NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statistical Analysis Report February 1998

Public School Districts in the

United States: A Statistical

Profile, 1987-88 to 1993-94

U.S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 98-203
NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statistical Analysis Report February 1998

Public School Districts in the

United States: A Statistical

Profile, 1987-88 to 1993-94

Roger Levine

Bruce Christenson

American Institutes for Research

Charles Hammer, Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 98-203
2

U.S. Department of Education

Richard W. Riley

Secretary

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

Ricky Takai

Acting Assistant Secretary

National Center for Education Statistics

Pascal D. Forgione, Jr.

Commissioner

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February 1998

Contact:

Charles Hammer

(202) 219-1330
Highlights

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 iii

Highlights

The primary data sources for this report are the Teacher Demand and Shortage (TDS)

Questionnaires from the 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Surveys

(SASS). These data are used to discuss various attributes, policies, and practices of public

school districts. When possible, findings from 1993-94 are compared with those of previous

years. Highlights are summarized below.

Characteristics of Public School Districts

• In 1993-94, only 4 percent of school districts were located in urban areas inside central

cities. These urban central city districts were responsible for the education of 25 percent

of the nation’s public school students. Conversely, over half (56 percent) of all school

districts in 1993-94 were found in nonurban areas. These nonurban school districts were

also responsible for the education of 25 percent of the nation’s public school students

(figure 1.2).

• In 1993-94, districts with fewer than 1,000 students comprised 51 percent of all public

school districts but accounted for only 7 percent of the total kindergarten through 12th

grade enrollment in public school districts. Districts with 10,000 or more students made

up only 5 percent of all school districts and served 46 percent of all kindergarten through

12th grade students enrolled in public school districts (figure 1.4).

• School districts with 10,000 or more students accounted for nearly one-tenth of the

districts in the South and West (i.e., 9 percent and 8 percent, respectively) in 1993-94 as

compared with only 2 percent of districts in the Northeast and Midwest (figure 1.5).

• In 1993-94, three-fifths (61 percent) of the nation’s public school districts had

predominantly white student populations in which fewer than 10 percent of students were

from minority groups. These districts served 32 percent of the nation’s students (figure

1.8).

• Although nearly half (49 percent) of all public school districts in 1993-94 had no

minority teacher on their faculty, these districts served only 14 percent of the nation’s

public school students (figure 1.10).

• A larger proportion of school districts had between 10 and 50 percent minority

enrollment in 1993-94 (29 percent) as compared with 1987-88 (22 percent), while the

proportion with less than 10 percent minority students was smaller in 1993-94 (61

percent) compared with 1987-88 (65 percent) (table 1.2).
Highlights

iv Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

• Minority students represented one-third (33 percent) of public school students in 1993-

94, while minority teachers represented 13 percent of the public school faculty (tables 2.1

and 2.2).

• The proportion of public school students from minority groups was slightly larger in 1993-

94 (33 percent) as compared with 1987-88 (30 percent), while the proportion of public

school teachers who were minority group members was slightly smaller (13 percent in

1993-94; 14 percent in 1987-88) (tables 2.1 and 2.2).

• In 1993-94, blacks were the largest minority group among students and teachers in every

region except the West where Hispanics and Asian/Pacific Islanders were more numerous

(figures 2.2 and 2.11).

Newly Hired Teachers

• In 1993-94, nearly 8 percent of the nation’s teachers were newly hired by their school

district. These newly hired teachers are teachers who were not employed by their school

district as teachers the previous year -- they can be teachers who have never taught

previously, teachers returning to teaching after periods of at least a year, or teachers

previously employed in other districts or in private schools (appendix A, table 11).

• In 1993-94, the districts with the highest proportions of newly hired teachers were more

likely to be found in the South (10 percent) and West (9 percent) than in other regions

(6 percent) (figure 3.1).

• About seven-eighths (87 percent) of the newly hired teachers in 1993-94 possessed

regular or standard state certification to teach in their field of assignment. The

proportions of newly hired teachers with regular state certification in their field of

assignment were highest in districts in the Northeast (94 percent) and Midwest (96

percent). In districts in the South, 82 percent of the newly hired teachers possessed

standard state certification in the field of assignment; in the West, 81 percent (figure 3.2).

• In 1993-94, the percentage of newly hired teachers who were certified in their fields of

assignment was much higher in districts with fewer than 10 percent minority students (94

percent) than in districts that were at least 50 percent minority (75 percent) (figure 3.2).

• Newly hired teachers with emergency certification were found in over 20 percent of the

nation’s school districts in 1993-94. The proportions of newly hired teachers with

emergency certification were much higher in the South (10 percent) and West (12

percent) than in the Northeast (2 percent) or Midwest (3 percent) (figure 3.4).

• Slightly more than 1 in 20 newly hired teachers in public school districts lacked either

emergency or regular (standard) state certification for the field in which they were

assigned to teach in 1993-94. The lack of certification was particularly prevalent in

school districts in urban areas inside central cities in the South (14 percent) and the West

(13 percent) (appendix A, table 12).
Highlights

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 v

• In 1993-94, in districts whose minority student enrollment exceeded 50 percent, 11

percent of the newly hired teachers lacked both regular and emergency certification in

their fields of assignment. An additional 14 percent of the newly hired teachers in these

districts had only emergency certification, as compared with 8 percent, nationally (figure

3.5 and appendix A, table 12).

• Standard state certification was the most common teacher qualification criterion that

administrators of public school districts required of applicants for teaching positions in

1993-94. Five-sixths (83 percent) of public school districts had this requirement. 

Although this does not ensure that all newly hired teachers will be certified, a higher

proportion of newly hired teachers were actually certified in districts that had this

requirement, compared with districts that did not require its use (appendix A, table 13). 

• In 1993-94, 93 percent of the school districts in the Northeast required that standard state

certification be considered when hiring new teachers. This percentage was greater than in

any other region. In comparison, only 70 percent of the districts in the South required

that standard state certification be a consideration in the hiring of new teachers (figure

3.6).

• In 1993-94, the requirement that standard state certification be considered when hiring

new teachers was more common in districts with fewer than 10,000 students (84 percent)

than in districts serving 10,000 or more students (75 percent). This requirement was also

more typical of school districts with a predominantly (at least 90 percent) white student

population (87 percent, in contrast to 76 to 77 percent of districts with other student

racial compositions) (figure 3.6).

Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

• School districts were more successful in filling teaching position vacancies with

permanent teachers in 1993-94 than in 1987-88. In 1987-88, the number of teaching

positions that could not be filled by permanent teachers was 22,978 (or 1 percent of the

full time equivalent [FTE] teachers in the country). By 1993-94, the number of positions

that could not be filled by permanent teachers was 8,691 (or 0.3 percent of the country’s

FTE teachers) (appendix A, table 17).

• Between 1987-88 and 1993-94, the proportion of school districts using pay incentives to

recruit or retain teachers to teach in less desirable locations or in shortage fields increased

from 8 percent to 15 percent; the proportion of school districts offering free training to

prepare staff to teach in shortage areas increased from 12 percent to 19 percent. This

finding suggests a growing problem in hiring teachers qualified to teach in specific

shortage fields (appendix A, tables 20 and 24).

• Using pay incentives or free training as indicators of shortage, the subject area in which

shortages were greatest in 1993-94 was special education. Other subject areas for which

districts frequently used pay incentives or free training were (1) ESL or bilingual education

and (2) mathematics (appendix A, tables 23 and 25). 
Highlights

vi Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

 Special education teacher shortages appeared to be most severe in the largest

districts, in districts in urban areas inside central cities, and in districts whose

teaching staff was at least 20 percent minority (table 4.2).

 ESL or bilingual education teacher shortages were also more likely to found in

the largest districts, in districts in urban areas inside central cities, in districts

whose student population was at least 50 percent minority, and in districts whose

teaching staff was at least 20 percent minority. This problem was characteristic of

school districts in the West and in the South (table 4.2).

 Math teacher shortages were more likely to be found in school districts in the

South. However, math teacher shortages were as likely to be found in the largest

districts (those with over 10,000 students) as in districts of other sizes (table 4.2).

Teacher Compensation 

• The average scheduled salary for all public school teachers with Bachelor’s degrees and no

experience was $21,923 in 1993-94. Adjusted for inflation, the average scheduled salary

for comparably trained and educated teachers in 1990-91 was $21,742. For public school

teachers with a Master’s degree and no experience, average scheduled salaries were

$23,956 in 1993-94 and $23,691 in 1990-91 (adjusted for inflation). For public school

teachers with a Master’s degree and 20 years of teaching experience, average scheduled

salaries were $37,213 in 1993-94 and $36,249 in 1990-91 (adjusted for inflation) (table

5.1).

• In 1993-94, scheduled salaries for public school teachers at all of the education and

experience levels investigated (Bachelor's degree, no experience; Master’s degree, no

experience; Master’s degree, 20 years teaching experience) were highest in the Northeast

($25,581; $27,727; $46,594), followed by the West ($21,913; $24,505; $37,800), the

Midwest ($20,879; $23,013; $35,718), and the South ($20,407; $21,714; $30,955) (table

5.1).

• The prevalence of collective bargaining agreements was substantially higher in school

districts in the Northeast (98 percent) than it was in school districts in the South (12

percent) in 1993-94. Scheduled salaries at all of the education and experience levels

investigated were higher in school districts that had collective bargaining agreements.

This was true irrespective of district size, proportions of minority students or teachers, or

metropolitan status (appendix A, tables 28 and 29).

• Retirement benefits were offered by nearly all school districts. In 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94, 99 percent of the nation’s school districts offered retirement benefits (appendix

A, table 30).
Highlights

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 vii

School District Programs and Policies

• Nationally, the number of years of instruction in English, mathematics, physical/biological

science, and social science that were required for high school graduation were greater in

1993-94 than in 1990-91 (figure 6.1).

• The proportion of districts with computer science high school graduation requirements

was higher in 1993-94 (37 percent) than in 1990-91 (33 percent). However, the

proportion of school districts in the South in urban areas inside central cities with

computer science graduation requirements was lower in 1993-94 (21 percent) than in

1990-91 (40 percent) (appendix A, table 38).

• In contrast with computer science, the proportion of districts requiring completion of a

foreign language course was about the same in 1993-94 (18 percent) and 1990-91 (19

percent) (figure 6.2).

• In 1993-94, graduation requirements in core subject areas (English, math, social science,

and physical/biological science) in districts in the Midwest were usually lower than those

in other regions (table 6.2).

• School districts in urban areas inside central cities, particularly in states in the West, were

most likely to have a foreign language high school graduation requirement in 1993-94. 

About 45 percent of these districts had a foreign language graduation requirement, in

contrast to the national average of 18 percent (figure 6.4 and appendix A, table 39).

• Students eligible for participation in the National School Lunch program were found in

nearly all (93 percent) of the nation’s school districts in 1993-94. Eligible students were

more likely to be found in school districts in the South (98 percent), in districts with over

1,000 students (99 percent), in urban school districts (95-96 percent), in districts where

the concentration of minority students was 10 percent or greater (96 percent), and in

districts where there was at least one minority teacher (95-96 percent) (figure 6.5 and

appendix A, table 43).

C In 1993-94, Chapter 1 programs (reauthorized through the Improving America’s Schools

Act [Public Law 103-382] as the Title 1 program) were available in nearly all (92 percent)

of the nation’s school districts. Chapter 1 programs were more likely to be offered in

districts with over 1,000 students (98-99 percent) and in districts where there was at least

one minority teacher (95-96 percent) (figure 6.6 and appendix A, table 41).

• In 1993-94, prekindergarten programs (day care, Head Start, Chapter 1, special education,

and other general prekindergarten programs) were available in about two-thirds (64

percent) of the nation’s public school districts. These programs were most likely to be

provided in districts enrolling 10,000 or more students (91 percent), followed by districts

serving between 1,000 to 9,999 students (76 percent), and were least likely to be offered in

districts enrolling less than 1,000 students (51 percent) (table 6.4).

• Prekindergarten programs were more available in districts in urban areas inside central

cities (84 percent) than in other districts in 1993-94 (table 6.4).
Highlights

viii Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

• In 1993-94, about five-sixths (84 percent) of the school districts in the country

disseminated information about their students’ performance on standardized tests to the

general public. The largest school districts (i.e., those with enrollments of at least 10,000

students) were the most likely to do this (95 percent); districts with enrollments of under

1,000, the least likely (77 percent) (appendix A, table 44 and figure 6.7).

• About 8 percent of the school districts in the country offered magnet school choice

programs in 1993-94. These programs were most likely to be offered by districts with more

than 10,000 students (33 percent), districts in central cities (24 percent), and districts

with the highest concentrations (50 percent minority or more) of minority students (13

percent) and the highest concentrations (20 percent minority or more) of minority

teachers (14 percent) (figure 6.8 and table 6.5).

• Nearly all (98 to 99 percent) of the country’s school districts had written policies about

student discipline and alcohol, drug, and tobacco use in 1993-94 (appendix A, table 46).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 ix

Acknowledgments

This report could not have been completed without the efforts and dedication of many people.

At the American Institutes for Research, our deepest thanks go to Gur Hoshen for his

programming and analytic assistance; to Andrew Davis for his assistance in the preparation

and editing of the many tables and graphics in the report; and to Michelle Bullwinkle and

Sarah Wert for their careful editing, their thorough review, and their assistance in the

preparation of the final drafts.

At the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), we would like to thank Charles

Hammer, the Project Officer for this report, for his invaluable advice and guidance and the

pleasant manner in which this assistance was always provided. We also appreciate the helpful

suggestions made by the following reviewers at NCES, which substantially improved the

quality of this report: Robert Burton, Lee Hoffman, Steven Kaufman, Marilyn McMillen,

J. Michael Ross, and William Sonnenberg. Similarly, we would like to acknowledge the

valuable comments and suggestions provided by Alan Ginsberg (U.S. Department of

Education), Lynn Cornett (Southern Region Education Board), Wayne Martin (Council of

Chief State School Officers), Andrew Rogers (Los Angeles Unified School District), and

David Grissmer (RAND).

Roger Levine

Bruce Christenson

American Institutes for Research
x Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 xi

Contents

Highlights ............................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................ix

List of Tables .........................................................................................................................xiv

List of Figures .........................................................................................................................xv

Introduction................................................................................................................................1

Chapter 1: Geographic and Demographic Characteristics ......................................................5

Overview ...........................................................................................................................5

Region ...............................................................................................................................5

Metropolitan Status ...........................................................................................................6

District Size ........................................................................................................................8

Minority Students ............................................................................................................12

Minority Teachers ...........................................................................................................14

Changes in District Characteristics, 1987-88 to 1993-94 ...............................................16

Chapter 2: Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts ...........................................19

Overview .........................................................................................................................19

Minority Students ............................................................................................................19

Regional Differences and Trends ..............................................................................20

Metropolitan Status Differences and Trends ...........................................................22

District Size Differences and Trends .........................................................................25

Differences in Minority Enrollments Trends

by Proportion of Minority Teachers ......................................................................26

Minority Teachers ...........................................................................................................28

Regional Differences and Trends ..............................................................................29

Metropolitan Status Differences and Trends ............................................................31

District Size Differences and Trends .........................................................................33

Differences and Trends by Proportion of Minority Students ....................................35

Chapter 3: Newly Hired Teachers ........................................................................................39

Overview .........................................................................................................................39

Extent of New Hires in Public School Districts ..............................................................39

Certification of Newly Hired Teachers ...........................................................................40

Standard State Certification .....................................................................................40

Emergency Certification ...........................................................................................42

Newly Hired Teachers Lacking Emergency Certification

or Regular (Standard) State Certification in

Their Field of Assignment ................................................................................... 44

District Criteria for Screening Applicants for Teaching Positions .................................46
xii Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Contents (continued)

Chapter 4: Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers ..........51

Overview .........................................................................................................................51

Fields of Shortage ............................................................................................................52

Differences and Trends in the Prevalence of Pay Incentives ..........................................55

Differences and Trends in the Prevalence of Free Training to Prepare

 Teachers for Shortage Fields .........................................................................................58

Chapter 5: Teacher Compensation .......................................................................................61

Overview .........................................................................................................................61

Scheduled Salaries ...........................................................................................................62

Teachers with Bachelor’s Degrees .............................................................................63

Teachers with Master’s Degrees ................................................................................63

Collective Bargaining ......................................................................................................65

Collective Bargaining and Scheduled Salaries .........................................................66

Retirement Benefits .........................................................................................................67

Impacts of Within-State Transfers on Retirement Benefits .....................................67

Impacts of Between-State Transfers on Retirement Benefits ...................................68

Chapter 6: School District Programs and Policies ...............................................................69

Overview .........................................................................................................................69

Graduation Requirements: Background ..........................................................................69

District Graduation Requirements in Core Subject Areas ..............................................70

District Graduation Requirements in Other (Noncore) Areas .......................................72

Computer Science Graduation Requirements ..........................................................72

Foreign Language Graduation Requirements ...........................................................74

National Programs: Background ......................................................................................75

National School Lunch Program .....................................................................................75

Chapter 1 Programs .........................................................................................................77

Prekindergarten Programs ................................................................................................79

Head Start Programs .................................................................................................80

Chapter 1 Prekindergarten Programs ........................................................................81

Other Prekindergarten Programs ..............................................................................81

State and Local Reforms ..................................................................................................82

Student Test-Performance Reporting Policies .........................................................82

Choice Programs ..............................................................................................................83

Within-District Open Enrollment Programs ............................................................86

Magnet School Programs ..........................................................................................88

Between-District Transfer Programs .........................................................................90

Written District Policies about Student Discipline and Alcohol, Drug,

and Tobacco Use ......................................................................................................91

Chapter 7: Future Research Directions ................................................................................93

References ..............................................................................................................................95
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 xiii

Contents (continued)

Appendix A: Tables of Estimates ....................................................................................... A-1

Section 1—Selected District Characteristics Tables ................................................. A-3

Section 2—State Tables ............................................................................................ A-51

Appendix B: Tables of Standard Errors ..............................................................................B-1

Section 1—Selected District Characteristics Tables ..................................................B-3

Section 2—State Tables .............................................................................................B-51

Appendix C: Technical Notes ............................................................................................ C-1

Index ......................................................................................................................................I-1
xiv Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

List of Tables

Table Page

1.1 Percentage of public school districts and students, by region: 1993-94 .......................5

1.2 Percentage of public school districts, by percentage of minority student 

enrollment: 1987-88 and 1993-94 .............................................................................17

1.3 Percentage of public school districts, by percentage of minority teachers:

1987-88 and 1993-94 .................................................................................................17

2.1 Percentage of minority students, by school year: 1987-88 to 1993-94 .......................19

2.2 Percentage of minority teachers, by school year: 1987-88 to 1993-94 .......................28

4.1 Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers or

offering free training to prepare staff members to teach in fields of shortage, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94 ....................................................................53

4.2 Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain

teachers to teach in fields of shortage or offering free training to prepare

staff members to teach in fields of shortage by subject matter (special

education, math, and ESL or bilingual education), by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94 ..............................................................................................55

5.1 Average scheduled salaries for teachers (in constant 1993-94 dollars) by education

and teaching experience in districts with salary schedules, by selected district

characteristics: 1990-91 and 1993-94 ........................................................................62

6.1 Proportions of 4-year high school diploma-granting districts with graduation

requirements, by subject areas: 1993-94 .....................................................................70

6.2 District high school graduation requirements, by region: 1993-94 ............................71

6.3 Percentage of districts with high school graduation requirements in

computer science, by metropolitan status: 1990-91 to 1993-94 ................................74

6.4 Percentage of school districts with various types of programs for

prekindergarten-age children, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94 ...............79

6.5 Percentage of districts with choice programs by type of choice program,

by selected district characteristics: 1993-94 ...............................................................84
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 xv

List of Figures

Figure Page

1.1 Percentage of public school districts, by region: 1993-94 .......................................... 6

1.2 Percentage of districts and students, by metropolitan status: 1993-94 ....................... 7

1.3 Percentage of public schools districts by metropolitan status, by region:

1993-94 ...................................................................................................................... 8

1.4 Percentage of districts and students, by district size: 1993-94 .................................... 9

1.5 Percentage of public school districts by district size, by region: 1993-94 ................. 10

1.6 Percentage of public school districts by metropolitan status, by

district size: 1993-94 ................................................................................................. 11

1.7 Percentage of public school districts by district size, by metropolitan

status: 1993-94 ......................................................................................................... 12

1.8 Percentage of districts and students, by proportion of minority student

enrollment: 1993-94 ................................................................................................. 13

1.9 Percentage of public school districts by proportion of minority student

enrollment, by region: 1993-94 ................................................................................ 14

1.10 Percentage of districts and students, by proportion of minority

teachers: 1993-94 ..................................................................................................... 15

1.11 Percentage of public school districts by proportion of minority

teachers, by region: 1993-94 .................................................................................... 16

2.1 Percentage distribution of students, by race and ethnicity: 1993-94 ....................... 20

2.2 Percentage distribution of students by race and ethnicity, by region:

1993-94 .................................................................................................................... 21

2.3 Percentage of minority students, by region: 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 ............................................................................................................. 22

2.4 Percentage distribution of students by race and ethnicity, by

metropolitan status: 1993-94 .................................................................................... 23

2.5 Percentage of minority students, by metropolitan status: 1990-91

and 1993-94 ............................................................................................................. 24
xvi Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

List of Figures (continued)

Figure Page

2.6 Percentage distribution of students by race and ethnicity, by

district size: 1993-94 ................................................................................................. 25

2.7 Percentage of minority students, by district size: 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 ............................................................................................................. 26

2.8 Percentage distribution of students by race and ethnicity, by proportion

of minority teachers on district staff: 1993-94 ......................................................... 27

2.9 Percentage of minority students, by proportion of minority teachers

on district staff: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ..................................................... 28

2.10 Percentage distribution of teachers, by race and ethnicity: 1993-94 ....................... 29

2.11 Percentage distribution of teachers by race and ethnicity, by region:

1993-94 .................................................................................................................... 30

2.12 Percentage of minority teachers, by region: 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 ............................................................................................................. 31

2.13 Percentage distribution of teachers by race and ethnicity, by

metropolitan status: 1993-94 .................................................................................... 32

2.14 Percentage of minority teachers, by metropolitan status: 1990-91

and 1993-94 ............................................................................................................. 33

2.15 Percentage distribution of teachers by race and ethnicity, by district size:

1993-94 .................................................................................................................... 34

2.16 Percentage of minority teachers, by district size: 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 ............................................................................................................. 35

2.17 Percentage distribution of teachers by race and ethnicity, by proportion

of minority students in the district: 1993-94 ............................................................ 36

2.18 Percentage of minority teachers, by proportion of minority students

in district: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ............................................................. 37

3.1 Percentage of full-time equivalent teaching staff that consists of newly

hired teachers, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94 ..................................... 40

3.2 Percentage of newly hired teachers (full-time equivalent) with standard

state certification in assignment field, by selected district characteristics:

1993-94 .................................................................................................................... 41
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 xvii

List of Figures (continued)

Figure Page

3.3 Percentage of newly hired teachers (full-time equivalent) with standard

state certification in assignment field in districts in urban areas inside

central cities, by region: 1993-94 ............................................................................. 42

3.4 Percentage of newly hired full-time equivalent teachers with emergency

certification, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94 ........................................ 44

3.5 Certification status of newly hired teachers (full-time equivalent) lacking

standard state certification in assignment field, by selected district characteristics:

1993-94 .................................................................................................................... 45

3.6 Percentage of school districts requiring standard state certification in field

to be taught in considering applicants for teaching positions, by selected

district characteristics: 1993-94 ................................................................................ 47

3.7 Percentage of school districts with various criteria required for considering

applicants for teaching positions: 1993-94 ............................................................... 48

4.1 Percentage of districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in less desirable locations or in shortage fields, by selected district

characteristics: 1987-88 and 1993-94 ...................................................................... 56

4.2 Percentage of districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in a) shortage fields and b) less desirable locations, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94 ............................................................................................ 57

4.3 Percentage of districts offering free training to prepare staff to teach 

in shortage fields, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 and 1993-94 ........... 59

5.1 Percentage of schools districts with collective bargaining agreements, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94 .................................................................. 66

5.2 Average scheduled salary for teachers, by education and teaching

experience, in districts with and without collective bargaining agreements:

1993-94 .................................................................................................................... 67

6.1 Average high school graduation requirements (in years) in core subjects

in diploma-granting districts with 4-year programs: 1990-91 and 1993-94 ............. 71

6.2 Percentage of 4-year high school diploma-granting districts with graduation

requirements in noncore subject areas: 1990-91 and 1993-94 ................................. 72
xviii Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

List of Figures (continued)

Figure Page

6.3 Percentage of 4-year high school diploma-granting districts with graduation

requirements in computer science, by district size: 1990-91 and 1993-94 ............... 73

6.4 Percentage of urban-inside central city, 4-year high school diplomagranting districts with foreign language graduation requirements, by

region: 1990-91 and 1993-94 ................................................................................... 75

6.5 Percentage of school districts with students eligible for participation in

the National School Lunch program, by selected district characteristics:

1993-94 .................................................................................................................... 76

6.6 Percentage of school districts with students receiving Chapter 1

services, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94 ............................................... 78

6.7 Percentage of districts with a student test-performance reporting

policy, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94 .................................................. 83

6.8 Percentage of districts with choice programs, by type of choice

program: 1993-94 ..................................................................................................... 85

6.9 Percentage of districts with within-district open enrollment programs,

by metropolitan status: 1993-94 ............................................................................... 87

6.10 Percentage of districts with within-district open enrollment programs,

by region: 1993-94 .................................................................................................... 88

6.11 Percentage of districts with magnet schools, by region: 1993-94 ............................. 89

6.12 Percentage of districts with magnet schools, by metropolitan status:

1993-94 .................................................................................................................... 90
Introduction

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 1

Introduction

Context for Examining Public School Districts

Public elementary and secondary schools in the United States are governed, for the most part,

by elected school boards, with each board presiding over a local education agency (LEA),

more commonly known as a school district. 1 As the basic legal and fiduciary units of the

public education system, a large percentage of decisions that affect schools are made at the

district level. The administrative role of the district involves such activities as anticipating

changes in student enrollment, establishing guidelines for hiring faculty, negotiating staff

compensation, defining district-wide policies, and adopting programs to meet various student

needs. 

The publicly available statistical information on the nation’s public school districts to date has

been limited to certain demographic characteristics of districts, their student enrollment and

racial composition, and their numbers of teachers (e.g., U.S. Department of Education 1995;

Levine, McLaughlin, and Sietsema 1996). This report expands the statistical information on

public school districts with the description of a variety of attributes, policies, and practices of

public school districts in the United States in 1993-94. Trends in some features of school

districts from 1987-88 to 1993-94 are also identified. The report is a nontechnical resource of

information about disparate aspects of public school districts based on the Teacher Demand

and Shortage (TDS) Questionnaire of the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) for 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94. It is directed to a broad audience of educators, educational researchers,

and policymakers in state, local, and federal agencies.

Teacher Demand and Shortage (TDS) Questionnaire of the

Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS)

The data sources for this report are the Teacher Demand and Shortage (TDS) questionnaires

from the Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS) for 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94. SASS is a

nationally representative survey of schools, teachers, principals, and public school districts

conducted by the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics

(NCES). The objective of SASS is to obtain information on the staffing, occupational, and

organizational characteristics of elementary and secondary schools in the United States.

 

1

 The term “district” will be used in place of “Local Education Agency (LEA)” in this report.
Introduction

2 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

In each year of the Schools and Staffing Survey, the TDS questionnaires were mailed out to

district administrators for a nationally representative sample of over 5,000 school districts. 

(See appendix C for more detailed information on the sample design for school districts in

each year of the survey.) The three administrations of the TDS questionnaire were similar,

but not identical. The 1993-94 TDS questionnaire covered a broader range of topics than the

two earlier questionnaires.

The topics about which administrators were questioned in the 1993-94 TDS include, among

others, the number and racial composition of students and teachers; the number and

qualifications of new hires; hiring criteria; teacher demand; teacher compensation and

incentives; programs and services provided by the district; district graduation requirements;

and other student policies. This report provides statistical information on these topics for

school districts in 1993-94. Trends among school districts from 1987-88 to 1993-94 are

reported where the available data permitted such analyses; they are discussed in the report

when differences over time were observed.

Characteristics of School Districts

Within each topic area of this report, school districts are compared across three demographic

and two geographic characteristics that were deemed to be of interest to educators and

policymakers. These comparisons permit local educators and policymakers to use the

information presented in figures or tables as a reference for comparing the situation in their

school districts with similar types of districts nationally.

The geographic characteristics include the region and metropolitan status of a district. The

demographic characteristics include the size of district enrollment, proportion of minority

students enrolled in a district, and proportion of minority teachers on staff in a district. The

classification of districts for each of these characteristics are as follows:

• Region of the country includes the Northeast, Midwest, South, and West. (See

appendix C for a listing of states in each region.)

• Metropolitan status includes districts located in urban areas primarily inside central

cities, districts located in urban areas primarily outside central cities, and districts

located in nonurban areas.

• District size includes districts with under 1,000 students, districts with 1,000 to

9,999 students, and districts with 10,000 or more students enrolled in

kindergarten through 12th grade.

• Proportion of minority students in a district includes categories for districts with

under 10 percent minority students, 10 percent to under 50 percent minority

students, and 50 percent or more minority students.

• Proportion of minority teachers in a district includes categories for no minority

teachers, some but under 20 percent minority teachers, and 20 percent or more

minority teachers on the district’s teaching staff.
Introduction

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 3

Additional technical information about these classification schemes can be found in

appendix C.

Some school districts are administrative agencies and do not employ teachers. The findings presented

in this report are not applicable to these kinds of districts. The findings are representative of public

school districts that employ at least one teacher and are not exactly comparable with data presented in

other reports that are based on all school districts.

With the exception of region, all of these district characteristics can change over time. In other

words, a district’s metropolitan status, size classification, proportion of minority students classification,

and proportion of minority teachers classification can change, reflecting changes occurring in the

district. The longitudinal data that are presented in this report classify districts according to their

characteristics at either the time the sample was selected (metropolitan status) or when the

classification data were collected (district size, proportion of minority students, proportion of minority

teachers). For example, longitudinal data describe how districts with specific characteristics (e.g.,

more than 10,000 students in 1993-94) compare with districts that had the same characteristic (more

than 10,000 students) in other years (e.g., 1987-88 or 1990-91).

Organization of this Report

This is a descriptive report on various facets of public school districts. Each of the six chapters

deals in some detail with a different aspect of school districts. 

• Chapter 1 provides an overview of the geographic and demographic

characteristics of school districts and describes selected trends in those

characteristics. 

• Chapter 2 examines the racial and ethnic composition of the students and

teachers in public school districts and identifies trends in the proportions of

students and teachers from minority groups in public school districts. 

• Chapter 3 reports the percentage of teachers who have been newly hired by

school districts in the past year, describes the qualification levels of these newly

hired teachers, and examines the hiring criteria used by school districts. 

• Chapter 4 assesses the ability of districts to fill vacancies and describes district

efforts to recruit and retain teachers through pay incentives and training

programs. 

• Chapter 5 examines teacher salary levels and their relation to collective

bargaining, and describes trends in salary schedules from 1990-91 to 1993-94. 

• Chapter 6 describes a variety of school district policies and programs, including

graduation requirements, district participation in national programs (e.g., the

National School Lunch program, the Chapter 1 program (reauthorized through

the Improving America’s Schools Act [Public Law 103-382] as the Title 1

program), and prekindergarten programs), and recent state and local reforms that

affect district policies and programs (i.e., reporting practices on student test
Introduction

4 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

performance, school choice programs, and policies on student discipline, alcohol

use, and drug use).

• Chapter 7 suggests ways in which these data might be used for further

investigations of the nation’s educational system. 

This report does not require or assume any statistical expertise on the part of its readers.

Differences and similarities discussed in the text, however, have been evaluated for statistical

significance using Student’s t statistic adjusted for multiple comparisons with the Bonferroni

procedure at the ∝ =.05 level.2

Graphs are used extensively in each chapter to provide a clear presentation of the findings. A

summary of the major findings from each of the chapters is contained in the Highlights

section at the front of this report.

For those wanting additional information, appendix A contains a series of tables from which

the information contained in the figures were obtained. Appendix A also contains tables that

present data on many of the topics covered in the report, by state. Appendix B contains the

standard errors for the tables in appendix A. Appendix C contains technical notes that

provide more detailed information on the survey design, overall accuracy of estimates,

statistical procedures used in this report, and references to other NCES publications.

 

2 A description of the statistical procedures is included in appendix C.
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 5

Chapter 1

Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

Overview

An overview of some basic characteristics of public school districts provides a context for the

more detailed descriptions, in subsequent chapters, of district student and staffing

characteristics, policies, practices, and programs. Accordingly, descriptions of geographic and

demographic characteristics of school districts for the 1993-94 school year and changes in

these characteristics between the 1987-88 and 1993-94 school years are provided in this

chapter.

Region

The Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) estimates that there were 14,987 school districts at

the start of the 1993-94 school year. The largest percent of districts were located in the

Midwest and the fewest in the West (table 1.1).3

Table 1.1Percentage of public school districts and students, by region: 1993-94

Region Districts Students

Total

Northeast

100.0

20.6

100.0

18.2

Midwest 37.7 22.8

South 22.1 36.3

West 19.6 22.7

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

More than one-third (38 percent) of all school districts were located in the Midwest (table 1.1

and figure 1.1). About one-fifth of the nation’s school districts were in each of the other three

regions. However, the greatest proportion (36 percent) of the nation’s public school students

 

3

 Four geographic regions, corresponding to areas defined by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, were

employed in this report. The states comprising each region are listed in the Technical Appendix, page

C-13.
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

6 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

were in the South and the smallest proportion (18 percent) were in schools in the North

(table 1.1).

Figure 1.1Percentage of public school districts, by region: 1993-94

West=19.6% (13)

Northeast=20.6% (9)

South=22.1% (16)

Midwest=37.7% (12)

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Metropolitan Status

In 1993-94, over half (56 percent) of all public school districts were located in nonurban areas

(figure 1.2 and appendix A, table 1). Another 40 percent of districts were located in urban

areas outside central cities. Only 4 percent of all public school districts were located in urban

areas inside central cities. Nevertheless, these urban central city districts were responsible for

the education of 25 percent of the nation’s public school students (appendix A, table 10).
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 7

Figure 1.2Percentage of districts and students, by metropolitan status: 1993-94

24.5

50.4

25.1

56.2

40.1

3.7

0 20 40 60 80 100

Nonurban

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

Percentage

Percentage of districts

Percentage of students

Metropolitan Status

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Approximately two-thirds of school districts in the Midwest (63 percent) and South (67

percent) were located in nonurban areas, compared with half (54 percent) of the districts in

the West and only one-third (34 percent) of the districts in the Northeast (figure 1.3 and

appendix A, table 2). 4 Nearly two-thirds (63 percent) of the school districts in the Northeast

were located in urban areas outside central cities. In each region, the smallest percentage of

districts, ranging from 3 to 6 percent, were inside central cities.

 

4

 Percent of districts in each metro status category within regions were calculated from data in table 2

in appendix A, by dividing within each region the number of districts in a metro status category by the

total number of districts in that region.
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

8 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 1.3Percentage of public schools districts by metropolitan status, by region:

1993-94

54.3

41.2

4.6

67.3

27.1

5.6

62.9

34.3

2.8

33.9

63.3

2.7

0 20 40 60 80 100

Nonurban

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

WEST

Nonurban

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

SOUTH

Nonurban

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

MIDWEST

Nonurban

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

NORTHEAST

Percentage of Districts

Metropolitan Status by Region

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire)

District Size

In 1993-94, districts with enrollments of fewer than 1,000 students comprised one-half (51

percent) of all public school districts (figure 1.4 and appendix A, tables 1 and 10). However,

these districts enrolled only 7 percent of students enrolled in all public school districts. 

Districts with 1,000 to 9,999 students comprised 44 percent of the school districts and served

47 percent of all public school students. The largest school districts (10,000 or more students)

amounted to only 5 percent of all school districts. These districts, however, served nearly half

(46 percent) of the students enrolled in public school districts.
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 9

Figure 1.4Percentage of districts and students, by district size: 1993-94

46.2

46.8

7.0

4.7

44.4

50.9

0 20 40 60 80 100

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

Percentage

Percentage of districts

Percentage of students

Number of Students Enrolled in District

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

A majority of the school districts in the Midwest (59 percent) and West (60 percent) had

fewer than 1,000 students (figure 1.5 and appendix A, table 4). In the Northeast and South,

at least half of the school districts had enrollments of 1,000 to 9,999 students (59 and 50

percent, respectively). The largest school districts (10,000 or more students) made up a larger

proportion of districts in the South (9 percent) and West (8 percent) than in the Northeast or

Midwest (2 percent each). 
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

10 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 1.5Percentage of public school districts by district size, by region: 1993-94

7.9

32.6

59.6

9.2

50.3

40.5

2.2

39.0

58.8

1.6

59.1

39.3

0 20 40 60 80 100

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

WEST

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

SOUTH

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

MIDWEST

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

NORTHEAST

Percentage of Districts

District Enrollment by Region

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Districts enrolling fewer than 1,000 students were most numerous in nonurban areas (figure

1.6 and appendix A, table 5), where they constituted about two-thirds (65 percent) of the

districts (figure 1.7 and appendix A, table 5). The districts with 1,000 to 9,999 students were

most numerous in urban areas outside central cities, where they made up 53 percent of all

school districts. The largest districts, with enrollments of 10,000 or more students, were also

most numerous in urban areas outside central cities (figure 1.6). However, the largest districts

represented 44 percent of all school districts in urban areas inside central cities, compared with

about 7 percent of districts in other urban areas and only about 1 percent of nonurban districts

(figure 1.7).
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 11

Figure 1.6Percentage of public school districts by metropolitan status, by district

size: 1993-94

9.2

55.9

34.9

43.6

52.6

3.8

71.6

27.6

0.8

0 20 40 60 80 100

Nonurban

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

10,000 OR MORE

Nonurban

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

1,000 to 9,999

Nonurban

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

UNDER 1,000

Metropolitan Status by District Size

Percentage of Districts

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

12 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 1.7Percentage of public school districts by district size, by metropolitan

status: 1993-94

0.8

34.4

64.8

6.6

58.3

35.1

44.1

45.4

10.6

0 20 40 60 80 100

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

NONURBAN

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

URBAN-Outside central city

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

URBAN-Inside central city

Percent of Districts

District Enrollment by Metropolitan Status

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Minority Students

In 1993-94, three-fifths (61 percent) of the nation’s public school districts had predominantly

white student populations (i.e., fewer than 10 percent of students were from a minority group)

(figure 1.8 and appendix A, tables 1 and 10). However, about two-thirds (68 percent) of all

students were enrolled in school districts that had minority compositions of at least 10

percent. On the other hand, only about one-tenth (11 percent) of districts were ones in which

minority groups represented at least one-half of the district’s student enrollment. Yet these

school districts accounted for one-quarter (27 percent) of all students enrolled in public

schools.
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 13

Figure 1.8Percentage of districts and students, by proportion of minority student

enrollment: 1993-94

27.1

41.3

31.6

10.8

28.7

60.6

0 20 40 60 80 100

50% or more

10% to under 50%

Under 10%

Percentage

Percentage of districts

Percentage of students

Proportion Minority Student 

Enrollment

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Fewer than 1 in 10 students were from minority groups in 84 percent of school districts in the

Midwest, and 74 percent of the districts in the Northeast, as compared with 41 percent of

districts in the West, and 26 percent in the South (figure 1.9 and appendix A, table 3).

Districts with between 10 and 50 percent minority enrollment characterized about half (52

percent) of the districts in the South and two-fifths (38 percent) of the districts in the West. 

Minority students made up at least half of the student population in one-fifth of the districts

in the South (22 percent) and West (21 percent). By comparison, minority students made up

at least half of the student population in only 5 percent of districts in the Northeast and 2

percent of districts in the Midwest.
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

14 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 1.9Percentage of public school districts by proportion of minority student

enrollment, by region: 1993-94*

21.2

37.6

41.2

22.0

51.9

26.2

2.2

14.2

83.6

4.5

21.7

73.8

0 20 40 60 80 100

50% or more

10% to under 50%

Under 10%

WEST

50% or more

10% to under 50%

Under 10%

SOUTH

50% or more

10% to under 50%

Under 10%

MIDWEST

50% or more

10% to under 50%

Under 10%

NORTHEAST

Percentage of Districts

Proportion Minority Student 

Enrollment

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

(*) Excludes 45 districts with no students in 1993-94.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Minority Teachers

Nearly half (49 percent) of all public school districts had no minority teachers on their faculty.

However, the districts with no minority teachers served only 14 percent of all students (figure

1.10 and appendix A, tables 1 and 10). Only 7 percent of all districts had teaching staffs in

which one-fifth or more of the teachers were from minority groups. However, these districts

served one-quarter (25 percent) of all public school students.
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 15

Figure 1.10Percentage of districts and students, by proportion of minority teachers:

1993-94

25.1

61.1

13.9

6.9

44.4

48.7

0 20 40 60 80 100

20% or more

More than 0% to under

20%

None

Percentage

Percentage of districts

Percentage of students

Proportion Minority Teaching Staff

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

The proportion of districts with no minority teachers was greatest in the Midwest, where 71

percent of school districts had no minority teachers, and was lowest in the South, where 22

percent of districts had no minority teachers (figure 1.11 and appendix A, table 6). One-fifth

or more of the teaching staff were from minority groups in 21 percent of the districts in the

South, compared with 9 percent of the districts in the West and only 1 percent of the districts

in the Northeast and Midwest.
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

16 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 1.11Percentage of public school districts by proportion of minority teachers,

by region: 1993-94

8.5

56.4

35.1

20.5

57.7

21.7

1.4

27.5

71.1

1.1

49.6

49.3

0 20 40 60 80 100

20% or more

More than 0% to under 20%

None

WEST

20% or more

More than 0% to under 20%

None

SOUTH

20% or more

More than 0% to under 20%

None

MIDWEST

20% or more

More than 0% to under 20%

None

NORTHEAST

Percentage of Districts

Proportion Minority Teaching 

Staff 

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Changes in District Characteristics, 1987-88 to 1993-94

The proportions of districts with small and moderate proportions of minority students

changed from 1987-88 to 1993-94 (table 1.2). Districts with low proportions of minority

students (i.e., under 10 percent minority enrollment) dropped by 4 percentage points from

1987-88 to 1993-94, whereas districts with moderate proportions of minority students (i.e., 10

percent to under 50 percent) increased by 6 percentage points over the same time period

(table 1.2). A general increase in minorities as a proportion of the student population may

have contributed to such changes.5 The proportion of districts with 50 percent or more

minority students was relatively constant in 1987-88 (13 percent) and in 1993-94

(11 percent).

 

5

Levine, R., McLaughlin, D., and Sietsema, J. (1996); U.S. Department of Education (1994).
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 17

Table 1.2Percentage of public school districts, by percentage of minority student

enrollment: 1987-88 and 1993-94

 Percent Minority Student Enrollment

School Year Under 10% 10% to under 50% 50% or more TOTAL

1987-88 65.0 22.4 12.6 100.0

1993-94 60.6 28.7 10.8 100.0

Change from

1987-88

- 4.4 + 6.3 - 1.8

(*) Excludes 82 districts with no students in 1987-88 and 45 districts with no students in 1993-94.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys:

1987-88 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

A comparison of the composition of teaching staffs across survey years indicates that the

proportion of school districts with no minority teachers in 1993-94 (49 percent) was

comparable with the proportion of such districts in 1987-88 (52 percent). However, a larger

proportion of districts had at least one, but less than 20 percent minority teachers in 1993-94

(44 percent) as compared with 1987-88 (40 percent), while a smaller proportion of districts

had 20 percent or more minority teachers in 1993-94 (7 percent) as compared with the 1987-

88 school year (9 percent) 6 (table 1.3).

 

6

Changes in the percentage distribution of public school districts by metropolitan status from 1987-88

to 1993-94 could not be analyzed because data were not available from the Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Table 1.3Percentage of public school districts, by percentage of minority teachers: 1987-88

and 1993-94

 Percentage Minority Teachers

School Year None More than 0% and

under 20%

20% or more TOTAL

1987-88 51.5 39.5 9.0 100.0

1993-94 48.7 44.4 6.9 100.0

Change from

1987-88

- 2.8 + 4.9 - 2.1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys:

1987-88 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Geographic and Demographic Characteristics

18 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 19

Chapter 2

Racial and Ethnic Composition of School

Districts

Overview

Desegregation of public school districts has been a public policy issue for the last 40 years,

during which the population of the U.S. has become increasingly diverse. Consequently, the

racial and ethnic composition of the student population and their teachers is a topic of general

interest. The first part of this chapter describes the 1993-94 racial-ethnic composition of the

student population and examines trends in minority student enrollment in public school

districts from 1987-88 to 1993-94. The second part of the chapter describes the current racialethnic composition of the faculty in public school districts and examines trends in

representation of minority teachers in public school districts.

Minority Students

The proportion of minority students in the country increased gradually, but steadily, from

1987-88 to 1993-94 (table 2.1). In 1987-88, minority students represented 30 percent of the

student population, compared with 33 percent in 1993-94.

Table 2.1Percentage of minority students, by school year: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Year Percent

1987-88 30.4

1990-91 31.7

1993-94 33.2

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Black students were the largest minority student group, making up 16 percent of the public

school population in 1993-94, followed by Hispanics, (12 percent), and Asian/Pacific

Islanders (4 percent) (figure 2.1 and appendix A, table 10). American Indian and Alaska

Natives were the smallest minority group comprising about 1 percent of public school

students.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

20 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.1Percentage distribution of students, by race and ethnicity: 1993-94

66.8

16.2

12.3

3.6

1.1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

White

Black

Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Race and Ethnicity

Percentage of Students

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Regional Differences and Trends

The racial and ethnic diversity of public school students varies greatly by region. The student

population was most homogenous in the Midwest, where 83 percent of students enrolled in

public school districts in 1993-94 were white, non-Hispanic and only 17 percent of students

were members of minority groups (figure 2.2 and appendix A, table 10). In contrast, 43

percent of students in the West and 39 percent of students in the South were from a minority

group.

Blacks were the largest minority group in three of the four major regions of the country in

1993-94; however, in the West, Hispanics and Asian and Pacific Islanders were more

numerous (figure 2.2). Black students constituted one-quarter (26 percent) of the student

population in the South, but only about one-sixteenth (6 percent) in the West Hispanics were

the largest minority group in the West, where they comprised 26 percent of students. In the

Midwest, Hispanics made up less than 3 percent of public school students. Asian and Pacific

Islanders were the second largest minority group in the West, where they comprised 9 percent

of students. In contrast, they constituted only about 1.5 percent of students in the Midwest

and the South. American Indian and Alaska Native students were the smallest minority group

in every region, making up about 2.5 percent of students in the West and 1 percent or less of

students in other regions.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 21

Figure 2.2Percentage distribution of students by race and ethnicity, by region:

1993-94

56.7

60.9

82.9

71.0

6.0

25.9

11.9

14.9

26.1

10.9

2.6

10.1

8.9

1.5

1.6

3.7

2.4

0.8

0.9

0.3

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

West

South

Midwest

Northeast

Region

Percentage of Students

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Trends in the proportion of students from minority groups varied by region (figure 2.3 and

appendix A, table 8). The Midwest and Northeast not only had smaller proportions of

minority students than the West and South, but they also showed little change in the

proportion of minority students between 1987-88 and 1993-94. In the West, which had the

largest representation of minorities, the proportion of minority students was nearly 5

percentage points greater in 1993-94 than in 1987-88. In the South, the proportion of

minority students was nearly 4 percentage points greater in 1993-94 than 6 years earlier.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

22 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.3Percentage of minority students, by region: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

43.3

39.1

17.1

29.0

41.7

37.0

18.8

26.0

38.7

35.5

18.6

26.9

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

West

South

Midwest

Northeast

Region

Percentage of Students

1987-88

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Metropolitan Status Differences and Trends

The student populations of public school districts in nonurban areas and in urban areas

outside of a central city were relatively homogenous in 1993-94 compared with central city

school districts. White, non-Hispanics accounted for roughly three-quarters of the students in

nonurban school districts (79 percent) and in districts in urban areas outside central cities (74

percent) (figure 2.4 and appendix A, table 10). In school districts in urban areas inside

central cities, however, white, non-Hispanics represented only 41 percent of the students.

Black students were the largest minority group in central city and nonurban school districts. 

In urban districts outside of a central city, the proportions of Blacks and Hispanics were

comparable. Each accounted for about one-tenth (i.e., 10 percent each) of the students in

such districts. American Indian and Alaska Native students were the smallest minority group

in urban school districts, but were more numerous than Asian and Pacific Islanders in

nonurban districts.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 23

Figure 2.4Percentage distribution of students by race and ethnicity, by metropolitan

status: 1993-94

79.1

73.8

40.7

12.4

11.4

29.5

5.3

10.5

22.9

0.6

3.7

6.3

2.6

0.7

0.6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Nonurban area

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

Metropolitan Status

Percentage of Students

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Note: Details may not sum to 100.0 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

All minority groups, except for American Indians and Alaska Natives, were most heavily

represented in central city school districts. Blacks accounted for 30 percent of students in

central city school districts, compared with one-tenth of the students in other urban and

nonurban school districts. Hispanics represented nearly one-quarter (23 percent) of students

in school districts in urban areas inside central cities, compared with about one-tenth of

students in other urban districts (11 percent) and one-twentieth (5 percent) of students in

nonurban areas. Likewise, the representation of Asian and Pacific Islanders at 6 percent of the

student population in school districts in urban areas inside central cities was greater than in

other urban districts (4 percent) and nonurban areas (1 percent). American Indian and

Alaska Natives, on the other hand, were more heavily represented in nonurban districts,

where they made up 2.6 percent of the nonurban student population as compared with less

than 1 percent of the students in urban school districts.

Shifts in the proportion of minority students within urban and nonurban districts are difficult

to detect between 1990-91 and 1993-94 (figure 2.5 and appendix A, table 8). The proportion

of minority students was constant during this period for both districts in urban areas inside

central cities and districts in nonurban areas. Among districts in urban areas outside central

cities, minority students accounted for 26 percent of students in 1993-94, compared with 24

percent in 1987-88.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

24 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.5Percentage of minority students, by metropolitan status: 1990-91 and

1993-94

20.9

26.2

59.3

19.7

23.6

57.9

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Nonurban area

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

Metropolitan Status

Percentage of Students

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 25

District Size Differences and Trends

The student populations in small school districts with fewer than 1,000 students and mediumsized districts of 1,000 to 9,999 students were less racially and ethnically diverse than large

school districts of 10,000 or more students. White, non-Hispanics accounted for 87 percent of

students in small school districts and 78 percent of students in medium-sized school districts,

as compared with 52 percent of students in large school districts (figure 2.6 and appendix A,

table 10). Black students were the most numerous of minority students in large school

districts, where they accounted for 24 percent of all students and in medium-sized districts,

where they accounted for 11 percent of students. Hispanics were the second largest minority

group in these districts.

Figure 2.6CPercentage distribution of students by race and ethnicity, by district size:

1993-94

52.3

78.1

86.5

23.5

10.9

3.6

17.9

7.7

5.8

5.5

2.1

0.9

0.7

1.2

3.2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

10,000 or more

1,000-9,999

Under 1,000

District Enrollment

Percentage of Students

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Large- and medium-sized school districts experienced a modes trend toward a greater

proportion of minority students in the 6-year period from 1987-88 to 1993-94 (figure 2.7 and

appendix A, table 8). The proportion of minority students in large districts was 48 percent in

1993-94, compared with 46 percent in 1987-88. In medium-sized school districts, minority

students accounted for 22 percent of students in 1993-94, compared with 19 percent in 1987-

88. In small school districts, on the other hand, the proportion of students from minority

groups remained relatively constant at about 13 percent.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

26 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.7CPercentage of minority students, by district size: 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94

47.7

21.9

13.5

47.2

19.2

13.1

45.8

19.2

12.6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

District Enrollment

Percentage of Students

1987-88

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Differences in Trends in Minority Enrollments by Proportion of Minority

Teachers

The student population of school districts with no minority teachers was not diverse in 1993-

94, with white, non-Hispanics accounting for 96 percent of students (figure 2.8 and appendix

A, table 10). Although these districts represented almost half of all public school districts,

they served only 14 percent of all public school students (see chapter 1). The proportion of

white, non-Hispanic students was lower in districts with high proportions of minority

teachers. White, non-Hispanics represented about one-quarter (28 percent) of students in

districts where the teaching staff consisted of 20 percent or more minority teachers, compared

with three-quarters (76 percent) of students in districts in which some, but less than 20

percent of the faculty, were minorities.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 27

Figure 2.8CPercentage distribution of students by race and ethnicity, by proportion of

minority teachers on district staff: 1993-94

27.7

76.3

95.7

38.8

10.3

1.4

26.5

8.9

1.5

5.7

3.4

0.6

1.3

1.1

0.8

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

20% or more

More than 0% and under

20%

None

Proportion Minority Teachers

Percentage of Students

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

In districts employing 20 percent or more minority teachers, black students were the largest

racial and ethnic group, accounting for 39 percent of the student population. Hispanics and

white, non-Hispanics each represented about one-quarter of the student population (27

percent for Hispanics and 28 percent for white non-Hispanics) in these districts. These

districts represented 7 percent of public school districts and served one-quarter of all public

school students (see chapter 1). In other districts employing minority teachers, black and

Hispanic students each represented about 10 percent of the student population, although the

number of blacks was still slightly larger than the number of Hispanics.

Districts that employed minority teachers showed a trend between 1987-88 and 1993-94

toward greater proportions of minority students (figure 2.9 and appendix A, table 8). In

districts where 20 percent or more of the faculty were minority, the proportion of students

from minority groups was 72 percent in 1993-94, compared with 65 percent in 1987-88. And,

in districts that employed minority teachers as a lower proportion of the faculty, minority

students represented 24 percent of all students in 1993-94, compared with 20 percent of

students in 1987-88. In districts that employed no minority teachers, minority students

represented a relatively constant 4 percent of the student population from 1987-88 to 1993-

94.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

28 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.9Percentage of minority students, by proportion of minority teachers on

district staff: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

72.3

23.7

4.3

70.1

21.3

4.4

65.4

20.3

3.6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

20% or more

More than 0% to under 20%

None

Percent Minority Teachers

Percentage of Students

1987-88

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Minority Teachers

In contrast to the gradual growth in the proportion of students from minority groups, the

proportion of teachers from minority groups was slightly smaller in 1993-94 compared with

1987-88 and 1990-91. Table 2.2 shows that minority teachers represented 13.0 percent of the

teaching staff in 1993-94, compared with 13.6 percent in 1987-88 and 1990-91.

Table 2.2Percentage of minority teachers, by school year: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Year Percent

1987-88 13.6

1990-91 13.6

1993-94 13.0

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Black teachers were the largest group of minority teachers in public schools in 1993-94,

representing 8 percent of the teaching staff (figure 2.10 and appendix A, table 9). Hispanics

were the second largest group at 3 percent. Asian and Pacific Islanders accounted for only 1
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 29

percent of public school teachers; American Indian and Alaska Natives, less than 1 percent of

public school teachers.

Figure 2.10Percentage distribution of teachers, by race and ethnicity: 1993-94

87.0

8.2

3.4

1.0

0.3

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

White

Black

Hispanic

Asian/Pacific Islander

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Race and Ethnicity

Percentage of Teachers

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Regional Differences and Trends

As with the student population, teaching staffs were least diverse in the Midwest, where 95

percent of public school teachers in 1993-94 were white, non-Hispanic (figure 2.11 and

appendix A, table 9). However, at least four-fifths of teachers in every region were white, nonHispanics. The South had the lowest proportion at 81 percent.

Paralleling the situation among students, blacks were the largest minority group of teachers in

every region in 1993-94, except for the West where Hispanics and Asian and Pacific Islanders

were more numerous. Blacks made up 14 percent of the teachers in the South, but only 3

percent in the West. 
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

30 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.11Percentage distribution of teachers by race and ethnicity, by region:

1993-94

85.4

80.9

94.5

90.8

3.1

14.3

4.5

5.9

6.5

4.2

0.6

2.6

4.1

0.3

0.2

0.6

0.9

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

West

South

Midwest

Northeast

Region

Percentage of Teachers

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Hispanics were the largest minority group in the West, where they represented about 7

percent of teachers. However, they made up less than 1 percent of teachers in the Midwest. 

Asian and Pacific Islanders were the second largest minority group in the West, where they

comprised 4 percent of teachers. American Indian and Alaska Native teachers comprised less

than 1 percent of teachers in every region.

Slightly smaller proportions of teachers from minority groups were observed in 1993-94

compared with 1987-88 in the Midwest and in the South (figure 2.12 and appendix A,

table 7). In the Midwest, the proportion of minority teachers was 9 percent in 1987-88,

compared with 6 percent in 1993-94. In the South, the proportion of minority teachers was

21 percent in 1987-88 as compared with 19 percent in 1993-94. The percentages of teachers

from minority groups in the Northeast and West in 1987-88 as compared with 1993-94 were

about the same.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 31

Figure 2.12Percentage of minority teachers, by region: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

14.7

19.1

5.5

9.2

16.0

19.4

8.5

8.0

13.9

20.5

8.5

9.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

West

South

Midwest

Northeast

Region

Percentage of Teachers

1987-88

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Metropolitan Status Differences and Trends

Teachers in nonurban districts and in districts in urban areas outside central cities were not

very diverse in 1993-94, compared with teachers in school districts within central cities. Over

90 percent of the faculty of nonurban school districts and of school districts in urban areas

outside central cities were white, non-Hispanic (figure 2.13 and appendix A, table 9). In

central city school districts, white, non-Hispanics represented 73 percent of teachers. Black

teachers were the largest minority group within each metropolitan status category of school

districts. Hispanic teachers represented the second largest minority group within each

metropolitan status category. American Indian and Alaska Native teachers were the smallest

minority group in urban school districts, whereas Asian and Pacific Islanders constituted the

fewest teachers of any minority group in nonurban districts.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

32 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.13Percentage distribution of teachers by race and ethnicity, by metropolitan

status: 1993-94

92.2

91.0

73.2

5.6

5.3

16.9

1.4

2.7

7.0

0.2

0.7

2.7

0.6

0.3

0.3

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Nonurban area

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

Metropolitan Status

Percentage of Teachers

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

All groups of minority teachers, except for American Indians and Alaska Natives, were more

heavily represented on the faculty of central city school districts than in districts with other

metropolitan statuses. As a proportion of the faculty, Blacks accounted for 17 percent of the

teachers in districts in urban areas inside central cities. This was about three times as great as

the 5 to 6 percent that they represented on the faculty of other urban and nonurban districts.

Similarly, Hispanics represented 7 percent of central city teachers, compared with 3 percent or

less in other districts. Asians accounted for less than 3 percent of teachers in central city

school districts, and less than 1 percent in other districts. American Indian and Alaska

Native teachers constituted less than 1 percent of the faculty, regardless of the metropolitan

status of the district.

The proportion of minority teachers in urban districts remained constant between 1990-91

and 1993-94 at 27 percent for districts in urban areas inside central cities and 9 percent for

districts in urban areas outside central cities (figure 2.14 and appendix A, table 7). In districts

in nonurban areas, the proportion of minority teachers was 8 percent in 1993-94 compared

with 9 percent in 1990-91.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 33

Figure 2.14Percentage of minority teachers, by metropolitan status: 1990-91 and

1993-94

7.8

9.0

26.8

8.8

8.7

27.3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Nonurban area

Urban-outside central city

Urban-inside central city

Metropolitan Status

Percentage of Teachers

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

District Size Differences and Trends

The faculty in small districts (i.e., fewer than 1,000 students) and medium-sized districts (i.e.,

1,000 to 9,999 students) were less racially and ethnically diverse than the faculty in large

school districts of 10,000 or more students (figure 2.15 and appendix A, table 9). This is

similar to the situation for students. Minorities accounted for 4 percent of teachers in small

school districts (i.e., fewer than 1,000 students) and 7 percent of teachers in medium-sized

school districts (i.e., 1,000 to 9,999 students), compared with 21 percent of teachers in large

school districts of 10,000 or more students.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

34 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.15Percentage distribution of teachers by race and ethnicity, by district size:

1993-94

78.8

92.7

96.5

13.4

4.8

1.2

5.6

1.8

1.1

1.9

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.3

1.0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

10,000 or more

1,000-9,999

Under 1,000

District Enrollment

Percentage of Teachers

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, School and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Black teachers were the predominant minority group on the faculty of large and medium-sized

school districts, where they accounted for 13 percent and 5 percent of teachers, respectively.

Hispanics were the second largest minority group of teachers in these districts, representing 6

percent of teachers in large districts and 2 percent in medium-sized districts. Meanwhile, the

number of Black, Hispanic, and American Indian or Alaska Native teachers was about equal

across the smaller districts that enrolled fewer than 1,000 students. Each of these three

minority groups accounted for about 1 percent of teachers in small school districts. The

proportions of minorities on the teaching staff of small and medium-sized districts in 1993-94

compared with 1987-88 was about the same whereas the proportion of minorities on the

teaching staff of large school districts was slightly smaller in 1993-94 compared with previous

years (figure 2.16 and appendix A, table 7). Although the representation of minorities in the

student population of large school districts appeared to be on the rise, the representation of

minorities on the faculty of large school districts was diminishing.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 35

Figure 2.16Percentage of minority teachers, by district size: 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94

21.2

7.3

3.5

22.7

7.5

4.1

22.6

8.3

4.2

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

District Enrollment

Percentage of Teachers

1987-88

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Differences and Trends by Proportion of Minority Students

Although a larger proportion of the faculty tended to be from minority groups in districts

where minorities accounted for a larger proportion of student enrollment, white, nonHispanic teachers were the predominant racial-ethnic group regardless of the representation of

minorities in the student population. Among school districts in which 90 percent or more of

the students were white, the faculty was almost exclusively white, non-Hispanic (99 percent)

in 1993-94. Among school districts with 10 to less than 50 percent minority enrollment, 9

out of 10 teachers (91 percent) were white, non-Hispanic (figure 2.17 and appendix A,

table 9). In school districts in which minority students outnumbered white, non-Hispanic

students, two-thirds (66 percent) of teachers were still of white, non-Hispanic origin. A

similar pattern was found in every region of the country (appendix A, table 9).

Regardless of the percentage of minority students in a district, Black teachers represented the

largest minority faculty group, followed by Hispanics (figure 2.17). Black teachers made up 21

percent, Hispanic teachers 10 percent, and Asian and Pacific Islanders 3 percent of the faculty

in school districts where half or more of the students were from minority groups. Among

districts in which the minorities represented between 10 and less than 50 percent of students,

the representation of Black and Hispanic teachers dropped to 7 percent and 2 percent,

respectively. Asian and Pacific Islanders represented less than 1 percent of teachers in such

school districts. American Indian and Alaska Native teachers constituted less than 1 percent

of the teachers regardless of the category of percentage of minority students.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

36 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 2.17Percentage distribution of teachers by race and ethnicity, by proportion of

minority students in the district: 1993-94

66.2

90.5

98.9

20.5

6.7

0.5

9.9

1.9

0.3

2.8

0.6

0.2

0.6

0.4

0.1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

50% or more

10% to under 50%

Under 10%

Proportion Minority Students

Percentage of Teachers

Am. Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

The trend between 1987-88 and 1993-94 among districts with fewer than 50 percent minority

students was toward a slightly lower percentage of minorities on the teaching staff (figure 2.18

and appendix A, table 7). Among districts with fewer than 10 percent minority students, the

proportion of minority teachers was 2 percent in 1987-88, compared with 1 percent in 1993-

94. Among districts with 10 to 50 percent minority student enrollment, the representation of

minorities on the faculty was about 10 percent in 1993-94, compared with 12 percent in 1987-

88. Meanwhile, the representation of minorities on the faculty of districts with 50 percent or

more minority student enrollment remained relatively constant.
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 37

Figure 2.18Percentage of minority teachers, by proportion of minority students in

district: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

33.8

9.5

1.1

36.8

10.3

1.5

34.4

11.6

2.1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

50% or more

10% to under 50%

Under 10%

Proportion Minority Students

Percentage of Teachers

1987-88

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Racial and Ethnic Composition of School Districts

38 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94
Newly Hired Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 39

Chapter 3

Newly Hired Teachers

Overview

Seven-eighths (88 percent) of the school districts in the country reported hiring teachers in

the 1993-94 school year who were not employed in the district as teachers in the previous

year. These newly hired teachers included newly prepared teachers (i.e., first-year teachers

who were attending college or earning their highest degree in the previous year), delayed

entrants (e.g., first-year teachers who had engaged in other activities in the year(s)

subsequent to earning their highest degrees), transfers (e.g., teachers who were employed as

teachers in other states or in private schools in the previous year), and re-entrants (e.g.,

former teachers who were not teaching elementary or secondary school in the past year).7 As

a result there were approximately 200,000 newly hired full-time equivalent (FTE) teachers in

1993-94. Accordingly, 8 percent of the FTE public school teachers in the country were

either teaching in districts in which they had not taught in the previous year or were

teaching for the first time (appendix A, table 11).

Extent of New Hires in Public School Districts

Hiring rates were associated with the region of the country in which a district was located. 

Regionally, the percentages of newly hired teachers were highest for districts in the South

(10 percent) followed by districts in the West (9 percent), and lowest for districts in the

Northeast (6 percent) (figure 3.1). In eight states, at least 10 percent of the FTE teaching

staff was newly hired teachers (appendix A, table 49). Each of these states were located in

regions in the South (Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina) or West (Arizona, Hawaii,

Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas) of the country.

Newly hired teachers were most prevalent in urban areas inside central cities and other urban

districts of the South, where they constituted 10 percent of the FTE teaching staff (appendix

A, table 11). In contrast, only 4 percent of teachers in central city school districts in the

Northeast were newly hired. Unlike the situation in the South, urban areas inside central

city school districts overall had a slightly lower percentage of newly hired teachers compared

with other urban or nonurban districts (figure 3.1).

 

7

In 1990-91, about one-third (34 percent) of the newly hired teachers were newly prepared; 31

percent were re-entrants; 19 percent were delayed entrants; and 16 percent were transfers. (Rollefson

1995).
Newly Hired Teachers

40 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 3.1Percentage of full-time equivalent teaching staff that consists of newly

hired teachers, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

8.7

7.5

8.2

6.7

8.5

8.3

6.9

8.0

8.2

7.3

8.1

8.1

5.7

6.5

9.6

8.7

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage Who are Newly Hired Teachers

Region Metro Status Minority Teachers Minority Students District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Certification of Newly Hired Teachers

Standard State Certification

Although all states have standards for teacher certification, state certification is not a

requirement for employment as a teacher. In 1993-94, 87 percent of newly hired teachers

possessed regular or standard state certification in their field of assignment8 (appendix A,

table 12). 

The proportions of new teachers with standard state certification in their field of assignment

were higher for districts in the Midwest (96 percent) and Northeast (94 percent), compared

with districts in the South (82 percent) and West (81 percent) (figure 3.2). In several states,

nearly all (98 percent or more) of the newly hired teachers were fully certified in their field of

assignment (appendix A, table 50). Although many of these states were in the Midwest and

 

8

 On the Schools and Staffing Survey 1993-94 School Year Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire for Public School Districts (LEAs), respondents were instructed that teachers “who

have completed all necessary course work and practice teaching, and are eligible for full certification

upon completion of a probationary period” should be counted as teachers possessing regular or

standard state certification in their assigned field. The terms “assigned field” and “fields of

assignment” are used in the questionnaire but are not defined.
Newly Hired Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 41

Northeast (e.g., New York, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont), several states in the

West also reported these high levels of certification (Alaska, Montana, Nevada, and

Washington). 

Figure 3.2Percentage of newly hired teachers (full-time equivalent) with standard

state certification in assignment field, by selected district characteristics:

1993-94

90.9

90.2

81.8

93.9

88.8

75.0

94.5

90.0

73.7

79.0

88.4

89.2

94.4

95.5

82.4

81.4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage of Newly Hired FTE Teachers

Region Metro

Status

Minority

Teachers

Minority

Students

District

Size

S

O

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Proportionally fewer of the newly hired teachers in districts in urban areas inside central

cities were certified in their field of assignment than those hired in other public school

districts. In these central city school districts, 79 percent of the new teachers were certified

in their field of assignment, compared with 88 percent in other urban districts and 89 percent

in nonurban districts (figure 3.2).

The proportions of new hires with standard certification in their field of assignment were the

lowest in large districts with an enrollment of 10,000 or more students. In these districts, 82

percent of newly hired teachers were fully certified in their field of assignment, compared

with 90 percent of these teachers in districts with less than 1,000 students and 91 percent of

these teachers in districts serving 1,000 to 9,999 students.

The percentage of newly hired teachers certified in their field of assignment was lowest in

districts with the highest proportions of minority students, and was highest in districts with

the lowest proportions of minority students. In predominantly white districts (i.e., with less

than 10 percent minority enrollment), 94 percent of newly hired teachers were fully certified

in their field of assignment, compared with only three-quarters of the teachers in districts

where minorities constituted one-half or more of the student population. Similarly, the

proportion of newly hired teachers with standard certification in their field of assignment was
Newly Hired Teachers

42 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

highest in districts that employed only white teachers (95 percent) and was lower in districts

with relatively more minority teachers. In districts where the teaching staff was comprised of

20 percent or more minority teachers, about three-quarters (74 percent) of the newly hired

teachers were fully certified in their field of assignment.

Regional differences in proportions of newly hired teachers with certification in their field of

assignment were particularly pronounced in districts in urban areas inside central cities

(figure 3.3). The proportions certified in their field of assignment in central city districts of

the Midwest and Northeast were about 95 percent and 92 percent, respectively, compared

with three-quarters (76 percent) of newly hired teachers in central city districts in the South

and only two-thirds (67 percent) of newly hired teachers employed by districts in urban areas

inside central cities in the West.

Figure 3.3Percentage of newly hired teachers (full-time equivalent) with standard

state certification in assignment field in districts in urban areas inside

central cities, by region: 1993-94

91.7

95.2

76.0

67.0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage of Newly Hired FTE Teachers

Region

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Emergency Certification

In lieu of regular or standard state certification, many newly hired teachers apply for and are

granted emergency certificates. These emergency certificates are intended as short term

measures for people with insufficient preparation for their teaching assignment. Grantees are

required to complete a certification program in order to continue teaching in their

assignment field. For example, in California, a teacher undergoing the additional training

necessary for certification as a special educator is often fully certified in other teaching areas.
Newly Hired Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 43

This person may be granted an emergency certificate or a waiver while taking additional

course work required for employment as a special education teacher (Doorlag et al. 1994).

The practice of granting emergency certifications is fairly common. New teachers with

emergency certifications were found in over one-fifth of the nation’s school districts in 1993-

94 (appendix A, table 12). In districts that employed this practice, over one-sixth (17

percent) of newly hired teachers had emergency certifications. Among all newly hired

teachers, about 8 percent were granted emergency certification. In other words, of the 14

percent of the nation’s newly hired teachers who lacked regular or standard state certification

in their field of assignment in 1993-94, over half (56 percent) had emergency certification. 

The proportions of newly hired teachers with emergency certification were several times

greater in the South (10 percent) and West (12 percent) than in the Northeast (2 percent)

and Midwest (3 percent) (figure 3.4). About one-fifth of newly hired teachers in California

and Louisiana were granted emergency certification (appendix A, table 50).

The proportion of newly hired teachers with emergency certification was greater in districts

in urban areas inside central cities (11 percent) than in other districts (6 to 7 percent) (figure

3.4). However, there was considerable regional variation among central city districts with

respect to the proportions of newly hired teachers with emergency certification. One-fifth of

the newly hired teachers in central city school districts in the West had emergency

certification, compared with one-tenth of such teachers in central city school districts in the

South, 4 percent of newly hired teachers in central city school districts in the Midwest and 3

percent in the Northeast (appendix A, table 12).
Newly Hired Teachers

44 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 3.4Percentage of newly hired full-time equivalent teachers with emergency

certification, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

6.3

6.1

9.3

2.9

6.4

14.3

3.2

5.7

14.5

10.5

6.4

7.2

2.2

2.7

9.5

11.7

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage of Newly Hired FTE Teachers

Region Metro Status Minority Teachers Minority Students District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

In districts where the student enrollment was predominantly minority, one in seven (14

percent) newly hired teachers lacked standard state certification for their position but had

emergency certification (figure 3.4). This proportion was greater than in districts that were

between 10 and 50 percent minority (6 percent), which, in turn, was greater than in districts

that were less than 10 percent minority (3 percent). The same pattern characterized districts

with the highest proportions of minority teachers, moderate proportions, and no minority

teachers. In the districts with the highest proportions of minority teachers, over one in seven

(15 percent) of the newly hired teachers had only emergency certification; in districts that

had no minority teachers, only 3 percent of the newly hired teachers held emergency

certification.

Finally, the proportion of new teachers with emergency certification was higher in school

districts with at least 10,000 students (9 percent) than in districts of smaller sizes (about 6

percent).

Newly Hired Teachers Lacking Emergency Certification or Standard State

Certification in Their Field of Assignment

In 1993-94, 6 percent of the newly hired public school teachers in the country were neither

certified in their fields of assignment, nor did they have emergency certification (appendix A,

table 12). The largest percentages of newly hired teachers lacking both of these types of

certification were in districts in the South (8 percent) and West (7 percent). Fewer than 2

percent of newly hired teachers in the Midwest, compared with about 8 percent of newly

hired teachers in the South, lacked regular (standard) and emergency certification for
Newly Hired Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 45

teaching (figure 3.5). The proportion of newly hired teachers in districts in urban areas

inside central cities (11 percent) that lacked either form of certification was at least twice

that of newly hired teachers in other urban (5 percent) and nonurban (4 percent) districts. 

However, teachers lacking either form of certification could possess alternate route

certifications or be certified in fields other than their fields of assignment.9

New teachers lacking both state certification in their field of assignment and emergency

certification were more prevalent in districts with a predominantly minority student

population and in districts where more than 20 percent of the teachers were members of

minority groups. About one quarter of the newly hired teachers in these districts had only

emergency certification or lacked both standard and emergency certification (figure 3.5 and

appendix A, table 12).

Figure 3.5Certification status of newly hired teachers (full-time equivalent) lacking

standard state certification in assignment field, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

6.3

6.1

9.3

2.9

6.4

14.3

3.2

5.7

14.5

10.5

6.4

7.2

2.2

2.7

9.5

11.7

2.8

3.7

8.9

3.2

4.8

10.7

2.3

4.4

11.8

10.5

5.2

3.6

3.4

1.8

6.8

8.1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage of Newly Hired Teachers

Region Metro Status Minority Teachers Minority Students District Size

% lacking standard

state and emergency 

certification

% with emergency 

certification

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

 

9

 The numbers of teachers with alternate certifications and the numbers of teachers with

certifications outside of their fields of assignment could not be estimated from Schools and Staffing

Survey 1993-94 Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire for Public School Districts (LEAs) since this

instrument did not include any items asking about the numbers of these kinds of newly hired

teachers.
Newly Hired Teachers

46 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

District Criteria for Screening Applicants for Teaching

Districts use various criteria in considering applicants for teaching positions. These include

the following: (a) full standard state certification in the field to be taught, (b) at least

emergency or temporary state certification or endorsement in the field to be taught, (c)

graduation from a state-approved teacher education program, (d) a college major or minor in

the field to be taught, (e) passage of a STATE test of basic skills, (f) passage of a STATE test

of subject knowledge, (g) passage of a local DISTRICT test of basic skills or subject

knowledge, (h) passage of the National Teachers Exam–Core battery, and (i) passage of the

National Teachers ExaminationProfessional Specialty Area. In 1993-94, the most

common criterion that districts reported requiring of teaching applicants was standard state

certification (appendix A, table 13). Five-sixths (83 percent) of the country’s school districts

had this requirement. Of the remaining school districts, nearly all used but did not require

state certification in considering teaching applicants. Almost all districts (99.7 percent)

reported that they at least used state certification as a criterion in considering teaching

applicants. 

It should be noted that requiring applicants to meet a specific criterion (such as possession of

standard state certification for the field to be taught) does not mean that all successful

applicants meet this criterion. In districts requiring that teaching applicants possess standard

state certification for the field to be taught, 7 percent of the newly hired teachers lacked this

qualification. Nonetheless, the proportions of fully certified new teachers were highest in

districts with a state certification employment requirement. Districts that used but did not

require state certification for the field to be taught reported that 16 percent of their newly

hired teachers lacked state certification for the field to be taught; districts that did not use

this criterion reported 21 percent. 

School districts in the Northeast, compared with those in the South and the West, were

most likely to have a standard certification requirement (figure 3.6). About 93 percent of

districts in the Northeast required standard certification in the field to be taught of teaching

applicants, in contrast to 70 percent of school districts in the South and 80 percent in the

West.
Newly Hired Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 47

Figure 3.6Percentage of school districts requiring standard state certification in field

to be taught in considering applicants for teaching positions, by selected

district characteristics: 1993-94

83.8

83.6

74.5

87.3

77.2

76.4

86.0

81.9

73.0

76.5

86.1

81.7

93.0

87.5

70.1

79.8

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage of School Districts

Region Metro

Status

Minority

Teachers

Minority

Students

District

Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-84 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Districts in urban areas inside central cities (77 percent) were less likely than other urban (86

percent) and nonurban (82 percent) districts to require standard teacher certification.

However, this varies by region of the country. Comparable proportions of districts serving

central cities, districts in urban areas outside central cities, and districts in nonurban areas in

the South (74 percent)and in the Midwest (89 percent) required that standard certification

in the field be used as a criterion in considering teaching applicants (appendix A, table 13). 

However, central city districts in the Northeast were less likely than nonurban districts in the

Northeast to mandate standard teacher certification in the field to be taught by applicants

(86 percent in central city districts versus 94 percent in nonurban districts).

Districts with 10,000 or more students (75 percent) were less likely than districts of other

sizes (about 84 percent) to require standard teacher certification in the field to be taught by

applicants (figure 3.6). Similarly, districts with higher proportions of minority students (i.e.,

from 10 percent to less than 50 percent) were less likely to have this requirement than

districts with lower proportions of minority students. About three-quarters (77 percent) of

the districts with 10 percent to less than 50 percent minority students and about threequarters (76 percent) of the districts whose enrollment was predominantly minority (i.e., 50

percent or more) required standard certification in the field of assignment to be considered in

evaluating teaching applicants, compared with about seven-eighths (87 percent) of the

districts where minorities made up less than 10 percent of the student body. Districts in

which minorities comprised at least 20 percent of the teaching staff were also less likely to

have this requirement than districts employing proportionately fewer minority teachers.

About three-quarters (73 percent of these districts required consideration of standard
Newly Hired Teachers

48 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

certification in the field of assignment in evaluating teaching applicants compared with 82

percent of the districts that employed some, but proportionately few minority teachers and 86

percent of the districts that did not employ any minority teachers.

School districts reported that other factors were frequently required of teaching applicants

(figure 3.7). About two-thirds of the districts required a college major or minor in the field

to be taught (72 percent), emergency or temporary certification for the field to be taught (67

percent), or graduation from a state-approved teacher education program (67 percent). 

About half (51 percent) of the districts required passage of either state or district tests of basic

skills or subject knowledge; less than one-third (31 percent) required passage of either the

core battery or the professional specialty area of the National Teachers Examination (NTE).

Figure 3.7Percentage of school districts with various criteria required for

considering applicants for teaching positions: 1993-94

83.3

71.9

67.4

66.9

51.2

30.7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Full standard state certification

in field

College major or minor in field

Emergency or temporary

certification

Teacher education program

graduate

District or state test

National Teachers Exam

Percentage of School Districts

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

There were regional differences in the specification of testing requirements. Districts in the

Northeast were more likely than other districts to require that teaching applicants pass some

part of the NTE (appendix A, table 13). Half (50 percent) of the districts in the Northeast

required that applicants pass the NTE core battery or professional specialty area in order to be

considered for teaching positions, in contrast to three-eighths (38 percent) of the districts in

the South, about one-quarter (29 percent) of the districts in the West, and one-sixth (17

percent) of the districts in the Midwest. Conversely, the districts in the Northeast (41

percent) were less likely than districts in the South (69 percent) or West (58 percent) to

require that teaching applicants pass a state or district test in order to be considered for a

teaching position.
Newly Hired Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 49

Districts in regions with the lowest proportions of fully certified, newly hired teachers were

more likely than other districts to require that passage of a state or district test of basic skills

or subject knowledge be used in considering teaching applicants. Over two-thirds (69

percent) of the districts in the South and 58 percent of the districts in the West required

passage of these tests.
Newly Hired Teachers

50 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 51

Chapter 4

Teacher Demand and District Efforts to

Recruit and Retain Teachers

Overview

Fears of an impending teacher shortage were raised by several well-publicized reports in the

early 1980s. 10 These fears were an underlying motivation for a large-scale national survey to

permit monitoring of teacher supply and demand. The SASS Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire (TDS) collected information about a variety of teacher supply and

demand indicators, such as the numbers and distribution of newly hired teachers and their

qualifications; teacher hiring requirements (all discussed in chapter 3); the number and

distribution of teacher vacancies that were unable to be filled by permanent teachers; the

number and percentage of teaching positions abolished, withdrawn, or filled by substitute

teachers because of budget cuts; the number of teachers laid off; and district efforts to recruit

and retain teachers. These data provide information about the prevalence and distribution of

teacher supply and demand imbalances and how they have changed over time.

In spite of projections of increasing demand for teachers and decreasing supply of teachers,

teacher shortages did not manifest themselves as predicted. School districts have been very

successful in filling their teacher vacancies. Very few unfilled teaching positions were

reported in either 1987-88, 1990-91, or 1993-94: the number of approved FTE teaching

positions that were not filled by permanent teachers declined from 22,978 in 1987-88 (1.0

percent of the total number of FTE teaching positions) to 14,287 in 1990-91 (0.6 percent of

the FTE teaching positions) to 8,691 in 1993-94 (0.3 percent of the FTE teaching positions)

(appendix A, table 17). This was not a reflection of reduced demand for teachers. In 1993-

94, almost no approved teaching positions (5,372, or 0.2 percent) were abolished,

withdrawn, or filled by substitute teachers because of budget cuts; very few teachers (11,910,

or 0.5 percent) were laid off because of budget limitations, declining enrollments, or course

elimination (appendix A, tables 18 and 19). Furthermore, the number of teachers employed

in the nation’s public elementary and secondary schools increased from 2,511,304 in 1987-88

to 2,565,862 in 1990-91 to 2,599,569 in 1993-94 (appendix A, table 7). 

Even though the predicted shortages in the quantity of teachers have not occurred, many

teachers are assigned to teach classes for which they lack a college major or minor. 11 For

example, in 1990-91, over half (56 percent) of the students enrolled in physical science

 

10 National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983); Darling-Hammond (1984).

11 Ingersoll (1996b).
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

52 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

courses in grades 7 to 12 were taught by teachers who lacked at least a college minor in the

field; over half in history or world civilization courses were taught by teachers lacking at least

a minor in history. This mismatch is worse in certain kinds of school districts: in highpoverty districts, nearly three-quarters (71 percent) of secondary school students in physical

science classes were taught by a teacher lacking at least a minor in the field; in low-poverty

districts, 50 percent were taught by teachers lacking this educational background. 12

In 1993-94, 4,357 districts offered pay incentives (i.e., cash bonuses, salary step increases, or

other salary increases) and/or provided free training to hire or retain teachers to teach in

particular content areas or to teach in less desirable locations. From a microeconomic

perspective, these pay incentives and free training are indicators that the district feels that

special measures need to be undertaken to deal with existing or potential teacher shortages in

these content areas or locations.

From a macroeconomic perspective, small levels of shortages will invariably exist in broad

and geographically diverse labor markets. Raising salaries to levels where shortages would be

totally eliminated would be inefficient, creating teacher surpluses in other labor markets. 

From this perspective, the goal of pay incentives is not to eliminate all teacher shortages but

to create an efficient labor market that matches supply and demand across labor markets

without producing surplus. The large number of districts offering these incentive programs

can be seen as an indication that the compensation system is responding efficiently to solve

the problem of possible shortages in some districts without creating surpluses in others.

Fields of Shortage

In 1993-94, some districts offered pay incentives and/or free staff training to deal with current

or anticipated teacher shortages in specific fields. The largest districts (i.e., those serving at

least 10,000 students) were more likely to take each of these actions than were districts of

other sizes (table 4.1 and appendix A, table 22). In 1993-94, 20 percent of the largest

districts offered pay incentives, and 35 percent offered free training to deal with teacher

shortages. Only 11 percent of districts enrolling 1,000 to 9,999 students and 9 percent of

districts enrolling fewer than 1,000 students offered pay incentives for this purpose; only 19

percent of districts enrolling 1,000 to 9,999 students and 18 percent of the smaller districts

offered free training for this purpose. Central city school districts were much more likely to

offer either of these pay incentives than districts located elsewhere. For example, 20 percent

of the nation’s central city districts offered any of these pay incentives, in contrast to about

10 percent of the other districts; 29 percent offered free training, in contrast to 18 percent of

the districts in urban areas outside central cities and 20 percent of the nonurban districts.

 

12 Ingersoll (1996a).
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 53

Table 4.1Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain

teachers or offering free training to prepare staff members to teach in

fields of shortage, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

District

Characteristic Pay Incentives Free Training

TOTAL 10.2 19.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 8.9 17.5

 1,000 to 9,999 10.7 19.1

 10,000 or more 19.9 34.5

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 7.3 15.0

 10% to under 50% 11.7 20.7

 50% or more 23.1 37.3

Minority Teachers

 None 7.6 14.4

 More than 0% to under 20% 11.7 21.2

 20% or more 19.1 38.0

Metro Status

 Urban -inside central city 20.1 28.5

 Urban -outside central city 9.9 17.5

 Nonurban area 9.8 19.5

Region

 Northeast 6.0 13.5

 Midwest 8.3 13.1

 South 16.8 26.6

 West 11.0 27.7

(a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

There was also a strong relationship between the racial composition of a district’s student

population and the presence of shortage field incentives. Nearly one-quarter (23 percent) of

school districts which were at least 50 percent minority provided pay incentives for this

purpose (appendix A, table 22). About one-eighth (12 percent) of the districts with a

student minority composition ranging from 10 percent to under 50 percent and just 7 percent

of the districts with fewer than 10 percent minority students provided pay incentives for this

purpose. Similarly, 37 percent of the predominantly minority districts offered free training

for this purpose, in contrast with 21 percent of the districts whose student population ranged

from 10 percent to under 50 percent minority and 15 percent of the districts with fewer than

10 percent minority students (table 4.1).

If prevalence of pay incentives is an indicator of shortage magnitude, the field in which

shortages are greatest is special education (appendix A, table 23). Pay incentive and free

training strategies to deal with special education teacher shortages were most prevalent in the

largest (i.e., with enrollments of at least 10,000 students) districts. The largest districts were
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

54 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

more likely to use pay incentives (13 percent) and free training (19 percent) to deal with

actual or anticipated special education teacher shortages than other districts (5 to 7 percent

offering pay incentives; 12 percent offering free training) (table 4.2). Similarly, districts with

the highest proportions (20 percent or more) of minority teachers were more likely to offer

free training (22 percent) to recruit or retain special education teachers than other districts

(10 to 13 percent). 

Similarly, districts in urban areas inside central cities were more likely to use pay incentives

(16 percent) to deal with actual or anticipated special education teacher shortages than other

districts (6 percent). Central city school districts were also more likely to offer free special

education teacher training (14 percent) than districts in urban areas outside central cities (9

percent).

In 1993-94, at least 3 percent of the nation’s school districts used pay incentives and at least

10 percent offered free training to deal with teacher shortages in math and ESL or bilingual

education instruction. The largest districts, the districts with the highest concentrations of

minority students and teachers, districts in urban areas inside central cities, and districts in

the West and South were most likely to provide free training or pay incentives to deal with

ESL/bilingual teacher shortage strategies. This may reflect their higher concentrations of

Limited English Proficient/Non-English Proficient (LEP/NEP) students.

Efforts to prevent and reduce mathematics teacher shortages (i.e., through pay incentives and

free training) were comparably prevalent in districts of different sizes. Pay incentives were

offered in 4 percent of the smallest districts (under 1,000 students) and in 2 to 3 percent of

the other districts; free math training was offered in 12 percent of the largest and smallest

districts and in 11 percent of the districts serving between 1,000 and 9,999 students. Pay

incentives for this purpose were more likely to be employed by school districts in the South

(7 percent) than districts in other regions (ranging from 2 to 3 percent).
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 55

Table 4.2Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain

teachers to teach in fields of shortage or offering free training to prepare

staff members to teach in fields of shortage by subject matter (special

education, math, and ESL or bilingual education), by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

Pay Incentives Free Training

ESL or ESL or

District Special Bilingual Special Bilingual

Characteristic Education Math Education Education Math Education

TOTAL 6.2 3.2 3.2 12.2 11.3 10.1

District Size

 Under 1,000 5.0 4.0 1.6 12.0 11.7 8.9

 1,000 to 9,999 6.8 2.3 4.3 11.6 10.7 10.2

 10,000 or more 12.8 2.8 9.9 18.6 12.2 23.1

Minority Students

 Under 10% 4.5 2.2 1.0 10.5 10.1 6.1

 10% to under 50% 7.1 3.8 4.3 13.6 11.0 12.6

 50% or more 13.0 7.5 12.4 17.4 18.7 26.4

Minority Teachers

 None 4.2 3.1 1.2 10.2 9.5 6.1

 More than 0% to under 20% 7.4 3.2 4.3 12.7 11.9 13.0

 20% or more 11.7 3.9 10.0 22.4 19.4 19.7

Metro Status

 Urban -inside central city 16.2 3.3 11.0 14.3 7.7 20.3

 Urban -outside central city 5.8 2.4 3.8 8.9 9.3 10.6

 Nonurban area 5.7 3.8 2.2 14.4 12.9 9.1

Region

 Northeast 3.7 1.8 0.9 9.2 9.3 5.9

 Midwest 4.8 2.5 1.4 8.5 8.7 5.4

 South 10.6 7.0 5.5 19.3 15.2 13.4

 West 6.3 1.8 6.4 14.2 13.9 20.1

(a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Differences and Trends in the Prevalence of Pay Incentives

From 1987-88 to 1993-94, the proportions of school districts that used pay incentives to

recruit or retain teachers to teach in less desirable locations or in fields of shortage nearly

doubled, from 8 percent to 15 percent (appendix A, table 20). The prevalence of these

practices increased in school districts regardless of their size, proportion of minority students,

proportion of minority teachers, or metropolitan status (appendix A, table 20 and figure 4.1).

These practices were more prevalent in 1993-94 than in 1987-88 in districts in the Midwest,

South, and West.
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

56 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 4.1Percentage of districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in less desirable locations or in shortage fields, by selected district

characteristics: 1987-88 and 1993-94

8.4

6.1

10.0

6.6

7.8

10.9

5.8

6.6

11.4

6.2

14.7

13.7

22.8

10.5

18.2

28.0

8.4

11.6

25.5

14.8

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

Region

Percentage of Districts

1987-88

1993-94

Minority Students District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1987-88 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).

In districts in the Northeast, their prevalence in 1993-94 (8 percent) was comparable to their

prevalence in 1987-88 (6 percent). In 1993-94, districts in the South were more likely to use

pay incentives for teacher recruitment and retention purposes than districts in other regions. 

About one-quarter (26 percent) of districts in the South offered these incentives, compared

with 15 percent of districts in the West, 12 percent of districts in the Midwest, and 8 percent

of districts in the Northeast. In Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire, 2 percent or fewer of

school districts offered these kinds of teacher incentives (appendix A, table 52).

Pay incentives are a strategy that can be used to deal with different kinds of shortages. In

1993-94, about 10 percent of the nation’s districts reported using pay incentives to attract or

retain teachers in fields of shortage; 10 percent reported using pay incentives to attract or

retain teachers to work in less desirable locations (appendix A, tables 21 and 22). About 6

percent of the nation’s districts offered these incentives both to deal with shortage fields and

for encouraging teachers to work in less desirable locations; 5 percent of the districts offered

them to deal with shortage fields only; and 4 percent, to encourage teachers to work in less

desirable locations only.

Districts that had the lowest concentrations of minority students (under 10 percent) were less

likely than districts serving 50 percent or more minority students to use pay incentives to deal

with shortage fields concerns and less likely than districts with minority student compositions

ranging from 10 percent to 50 percent to use pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in less desirable locations than other districts (figure 4.2). Although the largest

districts (those with enrollments of at least 10,000 students) were more likely to offer pay
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 57

incentives to deal with shortage field issues, comparable proportions of the largest districts (9

percent) and districts serving fewer than 1,000 students (11 percent) used this strategy to

motivate teachers to teach in less desirable locations. Similarly, districts in urban areas inside

central cities (20 percent) were more likely to use pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers

to teach in fields of shortage than other districts (10 percent) (appendix A, table 22). 

However, comparable proportions of districts in urban areas inside central cities (11 percent),

nonurban districts (11 percent) and districts in urban areas outside central cities (8 percent)

offered pay incentives to motivate teachers to teach in less desirable locations (appendix A,

table 21).

Districts in the South (19 percent) were more likely to use pay incentives to motivate

teachers to teach in less desirable locations than districts in the West (10 percent), Midwest

(7 percent), and Northeast (5 percent) (figure 4.2). They were also more likely to use pay

incentives to deal with shortage field problems (17 percent) than districts in the Midwest (8

percent) or Northeast (6 percent).

Figure 4.2Percentage of districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in a) shortage fields and b) less desirable locations, by selected

district characteristics: 1993-94

8.9

10.7

19.9

7.3

11.7

23.1

6.0

8.3

16.8

11.0

11.3

8.4

9.4

7.2

12.8

17.3

5.1

7.4

18.9

9.6

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

Region

Percentage of Districts

Shortage fields

Less desirable locations

Minority Students District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires)
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

58 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Differences and Trends in the Prevalence of Free Training to Prepare

Teachers for Shortage Fields

In addition to pay incentives, districts can also offer free training to prepare staff members to

teach in fields with current or anticipated shortages. The number of districts offering free

training, like the number of districts offering pay incentives, increased substantially from

1987-88 (12 percent) to 1993-94 (19 percent) (appendix A, table 24). And, like pay

incentives, in 1993-94 this practice was more prevalent in districts regardless of their size,

proportion of minority students, proportion of minority teachers, or metropolitan status than

in 1987-88 (appendix A, table 24 and figure 4.3). In addition, free training to deal with

specific shortage fields was more prevalent in 1993-94 than it was in 1987-88 in districts in

all regions of the country.

In 1993-94, school districts in the West and South were more likely to provide free training

to prepare teachers to teach in shortage areas than school districts in other regions. About

one-quarter of the school districts in the West (28 percent) and South (27 percent) offered

this training, compared with 14 percent of districts in the Northeast, and 13 percent of

districts in the Midwest. This finding may indicate that districts in the South and West were

having greater difficulties hiring teachers in shortage fields than were districts in other parts

of the country.
Teacher Demand and District Efforts to Recruit and Retain Teachers

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 59

Figure 4.3Percentage of districts offering free training to prepare staff to teach in

shortage fields, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 and 1993-94

9.9

12.8

22.9

8.6

13.7

24.4

9.4

7.2

18.8

15.0

17.5

19.1

34.5

15.0

20.7

37.3

13.5

13.1

26.6

27.7

0 20 40 60 80 100

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

Region

Percentage of Districts

1987-88

1993-94

Minority Students District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1987-88 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
Teacher Compensation

60 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94
Teacher Compensation

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 61

Chapter 5

Teacher Compensation

Overview

The issue of teacher compensation is one of importance for educators, policymakers, and the

general public. This issue reflects the common belief that salary and benefit packages are

important in attracting, motivating, and retaining quality teachers. 13

Compensation patterns must reflect the forces of supply and demand and local labor markets.

Teachers offer a variety of personal characteristics (knowledge, skills, experience) to their

employers (the school districts). In turn, school districts offer a variety of working

environments, conditions of employment, and compensation programs that reflect the values

that districts assign to different personal characteristics. Compensation patterns provide a

means for measuring and comparing the values associated with different teacher and job

characteristics both within and between school districts. 14

In this chapter, responses to TDS items dealing with base salary and retirement benefitsCtwo

key components of teacher compensationCare discussed. 15 Analyses that compare salaries at

different times incorporate adjustments for inflation. The consumer price indices for the

1990-91 and 1993-94 school years were used for this purpose. 16

 

13 Choy et al. (1993).

14 Chambers (1996).

15 The summaries of teacher salary data, as presented in this chapter, do not attempt to control for all

of the wide range of factors that education economists have shown are associated with teacher

compensation. These factors, such as gender, teacher qualifications, and competition in the local

job market for teachers, are discussed in Chambers (1996) and Chambers and Fowler (1995).

16 Consumer Price Indices (CPI) were adjusted to a school-year (July through June) basis. The

adjusted CPI for 1990-91 was 133.9; for 1993-94, 146.2. Accordingly, to make 1990-91 salaries

comparable with 1993-94 salaries, the 1990-91 salaries were multiplied by (146.2/133.9 =1.092).

National Center for Education Statistics (1995).
Teacher Compensation

62 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Scheduled Salaries

Most (94 percent) of the nation’s school districts had salary schedules for their teachers in

1990-91 and 1993-94. In these districts, comparisons of teacher salaries with equivalent

education and experience (i.e., bachelor’s degree without experience, master’s degree without

experience, and master’s degree with 20 years experience) were possible. To enable

comparisons of changes over time, 1990-91 salaries were adjusted for inflation.

Table 5.1Average scheduled salaries for teachers (in constant 1993-94 dollars) by

education and teaching experience in districts with salary schedules, by

selected district characteristics: 1990-91 and 1993-94

1990-91a1993-94

Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s

District without without with 20 yrs. without without with 20 yrs.

Characteristic experience experience experience experience experience experience

TOTAL $21,742 $23,691 $36,249 $21,923 $23,956 $37,213

District Size

 Under 1,000 $20,747 $22,546 $33,364 $20,817 $22,777 $34,360

 1,000 to 9,999 $22,714 $24,802 $39,185 $22,940 $25,042 $39,934

 10,000 or more $23,834 $26,163 $41,194 $23,212 $25,327 $39,657

Minority Studentsb

 Under 10% $21,231 $23,177 $35,461 $21,498 $23,597 $36,655

 10% to under 50% $22,522 $24,485 $37,754 $22,445 $24,361 $38,246

 50% or more $22,935 $24,877 $37,419 $22,784 $24,784 $37,378

Minority Teachers

 None $20,829 $22,662 $34,226 $20,875 $22,882 $35,043

 More than 0% to under 20% $22,714 $24,793 $38,717 $22,979 $25,090 $39,810

 20% or more $22,139 $24,097 $35,412 $21,827 $23,533 $34,394

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city $23,867 $25,521 $40,827 $23,476 $25,328 $39,857

 Urban-outside central city $23,446 $25,549 $40,927 $23,781 $26,060 $42,680

 Nonurban area $20,384 $22,250 $32,624 $20,389 $22,247 $32,839

Region

 Northeast $24,604 $26,617 $43,453 $25,581 $27,727 $46,594

 Midwest $20,478 $22,490 $34,287 $20,879 $23,013 $35,718

 South $20,639 $22,006 $31,556 $20,407 $21,714 $30,955

 West $22,458 $24,895 $38,006 $21,913 $24,505 $37,800

(a) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

(b) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

The average scheduled salary, adjusted for inflation, for teachers with a master’s degree and

20 years experience was greater in 1993-94 ($37,213) than it was in 1990-91 ($36,249)
Teacher Compensation

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 63

(table 5.1 and appendix A, table 27). Similarly, scheduled salaries for a teacher with a

master’s degree and no experience, after adjusting for inflation, were greater in 1993-94

($23,956) than in 1990-91 ($23,691). Scheduled salaries for a teacher with a bachelor’s

degree and no experience, after adjusting for inflation, were comparable in 1993-94

($21,923) and in 1990-91 ($21,742).

Teachers with Bachelor’s Degrees

After adjusting for inflation, scheduled salaries for inexperienced teachers with a bachelor’s

degree were greater in school districts in the Northeast and Midwest in 1993-94 than they

were in 1990-91. In districts in the Northeast, these 1993-94 and 1990-91 scheduled salaries

were $25,581 and $24,604, respectively; in districts in the Midwest, the scheduled salaries

were $20,879 and $20,478, respectively. Conversely, in school districts in the South,

inflation-adjusted salaries for teachers with a bachelor’s degree and no experience were lower

in 1993-94 ($20,407) than they were in 1990-91 ($20,639). 17

The salaries for teachers with a bachelor’s degree and no experience in 1993-94 were highest

for teachers in the Northeast ($25,581). Salaries for teachers with these qualifications in the

West ($21,913) were higher than those for comparable teachers in the Midwest ($20,879),

which were greater than those in the South ($20,407).

In districts with fewer than 1,000 students, scheduled salaries for inexperienced teachers with

a bachelor’s degree were lower than in districts serving between 1,000 and 9,999 students 

($20,817 versus $22,940). The 1993-94 scheduled salaries for these teachers were highest

($23,212) in districts serving 10,000 or more students. Salaries for inexperienced teachers

with bachelor’s degrees were also lower in nonurban districts ($20,389) than in urban areas

($23,476 in districts in urban areas inside central cities; $23,781 in districts in urban areas

outside central cities).

These salaries were lower in districts in which the student minority composition was less

than 10 percent than in districts in which the student minority composition exceeded 10

percent ($21,498) in contrast to $22,445 in districts with student minority compositions

ranging from 10 percent to under 50 percent and $22,784 in districts whose student minority

composition was at least 50 percent). The scheduled salaries for inexperienced teachers with

bachelor’s degrees were lowest in districts that did not employ any minority teachers

($20,875), intermediate in districts where minorities comprised at least 20 percent of the

teaching staff ($21,827), and highest in districts with some but fewer than 20 percent

minority teachers ($22,979) (table 5.1 and appendix A, table 27).

Teachers with Master’s Degrees

The pattern of regional variation that characterized inexperience teachers with bachelor’s

degrees was similar to the pattern of regional variation for salaries of teachers with a master’s

degree without any experience and for teachers with a master’s degree and 20 years of

 

17 Although adjusted scheduled salaries for new teachers with a bachelor’s degree in schools in the

West appeared to be lower in 1993-94 ($21,913) than in 1990-91 ($22,458), these apparent

differences were not statistically significant. This is because of the greater range of scheduled salary

variations among schools districts in the West than among districts in other regions.
Teacher Compensation

64 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

experience. After adjusting for inflation, scheduled salaries for a teacher with a master’s

degree and no experience were greater in school districts in the Northeast and Midwest in

1993-94 than they were in 1990-91 (table 5.1). In districts in the Northeast, these 1993-94

and 1990-91 scheduled salaries were $27,727 and $26,617, respectively; in districts in the

Midwest, the scheduled salaries were $23,013 and $22,490, respectively. Conversely, in

school districts in the South, after adjusting for inflation, scheduled salaries for teachers with

a master’s degree and no experience were lower in 1993-94 ($21,714) than they were in

1990-91 ($22,006). Inflation-adjusted salaries for teachers in school districts in the West who

had a master’s degree and no experience were about the same in 1993-94 ($24,505) and in

1990-91 ($24,895). Likewise, adjusted scheduled salaries for teachers with a master’s degree

and 20 years of experience were higher in 1993-94 than in 1990-91 for districts in the

Northeast ($46,594 versus $43,453) and in the Midwest ($35,718 versus $34,287). These

salaries were lower in 1993-94 than in 1990-91 for comparable teachers in the South

($30,955 vs. $31,556), and about the same for teachers with a master’s degree and 20 years

experience in the West ($37,800 versus $38,006).

In 1993-94, scheduled salaries for teachers with a master’s degree and no experience were

higher in the Northeast ($27,727) than in any other region. Salaries in the West ($24,505)

were greater than those in the Midwest ($23,013), which were greater than those in the

South ($21,714). Likewise, after adjusting for inflation, scheduled salaries for a teacher with

a master’s degree and 20 years of teaching experience were greater in school districts in the

Northeast ($46,594) in 1993-94 than they were in any other region. The salaries for these

teachers in the West ($37,800) were greater than those in the Midwest ($35,718), which

were greater than those in the South ($30,955).

In districts with fewer than 1,000 students, scheduled salaries for inexperienced teachers with

a master’s degree were lower than in districts serving between 1,000 and 9,999 students 

($22,777 versus $25,042). The 1993-94 scheduled salaries for these teachers were higher

($25,327) in districts serving 10,000 or more students. Similarly, in 1993-94, scheduled

salaries for teachers with a master’s degree and 20 years of teaching experience were lowest in

districts with fewer than 1,000 students ($34,360). However, scheduled salaries for these

teachers were comparable in districts serving between 1,000 and 9,999 students ($39,934)

and in larger districts ($39,657).

Scheduled salaries for teachers with master’s degrees and no experience ($22,247) and with

20 years of teaching experience ($32,839) were lower in nonurban districts than in urban

districts. These salaries were intermediate in districts in urban areas inside central cities

($25,328: no experience, $39,857: 20 years experience) and highest in urban areas outside

central cities ($26,060: no experience, $42,680: 20 years experience).

Salaries for inexperienced teachers with master’s degrees in 1993-94 were lower in districts in

which the student minority composition was less than 10 percent than in districts in which

the student minority composition exceeded 10 percent ($23,597 in contrast to $24,361 in

districts with student minority compositions ranging from 10 percent to under 50 percent and

$24,784 in districts whose student minority composition was at least 50 percent). Salaries for

teachers with master’s degrees and 20 years of teaching experience were lower in districts in

which fewer than 10 percent of the students were minorities ($36,655) than they were in

districts in which minority students comprised from 10 percent up to 50 percent of the

enrollment ($38,246). Salaries for these experienced teachers with master’s degrees in

districts with students minority compositions of 50 percent or more ($37,378) were

comparable with salaries in districts with other student minority compositions. 
Teacher Compensation

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 65

Scheduled salaries for inexperienced teachers with master’s degrees were lowest in districts

that did not employ any minority teachers ($22,882), intermediate in districts where

minorities comprised at least 20 percent of the teaching staff ($23,533), and highest in

districts with some but fewer than 20 percent minority teachers ($25,090). For teachers with

master’s degrees and 20 years of experience, scheduled salaries were higher in districts with

some but fewer than 20 percent minority teachers ($39,810) than in either districts with no

minority teachers ($35,043) or in districts whose teaching staff was at least 20 percent

minority ($34,394) (table 5.1 and appendix A, table 27).

Collective Bargaining

Teachers’ unions or other teachers’ organizations typically represent their constituencies in

salary negotiations with school districts. In 1993-94, most districts (71 percent) had an

agreement with a teachers’ union or organization for the purpose of bargaining. About twothirds (64 percent) of the nation’s school districts had collective bargaining agreements

(appendix A, table 28); 7 percent had meet-and-confer agreements. Teachers’ scheduled

salaries in districts with and without collective bargaining agreements were compared. 18

There were large regional differences in the proportions of school districts with collective

bargaining agreements (figure 5.1). Nearly all of the school districts in the Northeast (98

percent) had collective bargaining agreementsCmore than in any other region of the

country. The proportions of districts in the Midwest (74 percent) and in the West (68

percent) with collective bargaining agreements were much higher than in the South (12

percent). In Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, and West

Virginia, no districts reported collective bargaining agreements for their teachers (appendix

A, table 56). Conversely, 99 percent or more of the districts in Connecticut, the District of

Columbia, Hawaii, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and

Wisconsin had collective bargaining agreements.

Collective bargaining agreements were most prevalent in districts that had fewer than 10

percent minority students (72 percent). In contrast, 55 percent of the districts that served

between 10 and 50 percent minority students and 42 percent of the districts whose student

enrollment was at least 50 percent minority had collective bargaining agreements. Collective

bargaining agreements also were more prevalent in districts that had either no minority

teachers (67 percent) or some but fewer than 20 percent minority teachers (66 percent) than

in districts with higher proportions of minority teachers (31 percent) (figure 5.1).

 

18 These comparisons did not control for factors that are associated with teacher compensation

patterns, such as sex, ethnicity, school type, undergraduate measures, or the social and physical

environments in which teachers work; findings of differences should therefore be treated as suggestive

rather than probative (Chambers 1996).
Teacher Compensation

66 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 5.1Percentage of schools districts with collective bargaining agreements, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94

57.6

71.3

63.5

72.0

55.0

42.1

67.2

65.6

30.7

69.9

78.6

53.1

98.1

73.7

11.9

67.8

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage with Collective Bargaining Agreements

Region

Metro

Status

Minority

Teachers

Minority

Students

District

Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Collective Bargaining and Scheduled Salaries

Teachers’ salaries in districts with collective bargaining agreements were higher than in

districts without such agreements. For a beginning teacher with a bachelor’s degree, salaries

were 14 percent higher ($22,850 versus $20,127) in districts with collective bargaining

agreements; for beginning teachers with a master’s degree, salaries were 16 percent higher

($25,115 versus $21,712); and for teachers with a master’s degree and 20 years of experience,

salaries were 30 percent higher ($40,375 versus $31,088) (figure 5.2). These associations

characterized school districts regardless of their size, their proportions of minority students or

teachers, or their metropolitan status (appendix A, table 29). 19

 

19 These associations also characterized districts in the South and Midwest but not in the Northeast

and West. However, possible real differences in the Northeast and West could have been obscured

by the large standard errors associated with the salary estimates for these regions.
Teacher Compensation

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 67

Figure 5.2Average scheduled salary for teachers, by education and teaching

experience, in districts with and without collective bargaining agreements:

1993-94

22,850

25,115

40,375

20,127

21,712

31,088

$0

$5,000

$10,000

$15,000

$20,000

$25,000

$30,000

$35,000

$40,000

$45,000

Bachelor's without

experience

Master's without

experience

Master's with 20 years

experience

Annaul Salary

With collective bargaining

Without collective bargaining

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire)

Retirement Benefits

Nearly all (99 percent) of the nation’s school districts offered retirement plans to their

teachers in 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (appendix A, table 30).

Impacts of Within-State Transfers on Retirement Benefits

These retirement plans typically provided few barriers to the movement of teachers between

districts within a state in that nearly all allowed teachers who moved to a job in another

district in the state to receive either full credit (96 percent) or partial credit (2 percent) in

the retirement system for their years of teaching experience (appendix A, table 31). 

However, 9 percent of the districts allowing credit for teachers transferring within the state

required teachers to purchase this credit (appendix A, table 32). 

In 1993-94, districts in the Midwest were less likely than those in the Northeast or South to

permit teachers to receive full tenure credit in their retirement system when they moved to

another district within the state (appendix A, table 31). About 94 percent of districts in the

Midwest provided this incentive, in contrast to 96 percent of districts in the West, 98

percent in the Northeast, and 99 percent in the South. 
Teacher Compensation

68 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Impacts of Between-State Transfers on Retirement Benefits

Districts were less lenient in their retirement credit policies for teachers coming from other

states. Only 43 percent of districts permitted teachers moving from other states to receive

full credit for their years of teaching experience; another 23 percent permitted partial credit

(appendix A, table 31). Most (81 percent) of these districts required teachers to purchase

this credit (appendix A, table 32).

Districts in the West were less likely than those in other regions to permit teachers from

other states to receive full experience credit for their years of teaching in the district’s

retirement system (appendix A, table 31). About 22 percent of districts in the West

provided this incentive, in contrast to 54 percent of districts in the Northeast, 53 percent in

the South, and 41 percent in the Midwest. 

Districts in urban areas outside central cities (83 percent) and nonurban districts (79 percent)

were less likely to permit teachers from other states to purchase retirement credits than

districts in urban areas inside central cities (91 percent) (appendix A, table 32). 
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 69

Chapter 6

School District Programs and Policies

Overview

School districts that grant high school diplomas invariably specify requirements for earning

these diplomas. School districts also establish programs and implement policies in a variety

of other areas (such as student test reporting policies, choice programs, and written policies

about student discipline and alcohol, drug, and tobacco use). They may also participate in

federally sponsored programs, such as the National School Lunch program and the Chapter 1

program, and may offer programs for prekindergarten students. The prevalence and

distribution of these programs and policies are discussed in this chapter.

Graduation Requirements: Background

In 1993-94, about three-quarters (76 percent) of the school districts in the country granted

regular high school diplomas. These districts comprised almost all (99 percent) of the

districts serving twelfth grade students. Nearly all (99.98 percent) of these diploma-granting

districts required that students in the class of 1994 receive a specified amount of instruction

in either English, mathematics, computer science, social science, physical or biological

science, or a foreign language. In nearly all (99 percent) of these districts, these requirements

reflected a 4-year program. 

The publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983 served as a stimulus for educational reform. 

Among the recommendations made by the National Commission on Excellence in

Education, the authors of A Nation at Risk, was that state and local education agencies require

their students to take 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, social studies, and

science to graduate from high school. For purposes of presentation, these subject areas are

referred to as core subjects. 

District policies concerning high school graduation requirements are frequently linked to

state policies. The state education agency requirements typically represent minimum

standards, in that districts may specify more stringent criteria. 20 In 1993-94, over 99 percent

 

20 In 1993, 48 state education agencies specified high school graduation requirements. For certain

subject areas, nearly all states specified graduation requirements. At least 45 states specified

mathematics, social science, and physical/biological science graduation requirements; at least 44,

English graduation requirements (Levine and Huberman 1995). The phrase “at least” is used because

two states did not provide information about their graduation requirements. 
School District Programs and Policies

70 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

of the Nation’s school districts had graduation requirements for each of the core subjects

(table 6.1).

Table 6.1Proportions of 4-year high school diploma-granting districts with

graduation requirements, by subject areas: 1993-94

Subject Areas

English Mathematics Social Physical/Biological Computer Foreign

Studies Sciences Science Language

99.8% 99.7% 99.5% 99.2% 36.5% 17.6%

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

For noncore subjects such as computer science and foreign language, both state and local

education agencies typically did not specify graduation requirements21. In 1993-94, only 37

percent of 4-year high school diploma-granting districts had graduation requirements in

computer science; only 18 percent, in foreign language (table 6.1). The prevalence of district

high school graduation requirements (in districts that offer regular diplomas and 4-year high

school programs) in both core and noncore subject areas and how they have changed from

1990-91 to 1993-94 are discussed below. Associations between district characteristics and

different graduation requirements are also reviewed.

Some districts also specify community service graduation requirements. The prevalence of

districts with this requirement in 1993-94 and the characteristics of districts more likely to

have this requirement are also summarized.

District Graduation Requirements in Core Subject Areas

In comparison with 1990-91, district graduation requirements in core subject areas in 1993-

94 were more stringent. The numbers of years of instruction required in English increased

from 3.8 to 3.9; in mathematics, from 2.4 to 2.5; in social sciences, from 2.9 to 3.0; and in

physical/biological sciences, from 2.1 to 2.2 (figure 6.1). The combined graduation

requirements in English, mathematics, social sciences, physical/biological sciences, computer

science, and foreign language also increased, from 11.8 to 12.1 (appendix A, table 33).

Graduation requirements have been strongly associated with the region (and state) in which

a district is located (table 6.2 and appendix A, tables 33-37). By 1993-94, most (85 percent)

diploma-granting districts in the country required 4 years of high school English for

graduation. On average, the typical districts in the Northeast and South required 4.0 years of

English; the typical district in the West, 3.9 years. However, the graduation requirements in

English for districts in the Midwest were only 3.7 years.

 

21 In 1993, only four states specified computer education graduation requirements, and only three

states specified foreign language requirements (Levine and Huberman 1995).
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 71

Figure 6.1Average high school graduation requirements (in years) in core subjects

in diploma-granting districts with 4-year programs: 1990-91 and 1993-94

3.8

2.4

2.9

2.1

3.9

2.5

2.2

3.0

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

English Mathematics Social Sciences Physical/Biological

Sciences

Number of Years of Instruction

1990-91

1993-94

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Table 6.2District high school graduation requirements, by region: 1993-94

Region

Midwest Northeast South West

English (in years) 3.7 4.0 4.0 3.9

Mathematics (in years) 2.3 2.7 2.8 2.3

Social Science (in years) 2.8 3.3 2.8 3.1

Physical/Biological Science (years) 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

Computer Science (% requiring) 37% 32% 39% 36%

Foreign Language (% requiring) 6% 29% 22% 24%

Community Service (% requiring) 3% 6% 2% 4%

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Districts in the Midwest also had the least stringent graduation requirements in physical/

biological sciences (2.0 years) lower, on average, than districts in any other region (whose

requirements ranged from 2.1 to 2.4 years). Their graduation requirements in mathematics

(2.3 years) were lower than districts in the South (2.8 years) and Northeast (2.7 years) and

comparable with those in the West (2.3 years). Similarly, graduation requirements in the

Midwest in social science (2.8 years) were lower than districts in the Northeast (3.3 years)

and West (3.1 years), and were comparable with those in the South (2.8 years).
School District Programs and Policies

72 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

District Graduation Requirements in Other (Noncore) Areas

In the 1993-94 school year, about one-sixth (18 percent) of the nation’s public school

districts had a foreign language high school graduation requirement; about one-third (36

percent), a computer science requirement (figure 6.2). About 3 percent of the school

districts also specified a community service requirement for high school graduation.

Figure 6.2Percentage of 4-year high school diploma-granting districts with

graduation requirements in noncore subject areas: 1990-91 and 1993-94

3.3

36.5

17.6

33.0

18.8

0 20 40 60 80 100

Community Service

Computer Science

Foreign Language

Percentage of Districts with Requirement

1990-91

1993-94

NOTE: Community Service graduation requirements were not assessed in 1990-91.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Computer Science Graduation Requirements

The proportions of districts in the Midwest with high school graduation requirements in

computer science were similar to those of districts in other regions. In 1993-94, the

proportion of districts with computer science graduation requirements in the country’s

different regions ranged from 31 to 39 percent, with districts in the Midwest at the upper end

of the range (37 percent) (appendix A, table 38).

Proportionately more districts had computer science graduation requirements in 1993-94 (37

percent) than in 1990-91 (33 percent). However, this trend did not characterize all types of

districts. In contrast to 1990-91, the proportion of large school districts (i.e., with 10,000 or

more students) in 1993-94 with high school graduation requirements in computer science

was lower than in 1990-91 (26 percent versus 20 percent) (figure 6.3). 
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 73

Figure 6.3Percentage of 4-year high school diploma-granting districts with

graduation requirements in computer science, by district size: 1990-91 and

1993-94

20.3

31.3

45.9

25.9

27.4

40.3

0 20 40 60 80 100

10,000 or more

1,000 to 9,999

Under 1,000

Percentage of Districts with Requirement

1990-91

1993-94

District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

The decline in the proportion of school districts with computer science graduation

requirements was most pronounced in school districts in the South in urban areas inside

central cities (appendix A, table 38). In 1993-94, the proportion of these districts with

computer science graduation requirements (21 percent) was about half the proportion in

1990-91 (40 percent). Some of these central city districts in the South dropped their

computer science requirements since they wished to have the same requirements as their state

education agency. In other words, since their state did not have an explicit computer science

graduation requirement, they decided not to require computer science instruction for

graduation. Other districts which dropped computer science gradation requirements

indicated that computer technology was so well-integrated with other course work that a

separate requirement was no longer felt to be necessary.

By 1993-94, more than twice as many small districts (46 percent) required their students to

earn computer science credits to graduate than did large districts (20 percent) (figure 6.3).

Analogously, in 1993-94, the proportion of nonurban districts with computer science

graduation requirements (41 percent) was about 50 percent higher than the proportion of

districts in urban areas inside central cities (28 percent) (table 6.3 and appendix A, table 38).
School District Programs and Policies

74 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table 6.3Percentage of districts with high school graduation requirements in

computer science, by metropolitan status: 1990-91 to 1993-94

School Year

 1990-91 1993-94 

% Districts % Districts

TOTAL 33.0 36.5

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 30.5 28.1

 Urban-outside central city 27.5 30.2

 Nonurban area 36.4 41.3

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).

Foreign Language Graduation Requirements Language Graduation Requirements 

The overall proportion of districts with graduation requirements in a foreign language was

approximately the same in both 1993-94 (18 percent) and 1990-91 (19 percent) (figure 6.2).

However, in 1993-94, fewer school districts with fewer than 10 percent minority students

had a foreign language graduation requirement (13 percent) than in 1990-91 (17 percent)

(appendix A, table 39). 

In 1993-94, very few districts in the Midwest (only 6 percent) had foreign language high

school graduation requirements (table 6.2). The proportion of districts in the Midwest with

this requirement was much less than in any other region: less than one-third the proportions

in the South (22 percent), West (24 percent), or Northeast (29 percent). Furthermore, in

the Midwest, the proportion of districts with this requirement was significantly lower than it

was in 1990-91 (10 percent) (appendix A, table 39). In other regions, the proportions of

districts with foreign language graduation requirements were about the same in both 1990-91

and 1993-94.

Although about one-sixth of the nation’s school districts had a foreign language high school

graduation requirement in 1993-94, almost half (45 percent) of districts in urban areas inside

central cities in the West had a foreign language graduation requirement (figure 6.4). This

percentage is more than double the proportions in other districts in urban areas inside central

cities, and more than five times the proportion characterizing central city school districts in

the Midwest. The proportion of central cities in the West with foreign language graduation

requirements was significantly higher than it was in 1990-91, when it was only 30 percent.

Districts with larger proportions of minority enrollment were more likely to have a foreign

language requirement than districts with smaller proportions. In 1993-94, the proportion of

predominantly minority districts with a foreign language graduation requirement (29 percent)

was higher than the proportion in districts with moderate (10 percent to less than 50

percent) proportions of minority students (22 percent) (appendix A, table 39). It was also

more than double the proportion of districts that had fewer than 10 percent minority

students (13 percent).
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 75

Figure 6.4Percentage of urban-inside central city, 4-year high school diplomagranting districts with foreign language graduation requirements, by

region: 1990-91 and 1993-94

45.3

16.2

19.5

8.4

29.7

26.9

17.8

17.6

0 20 40 60 80 100

West

South

Northeast

Midwest

Percentage of Districts with Requirement

1990-91

1993-94

Region

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire)

National Programs: Background

The federal government allocated $67.7 billion in fiscal year (FY) 1993 for education

programs. The largest proportion of these funds ($30.5 billion, or 45 percent) were allocated

by the U.S. Department of Education. Substantial amounts (in excess of $1 billion) were

also allocated by the Departments of Health and Human Services ($10.9 billion),

Agriculture ($8.1 billion), Labor ($4.2 billion), Defense ($4.0 billion), Energy ($2.8 billion),

and Veterans Affairs ($1.1 billion). The National Science Foundation allocated $2.1

billion; the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, $1.4 billion (U.S. Department

of Education 1994).

These funds enabled school districts to offer many different programs designed to benefit

poorer students or younger (i.e., prekindergarten) children. Some of the largest of these

programs were the National School Lunch program, Chapter 1 programs for disadvantaged

students, and a variety of prekindergarten programs (supported through Head Start, Chapter

1, and other sources). 

National School Lunch Program

The National School Lunch program began in 1946 with the passage of Public Law 79-396,

the National School Lunch Act. Through this law, Department of Agriculture funds were
School District Programs and Policies

76 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

provided to states to help support their school lunch programs. In 1993-94, $4.1 billion was

allocated for this program. Eligibility for participation is based on economic criteria. For this

reason, in many different research studies, the proportion of students eligible for participation

in this program has been used as an indicator of district poverty. 

In 1993-94, 93 percent of the school districts in the country reported they had at least one

student eligible for participation in the National School Lunch program (figure 6.5). Nearly

all (98 percent) of the districts with eligible students reported that some students in their

district received free or reduced-price lunches through the program. About 41 percent of the

public school students (kindergarten or higher grades) in the nation were approved for

participation in this program, and 31 percent actually received free or reduced-price lunches

in 1993-94 (appendix A, table 43). 22

Figure 6.5Percentage of school districts with students eligible for participation in

the National School Lunch program, by selected district characteristics:

1993-94

87.7

97.5

98.6

90.6

96.4

96.3

88.8

96.2

95.2

96.2

95.3

90.3

91.3

90.4

98.2

91.6

0 20 40 60 80 100

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage with Eligible Students

Region Metro Status Minority Teachers Minority Students District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

In 1993-94, there were students eligible for participation in nearly all (98 percent) districts in

the South (figure 6.5). Proportionally more districts in the South had students eligible for

participation than any other region.

 

22 Percentages were calculated by dividing the numbers of eligible students (17,224,542) and students

receiving free and reduced price lunches (13,073,607) in 1993-94 by the total number of students

(42,302,143) (appendix A, table 10).
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 77

Districts with at least one student eligible for participation in the National School Lunch

program were more likely to have larger enrollments (i.e., 99 percent of the districts with

enrollments over 10,000 students and 98 percent of the districts with enrollments between

1,000 and 9,999 students) than districts serving fewer than 1,000 students (88 percent). From

a common sense perspective, the larger the district, the more likely it will have at least one

student eligible for participation. So, the relationships between other direct characteristics

and the proportions of districts with eligible students may reflect relationships with

enrollment size. For example, proportionally more urban districts (districts in urban areas

inside central cities: 96 percent; districts in urban areas outside central cities: 95 percent)

than nonurban districts (90 percent) reported having eligible students.

In addition, districts with higher proportions of minority students (10 percent or more) and

districts with minority teachers were more likely to have eligible students than districts with

less than 10 percent minority student enrollments and districts with no minority teachers.

There was at least one eligible student in 96 percent of the districts where minority students

comprised at least 10 percent of the population. Of the districts with less than 10 percent

minority students, 91 percent reported students eligible for participation. Analogously, 95 to

96 percent of the districts with minority teachers reported at least one eligible student. In

districts with no minority teachers, 89 percent reported students eligible for the National

School Lunch program.

Chapter 1 Programs

In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Public Law 89-10) authorized grants

for school programs for children of low-income families through the Title 1 program. The

Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981 (Public Law 97-35) consolidated 42

federally supported programs into 7, and reauthorized the Title 1 program as the Chapter 1

program. The Augustus F. HawkinsRobert T. Stafford Elementary and Secondary School

Improvement Amendments of 1988 (Public Law 100-297) reauthorized this program. More

recently, through the Improving America’s Schools Act (Public Law 103-382), Chapter 1

was reauthorized as the Title 1 program. Chapter 1 programs are explicitly intended to break

the link between poverty and low student achievement, especially in areas characterized by

high concentrations of poverty (U.S. Department of Education 1994, p. 356). These

programs provide educational services, such as remedial math and reading, to children in

areas with high concentrations of low-income families. In FY 1993-94, a total of $6.8 billion

was allocated through Chapter 1 programs. 

Chapter 1, like the National School Lunch program, is a program that benefits nearly all of

the nation’s school districts. About 92 percent of districts provided students with Chapter 1

services in 1993-94, serving 5,954,190 students (appendix A, table 41). In 1993-94,

Chapter 1 services were provided in proportionally more school districts in the South (97

percent than in the Midwest or West (88 percent) (figure 6.6). The proportion of districts

providing Chapter 1 services in the Northeast (95 percent) was comparable to the proportion

of districts in the South.

Since Chapter 1 is intended to serve children in high-poverty areas, it is not surprising that

the types of districts most likely to provide Chapter 1 services were generally those most

likely to serve children eligible for participation in the National School Lunch program. 

Like the National School Lunch program, proportionally more of the districts with student
School District Programs and Policies

78 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

enrollments greater than 1,000 (98 to 99 percent) had children receiving Chapter 1 services

than districts with enrollments of fewer than 1,000 students (86 percent). And, like the

National School Lunch program, proportionally more central city districts (95 percent) than

nonurban districts (89 percent) received these services.

Figure 6.6Percentage of school districts with students receiving Chapter 1 services,

by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

85.7

97.6

98.8

89.9

94.1

96.7

86.9

96.1

95.0

92.5

94.8

89.2

94.5

88.4

97.1

88.1

0 20 40 60 80 100

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest 

South 

West

Percentage with Students Receiving Services

Region Metro Status Minority Teachers Minority Students District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Similarly, greater proportions of districts that served predominantly minority students and

districts with the highest concentrations of minority teachers reported that their students

received Chapter 1 services than did districts with fewer than 10 percent minority students

and districts with no minority teachers. About 97 percent of the districts in which minority

students made up at least half the student population reported that at least some of their

students received Chapter 1 services. In 94 percent of the districts where the student

minority composition ranged from 10 percent minority to less than 50 percent students

received Chapter 1 services, and in districts with fewer than 10 percent minority students, 90

percent reported that at least one of their students received Chapter 1 services. In districts

with minority teachers, 95 to 96 percent reported students receiving these services; 87

percent of the districts without minority teachers had students receiving

Chapter 1 services. 
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 79

Prekindergarten Programs

In 1993-94, 64 percent of the nation’s school districts offered programs during the school day

for prekindergarten children (table 6.4). Some of these programs (like Chapter 1

prekindergarten programs and the Head Start program), but not all, were funded by the

federal government.

Table 6.4Percentage of school districts with various types of programs for

prekindergarten-age children, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Type of Prekindergarten Programs

At least one type of

District Head Day Special Prekindergarten

Characteristic Start Chapter 1 Care Education General Program

TOTALa24.3 8.4 14.5 44.9 25.1 64.1

District Size

 Under 1,000 15.9 4.4 8.4 31.3 20.8 51.4

 1,000 to 9,999 31.8 10.8 18.9 57.3 28.0 75.8

 10,000 or more 44.8 29.7 39.3 74.2 43.8 90.9

Minority Studentsb

 Under 10% 22.3 6.2 11.7 42.4 22.1 59.3

 10% to under 50% 24.3 10.8 19.0 48.4 28.7 69.5

 50% or more 35.7 14.6 18.5 48.9 32.5 76.8

Minority Teachers

 None 19.9 5.7 8.6 38.6 22.1 55.9

 More than 0% to under 20% 26.4 9.9 19.9 50.7 26.6 70.4

 20% or more 41.9 18.6 22.3 52.2 36.4 81.1

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 35.9 26.3 33.2 63.7 38.1 84.0

 Urban-outside central city 20.3 6.4 17.5 45.5 25.1 63.5

 Nonurban area 26.4 8.7 11.2 43.2 24.2 63.2

Region

 Northeast 16.3 8.1 12.5 36.5 19.5 54.1

 Midwest 25.7 7.7 13.5 51.9 28.3 68.4

 South 33.1 14.3 14.6 46.4 35.2 75.2

 West 20.1 3.7 18.7 38.5 13.4 53.8

(a) Totals sum to more than 100 percent since districts could provide more than one program.

(b) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Larger districts were more likely to offer prekindergarten programs than smaller districts. 

About 91 percent of districts with enrollments of 10,000 or more students offered these

programs, in contrast to about three-quarters (76 percent) of districts enrolling between 1,000

and 9,999 students and about half (51 percent) of districts enrolling fewer than 1,000

students. Districts in the South (75 percent) were more likely to offer prekindergarten

programs than districts in any other region.
School District Programs and Policies

80 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Districts in the Midwest (68 percent) were more likely to provide these programs than

districts in the Northeast or West (54 percent).

In 1993-94, 84 percent of urban areas inside central city school districts offered

prekindergarten programs in 1993-94, compared with 63 percent of other districts. 

Prekindergarten programs were least likely to be offered in districts with fewer than 10

percent minority students (59 percent): 70 percent of the districts with student minority

compositions ranging from 10 percent to under 50 percent and 77 percent of the districts

with student minority compositions of 50 percent or greater offered these programs.

Prekindergarten programs were offered in 56 percent of districts with no minority teachers;

70 percent of the districts with some, but fewer than 20 percent minority teachers, and 81

percent of the districts with at least 20 percent minority teachers. 

Head Start Programs

Head Start is a federally funded program that is intended to assist in the provision of

developmental services for low-income, pre-school children aged 3 to 5. These programs,

supported by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, focus on education, social

and emotional development, physical and mental health, and nutrition. Head Start also

provides social services for families. In FY 1993, $2.7 billion was allocated for this program,

which served 713,943 students. 23

About one-quarter (24 percent) of the school districts in the country offered Head Start

programs in 1993-94 (table 6.4). Proportionally more districts in the South (33 percent)

offered these programs than in other regions. In addition, the larger the district, the more

likely it was to offer Head Start prekindergarten programs: Head Start programs were

available in 44 percent of the districts with enrollments of 10,000 or more; available in 32

percent of the districts with enrollments between 1,000 and 9,999 students; and available in

16 percent of districts with enrollments of less than 1,000 students. About 36 percent of

districts in urban areas inside central cities offered these programs for prekindergarten

childrenCa greater prevalence than in nonurban districts (26 percent). Both of these kinds

of districts were more likely to offer Head Start programs than urban areas outside central city

(20 percent). 

Head Start prekindergarten programs were more likely to be offered in districts in which

minority students made up 50 percent or more of the student population (36 percent) than in

districts in which minority students made up less than 10 percent of the student population

(22 percent), and were more likely to be offered in districts where minority teachers made up

20 percent or more of the teaching staff than in districts with lower proportions of minority

teachers. About one-third (36 percent) of the districts in which the proportion of minority

students exceeded 50 percent offered Head Start prekindergarten programs, whereas only 22

to 24 percent of the districts with proportionately fewer minority students (from 10 percent

to under 50 percent or under 10 percent minority enrollment) had Head Start

prekindergarten programs. About 42 percent of the districts in which minority teachers

comprised at least 20 percent of the teaching staff offered these programs, in contrast to 26

percent of the districts with some but fewer than 20 percent minority teachers. Both of these

proportions were larger than in districts with no minority teachers (20 percent).

 

23 U.S. Department of Education (1994)
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 81

Chapter 1 Prekindergarten Programs

About 8 percent of the school districts in the nation offered Chapter 1 prekindergarten

programs in 1993-94 (table 6.4). Like programs funded by Head Start, proportionally more

districts in the South (14 percent) provided these programs than districts in other regions.

Districts in the West were least likely to offer these programsConly 4 percent provided

themCcompared with 8 percent of the districts in the Northeast and Midwest. Also, like

Head Start programs, the larger the district, the more likely it was to offer Chapter 1

prekindergarten programs. They were most likely to be provided in districts with enrollments

of 10,000 or more (30 percent); were less likely to be provided in districts with enrollments

between 1,000 and 9,999 students (11 percent); and were least likely to be offered in districts

with enrollments of fewer than 1,000 students (4 percent). Similar to Head Start programs,

Chapter 1 programs were also more likely to be offered in districts in urban areas inside

central cities (26 percent); next most likely to be provided in nonurban districts (9 percent),

and least likely to be provided in districts in urban areas outside central cities (6 percent). 

Chapter 1 prekindergarten programs were also offered more in districts with the highest

concentrations of minority students and teachers than in districts with lower proportions of

minority students and teachers. For example, about 15 percent of the districts where the

proportion of minority students exceeded 50 percent offered Chapter 1 prekindergarten

programs; 11 percent of the districts with minority student compositions of between 10

percent to under 50 percent and only 6 percent of the districts with fewer than 10 percent

minority students provided Chapter 1 prekindergarten programs. About 19 percent of the

districts with the highest concentrations of minority teachers (i.e., at least 20 percent of the

teaching staff) offered these programs, in contrast to 10 percent of the districts with some but

fewer than 20 percent minority teachers. The lowest proportion of districts (6 percent) in

which these programs were offered were those in which there were no minority teachers.

Other Prekindergarten Programs

Day care programs, prekindergarten special education programs, and other general

prekindergarten programs, either administered by the district or by an outside agency, were

offered by 15 percent, 45 percent, and 25 percent, respectively, of the nation’s school districts

in 1993-94 (table 6.4). These programs are supported through a variety of funding sources,

including federal, state, local, and private agencies. 

Day care programs were as likely to be offered by school districts in the South (15 percent) as

in any other region. In the Northeast, 13 percent of the districts offered day care programs;

in the Midwest, 14 percent; and in the West, 19 percent. However, prekindergarten special

education programs were more likely to be offered in school districts in the Midwest (52

percent) and South (46 percent) than in Northeast (37 percent) districts. They were also

more prevalent in districts in the Midwest (52 percent) than in districts in the West (39

percent) districts. General prekindergarten programs were more likely to be provided in

districts in the South (35 percent) than in districts in the Northeast (20 percent), or in the

West (13 percent). About 28 percent of the districts in the Midwest offered general

prekindergarten programs. This level is comparable to those found in districts in the South

or Northeast.
School District Programs and Policies

82 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

The probability of a district providing any of the other prekindergarten programs (i.e., day

care, special education, or other general programs) was related to the district’s size. Each of

these kinds of prekindergarten programs was most likely to be provided in districts with

enrollments of 10,000 or more; less likely to be provided in districts with enrollments

between 1,000 and 9,999 students; and least likely to be offered in districts with enrollments

of fewer than 1,000 students. Similarly, their prevalence was greater in districts in urban

areas inside central cities than in either districts in urban areas outside central cities or

nonurban districts.

All of these other prekindergarten programs were more likely to be in districts with the

highest concentrations of minority teachers (20 percent or more) than in districts with no

minority teachers.

State and Local Reforms

State education agencies and school districts have implemented a variety of programs and

policies that are commonly referred to as education reforms. These reforms include requiring

districts to release standardized student test results to the general public; instituting “choice”

programs, which allow students to enroll in schools outside of their attendance zone; and

establishing written policies about discipline and student use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco.

 Student Test-Performance Reporting Policies

Test-performance reporting policies prescribe the reporting and dissemination of information

about student test performance on standardized tests. About five-sixths (84 percent) of the

nation’s school districts reported that they disseminated student test scores to the general

public in 1993-94.

Test-performance reporting to the general public was more prevalent in the South, where 92

percent of the districts did so, than in the Midwest (81 percent), the West (82 percent), or

the Northeast (85 percent) (figure 6.7). In spite of the fact that 17 states did not explicitly

require reporting to the public, only two states had proportions of fewer than 65 percent of

districts reporting results to the general public: North Dakota (38 percent) and Montana (39

percent) (appendix A, table 61). 

Test-score reporting was more prevalent in the largest districts (i.e., those with enrollments

of 10,000 students or more); about 95 percent of these districts disseminated test scores to the

general public (figure 6.7). Of the districts that served between 1,000 and 9,999 students, 92

percent had similar dissemination practices. The rates of test-performance reporting in both

of these types of districts were greater than the 77 percent rate characteristic of districts

serving fewer than 1,000 students.
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 83

Figure 6.7Percentage of districts with a student test-performance reporting policy,

by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

77.0

91.6

94.9

81.1

90.9

87.2

77.9

90.8

87.9

83.7

90.2

80.2

85.1

81.0

91.7

81.7

0 20 40 60 80 100

Under 1,000

1,000 to 9,999

10,000 or more

Under 10%

10% to under 50%

50% or more

None

More than 0% to under 20%

20% or more

Urban-inside central city

Urban-outside central city

Nonurban

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

Percentage with Policy

Region Metro Status Minority Teachers Minority Students District Size

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Districts in urban areas outside central cities were more likely to report test scores than

districts in nonurban areas. About 90 percent of these urban districts reported student test

performance, while 80 percent of nonurban districts reported dissemination of testperformance results to the general public. About 84 percent of districts in central cities

reported test scores.

Districts whose student racial composition was between 10 percent and 50 percent minority

or was at least 50 percent minority were more likely to report student test performance to the

general public than districts with fewer than 10 percent minority students (91 percent and 87

percent versus 81 percent, respectively). Similarly, districts with some but fewer than 20

percent minority teachers (91 percent) or than districts with 20 percent or more minority

teachers (88 percent) were more likely to report test results to the general public than

districts with no minority teachers (78 percent).

Choice Programs

There are two broad classes of public school choice programs: intradistrict choice (i.e.,

within-district open enrollment), in which students may enroll in any school in their

districts, and interdistrict choice (i.e., between-district transfers), in which students may

enroll in other districts or districts can accept students from any district in the state (subject

to availability and space requirements). Magnet school programs, in which schools offer

distinctive curricula or instructional approaches to attract students for desegregation purposes,

can be offered independently of or integrated with a district’s intradistrict or interdistrict
School District Programs and Policies

84 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

choice programs. 24 In 1993-94, about one-third (34 percent) of the school districts in the

country offered some kind of choice program (table 6.5).

Table 6.5Percentage of districts with choice programs by type of choice program, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 Within Interdistrict Choice

District Any Choice Magnet District Open Transfers Outside Transfers

Characteristic Program School Enrollment of District into District

TOTAL 34.1 7.8 13.8 28.5 25.6

District Size

 Under 1,000 35.5 5.9 8.7 32.0 26.3

 1,000 to 9,999 31.2 7.3 17.3 24.1 23.8

 10,000 or more 47.4 33.0 36.1 32.7 34.6

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 36.3 6.7 12.6 30.9 27.3

 10% to under 50% 32.7 8.3 16.2 26.7 24.2

 50% or more 27.1 12.8 14.3 20.7 20.6

Minority Teachers

 None 36.0 6.3 10.0 31.4 6.6

 More than 0% to under 20% 32.6 8.6 17.6 26.2 24.8

 20% or more 30.8 13.6 16.4 22.8 23.5

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 42.6 24.3 29.3 26.2 28.2

 Urban-outside central city 27.8 7.6 15.4 22.1 19.6

 Nonurban area 38.1 6.9 11.7 33.2 29.7

Region

 Northeast 13.3 4.2 5.5 9.6 8.5

 Midwest 41.6 7.7 15.0 34.6 29.7

 South 29.5 7.7 10.4 24.0 23.8

 West 47.1 12.1 24.0 41.7 37.6

(a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

 

24 Steel and Levine (1994).
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 85

The most prevalent kinds of choice programs (with respect to the numbers of districts

offering choice programs) were interdistrict choice programs, in which districts permitted

students to transfer to schools outside of their district or accepted transfers of students into

their district. In 1993-94, 29 percent of the districts permitted outward transfers and 26

percent of the nation’s school districts permitted students to transfer into their districts from

other districts (table 6.5 and figure 6.8). The next most prevalent kind of choice programs

were within-district open enrollment programs (intradistrict choice). These programs were

offered by 14 percent of the county’s school districts. Magnet schools, as choice programs,

were offered in 8 percent of the county’s school districts. 25

Figure 6.8Percentage of districts with choice programs, by type of choice program:

1993-94

25.6

28.5

13.8

7.8

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Interdistrict choice: Transfer in

Interdistrict choice: Transfer out

Open enrollment

Magnet schools

Percentage

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

The prevalence of choice program offerings is not an indicator of the numbers of students

participating in these different types of programs. Many fewer students participated in

interdistrict choice programs, the most prevalent program, than participated in either open

 

25 The types of choice programs enumerated in the 1993-94 TDS were not mutually exclusive,

preventing estimates of the numbers of students enrolled in each kind of program. For example,

magnet schools may be an option in districts that offer open enrollment. Students enrolled in these

magnet schools may be counted as participating in an open enrollment program, participating in a

magnet school program, or in both categories. 

 It should also be noted that some educators consider any innovative or distinctive educational

program to be a magnet program, whether or not it operates within the context of “choice,” or tries

to reduce racial imbalance.
School District Programs and Policies

86 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

enrollment or magnet programs. 26 It should also be remembered that choice programs must

operate under capacity constraints. The capacity of a popular school to enroll students is

limited. Even with choice programs, it is not possible for every student to enroll in his or her

first choice of schools.

Within-District Open Enrollment Programs 

Within-district choice programs are viable options only in districts that have two or more

schools serving students at a particular grade level. In other words, if there is only an

elementary school, a middle school, and a high school in a district, there is no possibility of

within district choiceCstudents must go to the only school appropriate for their grade level. 

If there is only a single school in a district, within-district choice is a meaningless concept. 

However, between-district choice is an option for these small districts. 

Districts with enrollments of 10,000 or more (36 percent) were much more likely to offer

within-district open enrollment programs than in districts with enrollments between 1,000

and 9,999 (17 percent). Districts with fewer than 1,000 students were the least likely to offer

this kind of choice program: only 9 percent of the districts offered this option (table 6.5). 27

These programs were also characteristic of central city school districts. The prevalence of

within-district open enrollment programs was highest in the districts in urban areas inside

central cities (29 percent). Their prevalence in districts in urban areas outside central cities

(15 percent) was comparable to their prevalence in nonurban districts (12 percent) (figure

6.9). 

 

26 Steel and Levine (1994).

27 Smaller districts may only have one school offering programs at a certain grade level. Accordingly,

within-district open enrollment programs may not be possible in many small districts. This may

explain why the prevalence and participation rates in within-district open enrollment programs are

lowest in the smallest districts.
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 87

Figure 6.9Percentage of districts with within-district open enrollment programs, by

metropolitan status: 1993-94

11.7

15.4

29.3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Nonurban

Urban - outside central city

Urban - inside central city

Percentage

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Proportionally fewer school districts in the Northeast (6 percent) offered these kinds of

programs in 1993-94 than districts in the South (10 percent), Midwest (15 percent), or West

(24 percent) (figure 6.10).
School District Programs and Policies

88 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 6.10Percentage of districts with within-district open enrollment programs, by

region: 1993-94

24.0

10.4

15.0

5.5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

West

South

Midwest

Northeast

Percentage

Region

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Magnet School Programs

The prevalence and distribution of magnet programs were similar to these patterns of withindistrict open enrollment programs. Proportionally fewer school districts in the Northeast (4

percent) offered these kinds of programs in 1993-94 than districts in West (12 percent),

(figure 6.11). Eight percent of the districts in the South and Midwest offered magnet choice

programs.
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 89

Figure 6.11Percentage of districts with magnet schools, by region: 1993-94

12.1

7.7

7.7

4.2

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

West

South

Midwest

Northeast

Percentage

Region

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Magnet school programs were most prevalent in districts with enrollments of 10,000 or more

(33 percent). Comparable proportions of districts with enrollments between 1,000 and 9,999

(7 percent), and districts with fewer than 1,000 students (6 percent) offered magnet programs

(table 6.5).28 Similarly, the prevalence of magnet school programs was highest in districts in

urban areas inside central cities (24 percent). Comparable proportions of districts in urban

areas outside central cities (8 percent) and nonurban districts (7 percent) offered magnet

programs (figure 6.12).

 

28 Smaller districts may only have one school serving students at each grade level. The concept of

magnet schools as a within-district choice program in this kind of district is not meaningful. This

may explain why the prevalence of magnet programs is lowest in the smallest districts.
School District Programs and Policies

90 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Figure 6.12Percentage of districts with magnet schools, by metropolitan status:

1993-94

6.9

7.6

24.3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Nonurban

Urban - outside central city

Urban - inside central city

Percentage

Metropolitan Status

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

Magnet school program prevalence was associated with the proportions of minority students

and minority teachers in a district. Their prevalence was highest in districts with 50 percent

or more minority studentsCwith 13 percent of these districts offering magnet programs (table

6.5). This was greater than the prevalence in districts that were between 10 percent and 50

percent minority (8 percent) or in districts that had fewer than 10 percent minority students

(7 percent). Likewise, magnet program prevalence rates (14 percent) were highest in districts

where at least 20 percent of the teachers were minority. Only 9 percent of the districts that

had some, but fewer than 20 percent minority teachers, and 6 percent of the districts that had

no minority teachers offered magnet programs.

Between-District Transfer Programs

While 8 percent of the nation’s school districts offered magnet school programs in 1993-94

and 14 percent offered within-district open enrollment programs, 29 percent of the districts

allowed their students to enroll in other districts, and 26 percent permitted other students to

enroll in their districts (table 6.5).

Interdistrict choice programs were most prevalent in districts in the West (transferring out, in

42 percent of the districts; transferring in, 38 percent of the districts) and in the Midwest (35

percent permitting transferring out and 30 percent, transferring in). The proportion of

districts offering an interdistrict transfer program in these regions was greater than the

proportions offering these programs in the South (24 percent permitting transferring out; 24

percent, transferring in). Interdistrict choice programs were less likely to be offered by school
School District Programs and Policies

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 91

districts in the Northeast (10 percent allowing transferring out and 9 percent allowing

transferring in) than in any other region.

Written District Policies about Student Discipline and Alcohol,

Drug, and Tobacco Use

In 1993-94, nearly all (99 percent) of the nation’s school districts had written policies about

general student discipline, alcohol use, and drug use (appendix A, table 46). Nearly all (98

percent) also had written policies about tobacco use. These written policies undoubtedly

differed. However, since only their prevalence was assessed in the Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire), comparisons with respect

to policy content or intensity are not possible.
School District Programs and Policies

92 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94
Future Research Directions

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 93

Chapter 7

Future Research Directions

This report provides descriptive summaries of the characteristics of school districts. For

comparative purposes, districts were categorized with respect to general demographic features:

their size (enrollment), the racial composition of their student body, the racial composition

of their faculty, the region of the country in which they are located, and their metropolitan

status. This permitted associations between district demographic features and the factors

measured in the SASS Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires to be noted and

reported. Whenever possible, school district characteristics in 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-

94 were compared. 

Many significant relationships are noted. These relationships can lead to innumerable

hypotheses about their causes, their impacts, and their possible persistence. Such hypotheses

can be investigated in other studies. We hope this descriptive report will stimulate further

investigations.

Through use of common identifiers, it is possible to link data from the Schools and Staffing

Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire) with other

NCES data collections. Within the Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS), information

about a district’s characteristics, as measured in the Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire, can easily be linked with data about the districts’ schools, principals, and

teachers, as measured in other SASS instruments. Linkages are also possible with other data

sources, including 1990 Census data, which can be analyzed in the context of school districts

and their characteristics. For example, these Census data can be used to categorize districts

according to the proportion of their children who are living in poverty, enabling comparisons

of the characteristics of high- and low-poverty school districts.

Even without additional data sources, there are many opportunities to use these data to

address a variety of issues. For example, the Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires

provide information about the racial composition of both a district’s students and its faculty.

In 1993-94, districts with high concentrations of minority students were more likely to have

high proportions of minority faculty than other districts. Were these districts more likely to

be found in certain states or regions? Were they more likely to be large or small districts? In

central cities or elsewhere? In large districts or in small? What would these relationships be

like for Hispanic students and Hispanic teachers? For Native American students and Native

American teachers?

When relationships between several different district demographic features and certain

outcomes were observed, with which specific district demographic factor are they most

strongly associated? Since there were significant associations between all of these

demographic features (i.e., central city districts tend to be larger than other districts; larger
Future Research Directions

94 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

districts tend to have higher proportions of minority students and teachers than other types

of districts), it is not clear with which of these factors a particular characteristic is most

strongly associated. For example, in 1993-94, districts with over 10,000 students, districts in

which 50 percent or more of the students were minorities, districts in which 20 percent or

more of the staff were minorities, and central city school districts were more likely to offer

pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers and to offer free training to prepare staff members

to teach in fields of shortage. Multivariate analyses can be employed to identify the factor(s)

with which these incentives are most strongly associated, independent of other district

characteristics, and to investigate other factors that might be compelling these districts to

offer incentives. 

Descriptive analyses do not explain why certain relationships are observed. For example, the

general associations between higher scheduled salaries and the presence of collective

bargaining units in nearly all kinds of districts in 1993-94 is worthy of further investigation. 

These findings are only suggestive and cannot be used to demonstrate causality. 

Multivariate analyses, to allow control for relationships among the district characteristics

reported upon, can be conducted to inform about the importance of specific district

characteristics. These analyses could also include data from external sources, to permit tests

of hypotheses about associations with other factors of interest.

The reader is encouraged to refer to the Technical Notes to learn more about how to obtain

and use SASS data.
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 95

References

Chambers, J. (1996). The Patterns of Teacher Compensation. (NCES 95-829). Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Office of

Educational Research and Improvement.

Chambers, J. and Fowler, W. (1995). Public School Teacher Cost Difference Across the United

States. (NCES 95-758). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Choy, S., Bobbitt, S., Henke, R., Medrich, E., Horn, L., and Lieberman, J. (1993). America=s

Teachers: Profile of a Profession (NCES 93-025). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1984). Beyond the Commission Reports: The Coming Crisis in Teaching. 

Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.

Doorlag, D., Levine, R., and Campeau, P. (1994, October). Attrition of Special Education and

Regular Education Teachers in California. (Presentation at the California State

Department of Education’s Ninth Annual Special Education Fall Conference)

Sacramento, CA.

Ingersoll, R. (1996a). Out-of-Field Teaching and Educational Equality (NCES 96-040).

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

Statistics, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Ingersoll, R. (1996b). Whatever happened to the teacher shortage? (Presentation at NCES

Summer Data Conference) Washington, DC, July 25, 1996.

Levine, R., McLaughlin, D., and Sietsema, J. (1996). Trends in School District Demographics,

1986-87 to 1990-91 (NCES 96-399).Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics.

Levine, R. and Huberman. M. (1995). National Longitudinal Study of Schools, State Survey:

Data User's Guide. Palo Alto, CA: American Institutes for Research.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at Risk: The Imperative

for Educational Reform. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Rollefson, M. (1993). Teacher Supply in the United States: Sources of Newly Hired Teachers in

Public and Private Schools (NCES 93-424). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
96 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Steel, L. and Levine, R. (1994). Educational Innovation in Multiracial Contexts: The Growth of

Magnet Schools in American Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

Contract LC90043001.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Office of

Educational Research and Improvement (1995). Digest of Education Statistics 1995

(NCES 95-029). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Office of

Educational Research (1994). Digest of Education Statistics 1994 (NCES 94-115).

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-1

Appendix A

Tables of Estimates

Section Page

1 Selected District Characteristics’ Tables ..................................... A-3

2 State Tables ........................................................... A-51

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-3

Section 1

Selected District Characteristics’ Tables
A-4 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-1. Number and percentage of school districts, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 15,244 100.0 15,512 100.0 14,987 100.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 7,953 52.2 8,430 54.3 7,626 50.9

 1,000 to 9,999 6,654 43.7 6,405 41.3 6,652 44.4

 10,000 or more 637 4.2 678 4.4 708 4.7

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 9,862 65.0 10,008 64.6 9,047 60.6

 10% to under 50% 3,390 22.4 3,947 25.5 4,283 28.7

 50% or more 1,910 12.6 1,528 9.9 1,611 10.8

Minority Teachers

 None 7,855 51.5 7,962 51.3 7,295 48.7

 More than 0% to under 20% 6,015 39.5 6,382 41.1 6,653 44.4

 20% or more 1,373 9.0 1,168 7.5 1,039 6.9

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 684 4.4 561 3.7

 Urban-outside central city - - 5,830 37.6 6,003 40.1

 Nonurban area - - 8,998 58.0 8,423 56.2

Region 

 Northeast 3,086 20.2 3,102 20.0 3,094 20.6

 Midwest 5,903 38.7 5,922 38.2 5,652 37.7

 South 3,475 22.8 3,415 22.0 3,306 22.1

 West 2,780 18.2 3,073 19.8 2,935 19.6

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

 a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-5

Table A-2. Number and percentage of school districts by metropolitan status, by region: 1990-91 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 15,512 100.0 14,987 100.0

Region by Metropolitan Status

 Northeast

 Urban-inside central city 101 0.6 85 0.6

 Urban-outside central city 1,915 12.3 1,958 13.1

 Nonurban area 1,086 7.0 1,050 7.0

 Midwest

 Urban-inside central city 154 1.0 157 1.0

 Urban-outside central city 1,875 12.1 1,939 12.9

 Nonurban area 3,894 25.1 3,556 23.7

 South

 Urban-inside central city 180 1.2 185 1.2

 Urban-outside central city 881 5.7 896 6.0

 Nonurban area 2,354 15.2 2,224 14.8

 West

 Urban-inside central city 249 1.6 134 0.9

 Urban-outside central city 1,160 7.5 1,209 8.1

 Nonurban area 1,664 10.7 1,592 10.6

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
A-6 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-3. Number and percentage of school districts by percent minority students, by region: 1987-88 to

1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 15,244 100.0 15,512 100.0 14,987 100.0

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast

 Under 10% 2,541 16.7 2,490 16.1 2,273 15.2

 10% to under 50% 362 2.4 488 3.1 670 4.5

 50% or more 182 1.2 122 0.8 138 0.9

 Midwest

 Under 10% 4,937 32.4 4,976 32.1 4,702 31.4

 10% to under 50% 642 4.2 783 5.0 798 5.3

 50% or more 274 1.8 153 1.0 125 0.8

 South

 Under 10% 1,233 8.1 1,085 7.0 866 5.8

 10% to under 50% 1,469 9.6 1,678 10.8 1,714 11.4

 50% or more 769 5.0 652 4.2 726 4.8

 West

 Under 10% 1,151 7.6 1,457 9.4 1,206 8.0

 10% to under 50% 917 6.0 998 6.4 1,101 7.3

 50% or more 685 4.5 601 3.9 621 4.1

a) Excludes 82 districts with no students in 1987-88, 29 districts with no students in 1990-91, and 45 districts with no students in 1993-94.

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-7

Table A-4. Number and percentage of school districts by district size, by region: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 15,244 100.0 15,512 100.0 14,987 100.0

Region by District Size

 Northeast

 Under 1,000 1,278 8.4 1,303 8.4 1,216 8.1

 1,000 to 9,999 1,761 11.6 1,753 11.3 1,829 12.2

 10,000 or more 47 0.3 46 0.3 49 0.3

 Midwest

 Under 1,000 3,559 23.3 3,643 23.5 3,324 22.2

 1,000 to 9,999 2,232 14.6 2,159 13.9 2,204 14.7

 10,000 or more 112 0.7 120 0.8 124 0.8

 South

 Under 1,000 1,458 9.6 1,473 9.5 1,338 8.9

 1,000 to 9,999 1,733 11.4 1,655 10.7 1,664 11.1

 10,000 or more 283 1.9 287 1.8 305 2.0

 West

 Under 1,000 1,657 10.9 2,011 13.0 1,748 11.7

 1,000 to 9,999 927 6.1 838 5.4 955 6.4

 10,000 or more 195 1.3 224 1.4 231 1.5

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-8 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-5. Number and percentage of school districts by district size, by metropolitan status: 1990-91 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 15,512 100.0 14,987 100.0

Metro Status by District Size

 Urban-inside central city

 Under 1,000 -- -- -- --

 1,000 to 9,999 232 1.5 255 1.7

 10,000 or more 254 1.6 247 1.6

 Urban-outside central city

 Under 1,000 2,182 14.1 2,108 14.1

 1,000 to 9,999 3,285 21.2 3,498 23.3

 10,000 or more 364 2.3 396 2.6

 Nonurban area

 Under 1,000 6,050 39.0 5,459 36.4

 1,000 to 9,999 2,888 18.6 2,899 19.3

 10,000 or more 60 0.4 65 0.4

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding or cell suppression.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-9

Table A-6. Number and percentage of school districts by percent minority teachers, by region: 1987-88 to

1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 15,244 100.0 15,512 100.0 14,987 100.0

Region by Percent Minority Teachers

 Northeast

 None 1,757 11.5 1,703 11.0 1,525 10.2

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,254 8.2 1,323 8.5 1,535 10.2

 20% or more 74 0.5 -- -- 34 0.2

 Midwest

 None 4,084 26.8 4,082 26.3 4,021 26.8

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,661 10.9 1,719 11.1 1,555 10.4

 20% or more 159 1.0 121 0.8 77 0.5

 South

 None 890 5.8 894 5.8 718 4.8

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,753 11.5 1,807 11.6 1,909 12.7

 20% or more 832 5.5 713 4.6 679 4.5

 West

 None 1,124 7.4 1,283 8.3 1,031 6.9

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,348 8.8 1,533 9.9 1,654 11.0

 20% or more 308 2.0 258 1.7 249 1.7

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-10 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-7. Number of full and part time teachers and percentage minority, by selected district characteristics:

1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 District Number of Percent Number of Percent Number of Percent

Characteristic Teachers Minority Teachers Minority Teachers Minority

TOTAL 2,511,304 13.6 2,565,862 13.6 2,599,569 13.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 248,313 4.2 258,208 4.1 228,003 3.5

 1,000 to 9,999 1,255,495 8.3 1,215,699 7.5 1,234,226 7.3

 10,000 or more 1,007,496 22.6 1,091,954 22.7 1,137,340 21.2

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 993,086 2.1 945,665 1.5 854,306 1.1

 10% to under 50% 875,562 11.6 983,937 10.3 1,070,211 9.5

 50% or more 639,782 34.4 635,783 36.8 673,371 33.8

Minority Teachers

 None 450,210 0.0 411,901 0.0 391,837 0.0

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,406,698 6.1 1,522,993 6.3 1,580,684 6.5

 20% or more 654,396 39.1 630,968 40.1 627,048 37.7

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 675,491 27.3 638,597 26.8

 Urban-outside central city - - 1,221,535 8.7 1,282,092 9.0

 Nonurban area - - 668,836 8.8 678,880 7.8

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 566,673 9.0 558,104 8.0 543,742 9.2

 Under 10% 306,479 1.6 303,841 1.0 252,730 0.8

 10% to under 50% 108,261 5.1 126,726 3.8 144,707 4.3

 50% or more 151,933 26.6 127,284 29.0 145,535 28.6

 Midwest 651,832 8.5 629,844 8.5 606,337 5.5

 Under 10% 424,516 1.9 386,449 1.2 372,925 0.8

 10% to under 50% 143,303 8.2 155,199 6.9 168,895 5.7

 50% or more 81,600 43.5 88,040 43.1 63,648 32.7

 South 850,370 20.5 930,254 19.4 973,724 19.1

 Under 10% 162,138 2.6 165,970 2.6 153,839 1.9

 10% to under 50% 430,879 15.3 512,269 13.6 531,782 12.9

 50% or more 257,008 40.5 252,015 42.2 288,103 39.7

 West 442,429 13.9 447,660 16.0 475,765 14.7

 Under 10% 99,953 3.2 89,405 2.5 74,812 1.9

 10% to under 50% 193,119 9.5 189,744 8.7 224,828 7.7

 50% or more 149,240 26.6 168,443 31.2 176,084 28.9

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-11

Table A-8. Number of students and percentage minority, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 District Number of Percent Number of Percent Number of Percent

Characteristic Students Minority Students Minority Students Minority

TOTAL 39,761,316 30.4 40,930,167 31.7 42,302,143 33.2

District Size

 Under 1,000 2,980,475 12.6 3,138,848 13.1 2,964,507 13.5

 1,000 to 9,999 19,333,146 19.2 18,813,338 19.2 19,788,834 21.9

 10,000 or more 17,447,695 45.8 18,977,982 47.2 19,548,801 47.7

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 14,942,783 3.4 14,410,735 3.7 13,380,715 3.8

 10% to under 50% 14,348,639 26.6 15,648,359 27.4 17,464,992 28.0

 50% or more 10,469,894 74.0 10,871,073 75.1 11,456,436 75.5

Minority Teachers

 None 6,152,291 3.6 5,897,828 4.4 5,868,267 4.3

 More than 0% to under 20% 22,453,967 20.3 24,272,297 21.3 25,826,876 23.7

 20% or more 11,155,059 65.4 10,760,042 70.1 10,607,000 72.3

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 10,888,873 57.9 10,602,701 59.3

 Urban-outside central city - - 19,606,180 23.6 21,331,290 26.2

 Nonurban area - - 10,435,115 19.7 10,368,152 20.9

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 7,481,413 26.9 7,273,135 26.0 7,686,025 29.0

 Under 10% 4,139,673 3.0 3,906,722 3.4 3,605,704 3.6

 10% to under 50% 1,235,455 23.1 1,504,876 22.4 1,952,873 22.2

 50% or more 2,106,284 76.3 1,861,538 76.4 2,127,448 78.2

 Midwest 9,863,597 18.6 9,892,476 18.8 9,634,486 17.1

 Under 10% 6,241,205 2.9 6,160,743 3.3 5,986,544 3.4

 10% to under 50% 2,288,284 25.1 2,412,087 24.6 2,651,862 25.5

 50% or more 1,334,108 80.7 1,319,646 81.1 996,080 77.4

 South 14,149,220 35.5 14,612,010 37.0 15,366,030 39.1

 Under 10% 2,804,619 4.1 2,647,609 4.1 2,416,770 4.3

 10% to under 50% 7,228,824 27.9 7,832,657 29.4 8,430,669 30.3

 50% or more 4,115,777 70.3 4,131,744 72.5 4,518,591 74.1

 West 8,267,086 38.7 9,152,546 41.7 9,615,602 43.3

 Under 10% 1,757,285 5.3 1,695,661 5.5 1,371,696 5.6

 10% to under 50% 3,596,076 26.1 3,898,740 26.9 4,429,589 27.7

 50% or more 2,913,725 74.3 3,558,145 75.2 3,814,317 75.0

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-12 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-9. Number of full and part time teachers and percentage by race and ethnicity, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

 District Total Percent by Race and Ethnicity

Characteristic Teachers American Indian Asian Hispanic Black White

 TOTAL 2,599,569 0.3 1.0 3.4 8.2 87.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 228,003 1.0 0.3 1.1 1.2 96.5

 1,000 to 9,999 1,234,226 0.3 0.4 1.8 4.8 92.7

 10,000 or more 1,137,340 0.3 1.9 5.6 13.4 78.8

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 854,306 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 98.9

 10% to under 50% 1,070,211 0.4 0.6 1.9 6.7 90.5

 50% or more 673,371 0.6 2.8 9.9 20.5 66.2

Minority Teachers

 None 391,837 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,580,684 0.3 0.6 1.7 3.8 93.5

 20% or more 627,048 0.6 2.8 9.8 24.5 62.3

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 638,597 0.3 2.7 7.0 16.9 73.2

 Urban-outside central city 1,282,092 0.3 0.7 2.7 5.3 91.0

 Nonurban area 678,880 0.6 0.2 1.4 5.6 92.2

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 543,742 0.1 0.6 2.6 5.9 90.9

 Under 10% 252,730 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 99.2

 10% to under 50% 144,707 0.1 0.3 1.1 2.8 95.7

 50% or more 145,535 0.1 1.6 8.1 18.9 71.4

 Midwest 606,337 0.2 0.2 0.6 4.5 94.5

 Under 10% 372,925 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 99.2

 10% to under 50% 168,895 0.2 0.4 0.8 4.3 94.3

 50% or more 63,648 0.5 0.5 1.9 29.8 67.3

 South 973,724 0.3 0.3 4.2 14.3 80.9

 Under 10% 153,839 0.2 0.1 0.2 1.5 98.1

 10% to under 50% 531,782 0.4 0.3 1.6 10.7 87.1

 50% or more 288,103 0.3 0.4 11.0 27.9 60.3

 West 475,765 0.9 4.1 6.5 3.1 85.4

 Under 10% 74,812 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.2 98.1

 10% to under 50% 224,828 0.7 1.7 3.9 1.5 92.3

 50% or more 176,084 1.3 8.7 12.5 6.5 71.1

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-13

Table A-10. Number of students and percentage by race and ethnicity, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Total Percent by Race and Ethnicity

Characteristic Students American Indian Asian Hispanic Black White

 TOTAL 42,302,143 1.1 3.6 12.3 16.2 66.8

District Size

 Under 1,000 2,964,507 3.2 0.9 5.8 3.6 86.5

 1,000 to 9,999 19,788,834 1.2 2.1 7.7 10.9 78.1

 10,000 or more 19,548,801 0.7 5.5 17.9 23.5 52.3

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 13,380,715 0.4 0.9 1.1 1.4 96.2

 10% to under 50% 17,464,992 1.3 3.4 8.1 15.2 72.0

 50% or more 11,456,436 1.7 6.9 31.8 35.0 24.5

Minority Teachers

 None 5,868,267 0.8 0.6 1.5 1.4 95.7

 More than 0% to under 20% 25,826,876 1.1 3.4 8.9 10.3 76.3

 20% or more 10,607,000 1.3 5.7 26.5 38.8 27.7

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 10,602,701 0.6 6.3 22.9 29.5 40.7

 Urban-outside central city 21,331,290 0.7 3.7 10.5 11.4 73.8

 Nonurban area 10,368,152 2.6 0.6 5.3 12.4 79.1

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 7,686,025 0.3 3.7 10.1 14.9 71.0

 Under 10% 3,605,704 0.2 1.1 1.0 1.4 96.4

 10% to under 50% 1,952,873 0.3 5.0 6.6 10.4 77.8

 50% or more 2,127,448 0.5 6.9 28.8 42.0 21.8

 Midwest 9,634,486 0.9 1.6 2.6 11.9 82.9

 Under 10% 5,986,544 0.4 0.9 1.0 1.2 96.6

 10% to under 50% 2,651,862 1.8 2.9 4.5 16.2 74.5

 50% or more 996,080 2.1 2.8 7.3 65.3 22.6

 South 15,366,030 0.8 1.5 10.9 25.9 60.9

 Under 10% 2,416,770 0.2 0.4 0.8 2.8 95.7

 10% to under 50% 8,430,669 1.0 1.9 5.7 21.7 69.7

 50% or more 4,518,591 0.9 1.2 25.8 46.2 25.9

 West 9,615,602 2.4 8.9 26.1 6.0 56.7

 Under 10% 1,371,696 1.0 1.3 2.7 0.5 94.4

 10% to under 50% 4,429,589 2.0 6.0 15.3 4.3 72.3

 50% or more 3,814,317 3.4 14.8 46.9 10.0 25.0

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-14 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-11. Total number of full time equivalent (FTE) teachers and percentage that consists of new hires, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Total FTE Percent

Characteristic Teachers New Hires

 TOTAL 2,501,112 7.9

District Size

 Under 1,000 220,375 8.7

 1,000 to 9,999 1,196,629 7.5

 10,000 or more 1,084,109 8.2

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 826,141 6.7

 10% to under 50% 1,029,081 8.5

 50% or more 644,247 8.3

Minority Teachers

 None 380,915 6.9

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,520,281 8.0

 20% or more 599,916 8.2

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 608,886 7.3

 Urban-outside central city 1,232,452 8.1

 Nonurban area 659,775 8.1

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 518,626 5.7

 Urban-inside central city 140,208 4.3

 Urban-outside central city 301,144 6.0

 Nonurban area 77,274 6.6

 Midwest 584,495 6.5

 Urban-inside central city 120,577 5.3

 Urban-outside central city 273,959 6.5

 Nonurban area 189,959 7.2

 South 945,971 9.6

 Urban-inside central city 225,775 10.0

 Urban-outside central city 421,155 10.1

 Nonurban area 299,040 8.7

 West 452,020 8.7

 Urban-inside central city 122,325 7.7

 Urban-outside central city 236,193 9.0

 Nonurban area 93,502 9.1

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-15

Table A-12. Number of newly hired FTE teachers and percentage of newly hired FTE teachers with regular state

certification, newly hired FTE teachers with emergency certification, and newly hired FTE teachers

lacking regular state or emergency certification in their field of assignment, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

Number Percent Newly Hired Percent Newly Percent Newly Hired

of Newly with Regular State Hired with lacking Regular State or

 District Hired Certification in Emergency Emergency Certification

Characteristic Teachers Field of Assignment Certification in Field of Assignment

 TOTAL 197,323 86.5 7.6 5.9

District Size

 Under 1,000 19,091 90.9 6.3 2.8

 1,000 to 9,999 89,388 90.2 6.1 3.7

 10,000 or more 88,844 81.8 9.3 8.9

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 55,621 93.9 2.9 3.2

 10% to under 50% 87,880 88.8 6.4 4.8

 50% or more 53,682 75.0 14.3 10.7

Minority Teachers

 None 26,152 94.5 3.2 2.3

 More than 0% to under 20% 121,806 90.0 5.7 4.4

 20% or more 49,364 73.7 14.5 11.8

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 44,389 79.0 10.5 10.5

 Urban-outside central city 99,613 88.4 6.4 5.2

 Nonurban area 53,322 89.2 7.2 3.6

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 29,303 94.4 2.2 3.4

 Urban-inside central city 6,004 91.7 3.3 5.1

 Urban-outside central city 18,199 94.7 1.7 3.5

 Nonurban area 5,100 96.2 2.6 1.2

 Midwest 37,916 95.5 2.7 1.8

 Urban-inside central city 6,431 95.2 4.2 0.6

 Urban-outside central city 17,794 96.2 2.1 1.7

 Nonurban area 13,691 94.7 2.8 2.5

 South 90,906 82.4 9.5 8.1

 Urban-inside central city 22,499 76.0 10.3 13.7

 Urban-outside central city 42,412 84.3 8.3 7.3

 Nonurban area 25,995 84.7 10.7 4.5

 West 39,198 81.4 11.7 6.8

 Urban-inside central city 9,456 67.0 20.0 13.0

 Urban-outside central city 21,206 84.6 10.3 5.1

 Nonurban area 8,536 89.6 6.2 4.2

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-16 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-13. Percentage of school districts with different criteria for considering applicants for teaching positions,

by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Certification Type Special Knowledge Test

College Graduate of National

 District Full Emergency/ Major/Minor Teacher Ed. District Teacher

Characteristic Standard Temporary in Teaching Field Program or State Exam

 TOTAL 83.3 67.4 71.9 66.9 51.2 30.7

District Size

 Under 1,000 83.8 63.7 73.7 65.1 48.6 24.1

 1,000 to 9,999 83.6 70.4 70.2 69.9 53.5 37.7

 10,000 or more 74.5 80.4 68.1 57.7 57.7 37.0

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 87.3 64.4 75.1 73.0 43.0 30.1

 10% to under 50% 77.2 70.6 67.5 58.2 61.0 30.8

 50% or more 76.4 76.6 65.5 55.2 70.2 34.1

Minority Teachers

 None 86.0 63.4 76.2 72.1 43.6 26.2

 More than 0% to under 20% 81.9 70.0 67.7 62.4 57.7 33.2

 20% or more 73.0 79.1 68.9 58.8 62.9 47.2

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 76.5 81.8 67.7 60.2 61.8 32.5

 Urban-outside central city 86.1 67.5 65.9 62.7 55.1 31.6

 Nonurban area 81.7 66.5 76.5 70.3 47.8 30.0

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 93.0 61.3 56.7 63.7 40.8 50.0

 Urban-inside central city 86.3 66.5 39.0 55.1 49.2 50.9

 Urban-outside central city 92.6 58.1 51.9 60.4 43.0 54.0

 Nonurban area 94.3 66.8 67.0 70.7 36.1 42.5

 Midwest 87.5 63.8 81.3 77.3 43.1 17.0

 Urban-inside central city 89.1 78.7 92.8 71.2 39.9 27.5

 Urban-outside central city 89.0 64.5 77.7 76.6 49.4 16.2

 Nonurban area 86.6 62.8 82.8 78.0 39.8 17.0

 South 70.1 78.2 73.6 62.0 68.6 38.1

 Urban-inside central city 73.5 86.4 58.8 59.8 71.4 28.2

 Urban-outside central city 69.6 80.2 69.4 63.0 68.9 35.4

 Nonurban area 70.0 76.8 76.5 61.7 68.3 40.1

 West 79.8 68.8 67.9 55.7 58.1 28.5

 Urban-inside central city 59.8 89.0 68.9 50.8 82.2 32.7

 Urban-outside central city 83.1 78.0 67.0 44.1 73.5 17.4

 Nonurban area 78.9 60.1 68.4 64.8 44.5 36.6

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-17

Table A-14. Number and percentage of full time equivalent (FTE) teachers with standard state certification in

their field of assignment, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Total FTE

Characteristic Teachers Percent

 TOTAL 2,501,112 97.4

District Size

 Under 1,000 220,375 98.3

 1,000 to 9,999 1,196,629 98.3

 10,000 or more 1,084,109 96.3

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 826,141 98.9

 10% to under 50% 1,029,081 97.5

 50% or more 644,247 95.4

Minority Teachers

 None 380,915 98.8

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,520,281 98.1

 20% or more 599,916 94.8

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 608,886 95.7

 Urban-outside central city 1,232,452 98.0

 Nonurban area 659,775 97.9

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 518,626 99.2

 Urban-inside central city 140,208 99.2

 Urban-outside central city 301,144 99.3

 Nonurban area 77,274 99.2

 Midwest 584,495 99.1

 Urban-inside central city 120,577 99.1

 Urban-outside central city 273,959 99.2

 Nonurban area 189,959 99.2

 South 945,971 95.8

 Urban-inside central city 225,775 92.2

 Urban-outside central city 421,155 97.0

 Nonurban area 299,040 96.8

 West 452,020 96.5

 Urban-inside central city 122,325 94.9

 Urban-outside central city 236,193 96.7

 Nonurban area 93,502 98.0

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-18 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-15. Number and percentage of full time equivalent (FTE) itinerant teachers and the number and

percentage of school districts employing itinerant teachers, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District FTE Itinerant Teachers Districts Employing Itinerant Teachers

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 102,282 4.1 8,387 56.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 10,455 4.7 2,708 35.5

 1,000 to 9,999 51,003 4.3 5,042 75.8

 10,000 or more 40,825 3.8 637 89.9

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 38,380 4.6 4,789 52.9

 10% to under 50% 39,414 3.8 2,565 59.9

 50% or more 24,242 3.8 998 62.0

Minority Teachers

 None 18,196 4.8 3,278 44.9

 More than 0% to under 20% 62,293 4.1 4,425 66.5

 20% or more 21,794 3.6 685 66.0

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 27,497 4.5 446 79.5

 Urban-outside central city 47,561 3.9 3,788 63.1

 Nonurban area 27,224 4.1 4,154 49.3

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 31,064 6.0 2,099 67.8

 Urban-inside central city 10,214 7.3 79 92.3

 Urban-outside central city 17,019 5.7 1,367 69.8

 Nonurban area 3,830 5.0 653 62.2

 Midwest 29,709 5.1 3,013 53.3

 Urban-inside central city 7,281 6.0 125 79.5

 Urban-outside central city 12,583 4.6 1,240 63.9

 Nonurban area 9,845 5.2 1,649 46.4

 South 27,707 2.9 1,938 58.6

 Urban-inside central city 6,511 2.9 149 80.5

 Urban-outside central city 11,278 2.7 594 66.3

 Nonurban area 9,918 3.3 1,194 53.7

 West 13,803 3.1 1,337 45.6

 Urban-inside central city 3,490 2.9 93 69.8

 Urban-outside central city 6,681 2.8 586 48.5

 Nonurban area 3,631 3.9 657 41.3

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-19

Table A-16. Percentage of school districts with at least one approved teaching position not filled by a permanent

teacher, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent Percent Percent

 TOTAL 21.4 14.5 14.3

District Size

 Under 1,000 15.5 8.0 7.9

 1,000 to 9,999 26.5 19.6 18.3

 10,000 or more 42.2 46.1 46.3

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 19.5 10.9 9.2

 10% to under 50% 20.2 16.5 18.3

 50% or more 32.5 33.0 32.5

Minority Teachers

 None 16.2 8.4 8.5

 More than 0% to under 20% 24.3 18.8 16.6

 20% or more 39.0 32.3 40.4

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 32.7 40.9

 Urban-outside central city - 18.5 16.3

 Nonurban area - 10.4 11.1

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 18.9 14.9

 Urban-inside central city - 34.3 33.8

 Urban-outside central city - 19.8 17.2

 Nonurban area - 15.8 9.2

 Midwest - 9.3 9.5

 Urban-inside central city - 34.4 33.1

 Urban-outside central city - 14.3 8.7

 Nonurban area - 5.8 8.9

 South - 17.4 19.0

 Urban-inside central city - 47.4 39.1

 Urban-outside central city - 16.9 20.9

 Nonurban area - 15.3 16.5

 West - 16.8 17.6

 Urban-inside central city - 20.4 57.1

 Urban-outside central city - 24.4 23.4

 Nonurban area - 10.9 9.8

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-20 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-17. Number and percentage of approved full time equivalent (FTE) teaching positions not filled by

permanent teachers, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 District Number of Percent of Number of Percent of Number of Percent of

Characteristic Positions Total FTE Positions Total FTE Positions Total FTE

 TOTAL 22,978 1.0 14,287 0.6 8,691 0.3

District Size

 Under 1,000 3,222 1.5 1,475 0.7 730 0.3

 1,000 to 9,999 10,345 0.9 5,047 0.5 2,712 0.2

 10,000 or more 9,410 1.0 7,766 0.8 5,248 0.5

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 9,385 1.0 3,705 0.4 1,265 0.2

 10% to under 50% 7,898 1.0 3,298 0.4 2,532 0.2

 50% or more 5,629 1.0 7,240 1.2 4,866 0.8

Minority Teachers

 None 4,028 1.0 1,679 0.4 853 0.2

 More than 0% to under 20% 13,636 1.0 5,964 0.4 3,435 0.2

 20% or more 5,314 0.9 6,644 1.1 4,403 0.7

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 6,236 1.1 3,928 0.6

 Urban-outside central city - - 5,626 0.5 3,080 0.2

 Nonurban area - - 2,426 0.4 1,683 0.3

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - - 2,383 0.5 1,319 0.3

 Urban-inside central city - - 542 0.4 521 0.4

 Urban-outside central city - - 1,425 0.5 651 0.2

 Nonurban area - - 416 0.5 148 0.2

 Midwest - - 2,728 0.5 1,405 0.2

 Urban-inside central city - - 1,355 1.0 718 0.6

 Urban-outside central city - - 749 0.3 268 0.1

 Nonurban area - - 624 0.3 419 0.2

 South - - 5,285 0.6 3,193 0.3

 Urban-inside central city - - 2,700 1.3 1,393 0.6

 Urban-outside central city - - 1,555 0.4 907 0.2

 Nonurban area - - 1,030 0.4 893 0.3

 West - - 3,891 0.9 2,774 0.6

 Urban-inside central city - - 1,639 1.3 1,296 1.1

 Urban-outside central city - - 1,897 0.9 1,253 0.5

 Nonurban area - - 355 0.4 225 0.2

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-21

Table A-18. Number and percentage of approved full time equivalent (FTE) teaching positions abolished,

withdrawn, or filled by substitute teachers because of budget cutbacks, and the number and percentage

of school districts affected, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District FTE Positions Districts Affected

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 5,372 0.2 1,342 9.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 846 0.4 563 7.4

 1,000 to 9,999 3,017 0.3 719 10.8

 10,000 or more 1,510 0.1 61 8.5

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 2,374 0.3 757 8.4

 10% to under 50% 2,025 0.2 375 8.8

 50% or more 962 0.1 205 12.7

Minority Teachers

 None 1,074 0.3 515 7.1

 More than 0% to under 20% 3,697 0.2 751 11.3

 20% or more 601 0.1 75 7.3

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 993 0.2 59 10.6

 Urban-outside central city 2,758 0.2 588 9.8

 Nonurban area 1,621 0.2 694 8.2

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 942 0.2 293 9.5

 Urban-inside central city 266 0.2 16 18.3

 Urban-outside central city 516 0.2 192 9.8

 Nonurban area 160 0.2 85 8.1

 Midwest 1,891 0.3 494 8.7

 Urban-inside central city 210 0.2 22 14.3

 Urban-outside central city 1,175 0.4 188 9.7

 Nonurban area 506 0.3 284 8.0

 South 1,038 0.1 217 6.6

 Urban-inside central city 255 0.1 11 6.0

 Urban-outside central city 264 0.1 41 4.6

 Nonurban area 519 0.2 165 7.4

 West 1,501 0.3 337 11.5

 Urban-inside central city 262 0.2 10 7.7

 Urban-outside central city 803 0.3 167 13.8

 Nonurban area 436 0.5 160 10.1

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-22 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-19. Number and percentage of school districts that laid off teachers and the number and percentage of full

time equivalent (FTE) teachers laid off, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Districts with Teachers Laid Off Teachers

 District Number of Percent of Number of FTEs Percent of All

Characteristic Districts All Districts Laid Off FTE Teachers

 TOTAL 1,996 13.3 11,910 0.5

District Size

 Under 1,000 802 10.5 1,401 0.6

 1,000 to 9,999 1,066 16.0 6,131 0.5

 10,000 or more 128 18.0 4,378 0.4

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 1,149 12.7 4,434 0.5

 10% to under 50% 614 14.3 5,210 0.5

 50% or more 217 13.4 2,219 0.3

Minority Teachers

 None 894 12.3 1,919 0.5

 More than 0% to under 20% 963 14.5 8,326 0.5

 20% or more 139 13.4 1,665 0.3

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 114 20.2 2,688 0.4

 Urban-outside central city 840 14.0 6,310 0.5

 Nonurban area 1,042 12.4 2,912 0.4

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 492 15.9 1,999 0.4

 Urban-inside central city 22 25.7 539 0.4

 Urban-outside central city 317 16.2 1,227 0.4

 Nonurban area 152 14.5 234 0.3

 Midwest 856 15.1 5,916 1.0

 Urban-inside central city 58 37.3 1,231 1.0

 Urban-outside central city 374 19.3 3,683 1.3

 Nonurban area 423 11.9 1,003 0.5

 South 341 10.3 1,697 0.2

 Urban-inside central city 18 9.8 226 0.1

 Urban-outside central city 78 8.8 435 0.1

 Nonurban area 244 11.0 1,035 0.3

 West 308 10.5 2,299 0.5

 Urban-inside central city 15 11.2 692 0.6

 Urban-outside central city 70 5.8 965 0.4

 Nonurban area 223 14.0 641 0.7

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-23

Table A-20. Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to teach in less desirable

locations or in fields of shortage, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent Percent Percent

 TOTAL 7.5 11.2 14.6

District Size

 Under 1,000 8.4 11.5 14.7

 1,000 to 9,999 6.1 10.2 13.7

 10,000 or more 10.0 16.6 22.8

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 6.6 8.7 10.5

 10% to under 50% 7.8 12.0 18.2

 50% or more 10.9 24.1 28.0

Minority Teachers

 None 6.7 9.5 11.6

 More than 0% to under 20% 8.0 11.0 16.3

 20% or more 9.3 23.4 24.8

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 10.5 24.5

 Urban-outside central city - 10.9 12.9

 Nonurban area - 11.4 15.2

Region by District Size

 Northeast 5.8 8.3 8.4

 Under 1,000 6.7 5.7 6.5

 1,000 to 9,999 5.0 10.1 9.4

 10,000 or more 9.6 12.0 16.4

 Midwest 6.6 7.9 11.6

 Under 1,000 7.8 8.5 13.3

 1,000 to 9,999 4.7 7.1 8.9

 10,000 or more 6.6 6.8 12.1

 South 11.4 17.8 25.5

 Under 1,000 14.5 22.6 32.1

 1,000 to 9,999 8.9 13.0 19.9

 10,000 or more 10.7 20.7 26.8

 West 6.2 13.0 14.8

 Under 1,000 5.6 12.6 9.4

 1,000 to 9,999 6.3 12.9 22.2

 10,000 or more 11.1 17.5 24.8

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-24 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-21. Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to teach in less desirable

locations by type of pay incentive, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Type of Pay Incentive

 District Any Cash Salary Step Other Salary

Characteristic Incentive Bonus Increase Increase

 TOTAL 9.9 2.1 5.4 3.6

District Size

 Under 1,000 11.3 1.9 6.2 4.5

 1,000 to 9,999 8.4 2.2 4.6 2.6

 10,000 or more 9.4 3.7 3.3 3.3

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 7.2 0.7 5.5 1.8

 10% to under 50% 12.8 3.5 4.5 6.3

 50% or more 17.3 6.5 6.9 5.9

Minority Teachers

 None 8.4 1.2 5.5 2.6

 More than 0% to under 20% 10.7 2.7 5.1 4.2

 20% or more 14.8 5.3 6.4 6.3

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 11.0 2.2 6.5 3.6

 Urban-outside central city 8.0 2.2 4.6 1.7

 Nonurban area 11.2 2.1 5.8 4.9

Region by District Size

 Northeast 5.1 0.5 4.2 0.6

 Under 1,000 5.0 0.3 4.6 0.4

 1,000 to 9,999 5.2 0.7 4.0 0.8

 10,000 or more 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 Midwest 7.4 0.7 6.2 1.4

 Under 1,000 9.2 0.8 7.6 1.9

 1,000 to 9,999 5.0 0.6 4.3 0.7

 10,000 or more 3.3 0.0 3.3 0.8

 South 18.9 6.1 4.9 10.9

 Under 1,000 26.1 8.2 4.7 17.0

 1,000 to 9,999 14.4 4.3 5.4 7.4

 10,000 or more 12.3 6.8 3.4 3.4

 West 9.6 2.1 5.5 2.4

 Under 1,000 8.4 0.4 5.9 2.5

 1,000 to 9,999 11.7 5.0 5.1 1.6

 10,000 or more 10.7 2.4 4.0 5.2

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-25

Table A-22. Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to teach in fields of

shortage by type of pay incentive, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Type of Pay Incentive

 District Any Cash Salary Step Other Salary

Characteristic Incentive Bonus Increase Increase

 TOTAL 10.2 1.8 4.8 4.2

District Size

 Under 1,000 8.9 1.0 4.6 3.9

 1,000 to 9,999 10.7 2.2 4.9 4.1

 10,000 or more 19.9 8.0 5.8 7.9

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 7.3 0.5 5.0 2.3

 10% to under 50% 11.7 2.6 4.4 5.4

 50% or more 23.1 7.7 4.6 11.7

Minority Teachers

 None 7.6 0.7 4.9 2.4

 More than 0% to under 20% 11.7 2.4 4.8 5.2

 20% or more 19.1 6.2 4.3 9.9

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 20.1 5.9 7.1 8.3

 Urban-outside central city 9.9 2.3 5.3 2.7

 Nonurban area 9.8 1.2 4.3 5.0

Region by District Size

 Northeast 6.0 0.2 5.1 1.0

 Under 1,000 5.1 0.0 4.5 0.6

 1,000 to 9,999 6.4 0.3 5.2 1.1

 10,000 or more 16.4 2.1 12.3 4.3

 Midwest 8.3 0.4 6.2 2.2

 Under 1,000 8.5 0.2 6.4 2.6

 1,000 to 9,999 7.8 0.7 5.8 1.6

 10,000 or more 10.4 1.6 7.0 2.6

 South 16.8 4.9 2.4 10.4

 Under 1,000 18.4 4.3 1.5 13.1

 1,000 to 9,999 14.3 4.0 2.8 8.3

 10,000 or more 23.5 12.1 4.2 10.1

 West 11.0 2.8 4.5 4.3

 Under 1,000 5.2 0.5 3.6 1.8

 1,000 to 9,999 19.3 5.9 5.8 8.0

 10,000 or more 20.8 7.2 5.9 8.5

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-26 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-23. Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to fields of shortage by

subject matter, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Subject Matter

ESL or

 District Special Comp. Physical Biological Bilingual Foreign Vocational

Characteristic Education Math Sci. Science Sciences Education Language Education Other

 TOTAL 6.2 3.2 1.7 2.7 2.8 3.2 2.0 2.5 1.1

District Size

 Under 1,000 5.0 4.0 1.7 3.0 3.4 1.6 2.0 2.7 1.0

 1,000 to 9,999 6.8 2.3 1.8 2.4 2.2 4.3 2.2 2.4 1.3

 10,000 or more 12.8 2.8 0.6 2.1 2.2 9.9 1.0 2.5 1.3

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 4.5 2.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 1.0 1.7 2.1 1.0

 10% to under 50% 7.1 3.8 2.2 3.0 3.2 4.3 2.4 3.1 1.3

 50% or more 13.0 7.5 2.2 5.7 5.5 12.4 3.3 3.6 1.1

Minority Teachers

 None 4.2 3.1 1.4 2.4 2.9 1.2 2.1 2.3 1.0

 More than 0% to under 20% 7.4 3.2 1.9 3.0 2.6 4.3 1.8 2.6 1.2

 20% or more 11.7 3.9 1.6 3.2 3.5 10.0 3.3 3.8 1.3

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 16.2 3.3 1.3 2.9 3.0 11.0 1.2 3.0 1.1

 Urban-outside central city 5.8 2.4 1.3 2.0 1.8 3.8 1.6 2.3 0.7

 Nonurban area 5.7 3.8 2.0 3.2 3.6 2.2 2.4 2.7 1.4

Region by District Size

 Northeast 3.7 1.8 0.8 1.7 1.0 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.7

 Under 1,000 3.2 3.1 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.0 0.5 0.5

 1,000 to 9,999 3.9 0.9 1.3 2.2 1.4 1.0 0.6 1.0 0.8

 10,000 or more 9.9 2.2 0.0 2.2 2.2 4.3 0.0 4.3 2.2

 Midwest 4.8 2.5 1.6 2.4 2.3 1.4 2.5 2.4 1.5

 Under 1,000 4.5 2.7 1.7 2.6 2.6 1.3 2.8 2.7 1.3

 1,000 to 9,999 5.1 2.4 1.5 2.0 1.9 1.6 2.3 2.1 1.8

 10,000 or more 7.7 1.1 0.0 1.1 1.1 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.8

 South 10.6 7.0 3.0 5.4 6.3 5.5 2.9 5.3 0.9

 Under 1,000 9.3 11.0 3.5 7.8 10.1 3.3 2.9 6.2 0.6

 1,000 to 9,999 10.1 4.1 2.9 3.9 3.7 6.0 3.3 4.8 1.0

 10,000 or more 18.6 5.0 1.1 3.4 3.7 12.2 0.8 3.6 2.0

 West 6.3 1.8 1.2 1.5 1.9 6.4 1.9 1.4 1.1

 Under 1,000 3.8 2.0 1.4 1.6 2.1 1.5 1.2 1.5 1.0

 1,000 to 9,999 10.5 1.6 1.2 1.6 1.7 13.7 2.9 1.4 1.3

 10,000 or more 8.6 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.9 13.4 2.1 1.3 0.5

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-27

Table A-24. Percentage of school districts in which free training is offered to prepare staff members to teach in

fields with current or anticipated shortages, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent Percent Percent

 TOTAL 11.7 10.3 19.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 9.9 7.9 17.5

 1,000 to 9,999 12.8 11.7 19.1

 10,000 or more 22.9 28.1 34.5

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 8.6 7.4 15.0

 10% to under 50% 13.7 14.3 20.7

 50% or more 24.4 19.6 37.3

Minority Teachers

 None 8.7 6.3 14.4

 More than 0% to under 20% 11.8 12.8 21.2

 20% or more 28.7 24.0 38.0

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 16.1 28.5

 Urban-outside central city - 10.0 17.5

 Nonurban area - 10.1 19.5

Region by District Size

 Northeast 9.4 7.8 13.5

 Under 1,000 9.3 6.7 14.1

 1,000 to 9,999 9.3 8.4 12.9

 10,000 or more 17.0 15.5 25.3

 Midwest 7.2 4.7 13.1

 Under 1,000 7.3 5.7 15.4

 1,000 to 9,999 6.9 2.8 9.7

 10,000 or more 8.4 8.7 13.2

 South 18.8 19.8 26.6

 Under 1,000 10.1 13.0 21.9

 1,000 to 9,999 23.9 23.5 28.5

 10,000 or more 32.2 33.2 37.1

 West 15.0 13.3 27.7

 Under 1,000 15.6 8.9 20.6

 1,000 to 9,999 12.9 18.2 36.6

 10,000 or more 19.1 34.5 44.4

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-28 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-25. Percentage of school districts in which free training is offered to prepare staff members to teach in

fields of current or anticipated shortage by subject matter, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Subject Matter

ESL or

 District Special Comp. Physical Biological Bilingual Foreign Vocational

Characteristic Education Math Sci. Science Sciences Education Language Education Other

 TOTAL 12.2 11.3 9.5 9.1 9.1 10.1 6.1 6.6 0.9

District Size

 Under 1,000 12.0 11.7 10.2 9.3 9.5 8.9 6.2 7.4 --

 1,000 to 9,999 11.6 10.7 8.6 8.8 8.6 10.2 5.7 5.6 0.6

 10,000 or more 18.6 12.2 11.0 10.0 10.0 23.1 9.2 7.6 --

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 10.5 10.1 9.0 8.1 8.0 6.1 5.8 6.5 --

 10% to under 50% 13.6 11.0 9.6 9.0 9.1 12.6 6.4 6.4 --

 50% or more 17.4 18.7 12.4 15.5 16.1 26.4 7.4 8.2 --

Minority Teachers

 None 10.2 9.5 8.7 7.9 8.0 6.1 5.9 6.5 --

 More than 0% to under 20% 12.7 11.9 9.8 9.7 9.4 13.0 6.1 6.4 --

 20% or more 22.4 19.4 14.3 14.4 15.7 19.7 7.4 9.4 --

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 14.3 7.7 8.3 6.9 7.5 20.3 5.8 7.5 --

 Urban-outside central city 8.9 9.3 7.7 6.8 6.5 10.6 4.1 4.1 --

 Nonurban area 14.4 12.9 11.0 10.9 11.1 9.1 7.6 8.4 --

Region by District Size

 Northeast 9.2 9.3 9.0 6.5 5.9 5.9 4.5 4.7 --

 Under 1,000 9.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 1,000 to 9,999 9.1 8.7 8.5 7.2 6.4 6.2 5.0 4.8 --

 10,000 or more -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 Midwest 8.5 8.7 7.8 7.6 7.6 5.4 6.0 6.5 --

 Under 1,000 9.6 9.9 9.4 8.7 8.9 -- 7.0 7.9 --

 1,000 to 9,999 6.8 6.9 5.6 6.0 5.9 -- -- 4.5 --

 10,000 or more 9.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 South 19.3 15.2 11.2 12.4 12.9 13.4 8.3 9.0 --

 Under 1,000 17.9 14.7 13.6 11.9 12.0 15.3 -- 10.9 --

 1,000 to 9,999 19.0 15.5 9.3 12.7 13.6 10.8 7.3 7.5 --

 10,000 or more 27.4 15.3 11.1 13.0 13.0 19.4 10.4 9.0 --

 West 14.2 13.9 11.6 11.1 11.2 20.1 5.7 6.1 --

 Under 1,000 14.0 13.9 9.8 11.3 12.0 -- -- 5.9 --

 1,000 to 9,999 14.9 14.5 14.6 11.5 10.4 30.8 7.3 6.5 --

 10,000 or more 13.4 11.4 12.5 8.4 7.9 39.1 10.6 -- --

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-29

Table A-26. Average low and high salary for full time teachers in actual and in constant 1993-94 dollars, by

selected district characteristics: 1990-91 to 1993-94a

School Year

1990-91 1990-91 1993-94

 District Actual Dollars Constant 1993-94 Dollars Actual Dollars b

Characteristic Low High Low High Low High

 TOTAL 19,770 35,415 21,586 38,669 21,817 39,847

District Size

 Under 1,000 18,814 31,581 20,542 34,482 20,689 35,448

 1,000 to 9,999 20,809 39,673 22,721 43,318 22,960 44,278

 10,000 or more 21,837 42,876 23,843 46,815 23,223 45,599

Minority Studentsc

 Under 10% 19,272 34,325 21,043 37,478 21,324 38,601

 10% to under 50% 20,570 37,428 22,460 40,866 22,501 42,063

 50% or more 20,943 37,441 22,867 40,880 22,777 40,930

Minority Teachers

 None 18,879 32,331 20,614 35,301 20,749 36,335

 More than 0% to under 20% 20,787 39,136 22,697 42,731 22,981 43,893

 20% or more 20,281 36,113 22,144 39,430 21,855 38,598

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 21,869 40,602 23,878 44,331 23,491 44,584

 Urban-outside central city 21,446 41,290 23,416 45,083 23,786 46,634

 Nonurban area 18,524 31,214 20,225 34,082 20,302 34,695

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 22,467 43,791 24,530 47,814 25,467 50,793

 Urban-inside central city 23,115 45,089 25,238 49,230 26,578 52,318

 Urban-outside central city 23,455 47,235 25,610 51,574 26,905 55,083

 Nonurban area 20,664 37,602 22,562 41,056 22,697 42,672

 Midwest 18,505 32,455 20,204 35,437 20,644 37,061

 Urban-inside central city 20,705 41,907 22,607 45,757 23,260 47,165

 Urban-outside central city 20,041 39,355 21,882 42,971 22,338 44,453

 Nonurban area 17,678 28,760 19,302 31,402 19,605 32,585

 South 18,896 31,342 20,631 34,221 20,416 33,870

 Urban-inside central city 20,268 35,271 22,129 38,511 21,775 37,592

 Urban-outside central city 19,300 32,842 21,073 35,859 20,884 35,641

 Nonurban area 18,640 30,481 20,352 33,281 20,114 32,845

 West 20,457 37,193 22,337 40,609 21,804 40,406

 Urban-inside central city 23,237 41,821 25,371 45,663 24,178 46,334

 Urban-outside central city 22,031 41,022 24,055 44,790 23,208 44,595

 Nonurban area 18,943 33,828 20,683 36,935 20,539 36,728

a) In districts with salary schedules, the low salary corresponds to bachelor’s degree with no teaching experience and high is equivalent to maximum scheduled

salary. Districts without salary schedule reported their lowest and highest base salaries for the year.

b) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

c) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
A-30 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-27. Average scheduled salary for teachers (in constant 1993-94 dollars) by education and teaching

experience for school districts with salary schedules, by selected district characteristics: 1990-91 and

1993-94

1990-91 (Constant 1993-94 Dollars) 1993-94 (Actual Dollars) a

Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s

 District without without with 20 yrs without without with 20 yrs

Characteristic Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience

 TOTAL 21,742 23,691 36,249 21,923 23,956 37,213

District Size

 Under 1,000 20,747 22,546 33,364 20,817 22,777 34,360

 1,000 to 9,999 22,714 24,802 39,185 22,940 25,042 39,934

 10,000 or more 23,834 26,163 41,194 23,212 25,327 39,657

Minority Studentsb

 Under 10% 21,231 23,177 35,461 21,498 23,597 36,655

 10% to under 50% 22,522 24,485 37,754 22,445 24,361 38,246

 50% or more 22,935 24,877 37,419 22,784 24,784 37,378

Minority Teachers

 None 20,829 22,662 34,226 20,875 22,882 35,043

 More than 0% to under 20% 22,714 24,793 38,717 22,979 25,090 39,810

 20% or more 22,139 24,097 35,412 21,827 23,533 34,394

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 23,867 25,521 40,827 23,476 25,328 39,857

 Urban-outside central city 23,446 25,549 40,927 23,781 26,060 42,680

 Nonurban area 20,384 22,250 32,624 20,389 22,247 32,839

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 24,604 26,617 43,453 25,581 27,727 46,594

 Urban-inside central city 25,195 27,170 43,749 26,580 28,660 47,666

 Urban-outside central city 25,706 27,844 46,197 26,918 29,272 50,299

 Nonurban area 22,516 24,302 38,366 22,693 24,406 38,739

 Midwest 20,478 22,490 34,287 20,879 23,013 35,718

 Urban-inside central city 22,607 24,844 41,070 23,262 25,633 42,471

 Urban-outside central city 21,917 24,087 39,323 22,415 24,729 41,229

 Nonurban area 19,601 21,517 31,245 19,822 21,835 32,017

 South 20,639 22,006 31,556 20,407 21,714 30,955

 Urban-inside central city 22,109 23,320 35,634 21,718 22,901 33,999

 Urban-outside central city 21,081 22,544 32,913 20,879 22,177 32,256

 Nonurban area 20,359 21,701 30,729 20,108 21,427 30,175

 West 22,458 24,895 38,006 21,913 24,505 37,800

 Urban-inside central city 25,371 26,854 43,224 24,263 26,299 40,139

 Urban-outside central city 24,068 26,493 41,125 23,219 26,055 40,874

 Nonurban area 20,767 23,371 34,800 20,616 23,057 35,039

a) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

b) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-31

Table A-28. Number and percentage of school districts with collective bargaining units, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

 District

Characteristic Number Percent

 TOTAL 9,586 64.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 4,391 57.6

 1,000 to 9,999 4,746 71.3

 10,000 or more 450 63.5

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 6,514 72.0

 10% to under 50% 2,356 55.0

 50% or more 679 42.1

Minority Teachers

 None 4,901 67.2

 More than 0% to under 20% 4,366 65.6

 20% or more 319 30.7

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 392 69.9

 Urban-outside central city 4,721 78.6

 Nonurban area 4,473 53.1

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 3,037 98.1

 Urban-inside central city 83 97.9

 Urban-outside central city 1,939 99.0

 Nonurban area 1,014 96.6

 Midwest 4,168 73.7

 Urban-inside central city 147 93.9

 Urban-outside central city 1,670 86.1

 Nonurban area 2,351 66.1

 South 392 11.9

 Urban-inside central city 34 18.2

 Urban-outside central city 160 17.9

 Nonurban area 198 8.9

 West 1,990 67.8

 Urban-inside central city 128 95.6

 Urban-outside central city 952 78.8

 Nonurban area 910 57.2

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-32 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-29. Average scheduled salary for teachers by education and teaching experience in school districts with

and without collective bargaining units, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

With Collective Bargaining Units Without Collective Bargaining Units

Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s

 District without without with 20 yrs without without with 20 yrs

Characteristic Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience

 TOTAL 22,850 25,115 40,375 20,127 21,712 31,088

District Size

 Under 1,000 21,560 23,838 37,204 19,642 21,097 29,859

 1,000 to 9,999 23,906 26,146 43,033 20,565 22,325 32,310

 10,000 or more 23,963 26,360 42,480 21,908 23,534 34,758

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 22,144 24,328 38,807 19,472 21,306 29,911

 10% to under 50% 24,157 26,603 43,873 20,335 21,598 31,311

 50% or more 25,032 27,459 43,099 21,140 22,827 33,193

Minority Teachers

 None 21,529 23,683 37,312 19,197 20,825 29,220

 More than 0% to under 20% 24,200 26,600 43,648 20,657 22,219 32,514

 20% or more 24,111 26,184 41,359 20,829 22,375 31,353

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 24,208 26,356 42,009 21,754 22,909 34,790

 Urban-outside central city 24,486 26,904 45,034 21,192 22,958 34,033

 Nonurban area 20,969 23,079 35,221 19,652 21,190 29,811

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 25,623 27,765 46,715 22,996 25,386 39,105

 Urban-inside central city 26,670 28,759 47,922 -- -- --

 Urban-outside central city 26,921 29,264 50,306 -- -- --

 Nonurban area 22,764 24,483 38,960 -- -- --

 Midwest 21,376 23,620 37,556 18,911 20,612 28,452

 Urban-inside central city 23,331 25,743 42,557 -- -- --

 Urban-outside central city 22,688 25,045 42,340 20,636 22,674 34,005

 Nonurban area 20,326 22,480 33,862 18,318 19,910 26,516

 South 21,752 23,362 32,146 20,226 21,491 30,795

 Urban-inside central city 21,762 23,223 32,151 21,708 22,829 34,415

 Urban-outside central city 21,946 23,568 33,634 20,646 21,874 31,956

 Nonurban area 21,593 23,219 30,936 19,962 21,252 30,101

 West 22,210 24,824 38,899 21,185 23,725 35,110

 Urban-inside central city 24,321 26,385 40,300 -- -- --

 Urban-outside central city 23,287 26,094 41,358 22,956 25,908 39,011

 Nonurban area 20,759 23,246 36,076 20,386 22,753 33,371

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-33

Table A-30. Number and percentage of school districts offering retirement plans to teachers, by selected district

characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 15,035 98.6 15,315 98.7 14,826 98.9

District Size

 Under 1,000 7,776 97.8 8,274 98.2 7,491 98.2

 1,000 to 9,999 6,624 99.5 6,365 99.4 6,627 99.6

 10,000 or more 636 99.8 676 99.8 708 100.0

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 9,686 98.2 9,926 99.2 8,906 98.4

 10% to under 50% 3,364 99.2 3,925 99.5 4,267 99.6

 50% or more 1,904 99.7 1,436 93.9 1,608 99.8

Minority Teachers

 None 7,694 97.9 7,812 98.1 7,177 98.4

 More than 0% to under 20% 5,972 99.3 6,340 99.4 6,613 99.4

 20% or more 1,370 99.7 1,163 99.6 1,036 99.7

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 604 88.3 561 100.0

 Urban-outside central city - - 5,799 99.5 5,961 99.3

 Nonurban area - - 8,912 99.0 8,305 98.6

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - - 3,091 99.7 3,062 99.0

 Urban-inside central city - - 101 100.0 85 100.0

 Urban-outside central city - - 1,906 99.5 1,944 99.2

 Nonurban area - - 1,084 99.8 1,033 98.4

 Midwest - - 5,869 99.1 5,548 98.2

 Urban-inside central city - - 152 99.0 157 100.0

 Urban-outside central city - - 1,854 98.9 1,913 98.7

 Nonurban area - - 3,863 99.2 3,478 97.8

 South - - 3,387 99.2 3,302 99.9

 Urban-inside central city - - 180 100.0 185 100.0

 Urban-outside central city - - 881 100.0 896 100.0

 Nonurban area - - 2,327 98.8 2,220 99.8

 West - - 2,968 96.6 2,914 99.3

 Urban-inside central city - - 171 68.5 134 100.0

 Urban-outside central city - - 1,159 99.9 1,208 99.9

 Nonurban area - - 1,638 98.5 1,573 98.8

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-34 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-31. Percentage of school districts with retirement plans that permit teachers full or partial credit for

teaching experience obtained in another school district within-state and outside-the-state, by selected

district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Within-State Outside-the-State

Characteristic Full Credit Partial Credit Full Credit Partial Credit

 TOTAL 96.2 2.4 42.5 23.4

District Size

 Under 1,000 96.2 2.2 43.5 24.8

 1,000 to 9,999 96.0 2.7 42.1 22.1

 10,000 or more 96.7 -- 35.5 19.8

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 95.3 2.9 44.4 24.0

 10% to under 50% 97.1 -- 41.2 23.4

 50% or more 98.0 -- 35.3 19.4

Minority Teachers

 None 95.5 3.0 43.5 24.7

 More than 0% to under 20% 96.6 1.8 41.8 21.9

 20% or more 98.0 -- 40.1 23.3

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 98.2 -- 41.1 21.0

 Urban-outside central city 96.9 1.8 43.3 21.2

 Nonurban area 95.4 2.9 42.0 25.0

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 97.8 -- 53.8 20.4

 Urban-inside central city 100.0 0.0 56.2 21.3

 Urban-outside central city 97.5 -- 54.7 21.8

 Nonurban area 98.2 -- 51.7 17.6

 Midwest 93.6 3.9 41.2 26.4

 Urban-inside central city 96.6 -- 50.2 26.8

 Urban-outside central city 94.9 -- 46.4 26.3

 Nonurban area 92.7 4.8 37.9 26.5

 South 99.0 -- 52.6 24.3

 Urban-inside central city 99.4 -- 51.1 25.7

 Urban-outside central city 99.3 -- 48.6 24.4

 Nonurban area 98.8 -- 54.4 24.2

 West 96.1 2.5 21.6 19.5

 Urban-inside central city 97.5 -- 7.1 7.6

 Urban-outside central city 97.6 -- 15.8 9.8

 Nonurban area 94.9 3.0 27.4 28.0

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-35

Table A-32. Number and percentage of school districts allowing teachers to purchase credit toward retirement plan

for experience obtained in other school districts within-state and outside-the-state, by selected

district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Within-State Outside-the-State

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 1,324 9.1 7,936 81.3

District Size

 Under 1,000 757 10.3 4,016 78.5

 1,000 to 9,999 510 7.8 3,576 84.1

 10,000 or more 58 8.3 344 87.6

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 749 8.6 4,906 80.6

 10% to under 50% 428 10.1 2,307 83.7

 50% or more 141 8.8 698 79.3

Minority Teachers

 None 596 8.4 3,869 79.0

 More than 0% to under 20% 593 9.1 3,525 83.7

 20% or more 136 13.2 542 82.5

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 50 9.0 318 91.3

 Urban-outside central city 519 8.8 3,205 83.4

 Nonurban area 755 9.2 4,412 79.2

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 305 10.1 1,961 86.4

 Urban-inside central city 12 14.1 56 84.8

 Urban-outside central city 194 10.0 1,293 86.9

 Nonurban area 99 9.7 612 85.4

 Midwest 447 8.3 2,905 77.4

 Urban-inside central city 12 8.0 114 94.8

 Urban-outside central city 132 7.1 1,137 81.8

 Nonurban area 302 8.9 1,653 73.8

 South 347 10.5 2,163 85.2

 Urban-inside central city 4 2.2 131 92.3

 Urban-outside central city 96 10.7 554 84.6

 Nonurban area 246 11.1 1,478 84.8

 West 226 7.9 907 75.6

 Urban-inside central city 22 16.1 16 83.4

 Urban-outside central city 97 8.1 221 71.4

 Nonurban area 108 7.0 670 76.9

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-36 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-33. Average number of years of credit required in English, mathematics, social science, physical/biological

science, computer science, and foreign language for high school graduation in school districts with

4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1990-91 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 11.8 12.1

District Size

 Under 1,000 11.8 12.2

 1,000 to 9,999 11.9 12.1

 10,000 or more 11.8 12.0

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 11.7 11.9

 10% to under 50% 12.0 12.4

 50% or more 12.3 12.8

Minority Teachers

 None 11.7 11.9

 More than 0% to under 20% 11.9 12.2

 20% or more 12.2 12.8

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 12.0 12.0

 Urban-outside central city 11.9 12.1

 Nonurban area 11.8 12.1

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 12.9 13.1

 Urban-inside central city 12.2 12.1

 Urban-outside central city 12.9 13.1

 Nonurban area 12.9 13.2

 Midwest 11.1 11.2

 Urban-inside central city 11.0 11.0

 Urban-outside central city 10.8 11.0

 Nonurban area 11.2 11.3

 South 12.2 12.7

 Urban-inside central city 12.9 12.7

 Urban-outside central city 12.2 12.6

 Nonurban area 12.1 12.8

 West 11.8 12.0

 Urban-inside central city 11.3 11.8

 Urban-outside central city 11.6 11.8

 Nonurban area 12.0 12.1

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-37

Table A-34. Average number of years of English required for high school graduation in school districts with 4-year

programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 3.8 3.8 3.9

District Size

 Under 1,000 3.7 3.8 3.8

 1,000 to 9,999 3.8 3.8 3.9

 10,000 or more 3.8 3.8 3.9

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 3.7 3.8 3.8

 10% to under 50% 3.8 3.9 3.9

 50% or more 3.9 3.9 3.9

Minority Teachers

 None 3.7 3.7 3.8

 More than 0% to under 20% 3.8 3.8 3.9

 20% or more 3.9 3.9 3.9

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 3.8 3.9

 Urban-outside central city - 3.8 3.8

 Nonurban area - 3.8 3.9

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 3.9 4.0

 Urban-inside central city - 4.0 3.9

 Urban-outside central city - 3.9 4.0

 Nonurban area - 3.9 4.0

 Midwest - 3.6 3.7

 Urban-inside central city - 3.6 3.8

 Urban-outside central city - 3.6 3.7

 Nonurban area - 3.6 3.7

 South - 3.9 4.0

 Urban-inside central city - 4.0 4.0

 Urban-outside central city - 4.0 4.0

 Nonurban area - 3.9 4.0

 West - 3.8 3.9

 Urban-inside central city - 3.5 3.7

 Urban-outside central city - 3.7 3.7

 Nonurban area - 3.9 3.9

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-38 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-35. Average number of years of mathematics required for high school graduation in school districts with

4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 2.4 2.4 2.5

District Size

 Under 1,000 2.4 2.4 2.5

 1,000 to 9,999 2.4 2.5 2.5

 10,000 or more 2.4 2.5 2.5

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 2.3 2.4 2.4

 10% to under 50% 2.5 2.5 2.6

 50% or more 2.6 2.6 2.7

Minority Teachers

 None 2.3 2.4 2.4

 More than 0% to under 20% 2.4 2.5 2.5

 20% or more 2.6 2.6 2.7

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 2.5 2.5

 Urban-outside central city - 2.4 2.5

 Nonurban area - 2.4 2.5

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 2.6 2.7

 Urban-inside central city - 2.5 2.7

 Urban-outside central city - 2.6 2.7

 Nonurban area - 2.5 2.6

 Midwest - 2.2 2.3

 Urban-inside central city - 2.2 2.1

 Urban-outside central city - 2.2 2.2

 Nonurban area - 2.2 2.3

 South - 2.7 2.8

 Urban-inside central city - 2.9 2.9

 Urban-outside central city - 2.7 2.8

 Nonurban area - 2.6 2.8

 West - 2.4 2.3

 Urban-inside central city - 2.4 2.2

 Urban-outside central city - 2.3 2.3

 Nonurban area - 2.4 2.4

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-39

Table A-36. Average number of years of social science required for high school graduation in school districts with

4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 2.8 2.9 3.0

District Size

 Under 1,000 2.8 2.8 2.9

 1,000 to 9,999 2.8 2.9 3.0

 10,000 or more 2.8 2.9 3.0

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 2.8 2.9 3.0

 10% to under 50% 2.8 2.9 2.9

 50% or more 2.9 2.9 3.1

Minority Teachers

 None 2.8 2.9 3.0

 More than 0% to under 20% 2.8 2.9 3.0

 20% or more 2.8 2.8 3.0

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 2.9 2.9

 Urban-outside central city - 2.9 3.1

 Nonurban area - 2.8 2.9

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 3.3 3.3

 Urban-inside central city - 2.9 2.9

 Urban-outside central city - 3.3 3.4

 Nonurban area - 3.3 3.3

 Midwest - 2.8 2.8

 Urban-inside central city - 2.8 2.8

 Urban-outside central city - 2.7 2.8

 Nonurban area - 2.8 2.9

 South - 2.7 2.8

 Urban-inside central city - 3.0 3.0

 Urban-outside central city - 2.7 2.9

 Nonurban area - 2.7 2.8

 West - 3.0 3.1

 Urban-inside central city - 3.0 3.2

 Urban-outside central city - 3.0 3.2

 Nonurban area - 2.9 3.0

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-40 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-37. Average number of years of physical and biological sciences required for high school graduation in

school districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 2.0 2.1 2.2

District Size

 Under 1,000 2.1 2.1 2.2

 1,000 to 9,999 2.0 2.1 2.2

 10,000 or more 2.1 2.1 2.2

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 2.0 2.1 2.2

 10% to under 50% 2.1 2.2 2.2

 50% or more 2.2 2.2 2.3

Minority Teachers

 None 2.0 2.1 2.2

 More than 0% to under 20% 2.0 2.1 2.2

 20% or more 2.2 2.2 2.4

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 2.1 2.1

 Urban-outside central city - 2.1 2.2

 Nonurban area - 2.2 2.2

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 2.3 2.3

 Urban-inside central city - 2.2 2.1

 Urban-outside central city - 2.3 2.3

 Nonurban area - 2.3 2.3

 Midwest - 2.0 2.0

 Urban-inside central city - 1.9 2.0

 Urban-outside central city - 1.9 1.9

 Nonurban area - 2.0 2.1

 South - 2.2 2.4

 Urban-inside central city - 2.3 2.3

 Urban-outside central city - 2.2 2.3

 Nonurban area - 2.3 2.4

 West - 2.1 2.1

 Urban-inside central city - 2.0 2.1

 Urban-outside central city - 1.9 2.1

 Nonurban area - 2.2 2.2

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-41

Table A-38. Percentage of school districts with high school graduation requirements in computer science, by

selected district characteristics: 1990-91 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent of Districts Percent of Districts

 TOTAL 33.0 36.5

District Size

 Under 1,000 40.3 45.9

 1,000 to 9,999 27.4 31.3

 10,000 or more 25.9 20.3

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 32.9 37.2

 10% to under 50% 31.8 35.5

 50% or more 36.9 35.5

Minority Teachers

 None 35.9 39.8

 More than 0% to under 20% 29.3 34.0

 20% or more 37.3 33.8

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 30.5 28.1

 Urban-outside central city 27.5 30.2

 Nonurban area 36.4 41.3

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 28.4 32.1

 Urban-inside central city 20.5 21.6

 Urban-outside central city 25.3 24.8

 Nonurban area 35.5 48.6

 Midwest 35.5 37.1

 Urban-inside central city 32.0 44.3

 Urban-outside central city 28.6 33.3

 Nonurban area 39.1 38.8

 South 33.7 39.0

 Urban-inside central city 39.7 21.0

 Urban-outside central city 29.5 37.3

 Nonurban area 34.7 41.1

 West 30.8 36.3

 Urban-inside central city 19.7 22.5

 Urban-outside central city 27.3 24.6

 Nonurban area 33.1 43.6

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
A-42 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-39. Percentage of school districts with graduation requirements in foreign language in school districts with

4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent of Districts Percent of Districts Percent of Districts

 TOTAL 14.2 18.8 17.6

District Size

 Under 1,000 13.1 19.4 16.6

 1,000 to 9,999 14.3 17.7 17.9

 10,000 or more 22.3 23.6 21.4

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 12.2 16.8 13.3

 10% to under 50% 16.7 20.8 22.2

 50% or more 20.1 26.0 28.7

Minority Teachers

 None 12.1 16.4 13.4

 More than 0% to under 20% 15.2 20.1 19.7

 20% or more 19.6 24.7 28.7

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 22.9 19.2

 Urban-outside central city - 20.3 19.2

 Nonurban area - 17.5 16.4

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 29.9 29.1

 Urban-inside central city - 17.8 19.5

 Urban-outside central city - 28.7 27.8

 Nonurban area - 33.9 33.1

 Midwest - 9.7 6.4 

 Urban-inside central city - 17.6 8.4

 Urban-outside central city - 8.6 7.4

 Nonurban area - 9.8 5.8

 South - 21.1 21.6

 Urban-inside central city - 26.9 16.2

 Urban-outside central city - 16.6 18.1

 Nonurban area - 22.2 23.4

 West - 24.6 24.4

 Urban-inside central city - 29.7 45.3

 Urban-outside central city - 38.3 31.6

 Nonurban area - 18.2 19.0

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-43

Table A-40. Number and percentage of school districts with community service requirements for high school

graduation in school districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Number of Percent of

Characteristic Districts Districts

 TOTAL 364 3.3

District Size

 Under 1,000 102 2.3

 1,000 to 9,999 236 3.9

 10,000 or more 26 3.9

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 218 3.3

 10% to under 50% 124 3.7

 50% or more 22 1.9

Minority Teachers

 None 151 3.1

 More than 0% to under 20% 199 3.7

 20% or more 13 1.6

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 18 4.0

 Urban-outside central city 206 4.8

 Nonurban area 139 2.2

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 138 6.3

 Urban-inside central city 4 4.5

 Urban-outside central city 110 7.8

 Nonurban area 24 3.6

 Midwest 117 2.7

 Urban-inside central city 11 8.1

 Urban-outside central city 49 3.3

 Nonurban area 57 2.1

 South 53 1.7

 Urban-inside central city 4 2.3

 Urban-outside central city 21 2.5

 Nonurban area 28 1.3

 West 57 3.7

 Urban-inside central city 0 0.0

 Urban-outside central city 26 5.1

 Nonurban area 31 3.2

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-44 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-41. Percentage of school districts and number of students in grades K-12 participating in Chapter 1

programs, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Percent of Number of

Characteristic Districts Students

 TOTAL 91.6 5,954,190

District Size

 Under 1,000 85.7 415,656

 1,000 to 9,999 97.6 2,531,834

 10,000 or more 98.8 3,006,700

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 89.9 1,169,190

 10% to under 50% 94.1 1,676,181

 50% or more 96.7 3,108,819

Minority Teachers

 None 86.9 600,777

 More than 0% to under 20% 96.1 2,681,980

 20% or more 95.0 2,671,433

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 92.5 2,218,016

 Urban-outside central city 94.8 2,098,261

 Nonurban area 89.2 1,637,913

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 94.5 1,064,420

 Under 10% 95.7 319,267

 10% to under 50% 91.4 174,332

 50% or more 98.2 570,821

 Midwest 88.4 853,974

 Under 10% 87.8 449,395

 10% to under 50% 95.0 195,581

 50% or more 90.2 208,998

 South 97.1 2,212,521

 Under 10% 98.6 303,523

 10% to under 50% 96.6 864,842

 50% or more 96.6 1,044,157

 West 88.1 1,823,275

 Under 10% 81.0 97,006

 10% to under 50% 91.0 441,426

 50% or more 97.9 1,284,843

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-45

Table A-42. Percentage of school districts with various types of programs for prekindergarten-age children, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Type of Prekindergarten Programs

 District Head Day Special No PK

Characteristic Start Care Chapter 1 Education General Programs

 TOTAL 24.3 14.5 8.4 44.9 25.1 35.9 a

District Size

 Under 1,000 15.9 8.4 4.4 31.3 20.8 48.6

 1,000 to 9,999 31.8 18.9 10.8 57.3 28.0 24.2

 10,000 or more 44.8 39.3 29.7 74.2 43.8 9.1

Minority Studentsb

 Under 10% 22.3 11.7 6.2 42.4 22.1 40.7

 10% to under 50% 24.3 19.0 10.8 48.4 28.7 30.5

 50% or more 35.7 18.5 14.6 48.9 32.5 23.2

Minority Teachers

 None 19.9 8.6 5.7 38.6 22.1 44.1

 More than 0% to under 20% 26.4 19.9 9.9 50.7 26.6 29.6

 20% or more 41.9 22.3 18.6 52.2 36.4 18.9

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 35.9 33.2 26.3 63.7 38.1 16.0

 Urban-outside central city 20.3 17.5 6.4 45.5 25.1 36.5

 Nonurban area 26.4 11.2 8.7 43.2 24.2 36.8

Region by Percent Minority Studentsb

 Northeast 16.3 12.5 8.1 36.5 19.5 45.9

 Under 10% 16.7 11.9 8.1 33.3 18.6 47.8

 10% to under 50% 10.9 13.9 7.0 44.2 20.7 42.9

 50% or more 36.9 14.7 11.6 49.7 29.5 26.8

 Midwest 25.7 13.5 7.7 51.9 28.3 31.6

 Under 10% 25.1 12.1 6.7 50.1 26.3 33.3

 10% to under 50% 28.2 21.0 13.7 60.1 38.0 24.0

 50% or more 34.6 17.5 9.9 63.8 45.0 15.7

 South 33.1 14.6 14.3 46.4 35.2 24.8

 Under 10% 35.9 14.3 5.7 42.8 26.1 31.9

 10% to under 50% 29.6 13.8 15.1 48.1 36.9 24.1

 50% or more 38.1 16.7 22.5 46.5 42.0 17.9

 West 20.1 18.7 3.7 38.5 13.4 46.2

 Under 10% 12.4 8.2 1.4 29.0 9.5 62.5

 10% to under 50% 21.3 28.9 4.3 42.8 14.3 37.7

 50% or more 32.9 21.6 7.0 48.6 19.5 30.3

a) Totals sum to more than 100% since districts could provide more than one program.

b) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-46 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-43. Percentage of school districts with students eligible for participation and numbers of students in grades

K-12 approved for participation in and receiving free or reduced-price lunches through the National

School Lunch Program, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Percent of Students Approved Students Receiving Free

Characteristic Districts for Participation or Reduced-price Lunch

 TOTAL 92.6 17,224,542 13,073,607

District Size

 Under 1,000 87.7 1,260,477 847,756

 1,000 to 9,999 97.5 7,416,952 5,454,592

 10,000 or more 98.6 8,547,113 6,771,258

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 90.6 4,497,651 2,726,250

 10% to under 50% 96.4 6,027,891 4,551,890

 50% or more 96.3 6,699,000 5,795,467

Minority Teachers

 None 88.8 2,107,404 1,360,128

 More than 0% to under 20% 96.2 9,027,303 6,446,063

 20% or more 95.2 6,089,835 5,267,416

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 96.2 5,443,823 4,598,542

 Urban-outside central city 95.3 6,792,835 4,777,120

 Nonurban area 90.3 4,987,884 3,697,946

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 91.3 2,807,602 2,033,010

 Under 10% 91.7 928,032 586,908

 10% to under 50% 90.6 525,696 339,388

 50% or more 96.1 1,353,873 1,106,714

 Midwest 90.4 3,328,488 2,211,641

 Under 10% 89.4 1,945,330 1,086,304

 10% to under 50% 98.1 811,479 622,241

 50% or more 96.5 571,679 503,097

 South 98.2 7,137,168 5,752,211

 Under 10% 99.6 1,082,290 767,679

 10% to under 50% 98.3 3,297,023 2,594,003

 50% or more 96.4 2,757,855 2,390,529

 West 91.6 3,951,285 3,076,744

 Under 10% 86.1 541,999 285,359

 10% to under 50% 95.5 1,393,693 996,257

 50% or more 96.3 2,015,593 1,795,128

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-47

Table A-44. Number and percentage of school districts with a student test performance reporting policy, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Number of Percent of

Characteristic Districts Districts

 TOTAL 12,642 84.4

District Size

 Under 1,000 5,876 77.0

 1,000 to 9,999 6,094 91.6

 10,000 or more 672 94.9

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 7,333 81.1

 10% to under 50% 3,895 90.9

 50% or more 1,405 87.2

Minority Teachers

 None 5,686 77.9

 More than 0% to under 20% 6,043 90.8

 20% or more 913 87.9

Region

 Northeast 2,632 85.1

 Midwest 4,579 81.0

 South 3,033 91.7

 West 2,398 81.7

Metro Status by District Size

 Urban-inside central city 469 83.7

 Under 1,000 -- --

 1,000 to 9,999 217 85.2

 10,000 or more 231 93.5

 Urban-outside central city 5,417 90.2

 Under 1,000 1,838 87.2

 1,000 to 9,999 3,201 91.5

 10,000 or more 379 95.6

 Nonurban area 6,756 80.2

 Under 1,000 4,017 73.6

 1,000 to 9,999 2,676 92.3

 10,000 or more 62 95.4

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

Details may not add to totals due to rounding or cell suppression.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-48 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-45. Percentage of school districts with choice by type of choice program, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

Interdistrict Choice

 District Any Choice Magnet Dist. Open Transfers Outside of Transfers into

Characteristics Program School Enrollment District District

 TOTAL 34.1 7.8 13.8 28.5 25.6

District Size

 Under 1,000 35.5 5.9 8.7 32.0 26.3

 1,000 to 9,999 31.2 7.3 17.3 24.1 23.8

 10,000 or more 47.4 33.0 36.1 32.7 34.6

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 36.3 6.7 12.6 30.9 27.3

 10% to under 50% 32.7 8.3 16.2 26.7 24.2

 50% or more 27.1 12.8 14.3 20.7 20.6

Minority Teachers

 None 36.0 6.3 10.0 31.4 26.6

 More than 0% to under 20% 32.6 8.6 17.6 26.2 24.8

 20% or more 30.8 13.6 16.4 22.8 23.5

Region 

 Northeast 13.3 4.2 5.5 9.6 8.5

 Midwest 41.6 7.7 15.0 34.6 29.7

 South 29.5 7.7 10.4 24.0 23.8

 West 47.1 12.1 24.0 41.7 37.6

Metro Status by District Size

 Urban-inside central city 42.6 24.3 29.3 26.2 28.2

 Under 1,000 -- -- -- -- --

 1,000 to 9,999 36.9 11.3 26.7 22.3 23.2

 10,000 or more 54.8 43.1 38.5 36.5 38.6

 

 Urban-outside central city 27.8 7.6 15.4 22.1 19.6

 Under 1,000 21.2 -- -- 19.7 12.8

 1,000 to 9,999 29.9 8.2 17.8 22.6 22.3

 10,000 or more 43.9 28.4 34.5 30.3 32.1

 Nonurban area 38.1 6.9 11.7 33.2 29.7

 Under 1,000 41.2 7.2 9.1 37.1 31.7

 1,000 to 9,999 32.2 5.9 15.8 26.0 25.7

 10,000 or more 40.1 23.1 36.6 33.1 34.6

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-49

Table A-46. Percentage of school districts with written policies about student discipline, alcohol use, drug use, and

tobacco use, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Student Alcohol Drug Tobacco

Characteristic Discipline Use Use Use

 TOTAL 99.3 98.9 98.9 97.9

District Size

 Under 1,000 98.8 98.1 98.0 97.4

 1,000 to 9,999 99.9 99.7 99.7 98.6

 10,000 or more 99.6 99.3 99.3 98.1

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 99.6 99.0 99.0 98.0

 10% to under 50% 99.8 99.6 99.5 98.6

 50% or more 99.5 98.9 99.0 98.4

Minority Teachers

 None 99.1 98.3 98.3 97.3

 More than 0% to under 20% 99.7 99.5 99.5 98.7

 20% or more 98.6 98.6 98.8 97.5

Region 

 Northeast 99.0 97.6 97.7 95.6

 Midwest 99.3 98.9 98.8 98.1

 South 99.9 99.9 99.8 99.2

 West 99.2 99.0 99.0 98.7

Metro Status by District Size

 Urban-inside central city 99.4 99.2 99.2 98.3

 Under 1,000 96.1 98.3 98.3 98.3

 1,000 to 9,999 100.0 100.0 100.0 98.3

 10,000 or more 99.6 98.6 98.6 98.2

 

 Urban-outside central city 99.5 98.7 98.8 98.0

 Under 1,000 98.8 97.4 97.4 97.0

 1,000 to 9,999 99.9 99.3 99.5 98.5

 10,000 or more 99.6 99.5 99.5 98.2

 Nonurban area 99.2 99.0 98.9 97.9

 Under 1,000 98.8 98.4 98.3 97.5

 1,000 to 9,999 99.9 100.0 100.0 98.6

 10,000 or more 100.0 100.0 100.0 96.9

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-51

Section 2

State Tables
A-52 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-47. Number of full and part time teachers and percentage by race and ethnicity, by state: 1993-94

Total Percent by Race and Ethnicity

 State Teachers American Indian Asian Hispanic Black White

50 States and D.C. 2,599,569 0.3 1.0 3.4 8.2 87.0

Alabama 46,175 0.1 0.1 0.1 20.0 79.6

Alaska 8,303 5.4 1.5 1.3 2.0 89.7

Arizona 40,910 2.0 0.5 8.0 1.7 87.7

Arkansas 28,934 0.3 0.1 0.1 13.6 85.9

California 225,098 0.6 4.2 8.7 5.0 81.5

Colorado 30,087 0.4 0.8 4.8 1.5 92.5

Connecticut 36,533 0.1 0.2 2.5 2.7 94.5

Delaware 6,606 0.1 0.4 0.8 13.6 85.2

District of Columbia 6,708 0.1 0.8 0.3 62.9 35.9

Florida 121,319 0.2 0.3 6.7 14.1 78.7

Georgia 75,986 0.1 0.2 0.3 20.5 78.9

Hawaii 10,300 0.0 72.7 1.1 0.6 25.6

Idaho 12,351 0.2 0.6 1.1 0.1 98.0

Illinois 93,291 0.1 0.4 0.9 3.6 95.1

Indiana 57,845 0.0 0.2 0.5 4.6 94.8

Iowa 33,983 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 98.5

Kansas 31,127 0.5 0.3 1.0 1.9 96.3

Kentucky 40,864 0.1 0.1 0.1 3.8 95.9

Louisiana 47,430 0.0 0.2 0.3 26.5 73.0

Maine 16,769 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 99.6

Maryland 46,822 0.1 0.5 0.5 20.9 78.0

Massachusetts 63,342 0.1 0.7 2.1 3.1 94.1

Michigan 84,040 0.1 0.2 0.9 7.8 91.0

Minnesota 43,970 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 99.0

Mississippi 29,864 0.0 0.1 0.1 28.8 70.9

Missouri 57,468 0.1 0.2 0.4 7.7 91.5

Montana 11,643 2.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 97.1

Nebraska 17,334 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.4 98.9

Nevada 13,119 1.2 1.3 3.3 5.3 88.8

New Hampshire 12,383 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 99.5

New Jersey 87,504 0.0 0.7 2.0 6.7 90.6

New Mexico 19,049 1.4 0.6 23.2 1.1 73.6

New York 194,008 0.1 0.9 4.9 8.6 85.5

North Carolina 68,718 0.2 0.2 0.5 14.1 85.0

North Dakota 8,578 1.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 98.4

Ohio 109,168 0.0 0.2 0.3 7.3 92.2

Oklahoma 39,870 5.4 0.2 0.7 3.7 90.0

Oregon 25,356 0.5 1.5 1.6 1.1 95.4

Pennsylvania 114,322 0.0 0.2 0.3 5.7 93.8

Rhode Island 10,662 0.1 0.2 0.8 2.2 96.8

South Carolina 40,069 0.1 0.1 0.2 19.0 80.7

South Dakota 9,785 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 98.7

Tennessee 49,043 0.0 0.1 0.1 13.4 86.3

Texas 234,674 0.2 0.4 12.9 8.1 78.4

Utah 20,907 0.4 0.7 0.9 0.1 97.8

Vermont 8,220 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.1 99.5

Virginia 69,314 0.1 0.5 0.6 16.1 82.7

Washington 51,815 0.8 2.2 1.5 1.7 93.8

West Virginia 21,328 0.0 0.1 0.1 2.1 97.6

Wisconsin 59,749 0.2 0.3 0.6 2.7 96.1

Wyoming 6,828 0.8 0.5 1.5 0.6 96.6

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-53

Table A-48. Number of students and percentage by race and ethnicity, by state: 1993-94

Total Percent by Race and Ethnicity

 State Students American Indian Asian Hispanic Black White

50 States and D.C. 42,302,143 1.1 3.6 12.3 16.2 66.8

Alabama 740,467 0.9 0.6 0.4 35.3 62.8

Alaska 126,675 22.9 3.8 2.4 5.1 65.8

Arizona 749,470 7.4 1.6 27.3 3.9 59.8

Arkansas 436,752 0.2 0.6 0.9 25.1 73.2

California 5,165,520 0.8 11.5 36.9 8.2 42.7

Colorado 505,857 1.0 2.1 14.6 4.1 78.3

Connecticut 475,008 0.2 2.4 10.7 11.7 74.9

Delaware 101,310 0.2 1.8 3.5 27.4 67.1

District of Columbia 75,462 0.0 1.3 6.1 88.6 4.0

Florida 2,043,110 0.2 1.6 14.4 24.8 59.1

Georgia 1,216,641 0.1 1.4 1.5 36.1 60.9

Hawaii 179,877 0.3 72.8 5.2 2.7 19.0

Idaho 233,041 1.1 1.0 6.8 0.4 90.7

Illinois 1,478,038 0.3 3.1 5.6 12.0 79.1

Indiana 980,702 0.2 1.2 2.2 11.1 85.3

Iowa 481,273 0.4 1.6 1.7 3.2 93.2

Kansas 438,466 1.0 1.8 4.8 6.4 86.0

Kentucky 653,786 0.1 0.5 0.3 9.8 89.4

Louisiana 795,160 0.2 0.9 1.0 39.4 58.6

Maine 217,335 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.7 97.9

Maryland 744,266 0.3 2.4 1.6 35.7 60.0

Massachusetts 875,461 0.2 3.7 8.4 8.0 79.7

Michigan 1,526,649 1.1 1.4 2.3 19.9 75.1

Minnesota 710,619 2.7 1.7 1.2 1.5 93.0

Mississippi 511,698 0.1 0.5 0.2 49.5 49.7

Missouri 845,038 0.2 0.8 0.8 17.0 81.2

Montana 161,503 9.5 0.7 1.3 0.4 88.1

Nebraska 227,683 1.3 1.1 3.5 1.5 92.5

Nevada 235,514 2.0 4.0 14.3 9.2 70.5

New Hampshire 176,919 0.2 1.0 1.0 0.9 96.8

New Jersey 1,106,736 0.4 5.6 10.3 17.3 66.4

New Mexico 314,597 11.0 1.0 42.6 2.6 42.8

New York 2,763,694 0.4 5.1 17.1 19.8 57.5

North Carolina 1,078,941 1.5 1.0 1.2 28.9 67.4

North Dakota 120,971 7.1 0.6 0.8 0.7 90.9

Ohio 1,842,541 0.4 1.1 1.7 14.6 82.2

Oklahoma 573,178 13.9 1.2 3.6 10.0 71.3

Oregon 441,629 1.8 3.6 6.3 3.4 84.9

Pennsylvania 1,827,346 0.1 1.5 2.6 14.6 81.1

Rhode Island 145,179 0.3 3.2 8.7 7.2 80.6

South Carolina 650,041 0.2 0.6 0.5 42.4 56.3

South Dakota 133,601 8.8 0.7 0.6 0.7 89.1

Tennessee 840,236 0.1 0.8 0.4 24.0 74.8

Texas 3,573,243 0.2 1.9 35.2 15.2 47.4

Utah 467,120 1.5 2.0 4.6 0.6 91.3

Vermont 98,348 0.2 0.8 0.3 0.7 98.0

Virginia 1,019,518 0.1 3.5 2.3 27.0 67.1

Washington 935,569 2.9 6.4 7.1 4.6 79.0

West Virginia 312,221 0.1 0.4 0.2 3.7 95.6

Wisconsin 848,906 1.3 2.4 3.1 10.2 83.1

Wyoming 99,230 2.9 0.7 6.0 0.8 89.6

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-54 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-49. Total number of full time equivalent (FTE) teachers and percentage that consists of new hires, by

state: 1993-94

 Total FTE Percent

 State Teachers New Hires

50 States and D.C. 2,501,112 7.9

Alabama 44,468 8.1

Alaska 7,886 9.3

Arizona 39,334 11.1

Arkansas 27,771 8.1

California 215,044 8.0

Colorado 29,004 9.4

Connecticut 35,142 5.2

Delaware 6,555 6.5

District of Columbia 6,056 6.1

Florida 116,299 9.7

Georgia 74,405 10.0

Hawaii 10,300 11.5

Idaho 12,130 8.7

Illinois 89,862 8.6

Indiana 56,469 5.4

Iowa 32,120 6.4

Kansas 29,345 8.8

Kentucky 40,285 6.8

Louisiana 46,398 7.9

Maine 16,384 6.4

Maryland 43,627 8.4

Massachusetts 59,665 6.5

Michigan 80,674 3.6

Minnesota 42,271 9.0

Mississippi 29,321 10.2

Missouri 55,093 8.8

Montana 10,866 8.9

Nebraska 16,721 7.1

Nevada 12,177 10.4

New Hampshire 11,821 7.8

New Jersey 84,436 5.5

New Mexico 18,013 12.5

New York 181,499 4.5

North Carolina 66,259 10.8

North Dakota 8,100 6.7

Ohio 107,609 5.4

Oklahoma 39,269 9.1

Oregon 23,209 5.2

Pennsylvania 111,711 7.2

Rhode Island 10,329 2.9

South Carolina 39,363 9.1

South Dakota 9,343 7.9

Tennessee 48,148 8.3

Texas 231,393 12.0

Utah 20,320 8.0

Vermont 7,641 6.2

Virginia 65,637 8.9

Washington 47,036 8.4

West Virginia 20,718 2.5

Wisconsin 56,887 4.9

Wyoming 6,701 8.4

Details may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-55

Table A-50. Number of newly hired FTE teachers, and percentage of newly hired FTE teachers with regular state

certification, newly hired FTE teachers with emergency certification, and newly hired FTE teachers

lacking regular state or emergency certification in their field of assignment, by state: 1993-94

Number of Percent Newly Hired with Percent Newly Percent Newly Hired lacking

Newly Hired Regular State Certification Hired with Regular State or Emergency

 State Teachers in Field of Assignment Emergency Certification Certification in Field of Assignment

50 States and D.C. 197,323 86.5 7.6 5.9

Alabama 3,618 94.0 1.4 4.6

Alaska 731 99.6 0.4 0.0

Arizona 4,351 89.2 4.4 6.4

Arkansas 2,261 92.0 2.8 5.2

California 17,307 71.1 20.6 8.3

Colorado 2,718 90.9 5.2 3.9

Connecticut 1,828 96.8 0.3 2.9

Delaware 424 91.8 3.4 4.8

District of Columbia 372 13.8 32.6 53.6

Florida 11,271 78.0 10.0 12.0

Georgia 7,476 83.7 2.7 13.7

Hawaii 1,181 83.2 16.8 0.0

Idaho 1,050 95.8 2.5 1.8

Illinois 7,684 96.1 0.8 3.2

Indiana 3,029 95.3 3.9 0.9

Iowa 2,070 93.2 4.6 2.3

Kansas 2,570 97.0 0.6 2.4

Kentucky 2,736 94.8 2.3 3.0

Louisiana 3,661 69.5 21.5 9.0

Maine 1,045 90.9 8.8 0.3

Maryland 3,668 73.4 17.3 9.3

Massachusetts 3,876 85.2 4.3 10.5

Michigan 2,886 96.1 3.4 0.5

Minnesota 3,802 97.9 1.5 0.6

Mississippi 2,986 85.4 11.4 3.3

Missouri 4,863 91.6 5.0 3.4

Montana 971 98.0 1.4 0.6

Nebraska 1,181 92.3 5.8 1.9

Nevada 1,270 99.3 0.6 0.2

New Hampshire 927 91.4 4.4 4.2

New Jersey 4,647 91.1 4.5 4.4

New Mexico 2,255 73.5 10.8 15.8

New York 8,168 98.4 0.6 1.1

North Carolina 7,181 88.0 8.6 3.3

North Dakota 545 99.0 0.6 0.5

Ohio 5,788 97.0 2.2 0.8

Oklahoma 3,558 92.8 3.8 3.5

Oregon 1,204 93.9 4.2 1.9

Pennsylvania 8,032 96.5 0.9 2.7

Rhode Island 303 98.0 2.0 0.0

South Carolina 3,597 95.1 2.4 2.5

South Dakota 737 96.4 2.7 1.0

Tennessee 4,012 89.7 7.4 3.0

Texas 27,686 76.2 13.1 10.7

Utah 1,623 67.9 8.4 23.6

Vermont 476 98.0 1.3 0.7

Virginia 5,873 90.8 7.5 1.7

Washington 3,973 98.1 0.3 1.6

West Virginia 528 88.0 10.4 1.6

Wisconsin 2,762 95.0 4.5 0.5

Wyoming 566 96.8 2.6 0.7

Details may not add to totals and percentages may not sum to 100 because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-56 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-51. Percentage of school districts with different criteria for considering applicants for teaching positions,

by state: 1993-94

Certification Type (in Field) Special Knowledge Test

College Graduate of National

Full Emergency/ Major/Minor Teacher Ed. District Teacher

 State Standard Temporary in Teaching Field Program or State Exam

50 States and D.C. 83.3 67.4 71.9 66.9 51.2 30.7

Alabama 86.9 63.3 89.8 88.2 12.7 4.6

Alaska 66.4 45.4 71.0 22.1 0.0 0.0

Arizona 85.3 69.6 59.3 64.9 78.6 6.3

Arkansas 63.5 64.1 84.7 62.8 65.5 93.8

California 78.0 82.2 63.0 44.7 89.4 19.5

Colorado 77.2 68.2 55.7 69.7 86.7 1.5

Connecticut 95.2 58.7 72.0 56.8 84.5 11.9

Delaware 52.9 82.4 52.9 70.6 70.6 0.0

District of Columbia 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 a

Florida 58.0 75.8 36.3 27.1 72.5 1.5

Georgia 46.0 85.9 42.3 46.8 89.0 0.8

Hawaii 100.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 a

Idaho 88.7 66.4 75.1 62.4 28.3 85.5

Illinois 88.3 59.2 72.4 69.2 87.8 7.8

Indiana 88.2 68.9 80.5 80.6 68.0 72.8

Iowa 77.5 80.9 75.5 64.6 0.0 0.3

Kansas 89.7 55.2 80.6 75.4 76.7 53.5

Kentucky 93.5 54.8 95.2 92.6 39.7 79.1

Louisiana 78.7 84.3 78.2 60.0 17.0 91.6

Maine 87.6 69.3 59.2 67.2 40.6 65.2

Maryland 64.5 62.3 37.7 57.6 0.0 89.8

Massachusetts 89.9 68.0 41.5 59.7 6.1 1.3

Michigan 94.6 66.8 89.8 90.0 49.7 14.2

Minnesota 92.3 65.6 80.8 90.4 46.9 4.7

Mississippi 91.2 86.2 76.3 70.3 28.4 100.0

Missouri 64.6 82.6 86.9 68.7 20.2 14.1

Montana 85.7 56.6 73.8 77.7 33.2 72.9

Nebraska 89.3 55.7 83.7 69.0 51.6 11.9

Nevada 72.2 66.7 66.7 72.2 61.1 77.8

New Hampshire 85.0 78.9 55.4 70.7 7.1 0.0

New Jersey 88.4 52.9 37.4 44.0 33.8 77.6

New Mexico 74.8 76.1 85.4 70.9 48.3 84.6

New York 95.4 60.3 61.8 66.1 50.6 81.7

North Carolina 64.3 74.2 58.1 67.4 21.4 96.8

North Dakota 95.7 33.3 81.7 96.3 3.3 2.4

Ohio 97.0 57.3 84.9 78.1 29.1 35.6

Oklahoma 69.8 80.3 76.9 73.6 90.5 11.6

Oregon 72.7 50.2 74.1 39.3 38.9 14.4

Pennsylvania 97.6 58.7 73.6 81.7 69.1 50.1

Rhode Island 100.0 54.1 67.6 70.3 21.6 70.3

South Carolina 84.4 82.4 80.6 51.3 61.4 96.6

South Dakota 89.2 61.1 80.5 70.2 0.0 0.8

Tennessee 93.2 70.4 77.2 47.6 41.8 77.3

Texas 63.4 85.1 75.9 54.3 91.9 6.3

Utah 74.2 76.3 72.6 58.8 0.0 0.0

Vermont 98.3 64.8 55.3 63.7 4.1 0.9

Virginia 71.3 84.1 40.3 52.1 25.7 86.8

Washington 80.9 63.2 75.4 51.4 17.6 0.7

West Virginia 81.3 77.3 87.1 68.2 79.5 13.1

Wisconsin 84.6 72.6 80.0 90.0 10.6 0.0

Wyoming 85.7 60.7 57.8 69.0 6.0 0.0

a) The District of Columbia and Hawaii each have only one school district.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-57

Table A-52. Percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to teach in less desirable

locations or in fields of shortage, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Percent Percent Percent

50 States and D.C. 7.5 11.2 14.6

Alabama 3.9 4.5 6.7

Alaska 0.0 9.2 19.4

Arizona 13.9 28.5 35.7

Arkansas 0.6 11.1 12.2

California 6.3 12.1 16.8

Colorado 4.6 13.4 17.3

Connecticut 6.5 7.0 2.2

Delaware 0.0 0.0 5.9

District of Columbia 0.0 100.0 100.0 a

Florida 3.1 12.9 18.2

Georgia 10.8 21.7 36.3

Hawaii 0.0 100.0 100.0 a

Idaho 16.2 7.6 10.9

Illinois 1.5 8.1 12.8

Indiana 4.6 3.3 3.7

Iowa 7.8 6.5 9.4

Kansas 9.9 4.6 8.7

Kentucky 11.2 4.5 9.3

Louisiana 2.9 7.7 10.3

Maine 1.6 4.3 1.3

Maryland 0.0 9.5 14.4

Massachusetts 3.8 3.6 8.2

Michigan 5.6 9.6 10.3

Minnesota 13.5 3.8 15.6

Mississippi 2.0 10.2 13.5

Missouri 8.4 10.6 13.3

Montana 3.8 16.4 8.1

Nebraska 9.8 8.4 15.5

Nevada 17.6 29.4 38.9

New Hampshire 5.4 3.9 5.4

New Jersey 3.2 11.8 13.0

New Mexico 14.6 6.0 7.4

New York 9.7 11.3 11.5

North Carolina 7.7 14.7 32.5

North Dakota 9.9 9.8 18.0

Ohio 2.5 3.2 3.3

Oklahoma 6.1 17.8 22.1

Oregon 1.2 13.3 14.8

Pennsylvania 6.6 9.5 7.7

Rhode Island 7.0 3.1 13.5

South Carolina 3.6 18.4 7.7

South Dakota 9.3 16.5 21.0

Tennessee 2.2 7.0 5.0

Texas 25.1 29.3 44.0

Utah 20.5 10.1 20.8

Vermont 3.4 3.1 2.0

Virginia 7.8 10.9 8.6

Washington 2.0 1.9 4.0

West Virginia 6.2 15.1 25.2

Wisconsin 7.0 15.3 14.1

Wyoming 9.1 12.0 8.6

a) The District of Columbia and Hawaii each have only one school district.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-58 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-53. Percentage of school districts in which free training is offered to prepare staff members to teach in

fields with current or anticipated shortages, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Percent Percent Percent

50 States and D.C. 11.7 10.3 19.0

Alabama 9.7 14.6 14.1

Alaska 5.5 18.6 22.9

Arizona 23.6 15.5 24.2

Arkansas 10.3 11.3 15.6

California 16.0 18.0 39.2

Colorado 8.7 5.1 8.1

Connecticut 7.1 3.6 6.1

Delaware 44.4 63.2 35.3

District of Columbia 100.0 100.0 0.0 a

Florida 25.2 51.0 64.8

Georgia 40.9 40.1 44.7

Hawaii 0.0 100.0 100.0 a

Idaho 30.3 22.4 21.8

Illinois 5.6 4.3 12.9

Indiana 6.4 1.5 8.8

Iowa 8.3 7.5 13.7

Kansas 11.2 9.5 16.9

Kentucky 13.4 16.9 14.6

Louisiana 14.8 27.7 23.4

Maine 17.6 5.0 28.0

Maryland 38.2 24.3 15.4

Massachusetts 3.6 5.4 5.8

Michigan 8.7 6.4 23.7

Minnesota 8.6 3.3 1.2

Mississippi 35.7 28.6 29.7

Missouri 5.2 1.1 16.8

Montana 7.0 8.1 12.7

Nebraska 3.9 5.0 8.9

Nevada 17.6 5.9 27.8

New Hampshire 25.9 12.5 12.1

New Jersey 9.2 11.8 16.0

New Mexico 37.1 18.0 25.7

New York 7.2 6.0 12.0

North Carolina 31.2 28.9 39.9

North Dakota 13.2 4.0 20.0

Ohio 4.8 2.9 8.9

Oklahoma 12.8 13.7 16.3

Oregon 13.6 3.9 29.5

Pennsylvania 11.6 9.4 15.6

Rhode Island 0.0 2.6 11.6

South Carolina 26.1 22.8 36.2

South Dakota 13.7 16.0 23.5

Tennessee 8.8 14.4 25.1

Texas 14.3 13.2 27.5

Utah 33.6 55.9 63.2

Vermont 5.1 6.8 10.7

Virginia 52.8 52.1 57.7

Washington 11.1 9.8 29.0

West Virginia 26.1 18.5 9.8

Wisconsin 7.6 3.6 9.4

Wyoming 2.1 5.2 4.0

a) The District of Columbia and Hawaii each have only one school district.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-59

Table A-54. Average low and high salary for full time teachers in actual and in constant 1993-94 dollars, by state:

1990-91 to 1993-94a

School Year

1990-91 1990-91 1993-94

Actual Dollars Constant 1993-94 Dollars Actual Dollars b

 State Low High Low High Low High

50 States and D.C. 19,770 35,415 21,586 38,669 21,817 39,847

Alabama 21,491 30,956 23,466 33,799 22,263 32,840

Alaska 29,808 54,337 32,546 59,328 31,430 58,056

Arizona 20,992 35,341 22,920 38,588 23,782 40,258

Arkansas 17,410 24,392 19,010 26,633 19,603 29,685

California 23,385 42,750 25,534 46,677 24,404 46,272

Colorado 19,267 34,463 21,037 37,629 19,937 37,316

Connecticut 25,244 50,428 27,563 55,061 28,200 56,198

Delaware 21,131 44,258 23,072 48,323 22,914 47,743

District of Columbia 23,305 48,175 25,446 52,600 22,000 54,000

Florida 21,271 37,912 23,225 41,395 21,838 39,599

Georgia 19,463 39,243 21,251 42,848 20,093 42,201

Hawaii 23,969 46,641 26,171 50,925 25,436 49,199

Idaho 17,023 30,231 18,586 33,008 18,102 33,128

Illinois 18,608 35,605 20,318 38,876 21,413 42,006

Indiana 20,602 38,088 22,494 41,587 22,557 42,057

Iowa 17,668 29,880 19,291 32,625 18,789 33,209

Kansas 20,293 32,452 22,157 35,433 22,714 36,671

Kentucky 20,298 33,756 22,163 36,856 21,135 36,743

Louisiana 17,610 29,896 19,228 32,642 18,570 31,342

Maine 18,387 33,292 20,076 36,350 19,505 36,489

Maryland 23,282 44,926 25,421 49,053 24,833 48,158

Massachusetts 21,209 40,017 23,157 43,693 23,120 44,832

Michigan 21,290 41,543 23,246 45,359 24,355 46,333

Minnesota 20,840 35,858 22,755 39,152 21,965 38,638

Mississippi 18,386 31,549 20,075 34,447 19,008 32,693

Missouri 17,412 25,996 19,012 28,384 18,158 28,222

Montana 16,247 29,132 17,740 31,808 17,217 30,421

Nebraska 15,563 22,390 16,992 24,447 17,528 25,627

Nevada 22,227 41,799 24,269 45,638 24,220 44,958

New Hampshire 20,312 35,804 22,178 39,093 21,272 38,889

New Jersey 24,261 48,385 26,490 52,830 28,437 57,383

New Mexico 19,276 33,939 21,047 37,057 22,029 35,828

New York 23,507 49,388 25,666 53,925 27,158 58,288

North Carolina 19,961 38,080 21,795 41,578 20,077 38,733

North Dakota 15,527 25,197 16,953 27,511 16,343 26,126

Ohio 18,602 37,138 20,311 40,549 20,575 42,210

Oklahoma 17,691 26,583 19,316 29,025 22,158 30,452

Oregon 18,385 31,444 20,074 34,332 20,700 35,968

Pennsylvania 22,824 41,888 24,921 45,736 26,311 50,377

Rhode Island 20,815 41,466 22,727 45,275 23,308 46,078

South Carolina 19,524 39,711 21,317 43,358 20,362 41,656

South Dakota 16,355 25,844 17,857 28,219 17,920 27,490

Tennessee 19,783 31,314 21,600 34,190 21,348 34,650

Texas 18,350 30,783 20,036 33,611 19,009 32,357

Utah 17,217 31,813 18,799 34,735 18,740 34,900

Vermont 19,495 36,320 21,286 39,656 21,425 40,435

Virginia 22,130 36,554 24,163 39,912 23,112 38,387

Washington 19,992 41,622 21,828 45,445 21,441 44,892

West Virginia 18,380 32,409 20,068 35,386 21,466 36,678

Wisconsin 20,595 37,430 22,487 40,868 23,091 43,078

Wyoming 19,667 35,148 21,473 38,377 20,137 38,701

a) In districts with salary schedules, the low salary corresponds to bachelor’s degree with no teaching experience and high is equivalent to maximum scheduled salary. Districts

without salary schedule reported their lowest and highest base salaries for the year.

b) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-60 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-55. Average scheduled salary for teachers (in constant 1993-94 dollars) by education and teaching

experience for school districts with salary schedules, by state: 1990-91 and 1993-94

1990-91 (Constant 1993-94 Dollars) 1993-94 (Actual Dollars) a

Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s

without without with 20 yrs without without with 20 yrs

 State Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience

50 States and D.C. 21,742 23,691 36,249 21,923 23,956 37,213

Alabama 23,466 26,814 31,264 22,263 25,572 30,070

Alaska 32,546 37,086 53,975 31,374 35,950 52,421

Arizona 22,686 25,044 36,119 21,890 24,117 34,926

Arkansas 19,011 20,362 25,506 19,603 21,343 28,130

California 25,538 27,727 43,569 24,404 26,970 42,431

Colorado 21,037 23,361 33,153 19,937 22,158 32,318

Connecticut 27,563 29,651 49,944 28,195 30,482 51,283

Delaware 23,072 26,444 41,498 22,914 26,267 41,312

District of Columbia 25,446 27,991 50,940 22,000 28,000 40,000

Florida 23,225 25,295 37,753 21,838 23,580 35,826

Georgia 21,233 24,437 34,623 20,065 23,041 33,650

Hawaii 26,171 27,514 40,882 25,436 27,352 41,193

Idaho 18,603 21,124 30,892 18,102 20,733 31,092

Illinois 20,334 22,236 34,811 21,415 23,446 38,176

Indiana 22,507 23,833 40,313 22,560 23,899 40,535

Iowa 19,280 20,939 30,875 18,796 20,806 31,364

Kansas 22,155 23,981 31,768 22,714 24,733 32,522

Kentucky 22,163 24,876 32,523 21,135 23,899 33,419

Louisiana 19,137 19,563 28,869 18,045 18,432 27,133

Maine 20,076 21,782 34,953 19,566 21,121 34,832

Maryland 25,421 27,383 44,008 24,833 26,360 43,239

Massachusetts 23,168 25,058 39,880 23,108 25,101 41,105

Michigan 23,251 25,270 42,706 24,705 26,971 45,186

Minnesota 22,755 25,392 36,913 21,965 24,584 36,119

Mississippi 20,076 21,043 30,539 19,008 19,880 28,995

Missouri 18,982 20,406 26,875 18,158 19,671 26,171

Montana 18,041 20,025 31,594 17,801 19,870 32,316

Nebraska 16,964 19,720 27,385 17,781 20,735 30,326

Nevada 24,269 27,799 41,368 24,220 27,440 41,403

New Hampshire 22,121 24,254 37,839 21,317 23,245 37,164

New Jersey 26,852 28,768 46,690 28,424 30,677 53,874

New Mexico 21,047 22,949 33,032 22,114 23,159 31,785

New York 25,917 28,561 48,543 27,441 30,084 51,523

North Carolina 21,795 23,152 34,944 20,077 21,355 31,864

North Dakota 16,929 18,816 26,772 16,624 18,640 26,357

Ohio 20,311 22,462 38,059 20,550 22,822 39,096

Oklahoma 19,323 20,626 27,746 22,157 23,272 29,067

Oregon 20,100 22,124 32,524 20,708 22,964 34,216

Pennsylvania 24,918 26,175 41,842 26,341 28,012 45,741

Rhode Island 22,727 24,430 43,589 23,423 25,038 44,402

South Carolina 21,317 24,331 35,532 20,354 23,271 33,993

South Dakota 18,091 19,536 28,238 17,895 19,158 26,456

Tennessee 21,600 23,501 30,279 21,348 23,305 29,891

Texas 20,036 20,262 32,852 19,011 19,209 30,966

Utah 18,799 20,743 32,666 18,740 20,725 32,346

Vermont 20,987 23,673 37,282 20,918 23,584 37,003

Virginia 24,163 25,849 36,512 23,098 24,702 34,195

Washington 21,828 26,147 39,787 21,441 25,698 40,189

West Virginia 20,068 22,015 31,191 21,466 24,168 33,099

Wisconsin 22,487 25,124 38,236 23,080 25,853 40,316

Wyoming 21,473 24,183 34,766 20,137 23,058 34,048

a) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-61

Table A-56. Percentage of school districts with collective bargaining units, by state: 1993-94

 State Percent

50 States and D.C. 64.0

Alabama 3.4

Alaska 83.8

Arizona 2.7

Arkansas 2.0

California 87.7

Colorado 16.0

Connecticut 99.4

Delaware 94.1

District of Columbia 100.0

Florida 97.1

Georgia 0.8

Hawaii 100.0

Idaho 63.7

Illinois 93.9

Indiana 96.4

Iowa 89.7

Kansas 64.7

Kentucky 6.6

Louisiana 11.5

Maine 95.9

Maryland 100.0

Massachusetts 99.4

Michigan 85.8

Minnesota 89.2

Mississippi 0.0

Missouri 1.7

Montana 69.8

Nebraska 47.4

Nevada 88.8

New Hampshire 95.9

New Jersey 99.3

New Mexico 30.1

New York 99.1

North Carolina 0.0

North Dakota 40.4

Ohio 96.0

Oklahoma 30.1

Oregon 89.1

Pennsylvania 99.5

Rhode Island 100.0

South Carolina 0.0

South Dakota 49.4

Tennessee 55.2

Texas 0.0

Utah 35.6

Vermont 88.8

Virginia 0.0

Washington 74.5

West Virginia 0.0

Wisconsin 100.0

Wyoming 12.0

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
A-62 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-57. Percentage of school districts offering retirement plans to teachers, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Percent Percent Percent

50 States and D.C. 98.6 98.7 98.9

Alabama 100.0 99.3 99.0

Alaska 100.0 100.0 100.0

Arizona 98.5 93.7 100.0

Arkansas 100.0 100.0 100.0

California 100.0 92.8 99.7

Colorado 100.0 100.0 99.3

Connecticut 100.0 98.0 99.0

Delaware 100.0 100.0 100.0

District of Columbia 100.0 100.0 100.0

Florida 100.0 100.0 100.0

Georgia 100.0 98.2 100.0

Hawaii 100.0 100.0 100.0

Idaho 100.0 100.0 99.1

Illinois 98.3 99.0 99.2

Indiana 96.1 100.0 98.8

Iowa 88.0 95.4 97.5

Kansas 94.8 98.1 91.2

Kentucky 100.0 100.0 100.0

Louisiana 100.0 100.0 100.0

Maine 100.0 99.2 95.9

Maryland 100.0 100.0 100.0

Massachusetts 100.0 100.0 99.5

Michigan 98.0 99.0 100.0

Minnesota 95.7 98.8 98.0

Mississippi 100.0 100.0 100.0

Missouri 100.0 100.0 100.0

Montana 97.9 98.4 97.4

Nebraska 95.6 99.8 94.9

Nevada 100.0 100.0 100.0

New Hampshire 100.0 100.0

New Jersey 99.7 99.4 98.2

New Mexico 100.0 100.0 100.0

New York 99.7 100.0 100.0

North Carolina 100.0 100.0 100.0

North Dakota 96.7 98.0 95.0

Ohio 99.4 100.0 100.0

Oklahoma 100.0 100.0 100.0

Oregon 100.0 100.0 100.0

Pennsylvania 100.0 100.0 100.0

Rhode Island 100.0 100.0 100.0

South Carolina 100.0 100.0 100.0

South Dakota 100.0 100.0 100.0

Tennessee 98.6 99.2 100.0

Texas 99.4 98.2 99.7

Utah 100.0 100.0 100.0

Vermont 96.6 99.2 96.4

Virginia 100.0 98.2 100.0

Washington 100.0 100.0 100.0

West Virginia 100.0 100.0 100.0

Wisconsin 98.2 100.0 99.3

Wyoming 100.0 97.6 97.2

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-63

Table A-58. Average number of years of English required for high school graduation in school districts with 4-year

programs, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

50 States and D.C. 3.8 3.8 3.9

Alabama 4.0 3.9 4.0

Alaska 4.0 4.0 4.0

Arizona 3.8 4.0 4.0

Arkansas 4.0 4.0 4.0

California 3.6 3.7 3.7

Colorado 3.9 3.9 3.8

Connecticut 3.9 4.0 4.0

Delaware 4.0 3.8 4.0

District of Columbia 4.0 4.0 4.0

Florida 4.0 4.0 4.0

Georgia 4.0 3.9 4.0

Hawaii 3.0 4.0 4.0

Idaho 3.9 3.9 4.0

Illinois 3.3 3.4 3.3

Indiana 3.9 3.9 4.0

Iowa 3.4 3.5 3.6

Kansas 4.0 4.0 4.0

Kentucky 4.0 4.0 4.0

Louisiana 3.8 3.7 4.0

Maine 3.8 4.0 4.0

Maryland 4.0 4.0 4.0

Massachusetts 3.9 4.0 3.9

Michigan 3.4 3.4 3.5

Minnesota 3.9 3.8 4.0

Mississippi 3.9 4.0 4.0

Missouri 3.2 3.2 3.2

Montana 3.9 4.0 4.0

Nebraska 3.1 3.9 3.9

Nevada 3.7 3.8 4.0

New Hampshire 3.9 3.9 4.0

New Jersey 4.0 4.0 4.0

New Mexico 4.0 4.0 4.0

New York 4.0 3.9 4.0

North Carolina 4.0 4.0 3.9

North Dakota 4.0 4.0 4.0

Ohio 3.6 3.6 3.7

Oklahoma 3.9 3.8 4.0

Oregon 3.9 3.8 3.9

Pennsylvania 3.9 4.0 4.0

Rhode Island 4.0 4.0 4.0

South Carolina 4.0 4.0 4.0

South Dakota 4.0 4.0 4.0

Tennessee 4.0 3.9 4.0

Texas 4.0 4.0 4.0

Utah 3.7 3.7 3.7

Vermont 4.0 3.9 4.0

Virginia 4.0 3.9 4.0

Washington 3.7 3.9 3.8

West Virginia 4.0 4.0 3.9

Wisconsin 3.8 4.0 4.0

Wyoming 3.8 3.7 3.9

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-64 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-59. Average number of years of mathematics required for high school graduation in school districts with

4-year programs, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

50 States and D.C. 2.4 2.4 2.5

Alabama 2.3 2.2 2.5

Alaska 2.3 2.2 2.6

Arizona 2.2 2.3 2.3

Arkansas 2.9 2.7 2.9

California 2.2 2.4 2.3

Colorado 2.5 2.6 2.5

Connecticut 3.2 3.0 3.0

Delaware 2.4 2.3 2.4

District of Columbia 2.0 2.0 2.0

Florida 3.0 3.1 3.0

Georgia 2.5 2.3 2.6

Hawaii 2.0 2.0 3.0

Idaho 2.3 2.3 2.4

Illinois 2.1 2.2 2.2

Indiana 2.2 2.5 2.2

Iowa 2.1 2.2 2.3

Kansas 2.2 2.2 2.4

Kentucky 3.0 3.0 2.9

Louisiana 3.0 2.9 3.0

Maine 2.6 2.6 2.5

Maryland 2.7 3.0 3.0

Massachusetts 2.6 2.7 2.5

Michigan 2.1 2.2 2.2

Minnesota 1.7 2.1 2.3

Mississippi 2.4 2.5 2.5

Missouri 2.1 2.2 2.2

Montana 2.3 2.3 2.2

Nebraska 2.0 2.2 2.5

Nevada 2.5 2.4 2.3

New Hampshire 2.2 2.2 2.2

New Jersey 2.3 2.7 3.0

New Mexico 2.6 2.9 3.0

New York 2.1 2.1 2.1

North Carolina 2.4 2.4 2.7

North Dakota 2.2 2.4 2.4

Ohio 2.1 2.2 2.2

Oklahoma 2.3 2.2 2.4

Oregon 2.3 2.2 2.1

Pennsylvania 2.9 3.0 3.2

Rhode Island 2.5 2.3 2.3

South Carolina 3.0 3.0 3.0

South Dakota 2.4 2.4 2.4

Tennessee 2.1 2.1 2.4

Texas 3.1 3.0 3.0

Utah 2.5 2.2 2.4

Vermont 2.7 2.7 3.0

Virginia 2.5 2.4 2.5

Washington 2.2 2.2 2.3

West Virginia 2.3 2.4 2.4

Wisconsin 2.0 2.1 2.2

Wyoming 2.5 2.4 2.5

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-65

Table A-60. Average number of years of social science required for high school graduation in school districts with

4-year programs, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

50 States and D.C. 2.8 2.9 3.0

Alabama 3.1 3.1 3.2

Alaska 3.1 2.9 3.0

Arizona 3.0 3.3 3.0

Arkansas 2.8 2.8 2.8

California 3.1 3.1 3.3

Colorado 2.9 3.0 3.0

Connecticut 3.1 3.0 3.0

Delaware 3.2 2.8 3.2

District of Columbia 2.0 2.0 2.0

Florida 3.0 3.1 3.1

Georgia 3.1 3.0 3.0

Hawaii 3.0 4.0 4.0

Idaho 2.9 2.9 2.9

Illinois 2.1 2.3 2.3

Indiana 2.4 2.6 2.4

Iowa 3.0 3.1 3.1

Kansas 2.9 2.9 3.0

Kentucky 2.2 2.3 2.3

Louisiana 2.8 2.9 3.0

Maine 2.3 2.4 2.4

Maryland 2.9 3.0 3.2

Massachusetts 2.5 2.6 2.5

Michigan 2.7 2.8 2.9

Minnesota 3.6 3.4 3.5

Mississippi 2.7 2.7 2.8

Missouri 2.7 2.8 2.7

Montana 2.6 2.5 2.7

Nebraska 2.5 3.1 3.2

Nevada 2.7 2.7 2.5

New Hampshire 2.3 2.6 2.6

New Jersey 2.5 2.8 2.9

New Mexico 2.6 3.0 3.0

New York 3.6 4.0 4.0

North Carolina 2.3 2.1 2.6

North Dakota 3.0 3.1 3.0

Ohio 2.6 2.6 2.7

Oklahoma 2.3 2.3 2.6

Oregon 3.1 3.1 3.2

Pennsylvania 3.5 3.3 3.6

Rhode Island 2.4 2.3 2.3

South Carolina 2.9 2.9 2.8

South Dakota 2.9 2.9 3.0

Tennessee 1.8 1.8 2.1

Texas 2.9 2.9 3.0

Utah 3.0 2.9 2.5

Vermont 2.9 2.9 2.9

Virginia 2.9 2.9 3.1

Washington 3.1 3.0 3.1

West Virginia 3.3 3.2 3.2

Wisconsin 3.2 3.1 3.1

Wyoming 2.8 2.7 2.8

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
A-66 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table A-61. Percentage of school districts with a student test performance reporting policy, by state: 1993-94

Percent of

 State Districts

50 States and D.C. 84.4

Alabama 91.6

Alaska 96.2

Arizona 92.1

Arkansas 85.6

California 91.8

Colorado 98.3

Connecticut 94.4

Delaware 88.2

District of Columbia 100.0

Florida 100.0

Georgia 98.7

Hawaii 100.0

Idaho 82.4

Illinois 91.6

Indiana 90.6

Iowa 68.3

Kansas 73.1

Kentucky 98.6

Louisiana 91.3

Maine 88.7

Maryland 89.8

Massachusetts 80.3

Michigan 92.7

Minnesota 84.9

Mississippi 90.6

Missouri 68.1

Montana 38.6

Nebraska 64.8

Nevada 94.4

New Hampshire 63.8

New Jersey 97.7

New Mexico 97.9

New York 92.3

North Carolina 97.9

North Dakota 37.9

Ohio 90.6

Oklahoma 79.5

Oregon 90.2

Pennsylvania 75.6

Rhode Island 80.7

South Carolina 97.0

South Dakota 93.1

Tennessee 93.7

Texas 96.9

Utah 97.5

Vermont 66.3

Virginia 85.4

Washington 84.4

West Virginia 92.4

Wisconsin 95.5

Wyoming 88.3

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 A-67

Table A-62. Percentage of school districts with choice by type of choice program, by state: 1993-94

Interdistrict Choice

 District Any Choice Magnet Dist. Open Transfers Outside of Transfers into

Characteristic Program School Enrollment District District

50 States and D.C. 34.1 7.8 13.8 28.5 25.6

Alabama 16.8 5.2 8.5 12.8 9.0

Alaska 31.8 12.2 23.5 24.3 19.7

Arizona 66.7 32.6 39.0 59.7 60.1

Arkansas 46.8 5.2 6.6 41.7 37.7

California 40.4 7.5 23.9 37.1 27.2

Colorado 58.3 16.2 28.5 46.8 50.6

Connecticut 21.3 11.3 8.0 10.9 8.8

Delaware 11.7 5.8 5.8 5.8 11.7

District of Columbia 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 a

Florida 39.8 24.2 28.2 22.0 22.0

Georgia 34.6 4.1 13.6 24.2 24.6

Hawaii 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 a

Idaho 74.8 15.6 38.0 67.6 68.5

Illinois 8.8 2.2 3.8 4.1 1.9

Indiana 9.7 1.6 8.7 1.8 2.3

Iowa 83.8 7.5 13.7 83.0 74.3

Kansas 32.8 7.1 11.6 27.8 27.3

Kentucky 39.4 7.7 16.2 38.8 35.2

Louisiana 27.1 19.1 13.2 4.7 8.3

Maine 6.3 -- 2.1 3.1 2.8

Maryland 15.3 10.2 -- 5.0 5.0

Massachusetts 29.4 1.5 7.9 23.3 16.5

Michigan 38.7 5.5 23.0 25.5 11.8

Minnesota 93.0 19.8 27.5 93.0 89.2

Mississippi 12.8 5.1 6.6 8.2 9.5

Missouri 9.7 2.6 6.0 5.4 5.1

Montana 39.7 8.5 10.8 35.6 32.8

Nebraska 88.2 15.4 17.4 73.6 65.7

Nevada 16.6 11.1 -- -- 5.5

New Hampshire 4.6 -- 1.7 3.0 --

New Jersey 7.6 6.5 6.4 4.0 6.8

New Mexico 46.3 4.0 17.3 31.6 35.0

New York 16.0 4.9 7.3 11.2 13.5

North Carolina 23.7 8.7 15.2 20.6 21.5

North Dakota 31.8 -- 1.6 26.3 17.6

Ohio 69.4 17.3 42.6 58.5 50.1

Oklahoma 34.1 9.8 10.1 33.0 33.0

Oregon 21.6 3.1 8.9 19.5 14.1

Pennsylvania 7.1 4.3 3.9 6.0 4.1

Rhode Island 13.4 2.7 5.3 10.7 2.7

South Carolina 6.3 4.8 1.0 2.6 3.6

South Dakota 10.4 3.2 5.2 4.3 7.6

Tennessee 56.4 9.9 34.0 41.6 45.3

Texas 22.7 5.1 5.3 18.5 17.9

Utah 76.1 20.0 62.1 64.2 69.2

Vermont 16.9 -- 1.7 16.5 6.2

Virginia 21.8 15.2 11.6 8.8 15.0

Washington 78.6 24.7 41.8 71.1 72.8

Virginia 45.0 12.7 35.5 39.2 37.4

Wisconsin 5.3 1.5 1.9 2.9 3.0

Wyoming 35.8 14.9 18.7 27.1 25.4

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) The District of Columbia and Hawaii each have only one school district.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-1

Appendix B

Tables of Standard Errors

Section Page

1 Selected District Characteristics’ Tables ............................ B-3

2 State Tables ................................................. B-51

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-3

Section 1

Selected District Characteristics’ Tables
B-4 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-1. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts, by selected district characteristics:

1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 195 1.28 112 0.72 72 0.48

District Size

 Under 1,000 208 1.37 191 1.23 128 0.85

 1,000 to 9,999 76 0.50 165 1.06 116 0.77

 10,000 or more 9 0.06 37 0.24 8 0.05

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 181 1.18 164 1.06 119 0.79

 10% to under 50% 93 0.61 145 0.94 127 0.85

 50% or more 124 0.81 100 0.65 117 0.78

Minority Teachers

 None 225 1.48 182 1.17 186 1.24

 More than 0% to under 20% 114 0.75 163 1.05 179 1.20

 20% or more 71 0.46 56 0.36 45 0.30

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 78 0.50 23 0.15

 Urban-outside central city - - 128 0.82 85 0.57

 Nonurban area - - 108 0.70 114 0.76

Region 

 Northeast 97 0.63 20 0.13 20 0.13

 Midwest 123 0.81 100 0.65 62 0.42

 South 81 0.53 52 0.34 14 0.09

 West 123 0.80 44 0.28 15 0.10

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

 a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-5

Table B-2. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts by metropolitan status, by region: 1990-

91 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 112 0.72 72 0.48

Region by Metropolitan Status

 Northeast

 Urban-inside central city 16 0.10 7 0.04

 Urban-outside central city 43 0.27 43 0.28

 Nonurban area 33 0.22 38 0.26

 Midwest

 Urban-inside central city 13 0.08 13 0.09

 Urban-outside central city 72 0.46 57 0.38

 Nonurban area 72 0.47 84 0.56

 South

 Urban-inside central city 12 0.08 10 0.07

 Urban-outside central city 33 0.21 11 0.07

 Nonurban area 53 0.34 16 0.11

 West

 Urban-inside central city 72 0.46 15 0.10

 Urban-outside central city 87 0.56 59 0.40

 Nonurban area 76 0.49 62 0.41

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
B-6 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-3. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts by percent minority students, by region:

1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 195 1.28 112 0.72 72 0.48

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast

 Under 10% 96 0.63 51 0.33 51 0.34

 10% to under 50% 31 0.20 44 0.28 51 0.34

 50% or more 22 0.15 18 0.11 20 0.13

 Midwest

 Under 10% 123 0.81 131 0.84 90 0.60

 10% to under 50% 43 0.28 81 0.52 56 0.37

 50% or more 65 0.43 27 0.18 14 0.09

 South

 Under 10% 72 0.47 48 0.31 37 0.25

 10% to under 50% 58 0.38 63 0.41 42 0.28

 50% or more 51 0.33 47 0.30 35 0.23

 West

 Under 10% 88 0.58 101 0.65 80 0.53

 10% to under 50% 71 0.47 99 0.64 105 0.70

 50% or more 80 0.53 86 0.56 101 0.68

a) Excludes 82 districts with no students in 1987-88, 29 districts with no students in 1990-91, and 45 districts with no students in 1993-94.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-7

Table B-4. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts by district size, by region: 1987-88 to

1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 195 1.28 112 0.72 72 0.48

Region by District Size

 Northeast

 Under 1,000 98 0.64 85 0.55 56 0.37

 1,000 to 9,999 36 0.23 91 0.59 59 0.39

 10,000 or more 2 0.01 5 0.03 3 0.02

 Midwest

 Under 1,000 134 0.88 81 0.52 107 0.71

 1,000 to 9,999 51 0.34 92 0.59 75 0.50

 10,000 or more 3 0.02 7 0.04 5 0.03

 South

 Under 1,000 82 0.54 59 0.38 35 0.23

 1,000 to 9,999 40 0.26 40 0.26 32 0.21

 10,000 or more 4 0.03 8 0.05 5 0.03

 West

 Under 1,000 133 0.87 104 0.67 93 0.62

 1,000 to 9,999 46 0.30 80 0.51 92 0.61

 10,000 or more 6 0.04 33 0.21 3 0.02

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-8 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-5. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts by district size, by metropolitan status:

1990-91 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 112 0.72 72 0.48

Metro Status by District Size

 Urban-inside central city

 Under 1,000 -- -- -- --

 1,000 to 9,999 27 0.18 19 0.13

 10,000 or more 9 0.06 5 0.04

 Urban-outside central city

 Under 1,000 132 0.85 114 0.76

 1,000 to 9,999 133 0.86 85 0.57

 10,000 or more 30 0.19 7 0.04

 Nonurban area

 Under 1,000 95 0.61 111 0.74

 1,000 to 9,999 95 0.62 65 0.43

 10,000 or more 5 0.03 3 0.02

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-9

Table B-6. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts by percent minority teachers, by region:

1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 195 1.28 112 0.72 72 0.48

Region by Percent Minority Teachers

 Northeast

 None 91 0.60 69 0.45 77 0.52

 More than 0% to under 20% 51 0.33 74 0.47 80 0.53

 20% or more 12 0.08 -- -- 5 0.04

 Midwest

 None 135 0.88 99 0.64 98 0.65

 More than 0% to under 20% 54 0.36 98 0.63 71 0.47

 20% or more 24 0.16 21 0.13 13 0.09

 South

 None 65 0.43 56 0.36 40 0.26

 More than 0% to under 20% 69 0.45 63 0.41 44 0.29

 20% or more 49 0.32 39 0.25 32 0.21

 West

 None 142 0.93 111 0.72 101 0.67

 More than 0% to under 20% 62 0.41 93 0.60 95 0.63

 20% or more 43 0.28 50 0.32 22 0.14

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-10 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-7. Standard errors for number of full and part time teachers and percentage minority, by selected district

characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 District Number of Percent Number of Percent Number of Percent

Characteristic Teachers Minority Teachers Minority Teachers Minority

TOTAL 20,349 0.16 56,390 0.18 20,454 0.12

District Size

 Under 1,000 7,149 0.38 14,065 0.45 5,802 0.19

 1,000 to 9,999 18,815 0.34 41,616 0.26 17,496 0.21

 10,000 or more 8,031 0.18 29,245 0.28 8,089 0.10

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 16,343 0.31 23,331 0.10 13,041 0.02

 10% to under 50% 10,545 0.18 30,664 0.18 13,640 0.11

 50% or more 9,097 0.45 18,707 0.39 9,175 0.32

Minority Teachers

 None 11,953 0.00 16,597 0.00 8,825 0.00

 More than 0% to under 20% 16,418 0.07 40,579 0.11 20,548 0.06

 20% or more 8,476 0.37 15,489 0.32 7,228 0.24

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 19,303 0.54 6,918 0.15

 Urban-outside central city - - 39,288 0.33 14,236 0.20

 Nonurban area - - 16,551 0.25 11,277 0.17

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 12,643 0.24 21,971 0.31 10,404 0.23

 Under 10% 11,565 0.29 18,900 0.24 8,071 0.05

 10% to under 50% 7,829 0.37 9,467 0.31 5,851 0.20

 50% or more 4,868 0.86 4,659 0.68 5,103 0.39

 Midwest 15,151 0.53 16,465 0.27 10,784 0.23

 Under 10% 13,179 0.69 12,264 0.16 9,784 0.04

 10% to under 50% 4,702 0.44 9,632 0.52 6,472 0.56

 50% or more 2,683 1.37 5,747 1.74 2,316 0.75

 South 8,060 0.22 17,585 0.29 6,650 0.22

 Under 10% 4,369 0.12 4,739 0.15 3,908 0.04

 10% to under 50% 5,515 0.15 13,668 0.27 5,951 0.12

 50% or more 7,403 0.96 7,748 0.59 5,143 0.54

 West 7,503 0.23 34,806 0.43 12,709 0.26

 Under 10% 4,205 0.32 3,675 0.16 3,514 0.07

 10% to under 50% 5,814 0.30 21,918 0.23 8,729 0.15

 50% or more 2,622 0.39 13,880 1.01 5,972 0.65

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-11

Table B-8. Standard errors for number of students and percentage minority, by selected district characteristics:

1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 District Number of Percent Number of Percent Number of Percent

Characteristic Students Minority Students Minority Students Minority

TOTAL 192,212 0.18 947,263 0.37 353,831 0.26

District Size

 Under 1,000 67,164 0.55 83,353 0.81 83,721 0.77

 1,000 to 9,999 204,990 0.31 569,585 0.66 318,051 0.53

 10,000 or more 95,895 0.20 643,113 0.30 134,848 0.20

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 185,706 0.06 293,781 0.07 221,948 0.06

 10% to under 50% 137,970 0.14 551,549 0.24 236,626 0.15

 50% or more 94,793 0.21 363,071 0.25 173,081 0.25

Minority Teachers

 None 144,940 0.24 178,165 0.36 144,992 0.24

 More than 0% to under 20% 213,697 0.22 709,438 0.52 364,654 0.28

 20% or more 116,063 0.24 282,227 0.31 126,482 0.26

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 205,575 0.49 115,135 0.30

 Urban-outside central city - - 719,168 0.88 261,796 0.49

 Nonurban area - - 281,886 0.47 182,588 0.41

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 98,533 0.40 190,069 0.61 153,286 0.64

 Under 10% 98,042 0.10 156,793 0.13 121,287 0.11

 10% to under 50% 69,909 0.67 98,443 0.80 82,937 0.45

 50% or more 40,057 0.35 60,500 0.61 70,777 0.38

 Midwest 132,083 0.31 234,363 0.47 189,193 0.41

 Under 10% 126,356 0.09 208,553 0.10 170,850 0.08

 10% to under 50% 74,445 0.30 111,407 0.72 110,213 0.50

 50% or more 30,903 0.59 51,924 0.72 37,209 0.63

 South 96,180 0.32 220,997 0.44 105,703 0.31

 Under 10% 97,218 0.13 78,271 0.09 63,706 0.09

 10% to under 50% 81,757 0.15 142,303 0.20 91,679 0.17

 50% or more 74,346 0.31 147,417 0.35 79,538 0.33

 West 99,332 0.33 784,962 0.78 273,472 0.64

 Under 10% 60,475 0.09 74,348 0.14 70,084 0.17

 10% to under 50% 88,126 0.32 510,155 0.79 188,111 0.47

 50% or more 51,114 0.44 305,633 0.62 142,946 0.62

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-12 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-9. Standard errors for number of full and part time teachers and percentage by race and ethnicity, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Total Percent by Race and Ethnicity

Characteristic Teachers American Indian Asian Hispanic Black White

 TOTAL 20,454 0.006 0.017 0.087 0.100 0.118

District Size

 Under 1,000 5,802 0.062 0.061 0.097 0.119 0.194

 1,000 to 9,999 17,496 0.009 0.024 0.146 0.161 0.214

 10,000 or more 8,089 0.003 0.031 0.085 0.090 0.097

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 13,041 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.009 0.023

 10% to under 50% 13,640 0.009 0.020 0.040 0.115 0.111

 50% or more 9,175 0.019 0.061 0.314 0.258 0.323

Minority Teachers

 None 8,825 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

 More than 0% to under 20% 20,548 0.007 0.016 0.031 0.061 0.061

 20% or more 7,228 0.022 0.062 0.317 0.283 0.238

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 6,918 0.005 0.034 0.115 0.162 0.152

 Urban-outside central city 14,236 0.007 0.031 0.150 0.143 0.200

 Nonurban area 11,277 0.019 0.009 0.124 0.131 0.166

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 10,404 0.006 0.015 0.074 0.162 0.225

 Under 10% 8,071 0.013 0.017 0.022 0.024 0.047

 10% to under 50% 5,851 0.005 0.029 0.073 0.177 0.202

 50% or more 5,103 0.009 0.032 0.142 0.323 0.387

 Midwest 10,784 0.009 0.009 0.019 0.213 0.227

 Under 10% 9,784 0.012 0.011 0.014 0.020 0.039

 10% to under 50% 6,472 0.012 0.018 0.033 0.543 0.561

 50% or more 2,316 0.026 0.018 0.119 0.743 0.750

 South 6,650 0.013 0.004 0.213 0.120 0.215

 Under 10% 3,908 0.020 0.004 0.017 0.035 0.037

 10% to under 50% 5,951 0.020 0.006 0.051 0.108 0.119

 50% or more 5,143 0.027 0.008 0.636 0.443 0.537

 West 12,709 0.021 0.092 0.172 0.082 0.261

 Under 10% 3,514 0.037 0.051 0.046 0.011 0.071

 10% to under 50% 8,729 0.026 0.067 0.107 0.045 0.145

 50% or more 5,972 0.054 0.256 0.407 0.204 0.646

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-13

Table B-10. Standard errors for number of students and percentage by race and ethnicity, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

 District Total Percent by Race and Ethnicity

Characteristic Students American Indian Asian Hispanic Black White

 TOTAL 353,831 0.023 0.064 0.233 0.173 0.259

District Size

 Under 1,000 83,721 0.157 0.122 0.652 0.312 0.769

 1,000 to 9,999 318,051 0.044 0.097 0.503 0.289 0.530

 10,000 or more 134,848 0.006 0.092 0.180 0.123 0.202

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 221,948 0.013 0.021 0.029 0.027 0.057

 10% to under 50% 236,626 0.040 0.085 0.206 0.207 0.153

 50% or more 173,081 0.057 0.208 0.604 0.488 0.254

Minority Teachers

 None 144,992 0.107 0.037 0.096 0.137 0.242

 More than 0% to under 20% 364,654 0.022 0.085 0.269 0.163 0.278

 20% or more 126,482 0.035 0.181 0.546 0.463 0.258

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 115,135 0.011 0.110 0.249 0.250 0.301

 Urban-outside central city 261,796 0.019 0.116 0.458 0.233 0.489

 Nonurban area 182,588 0.083 0.022 0.340 0.269 0.415

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 153,286 0.030 0.093 0.282 0.368 0.642

 Under 10% 121,287 0.018 0.048 0.047 0.054 0.112

 10% to under 50% 82,937 0.115 0.239 0.277 0.392 0.454

 50% or more 70,777 0.022 0.226 0.465 0.505 0.378

 Midwest 189,193 0.069 0.083 0.089 0.372 0.415

 Under 10% 170,850 0.016 0.028 0.038 0.048 0.083

 10% to under 50% 110,213 0.218 0.206 0.215 0.568 0.498

 50% or more 37,209 0.131 0.492 0.587 1.017 0.628

 South 105,703 0.023 0.019 0.316 0.199 0.312

 Under 10% 63,706 0.017 0.019 0.067 0.060 0.089

 10% to under 50% 91,679 0.035 0.029 0.181 0.173 0.170

 50% or more 79,538 0.045 0.042 0.861 0.683 0.326

 West 273,472 0.070 0.251 0.660 0.142 0.641

 Under 10% 70,084 0.052 0.056 0.114 0.017 0.167

 10% to under 50% 188,111 0.079 0.211 0.375 0.131 0.469

 50% or more 142,946 0.169 0.630 1.017 0.304 0.620

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-14 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-11. Standard errors for total number of full time equivalent (FTE) teachers and percentage that consists of

new hires, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Total FTE Percent

Characteristic Teachers New Hires

 TOTAL 19,389 0.04

District Size

 Under 1,000 5,625 0.21

 1,000 to 9,999 16,684 0.08

 10,000 or more 7,519 0.03

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 12,560 0.09

 10% to under 50% 13,086 0.07

 50% or more 8,840 0.07

Minority Teachers

 None 8,575 0.15

 More than 0% to under 20% 19,625 0.05

 20% or more 7,056 0.07

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 6,496 0.05

 Urban-outside central city 13,551 0.08

 Nonurban area 10,802 0.09

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 10,000 0.11

 Urban-inside central city 4,356 0.07

 Urban-outside central city 9,263 0.17

 Nonurban area 3,662 0.33

 Midwest 10,398 0.11

 Urban-inside central city 3,451 0.08

 Urban-outside central city 9,432 0.18

 Nonurban area 5,732 0.15

 South 6,427 0.05

 Urban-inside central city 2,617 0.07

 Urban-outside central city 4,581 0.08

 Nonurban area 3,698 0.10

 West 12,019 0.09

 Urban-inside central city 3,136 0.07

 Urban-outside central city 9,167 0.15

 Nonurban area 4,182 0.18

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-15

Table B-12. Standard errors for number of newly hired FTE teachers and percentage of newly hired FTE teachers

with regular state certification, newly hired FTE teachers with emergency certification, and newly

hired FTE teachers lacking regular state or emergency certification in their field of assignment, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Number Percent Newly Hired Percent Newly Percent Newly Hired

of Newly with Regular State Hired with lacking Regular State or

 District Hired Certification in Emergency Emergency Certification

Characteristic Teachers Field of Assignment Certification in Field of Assignment

 TOTAL 1815 0.21 0.14 0.14

District Size

 Under 1,000 658 1.00 0.72 0.58

 1,000 to 9,999 1520 0.45 0.28 0.32

 10,000 or more 706 0.19 0.11 0.11

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 845 0.28 0.17 0.21

 10% to under 50% 1315 0.33 0.24 0.21

 50% or more 973 0.53 0.34 0.38

Minority Teachers

 None 718 0.60 0.27 0.51

 More than 0% to under 20% 1729 0.28 0.19 0.17

 20% or more 800 0.45 0.32 0.34

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 542 0.34 0.31 0.17

 Urban-outside central city 1368 0.30 0.24 0.23

 Nonurban area 920 0.41 0.29 0.27

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 815 0.40 0.16 0.39

 Urban-inside central city 218 0.40 0.30 0.19

 Urban-outside central city 783 0.60 0.20 0.62

 Nonurban area 321 0.41 0.33 0.22

 Midwest 757 0.31 0.15 0.30

 Urban-inside central city 251 0.23 0.18 0.07

 Urban-outside central city 572 0.46 0.27 0.37

 Nonurban area 442 0.79 0.34 0.69

 South 837 0.32 0.26 0.19

 Urban-inside central city 332 0.57 0.58 0.30

 Urban-outside central city 653 0.48 0.31 0.37

 Nonurban area 466 0.57 0.46 0.32

 West 1246 0.53 0.43 0.32

 Urban-inside central city 258 0.72 0.47 0.32

 Urban-outside central city 1010 0.90 0.83 0.51

 Nonurban area 400 0.86 0.37 0.68

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-16 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-13. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with different criteria for considering applicants for

teaching positions, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Certification Type Special Knowledge Test

College Graduate of National

 District Full Emergency/ Major/Minor Teacher Ed. District Teacher

Characteristic Standard Temporary in Teaching Field Program or State Exam

 TOTAL 0.88 0.89 0.86 1.13 0.90 0.86

District Size

 Under 1,000 1.39 1.56 1.68 2.01 1.61 1.61

 1,000 to 9,999 0.84 1.02 1.00 0.85 1.15 1.01

 10,000 or more 0.69 0.65 0.73 0.76 0.51 0.71

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.90 1.21 1.01 1.42 1.22 1.25

 10% to under 50% 1.47 1.75 1.99 2.13 2.22 1.62

 50% or more 3.45 3.18 4.76 4.35 2.07 2.87

Minority Teachers

 None 1.21 1.38 1.23 1.79 1.48 1.57

 More than 0% to under 20% 1.00 1.35 1.88 1.89 1.53 1.24

 20% or more 1.82 1.37 1.83 2.26 1.96 2.36

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 1.84 1.45 2.14 2.54 1.98 2.60

 Urban-outside central city 1.55 1.65 2.00 1.97 1.88 1.58

 Nonurban area 1.01 1.12 1.04 1.31 1.15 1.24

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 1.19 1.97 1.83 1.96 1.52 1.96

 Urban-inside central city 1.13 3.22 2.96 3.21 2.94 3.66

 Urban-outside central city 1.83 2.40 2.50 2.68 2.29 2.66

 Nonurban area 1.17 3.07 2.82 2.69 2.44 2.59

 Midwest 1.19 1.36 1.29 1.88 1.55 1.87

 Urban-inside central city 2.09 3.49 1.13 4.52 4.04 3.31

 Urban-outside central city 2.19 2.60 2.43 2.51 1.72 1.25

 Nonurban area 1.39 1.98 1.54 2.27 2.25 2.67

 South 1.32 1.00 1.25 1.43 1.09 0.80

 Urban-inside central city 3.14 2.01 4.40 3.77 1.76 2.30

 Urban-outside central city 2.50 1.64 2.32 2.71 1.52 1.84

 Nonurban area 1.57 1.43 1.62 1.84 1.46 1.10

 West 2.70 2.89 4.06 3.46 3.48 2.67

 Urban-inside central city 6.47 1.25 6.35 7.54 1.85 8.24

 Urban-outside central city 4.58 4.81 8.09 7.88 7.29 5.26

 Nonurban area 3.17 3.44 3.22 2.86 3.45 2.31

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-17

Table B-14. Standard errors for number and percentage of full time equivalent (FTE) teachers with standard state

certification in their field of assignment, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Total FTE

Characteristic Teachers Percent

 TOTAL 19,389 0.04

District Size

 Under 1,000 5,625 0.12

 1,000 to 9,999 16,684 0.08

 10,000 or more 7,519 0.03

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 12,560 0.06

 10% to under 50% 13,086 0.05

 50% or more 8,840 0.09

Minority Teachers

 None 8,575 0.13

 More than 0% to under 20% 19,625 0.05

 20% or more 7,056 0.08

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 6,496 0.04

 Urban-outside central city 13,551 0.07

 Nonurban area 10,802 0.07

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 10,000 0.05

 Urban-inside central city 4,356 0.07

 Urban-outside central city 9,263 0.10

 Nonurban area 3,662 0.13

 Midwest 10,398 0.07

 Urban-inside central city 3,451 0.04

 Urban-outside central city 9,432 0.16

 Nonurban area 5,732 0.07

 South 6,427 0.05

 Urban-inside central city 2,617 0.08

 Urban-outside central city 4,581 0.09

 Nonurban area 3,698 0.11

 West 12,019 0.13

 Urban-inside central city 3,136 0.10

 Urban-outside central city 9,167 0.24

 Nonurban area 4,182 0.12

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-18 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-15. Standard errors for number and percentage of full time equivalent (FTE) itinerant teachers and the

number and percentage of school districts employing itinerant teachers, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

 District FTE Itinerant Teachers Districts Employing Itinerant Teachers

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 1,673 0.05 185 1.24

District Size

 Under 1,000 657 0.26 114 1.64

 1,000 to 9,999 1,468 0.09 118 0.99

 10,000 or more 506 0.03 8 0.74

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 942 0.09 109 1.43

 10% to under 50% 874 0.07 95 2.00

 50% or more 811 0.11 86 4.30

Minority Teachers

 None 751 0.17 124 1.67

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,112 0.05 157 1.47

 20% or more 616 0.10 34 2.30

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 392 0.05 14 2.93

 Urban-outside central city 1,376 0.09 124 2.18

 Nonurban area 696 0.08 112 1.32

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 1,225 0.18 55 1.67

 Urban-inside central city 354 0.07 6 1.81

 Urban-outside central city 1,198 0.30 63 2.58

 Nonurban area 294 0.25 39 2.29

 Midwest 679 0.09 102 1.87

 Urban-inside central city 262 0.15 10 5.24

 Urban-outside central city 557 0.13 69 2.99

 Nonurban area 424 0.19 74 2.16

 South 455 0.04 49 1.50

 Urban-inside central city 92 0.04 6 5.15

 Urban-outside central city 211 0.04 22 2.60

 Nonurban area 327 0.10 43 1.89

 West 388 0.07 94 3.16

 Urban-inside central city 104 0.08 9 8.47

 Urban-outside central city 330 0.10 81 7.90

 Nonurban area 184 0.17 41 2.97

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-19

Table B-16. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with at least one approved teaching position not

filled by a permanent teacher, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent Percent Percent

 TOTAL 0.72 0.63 0.55

District Size

 Under 1,000 1.08 0.91 0.69

 1,000 to 9,999 0.89 0.73 0.91

 10,000 or more 0.81 1.52 0.82

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.89 0.67 0.58

 10% to under 50% 1.12 1.07 1.13

 50% or more 2.77 3.27 3.08

Minority Teachers

 None 0.96 0.69 0.71

 More than 0% to under 20% 1.00 0.99 0.90

 20% or more 2.62 3.10 1.61

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 5.51 2.76

 Urban-outside central city - 1.50 1.10

 Nonurban area - 0.56 0.64

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 1.81 1.66

 Urban-inside central city - 5.33 3.16

 Urban-outside central city - 2.52 2.32

 Nonurban area - 2.92 1.70

 Midwest - 0.95 0.59

 Urban-inside central city - 5.17 4.38

 Urban-outside central city - 2.03 1.00

 Nonurban area - 1.14 0.97

 South - 1.20 0.85

 Urban-inside central city - 5.41 3.37

 Urban-outside central city - 2.03 1.70

 Nonurban area - 1.34 1.12

 West - 2.19 2.01

 Urban-inside central city - 13.43 6.56

 Urban-outside central city - 5.66 4.72

 Nonurban area - 1.29 1.20

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-20 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-17. Standard errors for number and percentage of approved full time equivalent (FTE) teaching positions

not filled by permanent teachers, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 District Number of Percent of Number of Percent of Number of Percent of

Characteristic Positions Total FTE Positions Total FTE Positions Total FTE

 TOTAL 1,495 0.07 611 0.02 190 0.01

District Size

 Under 1,000 530 0.24 224 0.10 63 0.03

 1,000 to 9,999 1,345 0.12 549 0.04 166 0.01

 10,000 or more 66 0.01 198 0.01 87 0.01

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 1,077 0.12 490 0.05 83 0.01

 10% to under 50% 730 0.09 204 0.02 121 0.01

 50% or more 177 0.03 277 0.04 116 0.02

Minority Teachers

 None 576 0.15 232 0.06 87 0.02

 More than 0% to under 20% 1,262 0.09 502 0.03 160 0.01

 20% or more 461 0.07 214 0.03 86 0.01

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - - 128 0.02 62 0.01

 Urban-outside central city - - 590 0.05 144 0.01

 Nonurban area - - 219 0.03 78 0.01

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - - 180 0.03 117 0.02

 Urban-inside central city - - 48 0.04 21 0.02

 Urban-outside central city - - 178 0.06 97 0.03

 Nonurban area - - 102 0.13 39 0.05

 Midwest - - 221 0.04 58 0.01

 Urban-inside central city - - 42 0.03 21 0.01

 Urban-outside central city - - 136 0.05 33 0.01

 Nonurban area - - 187 0.10 49 0.03

 South - - 482 0.05 68 0.01

 Urban-inside central city - - 69 0.03 25 0.01

 Urban-outside central city - - 454 0.12 42 0.01

 Nonurban area - - 120 0.04 46 0.02

 West - - 331 0.04 132 0.02

 Urban-inside central city - - 77 0.06 48 0.03

 Urban-outside central city - - 313 0.09 106 0.04

 Nonurban area - - 100 0.10 24 0.02

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-21

Table B-18. Standard errors for number and percentage of approved full time equivalent (FTE) teaching positions

abolished, withdrawn, or filled by substitute teachers because of budget cutbacks, and the number and

percentage of school districts affected, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District FTE Positions Districts Affected

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 231 0.009 102 0.681

District Size

 Under 1,000 109 0.049 95 1.242

 1,000 to 9,999 191 0.015 42 0.617

 10,000 or more 84 0.008 2 0.348

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 167 0.019 44 0.520

 10% to under 50% 135 0.013 40 0.911

 50% or more 135 0.021 93 5.093

Minority Teachers

 None 106 0.028 42 0.592

 More than 0% to under 20% 205 0.013 103 1.479

 20% or more 40 0.006 9 0.852

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 53 0.008 7 1.260

 Urban-outside central city 227 0.018 91 1.519

 Nonurban area 92 0.013 41 0.457

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 74 0.014 27 0.862

 Urban-inside central city 44 0.030 3 3.008

 Urban-outside central city 60 0.020 23 1.148

 Nonurban area 25 0.033 13 1.346

 Midwest 191 0.032 43 0.758

 Urban-inside central city 33 0.027 6 3.584

 Urban-outside central city 175 0.058 26 1.262

 Nonurban area 66 0.033 31 0.837

 South 57 0.006 20 0.593

 Urban-inside central city 5 0.002 1 0.673

 Urban-outside central city 32 0.008 7 0.780

 Nonurban area 47 0.016 19 0.856

 West 143 0.032 91 3.098

 Urban-inside central city 9 0.006 1 0.923

 Urban-outside central city 140 0.061 89 7.348

 Nonurban area 42 0.045 18 1.178

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-22 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-19. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts that laid off teachers and the number

and percentage of full time equivalent (FTE) teachers laid off, by selected district characteristics:

1993-94

Districts with Teachers Laid Off Teachers

 District Number of Percent of Number of FTEs Percent of All

Characteristic Districts All Districts Laid Off FTE Teachers

 TOTAL 74 0.476 431 0.017

District Size

 Under 1,000 65 0.853 136 0.059

 1,000 to 9,999 45 0.664 358 0.031

 10,000 or more 3 0.441 199 0.018

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 62 0.652 244 0.028

 10% to under 50% 47 0.968 307 0.029

 50% or more 26 1.468 142 0.021

Minority Teachers

 None 75 0.968 165 0.045

 More than 0% to under 20% 40 0.591 406 0.026

 20% or more 15 1.187 108 0.017

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 8 1.473 117 0.019

 Urban-outside central city 45 0.777 490 0.039

 Nonurban area 61 0.696 159 0.022

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 37 1.195 110 0.020

 Urban-inside central city 3 2.794 11 0.012

 Urban-outside central city 30 1.492 101 0.032

 Nonurban area 19 1.861 23 0.032

 Midwest 63 1.098 438 0.069

 Urban-inside central city 6 3.469 100 0.077

 Urban-outside central city 44 2.231 514 0.162

 Nonurban area 53 1.389 132 0.063

 South 24 0.724 60 0.006

 Urban-inside central city 3 1.641 6 0.002

 Urban-outside central city 7 0.846 28 0.007

 Nonurban area 23 1.026 49 0.017

 West 27 0.924 119 0.023

 Urban-inside central city 1 1.614 53 0.042

 Urban-outside central city 14 1.290 89 0.035

 Nonurban area 22 1.478 50 0.051

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-23

Table B-20. Standard errors for percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in less desirable locations or in fields of shortage, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to

1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent Percent Percent

 TOTAL 0.46 0.69 0.68

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.83 1.04 0.99

 1,000 to 9,999 0.37 0.74 0.75

 10,000 or more 0.50 1.06 0.80

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.61 1.02 0.79

 10% to under 50% 0.85 1.37 1.39

 50% or more 1.76 3.19 3.33

Minority Teachers

 None 0.74 1.13 1.11

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.57 0.85 1.08

 20% or more 1.42 3.43 1.79

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 1.99 1.97

 Urban-outside central city - 1.32 1.37

 Nonurban area - 0.94 0.76

Region by District Size

 Northeast 0.98 1.37 1.12

 Under 1,000 2.16 2.35 2.11

 1,000 to 9,999 0.77 1.66 1.23

 10,000 or more 1.53 2.20 2.88

 Midwest 0.78 1.09 1.08

 Under 1,000 1.17 1.65 1.66

 1,000 to 9,999 0.82 0.98 0.99

 10,000 or more 0.18 1.22 0.62

 South 1.02 1.48 1.46

 Under 1,000 2.06 3.09 3.08

 1,000 to 9,999 1.02 1.51 1.05

 10,000 or more 0.70 1.19 0.64

 West 1.35 1.63 1.99

 Under 1,000 2.24 2.56 1.99

 1,000 to 9,999 1.03 2.19 3.42

 10,000 or more 1.14 2.34 1.84

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-24 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-21. Standard errors for percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in less desirable locations by type of pay incentive, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Type of Pay Incentive

 District Any Cash Salary Step Other Salary

Characteristic Incentive Bonus Increase Increase

 TOTAL 0.64 0.36 0.46 0.34

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.97 0.46 0.83 0.62

 1,000 to 9,999 0.70 0.60 0.43 0.29

 10,000 or more 0.39 0.18 0.15 0.33

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.76 0.19 0.76 0.27

 10% to under 50% 1.25 0.76 0.69 0.97

 50% or more 3.25 2.57 1.23 1.29

Minority Teachers

 None 1.04 0.34 0.87 0.49

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.97 0.68 0.57 0.61

 20% or more 1.42 0.99 1.20 0.73

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 1.81 0.18 1.76 0.89

 Urban-outside central city 1.21 0.75 0.87 0.28

 Nonurban area 0.71 0.34 0.64 0.56

Region by District Size

 Northeast 1.09 0.23 1.01 0.22

 Under 1,000 2.00 0.28 2.06 0.30

 1,000 to 9,999 1.21 0.31 0.98 0.31

 10,000 or more 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 Midwest 0.99 0.20 0.95 0.28

 Under 1,000 1.59 0.31 1.56 0.46

 1,000 to 9,999 0.65 0.21 0.63 0.23

 10,000 or more 0.13 0.00 0.13 0.03

 South 1.48 0.99 0.75 1.16

 Under 1,000 3.17 2.36 1.47 2.72

 1,000 to 9,999 1.17 0.69 0.91 0.92

 10,000 or more 0.49 0.42 0.29 0.33

 West 1.77 1.38 0.86 1.02

 Under 1,000 1.98 0.39 1.30 1.66

 1,000 to 9,999 3.49 3.62 0.95 0.63

 10,000 or more 0.98 0.20 0.25 0.87

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-25

Table B-22. Standard errors for percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in fields of shortage by type of pay incentive, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Type of Pay Incentive

 District Any Cash Salary Step Other Salary

Characteristic Incentive Bonus Increase Increase

 TOTAL 0.62 0.32 0.44 0.30

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.83 0.36 0.74 0.51

 1,000 to 9,999 0.74 0.60 0.38 0.34

 10,000 or more 0.84 0.53 0.31 0.61

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.73 0.14 0.69 0.31

 10% to under 50% 1.11 0.65 0.58 0.65

 50% or more 3.29 2.53 0.64 1.58

Minority Teachers

 None 0.98 0.24 0.84 0.45

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.90 0.62 0.44 0.53

 20% or more 1.50 0.80 0.66 1.06

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 1.75 0.73 1.15 1.04

 Urban-outside central city 1.36 0.70 0.88 0.41

 Nonurban area 0.68 0.28 0.42 0.50

Region by District Size

 Northeast 0.95 0.08 0.93 0.20

 Under 1,000 2.09 0.00 2.08 0.31

 1,000 to 9,999 0.78 0.13 0.78 0.26

 10,000 or more 2.88 0.13 2.95 1.40

 Midwest 0.93 0.15 0.88 0.41

 Under 1,000 1.32 0.15 1.34 0.64

 1,000 to 9,999 1.02 0.35 0.83 0.46

 10,000 or more 0.58 0.06 0.48 0.23

 South 1.27 0.84 0.34 1.17

 Under 1,000 2.69 1.84 0.63 2.53

 1,000 to 9,999 0.82 0.64 0.54 0.80

 10,000 or more 0.66 0.52 0.36 0.61

 West 1.92 1.38 0.61 0.98

 Under 1,000 1.31 0.40 0.85 1.04

 1,000 to 9,999 3.61 3.57 1.19 1.36

 10,000 or more 1.91 1.33 0.09 1.51

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-26 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-23. Standard errors for percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

fields of shortage by subject matter, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Subject Matter

ESL or

 District Special Comp. Physical Biological Bilingual Foreign Vocational

Characteristic Education Math Sci. Science Sciences Education Language Education Other

 TOTAL 0.45 0.39 0.25 0.34 0.33 0.39 0.28 0.31 0.12

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.64 0.67 0.43 0.55 0.57 0.39 0.42 0.55 0.20

 1,000 to 9,999 0.68 0.34 0.25 0.34 0.32 0.70 0.33 0.29 0.19

 10,000 or more 0.40 0.17 0.13 0.17 0.14 0.77 0.10 0.13 0.11

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.55 0.53 0.31 0.38 0.45 0.26 0.33 0.48 0.17

 10% to under 50% 0.73 0.78 0.57 0.70 0.70 0.74 0.63 0.57 0.24

 50% or more 2.89 1.49 0.51 1.30 0.93 2.99 0.79 0.63 0.20

Minority Teachers

 None 0.72 0.70 0.38 0.44 0.59 0.32 0.42 0.59 0.20

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.83 0.53 0.39 0.49 0.42 0.73 0.38 0.37 0.18

 20% or more 1.06 0.66 0.52 0.62 0.66 1.19 1.01 0.73 0.25

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 1.68 0.41 0.33 0.41 0.38 1.29 0.28 0.37 0.20

 Urban-outside central city 0.90 0.59 0.25 0.37 0.34 0.84 0.36 0.55 0.16

 Nonurban area 0.57 0.50 0.39 0.47 0.52 0.36 0.37 0.40 0.18

Region by District Size

 Northeast 0.81 0.80 0.24 0.43 0.29 0.28 0.24 0.29 0.25

 Under 1,000 1.95 1.94 0.26 0.60 0.26 0.51 0.00 0.34 0.40

 1,000 to 9,999 0.60 0.25 0.33 0.51 0.47 0.33 0.39 0.45 0.36

 10,000 or more 2.64 0.28 0.00 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.00 0.35 1.44

 Midwest 0.62 0.60 0.40 0.47 0.57 0.33 0.46 0.67 0.26

 Under 1,000 0.96 0.84 0.62 0.71 0.80 0.53 0.65 1.05 0.37

 1,000 to 9,999 0.73 0.62 0.42 0.51 0.50 0.42 0.58 0.46 0.50

 10,000 or more 0.37 0.32 0.00 0.32 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.03

 South 0.99 0.93 0.62 1.07 0.94 0.73 0.64 0.69 0.18

 Under 1,000 1.87 2.05 1.36 2.38 2.25 1.51 1.39 1.40 0.28

 1,000 to 9,999 0.73 0.71 0.55 0.63 0.64 0.84 0.57 0.63 0.27

 10,000 or more 0.62 0.36 0.30 0.36 0.29 0.66 0.09 0.30 0.10

 West 1.53 0.44 0.42 0.42 0.49 1.66 0.57 0.42 0.26

 Under 1,000 1.14 0.67 0.63 0.64 0.71 0.55 0.55 0.62 0.43

 1,000 to 9,999 3.44 0.74 0.72 0.76 0.76 3.78 1.19 0.72 0.30

 10,000 or more 0.70 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.92 0.28 0.02 0.01

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-27

Table B-24. Standard errors for percentage of school districts in which free training is offered to prepare staff

members to teach in fields with current or anticipated shortages, by selected district characteristics:

1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent Percent Percent

 TOTAL 0.59 0.52 0.84

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.91 0.78 1.38

 1,000 to 9,999 0.54 0.55 1.00

 10,000 or more 0.46 1.56 0.74

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.56 0.47 1.12

 10% to under 50% 1.19 1.44 1.21

 50% or more 2.75 2.61 3.91

Minority Teachers

 None 0.77 0.72 1.28

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.68 0.74 1.51

 20% or more 2.92 2.79 2.10

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 3.43 2.42

 Urban-outside central city - 1.06 1.59

 Nonurban area - 0.69 1.14

Region by District Size

 Northeast 1.06 0.92 1.36

 Under 1,000 2.07 1.83 2.80

 1,000 to 9,999 1.16 1.08 1.51

 10,000 or more 2.21 4.23 2.44

 Midwest 0.83 0.84 1.73

 Under 1,000 1.17 1.27 2.71

 1,000 to 9,999 0.78 0.64 0.97

 10,000 or more 0.55 1.03 0.92

 South 1.30 1.10 1.28

 Under 1,000 2.14 1.99 2.88

 1,000 to 9,999 1.52 1.43 1.54

 10,000 or more 0.71 1.03 0.83

 West 1.97 1.96 3.22

 Under 1,000 3.30 2.34 4.02

 1,000 to 9,999 1.35 2.18 3.99

 10,000 or more 0.92 3.40 1.74

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-28 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-25. Standard errors for percentage of school districts in which free training is offered to prepare staff

members to teach in fields of current or anticipated shortage by subject matter, by selected district

characteristics: 1993-94

Subject Matter

ESL or

 District Special Comp. Physical Biological Bilingual Foreign Vocational

Characteristic Education Math Sci. Science Sciences Education Language Education Other

 TOTAL 0.69 0.72 0.77 0.66 0.68 0.73 0.52 0.53 0.22

District Size

 Under 1,000 1.16 1.20 1.26 1.11 1.12 1.18 0.89 0.95 --

 1,000 to 9,999 0.71 0.67 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.91 0.49 0.46 0.11

 10,000 or more 0.51 0.52 0.74 0.47 0.47 0.75 0.63 0.50 --

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.96 1.10 1.05 1.00 1.00 0.94 0.79 0.79 --

 10% to under 50% 1.00 0.99 1.01 1.05 1.05 1.11 0.89 0.92 --

 50% or more 1.76 3.05 1.46 3.24 3.26 3.85 1.19 1.19 --

Minority Teachers

 None 1.18 1.22 1.22 1.17 1.19 1.17 0.94 0.92 --

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.85 1.20 0.90 1.13 1.15 1.30 0.68 0.63 --

 20% or more 1.82 1.54 1.79 1.28 1.36 1.59 1.05 1.28 --

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 1.04 0.74 1.06 0.76 0.94 2.32 0.64 1.08 --

 Urban-outside central city 0.86 1.24 0.91 1.11 1.12 1.31 0.57 0.50 --

 Nonurban area 1.08 1.07 1.12 1.09 1.08 1.10 0.94 0.97 --

Region by District Size

 Northeast 1.15 1.26 1.16 0.91 0.80 0.94 0.74 0.76 --

 Under 1,000 2.05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 1,000 to 9,999 1.31 1.36 1.25 1.36 1.23 1.14 1.13 --

 10,000 or more -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 Midwest 1.50 1.53 1.63 1.46 1.48 1.59 1.26 1.19 --

 Under 1,000 2.39 2.37 2.49 2.34 2.37 -- 1.95 1.90 --

 1,000 to 9,999 0.94 1.00 0.89 0.90 0.89 -- -- 0.90 --

 10,000 or more 0.82 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 South 1.27 1.17 1.11 1.10 1.09 1.29 1.00 1.01 --

 Under 1,000 2.74 2.44 2.47 2.29 2.24 2.78 -- 2.16 --

 1,000 to 9,999 1.15 1.06 0.74 0.92 1.01 1.28 0.85 0.62 --

 10,000 or more 0.72 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.76 0.63 0.64 --

 West 2.03 2.22 2.00 2.25 2.35 2.94 1.34 1.23 --

 Under 1,000 3.05 3.74 2.98 3.78 3.85 -- -- 2.02 --

 1,000 to 9,999 2.47 2.15 2.28 2.16 1.80 4.07 1.86 1.27 --

 10,000 or more 1.54 1.35 2.02 0.93 0.93 1.76 1.76 -- --

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-29

Table B-26. Standard errors for average low and high salary for full time teachers in actual and in constant 1993-94

dollars, by selected district characteristics: 1990-91 to 1993-94a

School Year

1990-91 1990-91 1993-94

 District Actual Dollars Constant 1993-94 Dollars Actual Dollars b

Characteristic Low High Low High Low High

 TOTAL 42 133 46 145 63 148

District Size

 Under 1,000 89 214 97 234 111 275

 1,000 to 9,999 72 186 79 203 67 158

 10,000 or more 154 349 169 381 46 142

Minority Studentsc

 Under 10% 56 199 61 217 77 210

 10% to under 50% 111 355 121 388 149 313

 50% or more 175 433 191 472 221 444

Minority Teachers

 None 85 246 92 269 114 241

 More than 0% to under 20% 102 248 111 270 126 264

 20% or more 168 453 184 495 110 358

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 193 651 211 711 140 355

 Urban-outside central city 89 250 97 273 116 250

 Nonurban area 63 158 69 173 65 196

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 102 257 112 281 119 342

 Urban-inside central city 335 702 366 767 221 691

 Urban-outside central city 168 381 183 416 159 484

 Nonurban area 105 256 114 280 142 307

 Midwest 80 209 88 228 78 321

 Urban-inside central city 182 391 198 427 178 412

 Urban-outside central city 136 401 149 438 164 459

 Nonurban area 96 259 105 283 87 344

 South 65 77 71 84 38 83

 Urban-inside central city 144 314 157 343 143 584

 Urban-outside central city 116 215 127 235 96 158

 Nonurban area 98 104 107 114 40 91

 West 112 347 123 379 200 353

 Urban-inside central city 402 2,235 438 2,440 385 310

 Urban-outside central city 305 667 333 728 434 710

 Nonurban area 179 431 195 471 224 513

a) In districts with salary schedules, the low salary corresponds to bachelor’s degree with no teaching experience and high is equivalent to maximum scheduled

salary. Districts without salary schedule reported their lowest and highest base salaries for the year.

b) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

c) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
B-30 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-27. Standard errors for average scheduled salary for teachers (in constant 1993-94 dollars) by education

and teaching experience for school districts with salary schedules, by selected district characteristics:

1990-91 and 1993-94

1990-91 (Constant 1993-94 Dollars) 1993-94 (Actual Dollars) a

Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s

 District without without with 20 yrs without without with 20 yrs

Characteristic Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience

 TOTAL 65 81 137 60 63 110

District Size

 Under 1,000 115 128 204 118 136 268

 1,000 to 9,999 82 91 178 68 81 147

 10,000 or more 170 217 330 47 53 126

Minority Studentsb

 Under 10% 85 99 180 86 96 217

 10% to under 50% 108 137 265 141 122 267

 50% or more 191 206 348 226 356 608

Minority Teachers

 None 110 127 224 108 118 256

 More than 0% to under 20% 109 135 241 128 146 270

 20% or more 186 236 422 113 130 293

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 211 283 602 144 134 364

 Urban-outside central city 95 118 209 122 127 223

 Nonurban area 86 99 167 56 61 127

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 84 109 252 128 159 317

 Urban-inside central city 371 405 586 231 279 608

 Urban-outside central city 133 172 409 169 213 401

 Nonurban area 121 110 225 159 176 351

 Midwest 110 128 266 85 92 192

 Urban-inside central city 198 190 548 181 159 532

 Urban-outside central city 153 176 454 156 174 398

 Nonurban area 126 147 261 85 94 200

 South 74 86 89 39 42 70

 Urban-inside central city 157 201 279 145 160 427

 Urban-outside central city 127 171 176 96 108 196

 Nonurban area 109 123 120 42 42 68

 West 147 221 287 191 201 330

 Urban-inside central city 438 1,050 1,851 389 270 538

 Urban-outside central city 335 438 527 438 456 704

 Nonurban area 175 219 348 130 123 250

a) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

b) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-31

Table B-28. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts with collective bargaining units, by

selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District

Characteristic Number Percent

 TOTAL 150 0.87

District Size

 Under 1,000 156 1.66

 1,000 to 9,999 109 0.69

 10,000 or more 7 0.59

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 123 1.08

 10% to under 50% 113 1.40

 50% or more 79 4.12

Minority Teachers

 None 163 1.38

 More than 0% to under 20% 166 1.44

 20% or more 27 1.95

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 22 1.26

 Urban-outside central city 115 1.53

 Nonurban area 129 1.18

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 25 0.41

 Urban-inside central city 6 1.47

 Urban-outside central city 45 0.44

 Nonurban area 38 1.04

 Midwest 106 1.61

 Urban-inside central city 13 0.74

 Urban-outside central city 58 1.62

 Nonurban area 102 2.47

 South 18 0.55

 Urban-inside central city 10 4.52

 Urban-outside central city 8 1.02

 Nonurban area 11 0.50

 West 108 3.65

 Urban-inside central city 15 0.73

 Urban-outside central city 92 7.49

 Nonurban area 70 3.40

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-32 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-29. Standard errors for average scheduled salary for teachers by education and teaching experience in

school districts with and without collective bargaining units, by selected district characteristics:

1993-94

With Collective Bargaining Units Without Collective Bargaining Units

Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s

 District without without with 20 yrs without without with 20 yrs

Characteristic Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience

 TOTAL 94 93 173 104 155 296

District Size

 Under 1,000 169 180 341 202 298 584

 1,000 to 9,999 82 91 191 76 91 174

 10,000 or more 69 81 167 31 32 62

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 109 122 279 114 149 289

 10% to under 50% 223 174 383 109 128 205

 50% or more 232 298 465 385 649 1,215

Minority Teachers

 None 132 146 329 143 188 356

 More than 0% to under 20% 162 160 334 186 291 537

 20% or more 260 289 626 91 98 199

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 181 164 517 170 191 256

 Urban-outside central city 150 141 255 295 478 894

 Nonurban area 84 88 197 69 87 174

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 132 162 321 1,313 1,803 3,829

 Urban-inside central city 225 274 623 -- -- --

 Urban-outside central city 170 214 400 -- -- --

 Nonurban area 169 184 353 -- -- --

 Midwest 107 120 253 174 181 361

 Urban-inside central city 192 170 548 -- -- --

 Urban-outside central city 175 197 425 430 424 897

 Nonurban area 111 121 259 175 183 308

 South 47 49 186 49 52 78

 Urban-inside central city 181 127 1,716 180 203 241

 Urban-outside central city 84 89 273 118 132 237

 Nonurban area 72 86 212 47 49 72

 West 248 214 360 416 604 1,179

 Urban-inside central city 397 274 560 -- -- --

 Urban-outside central city 494 431 679 839 1,419 3,017

 Nonurban area 182 150 353 157 260 590

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-33

Table B-30. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts offering retirement plans to teachers, by

selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 202 0.27 134 0.48 80 0.27

District Size

 Under 1,000 216 0.52 178 0.87 135 0.52

 1,000 to 9,999 75 0.09 166 0.15 117 0.12

 10,000 or more 9 0.00 37 0.10 8 0.00

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 185 0.38 168 0.22 128 0.44

 10% to under 50% 99 0.48 143 0.23 128 0.15

 50% or more 124 0.25 84 4.48 117 0.05

Minority Teachers

 None 233 0.50 183 0.92 196 0.57

 More than 0% to under 20% 113 0.21 160 0.23 181 0.22

 20% or more 71 0.16 57 0.32 45 0.07

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city -- -- 50 9.82 23 0.00

 Urban-outside central city -- -- 130 0.15 89 0.26

 Nonurban area -- -- 110 0.29 111 0.45

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast -- -- 20 0.16 22 0.44

 Urban-inside central city -- -- 16 0.00 7 0.00

 Urban-outside central city -- -- 44 0.24 45 0.53

 Nonurban area -- -- 33 0.16 39 0.80

 Midwest -- -- 105 0.25 66 0.58

 Urban-inside central city -- -- 13 0.46 13 0.00

 Urban-outside central city -- -- 76 0.45 59 0.49

 Nonurban area -- -- 75 0.33 82 0.89

 South -- -- 54 0.45 14 0.07

 Urban-inside central city -- -- 12 0.00 10 0.00

 Urban-outside central city -- -- 33 0.00 11 0.00

 Nonurban area -- -- 55 0.65 17 0.11

 West -- -- 76 2.33 20 0.51

 Urban-inside central city -- -- 44 25.92 15 0.00

 Urban-outside central city -- -- 87 0.10 59 0.01

 Nonurban area -- -- 75 0.94 61 0.92

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-34 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-31. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with retirement plans that permit teachers full or

partial credit for teaching experience obtained in another school district within-state and outside-thestate, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Within-State Outside-the-State

Characteristic Full Credit Partial Credit Full Credit Partial Credit

 TOTAL 0.32 0.24 1.15 0.83

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.52 0.42 1.99 1.54

 1,000 to 9,999 0.40 0.31 1.12 0.83

 10,000 or more 0.20 -- 0.48 0.70

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.52 0.40 1.56 1.25

 10% to under 50% 0.44 -- 1.38 1.36

 50% or more 0.49 -- 2.77 1.79

Minority Teachers

 None 0.57 0.49 1.68 1.40

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.37 0.28 1.31 0.95

 20% or more 0.45 -- 1.69 1.73

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 0.22 -- 1.96 1.95

 Urban-outside central city 0.40 0.30 1.95 1.23

 Nonurban area 0.46 0.41 1.32 1.17

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 0.58 -- 2.02 1.54

 Urban-inside central city 0.00 0.00 3.05 2.68

 Urban-outside central city 0.75 -- 2.72 2.21

 Nonurban area 0.75 -- 3.26 2.25

 Midwest 0.74 0.60 1.71 1.79

 Urban-inside central city 0.62 -- 4.23 3.66

 Urban-outside central city 0.84 -- 2.32 2.58

 Nonurban area 1.03 0.94 2.29 2.41

 South 0.20 -- 1.13 1.00

 Urban-inside central city 0.03 -- 3.10 3.84

 Urban-outside central city 0.12 -- 2.18 2.10

 Nonurban area 0.29 -- 1.54 1.29

 West 0.53 0.43 3.20 1.75

 Urban-inside central city 0.54 -- -- 0.77

 Urban-outside central city 0.79 -- 6.81 1.41

 Nonurban area 0.72 0.51 2.76 2.61

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-35

Table B-32. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts allowing teachers to purchase credit

toward retirement plan for experience obtained in other school districts within-state and outside-thestate, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Within-State Outside-the-State

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

 TOTAL 69.0 0.46 136.4 0.93

District Size

 Under 1,000 66.8 0.89 151.8 1.62

 1,000 to 9,999 41.5 0.59 76.7 0.92

 10,000 or more 3.7 0.52 5.4 0.86

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 57.4 0.65 142.5 1.25

 10% to under 50% 56.3 1.19 81.5 1.88

 50% or more 23.4 1.62 38.6 2.67

Minority Teachers

 None 55.7 0.76 174.7 1.58

 More than 0% to under 20% 55.5 0.82 117.8 1.31

 20% or more 17.3 1.50 30.9 2.06

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 14.5 2.38 17.1 0.60

 Urban-outside central city 50.6 0.88 113.5 1.45

 Nonurban area 46.9 0.56 125.3 1.35

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 29.4 0.98 50.6 1.60

 Urban-inside central city 0.3 1.15 4.8 2.37

 Urban-outside central city 26.6 1.39 49.5 1.76

 Nonurban area 19.5 1.77 43.3 2.47

 Midwest 40.6 0.75 98.6 1.88

 Urban-inside central city 1.8 1.32 13.1 0.75

 Urban-outside central city 18.7 0.97 57.9 2.61

 Nonurban area 34.6 0.98 102.3 2.85

 South 34.6 1.05 38.2 1.36

 Urban-inside central city 0.0 0.13 10.7 1.23

 Urban-outside central city 13.7 1.54 18.4 2.48

 Nonurban area 30.8 1.39 35.3 1.67

 West 49.7 1.70 94.2 3.30

 Urban-inside central city 13.7 8.25 0.2 2.53

 Urban-outside central city 47.8 4.07 79.8 8.37

 Nonurban area 24.3 1.62 56.5 3.15

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-36 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-33. Standard errors for average number of years of credit required in English, mathematics, social science,

physical/biological science, computer science, and foreign language for high school graduation in

school districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1990-91 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 0.04 0.03

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.09 0.07

 1,000 to 9,999 0.05 0.04

 10,000 or more 0.07 0.03

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.05 0.04

 10% to under 50% 0.09 0.06

 50% or more 0.11 0.10

Minority Teachers

 None 0.09 0.06

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.05 0.05

 20% or more 0.15 0.07

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 0.14 0.06

 Urban-outside central city 0.07 0.05

 Nonurban area 0.06 0.04

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 0.11 0.07

 Urban-inside central city 0.39 0.14

 Urban-outside central city 0.14 0.08

 Nonurban area 0.16 0.14

 Midwest 0.06 0.06

 Urban-inside central city 0.13 0.11

 Urban-outside central city 0.12 0.08

 Nonurban area 0.07 0.08

 South 0.10 0.05

 Urban-inside central city 0.22 0.11

 Urban-outside central city 0.11 0.10

 Nonurban area 0.13 0.06

 West 0.09 0.07

 Urban-inside central city 0.33 0.06

 Urban-outside central city 0.12 0.13

 Nonurban area 0.11 0.07

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-37

Table B-34. Standard errors for average number of years of English required for high school graduation in school

districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 0.009 0.011 0.008

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.019 0.023 0.014

 1,000 to 9,999 0.007 0.011 0.010

 10,000 or more 0.009 0.024 0.005

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.012 0.012 0.010

 10% to under 50% 0.014 0.026 0.008

 50% or more 0.019 0.028 0.029

Minority Teachers

 None 0.016 0.022 0.014

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.013 0.010 0.011

 20% or more 0.013 0.035 0.013

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 0.031 0.014

 Urban-outside central city - 0.014 0.015

 Nonurban area - 0.015 0.010

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 0.018 0.009

 Urban-inside central city - 0.001 0.005

 Urban-outside central city - 0.022 0.012

 Nonurban area - 0.041 0.008

 Midwest - 0.017 0.015

 Urban-inside central city - 0.065 0.034

 Urban-outside central city - 0.030 0.024

 Nonurban area - 0.022 0.021

 South - 0.028 0.003

 Urban-inside central city - 0.008 0.000

 Urban-outside central city - 0.009 0.002

 Nonurban area - 0.039 0.004

 West - 0.017 0.024

 Urban-inside central city - 0.120 0.036

 Urban-outside central city - 0.031 0.055

 Nonurban area - 0.016 0.011

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-38 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-35. Standard errors for average number of years of mathematics required for high school graduation in

school districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 0.011 0.012 0.009

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.019 0.024 0.018

 1,000 to 9,999 0.014 0.013 0.012

 10,000 or more 0.008 0.024 0.008

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.015 0.015 0.013

 10% to under 50% 0.022 0.024 0.017

 50% or more 0.032 0.029 0.033

Minority Teachers

 None 0.019 0.021 0.019

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.017 0.015 0.014

 20% or more 0.039 0.035 0.025

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 0.050 0.015

 Urban-outside central city - 0.019 0.014

 Nonurban area - 0.016 0.012

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 0.026 0.021

 Urban-inside central city - 0.137 0.052

 Urban-outside central city - 0.031 0.027

 Nonurban area - 0.035 0.038

 Midwest - 0.020 0.017

 Urban-inside central city - 0.024 0.028

 Urban-outside central city - 0.032 0.021

 Nonurban area - 0.024 0.021

 South - 0.018 0.012

 Urban-inside central city - 0.022 0.011

 Urban-outside central city - 0.032 0.022

 Nonurban area - 0.025 0.015

 West - 0.029 0.025

 Urban-inside central city - 0.227 0.020

 Urban-outside central city - 0.042 0.037

 Nonurban area - 0.034 0.033

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-39

Table B-36. Standard errors for average number of years of social science required for high school graduation in

school districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 0.013 0.014 0.010

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.023 0.029 0.022

 1,000 to 9,999 0.014 0.018 0.012

 10,000 or more 0.009 0.024 0.007

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.016 0.018 0.014

 10% to under 50% 0.025 0.025 0.021

 50% or more 0.036 0.030 0.033

Minority Teachers

 None 0.023 0.027 0.021

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.014 0.016 0.014

 20% or more 0.025 0.037 0.018

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 0.043 0.021

 Urban-outside central city - 0.020 0.018

 Nonurban area - 0.019 0.015

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 0.032 0.020

 Urban-inside central city - 0.172 0.061

 Urban-outside central city - 0.041 0.026

 Nonurban area - 0.055 0.039

 Midwest - 0.023 0.023

 Urban-inside central city - 0.060 0.042

 Urban-outside central city - 0.036 0.031

 Nonurban area - 0.029 0.031

 South - 0.024 0.015

 Urban-inside central city - 0.067 0.035

 Urban-outside central city - 0.036 0.023

 Nonurban area - 0.030 0.020

 West - 0.037 0.038

 Urban-inside central city - 0.072 0.027

 Urban-outside central city - 0.058 0.066

 Nonurban area - 0.045 0.037

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-40 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-37. Standard errors for average number of years of physical and biological sciences required for high school

graduation in school districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to

1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

 TOTAL 0.012 0.012 0.011

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.023 0.021 0.023

 1,000 to 9,999 0.014 0.013 0.012

 10,000 or more 0.006 0.021 0.008

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.015 0.012 0.015

 10% to under 50% 0.019 0.025 0.016

 50% or more 0.026 0.028 0.031

Minority Teachers

 None 0.019 0.022 0.022

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.015 0.014 0.013

 20% or more 0.025 0.038 0.025

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 0.038 0.016

 Urban-outside central city - 0.020 0.019

 Nonurban area - 0.016 0.017

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 0.026 0.023

 Urban-inside central city - 0.118 0.051

 Urban-outside central city - 0.038 0.035

 Nonurban area - 0.035 0.037

 Midwest - 0.015 0.022

 Urban-inside central city - 0.046 0.039

 Urban-outside central city - 0.032 0.032

 Nonurban area - 0.021 0.031

 South - 0.023 0.015

 Urban-inside central city - 0.062 0.031

 Urban-outside central city - 0.034 0.033

 Nonurban area - 0.029 0.021

 West - 0.022 0.018

 Urban-inside central city - 0.054 0.005

 Urban-outside central city - 0.031 0.031

 Nonurban area - 0.027 0.024

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-41

Table B-38. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with high school graduation requirements in

computer science, by selected district characteristics: 1990-91 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent of Districts Percent of Districts

 TOTAL 1.04 0.71

District Size

 Under 1,000 1.87 1.52

 1,000 to 9,999 1.08 1.05

 10,000 or more 1.08 0.57

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 1.57 0.96

 10% to under 50% 1.43 1.59

 50% or more 2.81 2.29

Minority Teachers

 None 1.93 1.23

 More than 0% to under 20% 1.11 0.94

 20% or more 2.80 1.68

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 3.20 2.05

 Urban-outside central city 1.43 1.51

 Nonurban area 1.32 1.11

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 1.93 1.92

 Urban-inside central city 3.30 2.16

 Urban-outside central city 2.46 2.57

 Nonurban area 3.55 3.66

 Midwest 2.04 1.29

 Urban-inside central city 5.97 5.22

 Urban-outside central city 2.61 3.04

 Nonurban area 2.49 1.70

 South 1.59 1.22

 Urban-inside central city 5.97 2.45

 Urban-outside central city 2.84 2.58

 Nonurban area 1.99 1.70

 West 2.37 1.95

 Urban-inside central city 3.61 1.84

 Urban-outside central city 3.46 3.63

 Nonurban area 2.89 2.33

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and

Shortage Questionnaire).
B-42 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-39. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with graduation requirements in foreign language in

school districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

 District 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Characteristic Percent of Districts Percent of Districts Percent of Districts

 TOTAL 0.56 0.67 0.75

District Size

 Under 1,000 1.22 1.41 1.46

 1,000 to 9,999 0.63 0.96 0.79

 10,000 or more 0.62 2.27 0.66

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.76 0.82 0.69

 10% to under 50% 1.21 1.40 1.74

 50% or more 1.76 2.88 2.00

Minority Teachers

 None 0.99 1.09 0.94

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.92 1.17 1.25

 20% or more 1.53 2.94 1.65

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city - 2.65 1.28

 Urban-outside central city - 1.41 0.85

 Nonurban area - 0.87 0.99

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast - 2.10 1.73

 Urban-inside central city - 2.56 2.10

 Urban-outside central city - 2.65 1.81

 Nonurban area - 2.81 3.25

 Midwest - 1.12 0.71

 Urban-inside central city - 5.70 2.88

 Urban-outside central city - 1.73 1.27

 Nonurban area - 1.40 0.85

 South - 1.42 1.35

 Urban-inside central city - 5.62 2.18

 Urban-outside central city - 2.21 2.33

 Nonurban area - 1.96 1.89

 West - 2.47 2.45

 Urban-inside central city - 5.96 3.19

 Urban-outside central city - 4.49 4.06

 Nonurban area - 2.91 2.79

- Metro status data not available from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-43

Table B-40. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts with community service requirements

for high school graduation in school districts with 4-year programs, by selected district characteristics:

1993-94

 District Number of Percent of

Characteristic Districts Districts

 TOTAL 37 0.32

District Size

 Under 1,000 20 0.44

 1,000 to 9,999 25 0.42

 10,000 or more 2 0.27

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 27 0.42

 10% to under 50% 18 0.51

 50% or more 8 0.64

Minority Teachers

 None 24 0.48

 More than 0% to under 20% 22 0.41

 20% or more 3 0.39

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 6 1.24

 Urban-outside central city 22 0.51

 Nonurban area 22 0.34

Region by Metro Status

 Northeast 19 0.83

 Urban-inside central city 1 1.73

 Urban-outside central city 18 1.17

 Nonurban area 8 1.20

 Midwest 21 0.48

 Urban-inside central city 5 3.58

 Urban-outside central city 12 0.77

 Nonurban area 13 0.50

 South 13 0.41

 Urban-inside central city 1 0.89

 Urban-outside central city 9 1.02

 Nonurban area 9 0.40

 West 11 0.70

 Urban-inside central city 0 0.00

 Urban-outside central city 4 0.92

 Nonurban area 10 0.97

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-44 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-41. Standard errors for percentage of school districts and number of students in grades K-12 participating

in Chapter 1 programs, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Percent of Number of

Characteristic Districts Students

 TOTAL 0.8 93,666

District Size

 Under 1,000 1.4 23,645

 1,000 to 9,999 0.2 78,452

 10,000 or more 0.2 33,674

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 1.2 22,761

 10% to under 50% 0.8 33,426

 50% or more 0.8 87,977

Minority Teachers

 None 1.4 19,058

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.5 78,471

 20% or more 1.4 56,451

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 1.7 30,310

 Urban-outside central city 0.6 82,497

 Nonurban area 1.3 33,125

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 0.7 29,994

 Under 10% 0.8 14,467

 10% to under 50% 1.5 13,029

 50% or more 0.3 19,447

 Midwest 1.8 19,682

 Under 10% 2.2 13,862

 10% to under 50% 1.3 9,941

 50% or more 4.0 7,636

 South 0.8 35,480

 Under 10% 0.6 9,185

 10% to under 50% 1.0 13,414

 50% or more 1.6 36,637

 West 2.0 86,748

 Under 10% 4.2 6,304

 10% to under 50% 2.9 28,693

 50% or more 0.7 79,899

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-45

Table B-42. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with various types of programs for prekindergartenage children, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

Type of Prekindergarten Programs

 District Head Day Special No PK

Characteristic Start Care Chapter 1 Education General Programs

 TOTAL 0.72 0.72 0.36 0.90 0.87 1.00

District Size

 Under 1,000 1.06 1.14 0.57 1.49 1.53 1.85

 1,000 to 9,999 1.02 0.79 0.62 1.14 0.79 0.89

 10,000 or more 0.79 0.90 0.54 0.73 0.74 0.60

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.87 0.80 0.47 0.99 1.32 1.28

 10% to under 50% 1.20 1.97 0.78 1.72 1.63 1.94

 50% or more 3.74 1.68 1.22 3.55 2.67 4.54

Minority Teachers

 None 1.08 0.69 0.54 1.17 1.42 1.38

 More than 0% to under 20% 1.12 1.40 0.59 1.61 1.18 1.83

 20% or more 1.97 1.53 1.12 1.83 1.84 1.65

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 2.22 2.69 1.33 2.73 1.81 2.04

 Urban-outside central city 1.09 1.39 0.45 1.68 1.19 1.97

 Nonurban area 1.02 0.71 0.52 1.13 1.26 1.35

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 1.28 1.25 0.86 1.60 1.53 1.93

 Under 10% 1.54 1.49 1.09 1.95 1.68 2.45

 10% to under 50% 2.01 2.43 0.85 3.15 3.31 4.04

 50% or more 7.03 2.77 2.35 6.63 5.00 5.41

 Midwest 1.21 1.09 0.67 1.55 1.86 1.56

 Under 10% 1.33 1.20 0.69 1.77 2.09 1.85

 10% to under 50% 2.72 2.25 2.52 3.39 3.29 3.47

 50% or more 5.16 3.37 1.77 5.14 6.24 3.87

 South 1.11 0.80 0.91 1.55 1.40 1.38

 Under 10% 1.91 1.33 0.86 2.18 2.34 2.71

 10% to under 50% 1.51 1.01 1.24 2.06 2.50 1.87

 50% or more 3.10 2.16 2.01 3.63 3.10 2.51

 West 1.83 2.99 0.29 2.57 1.06 3.27

 Under 10% 1.33 1.53 0.36 3.00 1.80 3.50

 10% to under 50% 2.63 6.46 0.72 4.65 1.97 5.97

 50% or more 8.20 4.35 1.35 8.62 3.93 11.09

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-46 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-43. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with students eligible for participation and numbers

of students in grades K-12 approved for participation in and receiving free or reduced-price lunches

through the National School Lunch Program, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Percent of Students Approved Students Receiving Free

Characteristic Districts for Participation or Reduced-price Lunch

 TOTAL 0.80 174,707 139,061

District Size

 Under 1,000 1.50 45,360 32,990

 1,000 to 9,999 0.33 140,671 115,307

 10,000 or more 0.26 67,988 56,544

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 1.22 77,415 48,989

 10% to under 50% 0.96 93,261 70,537

 50% or more 0.79 122,653 106,966

Minority Teachers

 None 1.40 63,328 31,283

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.59 149,539 112,842

 20% or more 1.30 88,070 81,693

Metro Status

 Urban-inside central city 0.85 67,365 59,106

 Urban-outside central city 0.66 131,927 102,871

 Nonurban area 1.26 86,648 64,271

Region by Percent Minority Studentsa

 Northeast 1.25 77,903 49,870

 Under 10% 1.54 48,765 24,434

 10% to under 50% 3.45 33,413 24,199

 50% or more 1.81 46,481 36,582

 Midwest 1.61 69,153 50,070

 Under 10% 1.92 59,801 32,653

 10% to under 50% 0.48 38,225 30,508

 50% or more 2.75 18,742 18,511

 South 0.56 66,584 53,318

 Under 10% 0.18 26,892 18,110

 10% to under 50% 0.83 42,643 32,248

 50% or more 1.61 53,865 47,499

 West 1.54 127,435 105,252

 Under 10% 3.73 32,202 16,792

 10% to under 50% 1.77 61,685 49,721

 50% or more 0.98 101,482 88,460

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-47

Table B-44. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts with a student test performance

reporting policy, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Number of Percent of

Characteristic Districts Districts

 TOTAL 124 0.69

District Size

 Under 1,000 148 1.18

 1,000 to 9,999 109 0.58

 10,000 or more 8 0.43

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 146 1.09

 10% to under 50% 124 0.97

 50% or more 115 1.64

Minority Teachers

 None 193 1.32

 More than 0% to under 20% 162 0.63

 20% or more 42 1.62

Region

 Northeast 48 1.39

 Midwest 85 1.30

 South 29 0.78

 West 50 1.73

Metro Status by District Size

 Urban-inside central city 21 2.17

 Under 1,000 -- --

 1,000 to 9,999 20 3.14

 10,000 or more 5 0.94

 Urban-outside central city 92 0.74

 Under 1,000 114 1.44

 1,000 to 9,999 80 0.98

 10,000 or more 7 0.42

 Nonurban area 129 0.99

 Under 1,000 117 1.42

 1,000 to 9,999 66 0.78

 10,000 or more 3 0.23

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-48 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-45. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with choice by type of choice program, by selected

district characteristics: 1993-94

Interdistrict Choice

 District Any Choice Magnet Dist. Open Transfers Outside of Transfers into

Characteristic Program School Enrollment District District

 TOTAL 1.049 0.505 0.792 1.075 0.916

District Size

 Under 1,000 2.029 0.885 1.445 1.976 1.625

 1,000 to 9,999 0.941 0.533 0.742 0.940 0.932

 10,000 or more 0.591 0.617 0.541 0.633 0.596

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 1.180 0.700 0.887 1.289 1.201

 10% to under 50% 1.967 0.690 1.960 2.046 1.880

 50% or more 2.343 1.552 1.762 2.053 2.095

Minority Teachers

 None 1.444 0.920 1.003 1.534 1.396

 More than 0% to under 20% 1.576 0.420 1.396 1.663 1.442

 20% or more 1.869 0.957 1.317 1.684 1.714

Region 

 Northeast 1.072 0.690 0.780 1.014 0.956

 Midwest 1.536 0.990 1.135 1.771 1.471

 South 1.332 0.633 0.704 1.223 1.270

 West 3.704 1.335 3.159 3.681 3.107

Metro Status by District Size

 Urban-inside central city 2.293 1.431 2.108 1.916 1.878

 Under 1,000 -- -- -- -- --

 1,000 to 9,999 4.228 2.127 3.993 3.696 3.630

 10,000 or more 1.032 0.963 0.907 0.944 1.014

 

 Urban-outside central city 1.749 0.670 1.494 1.818 1.430

 Under 1,000 4.797 -- -- 4.869 3.212

 1,000 to 9,999 1.486 0.882 1.198 1.312 1.368

 10,000 or more 0.980 0.855 0.881 1.018 0.935

 Nonurban area 1.124 0.709 0.777 1.121 1.014

 Under 1,000 1.703 1.127 1.192 1.693 1.528

 1,000 to 9,999 1.222 0.528 1.028 1.186 1.247

 10,000 or more 2.482 2.642 2.501 2.435 2.424

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-49

Table B-46. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with written policies about student discipline,

alcohol use, drug use, and tobacco use, by selected district characteristics: 1993-94

 District Student Alcohol Drug Tobacco

Characteristic Discipline Use Use Use

 TOTAL 0.11 0.21 0.22 0.30

District Size

 Under 1,000 0.21 0.39 0.41 0.55

 1,000 to 9,999 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.30

 10,000 or more 0.09 0.23 0.23 0.24

Minority Studentsa

 Under 10% 0.16 0.33 0.33 0.42

 10% to under 50% 0.16 0.10 0.14 0.29

 50% or more 0.11 0.39 0.39 0.37

Minority Teachers

 None 0.21 0.44 0.44 0.58

 More than 0% to under 20% 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.24

 20% or more 0.83 0.84 0.81 0.87

Region 

 Northeast 0.30 0.66 0.65 0.83

 Midwest 0.17 0.46 0.46 0.67

 South 0.02 0.06 0.15 0.14

 West 0.28 0.21 0.20 0.29

Metro Status by District Size

 Urban-inside central city 0.13 0.28 0.28 0.39

 Under 1,000 1.92 0.61 0.61 0.61

 1,000 to 9,999 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.58

 10,000 or more 0.01 0.63 0.63 0.63

 

 Urban-outside central city 0.15 0.32 0.31 0.42

 Under 1,000 0.44 0.87 0.87 0.87

 1,000 to 9,999 0.05 0.18 0.19 0.47

 10,000 or more 0.17 0.21 0.21 0.32

 Nonurban area 0.20 0.31 0.34 0.47

 Under 1,000 0.30 0.49 0.53 0.72

 1,000 to 9,999 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.38

 10,000 or more 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16

a) Districts without students were excluded for this characteristic only. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-51

Section 2

State Tables
B-52 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-47. Standard errors for number of full and part time teachers and percentage by race and ethnicity, by

state: 1993-94

Total Percent by Race and Ethnicity

 State Teachers American Indian Asian Hispanic Black White

50 States and D.C. 20,454 0.006 0.017 0.087 0.100 0.118

Alabama 971 0.007 0.004 0.008 0.591 0.593

Alaska 77 0.211 0.034 0.014 0.018 0.200

Arizona 2,742 0.088 0.026 0.311 0.078 0.362

Arkansas 870 0.069 0.009 0.010 0.856 0.819

California 11,526 0.023 0.170 0.373 0.223 0.601

Colorado 2,073 0.016 0.052 0.293 0.071 0.286

Connecticut 2,781 0.035 0.013 0.174 0.135 0.317

Delaware 71 0.002 0.005 0.008 0.065 0.072

District of Columbia 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Florida 1,378 0.002 0.006 0.061 0.137 0.167

Georgia 1,898 0.007 0.014 0.015 0.595 0.600

Hawaii 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Idaho 105 0.022 0.025 0.080 0.001 0.085

Illinois 3,944 0.031 0.037 0.095 0.455 0.521

Indiana 1,358 0.006 0.013 0.076 0.140 0.201

Iowa 1,172 0.011 0.021 0.033 0.031 0.064

Kansas 961 0.107 0.028 0.050 0.095 0.183

Kentucky 736 0.004 0.014 0.011 0.109 0.113

Louisiana 608 0.002 0.026 0.005 0.476 0.465

Maine 1,478 0.014 0.011 0.020 0.014 0.034

Maryland 1,109 0.000 0.014 0.003 0.177 0.174

Massachusetts 4,783 0.009 0.042 0.127 0.115 0.256

Michigan 8,690 0.022 0.021 0.073 0.772 0.829

Minnesota 1,951 0.041 0.033 0.022 0.016 0.069

Mississippi 586 0.017 0.010 0.014 0.674 0.681

Missouri 3,003 0.022 0.017 0.028 0.322 0.352

Montana 459 0.305 0.035 0.058 0.033 0.324

Nebraska 1,021 0.014 0.020 0.048 0.023 0.065

Nevada 56 0.003 0.004 0.010 0.023 0.034

New Hampshire 1,128 0.006 0.015 0.032 0.016 0.039

New Jersey 3,886 0.015 0.056 0.182 0.450 0.565

New Mexico 348 0.035 0.019 0.615 0.026 0.618

New York 5,453 0.011 0.024 0.146 0.242 0.401

North Carolina 2,449 0.021 0.010 0.015 0.594 0.598

North Dakota 241 0.102 0.012 0.023 0.001 0.105

Ohio 3,850 0.005 0.017 0.029 0.801 0.816

Oklahoma 936 0.284 0.020 0.047 0.321 0.389

Oregon 1,749 0.043 0.083 0.363 0.060 0.347

Pennsylvania 4,301 0.010 0.016 0.036 0.382 0.403

Rhode Island 208 0.001 0.003 0.032 0.036 0.072

South Carolina 852 0.007 0.005 0.003 0.458 0.458

South Dakota 114 0.082 0.000 0.019 0.017 0.080

Tennessee 1,855 0.003 0.004 0.008 0.486 0.488

Texas 4,354 0.016 0.009 0.811 0.248 0.764

Utah 106 0.009 0.003 0.004 0.001 0.010

Vermont 300 0.003 0.021 0.065 0.007 0.064

Virginia 3,270 0.010 0.018 0.019 0.609 0.616

Washington 5,710 0.036 0.162 0.085 0.169 0.368

West Virginia 66 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.007 0.006

Wisconsin 1,433 0.029 0.023 0.032 0.071 0.092

Wyoming 80 0.084 0.006 0.021 0.008 0.078

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-53

Table B-48. Standard errors for number of students and percentage by race and ethnicity, by state: 1993-94

Total Percent by Race and Ethnicity

 State Students American Indian Asian Hispanic Black White

50 States and D.C. 353,831 0.023 0.064 0.233 0.173 0.259

Alabama 14,768 0.106 0.018 0.010 0.866 0.843

Alaska 1,243 0.491 0.043 0.019 0.039 0.470

Arizona 48,187 0.348 0.044 1.016 0.137 1.074

Arkansas 13,949 0.022 0.018 0.066 1.326 1.287

California 260,554 0.040 0.466 1.103 0.308 1.138

Colorado 36,082 0.021 0.067 0.742 0.186 0.692

Connecticut 37,066 0.015 0.051 0.696 0.574 1.265

Delaware 1,012 0.002 0.017 0.019 0.096 0.120

District of Columbia 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Florida 20,904 0.002 0.010 0.158 0.188 0.299

Georgia 28,407 0.004 0.026 0.075 0.970 1.012

Hawaii 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Idaho 2,037 0.051 0.035 0.372 0.004 0.362

Illinois 62,186 0.063 0.456 0.485 1.555 1.874

Indiana 20,660 0.027 0.159 0.248 0.469 0.645

Iowa 17,406 0.012 0.111 0.193 0.102 0.297

Kansas 14,799 0.069 0.052 0.242 0.301 0.495

Kentucky 12,145 0.003 0.015 0.009 0.333 0.344

Louisiana 10,203 0.005 0.017 0.012 0.417 0.405

Maine 20,103 0.034 0.018 0.025 0.041 0.086

Maryland 17,604 0.001 0.015 0.011 0.209 0.190

Massachusetts 68,835 0.016 0.133 0.407 0.306 0.713

Michigan 158,461 0.239 0.110 0.216 1.591 1.648

Minnesota 31,987 0.534 0.056 0.176 0.267 0.604

Mississippi 10,599 0.053 0.024 0.010 1.001 0.981

Missouri 48,610 0.016 0.081 0.043 1.000 1.021

Montana 6,714 0.708 0.032 0.060 0.018 0.695

Nebraska 12,276 0.232 0.049 0.417 0.064 0.506

Nevada 1,100 0.025 0.003 0.038 0.036 0.046

New Hampshire 16,191 0.009 0.049 0.048 0.047 0.129

New Jersey 47,885 0.031 0.399 0.996 1.015 1.550

New Mexico 5,927 0.186 0.012 0.587 0.107 0.577

New York 78,241 0.080 0.179 0.458 0.566 1.075

North Carolina 36,776 0.068 0.035 0.056 0.974 0.964

North Dakota 2,935 0.479 0.018 0.053 0.017 0.471

Ohio 66,025 0.185 0.073 0.114 0.831 0.868

Oklahoma 15,054 0.448 0.041 0.182 0.739 0.711

Oregon 32,517 0.117 0.122 0.302 0.160 0.327

Pennsylvania 72,724 0.009 0.080 0.215 0.838 0.926

Rhode Island 2,916 0.006 0.060 0.175 0.130 0.367

South Carolina 14,117 0.018 0.011 0.012 0.568 0.565

South Dakota 1,667 0.559 0.012 0.025 0.011 0.554

Tennessee 30,485 0.003 0.015 0.017 0.931 0.947

Texas 70,229 0.022 0.063 1.161 0.393 1.051

Utah 2,461 0.018 0.007 0.009 0.003 0.020

Vermont 3,530 0.044 0.030 0.018 0.032 0.064

Virginia 46,831 0.005 0.128 0.079 0.906 0.941

Washington 105,124 0.221 0.462 0.610 0.420 0.941

West Virginia 863 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.010 0.011

Wisconsin 22,347 0.119 0.105 0.126 0.276 0.356

Wyoming 917 0.263 0.007 0.040 0.008 0.238

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-54 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-49. Standard errors for total number of full time equivalent (FTE) teachers and percentage that consists of

new hires, by state: 1993-94

 Total FTE Percent

 State Teachers New Hires

50 States and D.C. 19,389 0.04

Alabama 952 0.10

Alaska 74 0.13

Arizona 2,643 0.30

Arkansas 812 0.20

California 10,926 0.19

Colorado 2,022 0.24

Connecticut 2,672 0.15

Delaware 70 0.03

District of Columbia 0 0.00

Florida 1,185 0.03

Georgia 1,820 0.13

Hawaii 0 0.00

Idaho 102 0.13

Illinois 3,786 0.35

Indiana 1,299 0.16

Iowa 1,120 0.21

Kansas 878 0.27

Kentucky 721 0.13

Louisiana 600 0.07

Maine 1,451 0.28

Maryland 1,036 0.03

Massachusetts 4,515 0.18

Michigan 8,299 0.21

Minnesota 1,840 0.37

Mississippi 572 0.20

Missouri 2,875 0.32

Montana 427 0.48

Nebraska 978 0.50

Nevada 56 0.01

New Hampshire 1,094 0.31

New Jersey 3,790 0.23

New Mexico 346 0.09

New York 5,134 0.14

North Carolina 2,228 0.15

North Dakota 230 0.34

Ohio 3,777 0.21

Oklahoma 948 0.26

Oregon 1,679 0.19

Pennsylvania 4,219 0.31

Rhode Island 215 0.04

South Carolina 834 0.13

South Dakota 115 0.16

Tennessee 1,789 0.11

Texas 4,223 0.19

Utah 107 0.03

Vermont 276 0.42

Virginia 3,163 0.13

Washington 5,277 0.17

West Virginia 64 0.00

Wisconsin 1,392 0.15

Wyoming 78 0.09

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-55

Table B-50. Standard errors for number of newly hired FTE teachers, and percentage of newly hired FTE teachers

with regular state certification, newly hired FTE teachers with emergency certification, and newly

hired FTE teachers lacking regular state or emergency certification in their field of assignment, by

state: 1993-94

Number of Percent Newly Hired with Percent Newly Percent Newly Hired lacking

Newly Hired Regular State Certification Hired with Regular State or Emergency

 State Teachers in Field of Assignment Emergency Certification Certification in Field of Assignment

50 States and D.C. 1,815 0.21 0.14 0.14

Alabama 104 0.62 0.11 0.61

Alaska 14 0.10 0.10 0.00

Arizona 387 1.34 0.22 1.40

Arkansas 86 0.91 0.33 0.76

California 1,155 1.11 0.83 0.65

Colorado 213 2.09 0.86 1.73

Connecticut 145 1.02 0.07 1.03

Delaware 6 0.11 0.11 0.08

District of Columbia 0 0.00 0.00 0.00

Florida 114 0.37 0.37 0.27

Georgia 214 0.58 0.29 0.62

Hawaii 0 0.00 0.00 0.00

Idaho 17 0.35 0.35 0.03

Illinois 472 1.26 0.16 1.20

Indiana 103 0.79 0.45 0.57

Iowa 102 0.68 0.71 0.53

Kansas 121 0.48 0.09 0.48

Kentucky 62 0.19 0.16 0.09

Louisiana 63 0.71 0.57 0.56

Maine 85 0.97 0.92 0.17

Maryland 89 0.15 0.06 0.12

Massachusetts 331 0.95 0.60 0.64

Michigan 250 0.50 0.48 0.05

Minnesota 227 0.34 0.30 0.14

Mississippi 81 1.02 0.62 0.74

Missouri 335 1.23 0.81 0.97

Montana 67 0.78 0.63 0.32

Nebraska 100 2.38 2.00 1.15

Nevada 6 0.04 0.04 0.00

New Hampshire 106 0.85 0.61 0.52

New Jersey 276 1.05 0.65 1.02

New Mexico 45 0.45 0.20 0.34

New York 326 0.38 0.13 0.36

North Carolina 254 0.69 0.51 0.38

North Dakota 24 0.38 0.21 0.32

Ohio 331 0.64 0.38 0.35

Oklahoma 113 0.57 0.58 0.14

Oregon 105 1.23 0.81 0.78

Pennsylvania 437 1.27 0.26 1.19

Rhode Island 5 0.03 0.03 0.00

South Carolina 75 0.23 0.06 0.26

South Dakota 18 0.83 0.57 0.66

Tennessee 170 0.46 0.45 0.26

Texas 723 0.98 0.77 0.57

Utah 10 0.48 0.19 0.35

Vermont 35 0.81 0.67 0.58

Virginia 275 0.43 0.39 0.18

Washington 489 0.40 0.07 0.38

West Virginia 1 0.03 0.03 0.00

Wisconsin 120 0.65 0.61 0.23

Wyoming 8 0.38 0.31 0.29

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-56 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-51. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with different criteria for considering applicants for

teaching positions, by state: 1993-94

Certification Type (in Field) Special Knowledge Test

College Graduate of National

Full Emergency/ Major/Minor Teacher Ed. District Teacher

 State Standard Temporary in Teaching Field Program or State Exam

50 States and D.C. 0.88 0.89 0.86 1.13 0.90 0.86

Alabama 2.37 3.65 2.40 1.51 2.01 1.65

Alaska 3.55 4.87 3.40 3.89 0.00 0.00

Arizona 2.93 9.07 10.67 7.89 4.18 2.88

Arkansas 3.90 4.25 3.66 4.70 4.42 2.85

California 4.58 5.67 9.67 8.81 7.92 6.35

Colorado 5.11 7.84 7.09 5.38 4.40 0.71

Connecticut 1.37 7.72 5.62 6.86 4.90 2.37

Delaware 1.01 1.11 1.01 0.89 0.63 0.00

District of Columbia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 a

Florida 3.62 2.98 3.48 3.94 3.06 0.01

Georgia 4.55 3.72 3.78 4.81 2.84 0.30

Hawaii 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 a

Idaho 1.94 4.42 3.05 4.01 3.52 3.16

Illinois 3.86 4.80 4.82 5.26 3.63 2.93

Indiana 3.19 4.04 3.72 3.61 3.98 3.85

Iowa 3.36 3.45 3.91 4.81 0.00 0.13

Kansas 2.57 4.21 3.26 4.06 3.31 4.13

Kentucky 1.90 3.57 1.30 2.00 4.48 3.72

Louisiana 3.11 2.94 2.66 2.93 1.32 2.54

Maine 2.75 6.00 5.78 5.16 7.07 5.84

Maryland 3.54 4.42 4.42 3.44 0.00 2.18

Massachusetts 4.50 4.16 5.35 5.02 1.70 0.61

Michigan 2.07 5.69 3.19 3.18 7.44 10.56

Minnesota 2.97 3.79 3.65 3.73 4.98 1.72

Mississippi 1.67 2.28 2.19 2.90 3.63 0.00

Missouri 5.82 4.89 3.02 6.12 4.62 3.39

Montana 4.93 5.45 4.79 4.93 4.74 5.47

Nebraska 2.30 8.28 5.29 6.79 8.13 6.03

Nevada 1.13 0.52 0.52 0.44 0.61 0.35

New Hampshire 4.46 5.04 6.25 5.45 2.23 0.00

New Jersey 4.05 6.28 6.04 6.48 5.91 6.87

New Mexico 4.87 4.96 3.47 4.88 5.80 6.90

New York 1.65 3.73 3.48 3.73 4.17 2.80

North Carolina 3.70 3.31 3.34 3.40 3.44 1.58

North Dakota 1.20 3.96 4.33 1.31 0.83 0.71

Ohio 1.79 4.60 3.06 3.62 4.89 5.39

Oklahoma 2.76 2.58 2.66 3.03 1.88 2.05

Oregon 6.21 6.09 5.61 6.13 6.40 2.78

Pennsylvania 1.47 5.14 4.34 3.53 3.28 4.16

Rhode Island 0.00 2.50 0.51 0.39 2.24 0.49

South Carolina 2.23 2.86 2.69 4.62 3.56 2.01

South Dakota 2.03 3.65 3.03 2.82 0.00 0.39

Tennessee 1.38 5.43 4.30 4.53 4.94 6.42

Texas 3.79 2.50 2.86 3.82 2.43 2.12

Utah 3.20 2.06 4.03 3.29 0.00 0.00

Vermont 1.16 4.26 5.25 4.52 1.85 0.70

Virginia 5.56 4.33 5.43 7.18 4.80 7.46

Washington 11.67 10.09 10.64 9.82 10.23 0.00

West Virginia 0.10 0.14 0.07 0.17 0.11 0.07

Wisconsin 3.65 3.81 4.62 2.03 2.92 0.00

Wyoming 1.06 2.57 2.93 2.44 0.99 0.00

a) The District of Columbia and Hawaii each have only one school district.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-57

Table B-52. Standard errors for percentage of school districts using pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to

teach in less desirable locations or in fields of shortage, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Percent Percent Percent

50 States and D.C. 0.46 0.69 0.68

Alabama 2.01 2.52 1.48

Alaska 0.00 4.33 4.48

Arizona 4.15 7.86 10.84

Arkansas 0.23 4.12 3.17

California 2.25 3.87 4.79

Colorado 3.24 7.93 5.77

Connecticut 3.45 1.44 1.03

Delaware 0.00 0.00 0.13

District of Columbia 0.00 0.00 0.00 a

Florida 0.27 1.62 1.75

Georgia 3.73 4.52 3.94

Hawaii 0.00 0.00 0.00 a

Idaho 10.84 2.04 1.98

Illinois 0.40 3.38 3.92

Indiana 2.57 1.97 0.88

Iowa 2.93 1.82 3.31

Kansas 3.77 1.98 2.05

Kentucky 3.06 1.92 2.44

Louisiana 0.22 1.94 1.41

Maine 1.05 2.70 0.22

Maryland 0.00 0.11 1.22

Massachusetts 1.29 1.10 1.83

Michigan 1.49 3.37 2.45

Minnesota 3.84 1.37 3.48

Mississippi 1.06 2.31 1.78

Missouri 2.84 3.10 4.05

Montana 2.69 4.44 2.17

Nebraska 4.34 4.61 5.05

Nevada 0.00 0.00 0.61

New Hampshire 3.94 2.74 2.34

New Jersey 3.10 4.53 4.08

New Mexico 10.07 2.48 1.41

New York 1.86 3.30 2.37

North Carolina 3.16 2.72 4.01

North Dakota 5.26 3.81 3.14

Ohio 0.96 1.36 1.65

Oklahoma 1.94 4.06 2.88

Oregon 0.47 8.03 5.54

Pennsylvania 1.97 2.46 2.34

Rhode Island 4.27 2.43 0.18

South Carolina 0.96 4.11 1.40

South Dakota 5.12 4.71 2.77

Tennessee 1.42 2.93 1.08

Texas 2.93 4.01 3.71

Utah 4.72 3.26 0.32

Vermont 1.82 1.75 1.38

Virginia 2.78 4.40 2.61

Washington 1.14 1.07 1.33

West Virginia 0.00 0.00 0.15

Wisconsin 2.80 2.94 3.21

Wyoming 3.89 3.93 1.78

a) The District of Columbia and Hawaii each have only one school district.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-58 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-53. Standard errors for percentage of school districts in which free training is offered to prepare staff

members to teach in fields with current or anticipated shortages, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Percent Percent Percent

50 States and D.C. 0.59 0.52 0.84

Alabama 2.89 3.76 1.92

Alaska 0.52 6.23 4.25

Arizona 5.88 5.57 4.83

Arkansas 3.38 2.77 4.00

California 3.83 5.36 8.43

Colorado 3.55 2.47 2.22

Connecticut 3.73 1.95 2.08

Delaware 0.00 0.00 0.94

District of Columbia 0.00 0.00 0.00 a

Florida 5.18 6.17 2.36

Georgia 5.27 5.40 4.53

Hawaii 0.00 0.00 0.00 a

Idaho 10.78 3.72 3.18

Illinois 1.42 2.12 3.55

Indiana 2.11 0.81 2.37

Iowa 2.99 2.88 3.61

Kansas 4.36 3.40 3.68

Kentucky 3.01 3.23 2.86

Louisiana 2.83 5.42 1.89

Maine 6.55 1.56 5.59

Maryland 4.55 3.96 0.50

Massachusetts 1.61 1.81 1.22

Michigan 2.60 1.62 9.52

Minnesota 4.07 2.05 0.26

Mississippi 5.08 2.66 2.77

Missouri 2.15 0.63 6.36

Montana 5.36 3.31 2.13

Nebraska 2.42 4.02 4.45

Nevada 0.00 0.00 1.13

New Hampshire 7.66 5.47 2.67

New Jersey 2.98 3.65 5.04

New Mexico 10.37 4.59 4.16

New York 1.57 1.96 2.53

North Carolina 3.93 4.51 3.87

North Dakota 6.47 2.10 4.44

Ohio 1.63 1.18 2.56

Oklahoma 3.82 3.39 2.27

Oregon 4.85 2.12 5.72

Pennsylvania 2.65 2.28 3.69

Rhode Island 0.00 0.03 2.57

South Carolina 6.06 4.24 3.05

South Dakota 5.03 4.75 2.72

Tennessee 3.89 3.79 4.86

Texas 2.05 2.52 3.23

Utah 6.66 7.68 4.19

Vermont 2.93 1.47 3.28

Virginia 5.07 6.23 4.99

Washington 4.62 4.10 10.07

West Virginia 0.00 0.00 0.06

Wisconsin 2.71 2.26 2.92

Wyoming 0.22 2.35 1.13

a) The District of Columbia and Hawaii each have only one school district.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-59

Table B-54. Standard errors for average low and high salary for full time teachers in actual and in constant 1993-94

dollars, by state: 1990-91 to 1993-94a

School Year

1990-91 1990-91 1993-94

Actual Dollars Constant 1993-94 Dollars Actual Dollars b

 State Low High Low High Low High

50 States and D.C. 42 133 46 145 63 148

Alabama 282 566 308 618 50 150

Alaska 349 571 381 623 182 292

Arizona 702 1,617 766 1,765 1,337 529

Arkansas 148 314 161 343 140 272

California 303 892 331 974 492 694

Colorado 205 664 223 725 157 1,025

Connecticut 242 518 264 566 273 914

Delaware 0 0 0 0 11 76

District of Columbia 0 0 0 0 0 0

Florida 130 348 142 380 59 185

Georgia 95 350 104 382 51 165

Hawaii 0 0 0 0 0 0

Idaho 74 282 80 308 67 238

Illinois 212 699 231 763 289 837

Indiana 133 320 145 350 124 253

Iowa 125 368 137 402 94 268

Kansas 149 389 163 425 145 266

Kentucky 613 206 669 225 72 139

Louisiana 172 214 187 234 289 241

Maine 98 490 107 535 144 387

Maryland 151 491 165 536 45 215

Massachusetts 166 509 181 555 162 328

Michigan 217 622 237 679 320 1,657

Minnesota 149 324 163 354 116 383

Mississippi 47 88 51 96 27 55

Missouri 225 594 245 649 133 511

Montana 205 650 223 710 209 1,047

Nebraska 308 844 337 922 241 1,177

Nevada 0 0 0 0 16 83

New Hampshire 185 510 202 557 162 455

New Jersey 406 1,005 443 1,097 229 1,056

New Mexico 166 288 181 314 59 482

New York 174 617 190 674 228 784

North Carolina 29 129 31 140 13 212

North Dakota 113 700 124 764 202 527

Ohio 140 540 153 590 126 388

Oklahoma 271 316 296 345 45 138

Oregon 275 1,088 300 1,188 132 725

Pennsylvania 167 439 183 479 340 831

Rhode Island 172 222 188 242 48 101

South Carolina 75 263 82 287 107 234

South Dakota 353 1,378 386 1,505 75 226

Tennessee 93 300 102 328 130 572

Texas 78 157 85 171 107 169

Utah 64 351 69 383 37 225

Vermont 211 615 230 671 186 440

Virginia 142 578 155 631 173 498

Washington 28 209 31 228 10 26

West Virginia 0 0 0 0 1 2

Wisconsin 115 340 126 372 81 347

Wyoming 55 1,451 61 1,584 59 101

a) In districts with salary schedules, the low salary corresponds to bachelor’s degree with no teaching experience and high is equivalent to maximum scheduled salary. Districts without salary

schedule reported their lowest and highest base salaries for the year.

b) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-60 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-55. Standard errors for average scheduled salary for teachers (in constant 1993-94 dollars) by education

and teaching experience for school districts with salary schedules, by state: 1990-91 and 1993-94

1990-91 (Constant 1993-94 Dollars) 1993-94 (Actual Dollars) a

Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s Bachelor’s Master’s Master’s

without without with 20 yrs without without with 20 yrs

 State Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience Experience

50 States and D.C. 65 81 137 60 63 110

Alabama 308 297 528 50 62 90

Alaska 381 376 350 184 194 523

Arizona 225 211 405 295 282 517

Arkansas 163 168 272 140 137 148

California 334 530 677 492 486 771

Colorado 223 193 381 157 244 645

Connecticut 264 304 275 284 302 639

Delaware 0 0 0 11 15 82

District of Columbia 0 0 0 0 0 0

Florida 142 174 296 59 91 94

Georgia 101 101 166 51 55 109

Hawaii 0 0 0 0 0 0

Idaho 84 126 246 67 138 191

Illinois 239 299 792 294 323 752

Indiana 147 159 377 124 135 269

Iowa 140 169 339 95 100 276

Kansas 164 213 306 145 138 267

Kentucky 669 701 674 72 73 119

Louisiana 190 192 225 121 122 149

Maine 107 132 442 156 180 287

Maryland 165 291 366 45 72 76

Massachusetts 182 195 565 160 160 290

Michigan 237 269 561 235 306 717

Minnesota 163 179 263 116 156 345

Mississippi 52 48 74 27 29 43

Missouri 256 281 529 133 166 390

Montana 147 228 403 65 118 261

Nebraska 241 295 534 122 243 242

Nevada 0 0 0 16 19 61

New Hampshire 182 214 474 176 279 511

New Jersey 246 301 1,071 241 374 860

New Mexico 181 264 315 31 123 353

New York 198 289 535 257 346 682

North Carolina 31 35 93 13 30 65

North Dakota 155 280 545 89 88 229

Ohio 153 170 453 129 153 420

Oklahoma 300 295 367 45 45 96

Oregon 322 503 1,076 135 170 591

Pennsylvania 186 212 390 346 389 990

Rhode Island 188 172 222 32 59 83

South Carolina 82 94 146 108 120 182

South Dakota 451 607 1,521 48 69 209

Tennessee 102 124 242 130 162 326

Texas 92 101 137 107 114 194

Utah 69 101 273 37 56 202

Vermont 146 177 484 144 212 606

Virginia 155 175 492 174 205 410

Washington 31 149 586 10 88 96

West Virginia 0 0 0 1 1 4

Wisconsin 126 190 271 80 109 390

Wyoming 61 398 904 59 75 127

a) Adjusted using the Consumer Price Index.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1990-91 and 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-61

Table B-56. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with collective bargaining units, by state: 1993-94

 State Percent

50 States and D.C. 0.87

Alabama 1.44

Alaska 3.88

Arizona 0.57

Arkansas 0.18

California 8.21

Colorado 2.92

Connecticut 0.02

Delaware 0.13

District of Columbia 0.00

Florida 2.27

Georgia 0.30

Hawaii 0.00

Idaho 3.99

Illinois 2.56

Indiana 1.97

Iowa 3.44

Kansas 5.18

Kentucky 1.61

Louisiana 2.66

Maine 3.07

Maryland 0.00

Massachusetts 0.37

Michigan 10.54

Minnesota 3.56

Mississippi 0.00

Missouri 0.98

Montana 5.73

Nebraska 8.12

Nevada 0.17

New Hampshire 3.94

New Jersey 0.50

New Mexico 4.43

New York 0.79

North Carolina 0.00

North Dakota 3.47

Ohio 2.24

Oklahoma 2.76

Oregon 7.60

Pennsylvania 0.15

Rhode Island 0.00

South Carolina 0.00

South Dakota 3.27

Tennessee 5.50

Texas 0.00

Utah 0.27

Vermont 3.80

Virginia 0.00

Washington 13.75

West Virginia 0.00

Wisconsin 0.00

Wyoming 0.99

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
B-62 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-57. Standard errors for number and percentage of school districts offering retirement plans to teachers, by

state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Percent Percent Percent

50 States and D.C. 0.27 0.48 0.27

Alabama 0.00 0.80 0.54

Alaska 0.00 0.00 0.00

Arizona 1.53 5.81 0.00

Arkansas 0.00 0.00 0.00

California 0.00 6.31 0.25

Colorado 0.00 0.00 0.03

Connecticut 0.00 1.39 0.64

Delaware 0.00 0.00 0.00

District of Columbia 0.00 0.00 0.00

Florida 0.00 0.00 0.00

Georgia 0.00 1.72 0.00

Hawaii 0.00 0.00 0.00

Idaho 0.00 0.00 0.00

Illinois 1.48 0.74 0.73

Indiana 2.42 0.00 1.05

Iowa 2.99 1.63 1.26

Kansas 2.71 1.31 3.23

Kentucky 0.00 0.00 0.00

Louisiana 0.00 0.00 0.00

Maine 0.00 0.68 3.07

Maryland 0.00 0.00 0.00

Massachusetts 0.00 0.00 0.39

Michigan 1.97 0.75 0.00

Minnesota 2.20 1.28 2.18

Mississippi 0.00 0.00 0.00

Missouri 0.00 0.00 0.00

Montana 2.20 1.67 2.74

Nebraska 4.32 0.15 4.40

Nevada 0.00 0.00 0.00

New Hampshire 0.00 0.00 0.00

New Jersey 0.02 0.68 1.74

New Mexico 0.00 0.00 0.00

New York 0.24 0.00 0.00

North Carolina 0.00 0.00 0.00

North Dakota 2.07 1.97 3.49

Ohio 0.37 0.00 0.00

Oklahoma 0.00 0.00 0.00

Oregon 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pennsylvania 0.00 0.00 0.00

Rhode Island 0.00 0.00 0.00

South Carolina 0.00 0.00 0.00

South Dakota 0.00 0.00 0.00

Tennessee 0.12 0.68 0.00

Texas 0.49 1.40 0.21

Utah 0.00 0.00 0.00

Vermont 2.13 0.72 1.44

Virginia 0.00 1.60 0.00

Washington 0.00 0.00 0.00

West Virginia 0.00 0.00 0.00

Wisconsin 1.79 0.00 0.50

Wyoming 0.00 2.56 0.31

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-63

Table B-58. Standard errors for average number of years of English required for high school graduation in school

districts with 4-year programs, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

50 States and D.C. 0.009 0.011 0.008

Alabama 0.007 0.011 0.000

Alaska 0.000 0.000 0.000

Arizona 0.143 0.000 0.000

Arkansas 0.000 0.032 0.004

California 0.056 0.053 0.062

Colorado 0.042 0.043 0.055

Connecticut 0.054 0.016 0.006

Delaware 0.000 0.000 0.000

District of Columbia 0.000 0.000 0.000

Florida 0.000 0.000 0.000

Georgia 0.000 0.031 0.022

Hawaii 0.000 0.000 0.000

Idaho 0.045 0.074 0.004

Illinois 0.049 0.061 0.052

Indiana 0.026 0.067 0.010

Iowa 0.051 0.069 0.039

Kansas 0.015 0.020 0.001

Kentucky 0.021 0.000 0.000

Louisiana 0.075 0.117 0.000

Maine 0.076 0.000 0.000

Maryland 0.000 0.000 0.000

Massachusetts 0.057 0.033 0.051

Michigan 0.045 0.073 0.080

Minnesota 0.064 0.066 0.000

Mississippi 0.040 0.000 0.013

Missouri 0.051 0.055 0.036

Montana 0.048 0.000 0.000

Nebraska 0.216 0.051 0.023

Nevada 0.000 0.000 0.000

New Hampshire 0.063 0.089 0.016

New Jersey 0.012 0.026 0.014

New Mexico 0.000 0.000 0.000

New York 0.020 0.028 0.000

North Carolina 0.001 0.000 0.062

North Dakota 0.020 0.015 0.014

Ohio 0.034 0.051 0.041

Oklahoma 0.048 0.160 0.000

Oregon 0.046 0.054 0.018

Pennsylvania 0.018 0.061 0.020

Rhode Island 0.000 0.000 0.000

South Carolina 0.000 0.001 0.000

South Dakota 0.000 0.034 0.000

Tennessee 0.000 0.065 0.032

Texas 0.021 0.019 0.003

Utah 0.090 0.058 0.037

Vermont 0.000 0.015 0.000

Virginia 0.015 0.061 0.000

Washington 0.065 0.027 0.035

West Virginia 0.000 0.000 0.000

Wisconsin 0.040 0.036 0.016

Wyoming 0.031 0.120 0.019

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-64 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-59. Standard errors for average number of years of mathematics required for high school graduation in

school districts with 4-year programs, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

50 States and D.C. 0.011 0.012 0.009

Alabama 0.055 0.048 0.038

Alaska 0.047 0.069 0.042

Arizona 0.084 0.070 0.052

Arkansas 0.051 0.076 0.043

California 0.055 0.099 0.067

Colorado 0.110 0.080 0.092

Connecticut 0.060 0.026 0.033

Delaware 0.000 0.000 0.010

District of Columbia 0.000 0.000 0.000

Florida 0.020 0.039 0.029

Georgia 0.080 0.049 0.050

Hawaii 0.000 0.000 0.000

Idaho 0.071 0.077 0.060

Illinois 0.032 0.047 0.053

Indiana 0.062 0.080 0.042

Iowa 0.056 0.066 0.054

Kansas 0.050 0.044 0.059

Kentucky 0.021 0.024 0.036

Louisiana 0.063 0.063 0.001

Maine 0.093 0.114 0.050

Maryland 0.141 0.000 0.000

Massachusetts 0.089 0.092 0.049

Michigan 0.058 0.063 0.045

Minnesota 0.173 0.078 0.097

Mississippi 0.052 0.064 0.036

Missouri 0.046 0.058 0.052

Montana 0.090 0.070 0.059

Nebraska 0.137 0.069 0.045

Nevada 0.000 0.000 0.005

New Hampshire 0.113 0.075 0.052

New Jersey 0.060 0.060 0.028

New Mexico 0.113 0.058 0.035

New York 0.030 0.034 0.026

North Carolina 0.050 0.061 0.040

North Dakota 0.049 0.064 0.035

Ohio 0.031 0.036 0.033

Oklahoma 0.066 0.100 0.054

Oregon 0.063 0.061 0.031

Pennsylvania 0.049 0.054 0.049

Rhode Island 0.043 0.023 0.027

South Carolina 0.020 0.061 0.010

South Dakota 0.058 0.105 0.043

Tennessee 0.039 0.019 0.044

Texas 0.026 0.029 0.017

Utah 0.084 0.069 0.025

Vermont 0.134 0.067 0.076

Virginia 0.070 0.075 0.085

Washington 0.110 0.061 0.058

West Virginia 0.000 0.000 0.002

Wisconsin 0.048 0.035 0.033

Wyoming 0.076 0.099 0.037

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-65

Table B-60. Standard errors for average number of years of social science required for high school graduation in

school districts with 4-year programs, by state: 1987-88 to 1993-94

School Year

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

 State Number of Years Number of Years Number of Years

50 States and D.C. 0.013 0.014 0.010

Alabama 0.050 0.034 0.025

Alaska 0.050 0.163 0.029

Arizona 0.121 0.067 0.097

Arkansas 0.047 0.082 0.032

California 0.061 0.101 0.100

Colorado 0.077 0.048 0.071

Connecticut 0.066 0.028 0.036

Delaware 0.000 0.000 0.003

District of Columbia 0.000 0.000 0.000

Florida 0.027 0.041 0.038

Georgia 0.052 0.077 0.062

Hawaii 0.000 0.000 0.000

Idaho 0.063 0.105 0.060

Illinois 0.041 0.059 0.081

Indiana 0.056 0.073 0.047

Iowa 0.069 0.072 0.039

Kansas 0.049 0.040 0.053

Kentucky 0.049 0.063 0.043

Louisiana 0.079 0.063 0.000

Maine 0.094 0.117 0.050

Maryland 0.055 0.000 0.005

Massachusetts 0.085 0.099 0.059

Michigan 0.055 0.095 0.055

Minnesota 0.092 0.117 0.084

Mississippi 0.057 0.055 0.036

Missouri 0.063 0.046 0.056

Montana 0.059 0.096 0.063

Nebraska 0.154 0.078 0.042

Nevada 0.000 0.000 0.008

New Hampshire 0.094 0.082 0.048

New Jersey 0.055 0.071 0.066

New Mexico 0.115 0.092 0.023

New York 0.032 0.012 0.014

North Carolina 0.054 0.066 0.038

North Dakota 0.065 0.036 0.031

Ohio 0.037 0.059 0.060

Oklahoma 0.071 0.112 0.057

Oregon 0.064 0.066 0.051

Pennsylvania 0.040 0.067 0.039

Rhode Island 0.040 0.047 0.026

South Carolina 0.050 0.066 0.040

South Dakota 0.054 0.064 0.035

Tennessee 0.079 0.046 0.046

Texas 0.036 0.039 0.034

Utah 0.002 0.058 0.048

Vermont 0.148 0.071 0.103

Virginia 0.076 0.095 0.039

Washington 0.084 0.101 0.069

West Virginia 0.000 0.000 0.001

Wisconsin 0.084 0.052 0.044

Wyoming 0.076 0.116 0.062

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Surveys: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
B-66 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table B-61. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with a student test performance reporting policy, by

state: 1993-94

Percent of

 State Districts

50 States and D.C. 0.69

Alabama 1.74

Alaska 0.04

Arizona 2.12

Arkansas 3.42

California 1.69

Colorado 1.29

Connecticut 2.56

Delaware 0.25

District of Columbia 0.00

Florida 0.00

Georgia 1.07

Hawaii 0.00

Idaho 2.61

Illinois 2.60

Indiana 2.33

Iowa 3.85

Kansas 4.70

Kentucky 0.63

Louisiana 2.63

Maine 3.16

Maryland 2.18

Massachusetts 3.44

Michigan 1.67

Minnesota 3.55

Mississippi 1.66

Missouri 6.46

Montana 4.99

Nebraska 9.37

Nevada 0.09

New Hampshire 5.03

New Jersey 0.69

New Mexico 1.18

New York 1.95

North Carolina 0.78

North Dakota 3.66

Ohio 2.73

Oklahoma 2.53

Oregon 5.43

Pennsylvania 4.02

Rhode Island 6.53

South Carolina 1.97

South Dakota 2.30

Tennessee 2.31

Texas 0.70

Utah 0.01

Vermont 4.54

Virginia 7.14

Washington 11.92

West Virginia 0.05

Wisconsin 1.98

Wyoming 1.95

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire).
Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 B-67

Table B-62. Standard errors for percentage of school districts with choice by type of choice program, by state:

1993-94

Interdistrict Choice

 District Any Choice Magnet Dist. Open Transfers Outside of Transfers into

Characteristic Program School Enrollment District District

50 States and D.C. 1.049 0.505 0.792 1.075 0.916

Alabama 2.744 0.957 0.980 2.819 1.945

Alaska 4.326 3.990 4.031 4.341 4.038

Arizona 4.971 11.045 10.153 5.642 5.522

Arkansas 4.076 1.526 1.689 4.081 3.208

California 8.337 1.478 7.683 8.565 6.931

Colorado 7.160 3.120 5.165 6.507 6.591

Connecticut 3.337 3.086 1.835 2.689 1.894

Delaware 0.252 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.252

District of Columbia 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 a

Florida 2.739 1.747 2.759 2.671 2.671

Georgia 3.952 0.577 2.625 4.092 3.607

Hawaii 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 a

Idaho 2.690 3.114 3.519 3.531 2.857

Illinois 2.173 0.878 1.212 1.522 0.842

Indiana 1.220 0.072 1.225 0.692 0.734

Iowa 3.284 1.632 2.529 3.365 3.461

Kansas 4.668 2.614 2.961 4.609 4.690

Kentucky 4.183 1.998 2.222 4.184 4.094

Louisiana 1.497 1.131 1.156 0.119 0.198

Maine 1.608 -- 0.946 1.025 0.623

Maryland 1.271 0.331 -- 1.100 1.100

Massachusetts 4.965 0.614 2.118 4.996 3.072

Michigan 8.458 1.456 3.822 9.503 2.648

Minnesota 2.409 3.788 3.767 2.409 3.396

Mississippi 1.513 0.709 0.837 1.376 1.457

Missouri 2.907 1.744 2.023 2.706 2.010

Montana 4.834 3.433 3.667 5.000 4.603

Nebraska 6.560 5.699 5.539 8.163 9.394

Nevada 0.261 0.174 -- -- 0.087

New Hampshire 1.650 -- 0.884 1.454 --

New Jersey 2.869 2.855 2.825 2.277 2.855

New Mexico 5.465 1.411 4.227 3.753 4.731

New York 3.114 1.318 1.836 2.591 3.045

North Carolina 3.536 1.793 3.172 3.391 3.543

North Dakota 3.988 -- 0.609 3.538 3.197

Ohio 3.974 3.015 4.175 4.063 4.330

Oklahoma 3.858 1.695 1.675 3.744 3.778

Oregon 5.927 1.168 2.820 5.802 3.685

Pennsylvania 2.873 1.845 2.597 2.800 2.598

Rhode Island 1.150 0.035 1.083 1.127 0.035

South Carolina 1.426 1.150 0.004 0.896 0.895

South Dakota 1.863 1.152 1.272 1.153 1.279

Tennessee 4.959 2.829 4.466 5.403 5.173

Texas 3.374 1.601 1.532 3.183 3.233

Utah 3.665 0.086 2.559 3.997 3.994

Vermont 4.732 -- 0.590 4.731 2.051

Virginia 3.273 2.667 2.267 2.287 2.888

Washington 11.643 9.928 9.261 10.151 11.047

West Virginia 0.296 0.067 0.279 0.284 0.282

Wisconsin 0.998 0.578 0.472 0.711 0.677

Wyoming 2.669 2.444 2.571 2.704 2.662

-- Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

a) The District of Columbia and Hawaii each have only one school district.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire).
Technical Notes

Since 1987, NCES has published several reports that include these instruments (e.g., NCES Report 94- 1

674, SASS and PSS Questionnaires, 1993-94). Copies of the questionnaires may be obtained by writing

to NCES Education Surveys Program at the address given on the backside of the title page.

For instrument development purposes, Indian schools were treated analogously to private schools, 2

which do not typically operate under a district-like administrative structure. So, these instruments also

contained several items on personnel policies and administrative practices that were included in the

C-1 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Appendix C

Technical Notes

The Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), an integrated survey of American schools, school

districts, principals, teachers, and student records, is funded by the National Center for

Education Statistics (NCES) of the U.S. Department of Education. First conducted during the

1987-88 school year, SASS is designed to provide periodic data on public and private schools

in the United States. Since the 1990-91 school year, SASS has also included Indian schools

supported by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior. Major categories

of data collected in SASS include the characteristics of schools and principals, school

programs and policies, and the opinions and attitudes of principals about policies and working

conditions.

The analytical power of the data is enhanced by the ability to link survey data for individual

local education agencies (LEAs), schools, principals, and teachers. The use of comparable

questions in each round of SASS makes it possible to monitor changes in the nation’s educational system. The first SASS was administered during the 1987-88 school year, with a

teacher follow-up survey conducted during 1988-89. The two subsequent SASS administrations were at three-year intervals (1990-91 and 1993-94). The next SASS round is

scheduled for 1999-2000. Subsequent administrations are planned for five-year intervals.

The 1993-94 SASS consisted of separate surveys administered simultaneously to linked samples of respondents. These instruments included: 1

• Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire for Public School Districts (LEAs), which

collected information on student enrollment and district programs and policies from

public school districts;

• Public, Private, and Indian School Principal Questionnaires, which collected information

on principals’ demographic characteristics, education, experiences, compensation,

and perceptions of school problems;

• Public, Private, and Indian School Questionnaires, which collected information on

school programs and policies, enrollment by grade, student demographic

characteristics, and measures of school type;2
Technical Notes

Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire for Public School Districts.

Also referred to as the Teacher Demand and Shortage Surveys or TDS Surveys. 3

Additional information on changes in SASS design can be found in Abramson, R., Cole, C., Jackson, 4

B., Parmer, R., and Kaufman, S. (1996). 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample Design and

Estimation (Technical Report NCES 96-089). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, or Jabine,

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-2

• Public, Private, and Indian School Teacher Questionnaires, which collected information

on teachers’ education and training, teaching assignments, experience, certification,

perceptions and attitudes about teaching, and workplace conditions;

• Student Records Questionnaire, which collected student records data from a subsample

of students from surveyed schools on demographic information, current enrollment

status, educational activities, support services received, and student performance

measures (e.g., GPA); and 

• Teacher Follow-up Survey, which surveyed a sample of teachers one year after the

SASS administration, oversampling those who have left the profession, and collected

data on activities and plans, attitudes about teaching, and job satisfaction.

The analyses for this report uses only the Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire for Public

School Districts.

3

Overview of the Design of SASS

SASS continues to be the largest and most thorough national integrated survey of districts,

schools, principals, and teachers ever undertaken in this country. The target populations for

the SASS surveys include elementary and secondary schools, principals and classroom teachers

in these schools, former teachers, and the LEAs that are responsible for administering the

public schools. The 1993-94 sample consisted of 9,956 public schools and 3,315 private

schools.

Evolution of the SASS Design

The first administration of SASS in 1987-88 integrated three existing NCES survey programs:

the Teacher Demand and Shortage Survey, the Public and Private School Surveys, and the

Teacher Surveys. The 1987-88 SASS included a public school sample of 9,317 schools

selected from the Quality Education Data (QED) file of public schools. The private school

sample included 3,513 schools selected primarily from the QED file of private schools

supplemented with private school association lists and targeted area samples from telephone

directories.

Since that first administration, NCES has implemented a number of changes in the survey

design and context to improve study estimates and to better reflect changes in the educational

environment. Some of the most important changes that relate to this report are highlighted

below:4
Technical Notes

T.B. (1994). Quality Profile for SASS: Aspects of the Quality of Data in the Schools and Staffing Surveys

(SASS) (NCES 94-340). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

For a detailed description of the sample design for the 1993-94 sample design for the 1993-94 SASS, 5

see Abramson et al., (1996). 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample Design and Estimation.

C-3 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

• Beginning with the 1990-91 SASS, the sampling frame for public schools was NCES

Common Core of Data (CCD), an annual census of LEAs and schools. For the 1990-

91 SASS, for public schools, the sampling frame was the 1988-89 CCD; for private

schools, the sampling frame was NCES 1989-90 Private School Universe Survey,

augmented with state lists and private school association lists. The frame for the

1993-94 SASS for public schools was the 1991-92 CCD; for private schools, the

frame was the augmented 1990-91 Private School Universe Survey.

Notably for public schools, the QED and CCD data sources apply slightly different

definitions of the school unit. The QED file defined schools in terms of their physical

location; the CCD file used for subsequent SASS surveys described schools as “administrative units with principals.” Thus, in instances where multiple schools share a

single campus, the estimated number of schools increases using the CCD definition.

• Since 1987-88, a number of revisions to the Teacher Demand and Shortage Surveys

have been implemented. Question formats and item wordings have changed since

1987-88. We do not attempt to describe these changes here.

Sample Selection

The initial sampling units for SASS were schools. The sampling structure was designed to 5

provide separate data for public and private schools, with detail by state for the public sector

and by private school association for the private sector. After schools were selected, each

public and private school in the sample was sent a letter requesting that school personnel

provide a list of all teachers in the school. The returned lists, supplemented by telephone

follow-up, served as the sampling frame for the teacher survey. The same school sample was

used for the public and private school principal survey. Each LEA that administered one or

more of the sample schools in the public sector became part of the sample for the Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire.

Selection of schools. Since the 1990-91 SASS, the public school sampling frame has been the

Common Core of Data (CCD) file. The CCD is based on census data collected annually by

NCES from state education agencies and is believed to be the most complete list of public

schools available. The frame includes regular public schools, military base schools operated by

the Department of Defense, Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools, and nonregular schools

such as special education, vocational, and alternative schools. The public school sampling

frame for the 1987-88 SASS was the school file developed by QED.

Selection of local education agencies. All LEAs that had at least one school selected for the

school sample were included in the LEA sample for the TDS Surveys. Each Bureau of Indian

Affairs and Department of Defense school was defined to be an LEA. Since some LEAs do not

operate schools, but hire teachers who teach in schools for other LEAs, samples of LEAs

without eligible schools were also selected. LEAs in this sample were checked to determine if
Technical Notes

For a detailed description of the weighting process for 1993-94, see Abramson et al., (1996). 1993-94 6

Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample Design and Estimation.

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-4

they were actually in scope (i.e., were an operating public school agency that reported hiring

teachers). All LEAs in Delaware, Nevada, and West Virginia were included to reduce high

standard errors in these states.

In 1987-88, a sample of 70 LEAs that did not contain eligible schools was selected directly.

Only 8 of these 70 were actually in-scope (i.e., reported hiring teachers). The total LEA

sample for the 1987-88 school year was 5,592.

For the 1990-91 SASS, a sample of 135 LEAs without eligible schools was selected. Only 14

of the 135 were actually in scope (i.e., were an operating public school agency that reported

hiring teachers). The total LEA sample was 5,515.

In 1993-94, a sample of 109 LEAs without eligible schools was selected. Only 5 of the 109

were actually in scope (i.e., were an operating public school agency that reported hiring

teachers). The total LEA sample was 5,464.

Survey Operations Procedures

Survey operations for the 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 SASS, including sample selection,

data collection, and data processing, were carried out under an interagency agreement by the

U.S. Bureau of the Census, according to specifications provided by NCES. At the start of each

school year, introductory letters containing a Teacher Listing Sheet were mailed to sample

schools. These Teacher Listing Sheets, designed to enumerate the instructional staff at each

school, served as the sampling frame for the teacher sample. Shortly after the listing sheets

were distributed, School Principal Questionnaires were sent to the principals of the selected

public and private schools. At this time, Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires were

mailed to the local education agencies. School Teacher Questionnaires for teachers selected

from lists provided by the sample public and private schools were also mailed at this time. 

Completed questionnaires were returned by mail to the Census Bureau. Telephone follow-up

interviews of nonrespondents to the questionnaires were conducted by Census Bureau field

representatives.

Weighting

For the Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires, weights were developed to produce

national and state estimates for local education agencies. The basic weights were the inverse 6

of the probability of selection. The weights were also adjusted for nonresponse and to ensure

that sample totals (based on responding, nonresponding, and out-of-scope cases) were

comparable to the frame totals.
Technical Notes

See, e.g., Wolter, K.M. (1985). Introduction to Variance Estimation. New York: Springer-Verlag. 7

Sampling weights are adjusted for instrument nonresponse. 8

A summary of the data quality for SASS is presented by Jabine, T.B. (1994). Quality Profile for SASS: 9

Aspects of the Quality of Data in Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS) (NCES 94-340). 

C-5 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Standard Errors

The estimates presented in the text and tables of this report are based on samples and are

subject to sampling variability. In the 1987-88 and 1990-91 SASS, standard errors were

estimated using a balanced repeated replications procedure that incorporated the design

features of this complex sample survey. In the 1993-94 SASS, a bootstrap procedure was 7

employed to estimate standard errors. The standard errors indicate the accuracy of each

estimate. If all possible samples of the same size were surveyed under the same conditions, an

interval of 1.96 standard error units below to 1.96 standard error units above a particular

statistic would include the true population value in approximately 95 percent of the cases. 

Note, however, that the standard errors do not take into account the effects of biases due to

item nonresponse, measurement error, data processing error, or other possible systematic errors. 

Standard errors for the estimates presented in the text and tables of this report are included in

appendix B.

Accuracy of Estimates

Some districts did not return questionnaires, which resulted in missing data. These missing

data, however, should have relatively little impact on the estimates of percentages, means, and

counts that this report presents because of nonresponse adjustment strategies employed by

SASS.8

The accuracy of any statistic is determined by the joint effects of sampling and nonsampling

errors. Both types of error affect the estimates presented in this report.9

Nonsampling Error

Both universe and sample surveys are subject to nonsampling errors. Two types of

nonsampling errors occur—nonobservation error and measurement error—and both are

extremely difficult to estimate.

Nonobservation error may be due to noncoverage, which occurs when members of the

population of interest are excluded from the sampling frame and, therefore, are not included in

the survey sample. Nonobservation error also occurs when sampled units refuse to answer

some or all of the survey questions. These types of error are referred to as questionnaire nonresponse (where the entire questionnaire is missing) and item nonresponse (where only some

items of the questionnaire are missing). Sample weight adjustment techniques were used to
Technical Notes

A discussion of these nonresponse adjustment procedures is presented in the following references: 10

Gruber, K.J., Rohr, C.L., and Fondelier, S.E. (1994). 1990-91 Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File

User’s Manual. (Vol.1: Survey Documentation). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Gruber, K.J., Rohr, C.L., and Fondelier, S.E. (1996). 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File

User’s Manual (Vol. 1: Survey Documentation). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics, Office of Education Research and Improvement.

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-6

compensate for questionnaire nonresponse; imputation procedures were used to compensate for

item nonresponse in SASS .

10

Measurement error occurs when mistakes are made when data are edited, coded, or entered

into computers (processing errors), when the responses that subjects provide differ from the

“true” responses (response errors), and when measurement instruments fail to measure the

characteristics they are intended to measure. Sources of response errors include differences in

the ways that respondents interpret questions, faulty respondent memory, and mistakes

respondents make when recording their answers. Because estimating the magnitude of these

various types of nonsampling errors would require special experiments or access to independent

data, information on the scope of these errors is seldom available. 

Sampling Error

Sampling error occurs when members of a population are selected (sampled), and only sample

members respond to survey questions. Estimates that are based on sample responses will differ

somewhat from the data that would have been obtained if a complete census of the relevant

population had been taken using the same survey instruments, instructions, and procedures. 

The estimated standard error of a statistic is a measure of the variation due to sampling and can

be used to examine the precision obtained in a particular sample. In the 1987-88 and 1990-91

SASS, all estimates and standard errors were calculated using a balanced repeated replications

variance estimation program developed to calculate standard errors based upon complex survey

designs. In the 1993-94 SASS, a bootstrap variance estimation program was used to calculate

standard errors based upon complex survey designs.

Comparability of Estimates

As a result of both nonsampling and sampling error, estimates presented in this report will

differ from those prepared using other data files. For example, estimates of the numbers of

school districts differ from those provided in summaries of the Common Core of Data (CCD)

Survey, a census of the universe of school districts. Overall, estimates of the numbers of school

districts (14,987) produced from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand

and Shortage Questionnaire) differ from the CCD estimate (15,173) for 1991-92 by about 1

percent. However, estimates of the numbers of districts in a specific state can differ by up to 17

percent. There are many possible reasons for these discrepancies. For example, the Schools

and Staffing Surveys and the CCD define “school districts” slightly differently. Districts that

do not employ any teachers are considered to be districts and included in the CCD but are

excluded from the Schools and Staffing Surveys’ sampling frame. Furthermore, the sampling
Technical Notes

 For a discussion of other possible reasons for these discrepancies, see Gruber, K.J., Rohr, C.L., & 11

Fondelier, S.E. (1996) 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File User’s Manual, Volume I: Survey

Documentation (NCES 96-142) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics.

C-7 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

frames for the Schools and Staffing Surveys were developed from listings of schools that would

be approximately two years old at the time of data collection.11

As a result of nonsampling error, the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand

and Shortage Questionnaire) cannot be used to produce estimates of the number of school

districts that existed in 1987-88 that are comparable with those produced in subsequent years.

The 1987-88 public school sampling frame was the QED (Quality Education Data) data file;

for subsequent SASS, the public school sampling frame was the Common Core of Data (CCD)

Survey. There were slight differences in the definition of schools in these sampling frames. 

More importantly, 275 Nebraska school districts, each of which was comprised of a single

elementary school, were excluded from the 1987-88 frame. Accordingly, estimates of the

numbers of school districts employing teachers in Nebraska produced from Schools and

Staffing Surveys: 1987-88 and 1990-91 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires) were

585 in 1987-88 and 811 in 1990-91. According to the CCD, there were 867 regular school

districts in Nebraska in 1987-88 and 798 in 1990-91.

Due to sampling error, estimates may appear to differ from those produced from other SASS

surveys. The estimated number of students in grades K-12 produced from the Schools and

Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire) is 42,302,143. The

same estimate produced from the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School

Questionnaire) is 41,621,660. However, these estimates are not statistically significantly

different from each other.

Sampling error must be considered when comparing numbers within report tables. In other

words, apparent differences may not be statistically significant, particularly when estimates are

based on small samples. In order to determine whether apparent differences are statistically

significant, statistical procedures (discussed subsequently) must be employed.

Choice Programs

Choice programs, with respect to the data summarized in this report, refer to programs which

“allow public school students to enroll in another school or district outside their attendance

area without justification based on individual special needs.” The types of programs listed in

the Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire) as

choice programs included magnet schools, enrollment in any school in the district, enrollment

in schools in other districts, and enrollment of students from other districts in the state. These

types of programs were not defined and could have been interpreted by respondents in

different ways. These categories also are not mutually exclusive. For example, there are

different types of magnet schools which can be included within any of these choice programs. 
Technical Notes

For a description of the imputation procedures, see Abramson et al., (1996) 1993-94 Schools and 12

Staffing Survey: Sample Design and Estimation, pp. 90-108, and Gruber et al., (1994). 1990-91 Schools and

Staffing Survey: Data File User's Manual. (Vol. 1: Survey Documentation), pp 71-78.

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-8

Response Rates and Imputation

The final weighted questionnaire response rates are reported in table C.1 for the various SASS

years. Table C.2 provides the item-response rates for the SASS instruments by year. Values

were imputed for items with missing data by (1) using data from other items on the

questionnaire or a related component of the SASS (e.g., a school record to impute district

data); (2) extracting data from the sample frame such as the CCD; or (3) extracting data from

a respondent with similar characteristics.12

Table C.1— Weighted and unweighted percent response rates by SASS

instrument: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Unweighted Weighted

Questionnaire 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Teacher demand and

shortage for public 89.4 93.7 93.1 90.8 93.5 93.9

school districts

Public school principal 94.2 96.9 96.6 94.4 96.7 96.6

Private school principal 81.2 91.1 90.3 79.3 90.0 87.6

Public school 91.9 95.0 92.0 91.9 95.3 92.3

Private school 79.6 85.1 84.1 78.6 83.9 83.2

Public school teacher* 86.5 91.5 88.9 86.4 90.3 88.2

Private school teacher* 77.0 83.1 80.6 79.1 84.3 80.2

*The response rates for public and private school teachers exclude the schools that did not provide teacher lists. The

overall or effective response rates for public school teachers, including those that could not be sampled from

nonresponding schools, were 83 percent, 86 percent, and 85 percent, respectively, for the 1987-88 through 1993-94

SASS. Overall response rates for private school teachers were 70 percent, 75 percent, and 73 percent for the SASS

administrations.

Statistical Procedures

The comparisons in the text were tested for statistical significance to ensure that the differences are larger than might be expected from sampling variation. These statistical tests were

based on Student’s t statistic. Generally, whether a difference is considered significant is determined by calculating a t value for the difference between a pair of means or percentages, and

comparing this value to published tables of values at certain critical levels, called alpha levels. 

The alpha level is an a priori statement of the probability of inferring that a difference exists

when, in fact, it does not (i.e., the observed difference results from sample variation rather

than a “true” difference between two means).
Technical Notes

C-9 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

In order to make proper inferences and interpretations from the statistics, several points must

be kept in mind. First, comparisons resulting in large t statistics may appear to merit special

note. However, this is not always the case because the size of the t statistic depends not only

on the observed difference in means or percentages being compared, but also on the standard

error of the difference. Thus, a small difference between two groups with a much smaller

standard error could result in a large t statistic, but this small difference is not necessarily

noteworthy. Second, when multiple statistical comparisons are made on the same data, it

becomes increasingly likely that an indication of a population difference is erroneous. Even

when there is no difference in the population, at an alpha level of .05, there is still a 5 percent

chance of concluding that an observed t value representing one comparison in the sample is

large enough to be statistically significant. As the number of comparisons increases, so does

the risk of making such an error in inference.
Technical Notes

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-10 Table C.2—Unweighted item-response rates for SASS questionnaires, by year Questionnaire Range of item-response rates Percent of items with response rate$90 percent Percent of items with a response rate <75 percent 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 Teacher demand and shortage 40-100% 85-100% 67-100% 74% 90% 91% 12% 0% 1% Public school principal 70-100 90-100 65-100 86 100 92 2 0 4 Private school principal 71-100 80-100 55-100 89 98 90 2 0 6 Public school 43-100 56-100 83-100 64 77 83 11 1 0 Private school 11-100 67-100 61-100 56 77 77 8 5 3 Public school teacher 64-100 76-100 71-100 90 84 91 1 0 0 Private school teacher 60-100 71-100 69-100 89 79 89 1 1 1
t'

P1&P2

se

2

1 % se

2

2

Technical Notes

The coefficient of the variation is the standard error divided by the value of the statistic calculated. 13

C-11 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

To guard against errors of inference based upon multiple comparisons, the Bonferroni

procedure to correct significance tests for multiple contrasts was used. This method corrects

the significance (or alpha) level for the total number of contrasts made with a particular

classification variable. For each classification variable, there are (K*(K-1)/2) possible

contrasts (or nonredundant pairwise comparisons), where K is the number of categories. For

example, region has four categories (i.e., Northeast, Midwest, West, and South). With K=4,

there are 4*(4-1)/2 or 6 possible comparisons among the region categories. The Bonferroni

procedure divides the alpha level for a single t test by the number of possible pairwise

comparisons in order to provide a new alpha that is corrected for the fact that multiple

contrasts are being made.

The formula used to compute the t statistic was as follows:

where P and P are the estimates to be compared and se and se are their corresponding 1 2 1 2

standard errors. This formula is valid only for independent estimates. When the estimates

were not independent (for example, when comparing the percentages of districts of different

sizes), a covariance term was added to the denominator of the t-test formula. Because the

actual covariance terms were not known, it was assumed that the estimates were perfectly

negatively correlated. Consequently, 2*(se *se ) was added to se +se in the t-test formula. 1 2 1 2

2 2

The standard errors were calculated using the replicate weights provided on the SASS Teacher

Demand and Shortage data files.

 Decision Rules for Suppression of Estimates

Estimates based on small samples generally have large standard errors. Estimates based on

fewer than 10 districts were always suppressed. This suppression is indicated by a “--” in the

tabular presentation of results. Estimates based on between 10 and 29 districts were suppressed

if the coefficient of variation for the estimate was 20 percent or greater. This suppression is 13

also indicated by a “--” in tables.

However, in tables presenting results by state, results for the District of Columbia and Hawaii

are each based on a single district, since both the District of Columbia and Hawaii are

comprised of a single LEA. As a single district represents the universe for the District of

Columbia and Hawaii, results were not suppressed unless the data item was imputed. This

suppression is indicated by a “--”.
Technical Notes

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-12

Variable Definitions

Public School District

A public school district (or LEA) was defined as a government agency administratively

responsible for providing public elementary and/or secondary instruction and educational

support services. The agency or administrative unit was required to operate under a public

board of education. Districts that did not operate schools but hired teachers for other districts

were included. A district was considered out of scope if it did not employ elementary or

secondary teachers of any kind.

Newly Hired Teachers

Newly hired teachers are teachers employed by the school district in the current (survey)

school year, but not the previous year. Besides new graduates, newly hired teachers include

teachers returning from unpaid leaves of absence of one or more school year and exclude

substitute teachers. Also included are teachers employed by the school district in the current

school year who were employed as teachers in other districts or in private schools during the

previous year. 

Metropolitan (Metro) Status Type

In this report, the variable, Metropolitan (Metro) Status Type, is a categorical variable

assigned to every district relative to its metropolitan status. The three categories of Metro

Status Type are labeled as follows:

(1) Urban area, primarily inside central city;

(2) Urban area, primarily outside central city; and

(3) Nonurban area.

These categories correspond to the three categories of the Metropolitan Status Code (MSC)

on the School District (Teacher Demand and Shortage) file of NCES’s Schools and Staffing

Survey (SASS), which, in turn correspond to the three categories of the Metropolitan Status

Code on the School District Universe file of NCES’s Common Core of Data (CCD). CCD

files were used as the sampling frames for the 1990-91 and 1993-94 SASSs. The 1991-92

CCD was used as the sampling frame for the 1993-94 SASS and the 1988-89 CCD was used as

the sampling frame for the 1990-91 SASS. Therefore, metro status reflects the district’s metro

status at the time the CCD used for creating the sampling frame was administered.

Since the CCD was not used as the sampling frame for the Schools and Staffing Survey: 

1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire), there are no metro status codes

included in the Schools and Staffing Survey” 1987-88 (Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire) data files. Attempts were made to link Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88

(Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire) districts with the CCD data file (1985-86

CCD) that could have been used for sample frame construction. For a variety of technical

reasons, only 91 percent of the districts could be linked with the CCD. After imputing missing

metro status data, it was discovered that CCD data quality efforts in the 1985-86 to 1988-89

period resulted in the reclassification of metro status for hundreds of districts. This resulted in
Technical Notes

C-13 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

improved data, but compromised the longitudinal comparability of subsequent metro status

data with earlier data. Accordingly, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Teacher Demand

and Shortage Questionnaire) data are not summarized by metro status.

The CCD definition of Metropolitan Status Code is as follows: Metropolitan Status Code

(MSC) is the classification of an education agency’s service area relative to a Metropolitan

Statistical Area (MSA). The agency’s classifications are:

(1) Primarily serves a central city of an MSA;

(2) Serves an MSA, but not primarily its central city; or

(3) Does not serve an MSA.

Assignment of a code number to an agency is made by state agency personnel in each state,

subject to consultation by CCD survey staff at NCES and the Census Bureau. There are two

questions to be answered in making the assignment. The first question is, “Is the agency in an

MSA county (or smaller area in New England)?” This is determined by the location of the

administrative office given as the address of the education agency. If the agency is not in an

MSA county, it is given a code of “3.” The second question is, “If the agency is in an MSA,

does it primarily serve a central city of the MSA or does it not?” If it primarily serves a central

city of the MSA, it is given a code of “1.” If it does not, it is given a code of “2.”

While it is relatively easy for CCD staff to determine whether or not an agency is in an MSA

county or locality by checking with periodic publications produced by OMB, it is not easy to

make a judgment about whether or not an agency “primarily serves” a central city of an MSA. 

This judgment is left to the respondent. 

Region

Four geographic regions corresponding to areas defined by the U.S. Bureau of the Census were

employed in the report. The areas and states are defined below.

• Northeast: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, New

Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont;

• South: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana,

Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee,

Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia;

• Midwest: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska,

North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin;

• West: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New

Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. 
Technical Notes

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Office of Education Research 14

and Improvement (1995). Digest of Education Statistics 1995. Washington, DC: Government Printing

Office, page 41.

Some of these districts enrolled or served prekindergarten students in 1993-94. At least 9 of the 17 15

districts without K-12 students enrolled prekindergarten students.

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-14

District Size

Under 1,000, 1,000 to 9,999, and 10,000 and more. This three category measure of district size

is based on the district head count estimates reported in the Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaire for Public School Districts.

Minority Students

Under 10 percent, 10 percent to under 50 percent, 50 percent and more. Based on the student

demographic information contained in the Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires, the

variable is the sum of all racial-ethnic groups other than white non-Hispanic calculated as a

percentage of students of all race-ethnic groups.

Minority Teachers

None, more than 0 percent to under 20 percent, 20 percent and more. Based on the teacher demographic information contained in the Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires, the

variable is the sum of all racial-ethnic groups other than white non-Hispanic calculated as a

percentage of teachers of all race-ethnic groups.

Special Procedures

Inflation adjustments

In order to compare teachers’ salaries in 1990-91 with teachers’ salaries in 1993-94,

adjustments were made to compensate for inflation. These adjustments converted 1990-91

salary dollars into their equivalent purchasing power in 1993-94. The National Center for

Education Statistics has adjusted Consumer Price Indices (CPI) on a school-year (July through

June) basis. For 1990-91, the adjusted CPI was 133.9; for 1993-94, 146.2. To convert 1990- 14

91 salaries to their equivalent 1993-94 salaries, the 1990-91 salaries were multiplied by

(146.2/133.9 = 1.092).

Proportions of Districts

Since the unit of response of the Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires is the school

district, many results are presented in terms of the proportions of districts with specific

characteristics. The denominator used in calculating these proportions was the total number

of districts, whether or not the district served any K-12 children. It should be noted that

several LEAs did not serve any K-12 students. The numbers of districts (weighted and 15

unweighted) that did not serve any K-12 students are presented in the following table:
Technical Notes

For example, the National Center for Education Statistics Issues Brief, Public School Choice Programs, 16

1993-94: Availability and Student Participation (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1996) IB9-96, excludes districts without students in their calculations of the proportions of districts with

different choice programs.

C-15 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Table C.3—Number of districts with zero K-12 students

TDS Survey Number of districts (unweighted) Number of districts (weighted)

1987-88 8 82

1990-91 4 29

1993-94 17 45

The numbers of FTE teachers in these districts ranged from 1-73.7 in 1987-88; 4-240.2 in

1990-91; and 5-325 in 1993-94. 

For certain tables and figures, such as the proportion of districts with a student test reporting

policy (appendix A, table 44 and figure 6.7), the inclusion of districts without students in the

proportion’s denominator implicitly suggests that it is possible for such districts to have a

student test reporting policy. This is clearly not the case. However, to preserve comparability

of tables within this report, a common denominator for the calculation of proportions—all

districts—was used in this report. Analytic reports might chose to exclude certain types of

districts from their analyses. Accordingly, their reports of findings from the SASS Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaires might differ from those presented in figures and tables in

this report.16

Choice of second order relationships presented in appendix tables

Appendix tables present all first order relationships (that is, means or percentages for districts

according to enrollment, proportions of minority students, proportions of minority teachers,

region, and metropolitan status). These tables also present one second order relationship,

showing how means or percentages vary as a function of two of these characteristics (for

example, for different sized districts in the different regions).

Decisions about which second order relationship to present were made on a chapter-by-chapter

basis, with the same second order relationships presented for all tables in a chapter. Analyses

were performed to determine the pairs of characteristics for which there were the most

significant interactions. 
Technical Notes

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-16

Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) Data

Products

Reports

The Effects of Professionalization on Teachers: A Multi-Level Analysis, 1990–91 (NCES

97–069)

The State of Teaching as a Profession, 1990–91 (NCES 97–104)

Time Spent Teaching Core Academic Subjects in Elementary Schools: Comparisons Across

Community School, Teacher, and Student Characteristics (NCES 97–293)

Student Records Questionnaire: School Year 1993–94, With Special Emphasis on American

Indians and Alaska Native Students (E.D. Tab, NCES 97–449)

Characteristics of Stayers, Movers, and Leavers: Results from the Teacher Follow-up Survey,

1994–95 (E.D. Tab, NCES 97–450)

Characteristics of American Indian and Alaska Native Education, Results from the 1993–94

DSDD (NCES 97–451)

Public and Private School Principals In The United States: A Statistical Profile, 1987–88 to

1993–94 (NCES 97–455)

A Profile of Administration Policies and Practices for Limited English Proficiency Students: 

Screening Methods, Teacher Training, and Program Support, 1993–94 (NCES 97–472)

The Schools and Staffing Survey Recommendation for the Future (NCES 97–596)

Out-of-Field Teaching and Educational Equality (NCES 96–040)

Schools and Staffing in the United States: A Statistical Profile: 1993–94 (NCES 96–124)

Private School Universe Survey, 1993–94 (NCES 96–143)

SASS by State, 1993–94 Schools and Staffing Survey: Selected State Results (NCES 96–312)

Comparing Key Organizational Qualities of American Public and Private Secondary Schools

(NCES 96–322)

Schools and Staffing in the United States: Selected Data for Public and Private Schools,

1993-94 (E.D. Tab, NCES 95–191)
Technical Notes

C-17 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Reports (continued)

Private Schools in the United States: A Statistical Profile, 1990–91 (NCES 95–330)

 Teacher Supply in the U.S.: Sources of Newly Hired Teachers in Public and Private Schools,

1988–1991 (NCES 95–348)

Characteristics of American Indian and Alaska Native Education, Results from the 1990–91

SASS (NCES 95–735)

Teacher Supply, Teacher Qualifications and Teacher Turnover, Aspects of Teacher Supply

and Demand in the U.S., 1990–91 (NCES 95–744)

The Patterns of Teacher Compensation (NCES 95–829)

Characteristics of Stayers, Movers, and Leavers: Results from the Teacher Follow-up Survey,

1991–92 (E.D. Tab, NCES 94–337)

SASS by State (NCES 94–343)

Private School Universe Survey, 1991–92 (NCES 94-350)

Qualifications of the Public School Teacher Workforce: 1988 and 1991 (NCES 94–665)

America s Teachers: Profile of a Profession (NCES 93–025)

Private School Universe Survey, 1989-90 (NCES 93–122)

Selected Tables on Teacher Supply and Demand (E.D. Tab, NCES 93–141)

Schools and Staffing in the United States: A Statistical Profile, 1990–91 (NCES 93–146)

Schools and Staffing in the United States: Selected Data for Public and Private Schools,

1990–91 (E.D. Tab, NCES 93–453)

Schools and Staffing in the United States: A Statistical Profile, 1987–88 (NCES 92–120)

Characteristics of Stayers, Movers, and Leavers: Results from the Teacher Follow-up Survey,

1988–89 (E.D. Tab, NCES 91–128)

Forthcoming Reports

America's Teachers: Profile of a Profession, 1993–94

Job Satisfaction Among America's Teachers: Effects of Workplace, Conditions, Background

Characteristics, and Teacher Compensation, 1993–94
Technical Notes

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-18

Forthcoming Reports (continued)

Private Schools in the U.S.: A Statistical Profile, 1993–94 

 Sources of Newly Hired Teachers in Public and Private Schools, 1988–94

Issue Briefs

Schools Serving Family Needs: Extended-Day Programs in Public and Private Schools (Issue

Brief, NCES 97–590)

 Programs for Aspiring Principals: Who Participates? (Issue Brief, NCES 97–591)

 Credentials and Tests in Teacher Hiring: What Do Districts Require? (Issue Brief, NCES

97–592)

 Are Limited English Proficient (LEP) Students Being Taught by Teachers with LEP Training? 

(Issue Brief, NCES 97–907)

 How Widespread is Site-Based Decisionmaking in Public Schools? (Issue Brief, NCES

97–908)

 Public School Choice Programs, 1993–94: Availability and Student Participation (Issue Brief,

NCES 97–909)

 Teachers' Sense of Community: How Do Public and Private Schools Compare? (Issue Brief,

NCES 97–910)

 Are High School Teachers Teaching Core Subjects Without College Majors or Minors in

Those Subjects? (Issue Brief, NCES 96–839)

 Where Do Minority Principals Work? (Issue Brief, NCES 96–840)

 What Academic Programs are Offered Most Frequently in Schools Serving American Indian

and Alaska Native Students? (Issue Brief, NCES 96–841)

 How Safe are the Public Schools: What Do Teachers Say? (Issue Brief, NCES 96–842)

 Extended Day Programs in Elementary and Combined Schools (Issue Brief, NCES 96–843)

 What Criteria are Used in Considering Teacher Applicants? (Issue Brief, NCES 96–844)

 Private School Graduation Requirements (Issue Brief, NCES 95–145)

 How Much Time Do Public and Private School Teachers Spend in Their Work? (Issue Brief,

NCES 95–709)

 Migration and Attrition of Public and Private School Teachers: 1991–92 (Issue Brief, NCES

95–770)
Technical Notes

C-19 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

Issue Briefs (continued)

Which Types of Schools Have the Highest Teacher Turnover? (Issue Brief, NCES 95–778)

Libraries/Media Centers in Schools: Are There Sufficient Resources? (Issue Brief, NCES

95–779)

 Who Influences Decisionmaking About School Curriculum: What Do Principals Say? (Issue

Brief, NCES 95–780)

 Public and Private School Principals: Are There Too Few Women? (Issue Brief, NCES

94–192)

 Sources of Newly Hired Teachers in Public and Private Schools, 1988–91 (Issue Brief, NCES

94–481)

What are the Most Serious Problems in Schools? (Issue Brief, NCES 93–149)

 Teacher Salaries—Are They Competitive? (Issue Brief, NCES 93–450)

 Teaching and Administrative Work Experience of Public School Principals (Issue Brief,

NCES 93–452)

 Teacher Attrition and Migration (Issue Brief, NCES 92–148)

Video

 Americas Teachers: Profile of a Profession

Methods

 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample Design and Estimation (Technical Report,

NCES 96–089)

 An Exploratory Analysis of Nonrespondents in the 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey

(NCES 96–338)

 Design Effects and Generalized Variance Functions for the 1990–91 Schools and Staffing

Surveys (SASS) Volume I--User's Manual (NCES 95–342I)

 Design Effects and Generalized Variance Functions for the 1990–91 Schools and Staffing

Surveys (SASS) Volume II--Technical Report (NCES 95–340II)

 Quality Profile for SASS: Aspects of the Quality of Data in the Schools and Staffing Surveys

(Technical Report, NCES 94–340)

 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample Design and Estimation (Technical Report,

NCES 93–449)
Technical Notes

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-20

Methods (continued)

 Modeling Teacher Supply and Demand, with Commentary (Research and Development

Report, NCES 93–461)

1987–88 Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample Design and Estimation (Technical Report,

NCES 91–127)

CD-ROMs

 Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993–94 Electronic Codebook and Public Use Data

 Schools and Staffing Survey: 1990–91 Electronic Codebook and Public Use Data

 Schools and Staffing Survey, 1987–88 Microdata and Documentation

Questionnaires

 SASS and PSS Questionnaires 1993–1994 (NCES 94–674)

 SASS and TFS Questionnaires 1990–1991

 SASS and TFS Questionnaires 1987–1988

User’s Manuals

 1993–94 Schools and Staffing Survey, Data File User's Manual Volume I: Survey

Documentation (NCES 96–142)

1993–94 Schools and Staffing Survey, Data File User's Manual Volume II: Restricted-Use

Codebook (NCES 96–142–II)

 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File User s Manual Volume I: Survey

Documentation (NCES 93–144–I)

 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File User s Manual Volume II: Restricted-Use

codebook (NCES 93–144–II)

 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File User s Manual Volume III: Public-Use

codebook (NCES 93–144–III)

 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File User s Manual Volume IV: Bureau of Indian

Affairs (BIA) Restricted-Use Codebooks: Administrator, Schools, and Teachers (NCES

93–144–IV)

 1991–92 Teacher Follow-up Survey Data File User s Manual—Public-Use Version (NCES

94–331)
Technical Notes

C-21 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

User’s Manuals (continued)

1991–92 Teacher Follow-up Survey Data File User s Manual—Restricted-Use Version (NCES

94–478)

 1988–89 Teacher Follow-up Survey Data File User s Manual—Public-Use Version (NCES

92–058)

Forthcoming User's Manuals 

 1993–94 Schools and Staffing Survey, Data File User's Manual Volume III: Public-Use

Codebook

 1993–94 Schools and Staffing Survey, Data File User s Manual Volume IV: Bureau of Indian

Affairs (BIA) Restricted-Use Codebooks: Administrator, Schools, and Teachers

 1993–94 Schools and Staffing Survey, Data File User's Manual Volume V: Restricted-Use

Codebook Students' Records

Conference Papers

 Using Classroom Instructional Process Items in National Center for Education Statistics Study

To Measure Student Opportunity to Learn: A Progress Report

 Heaven or Hell? The Teaching Environment of Beginning Teachers

 Using Opportunity to Learn Items in Elementary and Secondary National Surveys

 Characteristics of Public and Private School Teachers

 Characteristics of Mathematics and Science Teachers

 Teacher Training, Certification and Assignment

 Teacher Turnover: Patterns of Entry To and Exit from Teaching

 Moonlighting Among Public and Private School Teachers

 Characteristics of Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language Teachers

 Highlights of Minority Data from the Schools and Staffing Survey

 Teacher Incentive Research with SASS

 Teacher Salaries: Comparing States After Adjusting for Teacher Experience and Education

 What are the Characteristics of Principals Identified as Effective by Teachers

 Schools at Risk: Results of the 1987–88 Schools and Staffing Survey
Technical Notes

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-22

Conference Papers (continued)

 Destinations of Movers and Leavers: Where Do They Go?

 Teacher Salaries: Comparing States After Adjusting for Teacher Experience and Education

 Classroom Environment and Support of Beginning Teachers: A Test of the "Crucible versus

Cradle" Theory of Teacher Induction

 Why do Teachers Leave Teaching? Reasons for Teacher Attrition from the Teacher Followup Survey

NCES Working Papers Related to SASS

WP 94-01 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS). Papers Presented at the Meetings

of the American Statistical Association

Section on Survey Research Methods, August 1992

a. "The Schools and Staffing Survey: Research Issues"

b. "The Schools and Staffing Survey: How Re-interview Measures Data Quality"

c. "Mail Versus Telephone Response in the 1991 Schools and Staffing Surveys"

d. "Questionnaire Research in the Schools and Staffing Survey: A Cognitive

Approach"

e. "Balance Half-Sample Replication with Aggregation Units"

f. "Characteristics of Nonrespondents in the Schools and Staffing Surveys' School

Sample"

g. "Improving Reliability and Comparability on NCES Data on Teachers and Other

Education Staff"

Establishment Surveys Conference, June 1993

a. "Sampling Frames at the United States National Center for Education Statistics"

b. "Monitoring Data Quality in Education Surveys"

Section on Survey Research Methods, August 1993

a. "Generalization Variance Functions for the Schools and Staffing Surveys"

b. "A Bootstrap Variance Estimator for the Schools and Staffing Survey"

c. "Adjusting for Nonresponse Bias of Correlated Items Using Logistic Regression"

d. "Comparisons of School Locale Setting: Self-Reported Versus Assigned"

e. "Characteristics of Nonrespondents to the 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey"

Social Statistics Section, August 1993

a. "Implicit Markets for Teacher Quality and School Attributes"

b. "Who Decides? Principals' and Teachers' Views on Decision-Making"

c. "Determinants of Pupil-Teacher Ratios at School Sites: Evidence from the Schools

and Staffing Survey"
Technical Notes

C-23 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

NCES Working Papers Related to SASS (continued)

WP 94-02 Generalized Variance Estimates for Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS)

WP 94-03 1991 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) Reinterview Response

Variance Report 

WP 94-04 The Accuracy of Teachers' Self-report on Their Postsecondary

Education: Teacher Transcript Study, Schools and Staffing Survey

WP 94-06 Six Papers on Teachers from the 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey 

Other Related Surveys

a. "The Results of the 1993 Teacher List Validation Study (TLVS)"

b. "Designing the Teacher Follow-up Survey (TFS): Issues and Content)"

c. "Understanding the Supply of Elementary and Secondary Teachers: The Role of the

School and Staffing Survey and the Teacher Followup Survey"

d. "Teacher Retention/Attrition: Issues for Research"

e. "Reflections on a SASS Longitudinal Study"

f. "Whither Didst Thou Go? Retention, Reassignment, Migration, and Attrition of

Special and General Education Teachers in National Perspective"

WP 95-01 Schools and Staffing Survey: 1994. Papers Presented at the 1994

Meeting of the American Statistical Association (95-01)

Estimation Issues in School Surveys

a. "Intersurvey Consistency in School Surveys"

b. "Estimation Issues Related to the Student Component of the SASS"

c. “Properties of the Schools and Staffing Survey’s Bootstrap Variance Estimator

d. “Optimal Periodicity of a Survey: Sampling Error, Data Deterioration, and Cost

Response and Coverage Issues in School Surveys

a. "Some Data Issues in School-Based Surveys"

b. "The 1991–92 Teacher Follow-up Survey Reinterview and Extensive

Reconciliation"

c. "Improving Coverage in a National Survey of Teachers"

d. "Improving the Coverage of Private Elementary-Secondary Schools"

Education Research Using the Schools and Staffing Surveys and the National

Education Longitudinal Study

a. "Adding Value to the Value-Added Educational Production Function Specification"

b. "Teacher Quality in Public and Private Schools"

c. "Teacher Shortages and Teacher Quality"

d. "Work Experience, Local Labor Markets, and Dropping out of High School"
Technical Notes

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-24

NCES Working Papers Related to SASS (continued)

WP 95-02 QED Estimates of the 1990–91 Schools and Staffing Survey: Deriving

and Comparing QED School Estimates with CCD Estimates 

WP 95-03 Schools and Staffing Survey: 1990–91 SASS Cross-Questionnaire

Analysis

WP 95-08 CCD Adjustment to the 1990–91 SASS: A Comparison of Estimates 

WP 95-09 The Results of the 1993 Teacher List Validation Study (TLVS) 

WP 95-10 The Results of the 1991–92 Teacher Follow-up Survey (TFS)

Reinterview and Extensive Reconciliation 

WP 95-11 Measuring Instruction, Curriculum Content, and Instructional Resources: 

The Status of Recent Work 

WP 95-15 Classroom Instructional Processes: A Review of Existing Measurement

Approaches and Their Applicability for the Teacher Followup Survey

WP 95-16 Intersurvey Consistency in NCES Private School Surveys

WP 95-17 Estimates of Expenditures for Private K–12 Schools

WP 95-18 An Agenda for Research on Teachers and Schools: Revisiting NCES"

Schools and Staffing Survey

WP 96-01 Methodological Issues in the Study of Teachers' Careers: Critical

Features of a Truly Longitudinal Study

WP 96-02 Selected papers presented at the meeting of the 1995 American

Statistical Association (96-02)

Overcoming the Bureaucratic Paradigm: Memorial Session in Honor of Roger

Herriot

a. "1995 Roger Herriot Award Presentation"

b. "Space/Time Variations in Survey Estimates"

c. “Out of the Box: Again and Again, Roger Herriot at the Census Bureau”

Design and Estimation Issues for School Based Surveys

a. "Improving the Coverage of Private Elementary-Secondary Schools"

b. "Improving GLS Estimation in NCES Surveys"

c. "Optimal Periodicity of a Survey: Alternatives under Cost and Policy Constraint"

d. "Properties of the Schools and Staffing Survey's Bootstrap Variance Estimator"
Technical Notes

C-25 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

NCES Working Papers Related to SASS (continued)

 Data Quality and Nonresponse in Education Surveys

a. "Assessing Quality of CCD Data Using a School-Based Sample Survey"

b. "Documentation of Nonresponse and Consistency of Data Categorization Across

NCES Surveys"

c. "Multivariate Modeling of Unit Nonresponse for 1990–91 Schools and Staffing

Surveys"

d. "Evaluation of Imputation Methods for State Education Finance Data"

e. "Variance Estimates Comparison by Statistical Software"

f. "Teacher Supply and Demand in the U.S."

WP 96-05 Cognitive Research on the Teacher Listing Form for the Schools and

Staffing Survey

WP 96-06 The Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) for 1998–99; Design

Recommendations to Inform Broad Education Policy

WP 96-07 Should SASS Measure Instructional Processes and Teacher Effectiveness?

WP 96-09 Making Data Relevant for Policy Discussions: Redesigning the School

Administrator Questionnaire for the 1998–99 SASS

WP 96-10 1998–99 Schools and Staffing Survey: Issues Related to Survey Depth

WP 96-11 Towards an Organizational Data Base on America's Schools: A Proposal

for the Future of SASS, with Comments on School Reform,

Governments, and Finance

WP 96-12 Predictors of Retention, Transfer, and Attrition of Special and General

Education Teachers: Data from the 1989 Teacher Follow-up Survey

WP 96-15 Nested Structures: District Level Data in the SASS

WP 96-16 Strategies for Collecting Finance Data from Private Schools

WP 96-23 Linking Student Data to SASS: Why, When, How

WP 96-24 National Assessments of Teacher Quality

WP 96-25 Measures of Inservice Professional Development: Suggested Items for the

1998–99 SASS

WP 96-26 Improving the coverage of Private Elementary-Secondary Schools

WP 96-27 Intersurvey Consistency in NCES Private School Surveys for 1993–94
Technical Notes

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 C-26

NCES Working Papers Related to SASS (continued)

 WP 96-28 Student Learning, Teaching Quality, and Professional Development: 

Theoretical Linkages, Current Measurement, and Recommendations for

Future Data Collection

WP 97-01 Selected Papers on Education Surveys: Papers Presented at the 1996

Meeting of the American Statistical Association

Developing Questionnaires for Education Surveys

a. "Teacher Quality and Educational Inequality"

b. "Using Qualitative Methods to Validate Quantitative Survey Instruments"

c. "Revising the NCES Private School Survey: A Method to Design a Systematic

Classification of Private Schools in the United States"

Data Quality in Education Surveys

a. "An Analysis of Response Rates of SASS 1993–94"

b. "An Overview of NCES Surveys Reinterview Programs"

c. “Estimating Response Bias in an Adult Education Survey”

Design and Estimation in School-Based Surveys

a. "Optimal Periodicity of a Survey: Extensions of Probable-Error Models"

b. "Estimating the Variance in the Presence of Imputation Using a Residual"

c. “Where Will It All End? Some Alternative SASS Estimation Research

Opportunities”

d. “Estimating State Totals from the Private School Universe Survey”

Policy Analysis with Education and Defense Manpower Survey Data

a. "Effect of High School Programs on Out-Migration of Rural Graduates"

WP 97-07 The Determinants of Per-Pupil Expenditures in Private Elementary and

Secondary Schools: An Exploratory Analysis.
Index

Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94 I-1

Index

C

Chapter 1 programs

By selected district characteristics, v, 77-78

Prekindergarten programs, v, 79, 81

Choice programs

Between-district transfer programs, 90-91

By selected district characteristics, vi, 83-85

Magnet school programs, vi, 88-90

By selected district characteristics, vi, 

88-90

Prevalence, 85-86

Within-district open enrollment programs, 

86-87

By selected district characteristics, 86-88

Collective bargaining

Association with scheduled salaries, iv, 

66-67

Prevalence and distribution, iv, 65-66

D

Day care programs

By selected district characteristics, 79, 81-82

District size (enrollment)

Association with other district 

characteristics, i, 9-10, 12

G

Graduation (high school) requirements of 

school districts

By region, 70-71

By subject area, 69-70

Community service requirements, 71-72

Core subject areas, v, 70-71

Noncore subject areas, v, 72-75

Computer science, v, 72-74

Foreign language, v, 74-75

H

Head Start programs

By selected district characteristics, v, 79-81

M

Magnet school programs, see Choice programs

Metropolitan status of school districts

Association with other district 

characteristics, 7-8, 10-11

Minority student enrollment of school districts

By district size, 25-26

By metropolitan status, 22-24

By proportion of minority teachers, 26-28

By race and ethnicity, ii, 19-20

By region, 13-14, 20-22

Changes from 1987-88 to 1993-94, ii, 16-17,

19, 21-22, 25-28

Changes from 1990-91 to 1993-94, 23-24

Minority teacher prevalence in school districts

By district size, 33-35

By metropolitan status, 31-33

By proportion of minority students, 35-37

By race and ethnicity, ii, 28-29

By region, 15-16, 29-31

Changes from 1987-88 to 1993-94, ii, 16-17,

28, 30-31, 34-37

Changes from 1990-91 to 1993-94, 32-33

N

National School Lunch program

By selected district characteristics, v, 75-77

O

Open enrollment programs, see Choice programs
Index

I-2 Public School Districts in the United States: 1987-88 to 1993-94

P T

Prekindergarten programs Teacher compensation

By selected district characteristics, v, 79-80 By collective bargaining status of district, iv, 

Chapter 1 programs, v, 79, 81 65-67

Head Start programs, v, 79-81 Retirement benefits, v, 67-68

Other prekindergarten programs, v, 79, Impacts of between-state transfers on 

81-82 benefits, 68

R

Racial and ethnic composition of school districts

Association with other district 

characteristics, ii, 20-23, 25-26, 29-36

By district size, 25-26, 33-34

By metropolitan status, 22-23, 31-32

By region, ii, 20-22, 29-30

S

School districts

By district size, i, 8-9

By metropolitan status, 10, 12

By region, i, 9-10

By metropolitan status, i, 6-7

By district size, 10-11

By region, 7-8

By proportions of minority students, i, 

12-13, 19

By region, 13-14

By proportions of minority teachers, i, 

14-15, 28

By region, 15-16

By race and ethnicity of students, 19-20

By region, 5-6

School safety, discipline, and drug prevention 

policies for school districts

Alcohol use, vi, 91

Student discipline, vi, 91

Tobacco use, vi, 91

Student demographics, see Minority student 

enrollment of school districts

Student test-performance reporting policies

By selected district characteristics, vi, 82-83

Impacts of within-state transfers on

benefits, 67

Prevalence, v, 67

Scheduled salaries, iv, 62-63, 66-67

Bachelor’s degrees, iv, 63

Master’s degrees, iv, 63-65

Teacher demand

Efforts to recruit and retain, iii, 52-59

Fields of shortage and less desirable 

locations, iii-iv, 52-59

Unfilled positions, iii, 51-52

Teacher demographics, see Minority teacher 

prevalence in school districts

Teacher hiring criteria

Standard state certification in field of 

assignment, iii, 46-48

Types of criteria employed, 48-49

Teacher recruitment and retention practices

Fields of shortage, 52-55

By selected district characteristics, 53-55

Free training, iii-iv, 52, 58-59

By selected district characteristics, 58-59

Changes from 1987-88 to 1993-94, 

58-59

Pay incentives, iii-iv, 52-57

By selected district characteristics, 56-57

Changes from 1987-88 to 1993-94, 

55-57

Teachers

Newly hired, 39

By region, ii, 39-40

Emergency certification, ii, 42-44

Standard state certification, ii, 40-42

Without standard state certification or 

emergency certification, ii-iii, 44-45

Transfer programs for students, see Choice 

programs