NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY ARCHIVED FILE
 

Archived files are provided for reference purposes only. This file was current when produced, but is no
 

longer maintained and may now be outdated. Content may not appear in full or in its original format.
 

All links external to the document have been deactivated. For additional information, see
 

http://pubs.nal.usda.gov.
 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

Selected Animal Welfare Issues 

The Science of Animal Well-being 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Arguments for Single-caging of Rhesus Macaques: Are They Justified? 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Adoption of Research Animals 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Oocyte Harvesting in Xenopus laevis 

Animal Welfare Issues Bibliography 

Issues in Rodent Housing Bibliography 

Useful World Wide Web Sites 

Oocyte Harvesting in Xenopus laevis 

This guideline was revised and approved by the National Institutes of Health Animal Research Advisory Committee on

 February 10, 1999 and is available at http://oacu.od.nih.gov/ARAC/documents/Oocyte_Harvest.pdf 

Amphibian oocytes are used for studies in molecular biology, embryology and biochemistry. Stage I-VI oocytes are

 obtained by surgical laparotomy. Multiple surgeries on a single animal may be justified considering the reduction in the

 total number of animals used over the long term. However, the total number of animals used must be considered

 relative to the pain or distress experienced by an individual animal. 

1.The total number of laparotomies should be limited and will depend on the condition of the animal and quality of the

 oocytes as well as the life span of the animal and the duration of egg production. Up to five recovery surgeries (the 6th

 would be terminal) per animal are acceptable. Additional survival surgeries should have approval of the individual

 ACUC. 

2.Surgeries should be performed by trained personnel using appropriate anesthesia such as tricaine methane-sulfonate

 (MS-222). Surgeries should be done as aseptically as practical including the use of sterilized instruments and gloves. 

3.Single housing or small group housing for several days after surgery should be considered as part of the post surgical

 care of laparotomized animals. Frogs should be monitored daily during this period for appetite as well as for any

 complications such as dehiscence or infection. Such adverse effects would be reasons for immediate euthanasia. 

4.Adequate recovery time should be allowed between laparotomies. The investigator can alternate oocyte collection

 between left and right ovaries and consider rotation of frogs so that the interval between surgeries in any individual is

 maximized. Recovery time of less than one month should have approval of the individual ACUC. 
Animal Welfare Issues Bibliography
 

Anderson, D. L. (1993). Handbook of Live Animal Transport. 

NAL call number: HV4733.H36 1993 

Descriptors: Animal welfare, animal handling and safety, veterinary procedures, animal health regulations, transporting

 animals by land, sea and air, exporting animals. 

Benn, D.M. (1995). Innovations in research animal care. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 

206(4): 465-468. 

NAL call number: 41.8 AM3 

Descriptors: animal experiments, laboratory animals, animal welfare. 

Beynen A.C. (1992). Communication between rats of experiment-induced stress and its impact on experimental

 results. Animal Welfare 1(3): 153-159. 

NAL call number: HV4701 A557 

Descriptors: animal experiments, laboratory animals, stress, communication between animals. 

Bollen, P., A. Andersen, and L. Ellegaard (1998). The behaviour and housing requirements of minipigs. 

Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 25(SUPP 1): 23-26. 

NAL call number: QL55 S322 

Descriptors: animal behavior; pig housing; housing requirements; miniature pigs. 

Bosland, M.C. (1995). Is decapitation a humane method of euthanasia in rodents? A critical review. Contemporary

 Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 34 (2): 46-48. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A23 

Descriptors: rodents, decapitation, euthanasia, animal welfare. 

Broderson, J.R. (1989). A retrospective review of lesions associated with the use of Freund's adjuvant. Laboratory

 Animal Science 39(5): 400-405. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Abstract: A retrospective evaluation was made of lesions observed after the use of Freund's adjuvant formulations in

 rabbits and monkeys. Inflammation was consistently present at the sites of inoculation. Complications frequently

 included focal necrosis and ulceration of the skin. Other lesions included fistulous tracts, self-induced trauma, muscle

 atrophy, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and embolic pneumonia. Lesions were most severe with formulations containing

 larger quantities of mycobacteria or with larger volumes of adjuvant injected per site. 

Descriptors: adverse effects, adjuvants, Freund's, polyclonal antibody production, vaccine trials, rabbits, Aotus

 monkeys. 

Broom, D.M. (1998). Psychological indicators of stress and welfare. In Ethics, welfare, law and market forces: the

 veterinary interface. Proceedings of a Symposium, Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, UK, 14-15th November

 1996, A.R. Michell and R. Ewbank, (eds.), Wheathampstead, UK: Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

 (UFAW), p.167-175. 

NAL call number: HV4704 E84 1998 

Descriptors: stress, animal welfare, behavior. 

Broom, D.M. (1993). A usable definition of animal welfare. Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6

 (special suppl.2): 15-25. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: animal welfare, animal production, stress, pain, abnormal behavior, livestock. 

Casebolt, D.B., D.J. Speare, and B.S. Horney (1998). Care and use of fish as laboratory animals: current state of

 knowledge. Laboratory Animal Science 48(2): 124-136. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: transgenic animals, animal housing, water quality, fish diseases, environmental factors, stress, fishes. 
Danneman, P.J., S. Stein, and S.O. Walshaw (1997). Humane and practical implications of using carbon dioxide

 mixed with oxygen for anesthesia or euthanasia of rats. Laboratory Animal Science 47(4): 376-385. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Abstract: A series of studies was undertaken to determine whether CO2 can be used as a humane as well as practical

 agent for euthanasia or anesthesia of rats. Human volunteers rated the degree of discomfort associated with breathing

 50 to 100% CO2 mixed with oxygen. Increasing concentrations of CO2 were judged as progressively more noxious,

 from "highly unpleasant" for 50% CO2 to "painful" for 100% CO2. The practical aspects of anesthesia and euthanasia

 with 50 to 100% CO2 were studied, using male Sprague Dawley rats. Time to anesthesia and death were inversely

 related to CO2 concentration, as were the frequency and severity of adverse reactions, including seizures and

 hemorrhaging from the nose. The severity of edema and hemorrhage, which were observed on histologic examination

 of the lungs of all rats euthanized with CO2, were greatest in the animals exposed to the lowest concentrations. There

 were no significant effects of CO2 concentration on time to recumbency or recovery, and there were no significant

 effects of precharging versus not precharging the chamber on any of the parameters studied. It was concluded that,

 although CO2 can be used in a humane manner, the concentrations that are least likely to cause pain and distress are

 associated with the longest times to anesthesia and death, highest incidence of unwanted side effects, and most severe

 histologic changes in the lungs. Acceptably humane and reasonably practical euthanasia or anesthesia can be achieved

 using a nonprecharged chamber and a low gas flow rate so that conscious animals are never exposed to CO2

 concentrations >70%. 

Doris, P.A. (1989). Humane principles and procedures in animal research. Animal research training series. Texas

 Tech University Health Science Center, 1 videocassette (30 min.) 

NAL call number: Videocassette (2 copies) - nos. 804 and 805 

Descriptors: new legal requirements, ACUC, husbandry. 

Dreesen, R.G. (1987).Considerations in the humane use of laboratory animals in radiology research. Radiologic

 Technology 58(4): 347-350. 

Descriptors: animal welfare, laboratory animals, radiology, research methods, committee requirements, ACUC. 

Foltz, C.J. and M. Ullman-Cullere (1999). Guidelines for assessing the health and condition of mice. Lab Animal

 28(4): 28-32. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L33 

Descriptors: transgenic mice, knockout mice, potentially debilitating phenotypes, humane endpoints, monitoring

 criteria, communications between veterinary staff and investigators, body condition scoring, health guidelines,

 barbering, fighting, malocclusion, rectal prolapse, tumors and masses, ulcerative dermatitis, vaginal or uterine prolapse,

 subtle health problems--activity/behavior, anemia, dehydration, diarrhea, hypothermia, preputial or vaginal discharge,

 additional health problems--abnormal breathing, abnormal locomotion, eye abnormality, head tilt, hyperactivity,

 lethargy, paresis, paralysis, ruffled fur, tremors. 

Guttman, H.N., J.S. Mench, and R.C. Simmonds (eds.) (1988). Science and Animals: Addressing Contemporary

 Issues: From a Conference Held by the Scientists Center for Animal Welfare in Washington, DC on June 22­

25,1988. 

NAL call number: HV4704 S33 1988 

Descriptors: industrial IACUC's, ethics, environmental conditions, laboratory animals, farm animals, aversive stimuli,

 feed deprivation, water deprivation, adjuvants, non-affiliated member of the IACUC.
 

Hammond, A.C. (1994). Animal well-being in pharmacology and toxicology research. Journal of Animal Science 72

 (2): 523-527.
 

NAL call number: 49 J82
 

Abstract: The primary objective of this paper is to heighten the awareness of animal welfare issues among animal

 scientists. Emphasis is placed on issues relating to pharmacology and toxicology research with animals. Use of both

 laboratory animals and farm animals is addressed; major consideration is given to domestic livestock. Animal welfare

 issues are complex and have philosophical, ethical, legal, societal, scientific, and biological bases and implications.

 There is substantial diversity in public opinion and perception regarding use of animals in research, including the belief
 
 among some people that use of animals in research should be eliminated altogether. Increasingly, public opinion is

 tending toward expectations of alternatives to the use of live animals for research. From an animal scientist's viewpoint,

 although the availability and development of viable alternatives are increasing, live animal research in pharmacology

 and toxicology currently has no acceptable alternative, in many cases because of the complex interactions involved in

 whole-animal (biological) systems. Compliance with federal, state, and local laws, regulations, and policies requires

 animal scientists to use only appropriate species for research, use the minimum number of animals needed, minimize

 pain and discomfort, and consider alternatives to the use of live animals. In summary, it is essential that animal

 scientists be advocates of animal well-being and adhere to appropriate guidelines for animal care and use when

 conducting research with animals. 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, livestock, animal experiments, animal welfare, pharmacology, toxicology. 

Hawkins, P. (1999). Working together to improve rodent well-being. Lab Animal 28(2):30-32. 

NAL call number: QL55A1L33 

Abstract: The UK has seen a productive relationship between animal welfare and research interests. This has

 culminated in the formation of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals/Universities Federation for

 Animal Welfare (RSPCA/UFAW) Rodent Welfare Group, in which technicians, researchers, veterinarians, and animal

 advocates share information and experience. The author provides some highlights from recent group meetings. 

Hem, A., A.J. Smith, and P. Solberg (1998). Saphenous vein puncture for blood sampling of the mouse, rat,

 hamster, gerbil, guinea pig, ferret and mink. Laboratory Animals 32(4): 364-368. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Descriptors: alternatives (to retroorbital bleeding), blood sampling techniques, laboratory animals, blood specimen

 collection, animal welfare. 

Hendriksen, C.F.M. and W. de Leeuw (1998). Production of monoclonal antibodies by the ascites method in

 laboratory animals. Research in Immunology 149(6): 535-542. 

NAL call number: QR180 A5 

Descriptors: ascites, monoclonal antibodies, animal welfare, animal testing alternatives, production methods. 

Herck, H. van, V. Baumans, C.J.W. Brandt, A.P.M. Hesp, J.H. Sturkenboom, H.A. van Lith, G. van Tintelen, and A.C.

 Beynen (1998). Orbital sinus blood sampling in rats as performed by different animal technicians: The influence

 of technique and expertise. Laboratory Animals 32 (4): 377-386. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Descriptors: clinical signs, Pasteur pipette or a haematocrit capillary, lateral vs medial canthus of the orbit. 

Herck, H. van, V. Baumans, N.R. van der Craats, A.P.M. Hesp, G.W. Meijer, G. van Tintelen, H.C. Walvoort, and A.C.

 Beynan (1992). Histological changes in the orbital region of rats after orbital puncture. Laboratory Animals 26(1):

 53-58. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Descriptors: retroorbital bleeding, pasteur pipette, capillary tube, hemorrhage in puncture track and periosteum,

 inflammation present four days after procedure in puncture track, eye muscles, periosteum and Harderian gland, no

 lesions detected at 28 days post-procedure, differences between techniques and technicians. 

Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (1996). The Psychological well-being of nonhuman primates. Washington,

 DC: National Academy Press, 168 p. Full-text document is available at 

http://www.nap.edu/books/0309052335/html/index.html 

NAL call number: QL737 P9 P776 1998 

Descriptors: essentials of a program to provide psychological well-being, general care, effect of special research

 conditions, prosimians, new world monkeys, old world monkeys, apes, research needs. 

Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (1996). Laboratory Animal Management Series: Rodents. Washington, DC:

 National Academy Press, 167 p. 

Descriptors: rats, mice, gerbils, hamsters, guinea pigs, laboratory animal management, animal husbandry, veterinary

 care, animal facilities, animal care. 
Jackson, L.R. and J.G. Fox (1995). Institutional policies and guidelines on adjuvants and antibody production. 

ILAR Journal 37(3): 141-152. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1I43 

Descriptors: monoclonal antibody production, selection of animals, immunization protocols, priming agents,

 inoculation of hybridoma cells, abdominal paracentesis, clinical observations, alternatives, polyclonal antibody

 production, antigen preparation, antigen-adjuvant emulsions, routes, volumes, and sites of administration, post-injection

 observations, blood collection, restraint, institutional resources, personnel safety. 

Jackson, LR., L.J. Trudel, J.G. Fox, and N.S. Lipman (1999). Monoclonal antibody production in murine ascites. I.

 Clinical and pathologic features. Laboratory Animal Science 49(1): 70-80. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Abstract: BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Murine ascites production has been associated with appreciable

 morbidity and mortality, thus raising animal-welfare concerns. To address these concerns, the clinicopathologic

 changes associated with in vivo production of monoclonal antibodies in mice were characterized, and results were

 compared among cell lines. METHODS: Five hybridoma cell lines were grown in groups of 20 mice. Fourteen days

 prior to inoculation with 10(6) hybridoma cells, mice were primed with 0.5 ml of pristane given intraperitoneally; 12

 mice were sham treated (controls). Ascites fluid was collected a maximum of three times by abdominal paracentesis.

 Clinical observations and pre- and postabdominal tap body weights were recorded. Necropsies were performed on all

 mice. RESULTS: For all groups combined, overall survival to tap 1 was 98%, to tap 2 was 96%, and to tap 3 was 79%;

 survival among groups ranged from 90 to 100% for tap 1, 85 to 100% for tap 2, and 35 to 100% for tap 3. Disseminated

 intra-abdominal seeding with irregular soft tissue and/or solid tumor masses was observed at necropsy.

 CONCLUSIONS: Significant clinicopathologic changes were associated with monoclonal antibody production in mice,

 and differences between various hybridoma cell lines were apparent. 

Jennings, M, G.R. Batchelor, P.F. Brain, A. Dick, H. Elliot, R.J. Francis, R.C. Hubrecht, J.L. Hurst, D.B. Morton, A.G.

 Peters, R. Raymond, G.D. Sales, C.M. Sherwin, and C. West (1998). Refining rodent husbandry: the mouse. Report

 of the rodent refinement working party. Laboratory Animals 32(3): 233-259. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Descriptors: animal-husbandry, animal welfare, animal housing, cages, hygiene. 

Ladewig, J. Behavior of laboratory animals under unnatural conditions. Archives of Toxicology 20(suppl): 41-46. 

NAL call number: RA1190 A7 

Abstract: Domestic animals are animals whose living conditions and reproduction, among other things, are controlled

 by man. As such, the current discussion about the welfare of domestic animals is similar for farm, companion,

 laboratory, and zoo animals. It concerns identification of the behavioral and physiological needs of the animals and

 development of living conditions that enable them to satisfy these needs. The paper describes two approaches that have

 been used in behavior biology to identify such needs. One approach is the measurement of stress responses that may be

 activated when an animal's needs are not fulfilled. The other approach is the use of operant conditioning techniques to

 establish demand functions by which the motivation of an animal to perform a specific behavior is measured. It is

 concluded that, since welfare is characterized by the absence of a number of factors, such as stress, pain, fear, disease,

 hunger etc., many types of measurements must be applied to ensure optimal welfare. 

Descriptors: animal welfare, animal psychology, behavior, laboratory animal science. 

Leenaars, P.P.A.M., M.A. Koedam, P.W. Wester, V. Baumans, E. Claassen, and C.F.M. Hendriksen (1998). 

Assessment of side effects induced by injection of different adjuvant/antigen combinations in rabbits and mice. 

Laboratory Animals 32(4): 387-406. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Abstract: We evaluated the side effects induced by injection of Freund's adjuvant (FA) and alternative adjuvants

 combined with different antigens. Rabbits and mice were injected subcutaneously, intramuscularly (rabbits) and

 intraperitoneally (mice) with different adjuvants (FA, Specol, RIBI, TiterMax, Montanide ISA50) in combination with

 several types of antigens (synthetic peptides, autoantigen, glycolipid, protein, mycoplasma or viruses). The effects of

 treatment on the animals' well-being were assessed by clinical and behavioural changes (POT and LABORAS assays)

 and gross and histopathological changes. In rabbits, treatment did not appear to induce acute or prolonged pain and

 distress. Mice showed behavioural changes immediately after (predominantly secondary) immunization. Injection of 
 

 several adjuvant/antigen mixtures resulted in severe pathological changes, depending on adjuvant, type of antigen,

 animal species used and route of injection. Both rabbits and mice showed pathological changes ranging from marked to

 severe after injection of FA, and ranging from minimal to marked after Specol and Montanide injections. Pathological

 changes after RIBI injections were severe in rabbits, though slight in mice. After TiterMax injections, pathological

 changes were moderate in rabbits, though severe in mice. In conclusion, injection of FA according to present guidelines

 resulted mostly in severe pathological changes, whereas only very few clinical and behavioural signs indicated

 prolonged severe pain. Our findings indicate that Montanide ISA50 and Specol induce acceptable antibody titres, and

 cause fewer pathological changes than FA. Thus they are effective alternatives to FA. 

Marbrook, J. (1998). Transgenesis and animals in research - an overview of animal welfare considerations. 

Surveillance (Wellington, New Zealand) 25(2): 12-14. 

NAL call number: SF604.63 N45S87 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, animal welfare, genetics, transgenic animals. 

Markowitz, H. and A. Gavazzi (1995). Eleven principles for improving the quality of captive animal life. Lab

 Animal 24(4): 30-33. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L33 

Descriptors: ability to collect or gather food, varying food availability periodically, novelty, control of environment,

 socialization, continuing assessment of animals in their cages, animal caretaker interaction. 

Martin, B.J. (1995). Evaluation of hypothermia for anesthesia in reptiles and amphibians. ILAR Journal 37(4): 186­

190. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1I43

 Descriptors: research and regulatory guidelines, IACUC evaluation of hypothermia as an appropriate method, review of

 scientific literature, physiological changes<, pathological changes, literature does not support the use of hypothermia as

 a clinically efficacious method of anesthesia. 

McIntosh, J. and E.C. Staley (1989). Limits of food and water deprivation. In Science and Animals: Addressing

 Contemporary Issues H.N. Guttman, J.A. Mench, and R.C. Simmonds (eds.), Bethesda, Maryland: Scientists Center for

 Animal Welfare, p. 117. 

NAL call number: HV4704.S33 1989 

Descriptors: protocol, food/water intake, controlled feeding, monitoring of animals. 

Meer, M. van der, V. Baumans, and L.F.M. van Zutphen (1996). Transgenic animals: What about their well-being? 

Scandanavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 23(Suppl.1): 287-290. 

NAL call number: QL55 S322 

Descriptors: welfare problems may arise at many different levels-- experimental procedures used to introduce DNA

 constucts, integration of microinjected DNA into the genome is unpredictable and may cause unintended insertional

 mutations, review of research. 

Moberg, G.P. (1999). When does stress become distress? Lab Animal 28(4): 22-26. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L33 

Descriptors: defining stress and distress in laboratory animals, stress model, perception of the stressor, biological

 defense, measuring stress reaction, recognizing changes in biological function, prepathological state, cumulative cost of

 multiple stressors, summated stressors, managing stress and distress. 

Moore, C.J. and T.B. Mepham (1995). Transgenesis and animal welfare. Alternatives to laboratory animals: ATLA 23 

(3):380-397. 

NAL call number: Z7994 L3A5 

Abstract: The two main techniques used in biomedical research for the production of transgenic animals have several

 implications for animal welfare in terms of the Three Rs of Russell & Burch. Some are intrinsic to the transgenic

 objectives, while others relate to the effects of mutations, transgene expression, associated methodologies, and

 husbandry or production systems. All of these actual and potential implications for animal welfare demand serious

 consideration within a broad ethical analysis of the technology. In the light of the Three Rs, this may require a 
 fundamental reappraisal of the processes by which such scientific procedures are approved.
 

Descriptors: transgenic animals, gene transfer, domestic animals, animal welfare, laboratory animals, animal models,

 genetic effects, literature reviews.
 

Morton, D.B. (1998). Perceived and actual welfare issues - laboratory animals. In Ethics, welfare, law and market

 forces: the veterinary interface. Proceedings of a Symposium, Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, UK, 14-15th

 November 1996, A.R. Michell and R. Ewbank, (eds.), Wheathampstead, UK: Universities Federation for Animal

 Welfare (UFAW), p. 91-106.
 

NAL call number: HV4704 E84 1998
 

Descriptors: animal welfare; laboratory animals
 

Niemi, S.M., J.S. Venable, and H.N. Guttman (eds.) (1994). Rodents and Rabbits, Current Research Issues:

 Proceedings of a Conference Sponsored by Scientists Center for Animal Welfare (SCAW) and Working with An

 imals Used in Research, Drugs, and Surgery (WARDS) held in Washington, D.C. on May 21, 1993. SCAW:

 Greenbelt, MD and WARDS: Fairfax, VA, 81 p.
 

NAL call number: SF407.R6R63 1994.
 

Contents: Request for changes in USDA regulations by Martin L. Stephens -- Recognizing stress in rodents and rabbits

 by Gerald F. Gebhart -- Enrichment techniques for rodents and rabbits by David Morton -- Transgenic rodents by

 Terrie Cunliffe-Beamer -- Anesthesia, analgesia for rodents and rabbits by Sally K. Wixson -- Aseptic surgery for

 rodents by Marilyn J. Brown -- Adjuvant comparison in rabbits by David K. Johnson.
 

Descriptors: rodents as laboratory animals, rabbits as laboratory animals, animal experimentation, animal welfare.
 

Niemi, S. (1989). Use of immune stimulants. In Science and Animals: Addressing Contemporary Issues H.N. Guttman,

 J.A. Mench, and R.C. Simmonds (eds.), Bethesda, Maryland: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, pp. 119-121.
 

NAL call number: HV4704.S33 1988
 

Descriptors: adjuvant, ACUC, laboratory animals, ascites.
 

Oestermann, D.J., J.M. Scimerca, J. Forsythe, R. Hanlon, and P. Lee (1997). Special considerations for keeping

 cephalopods in laboratory facilities. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 36(2): 89-93. 

NAL call number: SF405.5 A23 

Descriptors: biology and life history, basic tank and sea water system requirements, receiving and post-shipment

 handling, feeding, common health problems, health monitoring and treatment, postmortem evaluation. 

Poole, T.B. (1995). Guidelines and legal codes for the welfare of non-human primates in biomedical research.

 Laboratory Animals 29(3): 244-9. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3. 

Descriptors: animal husbandry, animal welfare, housing, physiology, legislation, behavior, Canada, Europe, Great

 Britain, United States. 

Poole, T. (1997). Happy animals make good science. Laboratory Animals 31(2): 116-124. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3. 

Abstract: In this paper the question is posed whether it is not only better for the animal to he happy, but whether its

 state of mind may also have the potential to influence the scientific results derived from it. To ensure good science, the

 animal should have a normal physiology and behaviour, apart from specific adverse effects under investigation. There

 is a growing body of evidence from a wide variety of sources to show that animals whose well-being is compromised

 are often physiologically and immunologically abnormal and that experiments using them may reach unreliable

 conclusions. On scientific, as well as ethical grounds, therefore, the psychological well-being of laboratory animals

 should he an important concern for veterinarians, animal technicians and scientists. 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, animal welfare, immune response, handling. 

Preparation and Maintenance of Higher Mammals During Neuroscience Experiments. Report of a National

 Institutes of Health Workshop, March 1991. Bethesda, Maryland: DHHS, Public Health Service, National Institutes of

 Health, 45 p. 

NAL call number: HV4930 P74 
Descriptors: prolonged non-survival recording procedures, survival anatomical procedures, perinatal procedures,

 inducing neurological deficits, awake behaving preparations, animal care and use concerns, sample research protocols. 

Reinhardt, V. (1997). Training nonhuman primates to cooperate during handling procedures: a review. Animal

 Technology 48(2): 55-73. 

NAL call number: QL55 I5 

Descriptors: literature review, blood collection, injections, topical drug application, blood pressure measurement, urine

 collection, capture, minimize distress, validity of data, baboons, macaques, chimpanzees, drills, gorillas, marmosets,

 capuchins, vervets. 

Reinhardt, V. and A. Reinhardt (1992). Quantitatively tested environmental enrichment options for singly-caged

 nonhuman primates: a review. Humane Innovations and Alternatives 6: 374-383. 

NAL call number: QL55.H8

 Descriptors: primates, laboratory mammals, cages, environmental enrichment, psychological wellbeing, animal welfare. 

Reinhardt, V., C. Liss, and C. Stevens (1996). Space requirement stipulations for caged non-human primates in the

 United States: a critical review. Animal Welfare 5(4): 361-372. 

NAL call number: HV4701.A557 

Descriptors: primates, laboratory animals, cage size, height, space requirements, abnormal behavior, regulations,

 animal welfare. 

Rollin, B.E. (1997). An ethicist's commentary on the case of the infected research animal. Canadian Veterinary

 Journal 38(3): 136. 

NAL call number: 41.8 R3224 

Descriptors: rats, veterinary medicine, animal welfare, infectious disease research. 

Ruiven, R. van, G.W. Meijer, A. Wiersma, V. Baumans, L.F.M. van Zutphen, and J. Ritskes-Hoitinga (!998). The

 influence of transportation stress on selected nutritional parameters to establish the necessary minimum period

 for adaptation in rat feeding studies. Laboratory Animals 32(4): 446-456. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Abstract: After transportation of rats by car and by air to and from the laboratory for a total period of 15 h,

 measurements were carried out for a period of 3 weeks after transport. Control and transported animals were housed in

 the same laboratory before and after transportation. During transport the animals had access to food and water. As

 blood collection could also cause stress, a factorial design was carried out with transport and blood collection as main

 factors (12 rats per group). Transport or blood collection did not cause significant effects on the following parameters:

 body weight, growth, clinical observation, and blood activities of lactate dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransferase.

 Water intake was significantly increased after transport. Food intake did not show consistent effects after transport or

 blood collection. Unexpectedly, blood corticosterone levels were significantly lower in the transported animals at day 1

 after transport. After 3 days these levels had returned to normal. Blood glucose, blood free fatty acids and blood urea

 nitrogen concentrations were incidentally decreased, whereas total cholesterol levels showed an incidental rise in the

 transported rats. The open-field behaviour test revealed no clear-cut results concerning the effects of transport or blood

 collection on faeces production, rearing and ambulation. It is concluded that after transport, an adaptation period of 3

 days appears to be sufficient for rats to be used in nutritional studies. 

Descriptors: adaptation, animal transport, rats, feeding studies, stress, blood collection, food intake, water intake,

 corticosterone, body weight, lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase, nutrition research. 

Schlingmann, F., W.J. Pereboom, and R. Remie (1993). The sensitivity of albino and pigmented rats to light. A mini

 review. Animal Technology 44(2): 71-85. 

NAL call number: QL55 I5 

Abstract: Light is the most important environmental factor for animals. However, most animal facilities are designed

 for the convenience and comfort of the people who work in it, and not for the experimental animals. Several studies

 show that these light intensities are causing damage to the photoreceptor cells in the retina. Albino rats are especially

 more sensitive to light when compared to pigmented rats. Light values as recommended by several guidelines are often

 too high. Retinal degeneration seems not only to be dependent on intensity, but also on the wavelength of the light 
 source. Finally, the role of light in the maintenance of circadian rhythm is discussed. 

Smith, K.R. and R.A. Markle (1998). Capsaicin use in neonatal rats: Husbandry and welfare concerns. Lab Animal

 27(10): 38-40. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L33 

Descriptors: Commonly used to induce long-lasting neural desensitization in neonatal rats, clinical side-effects, initial

 respiratory distress, skin lesions, urine retention, considerations when employing capsaicin treatment, animals may not

 show signs of pain and distress due to neural insensitivity, few papers in literature describe complications,

 complications may have acted as a selective force on experimental animals possibly altering data. 

Toth, L.A., A.W. Dunlap, G.A. Olson, and J.R. Hessler (1989). An evaluation of distress following intraperitoneal

 immunization with Freund's adjuvant in mice. Laboratory Animal Science 39(2): 122-126. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: adverse effects, immunization, pain, stress, adjuvants, Freund's, albumin, multiple granulomatous

 abdominal adhesions, lymphoid hyperplasia, animals did not appear to be chronically impaired, mice. 

United Kingdom Coordinating Committee on Cancer Research guidelines for the welfare of animals in

 experimental neoplasia. (1989). Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, National Research Council. ILAR News

 31(3): 16-21. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, animal welfare, neoplasms, guidelines, United Kingdom, tumor growth. 

Voipio, H-M. (1997). How do rats react to sound? Scandanavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 24(Suppl. 1):

 1-80. 

NAL call number: QL55 S322 

Descriptors: Ph. D. dissertation, review of literature, ultrasonic vocalizations, vocalizations, hearing ability,

 physiological responses, materials and methods, sounds used in experiments, chambers, experimental procedures,

 behavior monitoring, response to sounds, groups, female groups, pups, comparison of sexes, statistics. 

Webster, A.J.F. (1998). The nature of physiological stress. In Ethics, welfare, law and market forces: the veterinary

 interface. Proceedings of a Symposium, Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, UK, 14-15th November 1996, A.R.

 Michell and R. Ewbank, (eds.), Wheathampstead, UK: Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW), p.177­

189. 

NAL call number: HV4704 E84 1998 

Descriptors: animal welfare, stress, adrenal cortex hormones. 

Weihe, W.H. (1998). The impact of stress and discomfort on experimental outcome. Archives of Toxicology

 20(suppl): 47-59. 

NAL call number: RA1190 A7 

Abstract: Stress refers to a physiological and emotional state of man and higher animals in which the autonomic

 regulation is overstrained and temporarily disturbed under the impact of conflicting stimuli. Stress activates,

 invigorates, acts life-sustaining, and initiates and drives adaptive changes towards improved fitness. While the positive

 action is commonly underestimated, much attention is given to the discomfort and the strain of efforts required during

 coping. The label of stress as being bad and the core of suffering has been applied with particular empathy to laboratory

 animals, for they are kept in captivity and are exposed to experimental procedures. The husbandry conditions to which

 the animals are adapted are commonly standardized. This applies to procedures for subacute and chronic toxicity

 testing. Acute toxicity tests are the classical example of stress research in which the demands on the organism exceed

 the limits of its regulative capacity. Stressors are: the test compound, the procedure proper and preceding treatment of

 the animal. The experimental stress contributes to model the real situation. The weighting between the stressors may

 modify the outcome of the test. 

Descriptors: animal welfare, animal psychology, laboratory animal science, stress, physiopathology, toxicology,

 research. 

Wiepkema, P.R., W.G.P. Schouten, and P. Koene (1993). Biological aspects of animal welfare: new perspectives. 
Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6 (special suppl.2): 93-103.
 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68
 

Descriptors: livestock, animal welfare, stress, emotions, social interaction.
 

Witkin, J.M. (1989). Issues in the use of aversive stimuli in animal experimentation. In Science and Animals:

 Addressing Contemporary Issues H.N. Guttman, J.A. Mench, and R. C. Simmonds (eds.), Bethesda, Maryland:

 Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, pp. 115-116.
 

NAL call number: HV4704.S33 1989
 

Descriptors: noxious stimuli, alternatives, parameters, evaluation of proposals.
 

Wolfensohn, S.E. (1997). Brief review of scientific studies of the welfare implications of transporting primates.

 Laboratory Animals 31(4): 303-5.
 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3
 

Descriptors: primates, psychology, stress, animal husbandry, standards, physiology, transportation.
 

Zeller, W., G. Meier, K. Burki, and B. Panoussis (1998). Adverse effects of tribromoethanol as used in the

 production of transgenic mice. Laboratory Animals 32(4): 407-413. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3
 

Descriptors: anesthesia, embryo transfer, ketamine, xylazine, histopathology, animal welfare.
 

Zutphen, L.F.M.van and M. Balls (eds.) (1997). Animal alternatives, welfare, and ethics, Proceedings of the 2nd

 World Congress on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life Sciences, held in Utrecht, the Netherlands, 20-24

 October 1996 Amsterdam, New York :Elsevier, 1260 p.
 

NAL call number: QL1.D48 v.27
 

Descriptors: alternatives to animal testing, animal experimentation, animal welfare, laboratory animals, databases,

 literature searching.
 

Issues in Rodent Housing Bibliography 

Arnold, C.E. and D.Q. Estep (1994). Laboratory caging preferences in golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus). 

Laboratory Animals 28(3): 232-238. 

NAL call number: Ql55 A1L3 

Descriptors: hamsters, housing, behavior, flooring, litter, animal welfare, cages, wire-bottoms, solid-bottom. 

Boot, R., H. van Herck, and J. van der Logt (1996). Mutual viral and bacterial infections after housing rats of

 various breeders within an experimental unit. Laboratory Animals 30(1): 42-45. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Abstract: Fifteen athymic rat strains from 11 breeding colonies were housed within an experimental facility for an

 immunological study. Health status records supplied with 14 of the strains listed infections by Kilham's rat virus

 (KRV), Clostridium piliforme (Bacillus piliformis) and Pasteurella pneumotropica for 2, 2 and 1 colonies respectively.

 In sera taken previous to the study from euthymic rats of 10 strains, antibodies to KRV were detected in 3 strains, to

 Pneumonia virus of mice (PVM), Rat corona virus (RCV) and Sendai virus in one strain each and to P. pneumotropica

 in 2 strains. Only 2 of the KRV infections had been reported by the supplier. During the study rats of all 10 strains

 developed antibodies to 2-4 of viral antigens. Eight out of 10 rat strains seroconverted to 1-5 of the antigens C.

 piliforme (B. piliformis), Bordetella bronchiseptica, Haemophilus spp., P. pneumotropica and Streptobacillus

 moniliformis. Two rat strains housed in filtertop cages did not develop antibodies to bacterial antigens. The potential

 detrimental effects of intercurrent infections on the outcome of the comparative immunological study are discussed. 

Brown, K.J. and N.E. Grunberg (1995).Effects of housing on male and female rats: crowding stresses male but calm

 females. Physiology and Behavior 58(6): 1085-9. 

NAL call number: QP1 P4 

Abstract: Housing conditions affect behavioral and biological responses of animals. Effects of same-sex grouped,

 crowded, or individually housed conditions on plasma corticosterone levels of male and female Wistar rats were 
 examined in two experiments. Experiment 1 examined the effects of individual vs. crowded housing conditions on

 corticosterone, a biochemical index of stress, in seven male and seven female rats. Experiment 2 extended the findings

 of Experiment 1 by separately manipulating spatial and population aspects of housing with 50 male and 50 female rats.

 Male rats had higher corticosterone levels under crowded conditions. In contrast, female rats had higher levels when

 individually housed. Spatial crowding was the key variable for males, whereas the number of other animals was more

 important for females. These results indicate that investigators must consider housing conditions as an intervening

 variable that is likely to differentially affect behaviors of male and female rats. 

Descriptors: behavior, housing, sex characteristics, sex differences, stress, physiopathology, analysis of variance;

 corticosterone, Wistar rats. 

Clough, G. (1991). Suggested guidelines for the housing and husbandry of rodents for aging studies. Neurobiology

 of Aging 12(6): 653-8. 

Abstract: The available published guidelines for the housing of rodents are reviewed, and assessments are made with

 regard to whether the data on which these guidelines are based appear to be sound. Ambient air temperature, relative

 humidity, lighting levels and photoperiods, sound levels, cage sizes, and ventilation rates are discussed, and a summary

 is provided covering the relationship between these and other factors and the well-being of laboratory rats and mice

 exposed to such conditions. 

Descriptors: aging physiology, animal husbandry standards, housing standards, rodents. 

Everitt, J.I., P.W. Ross, and T.W. Davis (1988). Association of wire caging with development of mouse urological

 syndrome. Laboratory Animal Science 38(4): 507. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: mice, urinary tract diseases, cages, wire-bottoms. 

Hurst, J.L., C.J. Barnard, C.M. Nevison, and C.D. West (1997). Housing and welfare in laboratory rats: welfare

 implications of isolation and social contact among caged males. Animal Welfare 6(4): 329-347. 

NAL call number: HV4701 A557 

Descriptors: animal welfare, physiopathology, housing, animal behavior. 

Klir, P., R. Bondy, J. Lachout, and T. Hanis T (1984). Physiological changes in laboratory rats caused by different

 housing. Physiologia Bohemoslovaca 33(2): 111-21 

Abstract: Males rats of the Wistar strain (Institute of Physiology, CSAV) were divided into six groups from the 30th to

 the 200th day of age. Rats (n=54) were put into cages in various numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 animals in a cage) and

 were weighed regularly and the consumption of water and food was measured. At the end of the experiment the animals

 were killed and the weight of some organs and hematological values were determined. During the experiment the

 highest weight was attained in animals with 3 or 4 members in one cage. The differences in weight were significant

 from the 80th day of age. The consumption of diets and water was not influenced significantly by the number of

 animals in a cage. On the 200th day, the differences between the groups were found in the weight of some organs, and

 in some hematological values. 

Descriptors: physiology, body weight, crowding, housing, rats, inbred strains, blood cell count, hematocrit, lung, organ

 weight, pituitary gland, testis, anatomy and histology. 

Kuhnen, G. (1999). Housing-induced changes in the febrile response of juvenile and adult golden hamsters. 

Journal of Experimental Animal Science 39(4): 151-155. 

NAL call number: QL1 J687 

Descriptors: stress, body temperature, housing, animal welfare, fever, environmental enrichment, lipopolysaccharide,

 housing conditions significantly affect febrile response of juvenile and adults, hamsters. 

Manser, C.E., H. Elliott, T.H. Morris, and D.M. Broom (1996). The use of a novel operant test to determine the

 strength of preference for flooring in laboratory rats. Laboratory Animals 30(1): 1-6. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Abstract: A previous study showed that laboratory rats preferred to dwell on a solid floor rather than a grid one,

 particularly when resting (Manser et al. 1995). The strength of this preference was investigated in an operant trial using

 a novel test apparatus, which consisted of a grid-floored cage and a solid-floored cage, joined via a central box 
 containing a barrier whose weight was adjustable. Trials in which rats had to lift the barrier in order to explore the

 whole apparatus were alternated with those in which the rats were confined on the grid floor and then had to lift the

 barrier in order to reach the solid floor. The latter trials were carried out at the beginning of the light period when the

 rats were seeking a resting place. In both trials, theweight of the barrier was progressively increased for each rat, until a

 maximum weight was found which it would lift either to explore its environment (weight A) or to reach the solid floor

 (weight B). No significant differences were found between weights A and B, showing that rats would work as hard to

 reach a solid floor to rest on as they would to explore a novel environment. The apparatus used could, with some

 modifications, be appropriate for use in other operant studies in laboratory rats. 

Manser, C.E., T.H. Morris, and D.M. Broom (1996). An investigation into the effects of solid or grid cage flooring

 on the welfare of laboratory rats. Laboratory Animals 29(4): 353-363. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3 

Abstract: The welfare of laboratory rats housed on either solid or grid floors was investigated in several ways. No

 differences were found in body weight gain, food consumption or water consumption amongst rats housed in either

 condition. When handling was standardized between the 2 groups, there was no correlation between flooring and

 docility. Preference testing revealed that rats chose to dwell on solid floors rather than grids, regardless of previous

 housing experience. This preference for solid floors was particularly marked (88%) when the animals were resting and

 much less marked during activity (55.4%). Since the rats were observed to spend 70 to 75% of their time resting, it was

 concluded that their welfare was likely to be improved by housing them on solid floors. 

Milligan, S.R., G.D. Sales, K. Khirnykh (1993). Sound levels in rooms housing laboratory animals: an uncontrolled

 daily variable. Physiology & Behavior 53(6): 1067-76. 

NAL call number: QP1 P4 

Abstract: High sound levels are known to have adverse effects on the behaviour and physiology of laboratory animals,

 yet their acoustic environment is rarely monitored. In particular, high-frequency sounds that are above the limit of

 human hearing, but are well within the limits of many laboratory species (i.e., ultrasounds), are usually ignored. In this

 study, the acoustic environment of laboratory animals was investigated in a variety of different animal facilities. Sound

 pressure levels (dB SPL) were monitored for periods up to 24 h over two frequency ranges: a relatively low range

 (0.01-12.5 kHz), and a high range (12.5-70 kHz). While background sound levels in undisturbed situations were

 generally low (i.e., below 50 dB SPL), marked increases in sound levels often occurred during the working day,

 producing characteristic daily variations in the sound profile. Peak SPLs commonly reached values of 80-95 dB in the

 low-frequency range and 50-75 dB in the higher range. In most cases, sound levels were low over weekends. The

 results suggested that human activities were a very important source of sound in most animal facilities. In a few

 situations (e.g., rabbits, marmosets, dogs), the animals themselves provided a significant contribution to the acoustic

 environment. It is clear that the acoustic environment of laboratory animals is a daily variable that is usually

 uncontrolled and that may have important implications for behavioural and physiological experiments and for animal

 welfare. 

Descriptors: animal welfare, arousal, noise, social environment, Callithrix, cats, circadian rhythm, ferrets, loudness

 perception, mice, pitch perception, psychoacoustics, rabbits, rats, sound spectrography, species specificity, ultrasonics. 

Mizisin, A.P., M.W. Kalichman, R.S. Garrett, and K.C. Dines (1998). Tactile hyperesthesia, altered epidermal

 innervation and plantar nerve injury in the hindfeet of rats housed on wire grates. Brain Research 788(1-2): 13­

19. 

Abstract: The effects of wire grates on nerve injury and recovery were examined in rats housed in cages with sawdustcovered solid flooring. For the first 3 weeks of the study, 20 rats were housed on sawdust alone and 20 rats were housed

 in cages with wire grates placed over the sawdust. For the remaining 9 weeks, 10 animals housed on sawdust had wire

 grates added to their cages, while grates were removed from the cages of 10 animals. The effects of tactile stimulation

 on hindpaw plantar skin was measured weekly using the Von Frey filament test. Intraepidermal innervation using PGP

 9.5 immunostaining and plantar nerve histology were assessed at the end of the 12-week study. After just 1 week on

 grates, hindpaw withdrawal thresholds were already markedly decreased and remained low until the grates were

 removed at 3 weeks. Thresholds returned to normal by 4 weeks after removal of the grates. Wire grates also induced

 increases in PGP 9.5 immunoreactive intraepidermal fine nerve endings that were normalized after grate removal.

 Demyelination, Wallerian degeneration and Renaut bodies were induced in the medial plantar nerve in rats housed in

 cages with wire-grate flooring. Nerve injury was largely resolved after 9 weeks on sawdust flooring. These data 
 demonstrate that wire grates rapidly induce hindpaw tactile hyperesthesia and plantar neuropathy in rats and emphasize

 a risk of using wire-grate cage flooring in studies assessing hindlimb function and structure.
 

Descriptors: epidermis innervation, foot innervation, hyperesthesia, peripheral nerves injuries, hindlimb, housing,

 immunohistochemistry, Sprague-Dawley rats, wire-bottoms.
 

Olfert, E. D. (1998). A rodent's-eye view of environmental enrichment: Asking the animal what it prefers.
 

CALAS/ACSAL Newsletter 32(5): 9-13.
 

NAL call number: SF405.5 C36
 

Descriptors: behavioral needs, natural behavior, preference testing, interpreting results, strength of a preference,

 preference and animal welfare, floor types, bedding, nesting material, shelters, enrichment devices, nest boxes, mice,

 rats, the "preferred mouse cage," the "preferred rat cage."
 

Perez, C., J.R.Canal, E. Dominguez, J.E. Campillo, M. Guillen, M.D. Torres (1997). Individual housing influences

 certain biochemical parameters in the rat. Laboratory Animals 31(4): 357-61.
 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3
 

Abstract: Individual housing has been reported to modify animal behaviour. The present study compares the plasma

 levels of glucose, triglycerides and total cholesterol, weight, and food and water intake in two groups of female rats.

 Group A: 10 rats who remained grouped in two cages for 21 days; and Group B: 10 rats housed in two cages for 7 days,

 then isolated in individual cages from day 8 to day 15, and finally grouped together again for the last 7 days of the

 study. The results showed that the plasma values of glucose declined (P < 0.05) in the Group B rats when they had been

 returned to group condition (4.79 +/- 0.72 mM) than when they had been isolated (5.45 +/- 0.94 mM). Plasma

 triglyceride levels were lower (P < 0.05) in isolated rats (0.70 +/- 0.26 mM) than in any determination of the grouped

 rats. Group B: 1st week 1.21 +/- 0.21 mM, 3rd week 0.88 +/- 0.20 mM; and Group A: 1.22 +/- 0.20, 0.96 +/- 0.16, and

 0.96 +/- 0.36 mM, in the first, second, and third week, respectively. There were no statistically significant differences in

 total cholesterol values as a function of the individual housing of animals. While there was no weight difference

 between the two groups of rats that could be ascribed to individual housing, there was a statistically significant increase

 (P < 0.05) in the food intake of isolated rats (17.5 +/- 3.2 g) with respect to values in the same Group B animals when

 they were housed together (1st week, 16.6 +/- 2.8 g; 3rd week, 16.8 +/- 3.1 g). These results therefore confirm that

 individual housing of female rats provoke variations in certain biochemical parameters, and that if this is not taken into

 account in performing different scientific studies, it could give rise to unreliable or even dubious results. 

Descriptors: animal behavior, animal physiology, pH, blood glucose analysis, cholesterol, housing, triglycerides,

 drinking, eating, Wistar rats, social isolation. 

Perkins, S.E. (1996). Evaluation of microenvironmental conditions and noise generation in three individually

 ventilated rodent caging systems and static isolator cages. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science

 35(2): 61-65.
 

NAL call number: SF405.5 A23
 

Descriptors: caging, contaminants, environmental temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide, ammonia, noise level,

 significant differences reported between cage types for all parameters measured, mice.
 

Raynor, T.H., W.H. Steinhagen, and T.E. Hamm (1983). Differences in the microenvironment of a polycarbonate

 caging system: bedding vs raised wire floors. Laboratory Animals 17(2): 85-9. 

NAL call number: QL55 A1L3
 

Abstract: The microenvironment of polycarbonate cages housing rats with and without various types of bedding was

 compared with that of cages that utilized wire floor inserts with different bedding types. Parameters monitored were

 temperature, humidity, ammonia concentrations and particulates. No differences were noted in the various caging types

 in relation to temperature and humidity measurements. Significant differences in ammonia concentrations existed in

 some of the cages when bedding material was used. The use of raised floorwalk inserts also demonstrated significant

 differences in particulate counts to cages without inserts. The data obtained demonstrated that contact bedding was

 useful in controlling ammonia generation and that a raised floorwalk insert reduced significantly the aerosolization of

 bedding particles that could be ingested or inhaled by the rats.
 

Descriptors: animals, housing ammonia, animal husbandry, bedding, humidity, polymers, rats, temperature.
 

Rock, F.M., M.S. Landi, H.C. Hughes, R.C. Gagnon (1997). Effects of caging type and group size on selected
 
 physiologic variables in rats. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 36(2): 69-72.
 

NAL call number: SF405.5 A23
 

Descriptors: caging, group-size, body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, feed intake, body weight, animal

 husbandry, rats, motor activity, cage types had significant effects on motor activity and feed intake.
 

Salvin, S.B., B.S. Rabin, and R. Neta (1990). Evaluation of immunologic assays to determine the effects of

 differential housing on immune reactivity. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 4(3): 180-8.
 

Abstract: The mechanism is being investigated to determine specifically how an environmental variation such as

 differential housing can influence the multiple components of the host defense mechanism. Male C3H/HeJ mice were

 housed either one or five per cage. Cells and sera from these mice were analyzed and compared by several

 immunologic techniques to determine in which cells or tissues the effect of differential housing was most pronounced.

 The individually housed mice (a) had a greater capacity to phagocytose dead cells of Candida albicans. (b) had spleens

 that produced more macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF). (c) were more responsive to M-CSF, (d) had

 peritoneal macrophages that released greater quantities of interleukin-1 in vitro into the surrounding medium and that

 had a greater capacity to migrate toward a chemotactic stimulus, and (e) had higher titers of IgM hemagglutination

 antibody to sheep erythrocytes. Differential housing of mice may therefore be a highly important modulator and

 indicator of the nature and extent of an animal's immunologic response to an environmental stimulus.
 

Descriptors: antibody formation, housing, cellular immunity, leukocyte chemotaxis, hemagglutination tests,

 hematopoietic stem cells, drug effects, IgM biosynthesis, interleukin-1 secretion, macrophage colony-stimulating

 factor--pharmacology, macrophages, mice, inbred C3H mice, peritoneal cavity, phagocytosis, spleen cytology,

 chemical stimulation.
 

Weerd, H. A. van de, P.L.P. van Loo, L.F.M. van Zutphen, J.M. Koolhaas, and V. Baumans (1998). Strength of

 preference for nesting material as environmental enrichment for laboratory mice. Applied Animal Behaviour

 Science 55(3/4): 369-382.
 

NAL call number: QL750 A6
 

Descriptors: environmental enrichment, nesting mice, cages, litter, floor husbandry; floor type, animal behavior, animal

 welfare, wire-bottoms.
 

Weerd, H.A. van de, F.A.R. van den Broek, and V. Baumans (1996). Preference for different types of flooring in two

 rat strains. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 46(3/4): 251-261.
 

NAL call number: QL750 A6
 

Abstract: Bedding material is a permanent part of the environment of laboratory rodents. In the present study, rats of

 two strains (Wistar HsdCpb:WU and Brown Norway BN/SsNCpbHsd) were placed in a preference test system to

 evaluate their preference for three types of bedding material (sawdust, softwood shavings and paper particles)

 compared to wire mesh. The rats showed a significant preference for the cages with wood shavings and paper bedding,

 both consisting of large particles. The paper bedding may serve as an alternative to wire mesh floor in some (e.g.

 toxicological) studies, because of its defined composition. The cages with sawdust and wire mesh floor were relatively

 avoided. Rats slept in the cages with large-particle bedding, but used the other cages for active behaviour such as eating

 and defecating; furthermore, many rats preferred different cages during day and night. It is suggested that different

 behavioural activities may require different cage floor covering.
 

Yoganathan, S., T.A. Wilson, and R.J. Nicolosi (1998). Housing conditions effect plasma lipid concentrations and

 early atherogenesis independent of treatment in hamsters. Nutrition Research 18(1): 83-92.
 

NAL call number: 389.8 N954 

Descriptors: lipoproteins, atherogenesis, atherosclerosis, housing, blood, hypercholesterolaemia, cholesterol, intake,

 triacylglycerols, hamsters, housing conditions affect plasma lipids.
 

Zochodne, D.W., M.N. Murray, P. van der Sloot, and R.J. Riopelle (1995). Distal tibial mononeuropathy in diabetic

 and nondiabetic rats reared on wire cages: an experimental entrapment neuropathy. Brain Research 698(1­

2):130-136.

 Abstract: Using electrophysiological recordings, we studied a distal tibial mononeuropathy that involves the hind foot

 of rats reared in cages with wire grid flooring. In an initial set of experiments, serial sciatic-tibial motor conduction

 recordings were made in smaller or larger rats reared in cages with wire grid or sawdust flooring. Electrophysiological 
 features of the neuropathy were loss in the amplitude of the distal tibial nerve M potential recorded over hind limb foot

 muscles, temporal dispersion of the potential, often into multiple peaks, and a prolonged distal latency of the response.

 The changes in M amplitude were more apparent in larger rats with a greater body weight. In a second series of

 experiments we studied sciatic-tibial conduction over 16 weeks in nondiabetic rats and rats rendered diabetic with

 streptozotocin raised and wire grid or plastic flooring. Tibial mononeuropathy developed in both wire grid-reared

 groups, but there was evidence that it appeared earlier in diabetic rats. Electrophysiological changes of distal

 mononeuropathy also obscured the expected slowing of sciatic-tibial motor conduction velocity from diabetics. Tibial

 mononeuropathy in rats reared on wire grid flooring may be a useful animal model of human entrapment neuropathy

 but its presence can confound studies of experimental neuropathy. Rats used in studies of experimental neuropathy

 should be housed in plastic cages with sawdust or shavings flooring. 

Descriptors: experimental diabetes mellitus, diabetic neuropathies, housing, nerve compression syndromes, sciatic

 nerve, tibial nerve, analysis of variance, diabetes mellitus complications, Sprague-Dawley rats, wire-bottoms. 

Useful World Wide Web Sites 

Blood collection in mice using the saphenous vein - An alternative to retro orbital collection 

http://www.uib.no/dyreavd/Vivarium-blood-sampling.pdf (PDF 847KB) 

The method has been developed by the Laboratory Animal Centre of the Norwegian Institute of Public Health by

 Annelise Hem and Per Solberg. Annelise Hem and Adrian Smith have submitted a paper on saphenous vein puncture to

 the journal "Laboratory Animals". They have successfully used this technique on mice, rats, hamsters, gerbils, guineapigs, mink and ferrets. 

Environmental Enhancement for Caged Rhesus Macaques-A Photographic Documentation 

http://www.primate.wisc.edu/pin/pef/slide/intro.html 

Defining improved 'psychological well-being' as having the option to actively express species-typical behavior patterns

 that were formerly inhibited due to a lack of appropriate stimuli, and experiencing less fear/distress in the presence of

 people, the author developed and implemented the following environmental enhancement plan for the center's colony of

 approximately 700 caged rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). 

Guidelines for the Production of Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibodies in Rodents and Rabbits 

http://www.upstate.edu/iacuc/pdf/antibody_neoplasia_2_antibody_guidelines.pdf 

This site is maintained by the State University of New York Health Science Center at Syracuse. The purpose of these

 Guidelines is to provide methods with demonstrated success that also minimize pain and distress for the laboratory

 animals employed in the technique. 

National Institutes of Health, Animal Research Advisory Committee (ARAC) 

http://oacu.od.nih.gov/ARAC/documents/Toe_Clipping.pdf 

Recommendation on toe clipping of animals. 

University of Arizona Department of Animal Care 

http://www.ahsc.arizona.edu/uac/notes/classes/schedule.html
 

This site provides extensive information on handling, restraint, and techniques of laboratory rodents.
 

University of Minnesota, Research Animal Resources 

http://www.ahc.umn.edu/rar/housing.html

 Husbandry guidelines for laboratory animals including rodent cage floor policy. 
 

Top | Articles and Bibliographies 

Return to: Title Page | Main Contents | Using this Resource 

Updated June 18, 2014 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

Food Deprivation or Water Deprivation 

Guidelines for Diet Control in Behavioral Studies
 

Bibliography
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Guidelines for Diet Control in Behavioral Studies 

Adopted by National Institutes of Health-Animal Care and Use Committee on 6/13/90. 

Reapproved - 5/8/96. 

Reapproved - 2/10/99. 

This document is available at http://oacu.od.nih.gov/ARAC/documents/ASP_Endpoints.pdf
 

Behavioral research often requires that an animal perform a task for which it receives food or fluid reward. This

 situation is not unlike conditions in the wild, in which animals must forage, travel distances, solve problems, or

 otherwise work to obtain their food and water. In the professional judgement of many investigators, performing a task

 for rewards is behaviorally enriching for laboratory animals, especially nonhuman primates. 

The purpose of this document is to provide investigators with guidelines for the proper use of diet control in behavioral

 studies. 

Food 

Whenever an animal obtains any portion of its diet through food reward, the investigator must ensure that the sum of the

 nutritional value of the food earned through reward and of the food provided "free" (without the necessity of earning it)

 is sufficient to maintain the animal in a healthy state. Whenever possible, the food reward should be a "treat" (e.g.,

 raisins, peanuts) which is sufficiently desirable and motivating for the animal that dietary restriction is unnecessary.

 However, dietary restriction may be justified in some cases, depending on the species, the behavioral task, and the

 requirements of the research proposal. In such cases, food must be provided every day, unless a specific exception to

 this policy has been obtained in an approved research proposal. In addition, weekly weight records must be kept, which

 should be available for examination by the veterinary staff and the ACUC. 

If an animal under diet restriction loses more than 15% of its body weight (compared to its weight measured prior to the

 restriction) its food intake should be increased immediately until it regains its normal weight (+/- 15%). Exceptions to

 this policy will be allowed only if the attending or facility veterinarian determines that the weight loss does not

 endanger the health of the animal (as, for example, in the case of an animal that was initially overweight), or if prior

 approval has been obtained from the ACUC for the specific animal study proposal. Young, developing animals may

 have additional dietary requirements for maintaining their normal rate of growth; investigators working with young

 animals should specifically address this issue in their animal study proposal. The ACUC is aware that certain strains of

 large rats (e.g., Sprague-Dawley) may require up to a 20% loss of body weight before performing a behavioral task for 
 rewards. Exceptions to the 15% maximum weight loss policy (up to a maximum of 20% weight loss) will be considered

 in such cases, but only if such strains are adequately justified in the animal study proposal. 

Fluid 

As with food intake, whenever an animal obtains any portion of its fluid requirements through fluid rewards in

 behavioral testing, the investigator must ensure that the sum of the fluid earned through reward and the fluid provided

 "free" (without the necessity of earning it) is sufficient to maintain the animal in a healthy state. When water is not

 provided ad libitum, either the animal should be permitted to earn fluids to satiety during the period of behavioral

 training or its fluid intake should be appropriately supplemented on a daily basis. 

In cases where supplements are required, the minimum amount of fluids to be provided daily should be equivalent to the

 amount typically consumed by the animal when either it is permitted to earn fluids to satiety or it is provided with water

 ad libitum. An exception to this policy will be made for the day immediately following a 24 hour or longer period in

 which the animal is provided with fluids ad libitum. On such days only, a reduced fluid supplement is permitted, but

 only if the normal supplement is demonstrated to interfere with behavioral training. 

Assessment of adequacy of fluid intake 

Even though animals typically learn to meet all of their daily fluid requirement during the testing session, a number of

 precautions must be taken to avoid the possibility of acute dehydration or chronic fluid deficiency. The type (e.g. water,

 fruit juice) and concentration, if applicable, of the fluid reward should be specified in the animal study proposal. Daily

 records of fluid intake must be maintained and be available for review by the veterinary staff and the ACUC. Each

 animal under fluid restriction will be observed daily for health status by the animal care staff. If the Institute

 veterinarian determines that an animal is dehydrated on the basis of either physical examination or clinical pathological

 measurements, the animal's fluid intake must be immediately increased. A small but chronic fluid deficiency, however,

 may occasionally escape detection by physical observation. 

Such chronic fluid deficiencies often result in a loss of body weight due to reduced food consumption. Therefore, as a

 further precaution against chronic deficiency, the animal's weight must be measured and recorded at no less than

 weekly intervals. If an animal shows a loss in body weight of more than 15%, fluids must be increased appropriately. 

Exceptions to this policy will be allowed only if the attending or facility veterinarian determines that an animal is

 adequately hydrated and that the weight loss does not endanger its health or prior approval has been obtained from the

 ACUC for the specific animal study proposal. 

Bibliography
 

Albee, R.R., J.L. Mattsson, B.L. Yano, and L.W. Chang (1987). Neurobehavioral effects of dietary restriction in

 rats. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 9: 203-211. 

Descriptors: male Fischer rats, body weights, grip strength, body temperature, flash evoked potential, auditory

 brainstem response, somatosensory and cerebellar evoked responses, caudal nerve action potentials, cortical flicker 

fusion, Feed restriction protocol involved feeding 15 percent (mild) or 50 percent (severe) less feed than controls had

 consumed (ad lib) the previous day. Dietary restriction has significant effects on numerous behavioral and 

neurophysiological parameters that should be considered in the interpretation of data when body weight differences are

 present, diet restricted rats were more excitable while restrained for testing. 

Driscoll, P., J.R. Martin, P. Kugler, and K. Baettig (1983). Environmental and genetic effects on food-deprivation

 induced stomach lesions in male rats. Physiology and Behavior 31(2): 225-228. 

NAL call number: QP1.P4 

Abstract: When Roman high- and low-avoidance (RHA/Verh and RLA/Verh) rats were individually housed in plastic 
 cages with sawdust bedding and food-deprived (F-D) for 4-5 days, it was found that F-D RHA/Verh rats had more

 lesions than their unfasted controls and more lesions than F-D RLA/Verh rats. The lesions were mostly petechial in

 nature and located in the glandular portion of the stomach. Also, F-D RHA/Verh rats which were housed in the same

 room as the controls, as well as F-D RHA/Verh rats which were housed in a separate room with a strong food odor

 present, had more lesions than F-D RHA/Verh rats housed in the same separate room when there was no food odor, and

 when none of the rats present had access to food. When F-D RHA/Verh and F-D RLA/Verh rats were individually

 housed in metal cages with grid floors, however, a general increase in lesion scores resulted and differences between

 the two rat lines disappeared, as did differences among the room conditions. Also, many lesions were of an ulcerative

 nature and were located in the rumenal portion of the stomach. It was concluded that sensory (in this case olfactory, at

 least) and genetic factors are capable of playing roles in the induction of stomach lesions in rats, and that the type, 

extent and location of the lesions can depend upon whether or not the animals have access to sawdust bedding. 

Descriptors: food deprivation, housing, odors, inbred rat strains, stomach ulcers, body temperature regulation, gastric

 acid secretion, purpura etiology, stomach diseases, wood, litter. 

Hughes, J.E., H. Amyx, J.L. Howard, K.P. Nanry, and G.T. Pollard (1994). Health effects of water restriction to

 motivate lever-pressing in rats. Laboratory Animal Science 44(2): 135-140. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Abstract: The objectives of this study were to determine the degree of water restriction necessary and sufficient to

 motivate acquisition and performance of a lever-press response in rats and the physiologic and general health effects of

 chronic daily restriction. Parameters examined included: hematological and clinical chemistry, body weight, gross

 necropsy, clinical examination. 

Hohenegger, M., U. Laminger, P. Om, A. Sadjak, K. Guttmann, and M. Vermes (1986). Metabolic effects of water

 deprivation. Journal of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Biochemistry 24(5): 277-282. 

NAL call number: RB40.A1Z4 

Descriptors: dehydration, resuscitation, experimental disease. 

Horne, T., A. Gutman, S.H. Blondheim, and H.B. Aronson (1982). Effects of 24 hour food and water deprivation on

 biochemical variables in blood. Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 18(5): 591-595. 

Descriptors: humans, 2.5 fold increase in plasma free fatty acids, 2 fold increase in bilirubin, significant increases in

 serum sodium, chloride, total proteins, albumin, uric acid, phosphorous, alkaline phosphatase, and aspartate

 aminotransferase, decrease in serum glucose and triglycerides, no changes in urea, potassium, cholesterol, or calcium. 

Kyriazakis, I. and C.J. Savory (1997). Hunger and thirst. In Animal Welfare, M.C. Appleby and B.O. Hughes, (eds.),

 Oxon, UK and New York: CAB International, pp. 49-62. 

NAL call number: HV4711.A586 1997 

Descriptors: nutrient requirements, animal behavior, animal welfare, hunger, thirst, definitions, measurements of

 hunger, sources of malnutrition, sources of undernutrition, restriction, deprivation, welfare problems, behavioral 

problems related to restriction, stress related physiological problems, farm animals, laboratory animals. 

Laties, V. (1987). Control of animal pain and distress in behavioral studies that use food deprivation or aversive

 stimuli. JAVMA (Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association) 191(10): 1290-1291. 

NAL call number: 41.8 Am3 

Descriptors: overview of food deprivation in behavioral studies, effects of feed restriction, effects of handling and

 injections, overview of studies where pain is being studies. 

Levin, S., D. Semler, and Z. Ruben (1993). Effects of two weeks of feed restriction on some common toxicologic

 parameters in Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicologic Pathology 21(1): 1-13. 

Abstract: This study was intended to identify changes caused by short-term reduced feed intake in rats such as may

 occur with unpalatable feed or other forms of anorexia. For 2 wk, groups of rats (10/sex/group) were fed ad libitum 

(control group) or given 75% (mildly restricted group), 50% (moderately restricted group), or 25% (severely restricted

 group) of the amount of feed eaten the day before by controls. The control group and mildly restricted group grew

 steadily, but the terminal body weights of the mildly restricted group (both males and females) were only about 80% of

 controls. The moderately restricted group did not grow during the first week but grew slightly during the second week 
 (terminal body weights about 65% of control). The severely restricted group lost weight throughout the study (terminal

 weight about 40% of control). Restricted groups exhibited hemoconcentration directly related to the degree of feed

 restriction. White blood cell counts were reduced (principally due to lymphopenia) in severely restricted rats. Platelet

 counts were decreased in all restricted groups. Total serum protein concentration was reduced (decreased globulins) in

 all female restricted groups and in the severely restricted males. The severely restricted rats had increased serum

 bilirubin, electrolyte derangements, and (in females only) decreased cholesterol. Thymus and liver weights (absolute

 and relative) were decreased in the moderately and severely restricted groups. All the feed-restricted groups had an

 increased incidence of superficial gastric erosions. The mildly and moderately restricted groups had slightly decreased 

hematopoietic tissue in sternal bone marrow, while the severely restricted group had bone marrow necrosis, thymic

 atrophy, and mild testicular degeneration. Findings in the severely restricted group were distinct from those in the other

 groups on the basis of their severity and were considered adverse. Changes in the mildly and moderately restricted

 groups were considered adaptive and innocuous since feed restriction of this degree has historically been associated

 with increased longevity and decreased disease incidence in chronic studies. 

Levine, S. and A. Saltzman (1998). An alternative to overnight withholding of food from rats. Contemporary Topics

 in Laboratory Animal Science 37(3): 59-61. 

NAL call number: SF405.5 A23 

Abstract: Withholding of food overnight has been used for numerous experimental purposes, including to reduce errors

 of intraperitoneal injections by diminishing the size and weight of the gastrointestinal tract, to prepare for gavage or

 surgery, or to avoid the effects food in the gastrointestinal tract might exert on drugs or nutrients. However,

 withholding food overnight causes undesirable side effects including loss of body and hepatic weight and decreases in

 blood glucose concentrations. Withholding food from rats housed on bedding can also lead to ingestion of bedding. 

Providing rats with commercially available sucrose cubes overnight ameliorated these undesirable effects while still

 reducing the size of the gastrointestinal tract. Rats housed in cages without access to bedding had an additional

 reduction in weight of the gastrointestinal tract. Analysis of the results indicated that providing sucrose cubes overnight

 and reducing access to bedding was an effective alternative to overnight withholding of all food. 

Descriptors: methods, food deprivation, fasting, digestive tract, drugs, body weight, hepatic weight, blood sugar,

 bedding, sucrose, liver, rats. 

Preparation and Maintenance of Higher Mammals During Neuroscience Experiments. Report of a National

 Institutes of Health Workshop, March 1991 . Bethesda, Maryland: DHHS, Public Health Service, National Institutes

 of Health, 45 p. 

NAL call number: HV4930.P74 

Descriptors: prolonged non-survival recording procedures, survival anatomical procedures, perinatal procedures, food

 and water restriction, inducing neurological deficits, awake behaving preparations, animal care and use concerns,

 sample research protocols. 

Ray, S. (1998). An alternative to water deprivation techniques in animal learning studies. Animal Technology

 49(3): 113-120. 

NAL call number: QL55.I5 

Abstract: Many laboratories use a period of water deprivation to motivate animals on a variety of water reinforced

 learning paradigms including aversive conditioning and maze learning tasks. Such procedures can lead to long periods 

without water and increase inter-animal variability in learning performance. Reported is an alternative procedure using

 sucrose rich drinks, or sucrose solutions, as a reward in maze and discrimination learning procedures with no prior

 water deprivation. An initial experiment compares performance over trials of a water deprived group of rats learning to

 negotiate a Y maze, and a group of genetically matched animals running an identical maze with no water deprivation.

 Both groups negotiating the maze for a sucrose reward. Results show that non-deprived animals showed teaming that

 was equally as good as the water deprived animals. Similar results were confirmed in a Lashley jump stand 

discrimination task. The ability to study learning in non-deprived animals may be of great interest in studies of learned

 behaviour after lesion or other surgical interventions, when periods of dehydration may affect the animal's health.

 Further, the development of non-deprivation motivated techniques will reduce the severity of many commonly

 employed rodent learning paradigms. These results may also offer a useful heuristic to explore learning paradigms 

without food or water deprivation schedules in other species. 
 

Schwartz, E., J.A. Tornaben, and G.C. Boxhill (1973). The effects of food restriction on hematology, clinical

 chemistry, and pathology in the albino rat. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 25(4): 515-524. 

NAL call number: 391.8 T662 

Descriptors: body weight, blood enzyme levels, erythrocyte counts, hematocrit, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline

 phosphatase, blood glucose, platelets, blood urea nitrogen, leukocyte count, organ weight, sex factors, time factors. 

Shimamura, T. and S. Trojanowski (1976). Effects of repeated deprivation of drinking water on the structure of the

 renal medulla of rats. American Journal of Pathology 84(1): 87-92. 

NAL call number: 442.8 AM39 

Descriptors: pathological changes in renal medulla, tubulointerstitial nephritis, dehydration. 

Vermeulen, J.K., A. de Vries, F. Schlingmann, and R. Remie (1997). Food deprivation: Common sense or nonsense? 

Animal Technology 48(2): 45-54. 

NAL call number: QL55.I5 

Abstract: Overnight fasting (food deprivation) is a very common procedure in pharmacological research. One of the

 many reasons is to empty the animal's stomach. Solvay Duphar investigated the effects of overnight fasting and the 

possibility to shorten the period of the overnight fasting on male Wistar rats. In case of the effects being far-reaching

 (quality research and animal well-being), it might be necessary to develop an alternative method. This experiment fits

 very well in the concept of the 3 R's of Russell and Burch. The experiment used 24 male rats. There were four

 experimental units. The rats were deprived respectively for 0 hours (controls), 6, 12, or 18 hours. This was done during

 the dark phase of the (facility) light cycle. A balance plateau was used for registration of animal behavior. After the

 deprivation, the animals were anesthetized with halothane (N2O/O2) and killed by decapitation. Liver weight, stomach

 contents, and bowel contents were parameters to be measured. Food deprivation causes severe changes in physiology

 and behavior of the rat. After six hours of food deprivation, the rat already has an empty stomach. The use of fasted rats

 in experiments seems only to be permitted when the duration of food deprivation is as short as possible. 

Descriptors: experimental methods, animal behavior, drinking, eating, locomotion, grooming, resting, physiological

 changes. 

Useful World Wide Web Sites 

University of California at Irvine 

http://www.research.uci.edu/ora/acup/foodrestriction.htm 

Policy for Food or Fluid Restriction 

University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Animal Care & Use Program 

http://www.colorado.edu/VCResearch/integrity/animalcare/index.html 

Water and/or Food Restriction; To get to this policy, click on Care and Use Policies in the left frame on the web page. 

University of Vermont, Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee 

http://www.uvm.edu/~oacm/ 

Food or Fluid Restriction, Definitions, Policies and Guidelines 

Top | Articles and Bibliographies 

Return to: Title Page | Main Contents | Using this Resource 
Last updated June 18, 2014 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

Pain Management and Humane Endpoints 

Defining an Acceptable Endpoint in Invasive Experiments 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Endpoints in Animal Study Proposals - NIH
 

Assessment and Alleviation of Post-Operative Pain
 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Guidelines for Euthanasia of Mouse and Rat Fetuses and Neonates
 

Bibliography
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Endpoints in Animal Study Proposals 

Guideline revised and approved by the National Institutes of Health Animal Research Advisory Committee on March 8,

 2000. It is available at http://oacu.od.nih.gov/ARAC/documents/ASP_Endpoints.pdf 

Introduction 

Experimental studies may involve procedures that cause clinical symptoms or morbidity in animals. The Animal Care

 and Use Committee must consider the selection of the most appropriate endpoint(s). This requires careful consideration

 of the scientific requirements of the study, the expected and possible adverse effects the research animals may

 experience (pain, distress, illness, etc.), the most likely time course and progression of those adverse effects, and the

 earliest most predictive indicators of present or impending adverse effects. The effective use of endpoints requires that

 properly qualified individuals perform both general and study specific observations of the research animals at

 appropriate time points. Optimally, studies are terminated when animals begin to exhibit clinical signs of disease if this

 endpoint is compatible with meeting the research objectives. Such endpoints are preferable to death or moribundity as

 endpoints since they minimize pain and distress. Efforts must be made to minimize pain and distress experienced by

 animals used in research. 

Morbidity 

Animal Study Proposals that include morbidity as an endpoint or that include animal procedures that have the potential

 to cause adverse sequella should address the following: 

1.Criteria that establish when the endpoint has been reached. 

A. There are several examples in the literature that might be considered, including: 
1.Evaluation of five aspects of an animal's condition as described by Morton and

 Griffiths. These are body weight, physical appearance, measurable clinical signs,

 unprovoked behavior and response to external stimuli. 

2.Clinical observations used in cancer research and toxicological studies as described by

 Montgomery. Parameters include changes in general appearance, skin and hair, eyes,

 nose, mouth and head, respiration, urine, feces and locomotion (see table 2 on page

 339). 

B. The clinical signs, depending on severity and duration, that may constitute an endpoint include,

 but are not limited to: 

Rapid weight loss. 

Diarrhea, if debilitating. 

Progressive dermatitis. 

Rough hair coat, hunched posture, lethargy or persistent recumbency. 

Coughing, labored breathing, nasal discharge. 

Jaundice and/or anemia. 

Neurological signs. 

Bleeding from any orifice. 

Self-induced trauma. 

Any condition interfering with eating or drinking (e.g. difficulty with ambulation). 

Excessive or prolonged hyperthermia or hypothermia. 

C. Additional signs in neoplasia studies that may constitute an endpoint include, but are not limited

 to: 

1. A tumor burden greater than 10% bw, and in an adult mouse, a mean tumor diameter

 exceeding 20 mm or in an adult rat, a mean tumor diameter exceeding 40 mm. Formulas

 for calculating tumor size can be found in the literature (see tumor size ref.). 

2.Tumors that ulcerate, become necrotic or infected. 

D.Any animal found unexpectedly to be moribund, cachectic, or unable to obtain food or water. 

2.A plan for monitoring the animals both before and after a change in any of the above aspects, providing care if

 appropriate, and increasing the level of monitoring. Monitoring or clinical care on weekends and holidays may

 require involvement of the investigative staff to supplement that provided by the animal care and veterinary staff. 

3.Identification of personnel responsible for evaluation, record keeping, notification of the investigator and/or

 veterinarian and persons responsible for euthanasia. Checklists/ score sheets may be helpful in ensuring

 appropriate observations are made, consistently interpreted, and properly documented. 

Death or Moribundity 

While it is preferable to use the earliest endpoints compatible with the scientific requirements of each study, there are

 studies that require moribundity or mortality as an endpoint. The moribund condition is defined as a clinically

 irreversible condition leading inevitably to death. In these studies, animals are permitted to die or become moribund, as

 a result of experimental procedures. In some cases, pain relieving measures are not used because such measures may

 compromise the experimental integrity of the study. Examples of research proposals that may have death or

 moribundity as an endpoint include: infectious disease studies, drug and toxicity studies, and cancer research. The

 following guidelines are suggested to assist the IC Animal Care and Use Committees in reviewing proposals with death

 or moribundity as endpoints. 
Animal Study Proposals utilizing death or moribundity as an endpoint should contain the following information: 

1.The scientific rationale for death or moribundity as an endpoint, including: 

A. What alternatives were considered, why morbidity as an endpoint cannot be used, and how

 alternatives will be used whenever possible. 

B. Why pain relieving measures cannot be utilized. 

C. Number of animals to be used and why this is the minimal number of animals required. 

D. Whether animals will be euthanized when moribund and if not, what information is to be gained in

 the interval between moribundity and death. 

2. A plan for the following animal care and monitoring procedures: 

A. Animals involved in experiments that may lead to moribundity or death will be monitored daily by

 personnel experienced in recognizing signs of morbidity (illness, injury, or abnormal behavior) for at

 least the following: abnormal posture, rough hair coat, head tucked into abdomen, exudate around

 eyes and/ or nose, skin lesions, or abnormal breathing, difficulty with ambulation, decreased food or

 water intake, or self mutilation. 

B. The frequency of observation will be increased when animals exhibit the above or other signs of

 moribundity. Monitoring on weekends and holidays may require involvement of the investigative

 staff to supplement that provided by the animal care and veterinary staff. Designated personnel,

 including a veterinarian, should be notified as soon as animals show signs of disease. An assessment

 of the animals' condition should be made as soon as possible and a plan of action established. 

C. Consideration will be given to moving animals to individual cages when their condition

 deteriorates to the point that injury from other animals is likely. Dead animals must be promptly

 removed. 

D. Written records will be kept of monitoring. 

General endpoint references 

Canadian Council on Animal Care (1998), Guidelines on: choosing an appropriate endpoint in experiments using

 animals for research, teaching and testing. Ottawa, Canada. 

Hendriksen and Morton, ed. (1998), Humane Endpoints in Animal Experiments for Biomedical Research. Proceedings

 of the International Conference, 22-25 November 1998, Zeist, The Netherlands. Laboratory Animals Ltd, by Royal

 Society of Medicine Press Limited, London, England. 

Institute for Laboratory Animal Research Journal (2000), Humane Endpoints for Animals Used in Biomedical Research

 and Testing. 41: No. 2 

Morton and Griffiths (1985), Veterinary Record 116:431-43. 

Montgomery (1990), Cancer Bulletin 42:230-237. 

Toth (1997), Contemporary Topics 36:44-48. 

Stokes (1999) Humane Endpoints in Animal Experiments for Laboratory Animals Used in Toxicity Testing.

 Proceedings of the 3rd World Congress on Alternatives and Animal use in the Life Sciences, 31 August - 2 September

 1999, Bologana, Italy. 
United Kingdom Co-ordinating Committee on Cancer Research (1997), UKCCCR Guidelines for the Welfare of

 Animals in Experimental Neoplasia, 2nd ed. London, England. 

Tumor size references 

Bullard et al. (1981), J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol. 40:410-427.
 

Tomayko and Reynolds (1989), Cancer Chemother. Pharmacal. 24:148-154.
 

Sung et al. (1993), Cancer Research 53: 2092-2099.
 

Welch et al. (1994), Oncogene 9:255-262.
 

Hamm (1995), Contemporary Topics 34:69-71.
 

Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Mouse and Rat Fetuses and Neonates 

These guidelines were revised and reapproved on November 10, 1998 by the National Institutes of Health Animal

 Research Advisory Committee and are available at 

http://oacu.od.nih.gov/ARAC/documents/Rodent_Euthanasia_Pup.pdf 

The Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia does not provide specific recommendations for the euthanasia of prenatal

 or neonatal animals. The following guidelines are suggested to assist individual Animal Care and Use Committees at

 the NIH in reviewing proposals which involve the use of rodent fetuses or neonates. 

Fetuses: 

1. Fetuses up to 14 days in gestation: Neural development at this stage is minimal and pain perception is considered

 unlikely. Euthanasia of the mother or removal of the fetus should ensure rapid death of the fetus due to loss of

 blood supply and non-viability of fetuses at this stage of development. 

2. Fetuses 15 days in gestation to birth: The literature on the development of pain pathways suggests the possibility

 of pain perception at this time. Whereas fetuses at this age are not sensitive to inhalant anesthetics, euthanasia

 may be induced by the skillful injection of chemical anesthetics. Decapitation with surgical scissors, cervical

 dislocation, or rapid freezing (immersion in liquid nitrogen) are acceptable physical methods of euthanasia. When

 chemical fixation of the whole fetus is required, fetuses should be anesthetized prior to immersion in or perfusion

 with fixative solutions. Anesthesia may be induced by hypothermia (1) of the fetus, by injection of the fetus with

 a chemical anesthetic, or by deep anesthesia of the mother with a chemical agent that crosses the placenta, e.g.,

 pentobarbital. The institute veterinarian should be consulted for considerations of fetal sensitivity to specific

 anesthetic agents. When fetuses are not required for study, the method chosen for euthanasia of a pregnant

 mother must ensure rapid death of the fetus. 

Neonates: 

a. Up to 14 days of age: Acceptable methods for the euthanasia of neonatal mice and rats include: injection of

 chemical anesthetics (e.g., pentobarbital), decapitation, or cervical dislocation. Additionally, these animals are

 sensitive to inhalant anesthetics; e.g., methoxyflurane (used with appropriate safety considerations). Immersion in

 liquid nitrogen may be used only for newborns; pups older than one day should be anesthetized prior to freezing

 with liquid nitrogen. Similarly, anesthesia should precede immersion or perfusion with chemical fixatives.

 Anesthesia may be induced by inhalant or injectable anesthetics; the institute veterinarian should be consulted for

 appropriate agents and dosages. Alternatively, when adequately justified, hypothermia1 may be used to induce 
 anesthesia in pups six days of age or less. 

b. Older than 14 days: Follow guidelines for adults. 

In all cases, the person performing the euthanasia must be fully trained in the appropriate procedures. 

(1) Phifer, C.B. and Terry, L.M. 1986. Use of hypothermia for general anesthesia in preweanling rodent. Physiol. &

 Behav. 38:887-890. 

Bibliography
 

Amyx, H.L. (1987). Alternatives to the LD-50 in infectious disease studies. Scientists Center for Animal Welfare

 Newsletter 9(4): 1-2. 

NAL call number: QL55 N48 

Descriptors: reducing animal numbers, preventing pain, infectious dose 50, incubation time interval assay, alternatives,

 humane endpoints, infectious diseases, titration of infectious agents in live animals, diagnostic tools, clinical signs of

 disease. 

Amyx, H.L. (1987). Control of animal pain and distress in antibody production and infectious disease studies. 

JAVMA 191(10): 1287-1289. 

NAL call number: 41.8 Am3 

Descriptors: Freund's complete adjuvant, alternative adjuvants, minimization of side-effects of Freund's by careful

 control of injection quantity and injection site selection, rabbits, inappropriate to use Freund's in feet of rabbits, rodent

 footpad injections, ascites, pristane, restraint methods, animal care personnel, principles for control of pain and distress,

 humane endpoints, monitoring health of animals, euthanasia, analgesics, experimental design, rodents, dogs, cats,

 primates. 

Blogg, S.L., P.P. Townsend, P.J. Butler, and E.W. Taylor (1998). A method of anaesthesia and post-operative care

 for experimental procedures in avian species. Animal Technology 49(2): 101-109. 

NAL call number: QL55 I5 

Abstract: This paper describes a successful method of anaesthesia for prolonged and/or invasive avian surgery, along

 with an appropriate protocol for post-operative care. These methods were determined during a neuroanatomical study

 of two species of bird, the tufted duck (Aythya fuligula) and the domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos), as part of an

 ongoing scientific study. Descriptions of current, relevant techniques of anaethesia suitable for this study, were not

 readily available, therefore we felt that details of our methods would be a valuable contribution to this field. A standard

 operating procedure for use in similar studies and an example of an avian post-operative score sheet are outlined. 

Browder, E.J. (1995). Death as an endpoint. In Current Issues and New Frontiers in Animal Research, K.A.L. Bayne,

 M. Greene, and E.D. Prentice, (eds.), Greenbelt, Maryland: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, pp. 25-29. 

NAL call number: HV4913 C87 1995 

Descriptors: LD50, scientific justification, humane endpoints, assessment of animals, temperature drop, rectal

 temperature, IACUC responsibilities, investigator responsibilities, animal care staff responsibilities, funding agency

 responsibilities, data collection, assessment of pain and distress, selected criteria for euthanasia of moribund animals. 

Canadian Council on Animal Care (1999). CCAC guidelines on: Choosing an appropriate endpoint in experiments

 using animals for research, education, and testing. Ottawa, Ontario,Canada: Canadian Council on Animal Care.

 Available at http://www.ccac.ca/Documents/Standards/Guidelines/Appropriate_endpoint.pdf 

Descriptors: animal observation, significant indicators of pain and distress, scoring significant behavioral and

 physiological observations to set endpoints, pilot studies to determine appropriate endpoint, determining frequency of 

observations, defining responsibility for observations, training personnel in clinical animal observations, role of the 
 IACUC, monoclonal antibody production, cancer research, toxicology, pain research, infectious disease studies,

 vaccine trials, animal models with potential for significant levels of pain and distress, species specific signs of pain and

 distress, information sources, understanding normal animal behavior, recognition and assessment of pain and distress,

 laboratory animals, fish, farm animals, examples of observational checklists used to determine endpoints. 

Coenen, A.M.L., W.H.I.M. Drinkenburg, R. Hoenderken, and E.L.J.M. van Luijtelaar (1995). Carbon dioxide

 euthanasia in rats: oxygen supplementation minimizes signs of agitation and asphyxia. Laboratory Animals 29(3):

 262-268. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3 

Descriptors: experimental methods, behavior, electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocardiogram (ECG), effect of

 method-animals added to a box: completely filled with CO2, into which CO2 was streamed at a high flow rate, into

 which CO2 was streamed at a low flow rate, into which a mixture of CO2 and O2 was streamed at a fast rate, negative

 aspects of CO2 euthanasia can be prevented by an additional supply of oxygen. 

Close, B., K. Banister, V. Baumans, E-M. Bernoth, N. Bromage, J. Bunyan, W. Erhardt, P. Flecknell, N. Gregory, H.

 Hackbarth, D. Morton, and C. Warwick (1997). Working party report: Recommendations for euthanasia of

 experimental animals: Part 2. Laboratory Animals 31(1): 1-32. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3 

Descriptors: This document was prepared for the European Commission to be used with Directive 86/609/EEC on

 animal welfare, excellent review of methods of euthanasia for fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, rodents, rabbits,

 carnivores (dogs, cats, ferrets), large mammals (pigs, sheep, goats, cattle, horses), nonhuman primates, less commonly

 used species, each section includes information on overview of the species, recognition and confirmation of death, how

 to euthanize larvae or embryos, physical methods, chemical methods, unacceptable methods of euthanasia. 

Cunningham, J.J. and D.C. Priddy (1999). A low-cost chamber for rodent CO2 euthanasia. Lab Animal 28(2):44-45. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Descriptors: euthanasia, technique, low-cost method, humane. 

Danneman, P.J., S. Stein, and S.O. Walshaw (1997). Humane and practical implications of using carbon dioxide

 mixed with oxygen for anesthesia or euthanasia of rats. Laboratory Animal Science 47(4): 376-385. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Abstract: A series of studies was undertaken to determine whether CO2 can be used as a humane as well as practical

 agent for euthanasia or anesthesia of rats. Human volunteers rated the degree of discomfort associated with breathing

 50 to 100% CO2 mixed with oxygen. Increasing concentrations of CO2 were judged as progressively more noxious,

 from "highly unpleasant" for 50% CO2 to "painful" for 100% CO2. The practical aspects of anesthesia and euthanasia

 with 50 to 100% CO2 were studied, using male Sprague Dawley rats. Time to anesthesia and death were inversely

 related to CO2 concentration, as were the frequency and severity of adverse reactions, including seizures and

 hemorrhaging from the nose. The severity of edema and hemorrhage, which were observed on histologic examination

 of the lungs of all rats euthanized with CO2, were greatest in the animals exposed to the lowest concentrations. There

 were no significant effects of CO2 concentration on time to recumbency or recovery, and there were no significant 

effects of precharging versus not precharging the chamber on any of the parameters studied. It was concluded that,

 although CO2 can be used in a humane manner, the concentrations that are least likely to cause pain and distress are

 associated with the longest times to anesthesia and death, highest incidence of unwanted side effects, and most severe

 histologic changes in the lungs. Acceptably humane and reasonably practical euthanasia or anesthesia can be achieved

 using a nonprecharged chamber and a low gas flow rate so that conscious animals are never exposed to CO2

 concentrations >70%. 

Flecknell, P. (1997). Avoidance and alleviation of pain and distress. In Animal alternatives, welfare, and ethics,

 Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life Sciences, held in Utrecht, the

 Netherlands, 20-24 October 1996, L.F.M. Zutphen and M. Balls (eds.), Amsterdam, New York: Elsevier, pp. 241-245. 

NAL call number: QL1.D48 v.27 
Descriptors: pain assessment, animal behavior, terminal anesthesia, analgesics, anxiolytics, humane endpoints, housing,

 animal husbandry. 

Flecknell, P. (1997). Medetomidine and atipamezole: Potential uses in laboratory animals. Lab Animal 26(2): 21­

25. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Descriptors: pharmacology, clinical uses, sedation, anesthesia, tables of suggested doses for cats, dogs, gerbils, guinea

 pigs, ferrets, hamsters, mice, pigs, rabbits, rats, sheep, marmosets, anesthetic combinations. 

Foltz, C.J. and M. Ullman-Cullere (1999). Guidelines for assessing the health and condition of mice. Lab Animal

 28(4): 28-32. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Descriptors: transgenic mice, knockout mice, potentially debilitating phenotypes, humane endpoints, monitoring

 criteria, communications between veterinary staff and investigators, body condition scoring, health guidelines,

 barbering, fighting, malocclusion, rectal prolapse, tumors and masses, ulcerative dermatitis, vaginal or uterine prolapse,

 subtle health problems - activity/behavior, anemia, dehydration, diarrhea, hypothermia, preputial or vaginal discharge, 

additional health problems - abnormal breathing, abnormal locomotion, eye abnormality, head tilt, hyperactivity,

 lethargy, paresis, paralysis, ruffled fur, tremors. 

Gentle M.J. (1992). Pain in birds. Animal Welfare 1(4): 235-247. 

NAL call number: HV4701.A557 

Descriptors: poultry, recognition and assessment of pain, nociceptors, behavioral and physiological responses to

 nociceptive stimulation, pain following trauma, animal welfare, debeaking, analgesics, pain, trauma, reviews. 

Hamm, T.E. Jr. (1995). Proposed institutional animal care and use committee guidelines for death as an endpoint

 in rodent studies. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 34 (3): 69-71. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A23 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, endpoints, animal welfare, committees, guidelines, rodents, death, regulations. 

Hellyer, P. (1998). American College of Veterinary Anesthesiologists' position paper on the treatment of pain in

 animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 213 (5): 628-630. 

NAL call number: 41.8 Am3 

Descriptors: animal welfare, pain, symptoms, treatment, anesthesia. 

Jones, D.M. (1999). Carbon dioxide induced anesthesia has no effect on brain biogenic amine concentrations in

 mice. Laboratory Animal Science 49(3): 316-318. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: humane death, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, cortex, hippocampus, striatum, cerebellum,

 decapitation. 

Kallman, R.F., J.M. Brown, J. Denekamp, R.P. Hill, J. Kummermehr, and K.-R. Trott (1985). The use of rodent

 tumors in experimental cancer therapy. Conclusions and recommendations from an international workshop. 

Cancer Research 45: 6541-6545. 

NAL call number: 448.8 C16 

Descriptors: tumor/host systems, model systems, tumor immunogenicity, host animals, assay procedures, tumor growth

 delay assay, cellular survival assays following excision, experimental variables that can affect assay procedures or the

 interpretation of results, animal health and husbandry, site of tumor implantation, tumor size, stress, anesthesia,

 hypothermia, experimental design, radiation exposure time, cell cycle effects, drug resistance, combined modality

 experiments, models for adjuvant therapy, ethical principles, tumors should not exceed 10 percent of body weight. 

Kastello, D.A. (1990). Recognition and alleviation of pain and distress. Symposium: Animal Welfare Compliance for

 Study Directors Orlando, Florida: American College of Toxicology. 

NAL call number: Videocassette no. 968 

Descriptors: study director, veterinarian, ACUC, pain, humane endpoints. 
Keefe, F.J., R.B. Fillingim, and D.A. Williams (1991). Behavioral assessment of pain: Nonverbal measures in

 animals and humans. ILAR News 33(1-2): 3-13. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: excellent review of pain induction methods for analgesia testing, tail flick, hot plate, flinch-jump, pinch,

 formalin, chronic pain paradigms, pain measurement methods, quantification of presence of analgesia, animals,

 humans, devices, observation methods. 

Koolhaas J.M., V. Baumans, H.J.M. Blom, D. Holst von, P.J.A. Timmermans, P.R. Wiepkema, D. Von Holst, L.F.M.

 Zutphen van (ed.), V. Baumans (ed.), and A.C. Beynen (1993). Behaviour, stress and well-being. In Principles of

 laboratory animal science: A contribution to the humane use and care of animals and to the quality of experimental

 results. L.F.M. van Zutphen, V. Baumans, and A.C. Beynan (eds.), Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, pp. 75-99. 

NAL call number: QL55.P762 1993 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, animal experiments, adaptation, learning, environment, physiology, animal behaviour,

 animal welfare, stress, homeostasis, phylogeny, learning, ontogeny, interaction between animal and its environment,

 interaction between environment and physiology, autonomic nervous system, neuroendocrine system, functional

 significance of physiological stress responses, pathophysiology, well-being. 

Kort,W.J., J.M. Hekking-Weijma, M.T. TenKate, V. Sorm, and R. van Strik (1998). A microchip implant system as a

 method to determine body temperature of terminally ill rats and mice. Laboratory Animals 32(3): 260-269. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3 

Abstract: Klebsiella pneumoniae was inoculated intratracheally into rats and mice, and the temperature of the animals

 was recorded twice daily using microchip transponders (ELAMS) implanted either s.c. or i.p. The microchip

 temperatures were compared with rectal temperatures taken at the same time. The results showed that ELAMS was

 easy to operate and there were no important drawbacks in the use of the system were observed. The temperatures

 measured by the transponders implanted s.c. and i.p. did not differ significantly from rectal temperatures. In 2 out of 3

 experiments on rats, it was shown that when the temperatures reached values below 36°C, the median survival time of

 the animals was 24 h. In an experiment on mice, the same median survival time was observed at 36°C. In 1 experiment

 using rats, however, the disease was so acute that death occurred before any temperature drop. It is suggested that when

 a 36° C cutoff point is used instead of the time of death in this particular animal model, the statistical analysis is not

 altered, and it may spare animals further suffering for approximately 24 h. It is concluded that the ELAMS system of

 monitoring body temperature is simple and relatively stress free for laboratory animals. 

Descriptors: body temperature, monitoring, microchips, transponders, animal welfare, experimental infectious diseases. 

Liles, J.H. and P.A. Flecknell (1992). The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for relief of pain in

 laboratory rodents and rabbits. Laboratory Animals 26(4): 241-255. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3

 Descriptors: classification of non-opioid non-steroidal analgesics, pharmacology of NSAIDs, assessment of analgesic

 efficacy, thermal stimulus, electrical stimulus, chemical methods, mechanical forces, edema tests, analgesiometry and

 clinical pain, effective analgesic and lethal doses of NSAIDS in mice, adverse effects of NSAIDS and selection of dose

 rates, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and lethal doses in rats, ulcerogenic doses in rats, use of NSAIDS in humans and

 animals, suggestions for uses in laboratory animals. 

Louie, A., W. Liu, Q.F. Liu, A.C. Sucke, D.A. Miller, A. Battles, and M.H. Miller (1997). Predictive value of several

 signs of infection as surrogate markers for mortality in a neutropenic guinea pig model of Pseudomonas

 aeruginosa sepsis. Laboratory Animal Science 47(6): 617-623. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Abstract: Infected, neutropenic animals are used as experimental models to evaluate the relative efficacies of

 antimicrobial agents and host-pathogen-antibiotic interactions. In the past, these models used death as the study end

 point. Because of the concern about use of death as an end point, we evaluated the accuracy with which various signs of

 infection predicted mortality in a neutropenic guinea pig model of treated and untreated Pseudomonas aeruginosa

 sepsis. The potential surrogate markers studied included ruffled fur, respiratory distress, diarrhea, hunched posture,

 lethargy, abnormal neurologic movements (twitching, paralysis of a limb), inappetence for > 48 h, the inability to

 ambulate, and the inability of a supine animal to stand. In addition, we evaluated whether percentage of weight loss or

 change in daily food and water consumption were predictive of mortality. Animals were inspected for these signs at 
 least every 4 h during the day and every 8 h in the evening. In treated and untreated animals, 100% of subjects that

 were unable to ambulate or to rise from the supine position died (positive predictive value for death was 100% for

 either sign). Guinea pigs that could not rise from a supine position expired between 1 and 8 h after this sign was

 observed. Those that could not ambulate died between 4 and 40 h after that sign was observed. In treated, and untreated

 animals, none of the survivors manifested either sign of disease (100% specificity for each sign). However, 59% of 

untreated and 69% of treated animals that were ambulatory were found dead at the next observation period,

 underscoring the rapidity with which this infection progresses to death when it enters its final stage. No other signs of

 infection distinguished animals that survived or died. Thus, the inability of neutropenic, infected guinea pigs to rise

 from a supine position and the inability to ambulate were the only signs that accurately predicted death and, therefore,

 are the only signs that can be used as surrogates for death in this experimental model of P. aeruginosa sepsis. 

Descriptors: animal models, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, sepsis, surrogate markers, mortality prediction, weight losses,

 food intake, water intake, imipenem, tobramycin, ceftazidime, antibiotics, humane endpoints. 

Montgomery, C.A. (1987). Control of animal pain and distress in cancer and toxicological research. JAVMA

 191(10): 1277-1281. 

NAL call number: 41.8 Am3 

Descriptors: experimental design, choice of rodent strain, statistical assessment of studies, animal husbandry and

 disease control, housing and bedding, conduct and interpretation of a study, selected clinical observations used in

 toxicologic studies, route of chemical administration, selected criteria for euthanasia of moribund animals, veterinary

 care, training. 

Morton, D.B. (1998). The recognition of adverse effects on animals during experiments and its use in the

 implementation of refinements. In Proceedings of the Joint ANZCCART/ NAEAC conference on Ethical Approaches

 to Animal-based Science, D. Mellor, M. Fisher, and G. Sutherland (eds.), Adelaide, Australia and Wellington, New

 Zealand: ANZCCART, pp. 61-67. 

Morton, D.B. (1998). The use of score sheets in the implementation of humane end points. In Proceedings of the

 Joint ANZCCART/ NAEAC conference on Ethical Approaches to Animal-based Science, D. Mellor, M. Fisher, and G.

 Sutherland (eds.), Adelaide, Australia and Wellington, New Zealand: ANZCCART, pp. 75-82. 

Morton, D.B. (1997). A scheme for the recognition and assessment of adverse effects in animals. In Animal

 alternatives, welfare, and ethics, Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life

 Sciences, held in Utrecht, the Netherlands, 20-24 October 1996, L.F.M. Zutphen and M. Balls (eds.), Amsterdam, New

 York: Elsevier, pp. 235-240. 

NAL call number: QL1.D48 v.27 

Descriptors: husbandry and experimental techniques, score sheets, body weight, activity, temperature, vocalization,

 abdominal distension, palpate, sunken eyes, dehydration, breathing, observation, humane endpoints. 

Morton, D.B. and Griffiths, P.H.M. (1985). Guidelines on the recognition of pain, distress, and discomfort in

 experimental animals and an hypothesis for assessment. Veterinary Record 116(16): 431-436. 

NAL call number: 41.8 V641 

Descriptors: signs of pain, distress, and discomfort, aids in their interpretation, appearance, food and water intake,

 behavior, clinical signs, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, nervous and musculoskeletal, temperature, edema,

 swelling, discharges, urinary changes, quantitative assessment of pain, distress, and discomfort, bodyweight,

 relationships between signs and degree of pain, distress, and discomfort, interpretation of scoring from an overall

 assessment, species specific clinical signs indicating pain, rats, mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, dogs, cats, primates. 

National Research Council (1992). Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals.

 Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 137 p. 

NAL call number: SF996.5.R43 1992 

Descriptors: biologic importance of pain and distress, stressors, distress models, basis of pain, basis of stress and

 distress not induced by pain, recognition and assessment of pain, stress and distress, control of pain, control of stress

 and distress, euthanasia. 
Phifer, C.B. and L.M. Terry (1986). Use of hypothermia for general anesthesia in preweanling rodents. Physiology

 and Behavior 38(6): 887-890. 

NAL call number: QP1.P4 

Descriptors: rationale and background, techniques used to induce hypothermia, deep hypothermia for surgical

 manipulations, moderate hypothermia as adjunct, applications. 

Raufer B. and M. Miller (1997). Euthanasia: an animal-care protocol. Pork 17(2): 32-37. 

Descriptors: techniques, pain, euthanasia, animal welfare. 

Redgate, E.S., M. Deutsch, and S.S. Boggs. Time of death of CNS tumor-bearing rats can be reliably predicted by

 body weight-loss patterns. Laboratory Animal Science 41(3): 269-273. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: ACUC, central nervous system, antineoplastic drug, moribund state, alternative to death as endpoint,

 tumor growth, neoplasms. 

Rockwell, S. (1987). Maintenance of tumor systems and appropriate treatment techniques for experimental

 tumors. In Rodent Tumor Models in Experimental Cancer Therapy, R.F. Kallman, ed., Elmsford, New York:

 Pergamon Press, pp.29-36. 

NAL call number: RC261.A2R62 

Descriptors: choice and maintenance of animals, effect of pathogenic microorganisms, contamination of personnel,

 appropriate treatment techniques, choice of appropriate tumor, effects of anesthesia and restraint, tumor size-a 200mm2 

(about 3/8 inch X 3/4 inch) tumor in a 20-25 (about 1 ounce) gram mouse is roughly equivalent to a 600 gram (1 pound

 5 ounces) tumor in a 60-75 kg (132-165 pounds) patient, effects of stress, induction of tumor hypoxia, host-mediated

 effects. 

Rollin, B.E. (1997). Pain and ideology in human and veterinary medicine. Seminars in Veterinary Medicine and

 Surgery (Small Animals) 12(2): 56-60. 

Descriptors: animal welfare, philosophy, analgesics, anesthetics, pain. 

Siems, J.J. and Allen, S.D. (1989). Early euthanasia as an alternative to death in chronic infectious disease studies

 using a systemic Candida albicans model. Abstracts of the 89th Annual Meeting of the American Society for 

Microbiology 1989: 81 (B-304). 

NAL call number: QR1.A5 

Descriptors: humane endpoints, predicting time of animal's death, multiple regression analysis, use of variables, weight

 loss, temperature drop, tenting-an indicator of dehydration, ataxia, rough hair coat, assessment of animal conditions

 throughout experiment, prevention of post-mortem change of tissues and body fluids. 

Shipp, K. and B.D. Woodward (1998). A simple exsanguination method that minimizes acute pre-anesthesia stress

 in the mouse: evidence based on serum corticosterone concentrations. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal

 Science 37(5): 73-77. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A23 

Descriptors: stress, anesthesia, corticosterone, blood collection, inhalation anesthetics, animal welfare, carbon dioxide. 

Soma, L.R. (1987). Assessment of animal pain in experimental animals. In Effective Animal Care and Use

 Committees, F.B. Orlans, R.C. Simmonds, and W.J. Dodds (eds.), 71-74. Special Issue of Laboratory Animal Science,

 Bethesda, Maryland: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, pp.71-74. 

NAL call number: QL55.E4 

Descriptors: pain responses of animals, surgical procedures, postoperative pain, procedures likely to require analgesics

 or sedatives, clinical assessment of pain, chronic pain, chronic illness. 

Soothill, J.S., Morton, D.B., and Ahmad, A. (1992). The HID-50 (hypothermia inducing dose 50): An alternative to

 the LD-50 for measurement of bacterial virulence. International Journal of Experimental Pathology 73: 95-98. 

Descriptors: rectal temperature, temperature drop, prediction of time of death, humane endpoint, euthanasia,

 alternatives. 
Svendsen, P. and C. Rasmussen (1998). Anaesthesia of minipigs and basic surgical techniques. Scandinavian Journal

 of Laboratory Animal Science 25(SUPP 1): 31-43. 

NAL call number: QL55.S322 

Descriptors: miniature pigs, surgery, anesthesia, methods. 

Tomasovic, S.P., Coghlan, L.G, Gray, K.N., Mastromarino, A.J., and Travis, E.L. (1988). IACUC evaluation of

 experiments requiring death as an endpoint: A cancer center's recommendations. Lab Animal 17(1): 31-34. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Abstract: IACUCs in some institutions face special problems with protocols in which death is the required end point. A

 possible alternative in some cases may be euthanasia when the animals become moribund. 

Townsend, P. (1993). Control of pain and distress in small laboratory animals. Animal Technology 44(3): 215-223. 

NAL call number: QL55.I5 

Abstract: The prevention and alleviation of pain and distress in laboratory animals is presented as a strategy

 incorporating management, animal husbandry and scientific techniques, involving all those concerned with animal care

 and use, including animal technicians, veterinary surgeons and scientists. The paper identifies causes of pain and

 distress throughout the experimental animals life and attempts to highlight practical ways of preventing or, if this is not

 possible, alleviating any pain or distress which the animal may endure. All of the strategies involve making the

 laboratory animal the focus of concern when designing experimental schedules, as the prevention of pain and distress is

 the first step to producing good science. 

Descriptors: distressful situations-fear, loneliness, boredom, preemptive control-planning for avoidance, refinement of

 techniques to minimize discomfort, alleviation of pain, anesthesia, analgesia, review of drugs, humane endpoints,

 euthanasia, examples of score sheets. 

Toth, L.A. (1997). The moribund state as an experimental endpoint. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal

 Science 36(3): 44-48. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A23 

Descriptors: pain scoring, distress, suffering in animals, experimental paradigms, use of objective information to predict

 death, humane endpoints, use of experimentally relevant clinical signs, body weight, body temperature, euthanasia. 

Ullman-Culleré, M.H. and C.J. Foltz (1999). Body condition scoring: A rapid and accurate method for assessing

 health status in mice. Laboratory Animal Science 49(3): 319-323. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: noninvasive methods, criteria for euthanasia, emaciation, underconditioned, well-conditioned,

 overconditioned, obese, tumors, aging studies. 

United Kingdom Co-ordinating Committee on Cancer Research (UKCCCR) Guidelines for the Welfare of

 Animals in Experimental Neoplasia (Second Edition) (1998). British Journal of Cancer 77(1): 1-10. 

Descriptors: animal welfare; experimental neoplasms, research design, analgesia, animal growth and development,

 disease models, gene therapy, neoplasm transplantation, neoplasms physiopathology, neoplasms, therapy, humane

 endpoints. 

Van Loo, P.L.P., L.A. Everse, M.R. Bernsen, V. Baumans, L.J. Hellebrekers, C.L.J.J. Kruitwagen, and W.den Otter

 (1997). Analgesics in mice used in cancer research: reduction of discomfort? Laboratory Animals 31(4): 318-325. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3 

Descriptors: animal behavior, exploration, grooming, posture, food and water consumption, buprenorphine

 administered in Jello, chronic pain, advanced tumors, study could not document a positive effect of buprenorphine on

 discomfort, possible explanations are examined. 

Wallace, J., J. Sanford, M.W. Smith, and K.V. Spencer (1990). The assessment and control of the severity of

 scientific procedures on laboratory animals. Laboratory Animals 24: 97-130. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3 

Descriptors: definitions of severity, assessment of severity, components, index of severity, identifying and scoring pain,

 control of the severity of scientific procedures, development of a program for control, management practices, training, 
 animal husbandry, humane and experimental endpoints, behavioral changes, psychosocial influences, diseases,

 euthanasia, sensitivity of tissues and organs to challenges, recognition and assessment of pain and distress, potential

 responses and physiological signs are provided for the following species: mouse, guinea pig, rabbit, golden hamster,

 and gerbil, comprehensive indices of severity of scientific procedures are provided for administration of substances,

 collection of tissue and body fluids, surgical techniques, and restraint. 

Wright, A.J. and R.J. Phillpotts (1998). Humane endpoints are an objective measure of morbidity in Venezuelan

 encephalomyelitis virus infection of mice. Archives of Virology 143(6): 1155-1162. 

NAL call number: 448.3 Ar23 

Descriptors: acute infection, symptoms, clinical aspects, animal welfare, equine encephalomyelitis virus, humane

 endpoints. 

Useful World Wide Web Sites 

American Veterinary Medical Association Panel on Euthanasia Report, 2000 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/euthanasia.pdf 

Euthanasia methods approved by the AVMA and referenced by USDA and PHS. 

Assessment of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals 

http://www.ahc.umn.edu/rar/pain&distress.html 

Provided by Research Animal Resources, University of Minnesota

 That Have the Potential To Cause Severe Or Chronic Pain or Distress 

http://www.iacuc.emory.edu/documents/endpoints.pdf 

Provided by Emory University 

Guidelines For Endpoint Monitoring And Humane Termination 

http://labanimals.stanford.edu/guidelines/endpoint.html 

Provided by the Dean of Research, Stanford University 

Guidelines on Death as an Endpoint 

http://www.upstate.edu/iacuc/pdf/euthanasia_1_deathasendpoint.pdf 

Provided by Department of Laboratory Animal Resources at State University of New York-Health Sciences Center in

 Syracuse, NY. 

IACUC and Pain-Related Internet Resources 

http://netvet.wustl.edu/pain.htm 

Approximately 400 web-based resources relevant to pain or IACUC's are referenced. This collection of links attempts

 to provide those interested with an overview of some of the best information currently available on the Internet. The 

categories of resources listed include: major neuroscience directories, resource references, journals, meetings,

 government agencies and regulations, anesthesia and analgesia, academic departments, institutional animal care and use

 committees, animal behavior, ethics and alternatives to animal testing, commercial resources, as well as pain societies

 and animal research organizations. 

Top | Articles and Bibliographies 
 Return to: Title Page | Main Contents | Using this Resource 

Updated June 18, 2014 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

Farm Animals 

Welfare Concerns for Farm Animals Used in Agricultural and Biomedical Research and Teaching 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Recognition of Pain in Farm Animals 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter 

scroll down to article) 

Large Animals Anesthesia 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter 

scroll down to article) 

Post-Operative Care and Analgesia of Farm Animals Used in Biomedical Research 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter 

scroll down to article) 

Agricultural Animal Care Review 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter 

scroll down to article) 

See also Preparing the Farm and Farm Animals for Disasters in the section Disaster Planning 

Bibliography 

Useful World Wide Web Sites 

Bibliography 

Anderson, D. L. (1993). Handbook of Live Animal Transport. 

NAL call number: HV4733.H36 1993 

Descriptors: Animal welfare, animal handling and safety, veterinary procedures, animal health regulations, transporting

 animals by land, sea and air, exporting animals. 

Bath, G.F. (1998). Management of pain in production animals. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 59(1-3): 147-156. 

NAL call number: QL750.A6 

Descriptors: animal welfare, pain management, evaluation, animal production, animal behaviour, cattle, pigs, sheep. 

Boer, I.J.M. de., F.W.A. Brom, and J.M.G. Vorstenbosch (1995). An ethical evaluation of animal biotechnology: the

 case of using clones in dairy cattle breeding. Animal Science: An International Journal of Fundamental and Applied

 Research 61(pt.3): 453-463. 

NAL call number: SF1.A56 

Descriptors: dairy cattle, bioethics, moral values, biotechnology, cloning, animal welfare, genetic variation, artificial

 insemination, personal development. 
Craig, J.V. and J.C. Swanson (1994). Review: welfare perspectives on hens kept for egg Production. Poultry Science 

73 (7): 921-938. 

NAL call number: 47.8 Am33P 

Abstract: Welfare issues relative to egg-laying hens are addressed in terms of historical developments and current

 concerns. Ethical perspectives, attitudes, and public opinion of the past and present are reviewed. Indices of hens' wellbeing and what those reveal about alternative husbandry practices and production systems are presented along with

 estimates of economic consequences of alternative systems of table egg production. Possibilities of genetic selection to

 reduce welfare-related problems are discussed. 

Descriptors: hens, animal welfare, battery husbandry, animal behavior, stress, public opinion, floor husbandry, stocking

 density, chicken housing, bone strength, production costs, selection responses, domestication, literature reviews. 

Cunningham, D.L. and J.M. Mauldin (1996). Cage housing, beak trimming, and induced molting of layers: a review

 of welfare and production issues. Journal of Applied Poultry Research. 5 (1): 63-69. 

NAL call number: SF481.J68 

Descriptors: hens, poultry housing, cage density, debeaking, molting, induction, egg production, animal welfare,

 factory farming. 

Cunningham, D.L. (1992). Beak trimming effects on performance, behavior and welfare of chickens: A Review.

 Journal of Applied Poultry Research 1 (1): 129-134. 

NAL call number: SF481.J68 

Descriptors: chickens, debeaking, animal welfare, animal behavior, literature reviews. 

Dantzer, R. (1993). Research perspectives in farm animal welfare: the concept of stress. 

Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6 (special suppl. 2): 86-92. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: livestock, animal welfare, stress, stress factors, animal health, homeostasis, physiopathology. 

DeTolla, L.J., S. Srinivas, B.R. Whitaker, C. Andrews, B. Hecker, A.S. Kane, and R. Reimschuessel (1995). Guidelines

 for the care and use of fish in research. ILAR Journal 37 (4): 159-173. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: fishes, laboratory animals, animal experiments, animal husbandry, animal welfare, medical research,

 anesthesia, anesthetics, euthanasia, zoonoses, guidelines, regulations. 

Ewbank, R. (1993). Farm animal welfare: a historical overview. Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6

 (special suppl.1): 82-86. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: livestock farming, animal welfare, ethics, history. 

Gonyou, H.W. (1993). Animal welfare: definitions and assessment. Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6

 (special suppl.2): 37-43. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: animal welfare, livestock farming, animal behavior, animal physiology, assessment, animal production. 

Guttman, H. (1990). Agricultural Research Service, USDA, publishes new animal care directives. Animal Welfare

 Information Center Newsletter 1(4):4, 6. 

NAL call number: AHV4701.A952 

Descriptors: USDA, directives, animal welfare, bioethics, ACUC. 

Guttman, H.N. and D.W. Freeman (1996). Model finfish guidelines based upon use of finfish in research by the

 Agricultural Research Service/U. S. Department of Agriculture. SCAW Newsletter 18 (1): 9-11. 

NAL call number: QL55.N48 

Descriptors: fishes, fish culture, animal welfare, regulations, guidelines, USDA, research. 

Hartog, L.A. den, H.M. Vermeer, J.W.G.M. Swinkels, N. Verdoes, and G.B.C. Backus (1996). Applied research on 
 new pig housing systems. Outlook on Agriculture 25 (4): 257-261.
 

NAL call number: 10 Ou8
 

Abstract: Developments in pig housing during the last decade have been influenced not only by economics but also by

 animal welfare and environmental regulations. Because the different requirements may cause conflicts for some aspects

 of pig housing, an integrated approach is necessary. Housing systems which partly or fully meet today's animal welfare

 and environmental regulations in the Netherlands are described.
 

Descriptors: pig housing, design, animal welfare, environmental protection, applied research, piglets, finishing,

 lactating females, odor emission, ammonia.
 

Joiner, G. (1990). Agricultural animal care review. Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter 1(4): 3, 5.
 

NAL call number: aHV4701.A952 

Descriptors: livestock, bioethics, animal welfare, ACUC.
 

Kertz, A.F. (1996). Animal care and use: an issue now and in the future. Journal of Animal Science 74 (1): 257-261.
 

NAL call number: 49 J82
 

Abstract: Animal rights proponents equate human and animal rights or capacity to suffer pain. Animal welfare is a

 philosophy that centers on animal well-being, a stewardship role that producers view as affecting profitability but the

 general public may view as having additional components. The agenda of some animal rights proponents may be

 positioned under the guise of animal welfare to gain acceptability for portions of their work. Currently, guidelines and

 accreditation programs targeted at ensuring proper animal care and use increasingly include agricultural animals. Also,

 public initiatives such as the Massachusetts ballot initiative to curtail animal agriculture and the Physicians Committee

 for Responsible Medicine's attempts to curtail the use of milk and meat in human diets were defeated by educating the

 general public. Various organizations have been developed to address animal care and use issues. The Animal Industry

 Foundation is a broad-based agricultural organization addressing animal rights issues. National biomedical

 organizations, the Foundation of Biomedical Research and the National Association for Biomedical Research, address

 education and governmental animal rights issues. State-level coalitions. such as those recently organized in Missouri, of
 

agricultural organizations, academic research units, biomedical institutions, and agribusiness or consumer products

 companies offer great promise of educating others on animals rights and welfare issues. Animal scientists need to

 educate themselves on these issues, participate in their own institutional Animal Care and Use Committees, and help to

 educate the general public through organizations and programs at, the local, state, and national level.
 

Descriptors: animal welfare, animal husbandry, public opinion, animal experiments, consumer education, public

 relations, meat and livestock industry, dairy industry.
 

Lund, V. (1997). Postgraduate teaching in farm animal welfare and ethics. Animal Welfare 6 (2): 105-121.
 

NAL call number: HV4701.A557
 

Descriptors: graduate study, livestock, animal husbandry, animal welfare, ethics, surveys.
 

Mench, J.A., S.J. Mayer, and L. Krulisch (eds.) (1992). The well-being of agricultural animals in biomedical and

 agricultural research. Proceedings from a SCAW sponsored conference, "Agricultural Animals in Research," held

 September 6-7, 1990, in Washington D.C. Bethesda, Maryland: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, 111p.
 

NAL call number: HV4704.W38 1990 

Descriptors: regulatory perspectives, regulatory issues in experimental surgery in farm animals, stress, behavioral

 assessment of welfare, social and spacing behavior, handling and transport, minimum stress physical restraint of swine

 and sheep, cattle workshop-- dehorning, debudding, castration, anesthesia, veal calves, feeding, housing, farm animal

 husbandry practices, horse workshop-- psychological well-being, food and water requirements, ventilation, space,
 

bedding, shade, poultry workshop-- environmental stressors, euthanasia, cervical dislocation, immunosuppression

 related to genetic selection for larger birds, leg problems, cardiovascular problems, ascites, lighting, housing, wellbeing, population density in commercial production, blood collection, infectious disease studies, sheep workshop-­

 predator control, feedlots, handling, lifetime management, space, housing, respiratory research, zoonotic diseases,

 feeding, surgical and postsurgical care, raised flooring, swine workshop-- housing, space requirements, farm vs.

 research setting, farrowing and weaning crates, manure handling, malignant hyperthermia, miniature swine, solitary

 confinement, transportation, environmental factors. 

McGlone, J.J. and T.A. Hicks (1993). Teaching standard agricultural practices that are known to be painful. 
 Journal of Animal Science 71 (4): 1071-1074. 

NAL call number: 49 J82 

Abstract: Animal science faculty teach, demonstrate, and ask students to perform procedures that are known to be

 painful. Potentially painful procedures include castration, branding, dehorning, ear notching, teeth clipping, beak

 trimming, comb and wattle removal, and tail docking. In each case, the degree of pain experienced by an animal is

 generally not known. Furthermore, the consequences of animals having to endure pain are also not fully understood. A

 survey was conducted of animal science faculty to identify current departmental policies and practices related to

 castration in beef and swine production classes. Departments vary in what they require of students. Departments should

 set a policy to address 1) which (and how) potentially painful procedures are taught and 2) how the faculty deal with

 students who refuse to participate in putatively painful procedures. The institutional animal care and use committee

 should approve potentially painful teaching procedures after instructor and department have concluded that teaching

 such procedures is essential to a complete educational experience. 

Descriptors: animal welfare, teaching, pain, stress, castration, branding, dehorning, ear notching, teeth clipping, beak

 trimming, comb and wattle removal, tail docking. 

McGlone, J.J. (1993). What is animal welfare? Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6 (special suppl.2):

 26-36. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: animal welfare, animal production, stress, animal behavior, animal physiology, pain, depression,

 immunological deficiency, animal health, animal husbandry. 

Mench, J.A. (1993). Assessing animal welfare: an overview. Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6

 (special suppl.2): 68-75. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: animal welfare, livestock, animal behavior, emotions, motivation, mental ability, animal physiology,

 assessment. 

Moberg, G.P. (1993). Using risk assessment to define domestic animal welfare. Journal of Agricultural &

 Environmental Ethics 6 (special suppl.2): 1-7. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: farm animals, animal welfare, animal husbandry, stress factors, risk, guidelines. 

Moore, R.P. (1998). Perception and reality-welfare in farm animals. In Ethics, welfare, law and market forces: the

 veterinary interface. Proceedings of a Symposium, Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, UK, 14-15th November

 1996, A.R. Michell and R. Ewbank, (eds.), Wheathampstead, UK: Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

 (UFAW), p. 67-70. 

NAL call number: HV4704.E84 1998 

Descriptors: animal welfare, livestock. 

Otto, K.A. and C.E. Short (1998). Pharmaceutical control of pain in large animals. Applied Animal Behaviour

 Science 59(1-3): 157-169. 

NAL call number: QL750.A6 

Descriptors: pain management, analgesia, livestock, animal husbandry, livestock, animal welfare, drugs, review. 

Rushen, J. and A.M.B. De Passille(1992). The scientific assessment of the impact of housing on animal welfare: a

 critical review. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 72 (4): 721-743. 

NAL call number: 41.8 C163 

Descriptors: livestock, animal welfare, animal production, animal housing, animal husbandry, abnormal behavior,

 stress. 

Sandoe, P., N. Holtug, H.B. Simonsen (1996). Ethical limits to domestication. Journal of Agricultural &

 Environmental Ethics 9 (2): 114-122. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: livestock, domestication, animal welfare, genetic engineering, selective breeding, transgenics, genetic 
 change, regulations, European Union. 

Stricklin, W.R. and J.A. Mench (1994). Oversight of the use of agricultural animals in university teaching and

 research. ILAR News 36(1): 1-6. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: land grant universities, impact of agricultural research, monitoring agricultural animal care and use,

 commercial production practices, standards for evaluating animal research and teaching, administration of IACUCs,

 protocol review and facility inspection, agricultural animal technicians and standards of care. 

Stricklin, W.R. and J.A. Mench (1993). An international conference on farm animal welfare: ethical, scientific and

 technological perspectives. Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6 (special suppl.1): 1-3. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: livestock, animal production, animal welfare, conferences. 

Stricklin, W.R. (1989). The development of guidelines for the care and use of agricultural animals used in

 agricultural research and teaching. In Animal Care and Use in Behavioral Research: Regulations, Issues, and

 Applications J.W. Driscoll (ed.), Beltsville, Maryland: United States Department of Agriculture/National Agricultural

 Library, pp. 44-51. 

NAL call number: aHV4762.A3A64 

Descriptors: agricultural animal care and use program, institutional policies. 

Swanson, J.C. (1998). Oversight of farm animals in research. Lab animal 27(3): 28-31. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Descriptors: livestock, regulations, hazards, animal welfare. 

Tauson, R. (1993). Research approaches for improving the physical welfare and environment of laying hens. 

Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6 (special suppl.2): 76-85. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: hens, intensive livestock farming, animal welfare, battery cages, design, animal health, animal husbandry,

 egg production, abnormal behavior, cannibalism, stocking density. 

Tillman, P. (1994). Integrating agricultural and biomedical research policies: conflicts and opportunities. ILAR

 News 36 (2): 29-35. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: livestock, agricultural research, medical research, committees, guidelines, regulations, animal welfare. 

Wiepkema, P.R., W.G.P. Schouten, and P. Koene (1993). Biological aspects of animal welfare: new perspectives. 

Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6 (special suppl.2): 93-103. 

NAL call number: BJ52.5.J68 

Descriptors: livestock, animal welfare, stress, emotions, social interaction. 

Useful World Wide Web Sites 

Farm Animal Council of Saskatchewan 

http://www.facs.sk.ca/ 

A comprehensive site that includes codes of practice for all farm animals. 

National Institute for Animal Agriculture 

http://animalagriculture.org/ 

The National Institute for Animal Agriculture (NIAA), successor to the Livestock Conservation Institute (LCI), began 
 

 operation in January 2000 and is collectively addressing issues of interest to the industry, providing vital industry

 information, continuing education and communication outlets for animal agriculture professionals. 

New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries 

http://www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity-animal-welfare.aspx 

Codes of recommendations and minimum standards for all farm animals and farm-reared deer. 

Pain 

http://www.iacuc.arizona.edu/handbook/pain.shtml 

Species specific signs of pain in farm animals and other laboratory animals. 

Q FEVER 

http://www.iacuc.arizona.edu/training/cattle/occup.html#qfever 

Coxiella burnetii, a rickettsial organism that is highly resistant to physical and chemical agents used in disinfection. It

 has been reported in most warm blooded animals including fowl. The most common source of infection in the United

 States is from sheep, although goats and cattle can carry the disease. This site is provided by the University of Arizona. 

Top | Articles and Bibliographies 

Return to: Title Page | Main Contents | Using this Resource 

Last updated July 26, 2001 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

Wildlife and Field Research 

Wildlife Research and the IACUC 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Safe, Effective and Humane Techniques for Euthanizing Wildlife in the Field
 

Bibliography
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Safe, Effective and Humane Techniques for Euthanizing Wildlife in the

 Field
 

Michael Aprill 

Michael Aprill is a recent graduate of the University of Wisconsin--Stevens Point with a degree in biology. During

 1994, he served as a Volunteer in the Parks (VIP) for the Division of Resource Management at Hawaii Volcanoes

 National Park. Originally published in Park Science, Volume 18(1), July 1998. 

Resource managers across the national park system are occasionally faced with the need to destroy wildlife species for a

 number of reasons, such as protection of endangered species, protection of the public health, and population control of

 species. 

When choosing euthanasia techniques as part of a resource management program, managers must select techniques that

 are humane for the species being euthanized, safe for personnel carrying out the procedure, not dangerous to park

 visitors or nontarget species, and appropriate for the location and feasible within personnel and budgetary constraints. 

In selecting a euthanasia technique, the manager must first consider that the technique is efficient and humane for the

 target species (American Society of Mammalogists 1987). The universally accepted standards for these criteria are

 found in the ô1993 Report of the American Veterinary Medicine Association (AVMA) Panel on Euthanasia (American

 Veterinary Medical 

Euthanasia by the injection of barbiturates (e.g., sodium pentobarbital) is perhaps the most humane euthanasia

 technique, and it is suitable for most species, safe for personnel performing the procedure, and moderate in cost

 (Fakkema 1994; Grier and Clovin 1990; American Humane Association 1988). Barbiturates are one of the cheaper

 euthanasia agents. However, as a controlled substance, the use of barbiturates requires a permit from the Drug

 Enforcement Administration, secure storage, and veterinarian supervision. The animal must be restrained during

 administration (e.g., squeeze cage) and personnel performing the procedure must be skilled. Dosages must be correct

 for the species and the animals weight. A parks maintenance staff may construct squeeze cages of their own design or

 by using designs found in the literature. If a veterinarian is not on staff, one may be available from a nearby humane 
 society or a local vet may be willing to consult as a nonpaid volunteer. 

Another effective, humane, safe, and inexpensive euthanizing technique is carbon dioxide (Erickson 1994). This

 technique works well for most animals; however, some species and neonates may have some increased tolerance to

 carbon dioxide. Because carbon dioxide is heavier than air, care must be taken to completely fill the chamber before

 exposing the animal to the gas. This is of special concern with tall or climbing animals. Carbon dioxide is low cost.

 Supplies include a carbon dioxide canister, carbon dioxide, appropriate plumbing, and a chamber that can be

 constructed by park personnel. The main disadvantage of this technique is that it may not be suitable for remote or

 inaccessible locations due to difficulties transporting heavy carbon dioxide canisters. 

If done properly by trained personnel, gunshot may be used as a humane form of euthanasia. For each species, the shot

 must be fired at a specific site on the animal to assure rapid death (Australian Veterinary Association 1987; Longair et

 al. 1991). One danger of this technique is that a bullet may ricochet off the substrate or cage and injure the shooter or

 others. The shooter must also have adequate eye and hand protection due to the possible danger from blood-borne

 pathogens. Additionally, there may be legal reasons why a manager may not want to use firearms in a park. 

Managers wishing to learn more about specific euthanasia techniques are encouraged to consult the resources cited in

 this article or attend a euthanasia seminar sponsored by an organization such as the American Humane Association. For

 a summary of humane euthanasia techniques see table 1. 

Table 1--Humane euthanasia techniques* 

Method Advantages & Disadvantages Cost 

Injection 

Barbiturates 

Most preferred method of euthanasia 

Suitable for most species. 

Safe for personnel performing procedure. 

Requires DEA permit, secure storage, and veterinary supervision. 

Requires squeeze cage, which may be easily constructed by park personnel. 

Moderate 

Carbon

 Dioxide 

CO2 

Works well for most species. 

Some species and neonates may exhibit increased tolerance to CO2. 

Special care must be taken with tall or climbing animals to completely fill the chamber before

 exposing the animal. 

CO2 chamber may be easily constructed by park personnel. 

Safe for personnel performing the procedure. 

May not be suitable for remote locations due to weight of CO2 canisters. 

Low 

Gunshot Firearm must be of appropriate caliber and impact for species and must be delivered to

 specific site on animal. 

Requires skilled marksman. 

Possible danger to shooter from ricochet. 

Possible legal constraints in some parks. 

Moderate 

*All methods can be humane and safe if administered by properly trained personnel 
Literature Cited 

American Humane Association. 1988. Operational guide for animal care and control agencies. American Humane

 Association, Denver, Colorado. 

American Veterinary Medical Association. 1993. Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. Journal of the American

 Veterinary Medicine Association 202(2):229-249. 

Australian Veterinary Association. 1987. Guidelines on humane slaughter and euthanasia. Australian Veterinary Journal

 64:4-7. 

Choate, J. R., editor. 1987. Acceptable field methods in mammalogy: Preliminary guidelines approved by the American

 Society of Mammalogists. Journal of Mammalogy 3(2) (Suppl.):1-18. 

Erickson, R. 1994. Carbon dioxide euthanasia chamber. Wildlife Control Technology (December):12-13. 

Fakkema, D. 1994. Euthanasia 101:94AHA-46-47. Two audio cassettes. American Humane Association. Hollywood,

 California. 

Greyhavens, T. 1989. Handbook of pentobarbital euthanasia. Humane Society of the Willamette Valley, Salem, Oregon.

 126 p. 

Grier R. L., and T. L. Clovin. 1990. Euthanasia guide (for animal shelters). Moss Creek Publications, Ames, Iowa. 

Longair, J. A, G. G. Finley, M. A. Laniel, C. Mackay, K. Mould, E. D. Olfert, H. Rowsell, and A. Preston. 1991.

 Guidelines for euthanasia of domestic animals by firearms. Canadian Veterinary Journal 32(12): 724-726. 

Bibliography 

Bekoff, M. (1995). Marking, trapping, and manipulating animals: some methodological and ethical

 considerations. In Wildlife mammals as research models in the laboratory and field: proceedings of a seminar

 sponsored by the Scientists Center for Animal Welfare held in San Francisco, California at the American Veterinary

 Medical Association meeting on July 12, 1994, Greenbelt, MD: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, pp. 31-47. 

NAL call number: SF406.W55 1995 

Descriptors: wild animals, mammals, wild birds, marking, capture of animals, trapping, wildlife management, animal

 experiments, bioethics, animal welfare. 

Bielitzki, J.T. (1996). The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee within the zoological park: selecting and

 training members. In The well-being of animals in zoo and aquarium sponsored research, G.M. Burghardt, J.T.

 Bielitzki, J.R. Boyce and D.O. Schaeffer (eds.), Greenbelt, Maryland: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, p. 107­

110. 

NAL call number: QL77.5.W45 1996 

Descriptors: animal welfare, zoological research, wild animals in captivity, training new members. 

Bowman, P. (1989). Institutional animal care and use committee: Review of wildlife field research. Lab Animal

 18(3): 28-30. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Descriptors: wildlife management, wild animals, animal research, research institutes, animal welfare, surveys. 

Cooper, J.E.(1998). Minimally invasive health monitoring of wildlife. Animal Welfare 7(1): 35-44. 

NAL call number: HV4701.A557 
Descriptors: wild animals, animal health, monitoring, animal welfare, techniques, alternatives. 

Elliott, C.L. (1995). Meeting animal care obligations in wildlife education. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(4): 631-634. 

NAL call number: SK357.A1W5 

Descriptors: education, research, surveys, wildlife, training, prevention, institutions, animal welfare, wild-animals. 

Kohn, B. (1996). IACUCs: how do they relate to zoos and aquariums? In The well-being of animals in zoo and

 aquarium sponsored research, G.M. Burghardt, J.T. Bielitzki, J.R. Boyce and D.O. Schaeffer (eds.), Greenbelt,

 Maryland: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, p. 103-106. 

NAL call number: QL77.5.W45 1996 

Descriptors: animal welfare, aquaria, zoological gardens, regulations. 

Kohn, B. and S.L. Montfort (1997). Research at zoos and aquariums: Regulations and reality. Journal of Zoo and

 Wildlife Medicine 28(3): 241-250. 

Descriptors: Exhibit animals, zoos, aquariums, research, regulations. 

Kreger, M.D. (1995). Management of wild mammals in the laboratory: other species. In Wildlife mammals as

 research models in the laboratory and field: proceedings of a seminar sponsored by the Scientists Center for Animal

 Welfare held in San Francisco, California at the American Veterinary Medical Association meeting on July 12, 1994,

 Greenbelt, MD: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, pp. 11-22.
 

NAL call number: SF406.W55 1995
 

Descriptors: wild animals, laboratory animals, mammals, disease models, animal models, animal husbandry,

 regulations, resource materials, animal welfare.
 

Michener, G.R. (1989). Ethical issues in the use of wild animals in behavioral and ecological studies. In Animal

 Care and Use in Behavioral Research: Regulations, Issues, and Applications J.W. Driscoll (ed.), Beltsville, Maryland:

 United States Department of Agriculture/National Agricultural Library, pp. 37-43.
 

NAL call number: AHV4762.A3A64
 

Descriptors: field studies, animal care committees, maintaining wild species, guidelines.
 

Olsen, G.H. (1989). The Animal Welfare Act and the zoo: A positive approach. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife

 Medicine 20(2): 135-137. 

NAL call number: SF601.J6
 

Descriptors: zoo animals, legislation, regulations.
 

Orlans, F.B. (1988). Field Research Guidelines: Impact on Animal Care and Use Committees, Scientists Center for

 Animal Welfare, Bethesda, MD, 23 p.
 

NAL call number: HV4704.F5
 

Descriptors: treatment of animals, wildlife, standards.
 

Peck, F.R. and R.C. Simmonds (1995). Understanding animal research regulations: obligations of wildlife

 departments and field researchers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(2): 279-282.
 

NAL call number: SK357.A1W5
 

Descriptors: wildlife, animal experiments, animal welfare, regulations.
 

Putman, R.J. (1995). Ethical considerations and animal welfare in ecological field studies. Biodiversity and

 Conservation 4(8): 903-915.
 

NAL call number: QH75.A1B562
 

Descriptors: wild animals, wildlife, animal welfare, capture of animals, trapping, marking, stress, mortality, research,

 ecology, field experimentation, ethics.
 

Shoemaker, A.H., K.L. Vehrs, R. Howarth, and W. Fontana (1994). AZA (American Zoo and Aquarium Association)

 Manual of Federal Wildlife Regulations, Bethesda, Maryland: American Zoo and Aquarium Association, 2 volumes:

 v. 1. Protected species; v. 2. Laws and regulations.
 

NAL call number: KF5640.A4A9 1994
 
 

Descriptors: wildlife conservation, animal welfare, endangered species, wild animal trade. 

Waples, K.A. and C.S. Stagoll (1997). Ethical issues in the release of animals from captivity. BioScience 47(2): 115­

120. 

NAL call number: 500 Am322A 

Descriptors: wild animals, release, animal welfare, ethics. 

Useful World Wide Web Sites 

American Society of Mammalogists, Animal Care and Use Committee 

http://www.mammalsociety.org/committees/ 

The sustaining goals of the Animal Care and Use Committee are to serve as a liaison to society members on matters

 concerning the care and use of wild mammals, to assist in the interpretation of new or revised governmental

 regulations, and to provide government and non-government agencies with reasoned, professional advice on matters of

 animal care and use of wild mammals. 

Arizona State University, Handling Hantavirus 

http://researchintegrity.asu.edu/iacuc/specialtopics/hantavirus.htm 

Guidelines for wildlife researchers. 

New South Wales Agriculture, Animal welfare guidelines 

http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/2754 

This site is provided by the government of New South Wales, Australia. Topics include: draft guidelines for the use of

 pitfall traps; guidelines for animal care and ethics committees (ACECs) supervising research on captive wildlife; 

guidelines for collection of voucher specimens; guidelines for opportunistic research on free living wildlife; individuals

 and institutions engaged in collaborative research. 

University of Florida, Animal Care and Use 

http://iacuc.ufl.edu 

This site provides access to rules and regulations that govern wildlife research at the University of Florida. 

Top | Articles and Bibliographies 

Return to: Title Page | Main Contents | Using this Resource 

Last updated July 26, 2001 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

Statistics and Animal Numbers 

Reducing Animal Numbers: Sequential Sampling 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Bibliography
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Bibliography 

Baker, D.G. (1998). Natural pathogens of laboratory mice, rats, and rabbits and their effects on research. Clinical

 Microbiology Review 11(2): 231-266. 

NAL call number: QR67.C54 

Abstract: Laboratory mice, rats, and rabbits may harbor a variety of viral, bacterial, parasitic, and fungal agents.

 Frequently, these organisms cause no overt signs of disease. However, many of the natural pathogens of these

 laboratory animals may alter host physiology, rendering the host unsuitable for many experimental uses. While the

 number and prevalence of these pathogens have declined considerably, many still turn up in laboratory animals and

 represent unwanted variables in research. Investigators using mice, rats, and rabbits in biomedical experimentation

 should be aware of the profound effects that many of these agents can have on research. 

Descriptors: bacterial infections, parasitic diseases, rodent diseases, virus diseases, microbiology, mice, rabbits, rats,

 reproducibility of results, epidemiology, immunology, parasitology, virology. 

Crouse, D.A., Mann, M.D., and E.D. Prentice (1995). The logical determination of "n" in animal experimentation.

 In "Current Issues and New Frontiers in Animal Research, K.A.L. Bayne, M. Greene, and E.D. Prentice, eds.,

 Greenbelt, Maryland: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, pp. 19-23. 

NAL call number: HV4913.C87 1995 

Descriptors: review of basic elements that significantly impact animal use, review of statistical parameters which

 should be considered in the design of a typical research protocol, review by IACUC, Type I vs Type II error, level of

 significance. 

Erb, H. (1996). A non-statistical approach for calculating the optimum number of animals needed in research. 

Lab Animal 25(3): 45-49. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Descriptors: elements of sample size calculation, assessment of the kind of data, descriptive vs. comparative analysis,

 common sample size mistakes, methods to decrease sample size. 

Festing, M.F.W. (1995). Variation and experimental design. Scientist Center for Animal Welfare Newsletter 18(3): 3­

9. 

NAL call number: QL55.N48 

Descriptors: minimizing animal numbers, variability, laboratory animals, quality control, statistical analysis,

 experimental design, understanding variation in experimental results. 

Festing, M.F.W. (1994). Reduction of animal use-experimental design and quality of experiments. Laboratory 
 Animals 28(3): 212-221.
 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L31
 

Descriptors: variability, animal numbers, statistical analysis, understanding statistics.
 

Festing, M.F.W. (1992). The scope for improving the design of laboratory animal experiments. Laboratory Animals

 26(4): 256-267.
 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L31
 

Descriptors: principles of experimental design, no built in bias, precision, variability, control of variability, ability to

 detect differences, practical considerations versus theoretical statistical considerations, simplicity, experimental error,
 

completely randomized single-factor design, randomized block design, increase in efficiency from randomized block

 designs, factorial arrangement of treatments, review.
 

Geller, N.L. (1983). Statistical strategies for animal conservation. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

 406:20-29.
 

NAL call number: 500 N484
 

Descriptors: randomization, confounding factors, sample size and power, analysis, group sequential designs, historical

 controls, serial sacrifice, carcinogenesis, bioassays, teratogenesis, experimental design, animal numbers, alternatives.
 

Khamis, H.J. (1997). Statistics and the issue of animal numbers in research. Contemporary Topic in Laboratory

 Animal Science 36(2): 54-59.
 

NAL call number: SF405.A23
 

Descriptors: unified approach to determining animal numbers, methods to determine and justify animal numbers, 3-step

 approach, pilot study or inferential study, determining minimum numbers necessary to achieve research goals,

 justifying animal numbers, experimental design, 3R's, examples.
 

Mann, M.D., Crouse, D.A., and Prentice, E.D. (1991). Appropriate animal numbers in biomedical research in light

 of animal welfare considerations. Laboratory Animal Science 41(1): 6-14.
 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94
 

Descriptors: statistics, sample size, variability, nonstatistical factors, ethics, economics, effect size, experimental

 design. 

McCance, I. (1995). Assessment of statistical procedures used in papers in the Australian Veterinary Journal.
 

Australian Veterinary Journal 72(9): 322-328.
 

NAL call number: 41.8 AU72
 

Abstract: One hundred and thirty-three papers (80 Original Articles and 53 Short Contributions) of 279 papers in 23

 consecutive issues of the Australian Veterinary Journal were examined for their statistical content. Only 38 (29%)

 would have been acceptable to a statistical referee without revision, revision would have been indicated in 88 (66%),

 and the remaining 7 (5%) had major flaws. Weaknesses in design were found in 40 (30%), chiefly in respect to

 randomisation and to the size of the experiment. Deficiencies in analysis in 60 (45%) were in methods, application and

 calculation, and in the failure to use appropriate methods for multiple comparisons and repeated measures. Problems

 were detected in presentation in 44 (33%) of papers, with insufficient information about the data or its statistical

 analysis and presentation of statistics (appropriate missing or inappropriate shown) the main problems. Conclusions

 were considered to be inconsistent with the analysis in 35 (26%) of papers, due mainly to their interpretation of the

 results of significance testing. It is suggested that statistical refereeing, the publication of statistical guidelines for

 authors and statistical advice to Animal Experimentation Ethics Committees could all play a part in achieving

 improvement.
 

Descriptors: analysis of variance, standards, random allocation, research design , statistics reproducibility of results.
 

Morton, D.B. (1998). The importance of nonstatistical design in refining experiments. ANZCCART News 11(2­

insert):1-11. Available at http://www.adelaide.edu.au/ANZCCART/publications/ImportanceNonStat_T5Arch.pdf 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A3 

Descriptors: alternatives, refinement, use of anesthetics and analgesics, importance of skilled and competent

 investigators, statistical advice, limitations of scientific evidence, extrapolation and animal numbers, pilot studies, dose

 sighting and control groups, adverse effects causing pain and distress, humane endpoints, score sheets, recognition and 
 

 assessment of pain and distress. 

Orlans, F.B. (1986). Ideas for experimental design of experiments involving animals. Laboratory Animal Science

 36(5): 557. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: design of experiments, procedures, review process. 

Ruxton, G.D. (1998). Experimental design: minimizing suffering may not always mean minimizing number of

 subjects. Animal Behaviour 56(2): 511-512. 

NAL call number: 410 B77 

Descriptors: experimental design, laboratory animals, animal numbers, animal welfare. 

Straughan, D.W. (1995). The EU target for a 50% reduction in use of experimental animals by the year 2000-­

what does it mean? Alternatives to Laboratory Animals: ATLA 23(2): 262-263. 

NAL call number: Z7994.L3A5 

Descriptors: animal experiments, animal testing alternatives, animal welfare, European Union regulations. 

Weigler, B.J. (1995). Justifying the number of animals in IACUC proposals. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory

 Animal Science 34 (3):47-50. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A23 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, usage, committees, regulations, bioethics, experimental design, statistics, reviews. 

Whary, M.T., D.D. Carey, and F.G. Ferguson (1998). Reduction in animal numbers required for antisera

 production using the subcutaneous chamber technique in rabbits. Laboratory animals 32(1): 46-54. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L3 

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine if the subcutaneous chamber technique would reduce the number

 of rabbits required for antisera production by enabling serial use of individual animals for multiple antigens. Rabbits 

were assigned to immunization protocols against two antigens in series that involved combinations of chamber

 implantation, Freund's adjuvant and injection of antigen either by the subcutaneous route or by direct inoculation into

 the chamber. Results indicate the systemic immune response to both antigens achieved similar magnitude and duration

 by use of either Freund's adjuvant or direct inoculation of antigen into the chamber, suggesting that chamber use may

 be able to replace use of Complet e Freund's adjuvant for many antigens. Rabbits re-used for a second antigen were

 equally successful in production of significant titres in both serum and chamber fluid without evidence of either a

 significant inflammatory response due to the chronic presence of the implant or a decrease in the yield of antisera

 harvested from the chamber. These results support the advantages of chamber use as reported by others and

 demonstrate that the chamber technique can significantly extend the productive life of an individual animal that would

 otherwise be euthanized following a single use in antisera production. 

Descriptors: rabbits, immune serum, biological production, antigens, antibody formation, yields, hemocyanins,

 adjuvants, cholera, bacterial toxins, containers, implantation, animal welfare, alternatives. 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Guidelines for Determination and Justification of Animal Numbers 

http://www.research.uci.edu/ora/acup/animalnumbers.htm 

Topics included in this site provided by the University of California at Irvine are: overview, basis, study design, pilot

 studies, inclusiveness, alternative methods, inbred animals, repetition of experiments, modification of approved animal 

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Last updated March 15, 2005 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

Disaster Planning 

Disaster Planning for Animal Facilities
 

Preparing the Farm and Farm Animals for Disasters
 

Bibliography
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Disaster Planning for Animal Facilities 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture gratefully acknowledges the Florida Animal Disaster Planning Advisory

 Committee (ADPAC) for permission to use the following article and checklist. Their website is http://www.fladpac.org/ 

ADPAC is an ad hoc group of organizations and individuals interested in promoting the effective development and

 implementation of disaster plans to protect animals. The group was organized after Hurricane Andrew killed, injured,

 and displaced tens of thousands of dogs, cats, horses, cattle, birds, exotic pets, and other animals. 

ADPAC is not a formal legal entity. Its members seek to open lines of communication among the various animal groups

 in the state, and with governmental entities that develop and implement disaster plans with the goal of protecting

 human lives and property. It is the belief of ADPAC that the plans for humans and animals must be intertwined if either

 are to be effective. 

If you would like information on ADPAC, contact Laura Bevan, Southeast Regional Office Director, The Humane

 Society of the United States, 1624 Metropolitan Circle, Suite B, Tallahassee, FL 32308, call (850) 386-3435, or e-mail 

lbevan@unr.net for more information. 

Introduction: 

It is vital that animal facilities prepare for disasters, not only for the animals housed inside, but so that the facility will

 be viable in the aftermath. These facilities will include animal shelters, kennels, veterinary clinics and hospitals, pet

 shops, horse stables and other facilities where animals are routinely housed. The following guidelines are appropriate

 for all and will help determine which disasters and dangers a facility may be vulnerable to, and what plans they can

 make now to mitigate damage and downtime. 

Evaluate your Animal Facility 

A. Know the dangers of the facility's location. Are you: 

in a storm surge area for hurricanes of any category? 

in a flood plain for nearby lakes, creeks or rivers? 
located near any hazardous waste plants or disposal sites? 

near any railroad tracks with trains carrying hazardous wastes? 

near any interstates that have trucks carrying hazardous wastes? 

near any fuel depots? 

in an area prone to wildfire? 

near any area with earthquake faults? 

in an area that a power outage could create a heat or cold emergency? 

Fire: we all run the risk - our most common and deadliest single disaster. Check with your local

 emergency management department or fire department for assistance in assessing the potential

 disasters in your area. 

B. Know the dangers of the actual structure: 

What is the building made of (wood, concrete, brick, etc.). Is it solid enough to withstand

 hurricane force winds? 

Does it have sliding glass doors, large windows or a large number of windows? Do these have

 hurricane shutters or appropriate coverings for heat or cold emergencies? 

If the facility has kennels, are they indoor/outdoor runs or all indoor? 

What areas of the facility would be safe in a hurricane or tornado? Are there interior areas that

 would be protected? 

Is the roof secure? Is it hurricane clipped or strapped? Is it capable of water loading from heavy

 rains, snow or ice? 

Do you have exposed, overloaded, or old electrical wiring that could start a fire? 

Does the facility have a number of fire extinguishers, and are they in convenient and easy to

 locate? 

Do you have smoke detectors throughout the facility, and are the batteries checked at least

 twice a year? (An alert system and sprinklers are preferred.) 

Do you allow smoking in or around the building? If so, is a proper smoking policy in effect? 

Is the area around the facility cleared of underbrush and trees to prevent wildfire from

 spreading to the building? 

It would be advisable to have the building properly evaluated by an engineer or another professional experienced with

 the requirements necessary for a facility to withstand a major disaster. Check with your emergency management

 department to see if this is a service it provides or if it can recommend a professional. 

Insurance 

Is your insurance adequate to cover all losses? You need to properly evaluate your coverage at least once a year. 

A. Identify your facility on the flood plain and or storm surge map located at your local Emergency

 Management Department. 

B. Make a complete inventory of the property, including photographs of each room. Store this written or

 videotaped inventory with insurance papers in a safe place, keeping a duplicate inventory file off-premises. 

Set Priorities 

A. Identify the most expensive or irreplaceable items (the animals in the facility will be your top priority)

 and create plans to preserve and protect them. 

B. Identify what items are most necessary to get the facility operating again. (i.e. records, equipment, etc.) 
C. Movable Inventory (i.e. animal control trucks, cars, etc.) - make arrangements now for a safe location

 where these items can be moved well in advance of the storm. Make sure your vehicles are not moved to a

 location where they can be immobilized, such as by falling trees, flying debris, or flood waters. Tie them

 down if appropriate. 

D. Move important inside equipment to the center of the room as high as possible (upstairs if available) and

 wrap it with waterproof tarps or plastic. Secure with a rope or tape. Anchor downstairs furniture. 

E. If you are in a floodplain, make arrangements to move as much as possible from this location well in

 advance. 

F. Glass - Shutter or board all glass to prevent it from flying around doing additional damage or injury.

 Whenever possible, large windows or sliding glass doors should be covered with commercial hurricane

 shutters, since it is difficult for them to be properly boarded. In case of wildfire, remove drapes when one

 threatens to prevent them from catching fire as the glass becomes heated. 

G. Contact your local fire service and ask them to do a fire drill at your facility so they are familiar with

 where the animals are housed. Also ask them to do a walk through to point out situations which might be

 fire or chemical hazardous. 

H. Install a fire alarm system, if you do not already have one. Have it connected directly into the fire

 department. By the time an internal alarm is heard, it could be too late. 

I. Have fire extinguishers readily available throughout the facility and make sure all employees know how

 to operate one. 

J. Install a lightning suppression system. 

K. If in a wildfire prone area, keep hoses attached on all sides of the building with lawn sprinklers for

 wetting down roofs. 

Create a Pyramid of Employee Release 

A. Release all non-essential personnel as soon as possible so they can assist their families in making

 preparations. See that all employees have written personal disaster plans covering their home, family and

 pets - if they are prepared, they are better able to concentrate on assisting in getting the facility prepared

 effectively. 

B. Release second level of employees as soon as they have completed their assigned disaster preparation

 duties. 

C. Remaining employees leave as soon as premises are prepared and secured. Always start well in advance

 - the key to minimize damage and injury is evacuate as quickly as possible. All employees should be

 released in time for them to reach safe shelter. In the case of hurricanes, this should be before sustained

 winds reach 45 mph. 

D. Explain: 

Watch: generally issued 72 hours prior to an expected event - preparations should begin at that time.

 The radio should be monitored constantly. 

Warning: generally issued when the expected event is imminent within the next 24 hours or sooner.

 Depending on when the Warning is issued (day, night, weekend) your plan may change dramatically.

 Depending on your operating hours you may have to plan to call in key employees to prepare the 
 facility. Home phone numbers should be kept with the manager or director at all times. Also call

 non- essential employees and tell them not to report to work until further notice. Have a plan to

 recontact employees if telephone lines are inoperable. 

E. It is not recommended that you demand participation of employees in responding to the aftermath of a

 disaster. Your disaster plan could fall apart if you depend on certain people who are not available because

 of family concerns. 

F. Recognize in developing the personnel section of your disaster plan that even those employees who make

 a commitment to assist before or after a disaster may not be able, for reasons beyond their control. Cross

 train employees in disaster duties. 

Specific Preparations 

A. Hazardous Materials 

Make sure all hazardous materials are labeled - if they do get washed away or strewn about your local

 clean-up crews will know what they are dealing with. 

Attach all outside storage cylinders to the building (attach at top and bottom); if attached at only one

 place, cylinders can be battered against the building and possibly break valves. Remember, nothing

 is too heavy to worry about! 

If small quantities of hazardous materials are stored on open shelves, make sure the shelves have

 adequate lips to keep materials on the shelves. Make sure cupboards are fitted with positive latches. 

Separate all incompatible chemicals! 

Keep up-dated inventories of all hazardous materials - store this in a safe place off premises or take it

 with you upon evacuation. 

Shut down the valves on all tanks before leaving. 

B. Records 

If possible, put vital records on hard disk to be taken along when leaving, or electronically transfer all

 important records to a location outside the expected disaster area. 

If records are not computer compatible, place them inside plastic bags and then pack in boxes. 

Seal the boxes with tape. 

Mark the outside of the box with pertinent information, such as department name and/or name of

 supervisor responsible for records. 

If records are confidential, indicate this on the outside of the box. 

Take boxes to a central location to receive an assigned number and to be inventoried. 

Remove boxes to a safer location outside of the disaster area - this location should be pre-determined. 

C. Assign employees to clear outside area of all loose objects. Remove flags from poles as this substantially

 increases the ability of the flagpole to withstand wind. 

D. If the shelter has any refrigerated inventory (drugs, medicines, etc.) immediately set all refrigerators to 
 the lowest setting. However be aware that once the power is off refrigerated items generally will stay cold

 for approximately 48 hours. If the power outage is expected to be longer than this, or if the items will

 otherwise be lost, relocate them or donate them to relief efforts. 

E. Drive any motor vehicles to a safe location, if there is none at the facility. Make sure the vehicles are

 fully fueled, since gas stations will be unable to operate due to lack of power. 

F. Empty freezer of any dead carcasses and dispose of properly. Turn freezer on as cold as possible for

 holding of dead animal bodies immediately after the disaster. 

Final Securing of Premises 

A. Contact your alarm system company and local officials advising that you are shutting down operation of

 the facility. 

B. Provide employees' with appropriate identification showing employment or relationship to the animal

 facility so that they will be able to return after the storm. 

C. Unplug all equipment and turn off electricity at breakers before leaving - including air conditioning,

 water heaters, gas and water (this helps prevent contamination). 

D. Recheck valves on hazardous materials tanks to make sure they are fully closed. 

Returning after the Disaster 

A. Avoid all metal as it may be energized. Wear rubber boots and rubber gloves. 

B. Enter with extreme caution; check structural integrity. Always use a buddy system when entering the

 structure. 

C. Don't strike matches, as gas leaks or leaks of other hazardous materials are common. Use flashlights

 only. 

D. Make a written assessment of the building and its contents. Photograph as similarly to the original

 inventory photographs as possible, to expedite insurance processing. 

E. Make any safety repairs immediately that are necessary to protect employees and minimize further

 damage. 

F. If there has been flooding or rain damage, have an electrician inspect the premises before turning on the

 breakers. 

G. DON'T connect emergency generators to the building wiring as unsuspecting repair crews may be

 injured or killed. Operate any necessary equipment directly off the generator. Use generators outside only

 as they expel carbon monoxide. 

H. Continue to use communication systems only for emergencies. 

I. Remember that water will be contaminated, creating a health hazard. 

J. Employees should be instructed not to attempt to return to work until notified. 

K. Notify outside agencies, such as national or state humane and animal control organizations, of your 
 status. If you need assistance of any kind, the faster you call, the faster it will arrive. It is generally much

 easier for you to call out of a disaster area than it is for others to call into one. 

On-Going Planning 

A. Flood-Plain Map - Keep one posted at all times in employee and public lounges or waiting areas. 

B. Provide regular training for all employees in CPR, First Aid (for humans and animals) and disaster

 preparations, particularly in tornado, earthquake, and fire response (use of fire extinguishers and their

 locations in the facility. 

C. Hold quarterly fire, tornado, and earthquake drills. 

D. Review and update your disaster plan annually. 

E. Supplies needed at all times: 

Flashlights with batteries (refrigerated for longer life). 

Transistor Radio with batteries 

Fire Extinguisher 

Tarps and/or plastic 

Rope or cord 

Tape 

Tools necessary to shut down equipment, tanks, etc. 

First Aid Kits for human and animals 

Food and water to last for 1 -2 weeks 

Portable corrals for livestock 

Collapsible cages or crates 

Additional collars, leads, leashes, halters 

Additional office supplies of those items used frequently 

Weather Alert Radio 

Police Scanner 

F. Make sure personnel are up-to-date on protective shots such as rabies, tetanus, hepatitis, etc. 

G. Develop a telephone tree of employees and, possibly, volunteers to notify them of disasters or pending

 disasters. Make provisions, however, for communication in case telephone lines are down. Pre-arrange

 meeting sites with needs list in case communication is impossible. 

H. Obtain, or get a commitment for, a generator with the capacity to operate basic functions of the facility.

 If you have obtained a generator for permanent use, have the hook-up to your electric pre-wired by a

 qualified electrician. Make sure staff know how to properly operate after a disaster. 

I. Keep a list of telephone numbers of local, state and national groups that could provide assistance. 

J. Develop a communications system with flexibility. Do not depend on one form of communication after a

 disaster. 

Telephone tree - those whose telephones are working and who can relay information around and out

 of the disaster area. 

Make contacts with local ham radio operators. See if someone can relay messages for the facility

 after a disaster. 

Become part of your emergency management department's system. 

Portable CB's will work short distances if all other systems are down. Information can be relayed by 
 CB until better systems are operating. 

Cellular phones may not work because of downed relaying towers or crowded airwaves, but are

 useful to have on hand. 

K. Check electrical wiring regularly. 

You must also plan for incidents such as tornadoes, earthquakes, or hazardous material releases for which you will have

 little or no advance warning. 

1. Someone should be designated to make the decision on whether to evacuate or stay in the building. 

2. If the decision is to remain in the building, safe areas should be identified in advance and employees

 should be regularly instructed as to the location of the safe areas. 

You should also consider the impact of a disaster not just on your facility, but on the neighboring community or region.

 A disaster in your area may bring a flood of animals to your doorstep, creating a ripple disaster in your shelter. 

Developed by Laura Bevan, The Humane Society of the United States, using information from the "Hurricane Action Guidelines for the Business Community" developed by Sarasota (FL)

 County Emergency Management. 

Disaster Plan Quick Check List 

This plan developed 

for:___________________________________________ 

Date:_________________ 

I. EVALUATION OF FACILITY 

A. Known dangers to facility in area 

_________ Storm Surge area 

_________ Flood Plain 

_________ Hazardous material plants or disposal sites 

_________ Railroad tracks 

_________ Interstates 

_________ Fuel depots 

_________ Wildfires 

_________ Earthquake faults 

_________ Fire inside facility 

_________ Heat or cold emergencies 

_________ Emergency Management has assessed dangers to facility 
B. Dangers of structure 

Construction quality of building: ____Excellent ____Good ____Fair ____Poor 

Glass: ____Sliding doors ___Large windows ____Large number of windows 

Kennels: ___Indoor / outdoor ___Indoor only ___Outdoor only ___Other 

_________ Presence of interior "safe" areas 

_________ Roof hurricane strapped or clipped 

_________ Exposed, overloaded, or old electrical wiring 

_________ Professional evaluation of facility 

_________ Area cleared around structure 

II. INSURANCE 

_________ Annual check for adequacy 

_________ Location identified on flood plain map 

_________ Inventory done 

III. PRIORITIES 

_________ Identify vital property and protect 

_________ Movable inventory (i.e. vehicles) 

_________ Secure furniture 

_________ Glass secured 

_________ Fire drill conducted 

_________ Fire alarm installed 

_________ Fire extinguishers installed 

_________ Employees trained to use extinguishers 

_________ Lightning suppression system installed 

_________ Adequate hoses attached to building 

IV. EMPLOYEES 

_________ Pyramid of release 

_________ Personal disaster plans 

_________ Non-business hours plan 
_________ Notification of return 

_________ Training in C.P.R. 

_________ Training in First Aid (human & animal) 

_________ Training in Disaster Planning 

_________ Cross training done 

_________ Up-to-date protective shots 

V. SPECIFIC PREPARATIONS 

________ Hazardous Materials - Labeled, secured 

________ Outside tanks - secured and valves closed 

________ Incompatible chemicals separated 

________ Update inventories regularly 

________ Vital business records protected and secured 

________ Prepared for loss of power 

________ Outside area clear of loose objects 

________ Flags down 

________ Refrigerated inventory protected 

________ Movable inventory, fueled and protected 

________ Freezer emptied of carcasses 

________ Generators available 

VI. FINAL SECURING OF PREMISES 

_________ Contact alarm companies 

_________ Take identification 

_________ Unplug equipment, shut off breakers, gas and water 

_________ Recheck hazardous material valves 

VII. RETURNING AFTER THE DISASTER 

_________ Rubber gloves and boots 

_________ Enter with buddy 

_________ Flashlights only 

_________ Inventory 
___________________________________ 

__________________ 

_________ Safety repairs 

_________ Building checked by electrician 

_________ Outside agencies notified of status 

VIII. PLANNING 

_________ Flood Plain Map posted 

_________ Flashlights with batteries 

_________ Transistor radio with batteries 

_________ Weather alert radio 

_________ Police scanner 

_________ Fire Extinguishers 

_________ Tarps and/or plastic 

_________ Rope and tape 

_________ Tools 

_________ First Aid Kits (animal & human) 

_________ Food/Water 

_________ Extra cages and crates, halters 

_________ Quarterly disaster drills - test smoke detector batteries 

_________ Disaster plan updated annually 

_________ Annually recharge fire extinguishers 

_________ Identify safe areas from tornados, earthquakes, etc. 

_________ Telephone tree created 

_________ Electrical wiring checked 

On ___________________________ this plan should be re-evaluated and employees should be re-trained. 

Signature & Date 

Preparing the Farm and Farm Animals for Disasters
 
Jacob Casper, DVM, Maryland Department of Agriculture
 

Office of Food Safety and Consumer Services, Animal Health Laboratory

 P.O. Box 1234, Frederick, Maryland 21702

 Contribution #: MDACN-80-93
 

Sebastian E. Heath, MVetSci, Vet MB, Purdue University
 

School of Veterinary Medicine, 1249 Lynn Hall

 W. Lafayette, Indiana 47907
 

Robert D. Linnabary, DVM, MS, University of Tennessee
 

College of Veterinary Medicine, Knoxville, Tennessee 37901-1071
 

Introduction 

Disasters such as hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, earthquakes, severe winter weather, hazardous material spills or nuclear

 power plant accidents can occur any time. The event may occur suddenly or be anticipated for several days as with an

 approaching hurricane or flood. The time to prepare for these events is long before they occur. Even at the farm level,

 procedures should be written. They should be kept in a safe, fireproof, quickly accessible place with other important

 documents and taken along if it becomes necessary to evacuate the farm. Each member of the farm family and herd

 personnel should know of and practice the plan so that action may be taken even in the absence of key management

 personnel. 

The first step in planning for a disaster is to determine what type of disaster could occur on the farm and with what

 frequency. It would be useless to spend time and money, for example, to plan for severe winter weather if the farm is

 located in a tropical environment. If the premises are near a nuclear power plant, even though the risk of an accident

 occurring is slim, the owners would want to consider how to protect their animals from radioactive fallout. If the farm

 is near a major highway, one might want to consider a hazardous material spill from a road accident in the planning.

 Living next to a river or stream would put planning for flooding or a barge accident in the forefront. 

Only after farm owners have considered their risks can they prioritize the time, money, and other resources they wish to

 allocate to each potential hazard. An all-hazards plan is most desirable; however, plans should also be customized for

 specific situations. Once the risks are known, decisions can be made about what actions can be taken in advance and

 what actions would be required once the disaster occurs. Generally, the effects of a disaster on livestock are lessened by

 avoiding the disaster, mitigating its effect if it cannot be avoided, or sheltering the animals. The approach taken would

 depend upon the type of disaster anticipated. Sometimes only one approach may be appropriate such as sheltering. In

 some instances, combined approaches, such asmitigation and sheltering, may be required. In events such as floods or

 firestorms, sheltering may be the wrong thing to do. 

Mitigation 

Hazard mitigation is defined as any action taken to eliminate or reduce the long-term risk to life and property from

 natural or technological hazards. Some examples of hazard mitigation might be hurricane seeding to reduce the

 intensity of a storm, tying down homes or barns with ground anchors to withstand wind damage, redirecting the impact

 away from a vulnerable location by digging water channels or planting vegetation to absorb water, establishing setback

 regulations so building is not allowed close to the water's edge, and constructing levees or permanent barriers to control

 flooding. 

The farm and farm buildings should be surveyed to figure out what mitigation procedures should be followed based on

 the hazard risk. These procedures include: 

! building or repairing barns and outbuildings so they exceed building codes; 
! constructing or moving buildings to higher ground; 

! replacing or covering glass windows and doors with sturdier materials; 

! keeping drainage furrows sodded; 

! cleaning or moving trash piles and burial sites (Many farms contain burial sites contaminated with

 lead-based paints, machinery grease, motor oil, lead-lined tanks, batteries, roofing nails, asphalt, 

shingles, caulking compounds, linoleum and plumbing lead. During flooding this material may leech

 into the crops or feed supply or be moved to a more accessible area where animals could consume

 them.); 

! moving or storing toxic chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, and rodenticides in secured areas to

 prevent their washing onto pastures where animals may be exposed; 

! securing loose items; and 

! draining or building levees around ponds that could flood. 

A list of resources and people should be developed by the farmer and kept with important papers. This list should

 contain emergency phone numbers, suppliers, truckers, and people that can help with the animals, especially if normal

 working conditions are disrupted. 

Supplies that may be needed during or after the disaster should be obtained. Many of these items may not be readily

 available after the disaster. By obtaining them in advance, more reasonable prices will be paid. Unfortunately, disasters

 attract individuals who gouge and prey on the misfortunes of victims. Items that could be obtained are portable radios

 and TV's, extra batteries, flashlights, candles, portable generators, salt, gravel, litter, fuel, antifreeze, stored feed such as 

hay (the amount to store would depend on the hazard--after the Washington State flood, most producers vowed never to

 inventory large amounts of hay due to excessive flood damage and spoilage), ropes, halters and other animal restraint

 equipment, and medical supplies. Onceobtained they should be stored in such a manner that they will be usable after

 the disaster. While in storage they should be checked at regular intervals--i.e., once a week--to assure that they do not

 spoil, and that electrical or mechanical appliances are still working. They should also be rechecked and evaluated after

 the event to assure they are still usable. A log should be kept to record when and how often the items were monitored.

 Animals should be kept current on all appropriate vaccinations and booster shots before the disaster. Keep a written

 record of the products given and the date of injection. Because the stress of the event and the disruption of the

 environment could cause an increase in infectious disease spread, proper vaccination could protect the animals. 

Representation to Governmental Agency Managing the Disaster Response 

As the disaster approaches or after it arrives, the most important thing the farmer needs is truthful, accurate, and current

 information. Government's response to most disasters is coordinated by a county, State, or Federal emergency

 management agency. Representation to this agency for the farmer is critical. In most instances, this is competently done

 by a member of the State or Federal Department of Agriculture. It is strongly suggested that farm organizations lobby

 for veterinary representation either through their State or Federal Department of Agriculture or separately to the

 emergency management agency. Often, the needs of animals during disasters are given low priority. Veterinarians, who

 are aware of these needs and can also verify the validity of requests for help, are most suited to bring animal problems

 to the forefront. In many instances, actions required to protect animals, such as sheltering or evacuation, must be done

 before a similar action is taken for people. This is because moving animals to shelter from pasture or evacuating them

 to other locations takes considerable time and many workers. However, governmental agencies will not issue such

 directives for animals before similar instructions are issued for people. They fear that a panic situation might occur and

 people might be critical about animals being protected before them. (Animals can always be released from the shelter

 or returned from their point of evacuation if the disaster does not materialize.) What they do not consider is that it must

 be done while it is still safe for people to do the task since animals cannot shelter or evacuate themselves. After the 
 disaster, government usually limits access to the disaster area. However, animals have to be fed, watered, and milked.

 Who is better suited to do this than the owner? Designation of farmers as emergency workers by government solves the

 problem of who will be responsible for this task. A veterinarian located in the emergency operating center can get these

 messages across. 

Evacuation 

If evacuation of the animals is being considered, then evacuation procedures, places, and routes should be planned.

 Since all animals may not be able to be evacuated, owners should decide ahead of time which are the most important

 ones to save. Various decision criteria can be used such as sale value, breeding quality, stage of pregnancy, stage of

 production, or simply sentimental preference. These animals should be identified ahead of time and a written list kept. 

If the owner is not home when the disaster threatens, others would then know which animals to save. 

Animal evacuation routes must not interfere with human evacuation routes. Alternate routes should be found in case the

 planned route is not accessible. Places where animals are to be taken should be decided in advance and arrangements

 made with the owners of these places to accept the animals. Trucks, trailers, and other vehicles should be obtained in

 advance and the animals acclimated to them so they are not frightened when they have to be used. Restraint equipment,

 feed and water supplies should be available to use and move with the animals and sufficient people should be on hand

 to help move them. The animals should be photographed and permanently identified by metal eartag, tattoo, brand,

 registration papers, or microchip. A permanent record of the identification must be kept as this information is useful in

 resolving arguments of ownership in case animals gets loose. Papers documenting the identification should be kept with

 other important papers. Ultimately, the decision to evacuate will depend on the distance to be traveled, the amount of

 time before the disaster will affect the farm, and whether there is any advantage to moving the animals to the place

 selected. Sometimes evacuation may be done after the disaster, provided the roads are passable and the equipment

 needed for travel usable. If this is the case, the accepting location must be contacted to find out its condition. 

Sheltering 

Whether to move farm animals to shelter or leave them outside will depend on the integrity and location of the shelter

 being used and the type of disaster. During Hurricane Andrew, some horses left outside suffered less injury then those

 placed in shelters. This was because some shelters selected did not withstand the high winds. Horses were injured by

 collapsing structures and flying objects that may have been avoided on the outside. Another reason for possibly leaving

 animals unsheltered is because flood waters that inundate a barn could trap animals inside, causing them to drown.

 During severe winter weather, shelter animals from icy wind, rain, and snow. Generally, if the structure is sound, the

 animals should be placed indoors. Once they are inside, secure all openings to the outside. As mentioned previously,

 the sheltering should be ordered and completed before similar action is taken for humans. 

Farm cats and dogs should either be placed in a disaster-proof place or turned loose, as they generally will stay close to

 their home in the immediate period following a disaster. If they are loose, however, attempts must be made to

 immediately catchthem after the threat is over to prevent these animals from becoming feral and a public health hazard.

 Some farm dogs are dangerously aggressive, and under normal circumstances should be kept chained. These dogs

 cannot be kept chained or turned loose during a disaster. If an inside shelter cannot be found, then the only safe and

 humane thing to do is to euthanize these dogs as a last measure before evacuation. 

Human Evacuation 

What can be done with the animals if there is a need to evacuate the premises and the animals have to be left

 unattended? There is always the risk that animals left unattended for extended periods could die or suffer injury.

 Sometimes, this may be the only option to protect human life. Protecting human life should always take priority in

 planning. Regardless, after the animals are secured in appropriate shelters, food and water should be left for them. The

 amount necessary for survival is considerably less than for other purposes. If the animals survive, then the decision can

 be made after the disaster whether it is worth the time and expense to bring them back to their previous condition. 

Consult the table as a guide to the amount of food and water to leave. Every practical effort should be made to leave

 animals with sufficient food and water for their survival--enough for 48 hours should be left. Usually, within that time 
 the initial effects of the disaster will be over. During the recovery phase, the decision can then be made as to the best

 way to mount a rescue effort. 

Special Considerations 

Some practices that may be followed in planning for disasters, especially during the winter, require a special alert.

 During winter weather it is common to use portable heaters, gritty substances on the floor to prevent slipping, and

 antifreeze. When using these heaters, be sure they are working properly and are located in an area where there is

 adequate ventilation. Heaters not working correctly could be a source of carbon monoxide, a deadly, odorless, colorless

 gas. Antifreeze used in vehicles is a deadly poison. Animals seem attracted to it and will readily consume it because of

 its sweet taste. Take care to properly label all containers. Do not use containers previously filled with antifreeze for

 other purposes, especially feed and water. Promptly clean up all leaks and spills. Water supplies should be checked for

 freezing. Many animals have died of thirst during the winter, even with abundant water sources, because they could not

 drink the water as it was frozen solid. If gritty material is spread on floors to prevent slipping, use only approved

 nontoxic materials. Recently, a farmer mistakenly used Furadan, a fungicide, for this purpose and several cows who

 licked it off the floor died. 

Farms can be insured against catastrophic events. Insurance policies are available for replacement of damaged materials,

 repair work for recovery, boarding of evacuated occupants and animals, lost production, and relocation. These should

 be investigated and purchased before the disaster threatens. For a farmer to claim compensation for lost production,

 which in many cases is the largest economic cost during a disaster, the farmer must have substantial records that

 document the level of production his/her herd has achieved in previous years. This is generally only successful in herds

 with recognized herd monitoring programs, such as Dairy Herd Improvement or other programs that are available for

 various species. To verify the validity of these records a herd health program, based on a valid veterinarian-clientanimal relationship, should be in place. A copy of all production records should be kept in a secure place so that the

 details are not lost during the disaster. Many veterinarians are willing to keep copies of their clients' production records,

 if they are computerized and space efficient. 

Conclusion 

Depending upon the event, disaster preparation may or may not be successful. However, it is known that effects of

 disasters are lessened by proper planning. Economically, it is cheaper to prevent the problem or lessen its effect than to

 pay the costs of recovery. The time to do this is NOW, before the disaster occurs. 

ANIMALS WATER/DAY FEED/DAY 

DAIRY COWS 

IN PRODUCTION 9 GALLONS SUMMER 20 POUNDS HAY 

7 GALLONS WINTER 

DRY COWS 9 GALLONS SUMMER 20 POUNDS HAY 

7 GALLONS WINTER 

WEANING COWS 6 GALLONS SUMMER 8-12 POUNDS HAY 
3 GALLONS WINTER
 

PREGNANT 7 GALLONS SUMMER 10-15 POUNDS 

LEGUME HAY 

6 GALLONS WINTER 

COW WITH CALF 9 GALLONS SUMMER 12-18 POUNDS 

LEGUME HAY 

8 GALLONS WINTER 

CALF (400 POUNDS) 6 GALLONS SUMMER 8-12 POUNDS 

LEGUME HAY 

4 GALLONS WINTER 

SWINE
 

BROOD SOW WITH

 LITTER 

1-2 GALLONS SUMMER 2 POUNDS GRAIN 

4 GALLONS SUMMER 8 POUNDS GRAIN 

3 GALLONS WINTER 

BROOD SOW

 (PREGNANT) 

1 GALLON WINTER 

150 POUND GILT OR

 BOAR 

1 GALLON 3 POUNDS GRAIN 

SHEEP 

EWE WITH LAMB 1 GALLON 5 POUNDS HAY 

EWE, DRY 3 QUARTS 3 POUNDS HAY 

WEANING LAMB 2 QUARTS 3 POUNDS HAY 

POULTRY
 

LAYERS 5 GALLONS/100 BIRDS 17 POUNDS/100 BIRDS 
BROILERS 5 GALLONS/100 BIRDS 10 POUNDS/100 BIRDS 

TURKEYS 12 GALLONS/100 BIRDS 40 POUNDS/100 BIRDS 

HORSES 

ALL BREEDS 5 GALLONS/1000

 POUNDS 

20 POUNDS HAY/1000

 POUNDS 

DOGS AND CATS 

ALL BREEDS 1 QUART/DAY/ANIMAL AD LIBITUM DRY FOOD 

Bibliography 

American Veterinary Medical Association (1997). Emergency Preparedness and Response Guide. Schaumburg,

 Illinois: American Veterinary Medical Association, 10 sections. Available from the American Veterinary Foundation

 Disaster Relief Fund for $55. 

Descriptors: operations of the AVMA emergency response force, agency coordination, enrollment procedures, planning

 and preparation, disaster resource material, animal care and handling, training procedures and materials, sample

 reporting forms, acronyms, key contacts in Federal and State agencies, and commercial organizations, includes copy of 

Veterinary Services in Disasters and Emergencies. 

Anderson, S.L. (1998). Hazard analysis: Preparing for natural disasters. Lab Animal 27(1): 24-31. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Descriptors: hazard categories, risk assessment, resources for emergency planning, list of criteria to follow when

 analyzing a facility and preparing a response, check lists, laboratory personnel, coordinating response, planning the

 facility program. 

Dorn, C.R., J.G. Gordon, and C. Sherry (1993).Veterinary service and animal care emergency operations plans. 

Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 203(7): 1005-1008. 

NAL call number: 41.8 Am3 

Descriptors: veterinary services, emergencies, disasters, planning. 

Gerrity, L.W. (1998). Expecting one disaster and getting another. Lab Animal 27(1): 29. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Descriptors: A case study of the effects of Hurricane Opal on the animal resources program of the University of

 Alabama at Birmingham. 

Heath, S.E., R. Dorn, R.D. Linnabary, J. Casper, J. Hooks, and K. Marshall (1997). Integration of veterinarians into

 the official response to disasters. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 210(3): 349-352. 

NAL call number: 41.8 Am3 

Descriptors: veterinarians, disasters, emergencies, planning, responses, coordination of relief efforts, not specifically for

 animal facilities but may be useful for universities with large laboratory animal, agricultural, or veterinary facilities. 
Heath, S.E., R. Dorn, R.D. Linnabary, J. Hooks, J. Casper, and K. Marshall (1997). An overview of disaster

 preparedness for veterinarians. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 210(3): 345-348. 

NAL call number: 41.8 Am3 

Descriptors: veterinarians, disasters, emergencies, veterinary services, planning, funding, programs. 

Heath, S.E. (1995). Preparing horse farms, horses and their owners for disasters. Journal of Equine Veterinary

 Science 15(4): 206-209. 

NAL call number: SF951.J65 

Descriptors: farms, disasters, farm planning, local planning, transport of animals, fires, legislation, telecommunications. 

Leonpacher, R.J. (1991). Disaster planning in animal facilities. AALAS Bulletin 30(6): 20-21. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A23 

Descriptors: disasters, laboratory animals, designing a plan, damage or destruction of building contents even though the

 building is still sound, loss of communications, loss of access, loss of utilities--electrical supply, water, steam, gas,

 drainage, key elements in disaster plans. 

University of California (1998). Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Guide to Disaster Preparedness

 Resources. D. Klingborg, D. Dawson, and S. Donahue (eds.), Davis, California: Veterinary Medical Extension,

 University of California at Davis, 60 p. Available at http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/vetext/INF-DI_DANRGuide.html 

Descriptors: overview of emergency services in California, guide to roadblocks and fire designations, standardized

 emergency management system, articles, training manuals, workshops, videotapes and other information resources,

 disaster planning--a comprehensive look at developing a response program, contacts in California, emergency contacts

 in California--includes animal transporters, animal shelters, feed and supply stores, pet stores, veterinary personnel,

 sample animal care guidelines and forms. 

Vogelweid, C.M. (1998). Developing emergency management plans for university laboratory animal programs

 and facilities. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 37(5): 52-56. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A23 

Descriptors: creating your plan, establish a planning team and obtain authorization to develop the plan, analyzing

 response capabilities and identifying specific hazards that are likely to effect an animal facility, develop your plan,

 include proper authorities--fire, police, environmental safety, community outreach, recovery and restoration of services, 

implementing the plan, training. 

Useful World Wide Web Sites 

American Red Cross Disaster Services 

http://www.redcrosslv.org/disaster.html 

The mission of American Red Cross Disaster Services is to ensure nationwide disaster planning, preparedness,

 community disaster education, mitigation, and response that will provide the American people with quality services

 delivered in a uniform, consistent, and responsive manner. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Virtual Library and Electronic Reading Room 

http://www.fema.gov/library/ 

Pertinent resources include full-text documents in the following categories: 

Animals in Emergencies
 

Preparedness, training, and exercises 

Response and recovery 

U.S. Fire Administration 
 

The online library of FEMA contains full-text resources for planning your disaster response program. Also includes

 information in Spanish. An excellent resource provided by the Federal Government. 

Florida Animal Disaster Planning Advisory Committee 

http://www.fl-adpac.org/ 

ADPAC is an ad hoc group of organizations and individuals interested in promoting the effective development and

 implementation of disaster plans to protect animals. 

University of Colorado Health Sciences Center Animal Care & Use Program 

http://www.colorado.edu/VCResearch/integrity/animalcare/index.html 

This document is designed to do the following: Guide you during emergencies; Inform you of potential emergency

 situations before an emergency occurs; and Help you to avoid and anticipate dangerous situations. To access this site,

 scroll down the left frame and click on After Hours Emergencies/ Disaster Prep. 

University of Florida Emergencies 

http://www.health.ufl.edu/acs/emergency.htm 

The Animal Resources Branch is responsible for emergency planning and implementation with regard to the research

 animals. This manual will serve as an annex to the University of Florida Natural Disaster/Hurricane Emergency Plan in

 addition to other Emergency Procedures (i.e. fire, flood, threats by animal activists, etc.) as established by the

 University of Florida. 

University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences and the Florida Cooperative Extension Service 

http://disaster.ifas.ufl.edu/ 

The Disaster Handbook Web site is one component of the Comprehensive Disaster Preparedness and Recovery

 Education Module, which also includes: The Disaster Handbook (Print and CD-ROM Editions) and "Are You Ready?"

 a video based on the Disaster Preparedness Satellite Video conference. 

Top | Articles and Bibliographies 

Return to: Title Page | Main Contents | Using this Resource 

Last updated June 28, 2001 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

Animal Welfare Laws, Legislation, and Regulations
 

A Brief Literature Review
 

Thirty Years of the Animal Welfare Act 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter) 

Validation of in Vitro Methods: Regulatory Issues 

(links to the article previously published in the Animal Welfare Information 

Bibliography
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Bibliography 

American Bar Association (1988). Animal Law Report Animal Protection Committee. American Bar Association,

 Young Lawyers Division, Animal Protection Committee, New York, NY; Vol. 2, no. 1. 

NAL call number: KF3841.A15A5 

Descriptors: treatment of animals, Law and legislation, wildlife conservation, animal testing, alternatives. 

Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) (1990). Animals and their legal rights. Washington, D.C.: AWI, 441 p. 

NAL call number: HV4725.U5L4 1990 

Descriptors: evolution of anti-cruelty laws in the U.S., 28 hour law, humane slaughter laws, laboratory animal welfare,

 airlines, dogs, cats, horses, fighting ventures, trapping, marine mammals, birds, nonhuman primates, humane education,

 law enforcement agencies, foreign laws. 

Applied Research Ethics National Association (ARENA) (1992). Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

 Guidebook NIH publication no. 92-3415, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 

Office for Protection from Research Risks, Bethesda, Maryland: National Institutes of Health, 57 p. 

NAL call number: HV4764.I58 1992 

Descriptors: Federally mandated functions, issues in proposal review, recordkeeping and reporting, other resources and

 references, sample forms. 

Collins, B.R. (1987). Public disclosure or sunshine laws hinder the efficiency of the animal care and use

 committees. Laboratory Animal Science 37(4): 513. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: open meetings, confidentiality, Florida. 

Crawford, R.L. (1996). A review of the animal welfare enforcement report data 1973 through 1995. Animal Welfare

 Information Center Newsletter. 7 (2): 1-12. 

NAL call number: aHV4701.A952 

Descriptors: animal welfare, regulations, animal experiments, laboratory animals, law enforcement, zoo animals, circus

 animals, animals, legislation, animal numbers. 
Demarest, J. (1989). Ghettoizing animal research: The impact of federal regulations on science and education in

 small colleges. In Animal Care and Use in Behavioral Research: Regulations, Issues, and Applications J.W. Driscoll

 (ed.), Beltsville, Maryland: United States Department of Agriculture/National Agricultural Library, pp. 30-36. 

NAL call number: aHV4762.A3A64 

Descriptors: survey, regulations, training, animal maintenance, ACUC. 

Dennis, M.B. Jr. and G.L.Van Hoosier, G.L. Jr. (1994). North American legislation and regulation of the use of live

 animals for scientific research. In Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, P. Svendsen and J. Hau (eds.), p. 23-35. 

NAL call number: QL55.H36 1994 

Descriptors: animal experiments, legislation, laboratory animals, animal welfare. 

Glosser, J.W. (1990). Responsibility of the regulator to the regulated community. Journal of Medical Primatology

 19(1): 1-8. 

NAL call number: QL737.P9J66 

Descriptors: animal welfare, legislation, jurisprudence, government, public opinion. 

Hamm, T.E. Jr., R.B. Dell, and R.C. Van Sluyters (1995). Laboratory animal care policies and regulations: United

 States. ILAR Journal 37 (2): 75-78. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: animal welfare, regulations, law enforcement, laboratory animals. 

Hicks, J.M. (1997). Animal welfare and toxicology/safety studies: Making sense of the regulatory environment. 

Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 36(3): 49-54. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A23 

Descriptors: animal product safety testing requirements, Food and Drug Administration regulations, Environmental

 Protection Agency regulations, Consumer Product Safety Commission regulations, Occupational Safety and Health

 Administration regulations, Animal Welfare Act, U.S. Department of Agriculture regulations, Public Health Service

 policies and guidelines, Good Laboratory Practices, standards, voluntary requirements, review. 

Marlene-Russow, L. (1992). NIH Guidelines and Animal Welfare. In Biomedical Ethics Reviews Clifton, New Jersey:

 Humana Press. 

NAL call number: R724.B493 

Descriptors: animal experimentation, laws, ethics. 

Mendelson, J. III. (1997). Should animals have standing? A review of standing under the Animal Welfare Act. 

Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 24 (4): 795-820. 

NAL call number: TD172.E48 

Descriptors: jurisprudence, Animal Welfare Act, legal standing. 

Orlans, F.B. (1986). Regulation of animal experimentation: United States of America. Acta Physiologica

 Scandinavica 554: 138-152. 

NAL call number: QP1.A2 

Descriptors: animal welfare, legislation, animal testing alternatives, National Institutes of Health. 

Quade, V. (1982). Animal rights law: Barking up a new tree. (Attorneys for Animal Rights). American Bar

 Association Journal 68n6: 663. 

Descriptors: animal welfare, litigation, Lawyers Committee for the Enforcement of Animal Protection, management,

 research. 

Rollin, B.E. (1992). Federal Laws and Policies governing animal research: Their history, nature, and adequacy. 

Biomedical Ethics Reviews 1990, Clifton, New Jersey: Humana Press. 

NAL call number: R724 B493 

Descriptors: animal experimentation, laws, policy. 
Rozmiarek, H. (1987). Current and future policies regarding laboratory animal welfare. Investigative Radiology

 22(2): 175-179. 

Descriptors: public policy, legislation, United States, animal welfare. 

Schwindaman D. (1994). Federal regulation of experimental animal use in the United States of America. Revue des

 Sciences Techniques 13 (1): 247-60. 

NAL call number: SF781.R4 

Abstract: The author outlines the regulation of animal experimentation in the United States of America (USA).

 Regulation in this field is at the developmental stage; issues are still being defined as public interest in animal welfare

 focuses on various aspects of animal science. Society continues to initiate regulations for animal experimentation in

 response to technological advances which were unknown when the first USA Federal legislation in this field (the

 Laboratory Animal Welfare Act) was signed in 1966. Under the sponsorship of animal welfare activists and, more

 recently, animal rights advocates, amendments to the 1966 law have increased the scope of Federal authority by

 extending both the number of species covered and the areas of care which are regulated. A greater awareness has

 evolved of the issues raised by animal experimentation, both among the general public and within the scientific

 communities. The importance of the Institutional Animal and Care Use Committees in research facilities is described,

 together with other factors which affect Federal legislation. Government regulatory philosophy is also changing

 towards a participatory relationship between regulators and public interest groups. Various affiliations to global and

 regional organizations have heightened national awareness with regard to the perceived exploitation of animal species.

 The author demonstrates clearly that the prevailing trend in the USA is towards expanded agreements which are jointly

 derived and implemented, and which will be instrumental in the search for resolutions. The author concludes that these

 resolutions will continue to revolve around the ethical need to respect the nature of animal species and the need for

 knowledge concerning both humans and animals which can help to extend and enhance the quality of life. 

Descriptors: Animal welfare, legislation and jurisprudence, laboratory animals, standards. 

Shalev, M. (1994). An overview of agencies that developed or monitor compliance. Lab Animal 23 (8): 38, 40-42,

 44.
 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33
 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, animal welfare, regulations, monitoring, organizations, animal experiments, animal

 husbandry.
 

Stewart, W.C. (1987). Regulatory perspectives of the United States Department of Agriculture on functions of

 animal care and use committees. Laboratory Animal Science 37(special issue): 22-23. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, animal welfare, inspection, research institutes, regulations. 

United States Department of Agriculture (1992). Licensing and registration under the Animal Welfare Act: guidelines

 for dealers, exhibitors, transporters, and researchers. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 20 p. 

NAL call number: 1 AG84PRO 

Descriptors: Animal Welfare Act, law, licenses, regulations, laboratory animals, zoo animals. 

United States Public Health Service (1993). Frequently asked questions about the Public Health Service Policy on

 care and use of laboratory animals. ILAR News 35 (3/4): 47-49. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: Policy, husbandry, animal welfare, guidelines, U.S. government organizations. 

VandeBerg, J.L., Williams-Blangero, S., and T.L. Wolfle (1999). U.S. laws and norms related to laboratory animals. 

ILAR Journal 40(1): 34-37. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: Animal Welfare Act, PHS policy, Guide to the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, AAALAC

 International, ILAR. 

Whitney, Jr, R.A. (1987). Animal care and use committees: History and current national policies in the United

 States. Laboratory Animal Science 37(special issue): 18-21. 
 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94
 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, animal welfare, legislation.
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Animal Welfare Information Center, Government and Professional Resources / Laboratory Animals 

APHIS Press Releases 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wps/portal/aphis/newsroom/news 

Press releases on APHIS programs are prepared by Legislative and Public Affairs (LPA) writers within APHIS and are

 issued to the media nationally by the Department and regionally or to specialized audiences by APHIS. 

ALN Magazine 

Animal Lab Magazine Regulations: 

Regilations and stadards, Safety, Transportation and related topics. 

Moshe's Regulation Updates 

Monthly updates of animal welfare regulations. 

Top | Articles and Bibliographies 

Return to: Title Page | Main Contents | Using this Resource 

Last updated June 18, 2014 
Information Resources for Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees 1985-1999 

International Perspectives on the Animal Care

 Committee
 

Regulation of Animal Research in Selected European Countries
 

Bibliography
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Regulation of Animal Research in Selected European Countries 

The following information is generously provided by the European Biomedical Research Association. Their website may

 be accessed at http://www.ebra.org 

Animal Experimentation Legislation in The Netherlands 

Under the Dutch Animal Experimentation Act (1977) the heads of

 research establishments can apply to the Ministry of Welfare, Public

 Health and Cultural Affairs to be issued with a licence to perform

 animal experiments. When applying for such a licence, they must

 specify what type of animal research will be conducted in the

 institution, but there is no specific control of individual research

 projects involving animals. The Ministry must normally give a

 decision on the application within two months and a notice about the

 licence, the purposes of the experiments and the conditions applied to

 them is published in the Netherlands Government Gazette. There is

 no specific limit to the duration of a licence. 

Each institution is required to appoint a veterinary surgeon or other qualified expert in animal welfare who is

 responsible for supervising the welfare of the laboratory animals. In addition this person has wide powers to check that

 the provisions of this Act are being correctly observed. They make an annual report to the licence holder and to the

 Chief Veterinary Inspector. 

The person responsible for determining the way that an animal experiment is performed must hold a doctoral degree in

 biology, medicine, veterinary medicine or dentistry and to have completed a specified course on laboratory animal

 science. There are specific requirements for the expertise and training of persons conducting animal experiments or 
 

 looking after the animals, the size and construction of cages, the cleaning and heating of animal houses and the feeding

 of the animals. 

Laboratory animals have to be obtained from a licensed animal breeder or animal research institution. They must be

 housed and cared for and handled so as to satisfy, as far as possible, their physiological and ethological needs. No

 animal experiment can be conducted for a purpose which, according to a consensus of expert opinion, could be

 achieved without using animals. No experiment can be conducted on a monkey, dog, cat or horse if another species

 would suffice. Anesthetics are required where the animals might otherwise suffer appreciable pain, unless these would

 defeat the object of the experiment. Detailed records must be kept of all the animal experiments conducted. 

The legislation instituted an Animal Experiments Advisory Committee, composed of experts on animal research and

 animal welfare, which is consulted about any general administrative orders concerning animal husbandry, record­

 keeping, training, etc. In addition, the committee may offer advice of its own volition. 

The enforcement of the Act is the responsibility of the Veterinary Public Health Inspectorate, which has an Animal

 Experimentation Department of six staff. They can enter any animal research premises, take samples, examine animals

 and require researchers to provide information or copies of records. Any misdemeanors have to be reported to the

 public prosecutor. This legislation is currently being amended. The main change which the amendments will introduce

 will be a requirement for local anima l ethics committees, including external lay representatives, at each animal

 research institution. The exact role and powers of these committees is not yet known. 

New Legislation in The Netherlands 

On 5 February 1997, a revised Experiments on Animals Act came into force in the Netherlands. The original Act, dating

 from 1977, was reviewed in the EBRA Bulletin in July 1995 (see above). 

Under that legislation, the Ministry of Welfare, Public Health and Cultural Affairs could grant a licence to the head of a

 scientific institution on the basis of an application describing the type of animal experimentation to be performed.

 However, there was no external control of individual research projects. Each institution had to appoint an animal

 welfare officer to supervise the well-being of the animals. In addition, the person responsible for determining the way

 in which an animal experiment was performed had to hold a doctoral degree in a relevant subject. The law also

 contained other provisions based on the EU Directive 86/609. 

The main change introduced by the revised Act is to require that research plans must be approved by an ethical review

 committee, which has to consider the benefit to come from the experiments and whether this justifies the distress

 caused to the animals to be used. No maximum duration for a research plan is stipulated. Committees are required to

 give a decision on an application within three months and, if they do not approve the research plan, the applicant can

 appeal to the central animal review committee established under the previous legislation. 

Although it is not stipulated in the revised Act, it appears likely these would be local ethical review committees, specific

 to larger establishments. Smaller research establishments might need to use the committees set up at larger

 establishments. The structure of these committees is defined in the new Act which requires that they have at least seven

 members made up from equal numbers of experts in i) animal experiments, ii) alternative methods, iii) animal welfare,

 and iv) ethical assessment. At least two members must not be conducting animal experiments and at least three

 members, including the chairperson, must not be employed by a scientific institution applying to the committee. 

The ethical review committees must be recognized by the Minister, who will be advised by the central animal review

 committee. This mechanism is to ensure they operate properly and, for the same purpose, all committees are required to

 submit an annual report to the Minister. An obligation of confidentiality is placed upon members of these committees

 with respect to information provided to them. 

One addition to the legislation which has been discussed by many observers is the requirement to recognize the intrinsic

 value of animal life. However, the Act only states that "Any right accorded by or pursuant to this Act shall be exercised

 in recognition of the intrinsic value of animal life." It is noticeable that the ethical review committees are not required 
 

 to take this point into account when assessing research plans. 

Additional provisions introduced by the revised Act ban the LD50 and LC50 tests, but permit an exemption to be

 granted if it can be shown that the experiment cannot be performed by any other method. The testing of cosmetics and

 cosmetic ingredients is completely banned. Licensing for animal breeders and suppliers is required, applying similar

 provisions to those for animal use establishments. 

The fact that the previous Act did not require the licensing of breeders and suppliers would mean that the Netherlands

 was not properly implementing the Directive 86/609 which requires such registration. It was obviously important for

 this to be corrected. The introduction of a system of research plan review based on the cost-benefit principle was also a

 positive move, bringing the Dutch system closer to that operating in the UK and Germany. However, with the

 introduction of a ban on the LD50 and an absolute ban on cosmetic testing, the Netherlands system has now gone

 significantly further than any other EU country. Naturally, much will depend on how the new Act is implemented but,

 on the basis of the written legislation, this appears to introduce a significantly tighter system of regulation in the

 Netherlands. 

The Regulation of Animal Research and Testing in the United Kingdom 

The British system for regulating the use of animals in

 experiments is defined by a law passed in 1986 called the

 Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act. The main principle of

 this law is the requirement for researchers to obtain

 personal and project licences and a certificate for the

 establishment where the animal experimentation is

 conducted. [Ed. Note: A revision to the text of the Animals

 (Scientific Procedures) Act, which came into effect in

 September 1998, makes clear the requirement that a project

 licence applicant must be aware of the possibilities of

 implementing any of the Three Rs (refinement, reduction

 and replacement of animal use) within the proposed study.

 One of the ways in which this awareness may be

 demonstrated is by documenting the literature searches

 which have been conducted in the course of planning the

 study.] 

The legislation covers all vertebrate animals and has recently been extended to include the octopus. Anyone wanting to

 use any of these animals for a scientific purpose that might cause it distress, suffering or permanent harm must seek the

 necessary licences before commencing any animal work. There is a general exemption for animals which are humanely

 killed (using a method specified by the legislation) before being used in any experimentation or other procedure. Most

 of the normal laboratory species are required to be obtained from breeding or supplying establishments holding a

 certificate under this Act. Cats and dogs are required to be obtained directly from a certified breeder. 

The personal licence lists the techniques the person is permitted to use on animals. Every time the researcher needs to

 use a new technique, the licence must be amended. The certificate for the establishment is given to a named person who

 is legally responsible for ensuring that the Act is properly enforced in the establishment. This person is normally the

 most senior person in charge or their deputy. They are required to have one named person (usually the chief animal

 technician) responsible for the care and welfare of the animals on a day-to-day basis. They are also required to have a

 named veterinary surgeon permanently on call. 

A similar certificate is required by any premises breeding or supplying animals for scientific procedures. The standards

 of animal care and husbandry required in research, breeding and supplying establishments are defined in Codes of

 Practice publishe d by the Home Office. 

The project licence is held by the senior investigator in charge of a particular project or programme of testing. To apply 
 

 for this licence they have to describe the scientific purpose behind the research project or testing scheme, the numbers

 and types of animals to be used, the procedures which the animals will go through and what steps have been taken to

 reduce the number of animals and any distress, suffering or harm involved. Project licences are valid for up to five

 years. All procedures within a project licences are assigned a severity limit - either mild, moderate or substantial. No

 animal procedure used under a project licence should exceed the severity limit unless an alteration to the licence has

 been agreed by the Inspector. 

Applications for project licences are submitted to the Home Office which has a team of approximately 20 Inspectors

 (who must hold medical or veterinary qualifications and have relevant experience or training). These Inspectors will

 assess the application and may require it to be modified before granting the project licence. Home Office Inspectors pay

 unannounced visits to research establishments to ensure that researchers comply with their licences. They have the

 power to modify or suspend licences including, if necessary, the power to immediately suspend the certificate for an

 entire research establishment, halting all animal work. 

Before a person is granted a personal licence, they are required to complete a specified training course normally lasting

 two or three days. A similar training requirement for all first-time applicants for project licences started in April 1995. 

Project licence holders are required to keep detailed records of all animals used which are then reported annually to the

 Home Office. These annual statistics are published showing the numbers and types of animals used as well as the

 purposes for whic h they were used and the type of establishment using them. 

A national committee (the Animal Procedures Committee), made up of researchers, veterinarians, doctors, lawyers,

 philosophers and animal welfarists advises the government about matters concerning the Act. This committee can

 decide which subjects it will study. It reviews all project licence applications in certain categories (cosmetic testing,

 tobacco research, etc) and has the power to see any other project licence application. 

Although the UK system is complex and considered by some to be too bureaucratic, it is generally accepted by UK

 researchers as a fair and sensible system. There are some concerns that the Home Office requires too much detail in the

 project licence application. Since it is very difficult to predict the way that a fundamental research project will develop,

 researchers may need to submit several requests to vary the project licence to the Home Office which can delay the

 progress of the research. 

Laboratory Animal Research Legislation in Sweden 

The Swedish system of regulating animal research comes under a general law

 controlling animal welfare, the Animal Protection Act and the Animal Protection

 Ordinance, both of 1988. To appreciate the way in which these regulate animal 

research, it is necessary to explain the way in which much of the legislation in Sweden

 operates. 

Each Ministry in the Government has a number of National Boards operating under it.

 The legislation passed by the Parliament deals with the general principles and then

 delegates the power to create specific regulations to certain National Boards. 

Under the Swedish Ministry for Agriculture, there is a National Board for Laboratory

 Animals which is responsible for setting up seven regional ethical committees.

 Scientific and medical experts make up half of the membership of each committee

 with the other half being lay members. Animal welfare representatives can only make

 up one third of the committee. The Chairman of each committee is a senior lawyer,

 usually a judge. Detailed rules for the operation of the committees are provided by the

 National Board for Laboratory Animals. All animal research and testing proposals are

 considered by these committees which are required to weigh up the importance of the

 experiments against the animal suffering involved. Projects can be approved for a

 maximum of three years. Although these committees only have advisory power, their 
 recommendations are always followed. Animal experimentation conducted without

 ethical committee approval is illegal under the basic animal welfare provisions of the

 Animal Protection Act. There is no appeal against the decision of an ethical

 committee. 

All animal research projects require ethical committee approval, including feeding

 studies, experiments under terminal anaesthesia and the killing of animals to remove

 tissues for use in vitro biomedical research. 

It is worth noting that the Swedish legislation covers all animals, not just vertebrates. There is a general requirement that

 laboratory animals must be specially bred, but exceptions are granted for most types of animals apart from the normal 

laboratory species. Wild mammals are included in the exceptions. The re-use of animals in not banned under the

 Swedish system, but it is taken into account by the ethics committee when they assess the project proposal. 

Veterinary inspectors from the local or regional authorities check research establishments to ensure compliance with the

 committee decisions. Where problems are found, they have the power to force researchers to comply with the

 committee recommendations or to impose a fine. However, the experimenter can appeal against this to the regional

 authorities of higher if necessary. In 1990, the law was amended to ensure that the ethical committee decision took

 precedence over the opinion of the inspector. The amendment ensured that when an animal research project was

 approved by an ethical committee and performed in accordance with the protocol approved by that committee, the

 inspector had no legal power to halt the project. 

The Laboratory Animal Board is also responsible for the keeping of records and collection of statistical data about the

 numbers and type of animals used. They are also responsible for the regulation of education and training requirements

 for experimenters and technicians and funding the development of alternatives methods to the use of laboratory

 animals. 

In the National Board for Agriculture, there is a Department of Veterinary Affairs which has to approve the design of

 animal research facilities before they are built or before any significant modifications to the buildings are made. It

 licences the facility when it meets the guidelines for temperature control, humidity, cage sizes, etc. Each facility is

 required to appoint a supervisor, a person in charge of animal research for the facility who must be approved by the

 National Board of Agriculture. This Board also registers and approves laboratory animal breeders and suppliers. 
All animal researchers, technicians and animal care[givers] are required to undergo training within two years of starting

 working with animals. Until they have completed this training and passed a test on it, they are required to work under 

supervision. The National Board for Laboratory Animals has set out a number of subjects which must be covered by the

 training, although no formal curriculum or duration of training is stipulated. 

The National Board for Laboratory Animals also creates regulations about the recording of animal experiments and the

 reporting of statistical data. Regulations also cover the way that certain procedures must be conducted. These include

 immunizations, the production of monoclonal antibodies and acute toxicity testing. 

Bibliography 

Allen, M. (1998). US and UK control of animal experimentation. Lab Animal 27(5): 34-36. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1L33 

Abstract: The author examines the strengths and weaknesses of the US and UK Systems of regulating animal care and

 use. 

Anderson, W.P. and M.A. Perry (1999). Australian animal ethics committees: we have come a long way. Cambridge

 Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 8(1): 80-6. 

Descriptors: animal welfare; research review, guidelines. 

Anderson, W.P. (1987). Animal ethics committees. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 17(1): 157. 

Descriptors: animal welfare, policy. 

Baker, R.M. (1994). Animal experimentation ethics committees in Australia and New Zealand. In Welfare and

 Science: Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium of the Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations,

 8-11 June 1993, Brighton, UK. London : Royal Society of Medicine Press, pp. 283-285. 

NAL call number: QL55.F43 1993 

Descriptors: animal welfare, committees, animal experiments, regulations, communication. 

Balls, M. (1986). Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986: The Animal Procedures Committee. Alternatives to

 Laboratory Animals - ATLA 14(1): 6-13. 

NAL call number: Z7994.L3A5 

Descriptors: animal research, advisory committees, legislation, law, animal welfare. 

Bowd, A.D. (1997). The educative role of an Animal Care Committee in Canada: A case study. Animal Welfare 

6(4): 309-315. 

NAL call number: HV4701.A557 

Descriptors: Ethics, humane use of animals, training, training strategies, alternatives to animal testing, animal care. 

Britt, D.P. (1983). The potential role of local ethical committees in the moderation of experiments on animals in

 Britain (includes Swedish view). International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 4(4): 290-294. 

NAL call number: HV4701.I49 

Descriptors: ethical code, animal use, research, ACUC. 

Britt, D. (1994). Animal ethical committees. Alternatives to Laboratory Animals: ATLA 22 (3):141-142. 

NAL call number: Z7994.L3A5 

Descriptors: bioethics, committees, animal welfare, legislation. 

Canadian Council on Animal Care (1994). CCAC 1994 Ontario Regional Workshop, Animal Care Committees: Role

 and responsibilities. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Animal Care, 50 p. 

NAL call number: HV4704.C32 1994 
Descriptors: Animal welfare, Laboratory animals. 

Canadian Council on Animal Care (1994). CCAC 1994 Western Regional Workshop, Animal Care Committees : Role

 and Responsibilities. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Animal Care, 38 p. 

NAL call number: HV4704.C34 1994. 

Descriptors: Animal welfare, Laboratory animals. 

Canadian Federation of Humane Societies (1986).Guidelines for Lay Members of Animal Care Committees.

 Experimental Animals Committee. Nepean, Ontario: Canadian Federation of Humane Societies. 

NAL call number: HV4735.G8 

Descriptors: protocol review, animal welfare, recommendations, public concern. 

Canadian Council on Animal Care (1994). CCAC 1994 National Workshop, Animal Care Committees: Role and

 Responsibilities. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Animal Care, 146 p. 

NAL call number: HV4704.C33 1994. 

Descriptors: Animal welfare, Laboratory animals. 

Combes, R.D. (1999). New measures on animal experimentation in the UK will improve animal welfare and

 scientific research. ATLA-Alternatives to Laboratory Animals 27(3): 309-316. 

NAL call number: Z7994.L3A5 

Descriptors: regulations, ethical use of animals, alternatives, ascites production of antibodies, consumer product testing,

 ethical review process, local review of proposals, cost-benefit analysis, United Kingdom. 

Davis, H. (1986). Animal welfare in Canada: A contrasting view. PsyETA - Psychologists for the Ethical Treatment

 of Animals Bulletin 8(2):9-10. 

NAL call number: HV4701.B85 

Descriptors: animal experiments, facilities, university research. 

Einstein, R. (1994). Animal care and ethics committees: Their role in Australia. In Vitro Toxicology 7(2):137. 

NAL call number: RM300.I55 

Descriptors: committees, responsibilities. 

Fekete, S. (1992). An ethical committee for the control of animal experiments was founded in Hungary: A model

 protocol. Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja 47(6): 303-304. 

NAL call number: 41.8 V644 

Descriptors: animal care, committees. 

Griffin, G. (1995). Alternatives in Canada. Alternatives to Laboratory Animals: ATLA 23 (6): 824-826. 

NAL call number: Z7994.L3A5 

Abstract: In Canada, promotion of the Three Rs concept of alternatives occurs largely through the Canadian Council on

 Animal Care. Institution-based animal care committees are required to conduct an ethical renew of all protocols which

 use animals in research, teaching or testing. Investigators are expected to use animals only when their best efforts to

 find an alternative have failed. Those using animals are required to employ the most humane methods on the smallest

 number of animals possible. The Joseph F. Morgan Research Foundation was established to promote the development

 and use of alternative methods in Canada. The focus of the Foundation has been on the use of alternative methods for

 testing purposes. However, the Foundation also encourages the acceptance of each of the Three Rs throughout

 Canadian science. The Foundation is therefore in the process of developing a refinement alternatives program. 

Descriptors: animal experiments, animal welfare, animal testing alternatives. 

Johnston, N.E. (1994). How important is a central animal experimentation ethics committee (AEEC) compared

 with a local AEEC? In Vitro Toxicology 7(2): 137. 

NAL call number: RM300.I55 

Descriptors: toxicology, committees, Australia. 

Legge, D. and S. Brooman (1999). Animal experimentation ethics committees in the United Kingdom. ANZCCART 
 News 12(2): 1-3.
 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A3
 

Descriptors: ethical review process, regulations, functions of an AEEC, lay members, scientific review, advantages and

 disadvantages, consistency of review, Animal Procedures Committee, Home Office, Boyd Report.
 

Michener, G.R. (1989). Surveillance of animal care and use in Canada. In Animal Care and Use in Behavioral

 Research: Regulations, Issues, and Applications J.D. Driscoll (ed.), United States Department of Agriculture/National

 Agricultural Library, Beltsville, MD, pp. 9-14.
 

NAL call number: AHV4762.A3A64
 

Descriptors: Canadian Council on Animal Care, experimental animals, guidelines, ACUC.
 

New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, New Zealand, National Animal Ethics Advisory Committee, New

 Zealand, Animal Welfare Advisory Committee, New Zealand, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (1995). Animals

 and the Law--Protection, Welfare or Rights: Proceedings of an IPA Seminar Held at Turnbull House, Wellington,

 14th February 1995. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration
 

NAL call number: KUQ1533.A55 1995
 

Descriptors: animal welfare.
 

Noach, E.L. (1995). Ethical assessment of biomedical experiments in The Netherlands (Ethische beoordeling van

 biomedische experimenten in Nederland). Verhandelingen-Koninklijke Academie voor Geneeskunde van Belgie. 57

 (3): 158-182. 

Abstract: The ethical evaluation of biomedical experiments is loyally accepted in the Netherlands. It was introduced

 everywhere during the last 15 years. Among the targets we find not only the protection of the experimental objects-­

animals and humans-- but also the protection of researchers who may find moral support in the approval of their projects

 by a Committee of Ethical Evaluation. Concerning experiments in animals, the legal framework is provided by the Law

 on Animal Experiments. This law was drawn up in accordance with the directive of the E.U. To be allowed to practice

 experiments in animals, an institute must possess a licence; the researchers are moreover obliged to be appropriately

 trained with regard to experiments in animals. To that end an adequately functioning organization has been set up. The

 intensive supervision is widely decentralized and effected for the greater part by experts working within the institutes.

 The "intra muros" Committees supervising the experiments in animals play an important part in the ethical evaluation.

 More than 50 of those Committees are active at this time. Setting the ethical standards is done in close collaboration

 between the Authorities and the researchers. Researchers and animal protection associations have established a

 "Platform for the Replacement of Experiments in Animals", in which they support development of alternative methods

 for research. The legislation concerning medical experiments in humans is not yet completely enforced, but in practice
 

the ethical evaluation has been effected for many years in every hospital of the Netherlands. At present about 150

 "Committees for medico-ethical evaluation" are at work. Their task may be very heavy, especially in the academic

 hospitals, where, mostly, over 150 projects are advised on every year. Adequate training facilities are provided for the

 members of the committees. The passing of the bill on experiments in humans is stagnating owing to political reasons.

 Besides the approval of the present practice, the bill-draft contains some elements that are difficult to accept by

 researchers; among other things, the researchers refuse a possible political influence on the ethical advice. Moreover,

 there exists a menace to see the insurers changing their rules: the legislation on privacy might also hamper the

 development of a research seeming too closely patient-linked. Sufficient attention is not given to the financial aspects

 of the evaluation-process. The real cost of the evaluation should be incorporated into the budget of research projects.
 

Descriptors: animal testing alternatives, legislation and jurisprudence, ethics committees, human experimentation,

 Netherlands.
 

Nomura, T. (1995). Laboratory animal care policies and regulations: Japan. ILAR Journal 37 (2): 60-61.
 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43
 

Descriptors: animal welfare, laboratory animals, regulations, law enforcement.
 

Obrink, K.J. and L. Wass (1985). Compulsory ethical examination of animal experiments. Experiences with the

 Swedish system. In: Proceedings of the 8th ICLAS/CALAS Symposium Vancouver, 1983 New York: Gustav Fischer

 Verlag, pp. 151-156.
 

NAL call number: QL55.I55 1983
 
Descriptors: animal experiments, ethics, ethical committees, compulsory preexamination, Swedish legislation, ACUC. 

Perry, M. (1998). Revised Australian Code of Practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes. 

Australian Veterinary Journal 76 (4): 286. 

NAL call number: 41.8 Au72 

Descriptors: animal welfare, education, animal ethics committee, scientific animal use, Australian Code of Practice. 

Poon, P. (1999) The use of laboratory animals in Taiwan. ANZCCART News 12(2): 10. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A3 

Descriptors: training, animal care and use, laboratory animal production, Laboratory Animal Ethics Committees,

 Animal Protection Act, public opinion, advocacy for research. 

Reid, C.S.W. (1995). Laboratory animal care policies and regulations: New Zealand. ILAR Journal 37 (2): 62-68. 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43 

Descriptors: animal welfare, laboratory animals, regulations, law enforcement. 

Rodgers, L. and R. Tremont (1992). Australian researchers take on animal rights. New Scientist May 16, 1992 134

 (1821): 37. 

NAL call number: 472 N42 

Descriptors: animal welfare, animal experiments, ethics. 

Rose, M. (1996). Striking the balance: the practitioner and the animal ethics committee. ANZCCART (Australia

 and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Testing) News 9(3): 1-3. 

NAL call number: SF405.5.A3 

Descriptors: legislation, veterinary profession, laboratory animals, animal welfare. 

Rowsell, H.C. (1986). Regulation of animal experimentation: Canada's program of voluntary control. Acta

 Physiologica Scandinavica 554: 95-105. 

NAL call number: QP1.A2 

Descriptors: animal welfare, animal testing alternatives, animal welfare history, history of medicine, pain, peer review. 

Rowsell, H.C. (1987). Program and objectives of the Canadian Council on Animal Care. Laboratory Animal

 Science 37(special issue): 24-25. 

NAL call number: 410.9 P94 

Descriptors: animal welfare, pain, prevention, legislation, protection, animal testing alternatives. 

Rowsell, H.C. (1980). The voluntary control program of the Canadian Council on Animal Care. Journal of

 Medical Primatology 9(1-2): 5-8. 

NAL call number: QL737.P9J66 

Descriptors: laboratory animals, ethics, research, ACUC. 

Scharmann, W. (1994). Housing of laboratory animals and animal welfare legislation: a critical evaluation of

 current guidelines. [Tiergerechte Haltung von Versuchstieren: Kritische Bewertung der geltenden Richtlinien.] 

Tierarztliche Umschau 49(9): 552, 555-560.
 

NAL call number: 41.8 T445
 

Descriptors: rats, mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, caging, housing, European Union, experiments, animal welfare, guidelines,

 legislation and regulations.
 

Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences and Swiss Academy of Sciences (1992). Ethical principles and guidelines for

 scientific experiments on animals. Experientia 48(1):1-3.
 

NAL call number: 475 EX7
 

Descriptors: animal welfare, animal experiments, guidelines, professional ethics.
 

Townsend, P. and D.B. Morton (1995). Laboratory animal care policies and regulations: United Kingdom. ILAR

 Journal 37 (2): 68-74. 
NAL call number: QL55.A1I43
 

Descriptors: animal welfare, regulations, law enforcement, laboratory animals.
 

Wong, J. (1995). Laboratory animal care policies and regulations: Canada. ILAR Journal 37 (2): 57-59.
 

NAL call number: QL55.A1I43
 

Descriptors: animal welfare, laboratory animals, regulations, law enforcement, organizations.
 

Useful World Wide Web Sites
 

Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act - 1986 

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/guidance-on-the-operation-of-the-animals-scientific-procedures-act-1986 

From the United Kingdom Home Office--full text, plus amendments and guidance notes. 

The Animal Welfare Act and the Animal Welfare Ordinance (Sweden) 

http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/10158/a/90310 

Made available by the Swedish Fund for Research Without Animal Experiments. 

The Dutch Experiments on Animals Act 

http://www.nca-nl.org/ 

Provided by the Netherlands Center for Alternatives-in English. 

European Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals Used for Experimental and Other Scientific

 Purposes ETS no.: 123 

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc? 

smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&numdoc=21999A0824(01)&model=guichett&lg=en 

The Convention is designed primarily to reduce both the number of experiments and the number of animals used for

 such purposes. It encourages Parties not to experiment on animals except where there is no alternative. All research into

 alternative methods should be encouraged. Animals to be experimented on should be selected on the basis of clearly

 established quantitative criteria and must be well cared for and spared avoidable suffering whenever possible. To this

 end, the Convention lays down a number of principles which are to be considered only as a starting point. The Parties

 meet regularly to examine the application of the Convention and, if appropriate, to extend or strengthen its provisions. 

Laboratory Animals--Articles to Download 

http://www.lal.org.uk/onlinerep.html 

This site provides access to many Working Party Reports, FELASA reports, and scientific papers from European

 scientists. 

Legislation Worldwide 

http://www.frame.org.uk/page.php?pg_id=65 

From FRAME in the United Kingdom. 

Norwegian Regulation of Animal Experimentation (Forskrift om forsøk med dyr) 

http://oslovet.veths.no/statute.html 

Pronounced by the Ministry of Agriculture, January 15, 1996, in accordance with the Animal Welfare Act of December

 12, 1974, nr 73, §§ 22 and 30, after royal proclamation of 19.11.76, amended November 17, 1998. 

University of Melbourne 

http://www.research.unimelb.edu.au/animalethics/home 

The homepage of the Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee containing guidelines, policies and recommendations. 
 

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