiness benchmark scores are based on the actual performance of approximately 90,000 college students from a 

nationally representative sample of 98 institutions and represent the level of achievement required for students to have a 50 percent 

chance of obtaining a B or higher or about a 75 percent chance of obtaining a C or higher in corresponding credit-bearing firstyear college courses. These college courses include English Composition, College Algebra, an introductory social science course, 

and Biology. The Benchmarks are median course placement values for these institutions and as such represent a typical set of 

expectations. The benchmark scores, out of a total possible score of 36, are 18 for English, 21 for Reading, 22 for Mathematics, and 24 

for Science. Estimates are based on all students who took the ACT assessment during their sophomore, junior, or senior year and who 

graduated from high school in the spring of the respective year shown. Beginning in 2001–02, some states mandated participation in 

ACT testing for all high school seniors. Prior to that year, the test would have been taken primarily by those students who planned on 

attending college. 

SOURCE: American College Testing Program, ACT National Scores Report, 1996–2010.
46 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 17 — Immediate Transition to College

17. Immediate Transition to College

Students who enroll in college in the fall immediately 

following their high school graduation have greater 

college completion rates than those who delay 

enrollment (Bozick and DeLuca 2005). The 

percentage of high school completers who enrolled 

in college immediately after finishing high school 

increased between 1980 and 2009. About half of 

all high school students (49 percent) enrolled in 

college immediately after high school in 1980, 

compared with 70 percent in 2009. The immediate 

college enrollment rates increased at both 2-year 

and 4-year institutions. Some 19 percent of high 

school completers enrolled immediately in 2-year 

institutions in 1980, compared with 28 percent 

in 2009. The immediate college enrollment rate in 

4-year institutions increased from 30 percent to 42 

percent.

The increases in the immediate college enrollment rate 

were seen for both sexes as well. Some 66 percent of 

male and 74 percent of female high school completers 

enrolled in college directly after high school in 

2009, compared with 47 percent of male and 52 

percent of female high school completers in 1980. 

The immediate college enrollment rate increased 

for both sexes in both 2- and 4-year institutions. 

In 2009, approximately 25 percent of male and 30 

percent of female high school completers enrolled in 

2-year institutions immediately following high school 

completion, compared with 17 percent of male and 

22 percent of female completers in 1980. At 4-year 

institutions, the percentage of high school completers 

who enrolled in college immediately after finishing 

high school increased from 30 to 41 percent for males 

and from 30 to 44 percent for females. Immediate 

college enrollment rates differed by sex overall and 

specifically at 2-year institutions in 2009. 

Table 17. Percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges in the October 

immediately following high school completion, by sex and level of institution: Selected years, 1980 

through 2009

Year

Total Male Female

Total 2-year 4-year Total 2-year 4-year Total 2-year 4-year

19801 49.3 19.4 29.9 46.7 17.1 29.7 51.8 21.6 30.2

19851 57.7 19.6 38.1 58.6 19.9 38.8 56.8 19.3 37.5

1990 60.1 20.1 40.0 58.0 19.6 38.4 62.2 20.6 41.6

1995 61.9 21.5 40.4 62.6 25.3 37.4 61.3 18.1 43.2

2000 63.3 21.4 41.9 59.9 23.1 36.8 66.2 20.0 46.2

2001 61.7 19.7 42.0 59.7 18.6 41.1 63.6 20.7 42.9

2002 65.2 21.7 43.5 62.1 20.5 41.7 68.3 23.0 45.3

2003 63.9 21.5 42.5 61.2 21.9 39.3 66.5 21.0 45.5

2004 66.7 22.4 44.2 61.4 21.8 39.6 71.5 23.1 48.5

2005 68.6 24.0 44.6 66.5 24.7 41.8 70.4 23.4 47.0

2006 66.0 24.7 41.3 65.8 24.9 40.9 66.1 24.5 41.7

2007 67.2 24.1 43.1 66.1 22.7 43.4 68.3 25.5 42.8

2008 68.6 27.7 40.9 65.9 24.9 41.0 71.6 30.6 40.9

2009 70.1 27.7 42.4 66.0 25.1 40.9 73.8 30.1 43.8

1 In 1980 and 1985, due to a skip pattern in the Current Population Survey (CPS), about 3–9 percent of high school completers ages 

16–24 who immediately enrolled in college were not asked the question about the level of institution attended. Such respondents 

were assumed to have had the same probability of enrolling in a 2- or 4-year institution as those who were asked the question.

NOTE: Includes high school completers ages 16–24, who accounted for about 98 percent of all high school completers in a given 

year. The Current Population Survey (CPS) questions about educational attainment were reworded in 1992. Before then, high school 

completers referred to those who had completed 12 years of schooling; since 1992, the term has referred to those who have received 

a high school diploma or equivalency certificate. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1980–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 47

Figure 17. Percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges in the October 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

immediately following high school completion, by level of institution and sex: Selected years, 1980 

through 2009

1 In 1980 and 1985, due to a skip pattern in the Current Population Survey (CPS), about 3–9 percent of high school completers ages 

16–24 who enrolled in college immediately were not asked the question about the levels of institutions attended. Such respondents 

were assumed to have had the same probability of enrolling at a 2- or 4-year institution as those who were asked the question.

NOTE: Includes high school completers ages 16–24, who accounted for about 98 percent of all high school completers in a given 

year. The Current Population Survey (CPS) questions about educational attainment were reworded in 1992. Before then, high school 

completers referred to those who had completed 12 years of schooling; since 1992, the term has referred to those who have received 

a high school diploma or equivalency certificate. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1980–2009.
48 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 17 — Immediate Transition to College

SNAPSHOT

In-state Retention of College Freshmen

In the fall of 2008, about 3.0 million students were 

enrolled as freshmen at postsecondary institutions in 

the United States, compared to 2.1 million students 

in the fall of 1992. In 2008, about 2.4 million of 

these freshmen were enrolled in institutions in their 

home state, compared with 1.7 million students 

enrolled in-state in 1992. The in-state retention 

rate, which is measured as the total number of instate residents enrolled in institutions within the 

state divided by the total number of state residents 

enrolled in institutions in any state, was higher 

in 1992 (85 percent) than in 2008 (82 percent). 

California had the highest in-state retention rate in 

2008, with 93 percent of California residents who 

were freshmen enrolled in colleges in California. 

Utah and Arizona (both at 91 percent) had the next 

highest retention rates. The District of Columbia 

had the lowest retention rate in 2008, with 23 

percent of District residents who were freshmen 

enrolled in colleges inside the District. The next 

lowest retention rates were in Vermont (47 percent) 

and New Hampshire (53 percent). 

The relative ranking among states in 2008 differed 

from the ranking in 1992. In 1992, Utah had the 

highest retention rate (94 percent), followed by 

North Carolina, Alabama, California, and Texas (93 

percent for all). The District of Columbia was again 

the lowest ranking jurisdiction in 1992, when 47 

percent of residents enrolled in their freshman year 

of college stayed within the District. Between 1992 

and 2008, Nevada had the greatest positive retention 

rate difference (11 percentage points higher), while 

the District of Columbia had the greatest negative 

difference (24 percentage points lower). 

Table 17a. Residence and migration of all freshman students in degree-granting institutions who graduated 

from high school in the previous 12 months, by state or jurisdiction: Fall 1992 and 2008

State or jurisdiction

Total freshman

enrollment in

institutions located 

in the state

Total state residents 

enrolled in 

institutions in

any state

Total state

residents enrolled

in institutions

in-state

Percent in-state 

retention

Fall 1992 Fall 2008 Fall 1992 Fall 2008 Fall 1992 Fall 2008 Fall 1992 Fall 2008

United States1 2,066,058 3,024,723 2,028,759 2,963,570 1,718,436 2,418,035 84.7 81.6

Alabama 42,234 51,456 36,912 42,596 34,298 37,581 92.9 88.2

Alaska 2,480 3,193 3,474 5,109 2,127 2,900 61.2 56.8

Arizona 30,438 89,486 27,236 50,385 24,996 45,621 91.8 90.5

Arkansas 18,364 26,838 17,751 25,071 15,341 21,760 86.4 86.8

California 213,910 433,287 211,656 422,773 196,614 393,120 92.9 93.0

Colorado 34,082 54,978 30,340 48,384 25,586 39,436 84.3 81.5

Connecticut 22,769 30,754 27,631 36,886 16,374 21,200 59.3 57.5

Delaware 7,227 9,231 5,832 7,881 4,334 5,423 74.3 68.8

District of Columbia 8,427 13,734 2,573 3,967 1,211 915 47.1 23.1

Florida 70,565 153,189 67,769 143,069 57,423 125,023 84.7 87.4

Georgia 52,148 86,199 51,377 91,194 43,780 74,153 85.2 81.3

Hawaii 9,445 9,668 9,644 11,348 7,874 7,878 81.6 69.4

Idaho 10,960 12,057 9,339 11,978 7,395 8,387 79.2 70.0

Illinois 114,044 119,139 122,220 122,184 105,034 92,908 85.9 76.0

Indiana 49,304 73,439 43,916 65,116 38,478 56,900 87.6 87.4

Iowa 36,538 44,777 32,517 30,579 28,825 26,274 88.6 85.9

Kansas 25,453 29,593 23,111 27,498 20,742 23,041 89.7 83.8

Kentucky 29,114 40,207 27,271 38,053 24,356 32,791 89.3 86.2

Louisiana 31,810 38,473 30,176 37,390 26,831 32,786 88.9 87.7

See notes at end of table.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 49Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

SNAPSHOT

Table 17a. Residence and migration of all freshman students in degree-granting institutions who graduated 

from high school in the previous 12 months, by state or jurisdiction: Fall 1992 and 2008—

Continued

State or jurisdiction

Total freshman

enrollment in

institutions located 

in the state

Total state residents 

enrolled in 

institutions in

any state

Total state

residents enrolled

in in-state 

institutions 

Percent in-state 

retention

Fall 1992 Fall 2008 Fall 1992 Fall 2008 Fall 1992 Fall 2008 Fall 1992 Fall 2008

Maine 8,765 12,142 10,059 12,465 6,532 8,733 64.9 70.1

Maryland 33,288 47,770 36,314 58,421 26,124 38,234 71.9 65.4

Massachusetts 59,460 75,530 51,008 67,903 37,880 47,699 74.3 70.2

Michigan 87,772 96,416 88,771 100,432 81,831 88,272 92.2 87.9

Minnesota 41,718 55,023 42,336 58,383 34,113 44,137 80.6 75.6

Mississippi 24,848 33,578 23,178 32,647 21,230 28,841 91.6 88.3

Missouri 38,821 57,833 36,375 56,087 30,828 46,447 84.8 82.8

Montana 6,413 8,520 6,636 8,349 4,873 6,351 73.4 76.1

Nebraska 16,156 18,109 16,193 17,878 13,569 14,641 83.8 81.9

Nevada 4,521 18,536 5,126 20,260 3,650 16,726 71.2 82.6

New Hampshire 11,297 13,056 9,308 13,257 5,863 7,045 63.0 53.1

New Jersey 44,611 65,959 64,431 96,826 41,016 60,691 63.7 62.7

New Mexico 11,419 19,569 11,734 19,024 9,722 15,982 82.9 84.0

New York 153,852 193,929 157,069 190,660 132,243 156,091 84.2 81.9

North Carolina 55,013 88,596 45,935 83,364 42,947 72,436 93.5 86.9

North Dakota 8,684 8,733 7,100 6,622 5,812 4,828 81.9 72.9

Ohio 91,169 108,929 89,456 113,638 78,698 93,980 88.0 82.7

Oklahoma 30,050 33,339 29,706 30,624 26,979 26,499 90.8 86.5

Oregon 22,733 33,748 21,353 31,189 18,193 25,759 85.2 82.6

Pennsylvania 100,964 143,938 94,435 127,454 79,950 105,349 84.7 82.7

Rhode Island 12,813 16,543 8,046 10,341 5,743 7,244 71.4 70.1

South Carolina 20,906 43,405 19,733 38,907 16,808 33,698 85.2 86.6

South Dakota 6,398 8,920 5,998 8,175 4,529 6,164 75.5 75.4

Tennessee 34,622 53,671 32,909 53,285 28,040 44,177 85.2 82.9

Texas 124,246 199,333 123,208 210,694 114,300 184,051 92.8 87.4

Utah 23,536 30,331 18,931 24,545 17,726 22,382 93.6 91.2

Vermont 6,274 7,744 4,478 5,363 2,707 2,529 60.5 47.2

Virginia 44,683 81,742 40,877 77,797 32,505 62,966 79.5 80.9

Washington 64,913 41,221 62,565 44,245 57,843 34,466 92.5 77.9

West Virginia 16,941 19,954 15,003 14,253 12,745 12,076 84.9 84.7

Wisconsin 46,043 58,310 44,993 57,970 38,734 47,678 86.1 82.2

Wyoming 3,817 6,241 4,258 4,608 3,084 3,445 72.4 74.8

1 Includes students whose home state was unable to be determined by the institution. The Fall 2008 United States data also 

include students attending U.S. Service Academies who are not shown separately.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992 and 2008 Integrated Postsecondary 

Education Data System (IPEDS), “Residence of First-Time Students” survey, 1992, and Spring 2009.
50 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 17 — Immediate Transition to College

SNAPSHOT

Figure 17a. Percentage of freshmen who graduated from high school in the previous 12 months attending a 

degree-granting institution in their home state: Fall 1992 and 2008

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992 and 2008 Integrated Postsecondary 

Education Data System (IPEDS), “Residence of First-Time Students” survey, 1992, and Spring 2009.
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52 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 18 — Undergraduate College Enrollment

18. Undergraduate College Enrollment

Total undergraduate enrollment in degree-granting 

institutions increased from 10.5 million in 1980 to 

17.6 million students in 2009. In 2009, about twothirds of undergraduate students were under the age 

of 25 (Aud et al. 2011, table A-39-1). Between 1980 

and 2009, enrollment numbers increased for each 

racial/ethnic group. Hispanic enrollment increased 

by more than five-fold, from 0.4 million in 1980 to 

2.4 million in 2009. Asian/Pacific Islander enrollment 

more than quadrupled from 0.2 million to 1.1 

million. During this time period, Black enrollment 

more than doubled (from 1.0 million to 2.6 million), 

as did American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment 

(from 0.1 to 0.2 million). White enrollment also 

increased, from 8.5 million in 1980 to 10.9 million 

in 2009, but it had the smallest percentage increase 

of all the racial/ethnic groups. 

Of the 17.6 million students enrolled in an 

undergraduate institution in 2009, approximately 57 

percent were female, up from 52 percent in 1980. For 

all racial/ethnic groups the majority of the increase in 

female enrollment occurred between 1980 and 2000 

and the percentages of undergraduate enrollment that 

were female remained stable or decreased in recent 

years. The largest difference in the percentage of male 

and female undergraduates was among Black students. 

In 1980, some 58 percent of Black undergraduates 

were female and by 2009, females accounted for 64 

percent of total Black undergraduate enrollment. The 

next largest difference was among American Indians/

Alaska Natives, with females making up 55 percent 

of total American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment 

in 1980 and their share increasing to 60 percent in 

2009. Between 1980 and 2009, females also increased 

their share of total Hispanic and White enrollment 

(from 51 to 58 percent for Hispanic females and from 

52 to 55 percent for White females). In 1980 and 

1990, Asian/Pacific Islander females represented less 

than half of total Asian/Pacific Islander enrollment. 

Since 2000, however, more females than males 

have enrolled, and, in 2009, females represented 53 

percent of total Asian/Pacific Islander undergraduate 

enrollment.

Figure 18. Females as a percentage of undergraduate fall enrollment in degree-granting institutions, by race/

ethnicity: 1980 and 2009

NOTE: Data for 1980 are for institutions of higher education, while later data are for degree-granting institutions. Degree-granting 

institutions grant associate’s or higher degrees and participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs. The degree-granting 

classification is very similar to the earlier higher education classification, but it includes more 2-year colleges and excludes a few 

higher education institutions that did not grant degrees. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), 

“Fall Enrollment in Colleges and Universities” survey, 1980; and 2009 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), “Fall 

Enrollment” survey, Spring 2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 53

Table 18. Undergraduate fall enrollment in degree-granting institutions and the percentage of undergraduates 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

who are female, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1980 through 2009

Year

Total White

 

Black

Total

(in thousands)

Percent

female

Total

(in thousands)

Percent

female

Total

(in thousands)

Percent

 female

1980 10,469 52.3 8,481 52.2 1,019 58.0

1990 11,959 55.0 9,273 54.9 1,147 61.0

2000 13,155 56.1 8,983 55.4 1,549 62.7

2002 14,257 56.6 9,565 55.6 1,764 63.6

2003 14,480 57.0 9,665 55.9 1,838 64.1

2004 14,781 57.1 9,771 55.9 1,918 64.3

2005 14,964 57.2 9,829 55.9 1,955 64.3

2006 15,184 57.1 9,885 55.8 2,006 64.3

2007 15,604 56.9 10,047 55.6 2,093 64.0

2008 16,366 56.8 10,339 55.5 2,269 63.8

2009 17,565 56.8 10,915 55.5 2,577 63.6

Hispanic Asian/Pacific Islander American Indian/Alaska Native

Total

(in thousands)

Percent

female

Total

(in thousands)

Percent

female

Total

(in thousands)

Percent

 female

1980 433 51.2 249 48.3 78 55.4

1990 725 54.9 500 49.2 95 58.2

2000 1,351 56.9 846 52.5 139 59.3

2002 1,533 57.7 927 53.0 152 60.2

2003 1,580 58.4 923 53.6 158 61.0

2004 1,667 58.6 950 53.8 160 60.9

2005 1,734 58.6 971 53.9 160 61.1

2006 1,810 58.5 998 53.8 164 60.4

2007 1,916 58.1 1,042 53.6 171 60.4

2008 2,104 58.0 1,118 54.0 176 59.9

2009 2,362 57.8 1,142 53.2 189 59.6

NOTE: Data for 1980 and 1990 are for institutions of higher education, while later data are for degree-granting institutions. Degreegranting institutions grant associate’s or higher degrees and participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs. The degree-granting 

classification is very similar to the earlier higher education classification, but it includes more 2-year colleges and excludes a few 

higher education institutions that did not grant degrees. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Total includes other 

racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), 

“Fall Enrollment in Colleges and Universities” survey, 1980; and 1990 through 2009 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” survey, 1990, and Spring 2001–10.
54 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 19 — College Costs

19. College Costs

College students in the 2007–08 academic year paid 

more for a college education than they did a decade 

earlier. Between 1999–2000 and 2007–08, the total 

annual price of attending college for full-time, fullyear dependent undergraduates, of whom about 

two-thirds were under the age of 25, increased at both 

public and private institutions (Aud et al. 2011, table 

A-39-1).9

 The total price of attending can be offset 

by grants, which do not have to be repaid, and loans, 

which do have to be repaid. The net access price, 

therefore, is the total price minus grants and loans. 

In 2007–08, the average annual price was $12,100 to 

attend a public 2-year institution, $19,300 to attend a 

public 4-year institution, $37,400 to attend a private 

not-for-profit 4-year institution, and $24,200 to 

attend a private for-profit less-than-4-year institution 

(in constant 2009–10 dollars). In 2007–2008, 

students received a higher amount of grants and 

loans at each level and control of institution than in 

1999–2000. In addition, public 4-year and private 

not-for-profit 4-year institutions saw increases in 

the net access price (the total price of attendance 

minus grants and loans). The increases in net access 

price suggest that the increases in grants and loans 

did not counteract rising tuition and fees at 4-year 

institutions. In 2007–08, the net access price of 

attending a private not-for-profit 4-year institution 

was greater than that of a public 4-year institution 

($18,100 vs. $11,000). In addition, private for-profit 

less-than-4-year institutions were more expensive, on 

average, than public 2-year institutions (net access 

prices of $12,400 vs. $9,400). 

9

 The total price of attending a postsecondary institution includes tuition and fees, books and materials, and an allowance for living 

expenses. 

Table 19. Average annual total price, loans, grants, and net access price (in constant 2009–10 dollars) for fulltime, full-year dependent undergraduates, by institution control and level: Academic years 1999–2000, 

2003–04, and 2007–08

Control and level of institution 1999–2000 2003–04 2007–08

Public 2-year

Total $10,900 $11,400 $12,100

Loans 400 600 900

Grants 1,400 1,700 1,800

Net access price 9,100 9,100 9,400

Public 4-year

Total 15,800 17,500 19,300

Loans 3,100 3,800 4,600

Grants 2,500 3,100 3,700

Net access price 10,200 10,700 11,000

Private not-for-profit 4-year

Total 31,200 34,200 37,400

Loans 6,100 7,000 8,500

Grants 8,900 9,700 10,900

Net access price 16,200 17,600 18,100

Private for-profit less-than-4-year

Total 23,600 22,900 24,200

Loans 8,100 7,500 9,000

Grants 2,600 3,600 2,700

Net access price 12,800 11,900 12,400

NOTE: Total includes net access price, loans, and grants. Net access price is an estimate of the cash outlay that students and their 

families need to make in a given year to cover educational expenses. It is calculated here as the total price of attendance minus 

grants and loans. Full time refers to students who attended full time (as defined by the institution) for the full year (at least 9 months 

at a 2- or 4-year institution or 6 months at a less-than-4-year institution). Averages were computed for all students, including those 

who did not receive financial aid. Data were adjusted by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U) to 2009–10 

dollars. Estimates exclude students who were not U.S. citizens or permanent residents and, therefore, were ineligible for federal student 

aid; students who attended more than one institution in a year, due to the difficulty in matching information on price and aid; 

and students who attended private for-profit 4-year institutions, due to their small number. Detail may not sum to totals because of 

rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999–2000, 2003–04, and 2007–08 National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:2000, NPSAS:04, and NPSAS:08).
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 55

Figure 19. Average annual total price, loans, grants, and net access price (in constant 2009–10 dollars) for fullChapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

time, full-year dependent undergraduates, by institution control and level: Academic years 1999–

2000, 2003–04, and 2007–08

NOTE: Net access price is an estimate of the cash outlay that students and their families need to make in a given year to cover 

educational expenses. It is calculated here as the total price of attendance minus grants and loans. Full time refers to students 

who attended full time (as defined by the institution) for the full year (at least 9 months at a 2- or 4-year institution or 6 months at a 

less-than-4-year institution). Averages were computed for all students, including those who did not receive financial aid. Data were 

adjusted by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U) to 2009–10 dollars. Estimates exclude students who were not 

U.S. citizens or permanent residents and, therefore, were ineligible for federal student aid; students who attended more than one 

institution in a year, due to the difficulty in matching information on price and aid; and students who attended private for-profit 4-year 

institutions, due to their small number. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999–2000, 2003–04, and 2007–08 National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:2000, NPSAS:04, and NPSAS:08).
56 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 20 — Financial Aid

In the 2007–08 academic year, 80 percent of fulltime, full-year undergraduate students received any 

kind of financial aid. The coverage of financial aid 

differed by type of aid and control of institution. 

Some 97 percent of students at private for-profit 

institutions were awarded aid, compared with 

89 percent of students at private not-for-profit 

institutions and 74 percent of students at public 

institutions. Grants were awarded to 81 percent 

of students at private not-for-profit institutions, 

compared with 72 percent of students at private forprofits and 58 percent of students at public schools. 

Private for-profit institutions also awarded loans to 

the greatest percentage of students (92 percent). In 

addition, a higher percentage of students at private 

not-for-profits received work study awards (31 

percent) than did students at public (9 percent) and 

private for-profit institutions (2 percent). 

Students receiving aid received an average of $13,000 

(in constant 2009–10 dollars) for that year. Students, 

on average, received $7,300 in grants, $9,700 in 

loans, and $2,300 in federal work-study. The amount 

and distribution of aid from different sources varied 

according to the control and level of institution. 

Public institutions offered less aid than the average 

for all institutions, while private not-for-profit 

institutions (with the exception of federal workstudy) offered more. Private for-profit institutions 

awarded, on average, smaller grants than the average 

for all institutions ($4,100 vs. $7,300), but larger 

loans ($10,500 vs. $9,700) and federal workstudy ($3,600 vs. $2,300). Private not-for-profit 

4-year doctoral institutions awarded more financial 

aid from all sources than public 4-year doctoral 

institutions ($22,700 vs. $11,700). Private not-forprofit institutions awarded a higher average amount 

in grants ($12,400) than either public institutions 

($5,500) or private for-profit institutions ($4,100); 

they also distributed the highest average amount in 

loans ($12,400). Federal work-study awards were 

highest at private for-profit institutions ($3,600) but 

2 percent of students received these awards. 

20. Financial Aid

Table 20. Percentage of full-time, full-year undergraduates receiving financial aid and average amount of 

financial aid awarded, by type and source of aid and control and level of institution: Academic year 

2007–08

[In constant 2009–10 dollars]

Control and

level of institution

Any aid1 Grants2 Loans3 Work-study4

Percent

Average 

amount Percent

Average 

amount Percent

Average 

amount Percent

Average 

amount

[In constant 2009–10 dollars]

Total, all institutions 79.5 $13,000 64.4 $7,300 53.3 $9,700 13.5 $2,300

Public 74.0 9,700 58.0 5,500 44.3 8,200 9.2 2,500

4-year doctoral 76.7 11,700 58.9 6,500 52.7 9,100 9.9 2,500

Other 4-year 80.9 10,000 62.1 5,500 54.6 7,900 11.1 2,400

2-year 65.4 5,800 53.9 3,700 24.8 5,600 7.0 2,600

Less-than-2-year 68.1 6,300 55.1 3,700 26.2 7,000 # ‡

Private not-for-profit 89.1 21,200 80.6 12,400 64.9 12,400 30.7 2,100

4-year doctoral 84.8 22,700 75.9 13,200 61.6 13,600 29.1 2,300

Other 4-year 93.3 20,200 85.7 11,800 68.8 11,400 33.0 2,000

Less-than-4-year 93.4 10,200 72.3 5,900 44.9 10,900 4.8 2,200

Private for-profit 96.9 13,400 72.3 4,100 92.0 10,500 2.1 3,600

2-year and above 97.4 14,100 71.7 4,200 94.7 10,900 2.4 3,700

Less-than-2-year 94.5 9,900 75.3 3,700 78.7 8,100 0.8! 1,500!

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases).

1 Includes students who reported that they were awarded aid, but did not specify the source or type of aid.

2 Indicates all grants, scholarships, or tuition waivers received from federal, state, institutional, or private sources, including employers.

3 Includes Parent Loans for Undergraduate Students (PLUS).

4 A part-time work program awarding on- or off-campus jobs to students who demonstrate financial need. Details on nonfederal workstudy participants are not available.

NOTE: Aid averages are for those students who received the specified type of aid. Full-time, full-year students were enrolled full time for 

9 or more months from July 1 through June 30. Data include Puerto Rico. Data were adjusted to constant 2009–10 dollars using the 

Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:08).
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 57

Figure 20. Average amount of financial aid (in constant 2009–10 dollars) awarded to full-time, full-year 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

undergraduates, by control of institution and type and source of aid: Academic year 2007–08

1 Includes students who reported that they were awarded aid, but did not specify the source or type of aid.

2 Indicates all grants, scholarships, or tuition waivers received from federal, state, institutional, or private sources, including employers.

3 Includes Parent Loans for Undergraduate Students (PLUS).

4 A part-time work program awarding on- or off-campus jobs to students who demonstrate financial need. Details on nonfederal workstudy participants are not available.

NOTE: Aid averages are for those students who received the specified type of aid. Full-time, full-year students were enrolled full time for 

9 or more months from July 1 through June 30. Data include Puerto Rico. Data were adjusted to constant 2009–10 dollars using the 

Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:08).
58 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 21 — Federal Aid

21. Federal Aid

Grants and loans are forms of federal financial support 

for undergraduate students, about two-thirds of whom 

were under the age of 25 in 2009 (Aud et al. 2011, 

table A-39-1). Federal grants, which do not need to 

be repaid, are available to undergraduates who qualify 

by income, whereas loans are available to all students. 

In academic year 2007–08, a greater percentage of 

full-time, full-year undergraduate students received 

federal aid of any kind at private for-profit institutions 

(94 percent) than at private not-for-profit institutions 

(70 percent) and public institutions (57 percent). 

This pattern held true for part-time or part-year 

undergraduate students as well as when looking 

only at aid from Title IV programs, which accounts 

for nearly all of the federal aid. Title IV refers to 

the section of the Higher Education Act of 1965 

that covers the administration of the federal student 

financial aid program. Included under Title IV are 

Pell grants, Supplemental Educational Opportunity 

Grants (SEOGs), work-study, Perkins loans, Stafford 

loans, and Parent Loans for Undergraduate Students 

(PLUS). Title IV does not include private loans, 

grants, and scholarships, nor does it include statelevel grants and loans. Pell grants are need-based 

grants awarded to undergraduates and are intended 

to be a financial base to which other financial awards 

can be added. 

Looking at specific types of aid, private for-profit 

institutions had the greatest percentage of full-time, 

full-year students receiving Pell grants (62 percent) 

in 2007–08, followed by public institutions (30 

percent) and private not-for-profit institutions (28 

percent). In 2007–08, about 16 percent of full-time, 

full-year students at private for-profit institutions 

received SEOGs, which are campus-based grants that 

are intended to supplement Pell grants, compared 

with 13 percent of students at private not-for-profit 

institutions and 6 percent of students at public 

institutions. 

As with Pell grants and SEOGs, private for-profit 

institutions had a greater percentage of full-time, 

full-year students receiving Stafford loans (89 

percent) than either private not-for-profit institutions 

(59 percent) or public institutions (40 percent). 

Stafford loans include need-based subsidized loans 

and unsubsidized loans that are not need-based. 

In contrast, private not-for-profits had the greatest 

percentage of students receiving aid from the Perkins 

loan program and from work-study, followed by 

public institutions and private for-profit institutions. 

(The Perkins loan program is a campus-based, lowinterest loan program for students who demonstrate 

financial need.) Overall, a greater percentage of fulltime, full-year undergraduates received federal aid of 

any kind (63 percent) than did part-time or part-year 

undergraduates (39 percent). 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 59

Table 21. Percentage of full-time and part-time undergraduates receiving federal aid, by Title IV aid program 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

and control and level of institution: Academic year 2007–08

Control and level of institution

Any

federal 

aid2

Selected Title IV1 programs

Any Title 

IV aid Pell SEOG3

Workstudy4 Perkins5 Stafford6 PLUS7

Full-time, full-year

undergraduates

All institutions 63.0 62.0 32.6 8.7 10.3 5.6 48.7 7.2

Public 56.6 55.5 30.4 6.4 6.9 3.9 39.9 6.0

4-year doctoral 57.5 56.5 25.6 6.1 7.3 5.7 47.5 9.1

Other 4-year 65.7 64.8 34.1 7.5 8.4 4.7 50.7 6.3

2-year 49.2 47.7 35.1 6.1 5.4 0.4 21.3 1.1

Less-than-2-year 57.2 55.5 47.9 ‡ # # 23.1 ‡

Private not-for-profit 70.0 69.2 27.5 12.7 23.7 12.7 59.4 11.6

4-year doctoral 65.5 64.4 22.1 11.1 23.3 15.1 55.4 11.8

Other 4-year 74.3 73.7 32.1 14.0 24.6 10.5 64.0 11.5

Less-than-4-year 88.0 86.9 59.8 22.7 4.1 ‡ 40.9 ‡

Private for-profit 93.6 93.4 62.0 16.0 1.8 1.1 88.5 5.6

2-year and above 94.5 94.3 59.8 14.7 2.1 1.3 92.8 4.8

Less-than-2-year 89.3 89.2 72.5 22.7 0.6! ‡ 68.1 9.5

Part-time or part-year8

undergraduates

All institutions 38.6 37.1 23.9 4.4 2.7 1.0 25.3 1.5

Public 30.2 28.5 19.0 2.2 2.3 0.6 15.4 0.9

4-year doctoral 43.3 41.5 19.2 3.2 3.4 2.5 35.2 3.5

Other 4-year 42.6 40.2 24.9 2.6 2.5 1.4 28.4 1.5

2-year 25.2 23.7 17.9 1.9 2.0 0.1 8.9 0.2

Less-than-2-year 31.8 31.2 27.8 ‡ # # 11.3 ‡

Private not-for-profit 54.3 52.2 24.5 6.5 7.1 3.4 44.2 3.6

4-year doctoral 48.1 46.8 19.4 5.3 8.2 4.0 40.8 2.5

Other 4-year 57.5 54.7 26.3 6.8 6.8 3.2 47.0 4.5

Less-than-4-year 66.8 65.5 43.0 11.6 1.6! ‡ 41.1 2.9!

Private for-profit 93.2 93.1 63.8 20.3 1.8 1.2 88.0 5.0

2-year and above 97.2 97.1 64.1 20.8 2.4 1.5 95.2 4.7

Less-than-2-year 81.5 81.3 62.8 18.9 ‡ 0.4 66.7 5.8

# Rounds to zero. 

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater.

1 Title IV of the Higher Education Act.

2 Includes veteran’s benefits and Department of Defense aid.

3 Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants.

4 Includes persons who participated in the program, but had no earnings. 

5 Formerly National Direct Student Loans (NDSL).

6 Formerly Guaranteed Student Loans (GSL).

7 Parent Loans for Undergraduate Students.

8 Part-time or part-year includes full-time/part year, part-time/full year, and part-time/part year.

NOTE: Excludes students whose attendance status was not reported. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding and because 

some students receive multiple types of aid and aid from different sources. Data include Puerto Rico. Some data have been revised 

from previously published figures.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:08).
60 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 21 — Federal Aid

Figure 21. Percentage of full-time and part-time undergraduates receiving federal aid, by Title IV aid program 

and control of institution: Academic year 2007–08

1 Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants.

2 Includes persons who participated in the program, but had no earnings. 

3 Formerly National Direct Student Loans (NDSL).

4 Formerly Guaranteed Student Loans (GSL).

5 Parent Loans for Undergraduate Students.

6 Title IV of the Higher Education Act.

NOTE: Part-time or part-year includes full-time/part year, part-time/full year, and part-time/part year.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:08).
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62 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 22 — Time to Completion for Undergraduate Students

22. Time to Completion for Undergraduate Students

Not all students who begin their undergraduate 

careers as full-time degree-seeking students finish 

their degree within the normal time.10 In fact, some 

31 percent of males and 41 percent of females who 

began seeking a bachelor’s degree at 4-year institutions 

in 2001 had completed their degree 4 years later. In 

the same cohort, about 54 percent of males and 60 

percent of females completed their degree in 6 years 

or less. Rates of completion within 4, 5, or 6 years 

were higher for females than males. Differences were 

also apparent by race/ethnicity for male and female 

students who started at 4-year institutions in 2001. 

Among female undergraduates, Asian/Pacific Islander 

students had the highest completion rate within 6 

years (70 percent), followed by White (63 percent), 

Hispanic (51 percent), Black (46 percent), and 

American Indian/Alaska Native students (42 percent). 

Among male students, Asians/Pacific Islanders again 

had the highest completion rates within 6 years 

(63 percent), followed by 57 percent of Whites, 44 

percent of Hispanics, 36 percent of American Indian/

Alaska Natives, and 35 percent of Blacks. Across sex 

and race/ethnicity, with the exception of American 

Indian/Alaska Native males, the 6-year completion 

rate was higher for the cohort starting in 2001 than 

for the cohort starting in 1996. 

The completion rates within 150 percent of normal 

time were significantly lower at 2-year than at 4-year 

institutions. For example, 26 percent of males and 

30 percent of females who started in 2004 completed 

their associate’s degree or certificate at a 2-year 

institution within 3 years (or 150 percent of normal 

time), compared with 54 percent of males and 60 

percent of females who started in 2001 at 4-year 

institutions. For both males and females, Asians/

Pacific Islanders who started at 2-year institutions 

in 2004 had the highest completion rates within 

150 percent of normal time (28 and 33 percent, 

respectively), followed by Whites (27 and 30 percent, 

respectively); Blacks had the lowest completion rates 

(19 and 25 percent, respectively). The completion 

rate for males in 2-year institutions was lower for 

the cohort starting in 2004 than for the 1999 cohort 

(26 vs. 28 percent); for females, the rate stayed at 

30 percent. 

10 Normal time to completion is the amount of time necessary for a student to complete all requirements for a degree or certificate 

according to the institution’s catalog. This is typically 4 years for a bachelor’s degree in a standard term-based institution; 2 years for 

an associate’s degree in a standard term-based institution; and the various scheduled durations for certificate programs. 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 63

Table 22. Graduation rates of first-time postsecondary students who started as full-time degree-seeking 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

students, by race/ethnicity, sex, time between starting and graduating, and level of institution: 

Selected cohort entry years, 1996, 1999, 2001, and 2004

Level of institution

and cohort entry year Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American

Indian/

Alaska Native

Male

All 4-year institutions

Percent completing bachelor’s degree within 4 years of start

1996 starting cohort 28.5 30.6 13.9 19.0 32.2 15.1

2001 starting cohort 31.0 33.4 15.0 21.3 35.7 18.0

Percent completing bachelor’s degree within 5 years of start

1996 starting cohort 46.2 49.2 27.0 34.4 51.8 31.2

2001 starting cohort 48.6 51.9 28.9 37.3 56.0 31.5

Percent completing bachelor’s degree within 6 years of start

1996 starting cohort 52.0 54.8 32.8 41.3 59.5 36.2

2001 starting cohort 54.2 57.3 34.6 44.1 62.7 36.1

All 2-year institutions Percent completing certificates or associate’s degrees within

150 percent of normal time1

1999 starting cohort 28.2 29.7 20.8 25.8 29.1 24.2

2004 starting cohort 25.7 27.3 19.1 22.6 27.9 23.6

Female

All 4-year institutions

Percent completing bachelor’s degree within 4 years of start

1996 starting cohort 38.0 41.1 23.2 25.8 42.2 21.7

2001 starting cohort 40.6 43.9 25.7 29.1 47.2 23.5

Percent completing bachelor’s degree within 5 years of start

1996 starting cohort 53.6 56.8 37.5 42.4 60.5 34.9

2001 starting cohort 55.8 59.1 40.6 45.6 64.5 37.4

Percent completing bachelor’s degree within 6 years of start

1996 starting cohort 58.2 60.9 43.0 49.1 66.8 39.5

2001 starting cohort 60.0 62.8 46.2 51.5 69.8 42.1

All 2-year institutions Percent completing certificates or associate’s degrees within

150 percent of normal time1

1999 starting cohort 30.2 31.7 25.1 27.8 32.6 25.8

2004 starting cohort 29.6 30.5 25.2 29.0 32.6 28.8

1 Normal time to completion is the amount of time necessary for a student to complete all requirements for a degree or certificate 

according to the institution’s catalog. This is typically 4 years for a bachelor’s degree in a standard term-based institution, 2 years for 

an associate’s degree in a standard term-based institution, and the various scheduled durations for certificate programs.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2001–02 through 2007–08 Integrated Postsecondary 

Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2001, and Spring 2002–08.
64 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 22 — Time to Completion for Undergraduate Students

Figure 22. Graduation rates of first-time postsecondary students who started as full-time degree-seeking 

students, by level of institution, time between starting and graduating, sex, and race/ethnicity: 2001 

and 2004 starting cohorts

1 Normal time to completion is the amount of time necessary for a student to complete all requirements for a degree or certificate 

according to the institution’s catalog. This is typically 4 years for a bachelor’s degree in a standard term-based institution, 2 years for 

an associate’s degree in a standard term-based institution, and the various scheduled durations for certificate programs.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2001–02 through 2007–08 Integrated Postsecondary 

Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2001, and Spring 2002–08.
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66 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 23 — International College Graduation Rates

23. International College Graduation Rates

In 2008, countries belonging to the Organization for 

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 

had an average first-time college graduation rate of 38 

percent (meaning the percentage of persons within a 

specific age cohort who obtain a qualification from 

a given level of education). Of the 24 countries in 

2008 that reported first-time college graduation rates, 

12 had higher rates and 11 had lower rates than that 

of the United States (37 percent). Finland had the 

highest graduation rate (63 percent), followed by the 

Slovak Republic and Iceland (57 percent each). Of 

those countries that reported rates in 2008, the three 

with the lowest graduation rates were Luxembourg 

(5 percent), Mexico (18 percent), and Turkey (20 

percent). Between 1995 and 2008, the OECD average 

graduation rate increased from 20 to 38 percent, but 

for some countries the increase was more substantial 

than for others. Of the countries that reported rates in 

both years, Finland and the Slovak Republic had the 

greatest increases (42 percentage points each), while 

Spain and the United States exhibited the least change 

(9 and 4 percentage points, respectively). 

Figure 23. First-time college graduation rates among 24 OECD countries: 2008

NOTE: Figure includes only countries that reported data for 2008. Mismatches between the coverage of the population data and 

the student/graduate data mean that the participation/graduation rates for those countries that are net exporters of students (for 

instance, Luxembourg) are underestimated and those that are net importers are overestimated. Data are for tertiary-type A programs, 

which generally correspond to bachelor’s degrees in the United States.

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance 2010 OECD Indicators, table A3.2. 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 67

Table 23. First-time college graduation rates among 30 OECD countries: 1995, 2000, 2003, and 2008

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

OECD countries

All tertiary-type A1 programs (first-time graduation)

19952 20002 20032 20083

Australia — 35.7 49.8 — 

Austria 9.7 15.3 18.9 25.0 

Belgium — — — — 

Canada 27.2 27.2 28.2 — 

Czech Republic 12.6 13.8 16.8 35.8 

Denmark 25.2 37.3 42.7 46.8 

Finland 20.3 40.8 47.7 62.6 

France — — — — 

Germany 13.9 18.4 18.3 25.5 

Greece 13.9 14.5 20.3 — 

Hungary — — — 30.1 

Iceland 20.3 33.2 45.2 56.6 

Ireland — 30.5 36.8 46.1 

Italy — 19.0 — 32.8 

Japan 25.4 29.4 33.7 39.4 

Korea — — — — 

Luxembourg — — — 5.3 

Mexico — — — 18.1 

Netherlands 28.5 35.1 38.2 41.4 

New Zealand 32.7 50.3 49.3 48.3 

Norway 26.2 37.4 39.4 41.5 

Poland — 34.4 44.0 50.0 

Portugal 14.9 23.2 32.6 45.3 

Slovak Republic 15.0 — 25.2 57.1 

Spain 23.9 30.4 32.3 33.1 

Sweden 24.0 28.1 35.1 39.9 

Switzerland 9.5 11.9 21.6 32.4 

Turkey 6.0 8.8 10.5 19.5 

United Kingdom — 37.4 38.2 34.9 

United States 32.7 34.4 31.9 37.3 

OECD average 20.1 28.1 32.9 37.7 

— Not available 1 Tertiary-type A programs are designed to provide sufficient qualifications for entry to advanced research programs and professions 

with high skill requirements. These programs have a minimum cumulative duration (at tertiary level) of 3 years’ full-time equivalent, 

although they typically last 4 or more years, corresponding to bachelor’s degrees in the United States.

2 For 1995, 2000, and 2003, graduation rates were calculated on a gross basis. Gross graduation rates refer to the total number of 

graduates (the graduates themselves may be of any age) at the specified level of education divided by the population at the typical 

graduation age at the specified level. In many countries, defining a typical age of graduation is difficult, however, because graduates 

are dispersed over a wide range of ages.

3 For 2008 and for countries with available data, graduation rates were calculated as net graduation rates. Net graduation rates 

measure the percentage of persons within a virtual age cohort who obtain a qualification from a given level of education, thus being 

unaffected by changes in population size or typical graduation age. The net graduation rate is calculated by dividing the number of 

graduates at each single year of age by the population at that age and summing these over all the ages. 

NOTE: Mismatches between the coverage of the population data and the student/graduate data mean that the participation/

graduation rates for those countries that are net exporters of students (for instance, Luxembourg) are underestimated and those that 

are net importers are overestimated. For more information on the method used to calculate graduation rates (gross rates versus net 

rates) and the corresponding typical ages, see the Education at a Glance 2010 website (http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag2010).

SOURCE: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance 2010 OECD Indicators, table A3.2. 
68 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 24 — School Completion and Educational Attainment

24. School Completion and Educational Attainment

In 2009, some 19 percent of young adults ages 18 to 

24 had not completed high school, while 81 percent 

had at least a high school diploma or equivalency 

certification. While many 18- to 24-year-olds were 

still enrolled in school and had not yet finished 

their education (see Table 8), the highest level of 

educational attainment for 29 percent of young adults 

was high school completion, while 36 percent had 

attended some college, 5 percent had an associate’s 

degree, and 10 percent had a bachelor’s or higher 

degree. Between 1980 and 2009, the percentage of 

young adults whose highest level of education was 

completion of high school decreased from 46 to 29 

percent. Conversely, the percentages of young adults 

whose highest level of education was some college or 

a bachelor’s degree increased from 25 to 36 percent 

and from 7 to 9 percent, respectively, between 1980 

and 2009. Between 1995 and 2009, the percentages 

of young adults who received an associate’s degree 

and who received a bachelor’s or higher degree also 

increased (from 4 to 5 percent and from 8 to 10 

percent, respectively). 

High school completion or less was the highest 

educational attainment for greater percentages of 

male than female young adults in 2009. In addition, 

greater percentages of female than male young 

adults reported attending some college or receiving 

an associate’s, bachelor’s, or higher degree. Between 

1980 and 2009, the percentage of young adults 

whose highest level of educational attainment was 

high school completion only decreased from 44 to 

32 percent for males and from 48 to 26 percent for 

females. During this same time period, males and 

females completed higher levels of education. For 

example, between 1995 and 2009 the percentage of 

young adults who had a bachelor’s or higher degree 

increased from 6 to 8 percent for males and from 9 

to 12 percent for females. 

Figure 24. Percentage distribution of 18- to 24-year-olds, by sex and educational attainment: Selected years, 

1980, 1995, and 2009

1 Includes equivalency certification in 1995 and 2009.

2 In 1980, “some college” refers to completing 1 or more years of college. In 1995 and 2009, the term refers to completing any college 

at all. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1980–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 69

Table 24. Percentage distribution of 18- to 24-year-olds according to highest level of educational attainment, by 

Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009

Year and sex

Less than 

high school 

completion

High school completion or higher

Total

High school 

completion 

only1

Some

college2

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Total

1980 22.9 77.1 45.8 24.6 — 6.7 —

1985 22.1 77.9 43.9 27.0 — 7.0 —

1990 22.0 78.0 42.4 28.3 — 7.4 —

1995 22.8 77.2 30.9 34.4 4.1 7.5 7.8

2000 23.5 76.5 30.4 34.6 3.9 7.0 7.7

2001 22.9 77.1 30.0 33.9 4.7 8.0 8.5

2002 23.7 76.3 30.1 34.0 4.1 7.6 8.0

2003 22.7 77.3 30.0 34.8 4.4 7.7 8.1

2004 22.1 77.9 30.0 35.0 4.4 8.0 8.4

2005 21.8 78.2 30.0 35.2 4.6 8.0 8.4

2006 21.2 78.8 30.4 35.0 5.0 7.8 8.4

2007 21.1 78.9 30.3 34.8 5.2 8.0 8.6

2008 20.0 80.0 29.2 36.5 5.0 8.8 9.4

2009 19.4 80.6 29.3 36.3 5.1 9.2 9.8

Male

1980 24.9 75.1 44.0 24.9 — 6.2 —

1985 24.1 75.9 43.0 26.2 — 6.7 —

1990 23.6 76.4 42.2 27.3 — 6.8 —

1995 24.7 75.3 32.8 32.6 3.5 6.2 6.4

2000 26.1 73.9 31.1 33.0 3.8 5.6 6.0

2001 25.9 74.1 31.1 32.1 4.4 6.3 6.6

2002 25.9 74.1 31.3 32.2 3.9 6.4 6.6

2003 25.0 75.0 32.3 32.6 4.0 5.9 6.2

2004 25.0 75.0 32.1 32.6 3.9 6.1 6.5

2005 24.1 75.9 32.8 32.5 4.0 6.5 6.7

2006 23.6 76.4 32.0 33.3 4.6 6.1 6.6

2007 23.5 76.5 31.9 32.9 4.8 6.5 7.0

2008 21.9 78.1 31.7 34.2 4.6 7.4 7.7

2009 21.7 78.3 32.3 33.5 4.4 7.6 8.1

Female

1980 21.0 79.0 47.5 24.3 — 7.3 —

1985 20.2 79.8 44.8 27.7 — 7.3 —

1990 20.4 79.6 42.5 29.2 — 7.9 —

1995 20.9 79.1 29.1 36.2 4.7 8.7 9.1

2000 20.9 79.1 29.6 36.3 3.9 8.5 9.3

2001 20.0 80.0 28.9 35.7 4.9 9.8 10.4

2002 21.5 78.5 28.9 35.8 4.4 8.9 9.4

2003 20.4 79.6 27.6 37.1 4.8 9.5 10.1

2004 19.2 80.8 27.9 37.6 4.9 9.9 10.5

2005 19.6 80.4 27.2 37.9 5.2 9.6 10.1

2006 18.8 81.2 28.8 36.9 5.3 9.5 10.2

2007 18.7 81.3 28.8 36.7 5.6 9.5 10.3

2008 18.0 82.0 26.7 38.8 5.4 10.4 11.2

2009 17.1 82.9 26.3 39.1 5.8 10.8 11.6

— Not available.

1 Includes equivalency certification from 1992 to 2009.

2 Prior to 1992, “some college” refers to completing 1 or more years of college. From 1992 to 2009, the term refers to completing any 

college at all.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1980–2009.
70 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 24 — School Completion and Educational Attainment

SNAPSHOT

Educational Attainment by Nativity

Changes in the demographic characteristics of 

today’s youth are also characterized by their nativity 

status—whether they are born in the United States 

(defined here as the 50 U.S. states and the District 

of Columbia) or move to the United States later 

in life. Of those who move to the United States, 

some become U.S. citizens and some do not. The 

educational attainment of young adults in the 

United States varies by nativity and citizenship 

status. In 2009, some 16 percent of young adults 

(18- to 24-year-olds) had not completed high 

school.11 A higher percentage of young adults born 

outside of the United States (30 percent) had not 

completed high school than had their U.S. born 

peers (15 percent). Although adults in this age 

group may not have had time to finish college, 41 

percent of U.S.-born young adults had some college 

education, compared to 29 percent of young adults 

born outside of the United States. 

The educational attainment of young adults born 

outside of the United States varied by sex; females 

had higher levels of educational attainment than 

males in 2009. Seventy-five percent of female 

young adults born outside of the United States had 

completed at least high school, compared with 66 

percent of males. Similarly, 31 percent of female 

young adults born outside of the United States had 

some college education, compared to 26 percent 

of males. In addition, among young adults born 

outside the United States, a higher percentage of 

females than males had completed a bachelor’s or 

higher degree in 2009 (11 vs. 7 percent).

U.S. citizens between the ages of 18 and 24 who were 

born outside of the United States had higher levels 

of educational attainment than non-U.S. citizens 

in the same age group. Thirty-nine percent of male 

and 30 percent of female noncitizen young adults 

born outside of the United States had not completed 

high school in 2009, compared to 12 percent of 

male and 10 percent of female U.S. citizens born 

outside of the United States. Similarly, 22 percent 

of noncitizen young adult males had attended some 

college, compared to 42 percent of male U.S. citizens 

born outside of the United States. In 2009, some 

45 percent of female U.S. citizens born outside of 

the United States had attended some college and 18 

percent had attained a bachelor’s or higher degree, 

compared to 27 percent of female noncitizens who 

had attended some college and 9 percent who had 

attained a bachelor’s or higher degree.

11 These estimates are from the 2009 American Community Survey (ACS) and may differ from the estimates shown in Table 24 

due to differing data sources. 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 71Chapter 2 — School-Related Characteristics

SNAPSHOT

Table 24a. Percentage distribution of 18- to 24-year-olds according to highest level of educational 

attainment, by nativity, sex, and citizenship status: 2009

Nativity, sex, and

citizenship status

Less than 

high school 

completion

High school completion or higher

Total

High school 

completion only1Some

college

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Total 16.4 83.6 30.2 39.7 4.7 8.4 9.0

Born within the

United States2 14.8 85.2 30.4 41.0 4.8 8.5 9.0

Male 17.0 83.0 33.3 38.2 4.2 6.8 7.2

Female 12.4 87.6 27.3 43.9 5.4 10.2 11.0

Born outside of the 

United States2 29.8 70.2 28.6 28.7 3.8 7.9 9.0

Male 33.7 66.3 29.4 26.5 3.1 6.2 7.3

U.S. citizen 11.7 88.3 27.9 42.0 6.6 10.7 11.9

Non-U.S. citizen 39.4 60.6 29.8 22.5 2.2 5.0 6.2

Female 25.2 74.8 27.7 31.5 4.6 10.0 11.1

U.S. citizen 9.8 90.2 20.5 44.6 7.1 16.9 18.0

Non-U.S. citizen 30.4 69.6 30.2 27.0 3.7 7.7 8.7

1 Includes equivalency certification.

2 United States refers to the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2009.

Figure 24a. Percentage distribution of 18- to 24-year-olds according to highest level of educational 

attainment, by sex, nativity, and citizenship status: 2009

1 Includes equivalency certification.

2 United States refers to the 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2009.
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Chapter 3

EMPLOYMENT-RELATED

CHARACTERISTICS
74 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 25 — Employment of 16- and 17-Year-Old Students

25. Employment of 16- and 17-Year-Old Students

Research suggests that working more than 15 hours 

per week while in high school can have a negative 

effect on academic achievement (Singh et al. 2007). 

Overall, 15 percent of 16- and 17-year-old students 

were employed in 2009; approximately 8 percent 

worked less than 15 hours per week and 7 percent 

worked 15 or more hours per week. In 2009, some 

17 percent of female students and 14 percent of male 

students were employed. There were no consistent 

overall patterns of change between 1980 and 2009. 

In the years shown between 1980 and 2000, no 

measurable differences were found between male and 

female students in level of employment, even when 

employment was examined by hours worked per 

week (less than 15 hours per week and 15 or more 

hours per week). In 2001, 2002, 2006, and 2008, 

greater percentages of female than male students 

were employed. 

Between 1980 and 2009, the percentage of 16- and 

17-year-old male students who were employed 

decreased from 35 percent to 14 percent. The 

percentage of female students who were employed 

also decreased, from 34 percent in 1980 to 17 percent 

in 2009. 

The percentage of males and females employed for 

less than 15 hours per week decreased between 1980 

and 2009. In 1980, some 15 percent of male students 

were employed less than 15 hours per week, compared 

to 7 percent in 2009. Similarly, 15 percent of female 

students were employed less than 15 hours per week 

in 1980, compared to 9 percent in 2009. 

Between 1980 and 2009, the percentage of male 

students employed 15 or more hours per week 

decreased (from 20 to 6 percent). During this same 

period, the percentage of female students employed 

15 or more hours per week also decreased (from 18 

to 7 percent).

Figure 25. Percentage of 16- and 17-year-old students who were employed, by sex and hours worked per week: 

Selected years, October 1980 through 2009 

NOTE: Percent employed includes those who were employed but not at work during the survey week. Hours worked per week refers to 

the number of hours the respondent worked at all jobs during the survey week. These estimates exclude those who were employed 

but not at work during the survey week; therefore, detail may not sum to the total percentage employed. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1980–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 75

Table 25. Percentage of 16- and 17-year-old students who were employed, by sex and hours worked per week: 

Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

Selected years, October 1980 through 2009 

Year Total Males Females

Percent employed1

1980 34.6 35.2 34.0

1985 30.8 30.1 31.4

1990 30.9 31.0 30.8

1995 32.9 31.9 34.1

2000 33.3 32.2 34.4

2002 29.2 26.4 32.0

2003 25.2 24.3 26.1

2005 25.2 23.8 26.6

2007 24.8 23.5 26.2

2009 15.4 14.1 16.7

Percent employed less than 15 hours per week2

1980 14.8 14.6 15.0

1985 12.5 11.5 13.5

1990 12.6 11.9 13.3

1995 13.2 12.2 14.4

2000 12.8 12.1 13.6

2002 12.0 10.7 13.3

2003 9.8 9.1 10.5

2005 10.7 9.7 11.6

2007 11.3 10.4 12.3

2009 7.9 6.9 8.8

Percent employed 15 or more hours per week2

1980 18.9 19.5 18.1

1985 17.4 17.7 17.2

1990 17.6 18.4 16.7

1995 18.5 18.4 18.6

2000 19.3 19.3 19.2

2002 16.2 14.8 17.7

2003 14.4 14.3 14.5

2005 13.5 13.6 13.5

2007 12.9 12.4 13.4

2009 6.7 6.2 7.1

1 Includes those who were employed but not at work during the survey week.

2 Refers to the number of hours the respondent worked at all jobs during the survey week. These estimates exclude those who were 

employed but not at work during the survey week; therefore, detail may not sum to the total percentage employed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1980–2009.
76 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 25 — Employment of 16- and 17-Year-Old Students

SNAPSHOT

Employment of 16- and 17-Year-Old Students by Race/Ethnicity

In 2009, the percentage of 16- and 17-year-old 

students who were employed varied by race/

ethnicity. The percentage of White students (20 

percent) who were employed was higher than 

the percentages of Black (9 percent), Hispanic 

(9 percent), and Asian students (6 percent) and 

students of two or more races (8 percent) who were 

employed. A higher percentage of White students 

(10 percent) than Black and Hispanic (4 percent 

each) students also worked less than 15 hours per 

week. The same pattern held for students who 

worked 15 or more hours per week.

Table 25a. Percentage of 16- and 17-year-old students who were employed, by hours worked per week and 

race/ethnicity: 2009

Race/ethnicity Percent employed1

Percent employed less

than 15 hours

per week2

Percent employed 15

or more hours

per week2

Total3 15.4 7.9 6.7

White 19.8 10.4 8.2

Black 8.8 3.6 4.5

Hispanic 9.3 4.3 5.0

Asian 5.6! ‡ ‡

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska Native ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races 8.1! ‡ ‡

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 Includes those who were employed but not at work during the survey week.

2 Excludes those who were employed but not at work during the survey week; therefore, detail may not sum to the total percentage 

employed.

3 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, 2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 77Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

SNAPSHOT

Figure 25a. Percentage of 16- and 17-year-old students who were employed, by race/ethnicity: 2009

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate exceeds 30 percent.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: Estimates include those who were employed but not at work during the survey week. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, 2009.
78 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 26 — Labor Force Participation and Unemployment

26. Labor Force Participation and Unemployment of Youth and Young Adults

The labor force participation of young males and 

females (i.e., 16- to 19-year-olds) declined between 

1980 and 2010. The percentage of young males in 

the labor force decreased from 61 percent in 1980 

to 35 percent in 2010, and the percentage of young 

females decreased from 53 percent to 35 percent over 

the same time period. In 1980, 1985, and 1990, a 

higher percentage of young males than young females 

were in the labor force; however, by 1995 the gap 

had closed and in 2010, no measurable difference 

was found between the labor force participation rates 

of young males and females (35 percent for both).

The unemployment rate is the percentage of those in 

the labor force who are not working and are seeking 

employment. People who have no job and are not 

looking for one, or who have a physical or mental 

disability that prevents them from participating in 

the labor force, are not included in the labor force 

and are not considered unemployed. The percentage 

of young males who were unemployed fluctuated 

between 1980 and 2010, with an increase seen in 

the more recent period of 2000 to 2010 (from 14 

to 29 percent). No consistent pattern was found for 

young females who were unemployed between 1980 

and 2010 although there was an increase between 

2000 and 2010 from 12 to 23 percent unemployed. 

In 2010, a higher percentage of young males (29 

percent) than females (23 percent) was unemployed. 

Similar patterns in labor force participation and 

unemployment were found for young adults ages 20 

to 24. The labor force participation of young adult 

males decreased between 1980 and 2010 (from 86 to 

75 percent). Although there was no consistent pattern 

in the labor force participation of young adult females 

between 1980 and 2010, the gap between males and 

females did narrow. In 1980, about 86 percent of 

young adult males were in the labor force, compared 

to 69 percent of young adult females (a difference of 

17 percentage points). By 2010, the difference was 

about 7 percentage points, with 75 percent of young 

adult males and 68 percent of young adult females 

in the labor force. 

Figure 26a. Labor force participation rate of 16- to 24-year-olds, by sex and age group: Selected years, 1980 

through 2010 

NOTE: The labor force participation rate is the percentage of persons either employed or seeking employment.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey (CPS), unpublished data, selected years, 

1980–2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 79

Table 26. Labor force participation and unemployment rates of persons 16 years old and over, by sex and age 

Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

group: Selected years, 1980 through 2010

Year

Males Females

Age 16 

and older

Ages

16–19

Ages

20–24

Ages

25–34

Age 16 

and older

Ages

16–19

Ages

20–24

Ages

25–34

Civilian labor force,1 in thousands

1980 61,450 5,000 8,610 16,970 45,490 4,380 7,320 12,260

1985 64,410 4,130 8,280 18,810 51,050 3,770 7,430 14,740

1990 69,010 4,090 7,870 19,870 56,830 3,700 6,830 16,060

1995 71,360 4,040 7,340 18,670 60,940 3,730 6,350 15,530

2000 76,280 4,270 7,520 17,840 66,300 4,000 6,730 14,910

2005 80,030 3,590 8,050 17,840 69,290 3,570 7,070 14,500

2006 81,260 3,690 8,120 17,940 70,170 3,590 7,000 14,630

2007 82,140 3,540 8,100 18,310 70,990 3,470 7,110 14,820

2008 82,520 3,470 8,070 18,300 71,770 3,390 7,110 15,030

2009 82,120 3,230 7,840 18,210 72,020 3,160 7,130 15,090

2010 81,990 2,990 7,860 18,350 71,900 2,910 7,160 15,260

Percent in labor force2

1980 77.4 60.5 85.9 95.2 51.5 52.9 68.9 65.5

1985 76.3 56.8 85.0 94.7 54.5 52.1 71.8 70.9

1990 76.4 55.7 84.4 94.1 57.5 51.6 71.3 73.5

1995 75.0 54.8 83.1 93.0 58.9 52.2 70.3 74.9

2000 74.8 52.8 82.6 93.4 59.9 51.2 73.1 76.1

2005 73.3 43.2 79.1 91.7 59.3 44.2 70.1 73.9

2006 73.5 43.7 79.6 91.7 59.4 43.7 69.5 74.4

2007 73.2 41.1 78.7 92.2 59.3 41.5 70.1 74.5

2008 73.0 40.1 78.7 91.5 59.5 40.2 70.0 75.2

2009 72.0 37.3 76.2 90.3 59.2 37.7 69.6 75.0

2010 71.2 34.9 74.5 89.7 58.6 35.0 68.3 74.7

Percent unemployed3

1980 6.9 18.3 12.5 6.7 7.4 17.2 10.4 7.2

1985 7.0 19.5 11.4 6.6 7.4 17.6 10.7 7.4

1990 5.7 16.3 9.1 5.5 5.5 14.7 8.5 5.6

1995 5.6 18.4 9.2 5.1 5.6 16.1 9.0 5.7

2000 3.9 14.0 7.3 3.4 4.1 12.1 7.1 4.1

2005 5.1 18.6 9.6 4.7 5.1 14.5 7.9 5.6

2006 4.6 16.9 8.7 4.5 4.6 13.8 7.6 4.9

2007 4.7 17.6 8.9 4.7 4.5 13.8 7.3 4.6

2008 6.1 21.2 11.4 6.1 5.4 16.2 8.8 5.5

2009 10.3 27.8 17.0 10.9 8.1 20.7 12.3 8.6

2010 10.5 28.8 17.8 10.9 8.6 22.8 13.0 9.1

1 The civilian labor force includes all employed persons, plus those seeking employment; it excludes persons in the military.

2 The labor force participation rate is the percentage of persons either employed or seeking employment.

3 The unemployment rate is the percentage of those in the labor force who are not working and are seeking employment.

NOTE: Some data are revised from previously published figures. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey (CPS), unpublished data, selected years, 

1980–2010.
80 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 26 — Labor Force Participation and Unemployment

The unemployment rates for 16- to 19-year-old males 

and females were higher than the rates for 20- to 

24-year-old males and females, respectively, in each 

year shown between 1980 and 2010. During this 

period, unemployment rates fluctuated for male and 

female young adults ages 20 to 24. In 2010, a higher 

percentage of young adult males (18 percent) than 

females (13 percent) were unemployed.

Figure 26b. Unemployment rate of 16- to 24-year-olds, by sex and age group: Selected years, 1980 through 

2010

NOTE: The unemployment rate is the percentage of those in the labor force who are not working and are seeking employment.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey (CPS), unpublished data, selected years, 

1980–2010.
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82 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 27 — Unemployment by Educational Attainment

27. Unemployment of Youth and Young Adults by Educational Attainment

In 2010, about 19 percent of the labor force ages 

16 to 24 was unemployed, compared with 11 

percent of those ages 25 to 29. The rate of youth 

and young adult unemployment varied by sex, race/

ethnicity, and level of educational attainment. For 

instance, a higher percentage of 16- to 24-year-old 

males (22 percent) than females (15 percent) were 

unemployed. This pattern held true across levels of 

educational attainment. For example, in 2010, about 

33 percent of males without a high school diploma 

were unemployed, compared to 26 percent of females. 

Among adults ages 25 to 29, the unemployment rates 

for males were higher than those for females overall 

and for those who have completed high school or 

received a bachelor’s or higher degree. For males and 

females of both age groups, lower unemployment 

rates were associated with higher levels of education. 

For all levels of educational attainment and all races/

ethnicities, 16- to 24-year-olds had higher rates of 

unemployment than 25- to 29-year-olds.

 Looking at differences by race/ethnicity revealed 

that unemployment rates among 16- to 24-year-olds 

in 2010 were higher for American Indians/Alaska 

Natives (39 percent), Blacks (31 percent), Hispanics 

(21 percent), and persons of two or more races (25 

percent) than for Whites (15 percent) and Asians 

(16 percent). Among 25- to 29-year-olds, Blacks 

had the highest unemployment rate (20 percent) 

followed by American Indians/Alaska Natives (17 

percent), Hispanics (12 percent), persons of two or 

more races (11 percent), Whites (10 percent), and 

Asians (8 percent).

In general, lower unemployment rates were associated 

with higher levels of education overall and for 

Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics in 2010. While the 

overall unemployment rate for 16- to 24-year-olds 

was 19 percent, it was 30 percent for those without 

a high school diploma and 7 percent for those 

with a bachelor’s or higher degree. Similarly, the 

unemployment rate for 16- to 24-year-old Blacks 

without a high school credential was 49 percent, 

compared with 32 percent for those with only a high 

school credential and 12 percent for those with a 

bachelor’s or higher degree. The unemployment rate 

for Hispanics ages 16 to 24 who did not complete 

high school was 28 percent, compared with 12 percent 

for those who completed a bachelor’s or higher degree. 

Patterns for adults ages 25 to 29 were similar to those 

of young adults ages 16 to 24. For example, 21 percent 

of 25- to 29-year-olds without a high school diploma 

were unemployed, compared with 5 percent of those 

with a bachelor’s or higher degree.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 83

Table 27. Unemployment rate of 16- to 29-year-olds, by educational attainment, age group, sex, and race/

Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

ethnicity: 2010

Sex and race/ethnicity Total

Less than

high school 

completion

High school 

completion

only1

Some college 

or associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s or 

higher degree

Ages 16 to 24

Total2 18.8 30.2 23.0 12.2 7.3

Sex

Male 22.0 33.0 25.2 14.0 9.6

Female 15.4 26.2 19.9 10.6 5.6

Race/ethnicity

White 15.5 26.5 19.6 10.2 5.9

Black 30.6 49.0 32.4 19.2 11.9

Hispanic 21.3 27.9 23.5 14.0 12.0

Asian 15.9 21.8 22.0 14.5 10.7!

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander 22.4 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 39.4 66.7 38.4 28.6! ‡

Two or more races 25.3 35.8 33.1 17.2 ‡

Ages 25 to 29

Total2 11.3 20.9 17.3 10.4 4.8

Sex

Male 13.2 21.1 18.8 11.2 5.7

Female 9.1 20.3 14.8 9.5 3.9

Race/ethnicity

White 9.5 27.0 16.1 9.6 3.9

Black 19.7 36.1 27.3 16.0 8.1

Hispanic 12.4 15.0 14.0 10.4 6.8

Asian 7.8 ‡ 12.1 ‡ 7.6

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 17.0 ‡ 25.4! 16.9! ‡

Two or more races 10.8 ‡ 18.2! ‡ ‡

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 Includes equivalency certification.

2 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2010.
84 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 27 — Unemployment by Educational Attainment

Figure 27. Unemployment rate of 16- to 24-year-olds, by race/ethnicity and educational attainment: 2010 

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases).

1 Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately.

2 Includes equivalency certification.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Data for Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders are excluded because they 

did not meet reporting standards.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2010.
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86 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 28 — Labor Force Participation of High School Dropouts

28. Labor Force Participation of High School Dropouts

Dropping out of high school can lead to several 

negative outcomes. For instance, among adults 

in the labor force, there is a higher percentage of 

unemployment among dropouts than among adults 

who have a high school credential (U.S. Department 

of Labor 2011). In 2009, about 383,000 youth and 

young adults between the ages of 16 and 24 dropped 

out of high school during the previous 12 months. 

Of these dropouts, about 48 percent (or 186,000) 

were in the civilian labor force, meaning exclusive 

of the military, while 52 percent (or 198,000) were 

not. Among the dropouts in the civilian labor force 

in 2009, about 55 percent were unemployed. 

The number of high school dropouts declined from 

738,000 in 1980 to 383,000 in 2009. Between 1980 

and 2002, the labor force participation rate for high 

school dropouts fluctuated, ranging between 64 and 

68 percent. However, between 2002 and 2009, the 

participation rate declined 20 percentage points (from 

68 to 48 percent). 

Table 28. Labor status of 16- to 24-year-old high school dropouts in the civilian labor force in the year that they 

dropped out: Selected years, 1980 through 2009

Year

Number of 

dropouts2

(in thousands)

Labor force 

participation 

rate3 

Dropouts in the civilian labor force1 Dropouts not 

in the labor 

force (in 

thousands)

Number (in thousands) Unemployment rate4 Total Employed Unemployed4

1980 738 63.8 471 323 148 31.4 267

1985 610 67.5 412 265 147 35.6 198

1990 412 67.8 279 190 89 31.8 132

1995 604 67.7 409 288 121 29.6 195

2000 515 68.0 350 252 99 28.1 165

2001 506 64.0 324 207 116 35.9 182

2002 401 67.7 271 191 81 29.8 129

2003 457 59.3 271 187 84 30.8 186

2004 496 53.7 267 160 106 39.9 229

2005 407 57.2 233 156 77 32.9 174

2006 445 52.8 235 180 55 23.6 210

2007 426 56.2 239 175 64 26.9 187

2008 400 48.4 194 117 77 39.5 206

2009 383 48.5 186 83 103 55.1 198

1 The civilian labor force includes all employed persons, plus those seeking employment; it excludes persons in the military.

2 Includes persons 16 to 24 years old who dropped out from any grade without completing high school or a General Educational 

Development (GED) certificate during the previous 12 months (October through October).

3 The labor force participation rate is the percent of persons either employed or seeking employment.

4 The unemployment rate is the proportion of those in the labor force who are not working, but are seeking employment.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1980–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 87

Figure 28. Labor force participation rate of 16- to 24-year-old high school dropouts in the civilian labor force in 

Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

the year that they dropped out: Selected years, 1980 to 2009 

NOTE: Dropouts include persons 16 to 24 years old who dropped out from any grade without completing high school or a General 

Educational Development (GED) certificate during the previous 12 months (October through October). The labor force participation 

rate is the percent of persons either employed or seeking employment. The civilian labor force includes all employed persons, plus 

those seeking employment; it excludes persons in the military. Some data are revised from previously published figures. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October Supplement, selected years, 

1980–2009.
88 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 29 — Young Adults in the Armed Forces 

29. Young Adults in the Armed Forces 

In 2008, more than 537,000 young adults between 

the ages of 18 and 24 were active enlisted members 

in the armed forces. These young adults represented 

1.8 percent of the resident population (defined here 

as persons in the 50 U.S. states and the District of 

Columbia). Across all age groups, more male than 

female young adults were in the armed forces. For 

example, approximately 85,000 males between the 

ages of 18 and 19 were in the armed forces in 2008, 

compared with about 16,000 females in the same 

age group.

The number of young adults serving in the armed 

forces fluctuated between 2000 and 2008, reaching 

a high of about 579,000 enlisted members in 2003. 

However, there were differences in the trends by sex 

and age group. Between 2000 and 2008, the number 

of 18- to 19-year-olds serving in the armed forces 

decreased for both males and females. For males, 

the number decreased from about 109,000 in 2000 

to 85,000 in 2008. Over the same time period, the 

number of 18- to 19-year-old females serving in the 

armed forces decreased from 24,000 to about 16,000. 

The number of 20- to 21-year-olds in the armed 

forces peaked in 2003 for males (174,000) and in 

2002 for females (35,000) and then decreased for 

both sexes to 152,000 males and 26,000 females in 

the armed forces in 2008. In contrast, the number of 

22- to 24-year-old males in the armed forces increased 

from 179,000 in 2000 to about 223,000 in 2008. 

However, the number of 22- to 24-year-old females 

who served in the armed forces increased from 34,000 

in 2000 to 42,000 in 2004, and then decreased to 

37,000 in 2008.

Table 29. Number and percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds in the armed forces, by age group and sex: 2000 

through 2008

Year Total

Ages 18–19 Ages 20–21 Ages 22–24

Male Female Male Female Male Female

Number in armed forces

2000 541,696 109,284 24,428 163,172 31,416 178,903 34,493

2001 555,786 107,537 23,802 168,607 33,295 185,944 36,601

2002 570,490 102,188 22,098 172,132 34,705 200,060 39,307

2003 578,766 94,168 19,964 173,661 34,654 214,658 41,661

2004 571,998 92,055 18,013 170,440 32,511 217,184 41,795

2005 541,313 82,648 15,325 161,585 28,877 212,818 40,060

2006 539,139 82,916 16,513 158,587 27,017 214,670 39,436

2007 531,357 82,636 15,974 151,923 25,739 217,557 37,528

2008 537,187 84,758 15,680 151,606 25,775 222,609 36,759

Percentage of resident population in armed forces

2000 2.0 2.6 0.6 4.0 0.8 3.1 0.6

2001 2.0 2.6 0.6 4.0 0.8 3.2 0.7

2002 2.0 2.4 0.6 4.0 0.9 3.3 0.7

2003 2.0 2.2 0.5 4.1 0.9 3.4 0.7

2004 2.0 2.2 0.4 4.0 0.8 3.4 0.7

2005 1.9 2.0 0.4 3.8 0.7 3.3 0.7

2006 1.8 1.9 0.4 3.7 0.7 3.3 0.6

2007 1.8 1.9 0.4 3.5 0.6 3.3 0.6

2008 1.8 1.9 0.4 3.5 0.6 3.4 0.6

NOTE: Data consist of active component enlisted members of the armed forces, including members of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, 

and Air Force. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Manpower Data Center. “Population Representation in the Military Services,” appendix 

B, fiscal years 2000–08 and U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Population Estimates, 2000–08, retrieved November 4, 2010, 

from http://www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/2008-nat-res.html.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 89

Figure 29. Number of 18- to 24-year-olds in the armed forces, by sex and age group: 2000 through 2008

Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

NOTE: Data consist of active component enlisted members of the armed forces, including members of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, 

and Air Force. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Manpower Data Center. “Population Representation in the Military Services,” appendix 

B, fiscal years 2000–08 and U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Population Estimates, 2000–08, retrieved November 4, 2010, 

from http://www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/2008-nat-res.html.
90 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 30 — Median Earnings

30. Median Earnings

Median earnings are the reported annual wage and 

salary earnings of full-time, full-year workers. In 

2009, the median earnings of 15- to 19-year-olds 

were $18,000 for males and $17,000 for females 

(in constant 2010 dollars). For 20- to 24-year-olds, 

median earnings were $25,000 for males, compared 

to $22,000 for females. 

In 2009, median earnings for males and females 

between the ages of 20 and 24 were lower in constant 

dollars than in 1980. For young adult males, median 

earnings decreased from $32,000 in 1980 to $25,000 

in 2009. Median earnings for young adult females 

were higher in 1980 ($24,000) than in 2009 

($22,000). There were no measurable changes over 

time for median earnings of males and females ages 

15 to 19. 

The median earnings of young males, ages 15 to 19, 

were higher than those of females in 1980, 1995, 

2000, and between 2003 and 2007. There was no 

measurable difference in median earnings between the 

sexes in 2009. For young adults between the ages of 20 

and 24, males consistently earned more than females 

for each year shown, with the exception of 2007 when 

there was no measurable difference. However, the gap 

between median earnings of male and female young 

adults did narrow during this period from $8,000 in 

1980 to $3,000 in 2009. 

Table 30. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers, by sex and age group: 

Selected years, 1980 through 2009

Year

Males Females

Age 15 

and older Ages 15–19 Ages 20–24 Ages 25–29

Age 15 

and older Ages 15–19 Ages 20–24 Ages 25–29

[In constant 2010 dollars]

1980 $50,300 $21,200 $31,800 $42,300 $29,100 $17,900 $23,800 $31,800

1985 50,700 17,600 27,900 40,500 31,600 16,600 23,300 31,200

1990 46,700 16,700 26,000 38,300 33,400 16,700 23,400 31,700

1995 45,100 17,400 24,300 35,800 32,900 14,900 21,500 30,000

2000 48,100 19,000 26,600 38,000 35,500 16,100 24,100 32,900

2001 48,000 19,700 25,900 38,200 36,900 18,500 24,600 34,200

2002 48,500 18,200 26,700 37,600 36,400 17,500 24,200 33,900

2003 47,400 19,600 25,300 36,700 35,600 17,100 23,700 33,800

2004 46,200 18,500 25,400 36,900 35,800 16,200 23,100 34,600

2005 46,400 18,600 24,600 35,700 35,700 15,600 22,300 33,500

2006 46,500 19,500 26,000 36,800 35,800 16,900 22,700 32,500

2007 47,300 21,000 25,200 36,800 36,800 16,700 24,200 33,700

2008 46,800 17,200 25,300 36,500 35,400 15,700 23,300 32,400

2009 48,800 18,300 25,400 38,600 36,600 16,900 22,500 32,500

NOTE: Data were adjusted to constant 2010 dollars using the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1981–2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 91

Figure 30. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 15 to 24, by sex and 

Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

age group: Selected years, 1980 through 2009 

NOTE: Data were adjusted to constant 2010 dollars using the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1981–2010.
92 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 30 — Median Earnings

SNAPSHOT

Median Earnings by Educational Attainment

In order to examine median earnings by educational 

attainment, this snapshot focuses on 16- to 24-yearolds. The median earnings in 2009 for all full-time, 

full-year workers ages 16 to 24 were $24,000, a 

figure that was not measurably different from the 

median earnings in 1999 (in constant 2010 dollars). 

Generally, for both sexes, higher median earnings 

were associated with higher educational attainment. 

For example, those with a bachelor’s or higher 

degree in 2009 had median earnings of $33,000, 

while those who had not completed high school had 

median earnings of $18,000. 

In 2009, the median earnings of male workers were 

higher than the median earnings of female workers 

($25,000 vs. $22,000). Males generally had higher 

median earnings than females for each educational 

level. For example, males with a bachelor’s or 

higher degree earned $41,000 in 2009, compared 

to $30,000 for females with a bachelor’s or higher 

degree.

The median earnings for 16- to 24-year-olds with 

some college or an associate’s degree were lower in 

2009 than in 1999 (in constant dollars, $22,000 

vs. $24,000, respectively). The median earnings 

in 2009 were not measurably different from those 

in 1999 for young adults whose highest level of 

education attainment was a high school diploma or 

less or a bachelor’s degree or more. The earnings gap 

between 16- to 24-year-olds with only a high school 

diploma or its equivalent and those with a bachelor’s 

or higher degree did not measurably change when 

comparing 1999 and 2009. In 1999, youth and 

young adults ages 16 to 24 with a bachelor’s or 

higher degree earned $11,000 more per year, on 

average, than those who had only completed high 

school; in 2009, this gap was $9,000.

Table 30a. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 16 to 24, by 

educational attainment and sex: 1999 and 2009

Year and sex Total

Less than

high school 

completion

High school 

completion

only1

Some college 

or associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s

degree

Bachelor’s or 

higher degree

[In constant 2010 dollars]

1999

Total $23,600 $19,600 $22,900 $23,600 $32,700 $34,000 

Male 24,900 20,400 24,500 26,200 32,700 34,000 

Female 22,300 17,000 20,900 22,300 32,700 34,000 

2009

Total $24,400 $18,300 $23,400 $22,400 $32,500 $32,500 

Male 25,400 20,300 24,400 25,400 40,700 40,700 

Female 22,400 15,200 20,300 21,100 30,500 30,500 

1 Includes equivalency certification.

NOTE: Data were adjusted to constant 2010 dollars using the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and 

Economic Supplement, 2000 and 2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 93Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

SNAPSHOT

Figure 30a. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 16 to 24, by 

educational attainment: 1999 and 2009 

1 Includes equivalency certification.

NOTE: Data were adjusted to constant 2010 dollars using the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2000 and 2010.
94 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 31 — Poverty

31. Poverty

The overall percentage of persons living in poverty 

fluctuated between 1980 and 2009, but showed no 

consistent pattern of change. Between 2000 and 

2009, however, the overall poverty rate increased 

from 11 to 14 percent. For youth and young adults 

ages 15- to 24-years-old, the poverty rate increased 

from 14 to 20 percent between 2000 and 2009. 

This increase occurred for both male (from 12 to 17 

percent) and female (from 16 to 22 percent) 15- to 

24-year-olds between 2000 and 2009. 

When looking at differences by sex for the years 

shown between 1980 and 2009, the percentage of 

male youth and young adults living in poverty was 

lower than the percentage of female youth and young 

adults. In 2009, about 17 percent of males between 

the ages of 15 and 24 were living in poverty, compared 

with 22 percent of females. 

The percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds living in 

poverty varied by race/ethnicity in 2009. A higher 

percentage of Blacks (31 percent) than Hispanics (27 

percent), Asians/Pacific Islanders (21 percent), and 

Whites (14 percent) in the age range were living in 

poverty. In addition, a higher percentage of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives (29 percent) were living in 

poverty than were Whites. A higher percentage of 

Whites and Blacks in the same age group were living 

in poverty in 2009 than in 2000 (14 vs. 10 percent 

and 31 vs. 25 percent, respectively). The poverty rate 

for Hispanic 15- to 24-year-olds increased from 22 

percent in 2002 to 27 percent in 2009, while the 

poverty rates of Asian/Pacific Islander and American 

Indian/Alaska Native 15- to 24-year-olds did not 

change measurably over the same time period.

Figure 31. Percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds in poverty, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1995 through 2009 

NOTE: Data for Whites and Blacks include persons of mixed race prior to 2002 and include persons of Hispanic ethnicity in 1995. Data 

for Blacks also include persons of Hispanic ethnicity in 2000 and 2001. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity after 

2002. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1996–2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 95

Table 31. Number and percentage of people in poverty, by sex, race/ethnicity, and age group: Selected years, 

Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

1980 through 2009

Age group 

and year

Number 

in poverty

(in thousands)

Percent in poverty

Total

Sex Race/ethnicity

Male Female White Black Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

All persons

1980 29,270 13.0 11.2 14.7 10.21,2 32.51,2 25.7 — —

1985 33,060 14.0 12.3 15.6 11.41,2 31.31,2 29.0 — —

1990 33,590 13.5 11.7 15.2 8.82 31.91,2 28.1 12.21,2 28.51,2

1995 36,430 13.8 12.2 15.4 8.52 29.31,2 30.3 14.61,2 31.01,2

2000 31,580 11.3 9.9 12.6 7.42 22.51 21.5 9.91,2 23.21

2001 32,910 11.7 10.4 12.9 7.82 22.71 21.4 10.21,2 21.91

2002 34,570 12.1 10.9 13.3 8.0 24.0 21.8 10.2 26.3

2003 35,860 12.5 11.2 13.7 8.2 24.3 22.5 11.9 24.2

2004 37,040 12.7 11.5 13.9 8.7 24.7 21.9 9.8 25.4

2005 36,950 12.6 11.1 14.1 8.3 24.9 21.8 11.1 24.9

2006 36,460 12.3 11.0 13.6 8.2 24.1 20.6 10.1 30.7

2007 37,280 12.5 11.1 13.8 8.2 24.3 21.5 10.3 23.0

2008 39,830 13.2 12.0 14.4 8.6 24.6 23.2 12.1 23.7

2009 43,570 14.3 13.0 15.6 9.4 25.6 25.3 12.5 27.4

15 to 24 year olds

1980 5,610 13.6 11.5 15.7 10.51,2 32.01,2 24.9 — —

1985 6,360 16.6 14.9 18.3 13.81,2 33.01,2 31.1 — —

1990 5,590 16.1 — — — — — — —

1995 6,530 18.0 15.5 20.5 15.11,2 31.81,2 32.2 — —

2000 5,540 14.2 12.1 16.3 9.72 25.41,2 22.0 — —

2001 6,100 15.5 13.6 17.4 11.02 26.31,2 22.0 — —

2002 6,250 15.6 13.5 17.8 11.1 27.8 22.0 15.6 26.9

2003 6,510 16.0 13.8 18.2 11.7 27.9 21.4 17.1 25.9

2004 7,000 17.0 15.2 18.9 12.7 28.2 23.4 15.8 29.9

2005 7,060 17.1 14.5 19.8 12.5 28.3 23.9 16.9 35.2

2006 6,940 16.6 14.7 18.6 12.5 27.1 21.7 17.2 38.7

2007 6,900 16.5 14.1 18.9 12.0 27.6 22.9 14.1 28.9

2008 7,420 17.7 15.9 19.6 13.3 28.3 24.0 17.6 34.1

2009 8,270 19.6 17.0 22.3 14.4 31.0 26.7 21.4 28.7

— Not available.

1 Includes persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

2 Includes persons of mixed race.

NOTE: Data were not reported separately for Asians/Pacific Islanders and American Indians/Alaska Natives until 1990 for all persons 

and until 2002 for 15- to 24-year-olds. Data were unavailable for 15 to 24-year-olds by sex and race/ethnicity in 1990. Total includes 

other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity unless otherwise noted.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1981–2010.
96 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 31 — Poverty

SNAPSHOT

Poverty by Educational Attainment

In order to examine poverty rates by educational 

attainment, this snapshot focuses on 18- to 24-yearolds. In 2009, about 21 percent of young adults 

were living in poverty. In general, lower poverty 

rates were associated with higher levels of education. 

For instance, a higher percentage of young adults 

without a high school diploma (31 percent) were 

living in poverty than were those who had completed 

high school (24 percent) and those who had earned 

a bachelor’s or higher degree (14 percent).

This pattern generally persisted across sex and race/

ethnicity. For male 18- to 24-year-olds, about 24 

percent without a high school diploma were living 

in poverty, compared with 15 percent with at least 

a high school diploma. Similarly, females with 

higher levels of educational attainment had lower 

poverty rates than those with less education. When 

looking at race/ethnicity, Black and Hispanic young 

adults with at least a high school diploma had lower 

poverty rates than those who did not finish high 

school. For instance, about 43 percent of Black 

young adults without a high school diploma were 

living in poverty, compared to 34 percent of Black 

young adults whose highest level of educational 

attainment was high school completion.

Table 31a. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds in poverty, by educational attainment, sex, and race/ethnicity: 

2009

Sex and

race/ethnicity Total

Less than

high school 

completion

High school completion or higher

Total

High school 

completion

only1

Some

college/

associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Total 20.7 30.8 18.3 23.7 15.4 13.5 13.7

Sex

Male 17.4 24.5 15.4 17.4 14.0 14.3 14.3

Female 24.1 38.9 21.0 31.4 16.6 12.8 13.2

Race/ethnicity

White 16.3 22.7 15.2 19.7 13.3 11.5 11.5

Black 31.0 42.5 27.4 33.6 22.1 19.5! 18.5!

Hispanic 26.3 37.2 21.5 26.2 17.6 ‡ ‡

Asian 22.5 24.6! 22.2 26.6! 19.5 23.4! 25.0!

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/

Alaska Native 30.8 45.8 25.1! 28.3! ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races 21.7 30.9! 19.7! 22.0! 18.6! ‡ ‡

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 Includes equivalency certification.

NOTE: Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 97Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

SNAPSHOT

Figure 31a. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds in poverty, by sex and educational attainment: 2009

1 Includes equivalency certification.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2010.
98 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 32 — Receiving Public Assistance

32. Receiving Public Assistance

Persons living in poverty may receive some form 

of government public assistance, which includes 

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) 

(and its predecessor Aid to Families with Dependent 

Children [AFDC]), Supplemental Security Income 

(SSI), and veterans’ payments. In 2009, about 

2.9 million 15- to 24-year-olds (7 percent) lived 

in households that received some form of public 

assistance, compared to 1.7 million (4 percent) in 

1980. However, the number of 15- to 24-year-olds 

living in households that received public assistance 

peaked in 1995 (4.4 million, or 12 percent), prior 

to the implementation of the Personal Responsibility 

and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. 

Between 2000 and 2009, the percentage of youth and 

young adults receiving public assistance remained 

between 6 and 7 percent. 

The percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds living in 

households that received public assistance varied by 

sex and race/ethnicity. In 2009, a higher percentage 

of females (7 percent) lived in households that 

received public assistance than did males (6 percent). 

The percentage of females living in households that 

received public assistance was also higher than that of 

males in 1990, 1995, 2001, 2003, and 2008. During 

the peak in 1995, about 14 percent of females lived in 

households that received public assistance, compared 

to 10 percent of males. Between 2000 and 2009, 

the percentage of males living in households that 

received public assistance remained between 6 and 7 

percent. During the same time period, the percentage 

of females living in households that received public 

assistance ranged between 6 and 8 percent.

In 2009, a higher percentage of 15- to 24-yearold American Indians/Alaska Natives (17 percent) 

and Blacks (15 percent) were living in households 

that received public assistance than were Whites (4 

percent), Asians/Pacific Islanders (7 percent), and 

Hispanics (8 percent) in the same age group. Between 

1995 and 2009, the percentage of 15- to 24-year-old 

Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics living in households 

that received public assistance decreased. 

Figure 32. Percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds receiving public assistance, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1980 

through 2009 

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. For 1990 through 2009, the population receiving public assistance is 

defined as persons living in households who reported receiving public assistance, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), veterans’ 

payments, or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) (or its predecessor Aid to Families with Dependent Children [AFDC]). 

TANF replaced ADFC in 1996. For 1980 and 1985, however, information was not collected on means-tested veterans’ payments or those 

who counted public assistance as “other income” but did not report receiving public assistance.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1981–2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 99

Table 32. Number and percentage of people receiving public assistance, by sex, race/ethnicity, and age group: 

Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

Selected years, 1980 through 2009

Age group 

and year

Total Percent receiving public assistance

Number 

receiving 

public

assistance 

(in thousands)

Percent 

receiving 

public

assistance

Sex Race/ethnicity

Male Female White Black Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

All persons

1980 10,300 4.6 4.0 5.1 3.1 12.5 7.8 — —

1985 10,800 4.6 4.2 4.9 3.0 12.4 7.3 — —

1990 25,190 10.1 9.2 11.0 6.4 27.2 17.2 12.8 24.3

1995 27,250 10.3 9.4 11.2 6.0 26.5 18.9 12.6 24.1

2000 18,600 6.7 6.1 7.2 4.3 15.5 10.0 7.5 12.9

2001 17,610 6.2 5.7 6.8 4.1 14.4 8.6 7.6 14.1

2002 17,460 6.1 5.7 6.5 4.1 13.6 8.7 5.8 13.2

2003 18,580 6.4 6.0 6.8 4.4 14.6 8.9 5.9 15.8

2004 18,560 6.4 6.0 6.7 4.5 14.3 8.1 5.4 15.4

2005 18,110 6.2 5.7 6.6 4.2 14.0 7.8 5.8 13.2

2006 17,100 5.8 5.2 6.3 4.1 12.5 7.2 5.3 14.4

2007 17,210 5.8 5.4 6.1 4.1 12.8 7.0 5.2 11.4

2008 19,540 6.5 6.1 6.9 4.5 14.0 8.4 5.5 12.8

2009 19,670 6.5 6.1 6.8 4.4 13.5 8.7 5.9 16.1

15 to 24 years old

1980 1,700 4.1 3.9 4.3 2.4 11.7 6.9 — —

1985 1,760 4.6 4.7 4.5 2.9 12.5 5.0 — —

1990 3,790 10.9 9.1 12.7 6.8 25.8 15.1 15.1 27.2!

1995 4,390 12.1 10.2 14.0 6.8 29.4 18.2 13.2 22.4!

2000 2,750 7.1 6.3 7.9 4.5 15.9 9.2 7.4 8.0!

2001 2,640 6.7 6.1 7.3 4.1 15.8 7.6 9.0 15.4

2002 2,590 6.5 6.2 6.8 4.2 14.3 7.7 7.0 13.0

2003 2,960 7.3 6.6 7.9 4.9 16.7 8.0 5.8 15.9

2004 2,930 7.1 6.6 7.6 4.9 16.2 7.7 6.0 13.3

2005 2,770 6.7 6.4 7.0 4.1 15.4 8.1 6.8 15.3

2006 2,500 6.0 5.6 6.4 4.3 12.2 6.2 6.4 14.1

2007 2,460 5.9 5.6 6.2 3.9 13.2 6.3 5.5 8.4

2008 2,910 7.0 6.3 7.6 4.6 14.9 8.4 5.7 11.3

2009 2,930 6.9 6.4 7.5 4.4 14.9 8.1 7.4 17.3

— Not available.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

NOTE: Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. For 

1990 through 2009, the population receiving public assistance is defined as persons living in households who reported receiving 

public assistance, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), veterans’ payments, or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) (or its 

predecessor Aid to Families with Dependent Children [AFDC]). TANF replaced ADFC in 1996. For 1980 and 1985, however, information 

was not collected on means-tested veterans’ payments or those who counted public assistance as “other income” but did not report 

receiving public assistance.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, selected years, 1981–2010.
100 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 32 — Receiving Public Assistance

SNAPSHOT

Receiving Public Assistance by Educational Attainment

This snapshot focuses on 18- to 24-year-olds and 

their receipt of public assistance by educational 

attainment. In 2009, about 7 percent of 18- to 

24-year-olds were living in households that 

received public assistance. In general, lower public 

assistance rates were associated with higher levels 

of education. For instance, a higher percentage of 

young adults without a high school diploma were 

living in households that received public assistance 

(9 percent) than were those who had completed a 

bachelor’s or higher degree (2 percent).

This pattern generally persisted across sex and race/

ethnicity. For both young adult males and females, 

about 9 percent without a high school diploma were 

living in households that received public assistance 

in 2009, compared with 2 percent of males and 

females with a bachelor’s or higher degree. Higher 

public assistance rates were generally associated with 

lower educational attainment for Whites, Blacks, 

Hispanics, and Asians. 

Table 32a. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds living in households receiving public assistance, by educational 

attainment, sex, and race/ethnicity: 2009

Sex and

race/ethnicity Total

Less than

high school 

completion

High school 

completion

only1

Some college/

associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s

degree

Bachelor’s 

or higher 

degree

Total 6.9 9.1 8.0 4.0 2.0 1.9

Sex

Male 6.4 8.8 6.9 2.9 2.2! 2.0!

Female 7.5 9.4 9.4 5.1 1.9! 1.8!

Race/ethnicity

White 4.4 6.0 5.6 2.3 1.5! 1.4!

Black 14.9 17.3 16.8 9.3 4.8! 5.2!

Hispanic 8.1 9.6 6.9 6.2 5.0! 4.6!

Asian 6.9 10.4 3.7! 6.7 ‡ ‡

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander 15.6! ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/

Alaska Native 17.3 19.8 15.7 ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races 11.1 15.0 13.7 5.4! ‡ ‡

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 Includes equivalency certification.

NOTE: Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 101Chapter 3 — Employment-Related Characteristics

SNAPSHOT

Figure 32a. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds living in households receiving public assistance, by educational 

attainment and sex: 2009 

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

1 Includes equivalency certification.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2010.
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Chapter 4

ACTIVITIES OUTSIDE OF 

SCHOOL AND WORK
104 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 33 — Afterschool Activities

33. Afterschool Activities

Some research has shown that student participation 

in afterschool activities is linked to higher academic 

achievement, increased safety and civic participation, 

and reduced negative behaviors, such as drug and 

alcohol use (Fredricks and Eccles 2006; Zaff et al. 

2003). As part of Monitoring the Future’s national 

survey in 2009, high school seniors were asked about 

their participation in different afterschool activities, 

including school newspaper or yearbook, music 

or other performing arts, athletic teams, academic 

clubs (e.g. science, math, language), student council 

or government, and other school clubs or activities. 

A greater percentage of high school seniors reported 

participating in athletic teams (38 percent), other 

school clubs/activities (32 percent), and music/

performing arts (24 percent) than in academic 

clubs (14 percent), student council/government (10 

percent), and newspaper/yearbook (9 percent). 

Participation in these afterschool activities varied by 

sex. In 2009, the most popular afterschool activity 

for female high school seniors was other school clubs/

activities, and the most popular activity for male high 

school seniors was athletic teams. A greater percentage 

of females than males reported participating in 

newspaper/yearbook (11 vs. 6 percent), music/

performing arts (30 vs. 18 percent), academic clubs 

(17 vs. 12 percent), student council/government (13 

vs. 6 percent), and other school clubs/activities (40 vs. 

24 percent). However, a greater percentage of males 

than females reported participating in athletic teams 

(46 vs. 31 percent).

Overall, no measurable differences were found in 

participation levels in these afterschool activities 

between 1990 and 2009. However, there was a 

decrease in male participation in student council/

government (from 9 to 6 percent). In addition, 

a smaller percentage of male high school seniors 

participated in other school clubs/activities in 2009 

(24 percent) than did in 1990 (28 percent). 

Figure 33. Percentage of high school seniors who participated in various afterschool activities, by type of 

activity and sex: 1990 and 2009 

NOTE: Percentages reflect the proportion of seniors who responded that they participated in these activities “to a considerable extent” 

or “to a great extent.” The response rates for this survey do not meet National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) standards. For 

more information on Monitoring the Future, see Appendix A: Technical Note and Guide to Sources.

SOURCE: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Monitoring the Future, 1990 and 2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 105

Table 33. Percentage of high school seniors who participated in various afterschool activities, by type of 

Chapter 4 — Activities Outside of School and Work

activity and sex: Selected years, 1990 through 2009

Year and sex

Newspaper/

yearbook

Music/

performing arts

Athletic 

teams

Academic 

clubs

Student 

council/

government

Other 

school clubs/

activities

Total

1990 9.3 22.0 35.9 13.3 11.0 34.6

1995 10.4 23.3 37.2 13.3 10.4 31.8

2000 11.0 27.6 37.0 17.1 10.9 33.1

2001 10.0 25.3 38.6 15.3 10.8 34.7

2002 9.3 26.7 36.0 12.4 11.8 34.0

2003 11.1 25.6 37.6 11.9 10.2 31.0

2004 11.0 25.1 39.7 13.4 9.8 30.6

2005 10.6 24.5 38.6 12.8 10.5 33.3

2006 10.0 26.7 37.9 14.0 9.1 32.5

2007 9.1 25.7 35.7 14.5 9.2 32.5

2008 9.1 25.8 37.7 12.2 9.3 32.9

2009 8.7 23.9 38.4 14.0 9.6 31.8

Male

1990 6.3 16.5 43.2 11.7 8.9 28.2

1995 7.5 17.0 44.2 9.4 6.9 23.8

2000 6.6 22.2 45.7 15.2 7.5 24.7

2001 6.3 19.3 45.3 11.8 8.1 26.4

2002 6.5 21.9 40.6 10.8 8.4 22.9

2003 7.2 18.9 43.8 8.8 7.8 22.7

2004 6.5 19.2 45.7 9.8 6.7 21.3

2005 6.2 18.2 42.9 10.3 6.7 24.8

2006 4.8 20.5 41.6 10.4 5.5 24.1

2007 4.4 21.1 40.1 10.1 6.5 25.3

2008 5.7 21.5 43.4 8.1 7.3 26.6

2009 5.8 17.8 46.0 11.6 5.9 23.6

Female

1990 12.7 28.8 27.9 15.3 13.6 42.1

1995 13.2 29.3 31.6 16.4 13.4 39.6

2000 15.0 32.5 30.1 20.2 14.3 41.7

2001 12.9 30.8 32.1 19.2 13.3 43.5

2002 12.1 31.4 32.6 13.6 14.8 44.9

2003 15.4 32.1 31.3 15.0 12.8 39.1

2004 15.1 30.6 35.0 16.7 12.9 39.3

2005 14.9 30.4 34.0 15.7 14.3 41.9

2006 15.0 33.3 34.0 17.6 12.8 41.0

2007 12.9 29.2 31.5 18.1 11.6 39.5

2008 11.8 29.9 32.4 15.7 10.5 37.4

2009 11.3 30.0 31.4 16.5 13.1 40.0

NOTE: Percentages reflect the proportion of seniors who responded that they participated in these activities “to a considerable extent” 

or “to a great extent.” The response rates for this survey do not meet National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) standards. For 

more information on Monitoring the Future, see Appendix A: Technical Note and Guide to Sources.

SOURCE: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Monitoring the Future, selected years, 1990–2009.
106 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 34 — Computer Use for Non-Schoolwork

34. Computer Use for Non-Schoolwork 

In the 2009 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), 

9th- through 12th-grade students were asked how 

many hours per day they played video games or used 

a computer for something other than schoolwork. 

Some 17 percent of high school students reported that 

they did not use a computer for video or computer 

games or for something other than schoolwork. About 

24 percent of high school students reported playing 

video or computer games or using a computer for 

something other than schoolwork for less than 1 

hour per day, while 59 percent reported doing those 

activities for 1 hour per day or more. 

Some differences were found in the amount of time 

male and female high school students spent playing 

video or computer games. A higher percentage of 

females (22 percent) than males (13 percent) reported 

that they did not play video or computer games or 

use a computer for something other than schoolwork. 

A greater percentage of males than females reported 

playing video or computer games for 2, 3, 4, or 5 or 

more hours per day. For example, about 10 percent 

of male high school students reported playing video 

or computer games for more than 5 hours per day, 

compared with 6 percent of female high school 

students. No measurable differences were found by 

sex in the percentages of students who played video 

or computer games for less than 1 hour per day or 

for 1 hour per day. 

Table 34. Percentage of 9th- through 12th-grade students who played video or computer games or used a 

computer for something other than schoolwork, by sex and hours per day: 2009

Hours per day Total Male Female

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Does not play video or computer games1 17.0 12.8 21.6

Less than 1 hour per day 23.9 23.3 24.5

1 hour per day 17.6 18.1 17.0

2 hours per day 16.7 17.5 15.7

3 hours per day 10.9 11.7 10.0

4 hours per day 5.6 6.4 4.8

5 or more hours per day 8.4 10.2 6.5

1 Includes “does not use a computer for something other than school work.” 

NOTE: Includes using the Internet other than for schoolwork.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 107

Figure 34. Percentage of 9th- through 12th-grade students who played video or computer games or used a 

Chapter 4 — Activities Outside of School and Work

computer for something other than schoolwork, by hours per day and sex: 2009 

1 Includes “does not use a computer for something other than school work.” 

NOTE: Includes using the Internet other than for schoolwork.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2009.
108 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 35 — Homework

35. Homework

The completion of homework has been found to 

have a positive effect on academic achievement, 

particularly for high school students (Cooper, 

Robinson and Patall 2006). In 2007, parents reported 

that their high school students spent an average of 7 

hours per week on homework.12 About 42 percent 

of parents reported that their children did homework 

5 or more days per week, while 5 percent reported 

that their children did homework less than once per 

week. Overall, 65 percent of parents reported that 

they checked to make sure that their high school 

students’ homework was done.

Parents of Asian high school students reported that 

they spent more hours per week on homework (10 

hours on average) than did students of all other 

races/ethnicities shown (who spent an average of 6 

to 7 hours per week on homework). Additionally, 

68 percent of Asian parents reported that their 

students did homework 5 or more days per week, 

compared with 44 percent of White parents, 30 

percent of Black parents, and 40 percent of Hispanic 

parents. Comparing parents of Asian students and 

parents of students of two or more races, there was 

no measurable difference between those groups in 

the percentage who reported that their children did 

homework 5 or more days per week.

A higher percentage of Black students (83 percent) 

had parents who reported that they checked to 

make sure that their students’ homework was done, 

compared with parents of White students (57 

percent), Asian students (59 percent), and students 

of two or more races (66 percent). In addition, 

76 percent of Hispanic parents reported checking 

homework, higher than the percentage of White or 

Asian parents who did so.

12 Data exclude students who did not do homework outside of school; in 2007, parents reported that about 7 percent of 9ththrough 12th-grade students did not do homework outside of school.

Table 35. Average hours spent on homework per week and percentage of 9th- through 12th-grade students 

who did homework outside of school and whose parents checked that homework was done, by 

frequency of doing homework and race/ethnicity: 2007

Race/ethnicity

Average

hours spent 

on homework 

per week by 

students who 

did homework 

outside of 

school

Percentage distribution of students who do homework 

outside of school by how frequently they do homework Percentage 

of students 

whose 

parents1

check that 

homework 

is done

Less than 

once 

per week

1 to 2 days

per week

3 to 4 days

per week

5 or more

days per 

week

Total 6.8 5.4 14.8 38.0 41.9 64.6

White 6.8 4.2 12.9 38.6 44.3 57.2

Black 6.3 ‡ 20.1 41.0 29.7 83.1

Hispanic 6.4 5.9 17.7 36.6 39.9 75.6

Asian 10.3 # 13.8! 18.5! 67.7 59.0

Native Hawaiian/

Pacific Islander ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/

Alaska Native ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races 7.1 ‡ 10.5 32.9 50.5 65.9

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 Refers to one or more parent or other household adult.

NOTE: Data are based on the responses of the parent most knowledgeable about the student’s education. Data exclude students 

who did not do homework outside of school; in 2007, parents reported that about 7 percent of 9th- through 12th-grade students did 

not do homework outside of school. Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not separately shown. Race categories exclude persons 

of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of 

the National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES), 2007.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 109

Figure 35. Average hours 9th- through 12th-grade students spent on homework per week for those who did 

Chapter 4 — Activities Outside of School and Work

homework outside of school, by race/ethnicity: 2007

NOTE: Data are based on the responses of the parent most knowledgeable about the student’s education. Data exclude students 

who did not do homework outside of school; in 2007, parents reported that about 7 percent of 9th- through 12th-grade students did 

not do homework outside of school. Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not separately shown. Race categories exclude persons 

of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of 

the National Household Education Surveys Program (PFI-NHES), 2007.
110 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 36 — Volunteer Work

36. Volunteer Work

Approximately 8.3 million 16- to 24-year-olds, or 

22 percent of this age group, reported volunteering 

through or for an organization at least once between 

September 2008 and September 2009 (U.S. 

Department of Labor 2010). Differences in the level 

of volunteering were found by sex and age group. 

A greater percentage of female 16- to 24-year-olds 

(25 percent) volunteered than did their male peers 

(20 percent). In 2009, a greater percentage of 16- to 

19-year-old males and females volunteered than did 

their 20- to 24-year-old counterparts. For instance, 

24 percent of 16- to 19-year-old males volunteered, 

compared with 16 percent of 20- to 24-year-old 

males. In addition, 28 percent of 16- to 19-year-old 

females volunteered, compared with 21 percent of 

20- to 24-year-old females. 

The percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who reported 

volunteering in 2009 was not measurably different 

from the percentage in 2002 (22 percent in both 

years). However, for each year between 2002 and 

2009, females in this age group volunteered at a 

higher rate than males. In addition, 16- to 19-yearolds volunteered at a higher rate than did 20- to 

24-year-olds for each year in this time period, with 

the exception of 2007. 

Table 36. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who volunteered, by sex and age group: September 2002 through 

2009

Year Total

Males Females

Total, ages 

16–24 Ages 16–19 Ages 20–24

Total, ages 

16–24 Ages 16–19 Ages 20–24

2002 22.2 18.6 23.0 14.8 25.8 30.9 21.6

2003 24.1 20.9 25.7 17.0 27.3 33.5 22.4

2004 24.2 20.7 25.1 17.0 27.8 33.8 23.0

2005 24.4 20.8 27.4 15.5 28.0 33.5 23.6

2006 21.7 19.1 24.1 15.0 24.4 28.8 20.7

2007 20.8 18.1 22.5 14.4 23.6 26.6 21.1

2008 21.9 19.8 23.9 16.3 24.1 28.0 20.9

2009 22.0 19.6 23.7 16.2 24.5 28.5 21.4

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Volunteer Supplement, September 2002–09.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 111

Figure 36. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who volunteered, by sex and age group: September 2002 through 

Chapter 4 — Activities Outside of School and Work

2009 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Volunteer Supplement, September 2002–09.
112 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 37 — Religion

37. Religion

In 2009, approximately 28 percent of high school 

seniors reported that religion was very important 

in their life, 27 percent reported that religion was 

pretty important, 25 percent reported that religion 

was a little important, and 20 percent reported that 

religion was not important. A smaller percentage of 

high school seniors reported that religion was very 

important in their life in 2009 than in 1980 (28 vs. 

32 percent) but there was no measurable linear trend 

over this time period. In contrast, the percentage 

of students who reported that religion was not 

important in their life increased between 1980 and 

2009 (from 10 to 20 percent). 

Some differences in the level of importance of religion 

were found by sex. In 2009, a lower percentage of 

male high school seniors (26 percent) than female 

high school seniors (31 percent) reported that religion 

was very important in their life. Also, a higher 

percentage of males (24 percent) than females (16 

percent) reported that religion was not important 

to them. Between 1980 and 2009, the percentage of 

males who reported that religion was not important 

increased from 13 to 24 percent, while the respective 

percentage of females increased from 7 to 16 percent.

Figure 37. Percentage of high school seniors reporting that religion is very important or not important in their 

life, by sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009

NOTE: The response rates for this survey do not meet National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) standards. For more information 

on Monitoring the Future, see Appendix A: Technical Note and Guide to Sources.

SOURCE: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Monitoring the Future, selected years, 1980–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 113

Table 37. Percentage of high school seniors reporting various levels of importance of religion in their life, by 

Chapter 4 — Activities Outside of School and Work

sex: Selected years, 1980 through 2009

Year and sex Very important Pretty important A little important Not important

Total

1980 32.4 32.6 25.3 9.8

1985 27.3 32.4 27.6 12.7

1990 26.4 29.5 28.7 15.5

1995 29.9 28.2 26.8 15.1

2000 31.7 29.2 25.0 14.2

2001 32.3 27.9 24.4 15.5

2002 32.8 29.6 22.9 14.7

2003 30.5 27.8 24.3 17.5

2004 30.4 27.4 24.9 17.2

2005 31.1 27.1 23.9 17.9

2006 30.7 27.5 24.3 17.5

2007 30.4 26.6 24.4 18.5

2008 28.0 27.6 24.9 19.6

2009 28.4 26.5 24.9 20.2

Males

1980 27.2 31.9 28.0 12.9

1985 23.3 31.6 28.6 16.4

1990 23.0 28.4 30.4 18.3

1995 26.7 26.2 28.4 18.7

2000 28.3 27.9 27.0 16.9

2001 28.5 27.0 26.2 18.4

2002 28.7 28.0 24.1 19.1

2003 25.4 26.4 25.6 22.6

2004 26.3 26.7 25.9 21.1

2005 26.0 26.8 24.7 22.5

2006 27.0 27.1 25.1 20.7

2007 26.6 26.1 25.1 22.2

2008 25.0 26.1 26.0 22.9

2009 25.5 25.2 24.9 24.4

Females

1980 37.2 33.5 22.6 6.7

1985 31.0 33.1 26.6 9.2

1990 29.9 30.8 26.9 12.4

1995 32.7 30.0 25.7 11.6

2000 34.7 30.4 23.3 11.6

2001 36.1 28.4 22.8 12.7

2002 36.3 31.0 22.2 10.5

2003 34.7 29.1 23.4 12.8

2004 34.6 28.2 23.9 13.3

2005 35.9 27.4 23.2 13.6

2006 34.1 27.8 23.7 14.3

2007 33.4 27.4 24.0 15.2

2008 30.6 28.9 23.9 16.6

2009 31.0 27.8 25.0 16.2

NOTE: The response rates for this survey do not meet National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) standards. For more information 

on Monitoring the Future, see Appendix A: Technical Note and Guide to Sources. Detail may not sum to total due to rounding.

SOURCE: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Monitoring the Future, selected years, 1980–2009.
114 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 38 — Voting Behavior

38. Voting Behavior

Forty-nine percent of 18- to 24-year-olds reported 

voting in the 2008 presidential election, a percentage 

not measurably different from the 47 percent of 

young adults who reported voting in the 2004 

presidential election. In 2008, some 52 percent of 

female and 45 percent of male young adults reported 

voting. No measurable difference was observed for 

males or females in this age group in the percentage 

who reported voting in 2008 compared to 2004. 

Some differences were found by race/ethnicity over 

time. A greater percentage of Black young adults 

reported voting in the 2008 election than in the 2004 

election (56 vs. 47 percent). 

Differences in reported voting rates in election years 

were found by sex, race/ethnicity, and educational 

attainment. In both the 2004 and 2008 elections, 

the percentage of female young adults who reported 

voting was higher than that of male young adults. 

In this age group in 2008, a greater percentage of 

Blacks (56 percent) reported voting than did Whites 

(49 percent), Hispanics (39 percent), Asians (39 

percent), and American Indians/Alaska Natives (27 

percent). In turn, a greater percentage of White young 

adults reported voting than did Hispanic, Asian, and 

American Indian/Alaska Native young adults. In the 

2004 election, no measurable differences were found 

between White and Black young adults in their 

reported voting rates. In 2004, a greater percentage 

of White young adults reported voting than did 

Hispanic and Asian young adults. In both the 2004 

and 2008 elections, the percentage of young adults 

who reported voting was higher in general for young 

adults with higher levels of educational attainment 

than for their peers with less education. For instance, 

in 2008, some 71 percent of young adults with a 

bachelor’s degree reported voting, compared with 

57 percent of those with some college education, 40 

percent of those who had completed high school, 

and 27 percent of those who had not completed 

high school. 

Table 38. Percentage of U.S. citizens ages 18 to 24 who reported that they registered to vote and that they 

voted by sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment: November 2004 and 2008

Sex, race/ethnicity, and

educational attainment

November 2004 November 2008

Registered Voted Registered Voted

Total 57.6 46.7 58.5 48.5

Sex

Male 54.4 43.8 55.3 45.1

Female 60.7 49.7 61.7 52.0

Race/ethnicity

White 60.7 49.8 60.0 49.5

Black 56.9 47.3 61.8 56.2

Hispanic 44.6 33.0 50.0 38.8

Asian 42.9 34.4 50.3 39.4

Pacific Islander ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska Native 53.7 36.6 51.0 27.1

Two or more races 60.3 45.8 60.9 52.9

Educational attainment

Less than high school 35.0 24.8 35.1 27.0

High school completion only1 50.0 38.3 50.2 39.9

Some college 68.6 57.2 67.5 56.6

Bachelor’s degree 73.3 67.6 78.7 71.1

Bachelor’s or higher degree 73.1 67.4 77.5 70.2

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater.

1 Includes equivalency certification.

NOTE: Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Voting and Registration Supplement, 

November 2004 and 2008.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 115

Figure 38. Percentage of U.S. citizens ages 18 to 24 who reported that they voted, by educational attainment: 

Chapter 4 — Activities Outside of School and Work

November 2004 and 2008 

1 Includes equivalency certification.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Voting and Registration Supplement, 

November 2004 and 2008.
116 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 39 — Arrests

39. Arrests

Arrest rates for youth ages 14–17 and young adults 

ages 18–24 decreased between 1995 and 2009. In 

1995, the arrest rate for youth was 128 per 1,000 

persons, compared with 85 arrests per 1,000 persons 

in 2009.13 The arrest rate for young adults was 118 

per 1,000 persons in 1995, while in 2009 the rate 

was 104 per 1,000 persons.

In 2000, the arrest rate for youth was 90 arrests per 

1,000 persons, which was lower than the rate in 1995 

(128 per 1,000 persons). Since 2000, the number of 

youths arrested fluctuated between 85 and 90 arrests 

per 1,000 persons. The arrest rate for young adults was 

higher in 1995 than in 2000 (118 vs. 99 arrests per 

1,000 persons). There was a period of increase from 

2000 to 2002, followed by a decrease in 2003 to 99 

arrests per 1,000 persons and then another increase 

to 104 arrests per 1,000 persons in 2007, where the 

arrest rate remained through 2009. In 1995, the arrest 

rate was higher for youth than it was for young adults. 

However, beginning in 2000 and continuing through 

2009, the arrest rate for young adults has been higher 

than the rate for youth. 

Table 39. Number of arrests per 1,000 persons in the U.S. 14- to 24-year-old population, by age group: Selected 

years, 1995 through 2009

Year Ages 14–171 Ages 18–24

1995 128.0 118.3

2000 90.3 99.3

2001 89.5 100.2

2002 90.5 102.9

2003 86.4 99.2

2004 86.1 100.1

2005 85.7 102.3

2006 87.9 102.8

2007 89.5 104.4

2008 89.7 103.7

2009 85.0 104.2

1 Includes arrests of 13-year-olds but not arrests of children 12 and younger. 

NOTE: The number of arrests per 1,000 persons in an age group is based on the population in that age group. Data do not indicate 

the proportion of persons who have been arrested, since some individuals have been arrested more than once. Some fluctuations 

in arrest rates are caused by changes in the response rates of law enforcement agencies. Some data are revised from previously 

published figures.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Uniform Crime Reports, Crime in the United States, selected 

years, 1995–2009; U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, selected years, 1995–2001; 

and Population Estimates, selected years, 2002–09.

13 The rates for 14- to 17-year-olds include arrests of 13-year-olds but not arrests of children 12 and younger. 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 117

Figure 39. Number of arrests per 1,000 persons in the U.S. 14- to 24-year-old population, by age group: Selected 

Chapter 4 — Activities Outside of School and Work

years, 1995 through 2009 

1 Includes arrests of 13-year-olds but not arrests of children 12 and younger. 

NOTE: The number of arrests per 1,000 persons in an age group is based on the population in that age group. Data do not indicate 

the proportion of persons who have been arrested, since some individuals have been arrested more than once. Some fluctuations 

in arrest rates are caused by changes in the response rates of law enforcement agencies. Some data are revised from previously 

published figures.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Uniform Crime Reports, Crime in the United States, selected 

years, 1995–2009; U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, selected years, 1995–2001; 

and Population Estimates, selected years, 2002–09.
118 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 40 — Victims of Violent Crime

40. Victims of Violent Crime

The total number of violent crime victims per 1,000 

persons, also known as the violent crime victimization 

rate, was lower in 2008 than in 1995 for youth and 

young adults ages 16 to 24. For example, in 2008, 

the total number of violent crimes for 16- to 19-yearolds was 37 per 1,000 persons, compared with 

108 per 1,000 persons in 1995. The violent crime 

victimization rate in 1995 was higher for males than 

females for both age groups (ages 16–19 and ages 

20–24), but by 2008 this gap was no longer evident 

for 20- to 24-year-olds. In 1995, the violent crime 

victimization rate for 20- to 24-year-old males was 

88 per 1,000, while the rate for females in this age 

group was 70 crimes per 1,000 persons. By 2008, 

however, there was no measurable difference in the 

violent crime victimization rates of males and females 

ages 20–24; the rate for males was 34 per 1,000 and 

the rate for females was 42 per 1,000.

Table 40. Number of violent crime victims per 1,000 persons, by type of crime, age group, and sex: Selected 

years, 1995 through 2008

Age group and sex 1995 2000 2002 2004 2005 2006 2007

2008

Total 

violent 

crime

Rape/

sexual 

assault1 Robbery Assault

Total 

16 to 19 years old 107.7 64.3 58.2 45.9 44.2 51.7 50.1 37.0 2.2! 4.8 30.0

20 to 24 years old 78.8 49.4 47.4 43.0 46.9 44.2 35.2 37.8 2.1! 5.4 30.3

Male

16 to 19 years old 125.0 74.4 58.4 54.7 54.0 53.7 55.8 46.5 # 7.8 38.6

20 to 24 years old 88.2 56.6 56.7 44.5 58.8 46.8 35.6 33.9 ‡ 5.6 27.7

Female

16 to 19 years old 89.7 53.6 58.1 36.8 34.0 49.8 44.2 27.1 4.5! ‡ 21.0

20 to 24 years old 69.5 42.2 38.3 41.6 34.8 41.6 34.7 41.7 3.7! 5.2 32.9

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 Includes verbal threats of rape and threats of sexual assault.

NOTE: Violent crimes include rape, sexual assault, robbery, aggravated assault, and simple assault. Violent crimes exclude murder 

because the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is based on interviews with victims and therefore cannot measure murder. 

Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), Criminal Victimization in the United States, selected years, 

1995–2008.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 119

Figure 40. Number of violent crime victims per 1,000 persons, by age group and sex: Selected years, 1995 

Chapter 4 — Activities Outside of School and Work

through 2008 

NOTE: Violent crimes include rape, sexual assault, robbery, aggravated assault, and simple assault. Violent crimes exclude murder 

because the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is based on interviews with victims and therefore cannot measure murder.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), Criminal Victimization in the United States, selected years, 

1995–2008.
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Chapter 5

HEALTH AND WELLNESS
122 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 41 — Health Insurance

41. Health Insurance

In 2009, about 30 percent of 18- to 24-year-olds in 

the United States lacked health insurance, compared 

to 12 percent of 14- to 17-year-olds and 17 percent of 

the total population. In addition, a lower percentage 

of youth (ages 14 to 17) than young adults (ages 18 

to 24) were uninsured in each year between 2000 

and 2009. For both youth and young adults, some 

differences were found by sex and race/ethnicity in 

2009. Among youth, no measurable difference was 

found by sex; among young adults, however, a higher 

percentage of males were uninsured than were females 

(33 vs. 28 percent). For both age groups in 2009, 

Hispanics were uninsured at a higher rate than were 

Whites, Blacks, Asians/Pacific Islanders, and persons 

of two or more races. For example, 48 percent of 

Hispanic young adults were uninsured, compared to 

24 percent of Whites, 36 percent of Blacks, 29 percent 

of Asians/Pacific Islanders, and 23 percent of persons 

of two or more races. In addition, among young 

adults, a higher percentage of American Indians/

Alaska Natives (44 percent) were uninsured than 

were Whites, Asians/Pacific Islanders, and persons 

of two or more races. 

The overall percentage of youth who were uninsured 

decreased between 2000 and 2009 from 13 to 12 

percent. In addition, a lower percentage of female 

youth were uninsured in 2009 than in 2000 (12 vs. 13 

percent). The percentage of youth who lacked health 

insurance also decreased between 2000 and 2009 for 

Hispanics (from 32 to 22 percent).

A higher percentage of young adults were uninsured 

in 2009 than in 2000 (30 vs. 27 percent). Similarly, 

higher percentages of male and female young adults 

lacked insurance coverage in 2009 than in 2000 (33 

vs. 29 percent for males and 28 vs. 24 percent for 

females). In terms of race/ethnicity, between 2000 

and 2009, the percentage of White young adults who 

were uninsured increased (from 19 to 24 percent), 

and the percentage of Black young adults who were 

uninsured was higher in 2009 than in 2000 (36 vs. 

32 percent) but there was no linear trend over the 

time period for Black young adults. 

Figure 41. Percentage of 14- to 24-year-olds not covered by health insurance, by race/ethnicity and age group: 

2009 

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2010.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 123

Table 41. Number and percentage of people not covered by health insurance, by sex, race/ethnicity, and age 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

group: 2000 through 2009

Year and age 

group

Total

 

Percent uninsured

Number

uninsured 

(in thousands)

Percent 

uninsured

Sex Race/ethnicity

Male Female White Black Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

Two or 

more 

races

All persons

2000 38,426 13.7 14.9 12.7 9.1 18.1 32.6 17.3 24.7 —

2001 39,760 14.1 15.4 12.9 9.4 18.1 32.8 17.5 24.7 —

2002 42,019 14.7 16.2 13.2 10.1 19.4 31.9 17.9 25.9 12.6

2003 43,404 15.1 16.4 13.7 10.5 18.8 32.3 18.3 25.5 15.2

2004 43,498 14.9 16.5 13.4 10.5 18.6 31.8 15.9 26.3 14.4

2005 44,815 15.3 16.8 13.8 10.7 18.7 32.3 17.3 29.1 12.3

2006 46,995 15.8 17.5 14.2 10.8 20.1 34.1 15.6 30.5 14.4

2007 45,657 15.3 16.7 13.9 10.4 19.3 32.1 16.5 27.1 12.5

2008 46,340 15.4 17.0 13.8 10.8 19.0 30.7 17.5 25.9 13.2

2009 50,674 16.7 18.4 15.0 12.0 20.8 32.4 17.1 26.7 11.6

14 to 17 years old

2000 2,079 13.0 12.6 13.4 7.7 16.8 31.6 12.6 22.0 —

2001 2,131 13.1 13.0 13.1 7.6 16.7 30.9 13.7 28.7 —

2002 2,142 12.8 13.2 12.3 8.1 16.0 28.1 16.1 27.8 6.9!

2003 2,136 12.4 12.0 12.8 8.0 16.2 24.9 16.9 18.1! 11.4

2004 2,123 12.2 12.4 12.0 7.9 14.9 25.7 12.9 20.2 13.0

2005 2,246 12.8 12.7 12.8 8.2 15.1 26.7 15.4 20.0 8.2

2006 2,284 13.0 13.1 12.9 8.1 16.5 26.3 14.7 23.8 10.5

2007 2,180 12.4 12.4 12.5 8.1 14.0 25.0 13.6 20.9! 9.6

2008 2,067 12.0 12.3 11.7 8.2 13.0 22.1 13.9 20.7 14.3

2009 1,984 11.7 11.6 11.7 7.6 14.2 21.7 14.4 21.2 6.2

18 to 24 years old

2000 7,203 26.9 29.4 24.3 18.8 32.0 49.0 30.2 46.3 —

2001 7,402 27.1 30.1 24.1 19.5 32.4 48.7 27.0 41.0 —

2002 7,863 28.7 32.0 25.2 21.8 34.1 48.1 29.5 44.4 25.6

2003 8,121 29.2 32.0 26.3 22.1 33.2 50.2 32.2 40.9 26.1

2004 8,247 29.4 33.0 25.9 22.5 32.0 51.0 29.3 39.1 31.9

2005 8,201 29.3 32.6 26.0 22.7 33.2 50.2 28.1 47.0 24.0

2006 8,323 29.3 32.4 26.1 21.8 34.7 51.0 25.8 43.3 30.4

2007 7,991 28.1 30.1 26.2 21.8 32.2 47.1 26.4 48.9 24.4

2008 8,200 28.6 32.3 24.8 22.5 33.8 44.9 30.7 38.8 28.1

2009 8,923 30.4 33.0 27.8 23.9 36.2 47.7 29.5 43.9 23.1

— Not available.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

NOTE: Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Prior to 

2002, respondents of two or more races were required to select a single race category.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), March and Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement, 2001–10.
124 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 42 — Health Status

42. Health Status

In 2008, about 76 percent of young adults between 

the ages of 18 and 24 reported being in excellent or 

very good health, 20 percent reported being in good 

health, and 4 percent reported being in fair or poor 

health. Greater percentages of American Indian/

Alaska Native (87 percent), White (81 percent), 

and Asian (80 percent) young adults reported being 

in excellent or very good health in 2008 than did 

Black (69 percent) and Hispanic (66 percent) young 

adults. Greater levels of educational attainment were 

associated with better reports of health status: 90 

percent of young adults with a bachelor’s or higher 

degree reported being in excellent or very good health, 

compared with 82 percent each of those with some 

college education or an associate’s degree, 72 percent 

of those who had completed high school, and 65 

percent of those who had not completed high school. 

In addition, young adults who were “nonpoor” 

reported having excellent or very good health at a 

higher rate (83 percent) than young adults who were 

“near-poor” or “poor” (69 percent for both).14

A lower percentage of males reported being in 

excellent or very good health in 2008 than in 1999 

(77 vs. 80 percent). In addition, the percentage of 

Hispanic young adults reporting excellent or very 

good health was lower in 2008 than in 1999 (66 vs. 72 

percent). However, a higher percentage of American 

Indian/Alaska Native young adults reported being in 

excellent or very good health in 2008 than in 1999 

(87 vs. 61 percent). 

14 Children in families whose incomes are below the poverty threshold are classified as poor; those in families with incomes at 

100–199 percent of the poverty threshold are classified as near-poor, and those in families with incomes at 200 percent or more of 

the poverty threshold are classified as nonpoor.

Figure 42. Percentage distribution of health status among persons ages 18 to 24, by educational attainment: 

2008 

‡ Reporting standards not met. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 50 percent or greater.

1 Includes equivalency certification.

NOTE: Data are based on respondents’ answers to a survey question on general health status. Detail may not sum due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, 2008.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 125

Table 42. Percentage distribution of health status among persons ages 18 to 24, by selected characteristics: 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

1999 and 2008

Characteristic

1999 2008

Total

Excellent/

very good Good Fair/poor Total

Excellent/

very good Good Fair/poor

Total 100.0 77.7 19.0 3.4 100.0 76.4 19.6 4.0

Sex

Male 100.0 79.8 17.5 2.6 100.0 77.5 18.8 3.7

Female 100.0 75.6 20.4 4.1 100.0 75.3 20.4 4.3

Age

18–21 100.0 77.9 18.8 3.2 100.0 77.5 19.1 3.4

22–24 100.0 77.4 19.1 3.5 100.0 75.0 20.2 4.9

Race/ethnicity

White 100.0 80.6 16.5 2.9 100.0 80.7 16.1 3.3

Black 100.0 71.4 22.9 5.8 100.0 69.2 24.2 6.6

Hispanic 100.0 72.2 24.0 3.8 100.0 66.3 28.3 5.4

Asian 100.0 79.7 18.7 1.6! 100.0 80.3 19.1 ‡

American Indian/

Alaska Native 100.0 60.8 37.8 ‡ 100.0 87.0 ‡ ‡

Two or more races 100.0 ‡ ‡ ‡ 100.0 ‡ ‡ ‡

Other races1 100.0 64.7 31.5 ‡ 100.0 75.3 21.7 ‡

Educational attainment

Less than high school 

diploma 100.0 68.0 25.6 6.5 100.0 64.7 27.3 8.0

High school 

completion only2 100.0 76.6 19.8 3.7 100.0 71.8 23.0 5.3

Some college 100.0 82.4 15.7 2.0 100.0 81.9 15.8 2.3

Associate’s degree 100.0 78.6 19.7 1.7! 100.0 81.7 15.9 2.4!

Bachelor’s or higher 

degree 100.0 88.9 10.1 1.0! 100.0 90.4 9.1 ‡

Poverty status3

Poor 100.0 72.1 21.8 6.0 100.0 68.9 24.5 6.6

Near-poor 100.0 72.7 21.7 5.6 100.0 68.9 24.1 7.1

Nonpoor 100.0 82.4 15.6 2.0 100.0 82.9 15.0 2.1

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 Includes Pacific Islanders.

2 Includes equivalency certification.

3 Children in families whose incomes are below the poverty threshold are classified as poor; those in families with incomes at 100–199 

percent of the poverty threshold are classified as near-poor, and those in families with incomes at 200 percent or more of the poverty 

threshold are classified as nonpoor. Detail may not sum to totals because of missing values for poverty.

NOTE: Data are based on respondents’ answers to a survey question on general health status. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, 1999 and 2008.
126 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 43 — Weight and Obesity

43. Weight and Obesity

In 2008, young adults were asked about their weight 

and, based on these reports, about 53 percent of young 

adults between the ages of 18 and 24 were at a healthy 

weight, 26 percent were overweight, 16 percent were 

obese, and 4 percent were underweight.15 A greater 

percentage of female than male young adults reported 

being at a healthy weight in 2008 (56 vs. 50 percent). 

Among young adults, 56 percent of 18- to 21-yearolds reported being at a healthy weight, compared 

with 48 percent of 22- to 24-year-olds. 

Reports of being at an unhealthy weight varied by 

race/ethnicity and educational attainment in 2008. 

Greater percentages of Black (24 percent) and 

Hispanic (22 percent) young adults in 2008 reported 

being obese than did White (13 percent) young 

adults. Hispanic young adults also reported being 

overweight at a higher rate (33 percent) than Whites 

(26 percent), Blacks (24 percent), and Asians (21 

percent) in the same age group. In addition, a lower 

percentage of young adults with a bachelor’s or higher 

degree reported being obese (8 percent) than did those 

who had completed less than a high school diploma 

(20 percent), completed a high school diploma (18 

percent), or attended some college (15 percent). 

Looking at differences over time, the total percentage 

of young adults who reported being at a healthy 

weight was lower in 2008 than in 1999 (53 vs. 58 

percent), whereas the total percentage who reported 

being obese was higher in 2008 than in 1999 (16 vs. 

13 percent). This pattern held for 18- to 21-yearolds as well: the percentage who reported being at a 

healthy weight decreased from 1999 to 2008 (from 

62 to 56 percent), while the percentage who reported 

being obese increased (from 12 to 17 percent). In 

addition, the percentage of male young adults who 

reported being at a healthy weight was lower in 2008 

than in 1999 (50 vs. 56 percent). When examining 

weight categories by race/ethnicity, a lower percentage 

of Asian young adults reported being at a healthy 

weight in 2008 than in 1999 (61 vs. 76 percent). In 

contrast, a greater percentage of Asian young adults 

reported being overweight in 2008 than in 1999 

(21 vs. 6 percent). A similar shift occurred with 

Hispanic young adults; a smaller percentage reported 

being at a healthy weight in 2008 than in 1999 (42 

vs. 55 percent), while a greater percentage reported 

being obese (22 vs. 13 percent). In addition, some 

24 percent of Black young adults in 2008 reported 

being obese, an increase from 17 percent in 1999. 

15 The National Health Interview Survey, which is conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, asked young 

adults ages 18 to 24 to report their height and weight. Body mass indices (BMI) were calculated from these self-reports and 

respondents were sorted into categories of underweight, healthy weight, overweight, and obese.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 127

Table 43. Percentage distribution of body mass index categories among persons ages 18 to 24, by selected 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

characteristics: 1999 and 2008

Characteristic

Underweight Healthy weight Overweight Obese

1999 2008 1999 2008 1999 2008 1999 2008

Total 4.4 4.5 58.0 52.8 24.2 26.4 13.4 16.3

Sex

Male 2.2 3.6 56.1 49.9 28.2 30.2 13.5 16.3

Female 6.6 5.4 60.0 55.6 20.2 22.5 13.2 16.4

Age

18–21 4.8 4.7 61.6 56.1 21.8 22.6 11.8 16.5

22–24 3.9 4.2 53.5 48.4 27.3 31.3 15.4 16.1

Race/ethnicity

White 4.5 4.8 58.5 56.4 24.3 25.9 12.7 12.9

Black 4.0! 3.6! 54.7 48.7 24.0 23.6 17.3 24.0

Hispanic 3.1 3.7! 54.8 41.6 28.8 32.9 13.3 21.7

Asian 8.7! 9.8! 76.2 60.9 6.1! 20.8 9.0! ‡

American Indian/

Alaska Native ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Other races1 ‡ ‡ 65.3 48.2 19.1! 25.6! ‡ 26.2!

Educational attainment

Less than high school 

diploma 4.6 3.9! 55.5 50.6 24.5 25.0 15.5 20.5

High school 

completion only2 4.7 3.9 57.2 50.6 21.7 27.0 16.3 18.5

Some college 4.2 4.5 59.3 54.7 26.4 25.9 10.1 15.0

Associate’s degree 4.4! ‡ 56.4 55.2 27.5 25.9 11.7 15.2

Bachelor’s or higher 

degree 3.4! ‡ 63.5 55.5 22.1 29.1 11.0 7.6

Poverty status3

Poor 4.5 4.1 57.0 52.8 25.3 29.2 13.2 13.9

Near-poor 3.1! 3.0! 58.3 48.1 23.7 26.6 14.9 22.3

Nonpoor 4.9 5.5 57.4 53.3 23.5 25.3 14.1 15.9

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater.

1 Includes Pacific Islanders.

2 Includes equivalency certification.

3 Children in families whose incomes are below the poverty threshold are classified as poor; those in families with incomes at 100–199 

percent of the poverty threshold are classified as near-poor, and those in families with incomes at 200 percent or more of the poverty 

threshold are classified as nonpoor. Detail may not sum to totals because of missing values for poverty.

NOTE: The National Health Interview Survey asked young adults ages 18 to 24 to report their height and weight. Body mass indices 

(BMI) were calculated from these self-reports and respondents were sorted into categories of underweight, healthy weight, overweight, 

and obese. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, 1999 and 2008.
128 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 43 — Weight and Obesity

Figure 43. Percentage of persons ages 18 to 24 who were at a healthy weight, by race/ethnicity: 1999 and 

2008 

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases).

1 Includes Pacific Islanders.

NOTE: The National Health Interview Survey asked young adults ages 18 to 24 to report their height and weight. Body mass indices 

(BMI) were calculated from these self-reports and respondents were sorted into categories of underweight, healthy weight, overweight, 

and obese. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, 1999 and 2008.
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130 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 44 — Exercise

44. Exercise

In 2008, about 44 percent of young adults between 

the ages of 18 and 24 indicated that they never 

engaged in vigorous physical activity16 during their 

leisure time; about 5 percent exercised less than once 

per week, 19 percent exercised 1–2 times per week, 

17 percent exercised 3–4 times per week, and 15 

percent exercised 5 or more times per week. A greater 

percentage of male than female young adults in 2008 

reported that they participated in vigorous physical 

activity 5 or more times per week (20 vs. 10 percent). 

In turn, a greater percentage of females than males 

in this age range reported that they never engaged in 

vigorous physical activity (52 vs. 36 percent). 

Differences in reported leisure-time physical activity 

were also found by race/ethnicity and educational 

attainment in 2008. For example, Black and Hispanic 

young adults reported a lack of vigorous physical 

activity at higher rates (56 percent each) than 

White and Asian young adults (38 and 40 percent, 

respectively). In addition, greater percentages of 

young adults with lower levels of education generally 

reported a lack of exercise than did their peers with 

higher levels of education. For example, about 56 

percent of young adults who did not finish high 

school reported never exercising compared with 

31 percent of young adults who had a bachelor’s or 

higher degree. In general, few measurable differences 

were found in reported rates of vigorous physical 

activity in 2008 compared with 1999.

16 Persons who indicated that they were unable to do vigorous physical activity are included in this category.

Figure 44. Percentage distribution of periods of vigorous physical activity per week among persons ages 18 to 

24, by sex: 2008

NOTE: Questions related to leisure-time physical activity were phrased in terms of current behavior and lacked a specific reference 

period. Respondents were asked about the frequency and duration of physical activity during leisure time. They were asked how 

often they did vigorous activities during their leisure time for at least 10 minutes that caused heavy sweating and large increases in 

breathing or heart rates. Persons who indicated that they were unable to do vigorous activity were included in the “Never” category. 

Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, 2008.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 131

Table 44. Percentage distribution of periods of vigorous physical activity per week among persons ages 18 to 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

24, by selected characteristics: 1999 and 2008

Characteristic

Frequency of vigorous physical activity per week1

Never Less than 1 1–2 3–4 5 or more

1999 2008 1999 2008 1999 2008 1999 2008 1999 2008

Total 44.9 44.2 3.2 4.8 19.1 18.9 16.8 17.3 16.0 14.8

Sex

Male 35.0 36.1 3.4 5.7 21.1 19.4 20.2 19.2 20.4 19.6

Female 54.7 52.3 3.0 3.9 17.2 18.3 13.4 15.5 11.7 10.0

Age

18–21 42.9 42.9 2.5 4.4 20.5 18.5 16.9 18.4 17.1 15.8

22–24 47.4 45.9 4.1 5.4 17.3 19.3 16.6 15.9 14.6 13.5

Race/ethnicity

White 39.9 38.3 3.1 5.4 21.3 21.1 17.8 19.6 17.9 15.5

Black 56.2 55.8 4.2! 5.0 14.7 11.9 12.7 13.5 12.3 13.9

Hispanic 55.8 55.9 2.2 2.9 13.6 14.5 15.2 13.7 13.2 13.0

Asian 44.2 40.3 ‡ ‡ 19.2 26.2 21.2 14.7 9.8! 12.5!

American Indian/

Alaska Native ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Other races2 42.4 43.1 ‡ ‡ ‡ 26.9! 14.1! 8.5! 17.8! 20.2!

Educational attainment

Less than high school 

diploma 58.6 56.4 2.3! 5.5! 13.2 11.0 10.6 14.0 15.3 13.1

High school 

completion only3 51.3 52.4 3.4 3.7 16.7 15.0 13.8 14.8 14.7 14.1

Some college 36.3 36.5 2.7 5.2 23.2 22.3 20.4 19.5 17.4 16.4

Associate’s degree 39.6 35.4 3.1! 5.3! 20.0 15.7 23.8 25.5 13.5 18.2

Bachelor’s or higher

degree 24.6 30.9 6.4 4.3! 26.6 33.4 24.1 18.5 18.3 12.8

Poverty status4

Poor 48.6 48.7 2.7 4.6 15.7 17.5 16.2 14.7 16.7 14.5

Near-poor 49.3 45.5 4.5 6.9! 16.2 15.9 12.8 15.9 17.1 15.8

Nonpoor 39.1 40.5 3.1 4.3 21.5 21.6 19.9 19.8 16.4 13.9

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater.

1 Questions related to leisure-time physical activity were phrased in terms of current behavior and lack a specific reference period. 

Respondents were asked about the frequency and duration of physical activity during leisure time. They were asked how often they 

did vigorous activities during their leisure time for at least 10 minutes that caused heavy sweating and large increases in breathing or 

heart rates. Persons who indicated that they were unable to do vigorous activity were included in the “Never” category. 

2 Includes Pacific Islanders.

3 Includes equivalency certification.

4 Children in families whose incomes are below the poverty threshold are classified as poor; those in families with incomes at 100–199 

percent of the poverty threshold are classified as near-poor, and those in families with incomes at 200 percent or more of the poverty 

threshold are classified as nonpoor. Detail may not sum to totals because of missing values for poverty.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, 1999 and 2008.
132 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 45 — Diseases

45. Diseases

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

defines a “notifiable” disease as one for which regular, 

frequent, and timely information on individual cases 

is considered necessary for the prevention and control 

of the disease (Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention 2011). Of the more than 50 infectious 

diseases designated as notifiable at the national 

level during 2007, the newly reported incidence 

rates of six diseases are discussed here: acquired 

immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), chlamydia, 

gonorrhea, syphilis, tuberculosis, and Lyme disease. 

The incidence of several sexually transmitted 

diseases—AIDS, gonorrhea, and syphilis—within 

the youth and young adult population (i.e., 15- 

to 24-year-olds) was lower in1995 than in 2000. 

However, the incidence of AIDS increased between 

2000 and 2007, the incidence of gonorrhea increased 

between 2004 and 2007, and the incidence of syphilis 

increased between 2003 and 2007. There were 2,666 

reported cases of AIDS among youth and young 

adults in 1995; a reported 1,567 cases in 2000; and 

2,305 cases in 2007. The number of AIDS cases was 

lower in 2000 than in 1995 despite an increase in 

the youth and young adult population over the same 

time period (see table 1). The incidence rate of AIDS 

in the youth and young adult population was 7.5 per 

100,000 in 1995, compared with 4.2 per 100,000 

in 2000. Between 2000 and 2007, the rate gradually 

increased to 5.4 per 100,000. There were 228,698 

cases of gonorrhea in 1995 in the youth and young 

adult population, compared with 189,629 cases 

in 2004 and 209,678 cases in 2007. Accordingly, 

the incidence rate declined between 1995 and 

2004 (from 645.0 to 460.2 cases per 100,000), but 

subsequently increased to 494.1 cases per 100,000 in 

2007. Similarly, there were 4,860 cases of syphilis in 

1995 among the youth and young adult population, 

compared with 1,182 cases in 2003 and 2,481 cases 

in 2007. The incidence rate dropped from 13.7 per 

100,000 in 1995 to 2.9 per 100,000 in 2003, before 

rising again to 5.9 per 100,000 in 2007. 

The number of cases and the incidence rate of 

chlamydia (the most common sexually transmitted 

disease) have also increased in recent years. In 2000, 

there were 508,736 cases of chlamydia among 15- to 

24-year-olds, or 1,349.4 per 100,000. By 2007, the 

number of cases had increased to 779,280, or 1,836.4 

per 100,000. 

The prevalence of common nonsexually transmitted 

diseases among youth and young adults also varied 

between 1995 and 2007. There were 994 cases of 

Lyme disease in this population in 1995, compared 

with 2,833 in 2007, an increase from 2.8 to 6.7 cases 

per 100,000. The number of cases and the incidence 

rate of tuberculosis among youth and young adults 

was higher in 1995 (1,703 cases or 4.8 per 100,000) 

than in 2007(1,581 cases or 3.7 per 100,000). 

Table 45. Number of newly reported cases and incidence rate of selected notifiable diseases among persons 

ages 15 to 24: Selected years, 1995 through 2007

Disease 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Number of newly reported cases

AIDS1 2,666 1,567 1,721 1,858 2,019 2,119 2,299 — 2,305

Chlamydia2 — 508,736 569,254 600,224 630,385 663,484 693,239 726,669 779,280

Gonorrhea 228,698 212,679 215,672 207,324 195,987 189,629 196,177 206,569 209,678

Syphilis 4,860 1,338 1,223 1,193 1,182 1,368 1,623 1,946 2,481

Tuberculosis 1,703 1,623 1,595 1,499 1,573 1,600 1,542 1,540 1,581

Lyme disease 994 1,632 1,550 2,155 1,987 1,804 2,280 1,947 2,833

Incidence rate per 100,000

AIDS1 7.5 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.1 5.5 — 5.4

Chlamydia2 — 1,349.4 1,452.8 1,531.8 1,553.1 1,610.2 1,662.4 1,727.0 1,836.4

Gonorrhea 645.0 564.1 550.4 529.1 482.9 460.2 470.4 490.9 494.1

Syphilis 13.7 3.6 3.1 3.0 2.9 3.3 3.9 4.6 5.9

Tuberculosis 4.8 4.3 4.1 3.8 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.7

Lyme disease 2.8 4.3 4.0 5.5 4.9 4.4 5.5 4.7 6.7

— Not available.

1 In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) upgraded its national surveillance data management system for 

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). During this transition, the CDC did not 

provide updates on AIDS or HIV infection surveillance data.

2 1995 data for chlamydia are not available by age.

NOTE: A “notifiable disease” is one for which regular, frequent, and timely information on individual cases is considered necessary for 

the prevention and control of the disease. For more information, see http://www.cdc.gov/ncphi/disss/nndss/nndsshis.htm. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report—United States, selected years, 1995–2007.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 133

Figure 45a. Rate per 100,000 population of reported cases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

syphilis, tuberculosis, and Lyme disease among persons ages 15 to 24: Selected years, 1995 

through 2007

1 In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) upgraded its national surveillance data management system for 

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). During this transition, the CDC did not 

provide updates on AIDS or HIV infection surveillance data.

NOTE: A “notifiable disease” is one for which regular, frequent, and timely information on individual cases is considered necessary for 

the prevention and control of the disease. For more information, see http://www.cdc.gov/epo/dphsi/nndsshis.htm.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report—United States, selected years, 1995–2007.

Figure 45b. Rate per 100,000 population of reported cases of chlamydia and gonorrhea among persons ages 

15 to 24: Selected years, 1995 through 2007

1 1995 data for chlamydia are not available by age.

NOTE: A “notifiable disease” is one for which regular, frequent, and timely information on individual cases is considered necessary for 

the prevention and control of the disease. For more information, see http://www.cdc.gov/epo/dphsi/nndsshis.htm. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report—United States, selected years, 1995–2007.
134 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 46 — Disabilities

46. Disabilities

As part of the National Health Interview Survey 

administered by the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, a sample of parents of 12- to 17-yearolds were asked, “Has a representative from a school 

or a health professional ever told you that [child’s 

name] had a learning disability?” The responses to 

this question revealed differences in the percentage 

of youth with learning disabilities by sex, race/

ethnicity, poverty status, health insurance status, and 

health status. In 2008, a higher percentage of males 

(11 percent) than females (7 percent) had ever been 

diagnosed with a learning disability. An examination 

of findings by race/ethnicity in 2008 revealed that 

a greater percentage of Whites (11 percent) than 

Hispanics (6 percent) had ever been diagnosed with 

a learning disability. In addition, 9 percent of Black 

youths had ever been diagnosed with a learning 

disability in 2008. Youth classified as “poor” had 

a higher rate of learning disability diagnosis (16 

percent) than youth classified as “near-poor” (10 

percent) or “nonpoor” (8 percent).17 Health insurance 

coverage was also associated with learning disability 

diagnoses: 17 percent of youth with Medicaid or other 

public coverage had ever been diagnosed, compared 

to 7 percent of privately insured youth and 4 percent 

of youth without health insurance. Some 30 percent 

of youth who reported fair or poor health in 2008 

had ever been diagnosed with a learning disability, 

compared to 17 percent of those in good health and 

7 percent in very good or excellent health. From 1999 

to 2008, the only measurable difference was a drop in 

the percentage of uninsured children diagnosed with 

a learning disability (from 8 to 4 percent). 

The National Health Interview Survey also asked 

parents, “Has a doctor or health professional ever 

told you that [child’s name] had Attention Deficit 

Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Attention Deficit 

Disorder (ADD)?” Similar to the rate of diagnosis 

for learning disabilities, a higher percentage of males 

than females ages 12 to 17 had ever been diagnosed 

with ADHD in 2008 (17 vs. 5 percent). White and 

Black youth also had higher rates of ADHD diagnosis 

(14 and 11 percent, respectively) than did Hispanic 

youth (4 percent). In addition, a greater percentage 

of those covered by Medicaid or other public health 

insurance (14 percent) than those covered by private 

insurance (10 percent) or those who were uninsured 

(7 percent) had ever been diagnosed with ADHD in 

2008. Some 9 percent of youth who were described as 

being in very good or excellent health had ever been 

diagnosed with ADHD, compared with 18 percent 

of youth in good health and 26 percent of youth in 

fair or poor health. 

The rates of ADHD diagnosis were higher in 2008 

than in 1999 overall and across many characteristics. 

Overall, 11 percent of 12- to 17-year-olds had ever 

been diagnosed with ADHD in 2008, compared with 

8 percent in 1999. Male youth had higher percentages 

of ADHD diagnosis in 2008 than in 1999 (17 vs. 11 

percent), as did 15- to 17-year-olds (12 vs. 7 percent), 

White youth (14 vs. 9 percent), and Black youth (11 

vs. 5 percent). The percentage of 12- to 17-year-olds 

who had ever been diagnosed with ADHD was also 

higher in 2008 than in 1999 for those who were 

“nonpoor,” those who were privately insured, and 

those in good and in very good or excellent health. 

17 Children in families whose incomes are below the poverty threshold are classified as poor; those in families with incomes at 

100–199 percent of the poverty threshold are classified as near-poor, and those in families with incomes at 200 percent or more of 

the poverty threshold are classified as nonpoor.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 135

Table 46. Percentage of children ages 12 to 17 ever having been diagnosed with a learning disability or 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, by selected characteristics: Selected years, 1999 through 2008

Characteristic

Learning disability1

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 

(ADHD)2

1999 2002 2005 2008 1999 2002 2005 2008

Total 9.6 10.5 9.2 9.4 7.7 9.6 8.9 11.0

Sex

Male 13.0 13.8 11.0 11.4 11.4 13.6 12.5 16.6

Female 6.0 7.1 7.4 7.3 3.8 5.3 5.1 5.3

Age

12–14 10.3 10.5 9.1 8.3 8.8 9.6 8.4 9.6

15–17 8.9 10.6 9.3 10.3 6.6 9.5 9.4 12.3

Race/ethnicity

White 10.4 11.0 9.3 11.2 9.4 10.9 10.4 13.8

Black 10.3 12.6 10.8 9.1 5.0 10.9 8.4 11.4

Hispanic 6.4 7.0 8.2 5.9 4.0 4.2 6.1 4.1

Asian ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/

Alaska Native ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Other races3 ‡ 23.3 14.4! 9.0! ‡ 12.5! 6.2! 10.3!

Parent’s education4

Less than high school 

diploma 7.2 10.3 5.8 4.6! 7.0 6.4 3.5! 1.2!

High school completion only 9.4 12.1 10.6 10.8 7.7 10.2 9.3 10.9

Some college or higher 8.3 8.4 8.2 8.0 7.2 8.0 8.2 10.9

Poverty status5

Poor 13.0 16.6 15.1 15.8 10.3 12.7 8.1 12.3

Near-poor 12.3 11.8 9.9 9.7 7.3 10.7 11.1 9.7

Nonpoor 9.0 9.9 7.9 8.0 8.8 9.8 8.9 11.5

Health insurance coverage6

Private 8.4 9.0 7.6 7.3 7.3 9.0 8.6 10.1

Medicaid/other public 18.5 16.3 15.1 16.8 10.3 12.7 11.3 14.5

Other ‡ ‡ 8.6! 8.9! 6.7! 10.9! 7.7! 18.4!

Uninsured 8.1 10.9 8.5 4.2 7.3 7.3 6.2 7.4

Current health status7

Excellent/very good 7.6 8.6 8.0 7.4 6.9 8.2 8.3 9.2

Good 15.3 16.1 12.1 16.9 10.0 14.3 9.5 18.4

Fair/poor 43.2 41.2 29.5 29.9 20.6 28.6 23.8 25.7

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater. 1 “Learning disability” is based on the question “Has a representative from a school or a health professional ever told you that [child’s 

name] had a learning disability?”

2 “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder” is based on the question “Has a doctor or health professional ever told you that [child’s 

name] had Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)?” 

3 Includes Pacific Islanders.

4 Parent’s education is the education level of the parent with the higher level of education. “High school completion only” includes 

equivalency certification.

5 Children in families whose incomes are below the poverty threshold are classified as poor; those in families with incomes at 100–199 

percent of the poverty threshold are classified as near-poor, and those in families with incomes at 200 percent or more of the poverty 

threshold are classified as nonpoor. Detail may not sum to totals because of missing values for poverty. 6 Classification of health insurance coverage is based on a hierarchy of mutually exclusive categories. Persons with more than one 

type of health insurance were assigned to the first appropriate category in the hierarchy. “Private” includes persons who had any type 

of private coverage, either alone or in combination with other coverage. “Uninsured” includes persons who had no coverage as well 

as those who had only Indian Health Service coverage or had only a private plan that paid for one type of service, such as accidents 

or dental care.

7 Data based on respondent self-response to survey question on general health status.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, selected years, 1999–2008.
136 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 46 — Disabilities

Figure 46. Percentage of children ages 12 to 17 ever having been diagnosed with a learning disability or 

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, by poverty status: Selected years, 1999 through 2008 

NOTE: “Learning disability” is based on the question “Has a representative from a school or a health professional ever told you that 

[child’s name] had a learning disability?” “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder” is based on the question “Has a doctor or health 

professional ever told you that [child’s name] had Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)?” 

Children in families whose incomes are below the poverty threshold are classified as  poor; those in families with incomes at 100–199 

percent of the poverty threshold are classified as near-poor, and those in families with incomes at 200 percent or more of the poverty 

threshold are classified as nonpoor. Detail may not sum to totals because of missing values for poverty.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health 

Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, selected years, 1999–2008.
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138 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 47 — Depression

47. Depression

A Major Depressive Episode (MDE) is defined as a 

period of at least 2 weeks when a person experiences 

a depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in 

daily activities, plus at least four additional symptoms 

of depression (such as problems with sleep, eating, 

energy, concentration, and feelings of self-worth) 

(American Psychiatric Association 1994). In 2009, 

about 14 percent of 14- to 25-year-olds reported 

having had an MDE in their lifetime, which was 

not measurably different from the percentage in 

2006. From 2006 to 2009, the percentages of males 

and females who had experienced an MDE did not 

measurably change; nor were there differences from 

2006 to 2009 among 14- to 17-year-olds and 18- to 

20-year-olds. However, among all 21- to 25-year-olds, 

the percentage who reported having an MDE in their 

lifetime decreased from 16 to 14 percent, and the 

percentage among females in this age group decreased 

from 20 to 18 percent. In contrast, the percentage of 

male 14- to 17-year-olds reporting an MDE increased 

from 8 percent in 2006 to 10 percent in 2009. Among 

14- to 25-year-olds, higher percentages of females 

than males reported having experienced an MDE in 

their lifetime in each year from 2006 through 2009; 

in 2009, the reported incidence of lifetime MDEs 

was about twice as high for females as for males 

(19 vs. 10 percent). Differences also emerged when 

examining reports of lifetime MDEs by age group. 

The percentage of reported lifetime MDEs in 2009 

for 14- to 17-year-olds (15 percent) was higher than 

the percentage for 18- to 20-year-olds (13 percent). 

In 2009, higher percentages of 14- to 17-year-olds 

(10 percent) reported having an MDE in the past year 

than did 18- to 20-year-olds and 21- to 25-year-olds 

(8 percent each). Across all three age groups, higher 

percentages of females than males reported having an 

MDE in the past year. For example, 11 percent of 

female 18- to 20-year-olds reported having an MDE 

in the past year, compared with 5 percent of male 

18- to 20-year-olds.

Table 47. Percentage of 14- to 25-year-olds who experienced a Major Depressive Episode (MDE) in their lifetime 

and in the past year, by sex, year, and age group: 2006 through 2009

Year and

age group

Total Male Female

Lifetime Past year Lifetime Past year Lifetime Past year

2006

Total 14.8 9.0 9.6 5.7 20.1 12.3

14–17 14.8 9.2 8.2 4.5 21.7 14.0

18–20 13.0 8.5 8.8 5.9 17.6 11.4

21–25 15.9 9.1 11.5 6.7 20.2 11.5

2007

Total 14.9 9.4 9.9 5.9 20.0 12.9

14–17 15.3 10.1 9.0 5.6 21.9 14.8

18–20 12.9 8.0 9.0 5.5 17.1 10.6

21–25 16.0 9.7 11.5 6.6 20.4 12.8

2008

Total 14.4 9.1 9.0 5.3 19.9 13.0

14–17 15.0 9.8 7.9 4.8 22.3 15.0

18–20 13.1 8.9 8.2 5.8 18.3 12.2

21–25 14.7 8.7 10.4 5.4 18.9 11.9

2009

Total 14.4 8.5 9.9 5.7 19.1 11.4

14–17 15.3 9.6 10.2 6.1 20.8 13.3

18–20 13.3 7.8 8.6 4.9 18.4 11.0

21–25 14.4 8.1 10.5 5.9 18.1 10.2

NOTE: Major Depressive Episode (MDE) is defined as a period of at least 2 weeks when a person experiences a depressed mood or 

loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities, plus at least four additional symptoms of depression (such as problems with sleep, eating, 

energy, concentration, and feelings of self-worth) as described in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 

Disorders (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association 1994). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National 

Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 2006–09. Retrieved May 2, 2009, from http://oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 139

Figure 47. Percentage of 14- to 25-year-olds who experienced a Major Depressive Episode (MDE) in their 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

lifetime, by sex and age group: 2006 and 2009 

NOTE: Major Depressive Episode (MDE) is defined as a period of at least 2 weeks when a person experiences a depressed mood or 

loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities, plus at least four additional symptoms of depression (such as problems with sleep, eating, 

energy, concentration, and feelings of self-worth) as described in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 

Disorders (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association 1994).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey 

on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 2006 and 2009. Retrieved May 2, 2011, from http://oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm.
140 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 48 — Substance Use

48. Substance Use

In 2009, some 10 percent of youth ages 12 to 17 and 

21 percent of young adults ages 18 to 25 reported 

using an illicit drug in the past month (i.e., recent 

use). Additionally, 15 percent of youth and 62 percent 

of young adults drank alcohol, and 9 percent of youth 

and 42 percent of young adults reported engaging in 

“binge drinking” (drinking five or more drinks on the 

same occasion) in the past month. Young adults had 

higher reported rates of recent substance use than 

youth in 2009 for all substances except inhalants; in 

that year, 1 percent of youth had used inhalants in 

the past month, compared with 0.4 percent of young 

adults. The reported rates for drinking alcohol, binge 

drinking, and smoking cigarettes in the past month 

were about four times higher for young adults than 

for youth in 2009. 

Between 1995 and 2009, declines in substance abuse 

among youth were found for cocaine, alcohol, and 

cigarettes. Reports of recent cigarette use among 

youth declined from 20 to 9 percent between 1995 

and 2009. Recent use of alcohol among youth 

declined from 21 to 15 percent; however, there was 

no measurable change in the percentage of youth 

who reported marijuana use or binge drinking. In 

contrast to the patterns for youth, there were no 

measurable changes between 1995 and 2009 in the 

percentages of young adults who reported recent 

cigarette or alcohol use. However, the percentage of 

young adults who reported using marijuana in the 

past month increased during this period (from 12 to 

18 percent), as did the percentage of young adults 

who reported binge drinking in the past month (from 

30 to 42 percent). In addition, there was an increase 

between 1995 and 2009 in the percentage of young 

adults who reported recent use of illicit drugs (from 

14 to 21 percent) and between 2000 and 2009 in the 

use of psychotherapeutic drugs (from 4 to 6 percent).

Table 48. Percentage of persons ages 12 to 25 reporting substance use in the past month, by age group and 

type of substance: Selected years, 1995 through 2009

Age group and

type of substance 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

12 to 17

Any illicit drug1 10.9 9.7 9.9 9.8 9.5 9.3 10.0

Any psychotherapeutic — 3.0 3.3 3.3 3.3 2.9 3.1

Cocaine 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3

Hallucinogens — 1.2 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.9

Inhalants — 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0

Marijuana and hashish 8.2 7.2 6.8 6.7 6.7 6.7 7.3

Alcohol 21.1 16.4 16.5 16.6 15.9 14.6 14.7

“Binge” alcohol use2 7.9 10.4 9.9 10.3 9.7 8.8 8.8

Cigarettes 20.2 13.4 10.8 10.4 9.8 9.1 8.9

18 to 25

Any illicit drug1 14.2 15.9 20.1 19.8 19.7 19.6 21.2

Any psychotherapeutic — 3.6 6.3 6.5 6.0 5.9 6.3

Cocaine 1.3 1.4 2.6 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.4

Hallucinogens — 1.8 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.8

Inhalants — 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4

Marijuana and hashish 12.0 13.6 16.6 16.3 16.4 16.5 18.1

Alcohol 61.3 56.8 60.9 61.9 61.2 61.2 61.8

“Binge” alcohol use2 29.9 37.8 41.9 42.2 41.8 41.0 41.7

Cigarettes 35.3 38.3 39.0 38.4 36.2 35.7 35.8

— Not available.

1 Indicates use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including PCP and LSD), heroin, or any 

prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically at least once in the past month. 

2 Defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion (at the same time or within a couple of hours of each other) on at 

least 1 day in the past 30 days.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National 

Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), selected years, 1995–2009. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 141

Figure 48. Percentage of persons ages 12 to 25 reporting substance use in the past month, by age group and 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

type of substance: 1995 and 2009 

1 Indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including PCP and LSD), 

heroin, or any prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically. 

2 Defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion (at the same time or within a couple of hours of each other) on at 

least 1 day in the past 30 days. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey 

on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 1995 and 2009. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm.
142 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 49 — Personal Safety

49. Personal Safety

When asked about certain health-risk behaviors 

in 2009, about 31 percent of high school students 

(grades 9 through 12) reported that they had engaged 

in a physical fight in the past year and 28 percent 

reported riding with a driver at least once in the 

past 30 days who had been drinking alcohol. High 

school students also reported having engaged in 

other behaviors in 2009 that could compromise their 

safety, including carrying a weapon (17 percent), 

carrying a gun (6 percent), driving after drinking 

alcohol (10 percent), and being injured in a physical 

fight (4 percent). Greater percentages of male than 

female high school students reported engaging in 

these high-risk behaviors: carrying a weapon or a 

gun, driving after drinking alcohol, and engaging in 

or being injured in a physical fight. No measurable 

difference was found in the percentages of male and 

female students who reported riding with a driver 

who had been drinking in 2009.

Between 1991 and 2009, the percentages of high 

school students, both male and female, who reported 

engaging in each of the following behaviors declined: 

carrying a weapon, driving after drinking alcohol, 

riding with a driver who had been drinking alcohol, 

and engaging in a physical fight. For example, 

between these years, the percentage of high school 

students who carried a weapon decreased from 41 

to 27 percent for males and from 11 to 7 percent 

for females. In addition, the percentage of male 

high school students who carried a gun decreased 

between 1993 and 2009 (from 14 to 10 percent), 

while the corresponding percentage of female high 

school students fluctuated between 1 and 3 percent. 

There were no measurable differences over time in 

the percentages of males and females who reported 

being injured in a physical fight.

Table 49. Percentage of high school students involved in behaviors that may endanger their safety, by type of 

behavior and sex: Selected years, 1991 through 2009

Behavior 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

Carried a weapon1,2

Total 26.1 22.1 20.1 18.3 17.3 17.4 17.1 18.5 18.0 17.5

Male 40.6 34.3 31.1 27.7 28.6 29.3 26.9 29.8 28.5 27.1

Female 10.9 9.2 8.3 7.0 6.0 6.2 6.8 7.1 7.5 7.1

Carried a gun1

Total — 7.9 7.6 5.9 4.9 5.7 6.1 5.4 5.2 5.9

Male — 13.7 12.3 9.6 9.0 10.3 10.2 9.9 9.0 9.8

Female — 1.8 2.5 1.5 0.8 1.3 1.7 1.0 1.2 1.7

Drove after drinking alcohol1

Total 16.7 13.5 15.4 16.9 13.1 13.3 12.1 9.9 10.5 9.7

Male 21.5 17.6 18.5 21.0 17.4 17.2 15.0 11.7 12.9 11.6

Female 11.7 9.1 11.9 12.0 8.7 9.5 8.9 8.1 8.1 7.6

Rode with a driver who had

been drinking alcohol1

Total 40.0 35.3 38.8 36.6 33.1 30.7 30.2 28.5 29.2 28.3

Male 40.1 36.3 39.5 38.3 34.4 31.8 29.2 27.2 29.5 27.8

Female 39.8 34.5 37.8 34.5 31.7 29.6 31.1 29.6 28.8 28.8

Engaged in a physical fight3

Total 42.5 41.8 38.7 36.6 35.7 33.2 33.0 35.9 35.5 31.5

Male 50.3 51.2 46.1 45.5 44.0 43.1 40.5 43.4 44.4 39.3

Female 34.4 31.7 30.6 26.0 27.3 23.9 25.1 28.2 26.6 22.9

Injured in a physical fight3,4

Total 4.4 4.0 4.2 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.2 3.6 4.2 3.8

Male 6.0 5.2 5.7 4.6 5.3 5.2 5.7 4.8 5.5 5.1

Female 2.7 2.7 2.5 2.2 2.8 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.9 2.2

— Not available.

1 One or more times during the 30 days preceding the survey.

2 Examples of a weapon are a gun, knife, or club.

3 One or more times during the 12 months preceding the survey.

4 Physical fight resulting in injury requiring attention by a doctor or nurse.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, selected years, 1991–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 143

Figure 49. Percentage of high school students involved in selected behaviors that may endanger their safety: 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

1991, 1999, and 2009 

1 One or more times during the 30 days preceding the survey.

2 Examples of a weapon are a gun, knife, or club.

3 One or more times during the 12 months preceding the survey.

4 Physical fight resulting in injury requiring attention by a doctor or nurse.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 1991, 1999, and 2009.
144 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 50 — Sexual Behaviors

50. Sexual Behaviors

The percentage of high school students (grades 9 

through 12) who reported ever having had sexual 

intercourse decreased between 1991 and 2009. In 

2009, some 46 percent each of male and female 

high school students reported having had sexual 

intercourse, compared with 57 and 51 percent, 

respectively, in 1991. The percentage of female high 

school students who used birth control pills during 

their last sexual intercourse did not measurably 

change between 1991 and 2009 (25 vs. 23 

percent). In contrast, the percentages of high school 

students who used a condom during their last sexual 

intercourse increased between 1991 and 2009 (from 

55 to 69 percent for males and from 38 to 54 percent 

for females). The percentage of students who reported 

being sexually active in the past 3 months fluctuated 

between 1991 and 2009, with a low of 33 percent of 

students in 2001. There was no measurable change 

over time in the percentage of high schools students 

who drank alcohol or used drugs during their last 

sexual intercourse. 

While reported levels of lifetime and current sexual 

activity did not vary by sex in 2009, other patterns 

of sexual behavior did differ. For example, in 2009, 

a greater percentage of male high school students 

(26 percent) reported drinking alcohol or using 

drugs during sex than female high school students 

(17 percent). In addition, more males than females 

reported using a condom during their last sexual 

intercourse (69 vs. 54 percent), while more females 

than males reported relying on birth control pills (23 

vs. 17 percent). 

Table 50. Percentage of high school students reporting selected sexual behaviors, by sex: Selected years, 1991 

through 2009

Behavior 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

Ever had sexual intercourse

Total 54.1 53.0 53.1 48.4 49.9 45.6 46.7 46.8 47.8 46.0

Male 57.4 55.6 54.0 48.9 52.2 48.5 48.0 47.9 49.8 46.1

Female 50.8 50.2 52.1 47.7 47.7 42.9 45.3 45.7 45.9 45.7

Currently sexually active 

(last 3 months)

Total 37.5 37.5 37.9 34.8 36.3 33.4 34.3 33.9 35.0 34.2

Male 36.8 37.5 35.5 33.4 36.2 33.4 33.8 33.3 34.3 32.6

Female 38.2 37.5 40.4 36.5 36.3 33.4 34.6 34.6 35.6 35.6

Drank alcohol or used

drug during last sexual

intercourse1

Total 21.6 21.3 24.8 24.7 24.8 25.6 25.4 23.3 22.5 21.6

Male 26.3 25.7 32.8 30.5 31.2 30.9 29.8 27.6 27.5 26.0

Female 16.8 16.7 16.8 18.5 18.6 20.7 21.0 19.1 17.7 17.1

Used a condom during last

sexual intercourse1

Total 46.2 52.8 54.4 56.8 58.0 57.9 63.0 62.8 61.5 61.1

Male 54.5 59.2 60.5 62.5 65.5 65.1 68.8 70.0 68.5 68.6

Female 38.0 46.1 48.6 50.8 50.7 51.3 57.4 55.9 54.9 53.9

Used birth control pills during

last sexual intercourse1

Total 20.8 18.4 17.4 16.6 16.2 18.2 17.0 17.6 16.0 19.8

Male 16.5 14.7 14.3 13.0 11.8 14.9 13.1 14.6 13.1 16.5

Female 25.0 22.4 20.4 20.5 20.4 21.1 20.6 20.6 18.7 23.0

1 Among students who were currently sexually active (had sexual intercourse with at least one person during the 3 months before the 

survey).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, selected years, 1991–2009.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 145

Figure 50. Percentage of high school students reporting selected sexual behaviors, by sex: Selected years, 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

1991 through 2009

1 Among students who were currently sexually active (had sexual intercourse with at least one person during the 3 months before the 

survey).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Morbidity and Mortality 

Weekly Report, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, selected years, 1991–2009.
146 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 51 — Causes of Death

51. Causes of Death

The overall death rate for youth and young adults ages 

15 to 24 decreased from 115 per 100,000 persons 

in 1980 to 70 per 100,000 in 2009, although there 

were some fluctuations during this period. Deaths by 

accidents were the leading cause of death for youth 

and young adults in each year shown between 1980 

and 2009. In 2009, the accident death rate was 29 

per 100,000, down from 62 per 100,000 in 1980. 

The homicide death rate for 15- to 24-year-olds 

peaked in 1990 at 20 per 100,000; between 2000 

and 2009, this rate remained between 11 and 14 

per 100,000. The rate of death by suicide among the 

youth and young adult population declined from 

13 per 100,000 in 1985 to 10 per 100,000 in 2000, 

where it remained through 2009. Deaths resulting 

from cancer generally declined from 6 deaths per 

100,000 in 1980 to 4 deaths per 100,000 in 2009 

among 15- to 24-year-olds. The number of deaths 

by influenza and pneumonia remained between 0.4 

and 1 per 100,000 15- to 24-year-olds between 1980 

and 2009. The human immunodeficiency virus death 

rate fell from 1.5 per 100,000 in 1990 to 0.5 per 

100,000 in 2000, and was 0.3 deaths per 100,000 

persons in 2009. 

Table 51. Number of deaths per 100,000 persons ages 15 to 24, by selected causes of death: Selected years, 

1980 through 2009

Year Total1 Accident Homicide Cancer

Heart

disease

Human

immunodeficiency 

virus

Influenza

and

pneumonia Suicide

1980 115.4 61.7 15.4 6.3 2.9 — 0.8 12.3

1985 94.9 47.9 11.7 5.4 2.8 — 0.6 12.8

1990 99.2 43.9 19.7 4.9 2.5 1.5 0.6 13.2

1995 93.4 38.5 19.6 4.5 2.8 1.7 0.6 13.0

2000 79.9 36.0 12.6 4.4 2.6 0.5 0.5 10.2

2001 80.7 36.1 13.3 4.3 2.5 0.6 0.5 9.9

2002 81.4 38.0 12.9 4.3 2.5 0.4 0.4 9.9

2003 81.5 37.1 13.0 4.0 2.7 0.4 0.5 9.7

2004 80.1 37.0 12.2 4.1 2.5 0.5 0.4 10.3

2005 81.4 37.4 13.0 4.1 2.7 0.4 0.4 10.0

2006 82.2 38.2 13.5 3.9 2.5 0.5 0.4 9.9

2007 79.9 37.4 13.1 3.9 2.6 0.4 0.4 9.7

2008 75.7 32.9 12.4 3.9 2.5 0.4 0.5 10.1

2009 70.2 28.7 11.2 3.9 2.3 0.3 1.0 10.1

— Not available.

1 Includes causes of death not shown separately.

NOTE: Data for 2008 and 2009 are preliminary.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for 

Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System, Health, United States, 2010: With Special Feature on Death and Dying; Mortality data, 

unpublished tables, selected years, 1980–95; National Vital Statistics Reports: Vol. 58, no. 19, Deaths: Final data for 2007, released May, 

2010; National Vital Statistics Reports: Vol. 59, no. 2, Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2008, released December, 2010; National Vital Statistics 

Reports: Vol. 59, No. 4, Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2009, released March, 2011.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 147

Figure 51. Number of deaths per 100,000 persons ages 15 to 24, by selected causes of death: Selected years, 

Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

1980 through 2009

NOTE: Data for 2008 and 2009 are preliminary.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for 

Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System, Health, United States, 2010: With Special Feature on Death and Dying; Mortality data, 

unpublished tables, selected years, 1980–95; National Vital Statistics Reports: Vol. 58, no. 19, Deaths: Final data for 2007, released May, 

2010; National Vital Statistics Reports: Vol. 59, no. 2, Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2008, released December, 2010; National Vital Statistics 

Reports: Vol. 59, No. 4, Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2009, released March, 2011.
148 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 51 — Causes of Death

SNAPSHOT

Causes of Death by Race/Ethnicity

Death rates for youth and young adults ages 15 to 24 

differed by race/ethnicity and sex in 2007, the latest 

year for which detailed mortality data were available. 

American Indians/Alaska Natives had the highest 

overall rate of death per 100,000 youth and young 

adults (129), followed by Blacks (113), Hispanics 

(76), Whites (74), and Asians (43). American 

Indians/Alaska Natives also had the highest rates 

of death per 100,000 youth and young adults by 

accident (66) and suicide (26) in 2007, while Blacks 

had the highest rates of death per 100,000 youth and 

young adults by homicide (49) and non-injury (29). 

Non-injury includes deaths by cancer, heart disease, 

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza/

pneumonia, and other health-related causes. These 

relative patterns by race/ethnicity were true for both 

male and female subgroups. 

In 2007, males ages 15 to 24 had an overall death 

rate of 116 per 100,000, compared to a rate of 42 

per 100,000 for females. Also, in each racial/ethnic 

group, males had over twice the total death rate of 

females. The overall rate of death by homicide for 

males was at least six times that of females for Blacks 

(88 vs. 9 per 100,000) and Hispanics (30 vs. 4 per 

100,000). The overall death rate by homicide for 

males was more than three times that of females 

for American Indians/Alaska Natives (17 vs. 5 per 

100,000) and Asians/Pacific Islanders (7 vs. 2 per 

100,000). The homicide death rate for White males 

was 5 per 100,000, compared with 2 per 100,000 

for White females. Males in all racial/ethnic groups 

had higher death rates from non-injuries than 

females had. Suicide death rates were also higher 

for males than for females across all racial/ethnic 

groups in 2007. American Indians/Alaska Natives 

had the highest rate of death by suicide per 100,000 

persons (41 for males and 10 for females), followed 

by Whites (18 and 4), Asians/Pacific Islanders (14 

and 4), Hispanics (12 and 2), and Blacks (11 and 2). 

Table 51a. Number of deaths per 100,000 persons ages 15 to 24, by race/ethnicity, selected causes, and 

sex: 2007

Cause and sex Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

All causes1 79.9 74.5 112.6 76.5 43.2 128.8

Males 115.8 104.6 173.1 115.3 60.7 180.1

Females 42.0 42.7 50.5 33.5 24.7 76.0

Accident 37.4 41.9 26.4 33.8 17.7 66.3

Males 54.5 60.2 38.9 52.1 24.8 91.1

Females 19.3 22.6 13.6 13.5 10.2 40.7

Homicide 13.1 3.6 49.2 17.4 4.3 11.2

Males 22.1 4.9 88.2 30.0 6.9 17.4

Females 3.5 2.2 9.2 3.5 1.5 4.9

Non-injury2 18.2 16.2 29.0 16.9 11.7 21.6

Males 20.9 18.8 32.2 19.8 14.6 25.6

Females 15.3 13.5 25.7 13.8 8.6 17.4

Suicide 9.7 11.1 6.2 7.1 8.9 25.5

Males 15.9 18.2 10.5 11.5 13.5 40.8

Females 3.2 3.7 1.7 2.2 4.0 9.8

1 Includes causes of death not shown separately.

2 Includes deaths by cancer, heart disease, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza/pneumonia, and other health-related 

causes.

NOTE: Detailed mortality data were not available for 2008 or 2009 at the time of publication. Total includes other racial/ethnic 

groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center 

for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System, CDC WONDER online database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 

1999–2007 Series 20 No. 2M, 2010, retrieved February 3, 2011, from http://wonder.cdc.gov/cmf-icd10.html.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 149Chapter 5 — Health and Wellness

SNAPSHOT

Figure 51a. Number of deaths per 100,000 persons ages 15 to 24, by selected causes and race/ethnicity: 

2007

1 Includes causes not shown separately.

2 Includes deaths by cancer, heart disease, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza/pneumonia, and other health-related 

causes.

NOTE: Detailed mortality data were not available for 2008 or 2009 at the time of publication. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center 

for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System, CDC WONDER online database, compiled from Compressed Mortality File 

1999–2007 Series 20 No. 2M, 2010, retrieved February 3, 2011, from http://wonder.cdc.gov/cmf-icd10.html.
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Chapter 6

FUTURE GOALS
152 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 52 — Educational Expectations

52. Educational Expectations

Data from a series of longitudinal studies from the 

last few decades give insights as to how the goals and 

future plans of high school students may eventually 

materialize. Greater percentages of 1972 seniors did 

not expect to complete high school than did their 

peers in 2004. In 1972, some 19 percent of seniors did 

not expect to complete high school, compared with 

5 percent of seniors in 2004. In addition, many of 

the educational expectation gaps across demographic 

groups observed in 1972 had narrowed or changed 

direction by 2004. For example, among 1972 seniors, 

more females than males did not expect to complete 

high school (22 vs. 16 percent), whereas in 2004, 

more males than females had this expectation (8 vs. 3 

percent). Also, looking at changes by socioeconomic 

status (SES), 34 percent of seniors in the lowest SES 

quartile did not expect to complete high school in 

1972, compared with 11 percent in 2004. 

In terms of attaining higher levels of education, 

the percentage of high school seniors expecting to 

earn a graduate or professional degree was higher in 

2004 than in 1972 (38 vs. 13 percent). Such shifts 

were evident across all demographic groups shown, 

although they varied across groups. For example, 

while the percentage of males who expected to 

obtain a graduate or professional degree was about 

15 percentage points higher in 2004 than in 1972 

(32 vs. 16 percent), the corresponding difference for 

females between these two time points was about 35 

percentage points (45 vs. 9 percent). In addition, 

the percentages of seniors who expected to complete 

this level of education were higher in 2004 than in 

1972 for Whites (39 vs. 22 percent), Blacks (39 vs. 

14 percent), and Hispanics (33 vs. 9 percent). 

Figure 52. Percentage of high school seniors expecting to complete a bachelor’s degree or graduate or 

professional degree, by sex: 1972 and 2004 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class 

of 1972 (NLS:72), “Base Year”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “First Follow-up, 2004.”
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 153

Table 52. Percentage of high school seniors expecting to complete various educational levels, by sex, race/

Chapter 6 — Future Goals

ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES): 1972, 1980, 1992, and 2004

Sex, race/ethnicity, and SES

Less than high school completion Some college

1972 1980 1992 2004 1972 1980 1992 2004

Total 18.9 19.5 5.3 5.4 30.9 34.5 25.3 19.7

Sex

Male 15.5 21.0 6.8 7.6 29.0 31.7 26.0 22.8

Female 22.2 18.2 3.9 3.4 32.7 37.0 24.6 16.8

Race/ethnicity

White 18.8 20.1 5.4 5.1 30.4 34.3 25.1 18.6

Black 15.0 17.0 4.7 5.5 34.0 35.4 23.5 20.6

Hispanic 16.3 25.0 6.3 7.4 41.2 39.1 31.4 26.7

Asian 8.4! 3.3! 2.9 2.7 23.1 18.6 19.0 11.2

Two or more races — — — 6.8 — — — 18.2

SES quartile

Lowest 33.6 34.4 10.8 10.8 36.0 39.5 40.0 30.6

Middle two 19.8 18.5 4.9 5.0 35.6 39.6 26.9 21.0

Highest 5.8 5.0 1.3 1.3 17.8 19.3 9.3 7.3

Bachelor’s degree

Graduate or

professional degree

Sex, race/ethnicity, and SES 1972 1980 1992 2004 1972 1980 1992 2004

Total 37.6 25.5 36.1 36.6 12.6 20.5 33.3 38.3

Sex

Male 39.2 26.0 36.2 37.9 16.3 21.2 31.1 31.8

Female 36.0 25.1 36.1 35.3 9.1 19.8 35.4 44.6

Race/ethnicity

White 38.2 26.0 37.2 37.7 21.6 19.6 32.3 38.6

Black 37.5 24.3 34.0 35.2 13.5 23.2 37.9 38.7

Hispanic 33.3 19.2 31.3 32.6 9.2 16.8 31.0 33.3

Asian 52.1 34.9 35.7 35.1 16.5 43.2 42.5 51.1

Two or more races — — — 40.7 — — — 34.2

SES quartile

Lowest 24.5 16.2 27.9 33.3 6.0 10.0 21.2 25.4

Middle two 35.1 25.3 40.1 39.3 9.5 16.6 28.2 34.8

Highest 52.6 36.6 36.1 34.6 23.8 39.2 53.3 56.9

— Not available.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

NOTE: Totals include other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Asian category includes Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific 

Islanders. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class 

of 1972 (NLS:72), “Base Year”; High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 Seniors (HS&B-Sr:80), “Third Follow-up, 1986”; National 

Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “Second Follow-up, Student Survey, 1992”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “First Follow-up, 2004.”
154 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 53 — Values

53. Values

The percentages of high school seniors indicating 

that certain values were very important to them have 

changed over time. Greater percentages of seniors in 

2004 than in 1972 reported that being able to give 

their children better opportunities was very important 

to them (83 vs. 67 percent); the same was true of 

the percentages who valued living close to parents 

(25 vs. 8 percent) and making money (35 vs. 18 

percent). In contrast, 20 percent of seniors in 2004 

said that working to correct social problems was very 

important to them, compared with 27 percent of 

seniors in 1972.

In 2004, the importance of many of these values 

varied across demographic groups. For example, 

43 percent of males reported that making money 

was very important, compared with 28 percent of 

females. In addition, 18 percent of males reported 

that working to correct social problems was very 

important compared with 21 percent of females. 

While a majority of high school seniors indicated that 

being able to give their children a better opportunity 

was very important to them, greater percentages of 

Black (92 percent) and Hispanic (90 percent) seniors 

held this view than did White (79 percent) and 

Asian (85 percent) seniors. Furthermore, a greater 

percentage of seniors in the lowest socioeconomic 

status (SES) quartile (24 percent) indicated that 

working to correct social problems was important 

to them than did their peers in the middle two 

quartiles (18 percent) and the highest SES quartile 

(19 percent).

Figure 53. Percentage of high school seniors reporting various values as very important, by sex: 1972 and 2004

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class 

of 1972 (NLS:72), “Base Year”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “First Follow-up, 2004.”
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 155

Table 53. Percentage of high school seniors reporting various values as very important, by sex, race/ethnicity, 

Chapter 6 — Future Goals

and socioeconomic status (SES): 1972, 1980, 1992, and 2004

Sex, race/ethnicity, and SES

Giving children better opportunity Living close to parents

1972 1980 1992 2004 1972 1980 1992 2004

Total 66.8 66.9 75.5 82.5 7.7 14.0 16.9 24.5

Sex

Male 66.8 67.3 74.5 82.1 7.2 13.0 15.2 22.3

Female 66.9 66.5 76.5 82.9 8.3 14.8 18.7 26.6

Race/ethnicity

White 63.7 63.2 71.0 78.7 7.1 13.0 15.2 21.8

Black 88.7 85.6 91.2 92.0 10.0 14.2 16.5 26.0

Hispanic 84.1 79.2 86.7 89.7 14.1 21.8 25.4 32.7

Asian 69.6 75.0 79.1 84.7 13.8 24.4 26.6 31.8

Two or more races — — — 81.1 — — — 21.7

SES quartile

Lowest 78.6 75.8 85.0 88.0 9.0 15.1 19.1 30.1

Middle two 67.5 67.3 76.5 84.3 8.1 14.1 16.7 25.0

Highest 56.4 56.0 64.8 73.5 5.8 12.0 15.3 17.6

Making money Working to correct social problems

Sex, race/ethnicity, and SES 1972 1980 1992 2004 1972 1980 1992 2004

Total 17.8 31.4 37.4 35.1 26.9 13.0 20.3 19.7

Sex

Male 25.9 40.5 45.3 42.7 22.4 12.3 17.0 18.1

Female 9.8 23.1 29.4 27.6 31.3 13.6 23.6 21.2

Race/ethnicity

White 16.4 29.4 33.7 28.9 24.7 10.6 16.7 15.0

Black 29.9 44.8 51.8 55.4 46.5 25.3 33.8 31.6

Hispanic 18.8 34.6 40.5 40.3 32.5 18.3 27.0 28.1

Asian 18.7 40.1 47.9 41.9 24.6 17.4 25.3 23.1

Two or more races — — — 36.4 — — — 19.0

SES quartile

Lowest 19.2 31.5 43.6 41.1 28.9 15.0 24.3 24.0

Middle two 17.3 31.1 37.6 34.8 25.4 11.7 18.8 18.0

Highest 17.6 32.0 31.2 29.6 27.8 13.3 19.4 18.7

— Not available.

NOTE: Totals include other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Asian category includes Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific 

Islanders. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class 

of 1972 (NLS:72), “Base Year”; High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study of 1980 Seniors (HS&B-Sr:80), “Third Follow-up, 1986”; National 

Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “Second Follow-up, Student Survey, 1992”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “First Follow-up, 2004.”
156 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 54 — High School Completion Status by Spring 2002 Sophomores

54. High School Completion Status by Spring 2002 Sophomores

Among students who were sophomores in high school 

in 2002, a majority (88 percent) had received a high 

school diploma by 2006 (2 years after their expected 

high school graduation). Smaller percentages had 

received a General Educational Development (GED) 

certificate or other equivalency (4 percent) or were 

still pursuing high school completion (3 percent); 5 

percent had no diploma or equivalent certificate and 

were not pursuing high school completion.

Among the students in this cohort, the percentages 

who had received a high school diploma by 2006 

varied by various student characteristics. In general, 

greater percentages of students who were White or 

Asian/Pacific Islander had received a high school 

diploma than those who were Black, Hispanic, or of 

two or more races. In addition, greater percentages 

of students from families with higher incomes and 

students who had higher 10th-grade educational 

expectations had received a high school diploma 

by 2006 than their counterparts had. For example, 

greater percentages of students who as sophomores 

had expected to complete a bachelor’s or higher degree 

(92 to 95 percent) had received a high school diploma 

by 2006 than their peers who had lower educational 

expectations (63 to 79 percent). 

There were also differences in the percentages of 

students in this cohort that had received a high school 

diploma by 2006 by the highest level of mathematics 

course taken during high school. Almost 100 percent 

of students who had taken calculus and 99 percent 

who had taken trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 

had earned a high school diploma by 2006, compared 

with 86 percent who had taken algebra I, geometry, 

or algebra II; 61 percent who had taken basic math 

or pre-algebra; and 52 percent who had not taken 

any high school math.

Figure 54. Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores who had received a high school diploma, by 

highest math course taken in school: 2006

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“Second Follow-up, 2006.”
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 157

Table 54. Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores, by high school completion status and selected 

Chapter 6 — Future Goals

student characteristics: 2006

Characteristic

No diploma; 

not enrolled or 

working toward 

equivalency

Enrolled in

high school or 

working toward 

equivalency

Received

GED or other

equivalency

Received high 

school diploma

Total 4.6 3.2 3.9 87.8

Sex

Male 5.4 3.8 4.7 85.7

Female 3.8 2.6 3.2 90.0

Race/ethnicity

White 2.9 2.2 3.5 91.1

Black 5.7 6.0 4.6 82.2

Hispanic 10.0 4.3 4.3 80.9

Asian/Pacific Islander 2.4 2.6 2.1 92.6

American Indian/Alaska Native 11.7! 4.4! 9.3! 74.7

Two or more races 5.0 4.0 5.7 85.1

Family income

$0–20,000 9.1 5.6 6.2 78.0

$20,001–50,000 6.0 3.9 4.5 85.3

$50,001–100,000 2.5 2.1 3.0 92.1

$100,001 or more 0.9! 1.3 2.0 95.5

Parental education

High school or less 9.1 5.1 4.6 80.4

Some college 3.7 3.2 4.6 88.1

Bachelor’s degree 2.3 2.0 2.8 92.7

Graduate/professional degree 1.9 1.6 2.8 93.4

Educational expectation in 10th grade

High school or less 17.3 8.8 10.1 62.5

Some college 7.6 5.6 7.2 79.0

Bachelor’s degree 2.6 2.4 3.0 91.8

Graduate/professional degree 1.7 1.5 1.7 94.8

Don’t know 6.5 4.4 5.8 82.9

Highest math course taken in school

No math 19.6 14.5 12.1 51.6

Basic math or pre-algebra 17.4 9.0 11.1 61.3

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 5.0 3.7 4.5 86.3

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 0.5 0.3! 0.6 98.6

Calculus # # 0.4! 99.6

No transcript collected 8.5 7.3 9.1 73.6

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

NOTE: High school completion status is unknown for less than 0.5 percent of the spring 2002 sophomore cohort, and certificate 

of attendance recipients are not displayed. Therefore, row percentages may sum to less than 100. GED = General Educational 

Development certificate. Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic 

ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“Second Follow-up, 2006.”
158 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Indicator 55 — First Postsecondary Enrollment by Spring 2002 Sophomores

55. First Postsecondary Enrollment by Spring 2002 Sophomores

Within a cohort of students who were high school 

sophomores in 2002, some 70 percent had attended 

a postsecondary institution by 2006, some 60 

percent had enrolled in a postsecondary institution 

immediately after completing high school, and 10 

percent had delayed enrollment.

Enrollment in a postsecondary institution varied by 

student characteristics, including sex, race/ethnicity, 

parental education, and 10th-grade educational 

expectations. Seventy-five percent of females in the 

2002 cohort had attended a postsecondary institution 

by 2006, compared with 65 percent of males. Greater 

percentages of Asians/Pacific Islanders (82 percent) 

and Whites (75 percent) had attended a postsecondary 

institution than their Black (62 percent), Hispanic 

(59 percent), and American Indian/Alaska Native 

(51 percent) peers, as well as their peers who were of 

two or more races (64 percent). Also, 87 percent of 

students whose parents had a graduate or professional 

degree had attended a postsecondary institution by 

2006, compared with 82 percent of those whose 

parents had a bachelor’s degree, 68 percent of those 

whose parents had completed some college, and 53 

percent of those whose parents had completed high 

school or had less education. Looking at educational 

expectations, the postsecondary enrollment rate was 

at 26 percent for those who had expected to complete 

a high school education or less as sophomores and at 

49 percent for those who had expected to complete 

some college. For those with higher educational 

expectations, the percentages were higher: 75 percent 

for those who had expected to complete a bachelor’s 

degree and 86 percent for those who had expected to 

complete a graduate or professional degree.

Figure 55. Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores, by postsecondary enrollment and parental 

education: 2006 

NOTE: Parental education is the highest education level attained by any parent.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“Second Follow-up, 2006.”
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 159

Table 55. Percentage of spring 2002 high school sophomores, by timing of first postsecondary enrollment and 

Chapter 6 — Future Goals

selected student characteristics: 2006

Characteristic

Ever attended a 

postsecondary 

institution

Immediate 

enrollment in 

postsecondary 

education1

Delayed 

enrollment in 

postsecondary 

education2

Nonenrollee,

or still enrolled

in high school

Total 70.1 60.3 9.8 29.9

Sex

Male 65.4 55.8 9.6 34.6

Female 74.8 64.9 9.9 25.2

Race/ethnicity

White 75.1 66.9 8.2 24.9

Black 62.3 48.6 13.6 37.7

Hispanic 58.5 45.0 13.5 41.5

Asian/Pacific Islander 82.3 76.6 5.7 17.7

American Indian/Alaska Native 51.0 37.8 13.2 49.0

Two or more races 63.6 55.7 7.9 36.4

Family income

$0–20,000 52.3 40.4 11.9 47.7

$20,001–50,000 63.1 52.1 11.0 36.9

$50,001–100,000 78.2 69.5 8.7 21.8

$100,001 or more 90.7 84.0 6.7 9.3

Parental education3

High school or less 53.1 41.7 11.4 46.9

Some college 68.0 56.7 11.3 32.0

Bachelor’s degree 82.4 74.6 7.8 17.6

Graduate/professional degree 87.2 80.6 6.6 12.8

Educational expectation in 10th grade

High school or less 26.3 16.9 9.5 73.7

Some college 48.8 36.5 12.3 51.2

Bachelor’s degree 75.2 64.4 10.8 24.8

Graduate/professional degree 85.8 78.4 7.3 14.2

Don’t know 55.4 43.0 12.4 44.6

Highest math course taken in school

No math 20.2 13.1 7.1! 79.8

Basic math or pre-algebra 30.4 20.6 9.9 69.6

Algebra I, geometry, or algebra II 61.5 48.0 13.5 38.5

Trigonometry, statistics, or precalculus 89.3 82.1 7.3 10.7

Calculus 97.3 95.4 1.9 2.7

No transcript collected 57.2 47.5 9.7 42.8

! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is 30 percent or greater.

1 Respondents are considered to have immediate enrollment if their postsecondary attendance began by October of the year they 

left high school (if the month they left high school was between January and July), or by the following February (if the month they left 

high school was between August and December).

2 Respondents are considered to have delayed enrollment if their postsecondary attendance began later than October of the year 

they left high school (if the month they left high school was between January and July), or later than the following February (if the 

month they left high school was between August and December).

3 Parental education is the highest education level attained by any parent.

NOTE: Total includes other racial/ethnic groups not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), 

“Second Follow-up, 2006.”
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America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 161References

REFERENCES

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2010. Retrieved February 25, 2011, from http://

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ConditionofCollegeandCareerReadiness2010.

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American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic 

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 

(DSM-IV). Fourth Edition. Washington, DC, 

American Psychiatric Association, 1994.

Arnett, J.J. (2000). Emerging Adulthood: A Theory 

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the Twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5): 

469–480.

Aud, S., Fox, M., and KewalRamani, A. (2010). Status 

and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic 

Groups (NCES 2010-015). U.S. Department 

of Education, National Center for Education 

Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office.

Aud, S., Hussar, W., Kena, G., Bianco, K., Frohlich, 

L., Kemp, J., and Tahan, K. (2011). The 

Condition of Education 2011 (NCES 2011-

033). U.S. Department of Education, National 

Center for Education Statistics. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Bozick, R. and DeLuca, S. (2005). Better Late 

Than Never? Delayed Enrollment in the High 

School to College Transition, Social Forces 

84(1):527–50.

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Summary of notifiable diseases—United States, 

2009. Published May 13, 2011 for MMWR 

2009;58(No. 53):2.

The College Board, Advanced Placement Program. 

(2011). National Summary Report: 2010.

Retrieved January 25, 2011, from http://

www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/

exgrd_sum/2010.html. 

Cooper, H., Robinson, J.C., and Patall, E. (2006). Does 

Homework Improve Academic Achievement? 

A Synthesis of Research, 1987–2003, Review of 

Educational Research, 76(1): 1–62. 

Fredricks, J. and Eccles, J. (2006). Is Extracurricular 

Participation Associated With Beneficial 

Outcomes? Concurrent and Longitudinal 

Relations, Developmental Psychology, 42(4): 

698–713. 

McLanahan, S., Haskins, R., Paxson, C., and Sawhill, 

I. (2010). Transition to Adulthood. The Future 

of Children, 20(1).

Singh, K., Chang, M., and Dika, S. (2007, SeptemberOctober). Effects of Part-Time Work on School 

Achievement During High School, The Journal 

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U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau. 

(2008). Methodology for the United States 

Resident Population Estimates by Age, Sex, Race, 

and Hispanic Origin (Vintage 2008): April 1, 

2000 to July 1, 2008. Retrieved October 18, 

2010, from http://www.census.gov/popest/

topics/methodology/.

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(2011). Tabulations retrieved June 28, 2011, 

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htm.

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Release. Retrieved February 28, 2011 from 

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volun_01262010.htm.

Zaff, J., Moore, K., Romano Papillo, A., and Williams, 

S. (2003). Implications of Extracurricular 

Activity Participation During Adolescence 

on Positive Outcomes, Journal of Adolescent 

Research, 18(6): 599–623.
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America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 163Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

APPENDIX A: TECHNICAL NOTE 

AND GUIDE TO SOURCES

Technical Note 

This report includes data from both universe and 

sample surveys. In the case of universe data, all 

relevant units are included in the data collection. 

Thus, there is no sampling error, and observed 

differences are reported as true. In the case of 

sample surveys, a nationally representative sample of 

respondents is selected and asked to participate in the 

data collection. Since the sample represents just one 

of many possible samples that could be selected, there 

is error associated with the sample. To avoid reaching 

false conclusions about differences between groups 

or differences over time measured by sample survey 

data, sampling error is taken into account in statistical 

tests that are conducted to support statements about 

differences. Thus, all statements about differences in 

this report are supported by the data, either directly 

in the case of universe surveys or with statistical 

significance testing in the case of sample survey data. 

All significance tests of differences in sample survey 

data are tested at the .05 level of significance. Several 

test procedures were used, depending on the type 

of data interpreted and the nature of the statement 

tested. The most commonly used test procedures were 

t tests, linear trend tests, and equivalency tests. The 

t tests were not adjusted to compensate for multiple 

comparisons being made simultaneously. Trend tests 

were conducted by evaluating the significance of the 

slope of a simple regression of the annual data points 

and a t test comparing the end points. Equivalence 

tests were used to determine whether two statistics 

were substantively equivalent by using a hypothesis 

test to determine whether the confidence interval 

of the difference between sample estimates was 

significantly greater or less than a preset substantively 

important difference. In most cases involving 

percentages, a difference of 3.0 percentage points 

was used to determine substantive equivalence or 

difference. In some tables involving only very small 

percentages, a lower value was used. The appearance 

of a “!” symbol (meaning “Interpret data with 

caution”) in a table or figure indicates a data cell with 

a high ratio of standard error to estimate (0.30 or 

greater); therefore, the estimate may be unstable and 

the reader should use caution when interpreting the 

data. These unstable estimates are discussed, however, 

when statistically significant differences are found 

despite large standard errors. 

Although the percentages reported in the tables are 

generally rounded to one decimal place (e.g., 76.5 

percent), percentages reported in the text and figures 

are rounded from the raw numbers to whole numbers 

(with any value of 0.50 or above rounded to the next 

highest whole number). Due to rounding, cumulative 

percentages may sometimes equal 99 or 101 percent, 

rather than 100. In addition, sometimes a whole 

number in the text may seem rounded incorrectly 

based on its value when rounded to one decimal 

place. For example, the percentage 14.479 rounds 

to 14.5 at one decimal place, but rounds to 14 when 

reported as a whole number. Counts or numbers from 

universe data are reported unrounded. Estimated 

counts or numbers from sample survey data are 

reported rounded to hundreds when they are fourand five-digit numbers and to thousands when they 

are six-digit numbers.

Guide to Sources

The tables in this report present data from a variety 

of sources, which are described below. Most of these 

sources are federal surveys, and many are conducted 

by the National Center for Education Statistics 

(NCES). Standard errors for the estimates from 

these sample surveys are provided on the NCES 

website for this publication: http://nces.ed.gov/

pubs2012/2012026/. A few sources are universe 

surveys, meaning that they collect information on the 

entire population of interest; therefore, there are no 

standard errors, because there is no error introduced 

by sampling.
164 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

U.S. Department of Education

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)

Common Core of Data, State Nonfiscal Public 

Elementary/Secondary Education Survey

The Common Core of Data (CCD) is a universe 

survey database with comprehensive, annually 

updated information. The State Nonfiscal Public 

Elementary/Secondary Education Survey provides 

basic information on public elementary and 

secondary school students and staff for each state, the 

District of Columbia, and the outlying territories with 

a U.S. relationship. Data are collected for a particular 

school year via an online reporting system open to 

state education agencies during the school year. Since 

the CCD is a universe collection, CCD data are not 

subject to sampling errors. 

Table 9 reports CCD data.

For more information on the CCD, see http://

nces.ed.gov/ccd/index.asp.

Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

The Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002) is a longitudinal survey that is monitoring 

the transitions of a national probability sample of 

10th-graders in public, Catholic, and other private 

schools. Survey waves follow both students and high 

school dropouts and monitor their transition into 

postsecondary education, the labor force, and family 

formation. 

The first follow-up was conducted in 2004, when 

most sample members were high school seniors. Baseyear students who remained in their base schools were 

resurveyed and tested in mathematics, along with a 

freshening sample to make the study representative 

of spring 2004 high school seniors nationwide. 

Students who were no longer at their base schools 

were administered a questionnaire. 

The second follow-up, completed in 2006, continued 

to follow the sample of students into postsecondary 

education or work, or both. The next follow-up is 

scheduled for 2012. 

Tables 52 and 53 use ELS:2002 and ELS:2004 

data; tables 54 and 55 use ELS:2006 data.

For more information on ELS:2002, see http://

nces.ed.gov/surveys/els2002.

High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study

The High School and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

(HS&B) is a national longitudinal survey of 

individuals who were high school sophomores and 

seniors in 1980. Students completed questionnaires 

and took a battery of cognitive tests. In addition, a 

sample of parents of sophomores and seniors was 

surveyed. Students who were high school sophomores 

and seniors in 1980 were surveyed every two years 

through 1986, and the 1980 sophomore class was 

also surveyed again in 1992.

Tables 10, 52, and 53 report data from 

HS&B.

For more information on HS&B, see http://nces.

ed.gov/surveys/hsb/.

High School Transcript Studies 

High school transcript studies (HSTS) have been 

conducted since 1982; each study is associated 

with a major NCES data collection. The studies 

collect information that is contained in a student’s 

high school record—courses taken while attending 

secondary school, information on credits earned, 

when specific courses were taken, and final grades. 

For the studies conducted of high school graduates in 

1998, 2000, 2005, and 2009, NCES collected high 

school transcripts from a nationally representative 

sample of both public and private schools that 

had been selected to participate in the National 

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Within 

each school, a representative sample of graduating 

seniors was selected. Most of the transcripts collected 

were those of students who participated in the NAEP 

assessment in that year. After collection, the courses 

appearing in the student transcripts were coded using 

the Classification of Secondary School Courses, 

which contains over 2,200 course codes. 

Table 10 uses HSTS data.

For more information on the HSTS, see http://

nces.ed.gov/surveys/hst.

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS) and the postsecondary survey that preceded 

it, the Higher Education General Information Survey 

(HEGIS), are systems of universe surveys that collect 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 165Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

data from all Title IV postsecondary educational 

institutions in the United States. The surveys collect 

institution-level data in such areas as enrollments, 

program completions, faculty, staff, and finances. 

HEGIS was conducted in 1980, 1984, and 1985, 

while IPEDS has been conducted annually from 

1986 on. This report uses the IPEDS Fall Enrollment 

survey, Spring survey, and Residence of First-Time 

Students survey.

Tables 17a, 18, and 22 use data from IPEDS.

For more information on IPEDS and HEGIS, 

see http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/.

National Assessment of Educational Progress 

The National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) is a nationally representative and continuing 

assessment of what America’s students know and can 

do in various subject areas. For over three decades, 

assessments have been conducted periodically in 

reading, mathematics, science, writing, history, 

geography, and other subjects. 

NAEP long-term trend assessments are designed to 

inform the nation of changes in the basic achievement 

of America’s youth. Nationally representative 

samples of students have been assessed in science, 

mathematics, and reading at ages 9, 13, and 17 

since the early 1970s. Students were assessed in 

writing at grades 4, 8, and 11 between 1984 and 

1996. To measure trends accurately, assessment 

items (mostly multiple choice) and procedures have 

remained unchanged since the first assessment in 

each subject. Recent long-term trend assessments 

were conducted in 1994, 1996, 1999, and 2004. The 

most recent long-term trend assessment (of reading 

and mathematics) was administered in early 2008. 

The 2004 NAEP long-term trend assessments marked 

the end of tests designed and administered from 1971, 

and marked the beginning of a modified design that 

provides greater accommodations for students with 

disabilities and English language learners, and limited 

the assessments to reading and math. Science and 

writing are now assessed only in main NAEP.

Tables 12a and 12b provide data from NAEP.

For more information on NAEP, see http://nces.

ed.gov/nationsreportcard/.

National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

(NELS:88), a secondary school student longitudinal 

study conducted by NCES, began with a cohort of 

8th-grade students. Follow-ups were conducted in 

1990 and 1992, when a majority of these students 

were in the 10th and 12th grades, respectively, 

and then 2 years after their scheduled high school 

graduation, in 1994. A fourth follow-up was 

conducted in 2000. 

NELS:88 was designed to provide trend data about 

critical transitions experienced by young people as 

they develop, attend school, and embark on their 

careers. It complements and strengthens state and 

local efforts by furnishing new information on 

how school policies, teacher practices, and family 

involvement affect student educational outcomes 

(i.e., academic achievement, persistence in school, 

and participation in postsecondary education). For 

the base year, NELS:88 included a multifaceted 

student questionnaire, four cognitive tests, a parent 

questionnaire, a teacher questionnaire, and a school 

questionnaire. 

Tables 52 and 53 use data from NELS:88.

For more information on NELS:88, see http://

nces.ed.gov/surveys/nels88/.

National Household Education Surveys Program

The National Household Education Surveys Program 

(NHES) was developed by NCES to complement its 

school-based surveys. This program is the principal 

mechanism for addressing topics that cannot be 

addressed in institutional data collections. By 

collecting data directly from households, NHES 

enables NCES to gather data on a wide range of 

issues, such as early childhood care and education, 

children’s readiness for school, parents’ perceptions of 

school safety and discipline, before- and after-school 

activities of school-age children, participation in adult 

and continuing education, parents’ involvement in 

education, and civic involvement. The NHES Parent 

and Family Involvement in Education survey was 

conducted in 1996, 1999, 2003, and 2007. 

Tables 14 and 35 report NHES data. 

For more information on NHES, see http://nces.

ed.gov/nhes/. 
166 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

National Longitudinal Study of the High School 

Class of 1972

The National Longitudinal Study of the High School 

Class of 1972 (NLS:72) began with the collection 

of base-year survey data from a sample of about 

19,000 high school seniors in the spring of 1972. Five 

follow-up surveys of these students were conducted 

in 1973, 1974, 1976, 1979, and 1986. NLS:72 was 

designed to provide the education community with 

information on the transitions of young adults from 

high school through postsecondary education and 

the workplace. 

Tables 52 and 53 report NLS:72 data.

 For more information on NLS:72, see http://

nces.ed.gov/surveys/nls72/.

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study

The National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS) is a comprehensive nationwide study 

designed to determine how students and their families 

pay for postsecondary education and to describe 

some of the demographic and other characteristics 

of those enrolled. The study is based on a nationally 

representative sample of students in postsecondary 

education institutions, including undergraduate, 

graduate, and first-professional students. Students 

attending all control and levels of institutions are 

represented, including public and private not-forprofit and for-profit institutions, less-than-2-year 

institutions, community colleges, and 4-year colleges 

and universities. NPSAS surveys provide information 

on the cost of postsecondary education, the 

distribution of financial aid, and the characteristics of 

both aided and nonaided students and their families. 

Tables 19, 20, and 21 present NPSAS data.

For more information on NPSAS, see http://nces.

ed.gov/surveys/npsas/.

Private School Universe Survey 

The purposes of the Private School Universe Survey 

(PSS) data collection activities are (1) to build an 

accurate and complete list of private schools to serve 

as a sampling frame for NCES sample surveys of 

private schools; and (2) to report data on the total 

number of private schools, teachers, and students 

in the survey universe. Begun in 1989, the PSS has 

been conducted every 2 years. The PSS produces 

data similar to that of the CCD for public schools, 

and can be used for public-private comparisons. The 

data are useful for a variety of policy and researchrelevant issues, such as the growth of religiously 

affiliated schools, the number of private high school 

graduates, the length of the school year for various 

private schools, and the number of private school 

students and teachers. 

The target population for this universe survey is all 

private schools in the United States that meet the PSS 

criteria of a private school (i.e., the private school 

is an institution that provides instruction for any 

of grades K through 12, has one or more teachers 

to give instruction, is not administered by a public 

agency, and is not operated in a private home). The 

survey universe is composed of schools identified 

from a variety of sources. The main source is a list 

frame initially developed for the 1989–90 PSS. The 

list is updated regularly by matching it with lists 

provided by nationwide private school associations, 

state departments of education, and other national 

guides and sources that list private schools. The other 

source is an area frame search in approximately 124 

geographic areas, conducted by the U.S. Census 

Bureau. 

Table 9 features PSS data.

For more information on the PSS, see http://

nces.ed.gov/surveys/pss/.

U.S. Department of Commerce

Census Bureau

American Community Survey 

The American Community Survey (ACS) is a sample 

survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. The 

ACS was first implemented in 1996 and expanded in 

scope in subsequent years; it replaced the long-form 

survey in the 2010 Decennial Census.

Tables 3, 15a, and 24a report ACS data. 

For more information on the ACS, see http://

www.census.gov/acs/www/.
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 167Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

Current Population Survey 

The Current Population Survey (CPS) is a monthly 

survey of about 60,000 households conducted 

by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of 

Labor Statistics. The CPS is the primary source of 

information on the labor force characteristics of the 

U.S. noninstitutionalized population (i.e., it excludes 

military personnel and their families living on bases 

as well as inmates of institutions). In addition, 

supplemental questionnaires are used to provide 

further information about the U.S. population. 

Specifically, in October, detailed questions are asked 

about school enrollment and school characteristics. 

In March, detailed questions are asked about income. 

The current sample design, introduced in July 2001, 

includes about 72,000 households. Each month 

about 60,000 of the 72,000 households are eligible 

to be interviewed; of the eligible households, 7 to 8 

percent are not interviewed because of temporary 

absences or unavailability. Information is obtained 

each month from those in the household 15 years of 

age and older and demographic data are collected for 

children 0–14 years of age. Prior to July 2001, data 

were collected in the CPS from about 50,000 dwelling 

units. The samples are initially selected based on the 

decennial census files and are periodically updated to 

reflect new housing construction. 

The estimation procedure employed for monthly CPS 

data involves inflating weighted sample results to 

independent estimates of characteristics of the civilian 

noninstitutional population in the United States by 

age, sex, and race. These independent estimates are 

based on statistics from decennial censuses; statistics 

on births, deaths, immigration, and emigration; and 

statistics on the population in the armed services. 

Generalized standard error tables are provided in the 

Current Population Reports; methods for deriving 

standard errors can also be found within the CPS 

technical documentation at http://www.census.gov/

apsd/techdoc/cps/cps-main.html. The CPS data are 

subject to both nonsampling and sampling errors. 

Caution should be used when comparing data from 

1994 through 2001 (which reflect 1990 census-based 

population controls) with data from 1993 and earlier 

(which reflect 1980 or earlier census-based population 

controls), as well as with data from 2002 onward 

(which reflect 2000 census-based controls). Changes 

in population controls generally have relatively 

little impact on summary measures such as means, 

medians, and percentage distributions. They can, 

however, have a significant impact on population 

counts. For example, use of the 1990 census-based 

population control resulted in about a 1 percent 

increase in the civilian noninstitutional population 

and in the number of families and households. 

Thus, estimates of levels for data collected in 1994 

and later years will differ from those for earlier years 

by more than what could be attributed to actual 

changes in the population. These differences could be 

disproportionately greater for certain subpopulation 

groups than for the total population.

Tables 4, 5, 8, 15, 17, 24, 25, 25a, 26, 27, 28, 

30, 30a, 31, 31a, 32, 32a, 36, 38 and 41 use 

CPS data. 

For more information on the CPS, see http://

www.census.gov/cps/.

Decennial Census, Population Estimates, and 

Population Projections

The Decennial Census is a universe survey mandated 

by the U.S. Constitution. It is a questionnaire sent to 

every household in the country, and it is composed 

of seven questions about the household and its 

members (name, sex, age, relationship, Hispanic 

origin, race, and whether the housing unit is owned 

or rented). The Census Bureau also produces annual 

estimates of the resident population by demographic 

characteristics (age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin) for 

the nation, states, and counties, as well as national 

and state projections for the resident population. The 

reference date for population estimates is July 1 of the 

given year. With each new issue of July 1 estimates, 

the Census Bureau revises estimates for each year back 

to the last census. Previously published estimates are 

superseded and archived.

Census respondents self-report race and ethnicity. 

In the 2000 Census, they were first asked, “Is this 

person Spanish/Hispanic/Latino?” and then given 

the following options: No, not Spanish/Hispanic/

Latino; Yes, Puerto Rican; Yes, Mexican, Mexican 

American, Chicano; Yes, Cuban; and Yes, other 

Spanish/Hispanic/Latino (with space to print the 

specific group). The next question was “What is this 

person’s race?”, and the options were White; Black, 

African American, or Negro; American Indian or 

Alaska Native (with space to print the name of 

enrolled or principal tribe); Asian Indian; Japanese; 

Native Hawaiian; Chinese; Korean; Guamanian or 

Chamorro; Filipino; Vietnamese; Samoan; Other 
168 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

Asian; Other Pacific Islander; and Some other race. 

The last three options included space to print the 

specific race. The 2000 Census was also the first time 

that respondents were given the option of choosing 

more than one race. The Census population estimates 

program modified the enumerated population 

from the 2000 Census to produce the population 

estimates base for 2000 and onward. As part of the 

modification, the Census Bureau recoded the “Some 

other race” responses from the 2000 Census to one 

or more of the five OMB race categories used in the 

estimates program (U.S. Department of Commerce 

2008). Prior to 2000, the Census Bureau combined 

the categories Asian and Native Hawaiian or Other 

Pacific Islander. For all years, all persons of Hispanic 

origin were included in the Hispanic category 

regardless of the race option(s) chosen. Therefore, 

persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Tables 1, 2, 3, 6, 29, and 39 use data from the 

Decennial Census and the Census population 

estimates and projections program. 

For more information, see http://www.census.

gov.

Statistical Abstract of the United States

The Statistical Abstract of the United States, published 

since 1878, is the authoritative and comprehensive 

summary of statistics on the social, political, and 

economic organization of the United States. Sources 

of data include the Census Bureau, Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, Bureau of Economic Analysis, and many 

other federal agencies and private organizations.

Table 39 reports data from the Statistical Abstract 

of the United States. 

For more information on the Statistical Abstract 

of the United States, see http://www.census.gov/

compendia/statab.

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

National Health Interview Survey

The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) 

is a continuing nationwide sample survey of the 

noninstitutionalized civilian population for which 

data are collected during household interviews. 

Interviewers obtain information on personal and 

demographic characteristics, including race and 

ethnicity, through self-reports or reports by a member 

of the household. Interviewers also collect data on 

illnesses, injuries, impairments, chronic conditions, 

activity limitations caused by chronic conditions, 

utilization of health services, and other health topics. 

Each year the survey is reviewed and special topics are 

added or deleted. For most health topics, the survey 

collects data over an entire year.

Tables 42, 43, 44, and 46 report NHIS data.

For more information on NHIS, see http://www.

cdc.gov/nchs/nhis.htm. 

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Summary 

of Notifiable Diseases

The Summary of Notifiable Diseases, a publication 

of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 

(MMWR), contains the official statistics, in tabular 

and graphic form, for the reported occurrence of 

nationally notifiable infectious diseases in the United 

States. These statistics are collected and compiled 

from reports sent by state health departments 

and territories to the National Notifiable Diseases 

Surveillance System (NNDSS), which is operated 

by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

(CDC) in collaboration with the Council of State 

and Territorial Epidemiologists.

Table 45 includes data from the MMWR: 

Summary of Notifiable Diseases.

For more information on the MMWR: Summary 

of Notifiable Diseases, see http://www.cdc.gov/

mmwr/mmwr_nd/. 

National Vital Statistics System 

The National Vital Statistics System (NVSS) is the 

method by which data on births, deaths, marriages, 

and divorces are provided to the National Center for 

Health Statistics (NCHS), part of the Centers for 

Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The data 

are provided to NCHS through the Vital Statistics 

Cooperative Program (VSCP). In 1984 and earlier 

years, the VSCP included varying numbers of states 

that provided data based on a 100 percent sample 

of their birth certificates. Data for states not in the 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 169Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

VSCP were based on a 50 percent sample of birth 

certificates filed in those states. Population data used 

to compile birth rates are based on special estimation 

procedures and are not actual counts. 

Race and Hispanic ethnicity are reported separately 

in the NVSS. Data are available for non-Hispanic 

Whites and non-Hispanic Blacks for 1990 and later; 

however, for 1980 and 1985, data for Whites and 

Blacks may include persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

For all years, Asian/Pacific Islander and American 

Indian/Alaska Native categories include persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. 

Tables 7, 51 and 51a use NVSS data. 

For more information on the NCHS and the 

NVSS, see http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss.htm.

Youth Risk Behavior Survey 

The national school-based Youth Risk Behavior 

Survey (YRBS) is one component of the Youth 

Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), an 

epidemiological surveillance system developed to 

monitor the prevalence of youth behaviors that 

most influence health. The YRBS uses a three-stage 

cluster sampling design to produce a nationally 

representative sample of students in grades 9–12 in 

the United States. 

Tables 34, 49, and 50 present YRBS data. 

For more information on the YRBS, see http://

www.cdc.gov/yrbs. 

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration

National Survey on Drug Use and Health 

Conducted by the federal government since 1971, 

the National Survey on Drug Use and Health 

(NSDUH) is an annual survey of the civilian, 

noninstitutionalized population of the United States 

age 12 or older. It is the primary source of information 

on the prevalence, patterns, and consequences of 

alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drug abuse. The survey 

collects data by administering questionnaires to a 

representative sample of the population (since 1999, 

the NSDUH interview has been carried out using 

computer-assisted interviewing). The NSDUH 

collects information from residents of households, 

noninstitutional group quarters, and civilians living 

on military bases. The main results of the NSDUH 

present national estimates of rates of use, numbers 

of users, and other measures related to illicit drugs, 

alcohol, and tobacco products. 

Tables 47 and 48 use NSDUH data. 

For more information on the NSDUH, see 

http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/nsduh.htm.

Other Governmental Agencies

U.S. Department of Justice

Bureau of Justice Statistics

A division of the U.S. Department of Justice Office 

of Justice Programs, the Bureau of Justice Statistics 

(BJS) collects, analyzes, publishes, and disseminates 

statistical information on crime, criminal offenders, 

victims of crime, and the operations of the justice 

system at all levels of government and internationally. 

It also provides technical and financial support to 

state governments for development of criminal 

justice statistics and information systems on crime 

and justice.

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), 

administered for the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics 

by the U.S. Census Bureau, is the nation’s primary 

source of information on crime and the victims of 

crime. Initiated in 1972 and redesigned in 1992, 

the NCVS collects detailed information annually 

on the frequency and nature of the crimes of rape, 

sexual assault, robbery, aggravated and simple assault, 

theft, household burglary, and motor vehicle theft 

experienced by Americans and their households each 

year. The survey measures both crimes reported to 

police and crimes not reported to the police.

Table 40 reports data from the BJS. 

For information on the BJS, see www.ojp.usdoj.

gov/bjs/.

Federal Bureau of Investigation

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) collects 

statistics on crimes from law enforcement agencies 

throughout the country through the Uniform Crime 
170 America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

Reporting (UCR) Program. The UCR Program was 

conceived in 1929 by the International Association of 

Chiefs of Police to meet a need for reliable, uniform 

crime statistics for the nation. In 1930, the FBI was 

tasked with collecting, publishing, and archiving 

those statistics. Today, several annual statistical 

publications, such as the comprehensive Crime in 

the United States, are produced from data provided 

by nearly 17,000 law enforcement agencies across the 

United States. Crime in the United States (CIUS) is an 

annual publication in which the FBI compiles volume 

and rate of crime offenses for the nation, the states, 

and individual agencies. This report also includes 

arrest, clearance, and law enforcement employee data.

Table 39 uses data from the UCR Program

For more information on the UCR Program, see 

http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/ucr.

U.S. Department of Defense 

Defense Manpower Data Center 

The Statistical Information Analysis Division of 

the Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC) 

maintains the largest archive of personnel, manpower, 

and training data in the Department of Defense 

(DoD). The DMDC’s statistical activities include 

the personnel survey program, an enlistment testing 

program to support screening of military applicants, 

and a client support program to provide statistical 

support to the Office of the Secretary of Defense. 

The DMDC collects DoD contract information in 

support of national economic tables and the Small 

Business Competitiveness Demonstration Program; 

it also produces statistics on DoD purchases from 

educational and nonprofit institutions and from state 

and local governments. 

Table 29 includes data from the DMDC. 

For more information on the DMDC, see 

https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/appj/dwp/index.jsp. 

Other Organization Sources

ACT 

ACT (formerly American College Testing) is an 

independent, not-for-profit organization that 

provides services in the broad areas of education and 

workforce development. The ACT test assesses high 

school students’ general educational development 

and their ability to complete college-level work. ACT 

scores represent a self-selecting sample and, therefore, 

are not necessarily representative of the population 

as a whole.

Table 16 uses data from ACT.

For more information on ACT, see http://www.

act.org/news/data.html.

The College Board

The College Board is a not-for-profit membership 

association whose mission is to connect students to 

college success and opportunity. The College Board 

conducts the SAT and Advanced Placement (AP) 

testing. Scores on tests conducted by the College 

Board are not necessarily representative of the 

population as a whole as test-takers are self-selected.

Advanced Placement Program

Students who take Advanced Placement (AP) courses 

in high school are eligible to take the corresponding 

AP examination, as are those students who are 

homeschooled and those whose schools do not offer 

AP courses. Students can earn college credit and 

advanced placement for scores above a minimum 

threshold. In 2009, there were 37 AP exams available 

across 22 subject areas.

Table 11 reports AP data.

For more information on the College Board, 

see http://professionals.collegeboard.com/datareports-research.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and 

Development (OECD)

Education at a Glance 

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and 

Development (OECD) publishes analyses of national 

policies and survey data in education, training, and 

economics in 34 countries. The countries surveyed 

are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, 

the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, 

France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, 

Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, 
America’s Youth: Transitions to Adulthood 171Appendix A — Technical Note and Guide to Sources

the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, 

Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, 

Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, 

and the United States. 

To highlight current education issues and create 

a set of comparative education indicators that 

represent key features of education systems, the 

OECD initiated the International Education 

Indicators Project (INES) and charged the Centre 

for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) 

with developing the cross-national indicators for 

it. These indicators are published in Education at a 

Glance. In addition to the OECD countries listed 

above, several partner countries are surveyed for this 

publication—Brazil and the Russian Federation. The 

most recent publication in this series is Education at 

a Glance, OECD Indicators, 2010. 

Table 23 reports Education at a Glance data.

For more information on Education at a Glance, 

see http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag2010.

Program for International Student Assessment 

The Program for International Student Assessment 

(PISA) is a system of international assessments 

that focus on 15-year-olds’ capabilities in reading 

literacy, mathematics literacy, and science literacy. 

PISA also includes measures of general, or crosscurricular, competencies (such as learning strategies). 

PISA emphasizes functional skills that students 

have acquired as they near the end of mandatory 

schooling. PISA is organized by the Organization for 

Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 

an intergovernmental organization of industrialized 

countries. Begun in 2000, PISA is administered every 

3 years. Each administration includes assessments of 

all three subjects, but assesses one of the subjects in 

depth. In 2009, administration of PISA was focused 

on science reading literacy. 

Table 13 features PISA data.

For more information on PISA, see http://nces.

ed.gov/surveys/pisa/.

University of Michigan

Monitoring the Future (MTF) 

The Monitoring the Future (MTF) Study is a 

continuing series of surveys intended to assess 

the changing lifestyles, values, and preferences of 

American youth. Each year since 1975, high school 

seniors from a representative sample of public and 

private high schools have participated in this study. 

The 2009 survey is the 19th survey to include 

comparable samples of 8th- and 10th-graders in 

addition to seniors. The study is conducted by the 

University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research 

(ISR) under a grant from the National Institute on 

Drug Abuse. 

The student response rates for MTF have varied 

between 79 and 86 percent since 1980. In 2009, the 

student response rate was 82 percent, compared to 

the NCES standard which requires a minimum of 

85 percent. However, the school response rate in that 

year was 63 percent. In appendixes A and B of the 

1984 volume, the MTF authors extensively addressed 

issues that could affect the representativeness and 

validity of their data, and they determined that there 

is no single factor that has been dominant in school 

refusals. These refusals appear to be a function of 

“happenstance events” of a particular year. Therefore, 

the authors are confident that the school refusals have 

not biased the survey.

Tables 33 and 37 use MTF data. 

For more information on MTF, see http://www.

nida.nih.gov/DrugPages/MTF.html and http://

monitoringthefuture.org/.