15

- A

- i APPENDIX 15

- A. EMISSIONS FACTORS FO R FUEL COMBUSTION FR OM NATURAL GAS, LPG, AN D OIL

- FIRED RESIDENTIAL APPLIANCES

TABLE OF CO NTENTS

15

- A.1 OVERVIEW

................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 15

- A

- 1 15

- A.2 EMISSIONS FACTORS BY FUEL TYPE

................................ ....................... 15

- A

- 2 15

- A.2.1 All Fuels: Carbon Dioxide

................................ ................................ ................ 15

- A

- 2 15

- A.3 NATURAL GAS

................................ ................................ .............................. 15

- A

- 2 15

- A.3.1 Oxides of Nitrogen

................................ ................................ ........................... 15

- A

- 2 15

- A.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide

................................ ................................ ................................ .. 15

- A

- 3 15

- A.4 FUEL OIL #2

................................ ................................ ................................ ... 15

- A

- 3 15

- A.4.1 Oxides of Nitrogen

................................ ................................ ........................... 15

- A

- 3 15

- A.4.2 Sulfur Dioxide

................................ ................................ ................................ .. 15

- A

- 3 15

- A.5 LPG

................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 15

- A

- 4 15

- A.5.1 Oxides of Nitrogen

................................ ................................ ........................... 15

- A

- 4 15

- A.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide

................................ ................................ ................................ .. 15

- A

- 4 15

- A.6 SUMMARY

................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 15

- A

- 5

LIST OF TABLES

Table 15

- A.1.1 Estimated National Average Emissions Factors for Household Fuel Combustion of Natural Gas, Fuel Oil #2, and LPG

................................ 15

- A

- 115

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- 1 APPENDIX 15

- A. EMISSIONS FACTORS FO R FUEL COMBUSTION FR OM NATURAL GAS, LPG, AN D OIL

- FIRED RESIDENTIAL APPLIANCES

15

- A.1 OVERVIEW

The modified version of the National Energy Modeling System (NEMS) used for the appliance energy

- efficiency standards analysis, called NEMS

- BT, com prehensively considers a wide range of aspects of energy use. However, this model does not consider household emissions from the combustion of natural gas, residential heating fuel oil #2 ( i.e. , high

- sulfur distillate fuel oil), and LPG. Because an efficie ncy standard coul d result in changes to household emissions

, the Department has performed some elementary research to determine appropriate emissions factors for CO 2 , NO x , and SO 2 for each of the fuel types consumed by household appliances. T his work focus es on emissions rates from the use of furnace and boilers and is used to calculate emissions savings for proposed appliance efficiency standards. E missions factors for furnaces are presented over small

- scale boilers whenever both are available.

This analysis attempts to verify that the emissions factors from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for CO 2 , NO x , and SO 2 from natural gas, fuel oil #2, and LPG combustion are representative of the U.S. 1 The EPA cautions against the use of these emissions factors as representative of actual emissions. Rather, they are to be used, and are used here, as general approximations of national average emissions factors in order to calculate emissions savings that result from proposed appliance s tandards. This analysis compares the EPA’s emissions factors with those from other sources and with regional regulations.

Table 15

- A.1 .1 summarizes the emissions factor estimates for the three fuels of interest. The values presented here are based on the EPA’s assessment of combustion emissions (with the exception of SO 2 from LPG, see discussion below). These emissions estimates represent an approximate emissions factor for the U.S. as a whole. They are used, together with estimated energy savings, to calc ulate end

- use site emissions savings. The emissions factors discussed in this analysis are represented as mass (g or kg) of the specific emission of interest per gigajoule (GJ) of energy input to the furnace and boiler. *

Table 15

- A.1

. 1 Estimated Nati onal Average Emissions Factors f or Household Fuel Combustion of Natural Gas, Fuel Oil #2, and LPG CO 2 (kg/GJ) NO x (g/GJ) SO 2 (g/GJ) Natural Gas 50.6 40 0
Fuel Oil #2 68.6 55 218
LPG 58.7 66 7

* 0.454 kg = 1 lb; 1.055 GJ = 1 MBtu15

- A

- 2 There are significant differences in state regulations, making it difficult to generalize about localized emissions. For residential fuel oil combustion, stricter state standards exist in the northeastern United States and southern California than elsewh ere. State and local agencies like southern California’s South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) 2 , the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, and the New York Department of Environmental Conservation have established regulations fo r residential fuel combustion emissions. These regulations, however, are local to individual counties and do not apply to all regions in the Northeast or even all of California.

15

- A.2 EMISSIONS FACTORS BY FUEL TYPE

15

- A.2.1 All Fuels: Carbon Dioxide

NEMS

- BT tracks CO 2 well, but factors are included here for completeness. The CO 2 estimates in Table 15

- A .1.1 are based on EPA’s assessment of CO 2 combustion from natural gas, fuel oil #2, an d LPG use. Other sources of information include the U.S. DOE’s Energy Information Administration (EIA), Oregon State EPA, and the Gas Research Institute (GRI). All agree to within ± 2.0 percent of EPA’s assessed estimate of CO 2 emissions. EPA’s CO 2 emissio ns factors for natural gas, fuel oil #2, and LPG combustion are therefore a reasonable evaluation of nationally averaged CO 2 emissions rates.

Carbon monoxide (CO) can be formed by incomplete carbon oxidization, causing a

severe health hazard. Carbon monoxide emissions only result from poorly functioning appliances, and since NEMS

- BT assumes that all appliances are functioning properly, it is consistent to assume that these emissions will not change.

15

- A.3 NATURAL GAS

15

- A.3.1 Oxid es of Nitrogen

Emissions of NO x that result from the combustion of natural gas from appliances are also covered by regulations in some jurisdictions. The EPA’s estimated NO x emission s factor of 40 g/GJ from gas

- fired furnaces is roughly equivalent to the regulation set by the state of New York. The SCAQMD limits NO x emissions to 40 g/GW from gas

- fired residential furnaces, equivalent to EPA’s AP

- 42 estimate. The San Luis Obispo Air Po llution Control District also mandates the same NO x limit from furnaces. The SCAQMD also provided performance test results from numerous commercially available residential gas furnaces. In general, the emissions rates ranged from 35

- 40 g/GJ NO x with some h igher efficiency units emitting between 26

- 35 g/GJ NO x . New Jersey’s state regulation mandates no more than 43 g/GJ NO x emissions from natural gas combustion in small boilers and furnaces. The absence of regulations in other states suggests that most have emissions rates comparable to the EPA’s estimated value.15

- A

- 3 15

- A.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide

SO 2 emissions from natural gas combustion are assumed to be zero.

15

- A.4 FUEL OIL #2

15

- A.4.1 Oxides of Nitrogen

NO x formation in combustion processes is significantly more complex than the formation of SO 2 or CO 2
. NO x can result from oxidization of N 2 in the fuel, but the larger source is N 2 in the combustion intake. Thi s process is sensitive to combustion chemistry, and therefore, quite variable. It also implies that appliance design can lower NO x emissions. An added difficulty is that the potential hazard of residential NO x emissions is hard to quantify. NO x is both an acid precipitation and ozone (O 3 ) precursor, but because residential appliances are a relatively small and dispersed ( i.e. , hard to monitor) source, these emissions tend to play a small role in NO x control strategies. The O 3 hazards of NO x emissions are hi ghly variable both spatially and over time, as weather conditions favor or disfavor O 3 formation. One would, therefore, expect NO x emissions rules to vary significantly across jurisdictions.

The value estimated by EPA of 55 g of NO x /GJ is for residential oil

- fired furnaces. Additional research into specific state regulations reveals good matches with EPA’s emissions factor: New Hampshire limits NO x emissions to 60 g/GJ for non

- utility boilers and New York and New Jersey regulations cap emissions at 52 g of NO x /GJ. These state limits confirm that EPA’s estimate can serve as a reasonable national average.

15

- A.4.2 Sulfur Dioxide

Emissions of SO 2 are a direct function of the sulfur content of the fuel. Assuming complete combustion of sulfur to SO 2 makes it easy to assess and compare emissions across data

sources. Individual state and county regulations limiting the amount of sulfur in residential fuel oil, however, reveal substantial variability in SO 2 emissions factors from EPA’s esti mate of 218g of SO 2 /GJ of fuel energy content for both residential furnaces and boilers. This is roughly equivalent to 0.5 percent sulfur content by weight using an emissions factor for fuel oil #2 of 43,950 g/GJ weight per unit energy content. A straight multiplication of the fuel energy content and the percentage of sulfur content in the fuel provide the emissions factor.

In the state of New York, SO 2 emissions limits range from 88

- 659 g/GJ depending on the county. In New Hampshire, the emissions rate o f SO 2 from high

- sulfur distillate fuel oil combustion cannot exceed 176 g/GJ. In Maine and Michigan, the regulations are higher than EPA’s assessment, limiting SO 2 emissions from fuel oil to 500 g of SO 2 /GJ of heat input. Such broad ranges and varying limi ts in certain regions are a strong argument for using EPA’s averaged national value over a regionally weighted average incorporating the various state and county regulations.15

- A

- 4 Comparing the sulfur content of fuel oil from different refineries also demonstrates regional variability. Most sources were obtained through online websites detailing product specifications. Mobil Corporation’s residential heating fuel oil (#2 high

- sulfur) for most states contains a maximum 0.5% sulfur by mass (219 g of SO 2 /GJ of heat input), which is very close to EPA’s emissions factor. Mobil also markets fuel with lower sulfur content to some regions in the Northeast. For example, Mobil’s lowest sulfur content residential heating fuel oil contains 0.2 percent sulfur b y weight (88 g/GJ), as required in New York City, Philadelphia, parts of Delaware, and most of New Jersey. Other regional regulations adhered to by Mobil are 132 g/GJ for most of Pennsylvania and parts of New Jersey, a limit of 127 g of SO 2 /GJ of heat inpu t for the state of Illinois, and an SO 2 emissions factor of 145 g/GJ in Massachusetts. The sulfur contents of distillate fuel oil from Chevron, Phillips 66, and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) exactly match EPA’s estimate, substantiat ing the use of the latter for the analysis. Considerable variation does exist among counties and states, especially in the Northeast. Nonetheless, EPA provides a reasonable estimate of emissions from residential oil

fired furnaces and boilers that are repr esentative of the national average.

15

- A.5 LPG

15

- A.5.1 Oxides of Nitrogen
EPA estimates emissions for only propane and butane, fuels within the LPG family of
gases. In the United States, the composition of LPG is typically 90 percent propane (C 3 H 8 ) by liquid volume, 5 percent propylene (C 3 H 6 ), and 2.5 percent butane (C 4 H 10 ). 3, 4 This analysis uses EPA’s propane emissions estimate to verify its comparability with LPG combustion or determines a more suitable estimate from other sources that best represents LPG emissions rates.

EPA estimates an emissions factor of 66 g of NO x /GJ of energy input from propane

- fired furnaces and boilers, which is slightly higher than the natural gas estimate. The University of New Hampshire’s Energy Office estimates an emissions factor of 43 g/GJ from LPG combustion for the state of New Hampshire. In c ontrast, the state of New Jersey’s EPA establishes an 86 g/GJ emissions factor. Both sources, therefore, support EPA’s national assessment of NO x emissions from residential propane combustion.

15

- A.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide
The sulfur content of LPG is very low 5 , although a few regulations exist in certain parts of the country. EPA’s SO 2 emissions estimate is derived from the sulfur content of the propane fuel. With 90% of LPG comprised of propane, the EPA’ s propane emissions factor is a reasonable value for LPG emissions rates. Under the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (DES) regulation, the maximum sulfur content allowable is 13.3 g/GJ of SO 2 from LPG combustion. The San Diego County Air Pollution Control District enforces a stricter limit of only 8.8 g of SO 2 /GJ of energy input using EPA’s recommended value. Both the ASTM and Santa Barbara County Air Pollution Control District specify a sulfur standard of 0.0185 percent sulfur by weight, which approximates an emissions factor of 4.0 g of SO 2 /GJ of15

- A

- 5 energy input. This calculation is based on an LPG weight per unit energy of 21,756 g/GJ. Even lower, Nett Technologies Inc. estimates a 0.012 percent sulfur content by mass LPG average for the Un ited States as well as Canada, which is approximately 2.6 g of SO 2 /GJ of heat input.

The wide range of emissions factors for SO 2 makes it difficult to determine a representative estimate for the emissions factor and the very small net effect of any energ y

efficiency standard argue against making a significant research effort. The obtained estimates range in magnitude from approximately 4 to 13 g/GJ of energy input. The statistical average or arithmetic mean of these four estimates is 7.2 g/GJ, the value p rovided in Table 15

- A .1.1. The averaged emissions factor estimate of 7.2 g/GJ energy input is reasonable to explain three of the five sources presented and suitably accounts for the average among the two extreme estimates. Table 15

- A .1.1 therefore adequately represents national SO 2 emissions from residential LPG combustion.

15

- A.6 SUMMARY

This investigation of emissions factors from natural gas

- , fuel oil

- , and LPG

- fired residential furnaces and boilers indicates that using the values es timated by EPA’s AP

- 42 is a robust and credible basis for analysis with NES output. This analysis indicates that regulations at the state and county level, especially in the northeastern region of the United States, are generally not good estimators of the national average set forth by the EPA AP

- 42 report. This is especially true for SO 2 emissions factors from fuel oil combustion where individual state and county regulations are highly variable. Thus, although it is worthwhile examining regional legislatio n to support the national average, this analysis demonstrates the complexity that would be required to establish a weighted regional calculation for each emission. The EPA’s own lack of data on the sulfur content of LPG made it difficult to derive a nation ally representative emissions factor for the country as a whole. External sources were there fore inc orporated in the Table 15

- A.1 .1 estimate for SO 2 emissions from LPG combustion.15

- A

- 6 REFERENCES

1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, AP

- 42, Fifth Edition, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources, 1998. (Posted October) < http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/index.html >

2. South Coast Air Quality Management District, Rule 1121: Control o f Nitrogen Oxides From Residential Type, Natural Gas

- Fired Water Heaters, 1995. March.

< http://www.aqmd.gov/ >

3. U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Hemispheric Clean Cities Program, 1994. <http://www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities/>

4. New Jersey State Department of Environmental Protection, New Jersey Administrative Code, Title 7, Chapter 27, Subchapter 19: Control and Prohibition of Air Pollution from Oxides of Nitrogen; 7:27

- 19.7 Non

- Utility Boilers and other indirect heat exchangers, September 1993. < http://www.state.nj.us/dep/aqm/2719968.htm#Boilers >

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, AP

- 42, Fifth Edition, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources, Chapter 1, External Combustio n Sources, 1998. (Posted October)

< http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/index.html >