U.S. Department

of Transportation

Federal Aviation

Administration

JULY 26, 2012

AERONAUTICAL

INFORMATION

MANUAL

Change 2

March 7, 2013

DO NOT DESTROY

CHANGE 1 DATED

3/7/13 AIM

Explanation of Changes E of Chg−1

Aeronautical Information Manual

Explanation of Changes

Effective: March 7, 2013

a. Comments/Corrections.

This change updates the postal address, and adds an email

address, for submitting comments and corrections in

support of the AIM publication.

b. 1−1−14. User Reports on NAVAID Performance

This change updates guidance to specifically address the

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).

c. 1−1−19. Global Positioning System (GPS)

This change describes the requirements for two

independent navigation systems. It also clarifies the

application of different Technical Standard Orders and

updates the guidance for standalone GPS approaches. In

addition, this change clarifies the term UNRELIABLE as

used in conjunction with GPS notices to airmen. Document

references have also been updated throughout the

paragraph where applicable.

d. 5−2−7. Departure Control

This change incorporates verification of the assigned area

navigation (RNAV) standard instrument departure (SID) to

pilots prior to departure into the Aeronautical Information

Manual and other Air Traffic publications.

e. 5−3−4. Airways and Route Systems

This change adds guidance for using “T−Routes” and

“Q−Routes.” Document references have also been updated

throughout the paragraph where applicable.

f. 5−4−5. Instrument Approach Procedure Charts

This change updates guidance regarding the Ground Based

Augmentation System (GBAS) and updates document

references where applicable.

g. Entire publication.

Editorial/format changes were made where necessary, to

include recent organization name changes. Revision bars

were not used when changes are insignificant in nature.

3/7/13 AIM

Page Control Chart 1

AIM Change 2

Page Control Chart

March 7, 2013

REMOVE PAGES DATED INSERT PAGES DATED

Checklist of Pages CK−1 through CK−6 .... 7/26/12 Checklist of Pages CK−1 through CK−6 .... 3/7/13

Comments/Corrections ................. 7/26/12 Comments/Corrections ................. 3/7/13

Comments/Corrections ................. 7/26/12 Comments/Corrections ................. 3/7/13

i and ii .............................. 7/26/12 i and ii .............................. 3/7/13

1−1−17 through 1−1−35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/26/12 1−1−17 through 1−1−36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/7/13

2−3−7............................... 7/26/12 2−3−7............................... 3/7/13

2−3−8............................... 7/26/12 2−3−8............................... 7/26/12

3−2−1............................... 7/26/12 3−2−1............................... 7/26/12

3−2−2............................... 7/26/12 3−2−2............................... 3/7/13

5−1−3............................... 7/26/12 5−1−3............................... 3/7/13

5−1−4............................... 7/26/12 5−1−4............................... 7/26/12

5−2−5 through 5−2−9................... 7/26/12 5−2−5 through 5−2−9................... 3/7/13

5−3−5 through 5−3−7................... 7/26/12 5−3−5 through 5−3−7................... 3/7/13

5−3−8............................... 7/26/12 5−3−8............................... 7/26/12

5−4−21 through 5−4−29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/26/12 5−4−21 through 5−4−29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/7/13

5−4−30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/26/12 5−4−30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/26/12

7−1−1............................... 7/26/12 7−1−1............................... 3/7/13

7−1−2............................... 7/26/12 7−1−2............................... 7/26/12

7−1−23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/26/12 7−1−23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/7/13

7−1−24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/26/12 7−1−24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/26/12

7−5−1............................... 7/26/12 7−5−1............................... 3/7/13

7−5−2............................... 7/26/12 7−5−2............................... 7/26/12

PCG−1 .............................. 7/26/12 PCG−1 .............................. 3/7/13

PCG G−1 and PCG G−2 ................ 2/9/12 PCG G−1 through PCG G−3 ............. 3/7/13

Index I−1 through I−13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/26/12 Index I−1 through I−13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/7/13

3/7/13

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AIM

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PAGE DATE

Cover 7/26/12

Record of Changes N/A

Exp of Chg−2 3/7/13

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CK−1 3/7/13

CK−2 3/7/13

CK−3 3/7/13

CK−4 3/7/13

CK−5 3/7/13

CK−6 3/7/13

Subscription Info 7/26/12

Comments/Corr 3/7/13

Comments/Corr 3/7/13

Basic Flight Info 7/26/12

Publication Policy 7/26/12

Reg & Advis Cir 7/26/12

Table of Contents

i 3/7/13

ii 7/26/12

iii 7/26/12

iv 7/26/12

v 7/26/12

vi 7/26/12

vii 7/26/12

viii 7/26/12

ix 7/26/12

x 7/26/12

xi 7/26/12

Chapter 1. Air Navigation

Section 1. Navigation Aids

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Section 2. Area Navigation

(RNAV) and Required

Navigation Performance

(RNP)

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Chapter 2. Aeronautical

Lighting and Other Airport

Visual Aids

Section 1. Airport Lighting

Aids

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Section 2. Air Navigation and

Obstruction Lighting

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Section 3. Airport Marking

Aids and Signs

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Chapter 3. Airspace

Section 1. General

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Section 2. Controlled Airspace

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Section 3. Class G Airspace

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Section 4. Special Use 

Airspace

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Section 5. Other Airspace

Areas

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Chapter 4. Air Traffic Control

Section 1. Services Available

to Pilots

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Section 2. Radio

Communications Phraseology

and Techniques

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Section 3. Airport Operations

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Section 4. ATC Clearances

and Aircraft Separation

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Section 5. Surveillance 

Systems

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Section 6. Operational Policy/

Procedures for Reduced Vertical

Separation Minimum (RVSM) in

the Domestic U.S., Alaska,

Offshore Airspace and the 

San Juan FIR

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Section 7. Operational Policy/

Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico

50 NM Lateral Separation

Initiative

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Chapter 5. Air Traffic 

Procedures

Section 1. Preflight

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Section 2. Departure

Procedures

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Section 3. En Route

Procedures

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Section 4. Arrival Procedures

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Section 5. Pilot/Controller

Roles and Responsibilities

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Section 6. National Security

and Interception Procedures

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Chapter 6. Emergency 

Procedures

Section 1. General

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Section 2. Emergency Services

Available to Pilots

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Section 3. Distress and

Urgency Procedures

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Section 4. Two−way Radio

Communications Failure

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6−4−2 7/26/12

Section 5. Aircraft Rescue

and Fire Fighting

Communications

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Chapter 7. Safety of Flight

Section 1. Meteorology

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Section 2. Altimeter Setting 

Procedures

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Section 3. Wake Turbulence

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Section 4. Bird Hazards and

Flight Over National Refuges,

Parks, and Forests

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Section 5. Potential Flight

Hazards

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7−5−8 7/26/12

7−5−9 7/26/12

7−5−10 7/26/12

7−5−11 7/26/12

7−5−12 7/26/12

7−5−13 7/26/12

7−5−14 7/26/12

PAGE DATE

Section 6. Safety, Accident,

and Hazard Reports

7−6−1 7/26/12

7−6−2 7/26/12

7−6−3 7/26/12

Chapter 8. Medical Facts 

for Pilots

Section 1. Fitness for Flight

8−1−1 7/26/12

8−1−2 7/26/12

8−1−3 7/26/12

8−1−4 7/26/12

8−1−5 7/26/12

8−1−6 7/26/12

8−1−7 7/26/12

8−1−8 7/26/12

8−1−9 7/26/12

Chapter 9. Aeronautical

Charts and Related

Publications

Section 1. Types of Charts

Available

9−1−1 7/26/12

9−1−2 7/26/12

9−1−3 7/26/12

9−1−4 7/26/12

9−1−5 7/26/12

9−1−6 7/26/12

9−1−7 7/26/12

9−1−8 7/26/12

9−1−9 7/26/12

9−1−10 7/26/12

9−1−11 7/26/12

9−1−12 7/26/12

9−1−13 7/26/12

Chapter 10. Helicopter

Operations

Section 1. Helicopter IFR

Operations

10−1−1 7/26/12

10−1−2 7/26/12

10−1−3 7/26/12

10−1−4 7/26/12

10−1−5 7/26/12

10−1−6 7/26/12

10−1−7 7/26/12

PAGE DATE

Section 2. Special Operations

10−2−1 7/26/12

10−2−2 7/26/12

10−2−3 7/26/12

10−2−4 7/26/12

10−2−5 7/26/12

10−2−6 7/26/12

10−2−7 7/26/12

10−2−8 7/26/12

10−2−9 7/26/12

10−2−10 7/26/12

10−2−11 7/26/12

10−2−12 7/26/12

10−2−13 7/26/12

10−2−14 7/26/12

10−2−15 7/26/12

10−2−16 7/26/12

10−2−17 7/26/12

Appendices

Appendix 1−1 7/26/12

Env N/A

Appendix 2−1 7/26/12

Appendix 3−1 7/26/12

Appendix 4−1 7/26/12

Appendix 4−2 7/26/12

Appendix 4−3 7/26/12

Appendix 4−4 7/26/12

Appendix 4−5 7/26/12

Pilot/Controller Glossary

PCG−1 3/7/13

PCG A−1 2/9/12

PCG A−2 2/9/12

PCG A−3 2/9/12

PCG A−4 2/9/12

PCG A−5 2/9/12

PGC A−6 2/9/12

PCG A−7 2/9/12

PCG A−8 2/9/12

PCG A−9 2/9/12

PCG A−10 2/9/12

PCG A−11 2/9/12

PCG A−12 2/9/12

PCG A−13 2/9/12

PCG A−14 2/9/12

PCG A−15 2/9/12

PCG A−16 2/9/12

PCG B−1 2/9/12
AIM 3/7/13

Checklist of Pages

CK−6 Checklist of Pages

PAGE DATE

PCG C−1 2/9/12

PCG C−2 2/9/12

PCG C−3 2/9/12

PCG C−4 2/9/12

PCG C−5 2/9/12

PCG C−6 2/9/12

PCG C−7 2/9/12

PCG C−8 2/9/12

PCG C−9 2/9/12

PCG D−1 2/9/12

PCG D−2 2/9/12

PCG D−3 2/9/12

PCG D−4 2/9/12

PCG E−1 2/9/12

PCG E−2 2/9/12

PCG F−1 2/9/12

PCG F−2 2/9/12

PCG F−3 2/9/12

PCG F−4 2/9/12

PCG F−5 2/9/12

PCG G−1 3/7/13

PCG G−2 3/7/13

PCG G−3 3/7/13

PCG H−1 2/9/12

PCG H−2 2/9/12

PCG H−3 2/9/12

PCG I−1 2/9/12

PCG I−2 2/9/12

PCG I−3 2/9/12

PCG I−4 2/9/12

PCG I−5 2/9/12

PCG J−1 2/9/12

PCG K−1 2/9/12

PCG L−1 2/9/12

PCG L−2 2/9/12

PCG L−3 2/9/12

PAGE DATE

PCG M−1 2/9/12

PCG M−2 2/9/12

PCG M−3 2/9/12

PCG M−4 2/9/12

PCG M−5 2/9/12

PCG M−6 2/9/12

PCG N−1 2/9/12

PCG N−2 2/9/12

PCG N−3 2/9/12

PCG N−4 2/9/12

PCG O−1 2/9/12

PCG O−2 7/26/12

PCG O−3 7/26/12

PCG O−4 7/26/12

PCG P−1 2/9/12

PCG P−2 2/9/12

PCG P−3 2/9/12

PCG P−4 2/9/12

PCG P−5 7/26/12

PCG Q−1 2/9/12

PCG R−1 2/9/12

PCG R−2 2/9/12

PCG R−3 2/9/12

PCG R−4 2/9/12

PCG R−5 2/9/12

PCG R−6 2/9/12

PCG R−7 2/9/12

PCG R−8 2/9/12

PCG S−1 2/9/12

PCG S−2 2/9/12

PCG S−3 2/9/12

PCG S−4 2/9/12

PCG S−5 2/9/12

PCG S−6 2/9/12

PCG S−7 2/9/12

PCG S−8 2/9/12

PAGE DATE

PCG T−1 2/9/12

PCG T−2 2/9/12

PCG T−3 2/9/12

PCG T−4 2/9/12

PCG T−5 2/9/12

PCG T−6 2/9/12

PCG T−7 2/9/12

PCG T−8 2/9/12

PCG U−1 2/9/12

PCG V−1 2/9/12

PCG V−2 2/9/12

PCG V−3 2/9/12

PCG V−4 2/9/12

PCG W−1 2/9/12

Index

I−1 3/7/13

I−2 3/7/13

I−3 3/7/13

I−4 3/7/13

I−5 3/7/13

I−6 3/7/13

I−7 3/7/13

I−8 3/7/13

I−9 3/7/13

I−10 3/7/13

I−11 3/7/13

I−12 3/7/13

I−13 3/7/13

Back Cover N/A
3/7/13 AIM

Comments/Corrections

Comments/Corrections

Comments, suggested changes, or corrections concerning this publication may be submitted on this form and

mailed to:

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Mission Support Services

ATC Process and Publications, AJV−11

Attn: AIM Editor, Room 428Q

 800 Independence Avenue, SW.

Washington, DC 20591

To submit comments electronically, please email: 9−ATOR−HQ−PubGrp@faa.gov

Notice to Editor

The following comments/corrections are submitted concerning the information contained in:

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3/7/13 AIM

Comments/Corrections

Comments/Corrections

Comments, suggested changes, or corrections concerning this publication may be submitted on this form and

mailed to:

Federal Aviation Administration

Mission Support Services

ATC Process and Publications, AJV−11

Attn: AIM Editor, Room 428Q

 800 Independence Avenue, SW.

Washington, DC 20591

To submit comments electronically, please email: 9−ATOR−HQ−PubGrp@faa.gov

Notice to Editor

The following comments/corrections are submitted concerning the information contained in:

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7/26/12 AIM

Table of Contents i

Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Air Navigation

Section 1. Navigation Aids

Paragraph Page

1-1-1. General 1-1-1 ............................................................

1-1-2. Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) 1-1-1 ..................................

1-1-3. VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) 1-1-1 .................................

1-1-4. VOR Receiver Check 1-1-2 ................................................

1-1-5. Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) 1-1-3 ......................................

1-1-6. VHF Omni-directional Range/Tactical Air Navigation (VORTAC) 1-1-3 .........

1-1-7. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 1-1-3 ................................

1-1-8. Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service Volumes 1-1-4 ...........................

1-1-9. Instrument Landing System (ILS) 1-1-7 ......................................

1-1-10. Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) 1-1-12 ..................................

1-1-11. Microwave Landing System (MLS) 1-1-14 ....................................

1-1-12. NAVAID Identifier Removal During Maintenance 1-1-16 ......................

1-1-13. NAVAIDs with Voice 1-1-17 ...............................................

1-1-14. User Reports Requested on NAVAID or Global Navigation Satellite System 

(GNSS) Performance or Interference 1-1-17 ...............................

1-1-15. LORAN 1-1-17 ..........................................................

1-1-16. VHF Direction Finder 1-1-17 ..............................................

1-1-17. Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), Inertial Navigation System (INS), and

Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) 1-1-18 ........................

1-1-18. Doppler Radar 1-1-18 .....................................................

1-1-19. Global Positioning System (GPS) 1-1-18 .....................................

1-1-20. Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) 1-1-30 .............................

1-1-21. Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing System (GLS) 1-1-35 ......

1-1-22. Precision Approach Systems other than ILS, GLS, and MLS 1-1-35 ..............

Section 2. Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation

Performance (RNP)

1-2-1. Area Navigation (RNAV) 1-2-1 ............................................

1-2-2. Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 1-2-4 ...............................

1-2-3. Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV) Systems on

Conventional Procedures and Routes 1-2-5 ...............................

Chapter 2. Aeronautical Lighting and 

Other Airport Visual Aids

Section 1. Airport Lighting Aids

2-1-1. Approach Light Systems (ALS) 2-1-1 ........................................

2-1-2. Visual Glideslope Indicators 2-1-1 ..........................................

2-1-3. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) 2-1-6 ..................................

2-1-4. Runway Edge Light Systems 2-1-6 ..........................................

2-1-5. In-runway Lighting 2-1-6 .................................................

2-1-6. Runway Status Light (RWSL) System 2-1-7 ...................................

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

ii Table of Contents

Paragraph Page

2-1-7. Stand­Alone Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS) 2-1-10 ..........

2-1-8. Control of Lighting Systems 2-1-11 ...........................................

2-1-9. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting 2-1-11 ......................................

2-1-10. Airport/Heliport Beacons 2-1-14 ............................................

2-1-11. Taxiway Lights 2-1-15 .....................................................

Section 2. Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting

2-2-1. Aeronautical Light Beacons 2-2-1 ...........................................

2-2-2. Code Beacons and Course Lights 2-2-1 ......................................

2-2-3. Obstruction Lights 2-2-1 ..................................................

Section 3. Airport Marking Aids and Signs

2-3-1. General 2-3-1 ............................................................

2-3-2. Airport Pavement Markings 2-3-1 ...........................................

2-3-3. Runway Markings 2-3-1 ...................................................

2-3-4. Taxiway Markings 2-3-7 ...................................................

2-3-5. Holding Position Markings 2-3-12 ............................................

2-3-6. Other Markings 2-3-16 .....................................................

2-3-7. Airport Signs 2-3-19 .......................................................

2-3-8. Mandatory Instruction Signs 2-3-20 ..........................................

2-3-9. Location Signs 2-3-23 ......................................................

2-3-10. Direction Signs 2-3-25 ....................................................

2-3-11. Destination Signs 2-3-28 ..................................................

2-3-12. Information Signs 2-3-29 ..................................................

2-3-13. Runway Distance Remaining Signs 2-3-29 ....................................

2-3-14. Aircraft Arresting Systems 2-3-30 ...........................................

2-3-15. Security Identifications Display Area (Airport Ramp Area) 2-3-31 ...............

Chapter 3. Airspace

Section 1. General

3-1-1. General 3-1-1 ............................................................

3-1-2. General Dimensions of Airspace Segments 3-1-1 ..............................

3-1-3. Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace Designations 3-1-1 .........................

3-1-4. Basic VFR Weather Minimums 3-1-1 ........................................

3-1-5. VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels 3-1-2 ...............................

Section 2. Controlled Airspace

3-2-1. General 3-2-1 ............................................................

3-2-2. Class A Airspace 3-2-2 ....................................................

3-2-3. Class B Airspace 3-2-2 ....................................................

3-2-4. Class C Airspace 3-2-4 ....................................................

3-2-5. Class D Airspace 3-2-8 ....................................................

3-2-6. Class E Airspace 3-2-9 ....................................................

Section 3. Class G Airspace

3-3-1. General 3-3-1 ............................................................

3-3-2. VFR Requirements 3-3-1 ..................................................

3-3-3. IFR Requirements 3-3-1 ..................................................

AIM 7110.65R CHG 2 3/15/07 3/713
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Navigation Aids 1−1−17

NOTE−

DO NOT attempt to fly a procedure that is NOTAMed out

of service even if the identification is present. In certain

cases, the identification may be transmitted for short

periods as part of the testing. 

1−1−13. NAVAIDs with Voice

a. Voice equipped en route radio navigational aids

are under the operational control of either a Flight

Service Station (FSS) or an approach control facility.

The voice communication is available on some

facilities. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory

Service (HIWAS) broadcast capability is available on

selected VOR sites throughout the conterminous U.S.

and does not provide two-way voice communication.

The availability of two-way voice communication

and HIWAS is indicated in the A/FD and aeronautical

charts.

b. Unless otherwise noted on the chart, all radio

navigation aids operate continuously except during

shutdowns for maintenance. Hours of operation of

facilities not operating continuously are annotated on

charts and in the A/FD.

1−1−14. User Reports Requested on

NAVAID or Global Navigation Satellite

System (GNSS) Performance or

Interference

a. Users of the National Airspace System (NAS)

can render valuable assistance in the early correction

of NAVAID malfunctions or GNSS problems and are

encouraged to report their observations of undesirable performance. Although NAVAIDs are

monitored by electronic detectors, adverse effects of

electronic interference, new obstructions or changes

in terrain near the NAVAID can exist without

detection by the ground monitors. Some of the

characteristics of malfunction or deteriorating

performance which should be reported are: erratic

course or bearing indications; intermittent, or full,

flag alarm; garbled, missing or obviously improper

coded identification; poor quality communications

reception; or, in the case of frequency interference, an

audible hum or tone accompanying radio communications or NAVAID identification. GNSS problems are

often characterized by navigation degradation or

service loss indications.

b. Reporters should identify the NAVAID (for

example, VOR) malfunction or GNSS problem,

location of the aircraft (i.e., latitude, longitude or

bearing/distance from a NAVAID), altitude, date and

time of the observation, type of aircraft and

description of the condition observed, and the type of

receivers in use (i.e., make/model/software revision).

Reports can be made in any of the following ways:

1. Immediately, by radio communication to the

controlling Air Route Traffic Control Center

(ARTCC), Control Tower, or FSS.

2. By telephone to the nearest FAA facility.

3. By FAA Form 8740−5, Safety Improvement

Report, a postage−paid card designed for this

purpose. These cards may be obtained at FAA FSSs,

Flight Standards District Offices, and General

Aviation Fixed Base Operations.

c. In aircraft that have more than one receiver,

there are many combinations of possible interference

between units. This can cause either erroneous

navigation indications or, complete or partial

blanking out of the communications. Pilots should be

familiar enough with the radio installation of the

particular airplanes they fly to recognize this type of

interference.

1−1−15. LORAN 

NOTE−

In accordance with the 2010 DHS Appropriations Act, the

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) terminated the transmission of

all U.S. LORAN−C signals on 08 Feb 2010. The USCG also

terminated the transmission of the Russian American

signals on 01 Aug 2010, and the Canadian LORAN−C

signals on 03 Aug 2010. For more information, visit

http://www.navcen.uscg.gov. Operators should also note

that TSO−C60b, AIRBORNE AREA NAVIGATION

EQUIPMENT USING LORAN−C INPUTS, has been

canceled by the FAA.

1−1−16. VHF Direction Finder

a. The VHF Direction Finder (VHF/DF) is one of

the common systems that helps pilots without their

being aware of its operation. It is a ground−based

radio receiver used by the operator of the ground

station. FAA facilities that provide VHF/DF service

are identified in the A/FD.

b. The equipment consists of a directional antenna

system and a VHF radio receiver.

c. The VHF/DF receiver display indicates the

magnetic direction of the aircraft from the ground

station each time the aircraft transmits.

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

1−1−18 Navigation Aids

d. DF equipment is of particular value in locating

lost aircraft and in helping to identify aircraft on

radar.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Direction Finding Instrument Approach Procedure,

Paragraph 6−2−3.

1−1−17. Inertial Reference Unit (IRU),

Inertial Navigation System (INS), and

Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS)

a. IRUs are self−contained systems comprised of

gyros and accelerometers that provide aircraft

attitude (pitch, roll, and heading), position, and

velocity information in response to signals resulting

from inertial effects on system components. Once

aligned with a known position, IRUs continuously

calculate position and velocity. IRU position

accuracy decays with time. This degradation is

known as “drift.”

b. INSs combine the components of an IRU with

an internal navigation computer. By programming a

series of waypoints, these systems will navigate along

a predetermined track.

c. AHRSs are electronic devices that provide

attitude information to aircraft systems such as

weather radar and autopilot, but do not directly

compute position information.

1−1−18. Doppler Radar

Doppler Radar is a semiautomatic self−contained

dead reckoning navigation system (radar sensor plus

computer) which is not continuously dependent on

information derived from ground based or external

aids. The system employs radar signals to detect and

measure ground speed and drift angle, using the

aircraft compass system as its directional reference.

Doppler is less accurate than INS, however, and the

use of an external reference is required for periodic

updates if acceptable position accuracy is to be

achieved on long range flights.

1−1−19. Global Positioning System (GPS)

a. System Overview

1. System Description. The Global Positioning

System is a satellite−based radio navigation system,

which broadcasts a signal that is used by receivers to

determine precise position anywhere in the world.

The receiver tracks multiple satellites and determines

a pseudorange measurement that is then used to

determine the user location. A minimum of four

satellites is necessary to establish an accurate

three−dimensional position. The Department of

Defense (DOD) is responsible for operating the GPS

satellite constellation and monitors the GPS satellites

to ensure proper operation. Every satellite’s orbital

parameters (ephemeris data) are sent to each satellite

for broadcast as part of the data message embedded

in the GPS signal. The GPS coordinate system is the

Cartesian earth−centered earth−fixed coordinates as

specified in the World Geodetic System 1984

(WGS−84).

2. System Availability and Reliability

(a) The status of GPS satellites is broadcast as

part of the data message transmitted by the GPS

satellites. GPS status information is also available by

means of the U.S. Coast Guard navigation

information service: (703) 313−5907, Internet:

http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/. Additionally, satellite status is available through the Notice to Airmen

(NOTAM) system.

(b) The operational status of GNSS operations depends upon the type of equipment being used.

For GPS−only equipment TSO−C129a, the operational status of nonprecision approach capability for

flight planning purposes is provided through a

prediction program that is embedded in the receiver

or provided separately.

3. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

(RAIM). When GNSS equipment is not using

integrity information from WAAS or LAAS, the GPS

navigation receiver using RAIM provides GPS signal

integrity monitoring. RAIM is necessary since delays

of up to two hours can occur before an erroneous

satellite transmission can be detected and corrected

by the satellite control segment. The RAIM function

is also referred to as fault detection. Another

capability, fault exclusion, refers to the ability of the

receiver to exclude a failed satellite from the position

solution and is provided by some GPS receivers and

by WAAS receivers.

AIM 7110.65R CHG 2 3/15/07 3/713
7/26/12 AIM

Navigation Aids 1−1−19

4. The GPS receiver verifies the integrity

(usability) of the signals received from the GPS

constellation through receiver autonomous integrity

monitoring (RAIM) to determine if a satellite is

providing corrupted information. At least one

satellite, in addition to those required for navigation,

must be in view for the receiver to perform the RAIM

function; thus, RAIM needs a minimum of 5 satellites

in view, or 4 satellites and a barometric altimeter

(baro−aiding) to detect an integrity anomaly.

[Baro−aiding satisfies the RAIM requirement in lieu

of a fifth satellite.] For receivers capable of doing so,

RAIM needs 6 satellites in view (or 5 satellites with

baro−aiding) to isolate the corrupt satellite signal and

remove it from the navigation solution. Baro−aiding

is a method of augmenting the GPS integrity solution

by using a nonsatellite input source. GPS derived

altitude should not be relied upon to determine

aircraft altitude since the vertical error can be quite

large and no integrity is provided. To ensure that

baro−aiding is available, the current altimeter setting

must be entered into the receiver as described in the

operating manual.

5. RAIM messages vary somewhat between

receivers; however, generally there are two types.

One type indicates that there are not enough satellites

available to provide RAIM integrity monitoring and

another type indicates that the RAIM integrity

monitor has detected a potential error that exceeds the

limit for the current phase of flight. Without RAIM

capability, the pilot has no assurance of the accuracy

of the GPS position.

6. Selective Availability. Selective Availability

(SA) is a method by which the accuracy of GPS is

intentionally degraded. This feature is designed to

deny hostile use of precise GPS positioning data. SA

was discontinued on May 1, 2000, but many GPS

receivers are designed to assume that SA is still

active. New receivers may take advantage of the

discontinuance of SA based on the performance

values in ICAO Annex 10, and do not need to be

designed to operate outside of that performance.

7. The GPS constellation of 24 satellites is

designed so that a minimum of five is always

observable by a user anywhere on earth. The receiver

uses data from a minimum of four satellites above the

mask angle (the lowest angle above the horizon at

which it can use a satellite).

8. The DOD declared initial operational capability (IOC) of the U.S. GPS on December 8, 1993. The

FAA has granted approval for U.S. civil operators to

use properly certified GPS equipment as a primary

means of navigation in oceanic airspace and certain

remote areas. Properly certified GPS equipment may

be used as a supplemental means of IFR navigation

for domestic en route, terminal operations, and

certain instrument approach procedures (IAPs). This

approval permits the use of GPS in a manner that is

consistent with current navigation requirements as

well as approved air carrier operations specifications.

b. VFR Use of GPS

1. GPS navigation has become a great asset to

VFR pilots, providing increased navigation capability and enhanced situational awareness, while

reducing operating costs due to greater ease in flying

direct routes. While GPS has many benefits to the

VFR pilot, care must be exercised to ensure that

system capabilities are not exceeded.

2. Types of receivers used for GPS navigation

under VFR are varied, from a full IFR installation

being used to support a VFR flight, to a VFR only

installation (in either a VFR or IFR capable aircraft)

to a hand−held receiver. The limitations of each type

of receiver installation or use must be understood by

the pilot to avoid misusing navigation information.

(See TBL 1−1−6.) In all cases, VFR pilots should

never rely solely on one system of navigation. GPS

navigation must be integrated with other forms of

electronic navigation (when possible), as well as

pilotage and dead reckoning. Only through the

integration of these techniques can the VFR pilot

ensure accuracy in navigation.

3. Some critical concerns in VFR use of GPS

include RAIM capability, database currency and

antenna location.

(a) RAIM Capability. Many VFR GPS receivers and all hand−held units have no RAIM

alerting capability. Loss of the required number of

satellites in view, or the detection of a position error,

cannot be displayed to the pilot by such receivers. In

receivers with no RAIM capability, no alert would be

provided to the pilot that the navigation solution had

deteriorated, and an undetected navigation error

could occur. A systematic cross−check with other

navigation techniques would identify this failure, and

prevent a serious deviation. See subparagraphs a4 and

a5 for more information on RAIM.

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

1−1−20 Navigation Aids

(b) Database Currency

(1) In many receivers, an up−datable

database is used for navigation fixes, airports, and

instrument procedures. These databases must be

maintained to the current update for IFR operation,

but no such requirement exists for VFR use.

(2) However, in many cases, the database

drives a moving map display which indicates Special

Use Airspace and the various classes of airspace, in

addition to other operational information. Without a

current database the moving map display may be

outdated and offer erroneous information to VFR

pilots wishing to fly around critical airspace areas,

such as a Restricted Area or a Class B airspace

segment. Numerous pilots have ventured into

airspace they were trying to avoid by using an

outdated database. If you don’t have a current

database in the receiver, disregard the moving map

display for critical navigation decisions.

(3) In addition, waypoints are added,

removed, relocated, or re−named as required to meet

operational needs. When using GPS to navigate

relative to a named fix, a current database must be

used to properly locate a named waypoint. Without

the update, it is the pilot’s responsibility to verify the

waypoint location referencing to an official current

source, such as the Airport/Facility Directory,

Sectional Chart, or En Route Chart.

(c) Antenna Location

(1) In many VFR installations of GPS

receivers, antenna location is more a matter of

convenience than performance. In IFR installations,

care is exercised to ensure that an adequate clear view

is provided for the antenna to see satellites. If an

alternate location is used, some portion of the aircraft

may block the view of the antenna, causing a greater

opportunity to lose navigation signal.

(2) This is especially true in the case of

hand−helds. The use of hand−held receivers for VFR

operations is a growing trend, especially among

rental pilots. Typically, suction cups are used to place

the GPS antennas on the inside of cockpit windows.

While this method has great utility, the antenna

location is limited to the cockpit or cabin only and is

rarely optimized to provide a clear view of available

satellites. Consequently, signal losses may occur in

certain situations of aircraft−satellite geometry,

causing a loss of navigation signal. These losses,

coupled with a lack of RAIM capability, could

present erroneous position and navigation information with no warning to the pilot.

(3) While the use of a hand−held GPS for

VFR operations is not limited by regulation,

modification of the aircraft, such as installing a

panel− or yoke−mounted holder, is governed by

14 CFR Part 43. Consult with your mechanic to

ensure compliance with the regulation, and a safe

installation.

4. As a result of these and other concerns, here

are some tips for using GPS for VFR operations:

(a) Always check to see if your unit has

RAIM capability. If no RAIM capability exists, be

suspicious of your GPS position when any

disagreement exists with the position derived from

other radio navigation systems, pilotage, or dead

reckoning.

(b) Check the currency of the database, if any.

If expired, update the database using the current

revision. If an update of an expired database is not

possible, disregard any moving map display of

airspace for critical navigation decisions. Be aware

that named waypoints may no longer exist or may

have been relocated since the database expired. At a

minimum, the waypoints planned to be used should

be checked against a current official source, such as

the Airport/Facility Directory, or a Sectional

Aeronautical Chart.

(c) While hand−helds can provide excellent

navigation capability to VFR pilots, be prepared for

intermittent loss of navigation signal, possibly with

no RAIM warning to the pilot. If mounting the

receiver in the aircraft, be sure to comply with

14 CFR Part 43.

(d) Plan flights carefully before taking off. If

you wish to navigate to user−defined waypoints,

enter them before flight, not on−the−fly. Verify your

planned flight against a current source, such as a

current sectional chart. There have been cases in

which one pilot used waypoints created by another

pilot that were not where the pilot flying was

expecting. This generally resulted in a navigation

error. Minimize head−down time in the aircraft and

keep a sharp lookout for traffic, terrain, and obstacles.

Just a few minutes of preparation and planning on the

ground will make a great difference in the air.

(e) Another way to minimize head−down

time is to become very familiar with your receiver’s

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operation. Most receivers are not intuitive. The pilot

must take the time to learn the various keystrokes,

knob functions, and displays that are used in the

operation of the receiver. Some manufacturers

provide computer−based tutorials or simulations of

their receivers. Take the time to learn about your

particular unit before you try to use it in flight.

5. In summary, be careful not to rely on GPS to

solve all your VFR navigational problems. Unless an

IFR receiver is installed in accordance with IFR

requirements, no standard of accuracy or integrity has

been assured. While the practicality of GPS is

compelling, the fact remains that only the pilot can

navigate the aircraft, and GPS is just one of the pilot’s

tools to do the job.

c. VFR Waypoints

1. VFR waypoints provide VFR pilots with a

supplementary tool to assist with position awareness

while navigating visually in aircraft equipped with

area navigation receivers. VFR waypoints should be

used as a tool to supplement current navigation

procedures. The uses of VFR waypoints include

providing navigational aids for pilots unfamiliar with

an area, waypoint definition of existing reporting

points, enhanced navigation in and around Class B

and Class C airspace, and enhanced navigation

around Special Use Airspace. VFR pilots should rely

on appropriate and current aeronautical charts

published specifically for visual navigation. If

operating in a terminal area, pilots should take

advantage of the Terminal Area Chart available for

that area, if published. The use of VFR waypoints

does not relieve the pilot of any responsibility to

comply with the operational requirements of 14 CFR

Part 91.

2. VFR waypoint names (for computer−entry

and flight plans) consist of five letters beginning with

the letters “VP” and are retrievable from navigation

databases. The VFR waypoint names are not intended

to be pronounceable, and they are not for use in ATC

communications. On VFR charts, stand−alone VFR

waypoints will be portrayed using the same

four−point star symbol used for IFR waypoints. VFR

waypoints collocated with visual check points on the

chart will be identified by small magenta flag

symbols. VFR waypoints collocated with visual

check points will be pronounceable based on the

name of the visual check point and may be used for

ATC communications. Each VFR waypoint name

will appear in parentheses adjacent to the geographic

location on the chart. Latitude/longitude data for all

established VFR waypoints may be found in the

appropriate regional Airport/Facility Directory

(A/FD).

3. VFR waypoints must not be used to plan

flights under IFR. VFR waypoints will not be

recognized by the IFR system and will be rejected for

IFR routing purposes.

4. When filing VFR flight plans, pilots may use

the five letter identifier as a waypoint in the route of

flight section if there is an intended course change at

that point or if used to describe the planned route of

flight. This VFR filing would be similar to how a

VOR would be used in a route of flight. Pilots must

use the VFR waypoints only when operating under

VFR conditions.

5. Any VFR waypoints intended for use during

a flight should be loaded into the receiver while on the

ground and prior to departure. Once airborne, pilots

should avoid programming routes or VFR waypoint

chains into their receivers.

6. Pilots should be especially vigilant for other

traffic while operating near VFR waypoints. The

same effort to see and avoid other aircraft near VFR

waypoints will be necessary, as was the case with

VORs and NDBs in the past. In fact, the increased

accuracy of navigation through the use of GPS will

demand even greater vigilance, as off−course

deviations among different pilots and receivers will

be less. When operating near a VFR waypoint, use

whatever ATC services are available, even if outside

a class of airspace where communications are

required. Regardless of the class of airspace, monitor

the available ATC frequency closely for information

on other aircraft operating in the vicinity. It is also a

good idea to turn on your landing light(s) when

operating near a VFR waypoint to make your aircraft

more conspicuous to other pilots, especially when

visibility is reduced. See paragraph 7−5−2, VFR in

Congested Areas, for more information.

d. General Requirements

1. Authorization to conduct any GPS operation

under IFR requires that:

(a) GPS navigation equipment used must be

approved in accordance with the requirements

specified in Technical Standard Order (TSO)

TSO−C129 (as revised), TSO-C196 (as revised),

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TSO-C145 (as revised), or TSO-C146 (as revised),

and the installation must be done in accordance with

Advisory Circular AC 20−138, Airworthiness Approval of Positioning and Navigation Systems.

Equipment approved in accordance with TSO−C115a

does not meet the requirements of TSO−C129. Visual

flight rules (VFR) and hand−held GPS systems are

not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument

approaches, or as a principal instrument flight

reference. During IFR operations they may be

considered only as an aid to situational awareness.

(b) Aircraft using GPS (TSO-C129 (as

revised) or TSO-C196 (as revised)) navigation

equipment under IFR must be equipped with an

approved and operational alternate means of

navigation appropriate to the flight. Active monitoring of alternative navigation equipment is not

required if the GPS receiver uses RAIM for integrity

monitoring. Active monitoring of an alternate means

of navigation is required when the RAIM capability

of the GPS equipment is lost.

(c) Procedures must be established for use in

the event that the loss of RAIM capability is predicted

to occur. In situations where this is encountered, the

flight must rely on other approved equipment, delay

departure, or cancel the flight.

(d) The GPS operation must be conducted in

accordance with the FAA−approved aircraft flight

manual (AFM) or flight manual supplement. Flight

crew members must be thoroughly familiar with the

particular GPS equipment installed in the aircraft, the

receiver operation manual, and the AFM or flight

manual supplement. Unlike ILS and VOR, the basic

operation, receiver presentation to the pilot and some

capabilities of the equipment can vary greatly. Due to

these differences, operation of different brands, or

even models of the same brand of GPS receiver, under

IFR should not be attempted without thorough study

of the operation of that particular receiver and

installation. Most receivers have a built−in simulator

mode which will allow the pilot to become familiar

with operation prior to attempting operation in the

aircraft. Using the equipment in flight under VFR

conditions prior to attempting IFR operation will

allow further familiarization.

(e) Aircraft navigating by IFR approved GPS

are considered to be area navigation (RNAV) aircraft

and have special equipment suffixes. File the

appropriate equipment suffix in accordance with

TBL 5−1−2, on the ATC flight plan. If GPS avionics

become inoperative, the pilot should advise ATC and

amend the equipment suffix.

(f) Prior to any GPS IFR operation, the pilot

must review appropriate NOTAMs and aeronautical

information. (See GPS NOTAMs/Aeronautical Information.)

(g) Air carrier and commercial operators

must meet the appropriate provisions of their

approved operations specifications.

(1) During domestic operations for commerce or for hire, operators must have a second

navigation system capable of reversion or contingency operations.

(2) Operators must have two independent

navigation systems appropriate to the route to be

flown, or one system that is suitable and a second,

independent backup capability that allows the

operator to proceed safely and land at a different

airport, and the aircraft must have sufficient fuel

(reference 14 CFR 121.349, 125.203, 129.17, and

135.165). These rules ensure the safety of the

operation by preventing a single point of failure.

NOTE−

An aircraft approved for multi-sensor navigation and

equipped with a single FMS must maintain an ability

to navigate or proceed safely in the event that any one

component of the navigation system fails, including

the flight management system (FMS). Retaining a

FMS-independent VOR capability would satisfy this

requirement.

(3) The requirements for a second system

apply to the entire set of equipment needed to achieve

the navigation capability, not just the individual

components of the system such as the radio

navigation receiver. For example, to use two RNAV

systems (e.g., GPS and DME/DME/IRU) to comply

with the requirements, the aircraft must be equipped

with two independent radio navigation receivers and

two independent navigation computers (e.g., flight

management systems (FMS)). Alternatively, to

comply with the requirements using a single RNAV

system with an installed and operable VOR

capability, the VOR capability must be independent

of the FMS.

(4) To satisfy the requirement for two

independent navigation systems, if the primary

navigation system is GPS-based, the second system

must be independent of GPS (for example, VOR or

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DME/DME/IRU). This allows continued navigation

in case of failure of the GPS or WAAS services.

Recognizing that GPS interference and test events

resulting in the loss of GPS services have become

more common, the FAA requires operators conducting IFR operations under 14 CFR 121.349, 125.203,

129.17 and 135.65 to retain a non-GPS navigation

capability consisting of either DME/DME, IRU or

VOR for en route and terminal operations, and VOR

and ILS for final approach. Since this system is to be

used as a reversionary capability, single equipage is

sufficient.

e. Use of GPS for IFR Oceanic, Domestic

En Route, Terminal Area, and Approach Operations

1. GPS IFR operations in oceanic areas can be

conducted as soon as the proper avionics systems are

installed, provided all general requirements are met.

A GPS installation with TSO−C129 (as revised)

authorization in class A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, or C2 or

TSO-C196 (as revised) may be used to replace one of

the other approved means of long−range navigation,

such as dual INS. (See TBL 1−1−5 and TBL 1−1−6.)

A single TSO-C129 GPS installation meeting the

certification requirements in AC 20-138C, Appendix

1 may be used on oceanic routes as the only means of

long range navigation. TSO-C196 (as revised)

equipment is inherently capable of supporting

oceanic operation if the operator obtains a Fault

Detection and Exclusion (FDE) Prediction Program

as outlined in AC 20-138C, Appendix 1. A single

GPS/WAAS receiver (TSO-C145 (as revised) or

TSO-C146 (as revised)) is inherently capable of

supporting oceanic operation if the operator obtains

a FDE Prediction Program as outlined in

AC 20-138C, Appendix 1.

2. GPS (TSO-C129 (as revised) or TSO-C196

(as revised)) domestic en route and terminal IFR

operations can be conducted as soon as proper

avionics systems are installed, provided all general

requirements are met. For required backup navigation, the avionics necessary to receive all of the

ground−based facilities appropriate for the flight to

the destination airport and any required alternate

airport must be installed and operational. Ground−

based facilities necessary for en route and terminal

operations must also be in service.

(a) A single GPS/WAAS receiver

(TSO-C145 (as revised) or TSO-C146 (as revised))

may also be used for these domestic en route and

terminal IFR operations. Though not required,

operators may consider retaining backup navigation

equipment in their aircraft to guard against potential

outages or interference.

(b) In Alaska, GPS en route IFR RNAV

operations may be conducted outside the operational

service volume of ground-based navigation aids

when a GPS/WAAS (TSO−C145 (as revised) or

TSO−C146 (as revised)) system is installed and

operating. Ground-based navigation equipment is not

required to be installed and operating. Though not

required, operators may consider retaining backup

navigation equipment in their aircraft to guard against

potential outages or interference.

(1) Aircraft may operate on GNSS

Q-routes with GPS (TSO-C129 (as revised) or

TSO-C196 (as revised)) or GPS/WAAS equipment

while the aircraft remains in Air Traffic Control radar

surveillance.

(2) Aircraft may operate on GNSS T-routes

with GPS/WAAS (TSO-C145(as revised) or

TSO-C146 (as revised)) equipment.

3. Authorization to fly approaches under IFR

using GPS or GPS/WAAS avionics systems requires

that a pilot use avionics with:

(a) GPS, TSO−C129, (as revised) authorization in class A1, B1, B3, C1, or C3;

(b) GPS, TSO-C196 (as revised) authorization; or

(c) GPS/WAAS, TSO-C145 (as revised) or

TSO-C146 (as revised) authorization.

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1−1−24 Navigation Aids

TBL 1−1−5

GPS IFR Equipment Classes/Categories

TSO−C129

Equipment

Class RAIM

Int. Nav. Sys. to

Prov. RAIM

Equiv.

Oceanic En Route Terminal

Nonprecision

Approach

Capable

Class A − GPS sensor and navigation capability.

A1 yes yes yes yes yes

A2 yes yes yes yes no

Class B − GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (i.e., FMS, multi−sensor navigation system, etc.).

B1 yes yes yes yes yes

B2 yes yes yes yes no

B3 yes yes yes yes yes

B4 yes yes yes yes no

Class C − GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (as in Class B) which provides enhanced guidance to an autopilot, or

flight director, to reduce flight tech. errors. Limited to 14 CFR Part 121 or equivalent criteria.

C1 yes yes yes yes yes

C2 yes yes yes yes no

C3 yes yes yes yes yes

C4 yes yes yes yes no

TBL 1−1−6

GPS Approval Required/Authorized Use

Equipment

Type1

Installation

Approval

Required

Operational

Approval

Required

IFR 

En Route2

IFR

Terminal2

IFR 

Approach3

Oceanic 

Remote

In Lieu of

ADF and/or

DME3

Hand held4 X5

VFR Panel Mount4 X

IFR En Route

and Terminal

X X X X X

IFR Oceanic/

Remote

X X X X X X

IFR En Route,

Terminal, and

Approach

X X X X X X

NOTE− 1To determine equipment approvals and limitations, refer to the AFM, AFM supplements, or pilot guides.

2Requires verification of data for correctness if database is expired.

3Requires current database or verification that the procedure has not been amended since the expiration of the database.

4VFR and hand−held GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a primary instrument

flight reference. During IFR operations they may be considered only an aid to situational awareness.

5Hand−held receivers require no approval. However, any aircraft modification to support the hand−held receiver;

i.e., installation of an external antenna or a permanent mounting bracket, does require approval.

4. As the production of stand-alone GPS

approaches has progressed, many of the original

overlay approaches have been replaced with

stand-alone procedures specifically designed for use

by GPS systems. A GPS approach overlay allows

pilots to use GPS avionics under IFR for flying

designated nonprecision instrument approach procedures, except LOC, LDA, and simplified

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directional facility (SDF) procedures. These procedures are identified by the name of the procedure and

“or GPS” (for example, VOR/DME or GPS RWY15).

Other previous types of overlays have either been

converted to this format or replaced with stand-alone

procedures. Only approaches contained in the current

onboard navigation database are authorized. The

navigation database may contain information about

non-overlay approach procedures that is intended to

be used to enhance position orientation, generally by

providing a map, while flying these approaches using

conventional NAVAIDs. This approach information

should not be confused with a GPS overlay approach.

(See the receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM

Supplement for details on how to identify these

approaches in the navigation database.)

f. General Database Requirements

1. The onboard navigation data must be current

and appropriate for the region of intended operation

and should include the navigation aids, waypoints,

and relevant coded terminal airspace procedures for

the departure, arrival, and alternate airfields.

(a) Further database guidance for terminal

and en route requirements may be found in AC

90-100, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area Navigation

(RNAV) Operations.

(b) Further database guidance on Required

Navigation Performance (RNP) instrument approach

operations, RNP terminal, and RNP en route

requirements may be found in AC 90-105, Approval

Guidance for RNP Operations and Barometric

Vertical Navigation in the U.S. National Airspace

System.

(c) All approach procedures to be flown must

be retrievable from the current airborne navigation

database supplied by the equipment manufacturer or

other FAA approved source. The system must be able

to retrieve the procedure by name from the aircraft

navigation database, not just as a manually entered

series of waypoints. Manual entry of waypoints using

latitude/longitude or place/bearing is not permitted

for approach procedures.

(d) Prior to using a procedure or waypoint

retrieved from the airborne navigation database, the

pilot should verify the validity of the database. This

verification should include the following preflight

and inflight steps:

(1) Preflight:

[a] Determine the date of database

issuance, and verify that the date/time of proposed

use is before the expiration date/time.

[b] Verify that the database provider has

not published a notice limiting the use of the specific

waypoint or procedure.

(2) Inflight:

[a] Determine that the waypoints and

transition names coincide with names found on the

procedure chart. Do not use waypoints which do not

exactly match the spelling shown on published

procedure charts.

[b] Determine that the waypoints are

generally logical in location, in the correct order, and

that their orientation to each other is as found on the

procedure chart, both laterally and vertically.

NOTE−

There is no specific requirement to check each waypoint

latitude and longitude, type of waypoint and/or altitude

constraint, only the general relationship of waypoints in

the procedure, or the logic of an individual waypoint’s

location.

[c] If the cursory check of procedure

logic or individual waypoint location, specified in [b]

above, indicates a potential error, do not use the

retrieved procedure or waypoint until a verification of

latitude and longitude, waypoint type, and altitude

constraints indicate full conformity with the

published data.

g. GPS Approach Procedures

As the production of stand−alone GPS approaches

has progressed, many of the original overlay

approaches have been replaced with stand−alone

procedures specifically designed for use by GPS

systems. The title of the remaining GPS overlay

procedures has been revised on the approach chart to

“or GPS” (e.g., VOR or GPS RWY 24). Therefore, all

the approaches that can be used by GPS now contain

“GPS” in the title (e.g., “VOR or GPS RWY 24,”

“GPS RWY 24,” or “RNAV (GPS) RWY 24”).

During these GPS approaches, underlying ground−

based NAVAIDs are not required to be operational

and associated aircraft avionics need not be installed,

operational, turned on or monitored (monitoring of

the underlying approach is suggested when equipment is available and functional). Existing overlay

approaches may be requested using the GPS title,

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1−1−26 Navigation Aids

such as “GPS RWY 24” for the VOR or GPS

RWY 24.

NOTE−

Any required alternate airport must have an approved

instrument approach procedure other than GPS that is

anticipated to be operational and available at the

estimated time of arrival, and which the aircraft is

equipped to fly.

h. GPS NOTAMs/Aeronautical Information

1. GPS satellite outages are issued as GPS

NOTAMs both domestically and internationally.

However, the effect of an outage on the intended

operation cannot be determined unless the pilot has a

RAIM availability prediction program which allows

excluding a satellite which is predicted to be out of

service based on the NOTAM information.

2. The term UNRELIABLE is used in conjunction with GPS NOTAMs. The term UNRELIABLE is

an advisory to pilots indicating the expected level of

service may not be available. UNRELIABLE does

not mean there is a problem with GPS signal integrity.

If GPS service is available, pilots may continue

operations. If the LNAV or LNAV/VNAV service is

available, pilots may use the displayed level of

service to fly the approach. GPS operation may be

NOTAMed UNRELIABLE due to testing or

anomalies. (Pilots are encouraged to report GPS

anomalies, including degraded operation and/or loss

of service, as soon as possible, reference paragraph

1−1−14.) Air Traffic Control will advise pilots

requesting a GPS or RNAV (GPS) approach of GPS

UNRELIABLE for:

(a) NOTAMs not contained in the ATIS

broadcast.

(b) Pilot reports of GPS anomalies received

within the preceding 15 minutes.

3. Civilian pilots may obtain GPS RAIM

availability information for nonprecision approach

procedures by specifically requesting GPS aeronautical information from a Flight Service Station during

preflight briefings. GPS RAIM aeronautical information can be obtained for a period of 3 hours (for

example, if you are scheduled to arrive at 1215 hours,

then the GPS RAIM information is available from

1100 to 1400 hours) or a 24 hour time frame at a

particular airport. FAA briefers will provide RAIM

information for a period of 1 hour before to 1 hour

after the ETA hour, unless a specific time frame is

requested by the pilot. If flying a published GPS

departure, a RAIM prediction should also be

requested for the departure airport.

4. The military provides airfield specific GPS

RAIM NOTAMs for nonprecision approach procedures at military airfields. The RAIM outages are

issued as M−series NOTAMs and may be obtained for

up to 24 hours from the time of request.

5. Receiver manufacturers and/or database

suppliers may supply “NOTAM” type information

concerning database errors. Pilots should check these

sources, when available, to ensure that they have the

most current information concerning their electronic

database.

i. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

(RAIM)

1. RAIM outages may occur due to an

insufficient number of satellites or due to unsuitable

satellite geometry which causes the error in the

position solution to become too large. Loss of satellite

reception and RAIM warnings may occur due to

aircraft dynamics (changes in pitch or bank angle).

Antenna location on the aircraft, satellite position

relative to the horizon, and aircraft attitude may affect

reception of one or more satellites. Since the relative

positions of the satellites are constantly changing,

prior experience with the airport does not guarantee

reception at all times, and RAIM availability should

always be checked.

2. If RAIM is not available, another type of

navigation and approach system must be used,

another destination selected, or the trip delayed until

RAIM is predicted to be available on arrival. On

longer flights, pilots should consider rechecking the

RAIM prediction for the destination during the flight.

This may provide early indications that an

unscheduled satellite outage has occurred since

takeoff.

3. If a RAIM failure/status annunciation

occurs prior to the final approach waypoint

(FAWP), the approach should not be completed

since GPS may no longer provide the required

accuracy. The receiver performs a RAIM prediction

by 2 NM prior to the FAWP to ensure that RAIM is

available at the FAWP as a condition for entering the

approach mode. The pilot should ensure that the

receiver has sequenced from “Armed” to “Approach” prior to the FAWP (normally occurs 2 NM

prior). Failure to sequence may be an indication of the

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detection of a satellite anomaly, failure to arm the

receiver (if required), or other problems which

preclude completing the approach.

4. If the receiver does not sequence into the

approach mode or a RAIM failure/status annunciation occurs prior to the FAWP, the pilot should not

descend to Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA), but

should proceed to the missed approach waypoint (MAWP) via the FAWP, perform a missed

approach, and contact ATC as soon as practical. Refer

to the receiver operating manual for specific

indications and instructions associated with loss of

RAIM prior to the FAF. 

5. If a RAIM failure occurs after the FAWP, the

receiver is allowed to continue operating without an

annunciation for up to 5 minutes to allow completion

of the approach (see receiver operating manual). If

the RAIM flag/status annunciation appears after

the FAWP, the missed approach should be

executed immediately.

j. Waypoints

1. GPS approaches make use of both fly−over

and fly−by waypoints. Fly−by waypoints are used

when an aircraft should begin a turn to the next course

prior to reaching the waypoint separating the two

route segments. This is known as turn anticipation

and is compensated for in the airspace and terrain

clearances. Approach waypoints, except for the

MAWP and the missed approach holding waypoint

(MAHWP), are normally fly−by waypoints. Fly−

over waypoints are used when the aircraft must fly

over the point prior to starting a turn. New approach

charts depict fly−over waypoints as a circled

waypoint symbol. Overlay approach charts and some

early stand alone GPS approach charts may not

reflect this convention.

2. Since GPS receivers are basically “To−To”

navigators, they must always be navigating to a

defined point. On overlay approaches, if no

pronounceable five−character name is published for

an approach waypoint or fix, it was given a database

identifier consisting of letters and numbers. These

points will appear in the list of waypoints in the

approach procedure database, but may not appear on

the approach chart. A point used for the purpose of

defining the navigation track for an airborne

computer system (i.e., GPS or FMS) is called a

Computer Navigation Fix (CNF). CNFs include

unnamed DME fixes, beginning and ending points of

DME arcs and sensor final approach fixes (FAFs) on

some GPS overlay approaches. To aid in the approach

chart/database correlation process, the FAA has

begun a program to assign five−letter names to CNFs

and to chart CNFs on various FAA Aeronautical

Navigation Products (AeroNav Products). These

CNFs are not to be used for any air traffic control

(ATC) application, such as holding for which the fix

has not already been assessed. CNFs will be charted

to distinguish them from conventional reporting

points, fixes, intersections, and waypoints. The CNF

name will be enclosed in parenthesis, e.g., (CFBCD),

and the name will be placed next to the CNF it

defines. If the CNF is not at an existing point defined

by means such as crossing radials or radial/DME, the

point will be indicated by an “X.” The CNF name will

not be used in filing a flight plan or in aircraft/ATC

communications. Use current phraseology, e.g.,

facility name, radial, distance, to describe these fixes.

3. Unnamed waypoints in the database will be

uniquely identified for each airport but may be

repeated for another airport (e.g., RW36 will be used

at each airport with a runway 36 but will be at the

same location for all approaches at a given airport).

4. The runway threshold waypoint, which is

normally the MAWP, may have a five letter identifier

(e.g., SNEEZ) or be coded as RW## (e.g., RW36,

RW36L). Those thresholds which are coded as five

letter identifiers are being changed to the RW##

designation. This may cause the approach chart and

database to differ until all changes are complete. The

runway threshold waypoint is also used as the center

of the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) on most GPS

approaches. MAWPs not located at the threshold will

have a five letter identifier.

k. Position Orientation

As with most RNAV systems, pilots should pay

particular attention to position orientation while

using GPS. Distance and track information are

provided to the next active waypoint, not to a fixed

navigation aid. Receivers may sequence when the

pilot is not flying along an active route, such as when

being vectored or deviating for weather, due to the

proximity to another waypoint in the route. This can

be prevented by placing the receiver in the

nonsequencing mode. When the receiver is in the

nonsequencing mode, bearing and distance are

provided to the selected waypoint and the receiver

will not sequence to the next waypoint in the route

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until placed back in the auto sequence mode or the

pilot selects a different waypoint. On overlay

approaches, the pilot may have to compute the

along−track distance to stepdown fixes and other

points due to the receiver showing along−track

distance to the next waypoint rather than DME to the

VOR or ILS ground station.

l. Conventional Versus GPS Navigation Data

There may be slight differences between the course

information portrayed on navigational charts and a

GPS navigation display when flying authorized GPS

instrument procedures or along an airway. All

magnetic tracks defined by any conventional

navigation aids are determined by the application of

the station magnetic variation. In contrast, GPS

RNAV systems may use an algorithm, which applies

the local magnetic variation and may produce small

differences in the displayed course. However, both

methods of navigation should produce the same

desired ground track when using approved, IFR

navigation system. Should significant differences

between the approach chart and the GPS avionics’

application of the navigation database arise, the

published approach chart, supplemented by NOTAMs, holds precedence.

Due to the GPS avionics’ computation of great circle

courses, and the variations in magnetic variation, the

bearing to the next waypoint and the course from the

last waypoint (if available) may not be exactly 180

apart when long distances are involved. Variations in

distances will occur since GPS distance−to−waypoint

values are along−track distances (ATD) computed to

the next waypoint and the DME values published on

underlying procedures are slant−range distances

measured to the station. This difference increases

with aircraft altitude and proximity to the NAVAID.

m. Departures and Instrument Departure

Procedures (DPs)

The GPS receiver must be set to terminal (±1 NM)

CDI sensitivity and the navigation routes contained in

the database in order to fly published IFR charted

departures and DPs. Terminal RAIM should be

automatically provided by the receiver. (Terminal

RAIM for departure may not be available unless the

waypoints are part of the active flight plan rather than

proceeding direct to the first destination.) Certain

segments of a DP may require some manual

intervention by the pilot, especially when radar

vectored to a course or required to intercept a specific

course to a waypoint. The database may not contain

all of the transitions or departures from all runways

and some GPS receivers do not contain DPs in the

database. It is necessary that helicopter procedures be

flown at 70 knots or less since helicopter departure

procedures and missed approaches use a

20:1 obstacle clearance surface (OCS), which is

double the fixed−wing OCS, and turning areas are

based on this speed as well.

n. Flying GPS Approaches

1. Determining which area of the TAA the

aircraft will enter when flying a “T” with a TAA must

be accomplished using the bearing and distance to the

IF(IAF). This is most critical when entering the TAA

in the vicinity of the extended runway centerline and

determining whether you will be entering the right or

left base area. Once inside the TAA, all sectors and

stepdowns are based on the bearing and distance to

the IAF for that area, which the aircraft should be

proceeding direct to at that time, unless on vectors.

(See FIG 5−4−3 and FIG 5−4−4.)

2. Pilots should fly the full approach from an

Initial Approach Waypoint (IAWP) or feeder fix

unless specifically cleared otherwise. Randomly

joining an approach at an intermediate fix does not

assure terrain clearance.

3. When an approach has been loaded in the

flight plan, GPS receivers will give an “arm”

annunciation 30 NM straight line distance from the

airport/heliport reference point. Pilots should arm the

approach mode at this time, if it has not already been

armed (some receivers arm automatically). Without

arming, the receiver will not change from en route

CDI and RAIM sensitivity of ±5 NM either side of

centerline to ±1 NM terminal sensitivity. Where the

IAWP is inside this 30 mile point, a CDI sensitivity

change will occur once the approach mode is armed

and the aircraft is inside 30 NM. Where the IAWP is

beyond 30 NM from the airport/heliport reference

point, CDI sensitivity will not change until the

aircraft is within 30 miles of the airport/heliport

reference point even if the approach is armed earlier.

Feeder route obstacle clearance is predicated on the

receiver being in terminal (±1 NM) CDI sensitivity

and RAIM within 30 NM of the airport/heliport

reference point, therefore, the receiver should always

be armed (if required) not later than the 30 NM

annunciation.

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4. The pilot must be aware of what bank

angle/turn rate the particular receiver uses to compute

turn anticipation, and whether wind and airspeed are

included in the receiver’s calculations. This information should be in the receiver operating manual. Over

or under banking the turn onto the final approach

course may significantly delay getting on course and

may result in high descent rates to achieve the next

segment altitude.

5. When within 2 NM of the FAWP with the

approach mode armed, the approach mode will

switch to active, which results in RAIM changing to

approach sensitivity and a change in CDI sensitivity.

Beginning 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the full scale CDI

sensitivity will smoothly change from ±1 NM to

±0.3 NM at the FAWP. As sensitivity changes from

±1 NM to ±0.3 NM approaching the FAWP, with the

CDI not centered, the corresponding increase in CDI

displacement may give the impression that the

aircraft is moving further away from the intended

course even though it is on an acceptable intercept

heading. Referencing the digital track displacement

information (cross track error), if it is available in the

approach mode, may help the pilot remain position

oriented in this situation. Being established on the

final approach course prior to the beginning of the

sensitivity change at 2 NM will help prevent

problems in interpreting the CDI display during ramp

down. Therefore, requesting or accepting vectors

which will cause the aircraft to intercept the final

approach course within 2 NM of the FAWP is not

recommended.

6. When receiving vectors to final, most

receiver operating manuals suggest placing the

receiver in the nonsequencing mode on the FAWP

and manually setting the course. This provides an

extended final approach course in cases where the

aircraft is vectored onto the final approach course

outside of any existing segment which is aligned with

the runway. Assigned altitudes must be maintained

until established on a published segment of the

approach. Required altitudes at waypoints outside the

FAWP or stepdown fixes must be considered.

Calculating the distance to the FAWP may be

required in order to descend at the proper location.

7. Overriding an automatically selected sensitivity during an approach will cancel the approach

mode annunciation. If the approach mode is not

armed by 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the approach

mode will not become active at 2 NM prior to the

FAWP, and the equipment will flag. In these

conditions, the RAIM and CDI sensitivity will not

ramp down, and the pilot should not descend to MDA,

but fly to the MAWP and execute a missed approach.

The approach active annunciator and/or the receiver

should be checked to ensure the approach mode is

active prior to the FAWP.

8. Do not attempt to fly an approach unless the

procedure in the on−board database is current and

identified as “GPS” on the approach chart. The

navigation database may contain information about

nonoverlay approach procedures that is intended to

be used to enhance position orientation, generally by

providing a map, while flying these approaches using

conventional NAVAIDs. This approach information

should not be confused with a GPS overlay approach

(see the receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM

Supplement for details on how to identify these

procedures in the navigation database). Flying point

to point on the approach does not assure compliance

with the published approach procedure. The proper

RAIM sensitivity will not be available and the CDI

sensitivity will not automatically change to

±0.3 NM. Manually setting CDI sensitivity does not

automatically change the RAIM sensitivity on some

receivers. Some existing nonprecision approach

procedures cannot be coded for use with GPS and will

not be available as overlays.

9. Pilots should pay particular attention to the

exact operation of their GPS receivers for performing

holding patterns and in the case of overlay

approaches, operations such as procedure turns.

These procedures may require manual intervention

by the pilot to stop the sequencing of waypoints by the

receiver and to resume automatic GPS navigation

sequencing once the maneuver is complete. The same

waypoint may appear in the route of flight more than

once consecutively (e.g., IAWP, FAWP, MAHWP on

a procedure turn). Care must be exercised to ensure

that the receiver is sequenced to the appropriate

waypoint for the segment of the procedure being

flown, especially if one or more fly−overs are skipped

(e.g., FAWP rather than IAWP if the procedure turn

is not flown). The pilot may have to sequence past one

or more fly−overs of the same waypoint in order to

start GPS automatic sequencing at the proper place in

the sequence of waypoints.

10. Incorrect inputs into the GPS receiver are

especially critical during approaches. In some cases,

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an incorrect entry can cause the receiver to leave the

approach mode.

11. A fix on an overlay approach identified by a

DME fix will not be in the waypoint sequence on the

GPS receiver unless there is a published name

assigned to it. When a name is assigned, the along

track to the waypoint may be zero rather than the

DME stated on the approach chart. The pilot should

be alert for this on any overlay procedure where the

original approach used DME.

12. If a visual descent point (VDP) is published,

it will not be included in the sequence of waypoints.

Pilots are expected to use normal piloting techniques

for beginning the visual descent, such as ATD.

13. Unnamed stepdown fixes in the final

approach segment will not be coded in the waypoint

sequence of the aircraft’s navigation database and

must be identified using ATD. Stepdown fixes in the

final approach segment of RNAV (GPS) approaches

are being named, in addition to being identified by

ATD. However, since most GPS avionics do not

accommodate waypoints between the FAF and MAP,

even when the waypoint is named, the waypoints for

these stepdown fixes may not appear in the sequence

of waypoints in the navigation database. Pilots must

continue to identify these stepdown fixes using ATD.

o. Missed Approach

1. A GPS missed approach requires pilot

action to sequence the receiver past the MAWP to the

missed approach portion of the procedure. The pilot

must be thoroughly familiar with the activation

procedure for the particular GPS receiver installed in

the aircraft and must initiate appropriate action

after the MAWP. Activating the missed approach

prior to the MAWP will cause CDI sensitivity to

immediately change to terminal (±1NM) sensitivity

and the receiver will continue to navigate to the

MAWP. The receiver will not sequence past the

MAWP. Turns should not begin prior to the MAWP.

If the missed approach is not activated, the GPS

receiver will display an extension of the inbound final

approach course and the ATD will increase from the

MAWP until it is manually sequenced after crossing

the MAWP.

2. Missed approach routings in which the first

track is via a course rather than direct to the next

waypoint require additional action by the pilot to

set the course. Being familiar with all of the inputs

required is especially critical during this phase of

flight.

p. GPS Familiarization

Pilots should practice GPS approaches under visual

meteorological conditions (VMC) until thoroughly

proficient with all aspects of their equipment

(receiver and installation) prior to attempting flight

by IFR in instrument meteorological conditions

(IMC). Some of the areas which the pilot should

practice are:

1. Utilizing the receiver autonomous integrity

monitoring (RAIM) prediction function;

2. Inserting a DP into the flight plan, including

setting terminal CDI sensitivity, if required, and the

conditions under which terminal RAIM is available

for departure (some receivers are not DP or STAR

capable);

3. Programming the destination airport;

4. Programming and flying the overlay approaches (especially procedure turns and arcs);

5. Changing to another approach after selecting

an approach;

6. Programming and flying “direct” missed

approaches;

7. Programming and flying “routed” missed

approaches;

8. Entering, flying, and exiting holding patterns,

particularly on overlay approaches with a second

waypoint in the holding pattern;

9. Programming and flying a “route” from a

holding pattern;

10. Programming and flying an approach with

radar vectors to the intermediate segment;

11. Indication of the actions required for RAIM

failure both before and after the FAWP; and

12. Programming a radial and distance from a

VOR (often used in departure instructions).

1−1−20. Wide Area Augmentation System

(WAAS)

a. General

1. The FAA developed the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) to improve the accuracy,

integrity and availability of GPS signals. WAAS will

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allow GPS to be used, as the aviation navigation

system, from takeoff through Category I precision

approach when it is complete. WAAS is a critical

component of the FAA’s strategic objective for a

seamless satellite navigation system for civil

aviation, improving capacity and safety.

2. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has defined Standards and

Recommended Practices (SARPs) for satellite−based

augmentation systems (SBAS) such as WAAS. Japan

and Europe are building similar systems that are

planned to be interoperable with WAAS: EGNOS,

the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay

System, and MSAS, the Japan Multifunctional

Transport Satellite (MTSAT) Satellite−based Augmentation System. The merging of these systems will

create a worldwide seamless navigation capability

similar to GPS but with greater accuracy, availability

and integrity.

3. Unlike traditional ground−based navigation

aids, WAAS will cover a more extensive service area.

Precisely surveyed wide−area ground reference

stations (WRS) are linked to form the U.S. WAAS

network. Signals from the GPS satellites are

monitored by these WRSs to determine satellite clock

and ephemeris corrections and to model the

propagation effects of the ionosphere. Each station in

the network relays the data to a wide−area master

station (WMS) where the correction information is

computed. A correction message is prepared and

uplinked to a geostationary satellite (GEO) via a

ground uplink station (GUS). The message is then

broadcast on the same frequency as GPS (L1,

1575.42 MHz) to WAAS receivers within the

broadcast coverage area of the WAAS GEO.

4. In addition to providing the correction signal,

the WAAS GEO provides an additional pseudorange

measurement to the aircraft receiver, improving the

availability of GPS by providing, in effect, an

additional GPS satellite in view. The integrity of GPS

is improved through real−time monitoring, and the

accuracy is improved by providing differential

corrections to reduce errors. The performance

improvement is sufficient to enable approach

procedures with GPS/WAAS glide paths (vertical

guidance).

5. The FAA has completed installation of

25 WRSs, 2 WMSs, 4 GUSs, and the required

terrestrial communications to support the WAAS

network. Prior to the commissioning of the WAAS for

public use, the FAA has been conducting a series of

test and validation activities. Enhancements to the

initial phase of WAAS will include additional master

and reference stations, communication satellites, and

transmission frequencies as needed.

6. GNSS navigation, including GPS and

WAAS, is referenced to the WGS−84 coordinate

system. It should only be used where the Aeronautical

Information Publications (including electronic data

and aeronautical charts) conform to WGS−84 or

equivalent. Other countries civil aviation authorities

may impose additional limitations on the use of their

SBAS systems.

b. Instrument Approach Capabilities

1. A new class of approach procedures which

provide vertical guidance, but which do not meet the

ICAO Annex 10 requirements for precision approaches has been developed to support satellite

navigation use for aviation applications worldwide.

These new procedures called Approach with Vertical

Guidance (APV), are defined in ICAO Annex 6, and

include approaches such as the LNAV/VNAV

procedures presently being flown with barometric

vertical navigation (Baro−VNAV). These approaches

provide vertical guidance, but do not meet the more

stringent standards of a precision approach. Properly

certified WAAS receivers will be able to fly these

LNAV/VNAV procedures using a WAAS electronic

glide path, which eliminates the errors that can be

introduced by using Barometric altimetery.

2. A new type of APV approach procedure, in

addition to LNAV/VNAV, is being implemented to

take advantage of the high accuracy guidance and

increased integrity provided by WAAS. This WAAS

generated angular guidance allows the use of the

same TERPS approach criteria used for ILS

approaches. The resulting approach procedure

minima, titled LPV (localizer performance with

vertical guidance), may have a decision altitude as

low as 200 feet height above touchdown with

visibility minimums as low as 1/2 mile, when the

terrain and airport infrastructure support the lowest

minima. LPV minima is published on the RNAV

(GPS) approach charts (see paragraph 5−4−5,

Instrument Approach Procedure Charts).

3. A new nonprecision WAAS approach, called

Localizer Performance (LP) is being added in

locations where the terrain or obstructions do not

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allow publication of vertically guided LPV procedures. This new approach takes advantage of the

angular lateral guidance and smaller position errors

provided by WAAS to provide a lateral only

procedure similar to an ILS Localizer. LP procedures

may provide lower minima than a LNAV procedure

due to the narrower obstacle clearance surface.

NOTE−

WAAS receivers certified prior to TSO−C145b and

TSO−C146b, even if they have LPV capability, do not

contain LP capability unless the receiver has been

upgraded. Receivers capable of flying LP procedures must

contain a statement in the Flight Manual Supplement or

Approved Supplemental Flight Manual stating that the

receiver has LP capability, as well as the capability for the

other WAAS and GPS approach procedure types.

4. WAAS provides a level of service that

supports all phases of flight, including RNAV (GPS)

approaches to LNAV, LP, LNAV/VNAV and LPV

lines of minima, within system coverage. Some

locations close to the edge of the coverage may have

a lower availability of vertical guidance.

c. General Requirements

1. WAAS avionics must be certified in

accordance with Technical Standard Order (TSO)

TSO−C145a, Airborne Navigation Sensors Using the

(GPS) Augmented by the Wide Area Augmentation

System (WAAS); or TSO−C146a, Stand−Alone

Airborne Navigation Equipment Using the Global

Positioning System (GPS) Augmented by the Wide

Area Augmentation System (WAAS), and installed in

accordance with Advisory Circular (AC) 20−130A,

Airworthiness Approval of Navigation or Flight

Management Systems Integrating Multiple Navigation Sensors, or AC 20−138A, Airworthiness

Approval of Global Positioning System (GPS)

Navigation Equipment for Use as a VFR and IFR

Navigation System.

2. GPS/WAAS operation must be conducted in

accordance with the FAA−approved aircraft flight

manual (AFM) and flight manual supplements. Flight

manual supplements will state the level of approach

procedure that the receiver supports. IFR approved

WAAS receivers support all GPS only operations as

long as lateral capability at the appropriate level is

functional. WAAS monitors both GPS and WAAS

satellites and provides integrity.

3. GPS/WAAS equipment is inherently capable

of supporting oceanic and remote operations if the

operator obtains a fault detection and exclusion

(FDE) prediction program.

4. Air carrier and commercial operators must

meet the appropriate provisions of their approved

operations specifications.

5. Prior to GPS/WAAS IFR operation, the pilot

must review appropriate Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) and aeronautical information. This

information is available on request from a Flight

Service Station. The FAA will provide NOTAMs to

advise pilots of the status of the WAAS and level of

service available.

(a) The term UNRELIABLE is used in

conjunction with GPS and WAAS NOTAMs. The

term UNRELIABLE is an advisory to pilots

indicating the expected level of WAAS service

(LNAV/VNAV, LPV) may not be available;

e.g., !BOS BOS WAAS LPV AND LNAV/VNAV

MNM UNREL WEF 0305231700 − 0305231815.

WAAS UNRELIABLE NOTAMs are predictive in

nature and published for flight planning purposes.

Upon commencing an approach at locations

NOTAMed WAAS UNRELIABLE, if the WAAS

avionics indicate LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is

available, then vertical guidance may be used to

complete the approach using the displayed level of

service. Should an outage occur during the approach,

reversion to LNAV minima may be required.

(1) Area−wide WAAS UNAVAILABLE

NOTAMs indicate loss or malfunction of the WAAS

system. In flight, Air Traffic Control will advise

pilots requesting a GPS or RNAV (GPS) approach of

WAAS UNAVAILABLE NOTAMs if not contained

in the ATIS broadcast.

(2) Site−specific WAAS UNRELIABLE

NOTAMs indicate an expected level of service,

e.g., LNAV/VNAV or LPV may not be available.

Pilots must request site−specific WAAS NOTAMs

during flight planning. In flight, Air Traffic Control

will not advise pilots of WAAS UNRELIABLE

NOTAMs.

(3) When the approach chart is annotated

with the symbol, site−specific WAAS UNRELIABLE NOTAMs or Air Traffic advisories are not

provided for outages in WAAS LNAV/VNAV and

LPV vertical service. Vertical outages may occur

daily at these locations due to being close to the edge

of WAAS system coverage. Use LNAV minima for

flight planning at these locations, whether as a

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destination or alternate. For flight operations at these

locations, when the WAAS avionics indicate that

LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is available, then the

vertical guidance may be used to complete the

approach using the displayed level of service. Should

an outage occur during the procedure, reversion to

LNAV minima may be required.

NOTE−

Area−wide WAAS UNAVAILABLE NOTAMs apply to all

airports in the WAAS UNAVAILABLE area designated in

the NOTAM, including approaches at airports where an

approach chart is annotated with the symbol.

6. GPS/WAAS was developed to be used within

SBAS GEO coverage (WAAS or other interoperable

system) without the need for other radio navigation

equipment appropriate to the route of flight to be

flown. Outside the SBAS coverage or in the event of

a WAAS failure, GPS/WAAS equipment reverts to

GPS−only operation and satisfies the requirements

for basic GPS equipment.

7. Unlike TSO−C129 avionics, which were

certified as a supplement to other means of

navigation, WAAS avionics are evaluated without

reliance on other navigation systems. As such,

installation of WAAS avionics does not require the

aircraft to have other equipment appropriate to the

route to be flown.

(a) Pilots with WAAS receivers may flight

plan to use any instrument approach procedure

authorized for use with their WAAS avionics as

the planned approach at a required alternate, with

the following restrictions. When using WAAS at

an alternate airport, flight planning must be based

on flying the RNAV (GPS) LNAV minima line,

or minima on a GPS approach procedure, or

conventional approach procedure with “or GPS” in

the title. Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 91

nonprecision weather requirements must be used for

planning. Upon arrival at an alternate, when the

WAAS navigation system indicates that LNAV/

VNAV or LPV service is available, then vertical

guidance may be used to complete the approach using

the displayed level of service. The FAA has begun

removing the NA (Alternate Minimums Not

Authorized) symbol from select RNAV (GPS) and

GPS approach procedures so they may be used by

approach approved WAAS receivers at alternate

airports. Some approach procedures will still require

the NA for other reasons, such as no weather

reporting, so it cannot be removed from all

procedures. Since every procedure must be individually evaluated, removal of the NA from RNAV

(GPS) and GPS procedures will take some time.

d. Flying Procedures with WAAS

1. WAAS receivers support all basic GPS

approach functions and provide additional capabilities. One of the major improvements is the ability to

generate glide path guidance, independent of ground

equipment or barometric aiding. This eliminates

several problems such as hot and cold temperature

effects, incorrect altimeter setting or lack of a local

altimeter source. It also allows approach procedures

to be built without the cost of installing ground

stations at each airport or runway. Some approach

certified receivers may only generate a glide path

with performance similar to Baro−VNAV and are

only approved to fly the LNAV/VNAV line of minima

on the RNAV (GPS) approach charts. Receivers with

additional capability (including faster update rates

and smaller integrity limits) are approved to fly the

LPV line of minima. The lateral integrity changes

dramatically from the 0.3 NM (556 meter) limit for

GPS, LNAV and LNAV/VNAV approach mode, to 40

meters for LPV. It also provides vertical integrity

monitoring, which bounds the vertical error to 50

meters for LNAV/VNAV and LPVs with minima of

250’ or above, and bounds the vertical error to 35

meters for LPVs with minima below 250’.

2. When an approach procedure is selected and

active, the receiver will notify the pilot of the most

accurate level of service supported by the combination of the WAAS signal, the receiver, and the

selected approach, using the naming conventions on

the minima lines of the selected approach procedure.

For example, if an approach is published with LPV

minima and the receiver is only certified for

LNAV/VNAV, the equipment would indicate

“LNAV/VNAV available,” even though the WAAS

signal would support LPV. If flying an existing

LNAV/VNAV procedure with no LPV minima, the

receiver will notify the pilot “LNAV/VNAV

available,” even if the receiver is certified for LPV

and the signal supports LPV. If the signal does not

support vertical guidance on procedures with LPV

and/or LNAV/VNAV minima, the receiver annunciation will read “LNAV available.” On lateral only

procedures with LP and LNAV minima the receiver

will indicate “LP available” or “LNAV available”

based on the level of lateral service available. Once

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the level of service notification has been given, the

receiver will operate in this mode for the duration of

the approach procedure, unless that level of service

becomes unavailable. The receiver cannot change

back to a more accurate level of service until the next

time an approach is activated.

NOTE−

Receivers do not “fail down” to lower levels of service

once the approach has been activated. If only the

vertical off flag appears, the pilot may elect to use the

LNAV minima if the rules under which the flight is

operating allow changing the type of approach being flown

after commencing the procedure. If the lateral integrity

limit is exceeded on an LP approach, a missed approach

will be necessary since there is no way to reset the lateral

alarm limit while the approach is active.

3. Another additional feature of WAAS receivers is the ability to exclude a bad GPS signal and

continue operating normally. This is normally

accomplished by the WAAS correction information.

Outside WAAS coverage or when WAAS is not

available, it is accomplished through a receiver

algorithm called FDE. In most cases this operation

will be invisible to the pilot since the receiver will

continue to operate with other available satellites

after excluding the “bad” signal. This capability

increases the reliability of navigation.

4. Both lateral and vertical scaling for the

LNAV/VNAV and LPV approach procedures are

different than the linear scaling of basic GPS. When

the complete published procedure is flown, +/−1 NM

linear scaling is provided until two (2) NM prior to the

FAF, where the sensitivity increases to be similar to

the angular scaling of an ILS. There are two differences in the WAAS scaling and ILS: 1) on long final

approach segments, the initial scaling will be

+/−0.3 NM to achieve equivalent performance to

GPS (and better than ILS, which is less sensitive far

from the runway); 2) close to the runway threshold,

the scaling changes to linear instead of continuing to

become more sensitive. The width of the final

approach course is tailored so that the total width is

usually 700 feet at the runway threshold. Since the

origin point of the lateral splay for the angular portion

of the final is not fixed due to antenna placement like

localizer, the splay angle can remain fixed, making a

consistent width of final for aircraft being vectored

onto the final approach course on different length

runways. When the complete published procedure is

not flown, and instead the aircraft needs to capture the

extended final approach course similar to ILS, the

vector to final (VTF) mode is used. Under VTF the

scaling is linear at +/−1 NM until the point where the

ILS angular splay reaches a width of +/−1 NM

regardless of the distance from the FAWP.

5. The WAAS scaling is also different than GPS

TSO−C129 in the initial portion of the missed

approach. Two differences occur here. First, the

scaling abruptly changes from the approach scaling to

the missed approach scaling, at approximately the

departure end of the runway or when the pilot

requests missed approach guidance rather than

ramping as GPS does. Second, when the first leg of

the missed approach is a Track to Fix (TF) leg aligned

within 3 degrees of the inbound course, the receiver

will change to 0.3 NM linear sensitivity until the turn

initiation point for the first waypoint in the missed

approach procedure, at which time it will abruptly

change to terminal (+/−1 NM) sensitivity. This allows

the elimination of close in obstacles in the early part

of the missed approach that may cause the DA to be

raised.

6. A new method has been added for selecting

the final approach segment of an instrument

approach. Along with the current method used by

most receivers using menus where the pilot selects the

airport, the runway, the specific approach procedure

and finally the IAF, there is also a channel number

selection method. The pilot enters a unique 5−digit

number provided on the approach chart, and the

receiver recalls the matching final approach segment

from the aircraft database. A list of information

including the available IAFs is displayed and the pilot

selects the appropriate IAF. The pilot should confirm

that the correct final approach segment was loaded by

cross checking the Approach ID, which is also

provided on the approach chart.

7. The Along−Track Distance (ATD) during the

final approach segment of an LNAV procedure (with

a minimum descent altitude) will be to the MAWP. On

LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches to a decision

altitude, there is no missed approach waypoint so the

along−track distance is displayed to a point normally

located at the runway threshold. In most cases the

MAWP for the LNAV approach is located on the

runway threshold at the centerline, so these distances

will be the same. This distance will always vary

slightly from any ILS DME that may be present, since

the ILS DME is located further down the runway.

Initiation of the missed approach on the LNAV/

AIM 7110.65R CHG 2 3/15/07 3/713
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Navigation Aids 1−1−35

VNAV and LPV approaches is still based on reaching

the decision altitude without any of the items listed in

14 CFR Section 91.175 being visible, and must not be

delayed until the ATD reaches zero. The WAAS

receiver, unlike a GPS receiver, will automatically

sequence past the MAWP if the missed approach

procedure has been designed for RNAV. The pilot

may also select missed approach prior to the MAWP,

however, navigation will continue to the MAWP prior

to waypoint sequencing taking place.

1−1−21. Ground Based Augmentation

System (GBAS) Landing System (GLS)

a. General

1. The GLS provides precision navigation

guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft

on approach to a runway. It provides differential

augmentation to the Global Navigation Satellite

System (GNSS).

NOTE−

GBAS is the ICAO term for Local Area Augmentation

System (LAAS).

2. LAAS was developed as an “ILS look−alike”

system from the pilot perspective. LAAS is based on

GPS signals augmented by ground equipment and has

been developed to provide GLS precision approaches

similar to ILS at airfields.

3. GLS provides guidance similar to ILS

approaches for the final approach segment; portions

of the GLS approach prior to and after the final

approach segment will be based on Area Navigation

(RNAV) or Required Navigation Performance

(RNP).

4. The equipment consists of a GBAS Ground

Facility (GGF), four reference stations, a VHF Data

Broadcast (VDB) uplink antenna, and an aircraft

GBAS receiver.

b. Procedure

1. Pilots will select the five digit GBAS channel

number of the associated approach within the Flight

Management System (FMS) menu or manually select

the five digits (system dependent). Selection of the

GBAS channel number also tunes the VDB.

2. Following procedure selection, confirmation

that the correct LAAS procedure is loaded can be

accomplished by cross checking the charted

Reference Path Indicator (RPI) or approach ID with

the cockpit displayed RPI or audio identification of

the RPI with Morse Code (for some systems).

3. The pilot will fly the GLS approach using the

same techniques as an ILS, once selected and

identified.

1−1−22. Precision Approach Systems other

than ILS, GLS, and MLS

a. General

Approval and use of precision approach systems

other than ILS, GLS and MLS require the issuance of

special instrument approach procedures.

b. Special Instrument Approach Procedure

1. Special instrument approach procedures

must be issued to the aircraft operator if pilot training,

aircraft equipment, and/or aircraft performance is

different than published procedures. Special instrument approach procedures are not distributed for

general public use. These procedures are issued to an

aircraft operator when the conditions for operations

approval are satisfied.

2. General aviation operators requesting approval for special procedures should contact the local

Flight Standards District Office to obtain a letter of

authorization. Air carrier operators requesting

approval for use of special procedures should contact

their Certificate Holding District Office for authorization through their Operations Specification.

c. Transponder Landing System (TLS)

1. The TLS is designed to provide approach

guidance utilizing existing airborne ILS localizer,

glide slope, and transponder equipment.

2. Ground equipment consists of a transponder

interrogator, sensor arrays to detect lateral and

vertical position, and ILS frequency transmitters. The

TLS detects the aircraft’s position by interrogating its

transponder. It then broadcasts ILS frequency signals

to guide the aircraft along the desired approach path.

3. TLS instrument approach procedures are

designated Special Instrument Approach Procedures.

Special aircrew training is required. TLS ground

equipment provides approach guidance for only one

aircraft at a time. Even though the TLS signal is

received using the ILS receiver, no fixed course or

glidepath is generated. The concept of operation is

very similar to an air traffic controller providing radar

vectors, and just as with radar vectors, the guidance

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

1−1−36 Navigation Aids

is valid only for the intended aircraft. The TLS

ground equipment tracks one aircraft, based on its

transponder code, and provides correction signals to

course and glidepath based on the position of the

tracked aircraft. Flying the TLS corrections computed for another aircraft will not provide guidance

relative to the approach; therefore, aircrews must not

use the TLS signal for navigation unless they have

received approach clearance and completed the

required coordination with the TLS ground equipment operator. Navigation fixes based on

conventional NAVAIDs or GPS are provided in the

special instrument approach procedure to allow

aircrews to verify the TLS guidance.

d. Special Category I Differential GPS (SCAT−

I DGPS)

1. The SCAT−I DGPS is designed to provide

approach guidance by broadcasting differential

correction to GPS.

2. SCAT−I DGPS procedures require aircraft

equipment and pilot training.

3. Ground equipment consists of GPS receivers

and a VHF digital radio transmitter. The SCAT−I

DGPS detects the position of GPS satellites relative

to GPS receiver equipment and broadcasts differential corrections over the VHF digital radio.

4. Category I Ground Based Augmentation

System (GBAS) will displace SCAT−I DGPS as the

public use service.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−4−7f, Instrument Approach Procedures.

AIM 7110.65R CHG 2 3/15/07 3/713
7/26/12 AIM

Airport Marking Aids and Signs 2−3−7

FIG 2−3−5

Runway Shoulder Markings

RUNWAY THRESHOLD

MIDPOINT OF

RUNWAY

SHOULDER RUNWAY SHOULDER

45° 45°

45° 45°

2−3−4. Taxiway Markings

a. General. All taxiways should have centerline

markings and runway holding position markings

whenever they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge

markings are present whenever there is a need to

separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not

intended for aircraft use or to delineate the edge of the

taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings

and holding position markings for Instrument

Landing System/Microwave Landing System (ILS/

MLS) critical areas, and taxiway/taxiway

intersection markings.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Holding Position Markings, Paragraph 2−3−5.

b. Taxiway Centerline.

1. Normal Centerline. The taxiway centerline

is a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm) to

12 inches (30 cm) in width. This provides a visual cue

to permit taxiing along a designated path. Ideally, the

aircraft should be kept centered over this line during

taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway

centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with

other aircraft or other objects.

2. Enhanced Centerline. At some airports,

mostly the larger commercial service airports, an

enhanced taxiway centerline will be used. The

enhanced taxiway centerline marking consists of a

parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the

normal taxiway centerline. The taxiway centerlines

are enhanced for a maximum of 150 feet prior to a

runway holding position marking. The purpose of

this enhancement is to warn the pilot that he/she is

approaching a runway holding position marking and

should prepare to stop unless he/she has been cleared

onto or across the runway by ATC. (See FIG 2−3−8.)

c. Taxiway Edge Markings. Taxiway edge

markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway.

They are primarily used when the taxiway edge does

not correspond with the edge of the pavement. There

are two types of markings depending upon whether

the aircraft is supposed to cross the taxiway edge:

1. Continuous Markings. These consist of a

continuous double yellow line, with each line being

at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches

(15 cm) apart. They are used to define the taxiway

edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved

surface not intended for use by aircraft.

2. Dashed Markings. These markings are

used when there is an operational need to define the

edge of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface

where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is

intended for use by aircraft, e.g., an apron. Dashed

taxiway edge markings consist of a broken double

yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches

(15 cm) in width, spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart (edge

to edge). These lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with

25 foot (7.5 m) gaps. (See FIG 2−3−9.)

d. Taxi Shoulder Markings. Taxiways, holding

bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved

shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion.

Although shoulders may have the appearance of full

strength pavement they are not intended for use by

aircraft, and may be unable to support an aircraft.

Usually the taxiway edge marking will define this

area. Where conditions exist such as islands or

taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which

side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft, taxiway

shoulder markings may be used to indicate the

pavement is unusable. Taxiway shoulder markings

are yellow. (See FIG 2−3−10.)

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

2−3−8 Airport Marking Aids and Signs

FIG 2−3−6

Markings for Blast Pad or Stopway or Taxiway Preceding a Displaced Threshold
7/26/12 AIM

Controlled Airspace 3−2−1

Section 2. Controlled Airspace

3−2−1. General

a. Controlled Airspace. A generic term that

covers the different classification of airspace

(Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E

airspace) and defined dimensions within which air

traffic control service is provided to IFR flights and

to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace

classification. (See FIG 3−2−1.)

b. IFR Requirements. IFR operations in any

class of controlled airspace requires that a pilot must

file an IFR flight plan and receive an appropriate ATC

clearance.

c. IFR Separation. Standard IFR separation is

provided to all aircraft operating under IFR in

controlled airspace.

d. VFR Requirements. It is the responsibility of

the pilot to ensure that ATC clearance or radio

communication requirements are met prior to entry

into Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace. The pilot

retains this responsibility when receiving ATC radar

advisories. (See 14 CFR Part 91.)

e. Traffic Advisories. Traffic advisories will be

provided to all aircraft as the controller’s work

situation permits.

f. Safety Alerts. Safety Alerts are mandatory

services and are provided to ALL aircraft. There are

two types of Safety Alerts:

1. Terrain/Obstruction Alert. A Terrain/

Obstruction Alert is issued when, in the controller’s

judgment, an aircraft’s altitude places it in unsafe

proximity to terrain and/or obstructions; and

2. Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert.

 An Aircraft Conflict/Mode C Intruder Alert is issued

if the controller observes another aircraft which

places it in an unsafe proximity. When feasible, the

controller will offer the pilot an alternative course of

action.

FIG 3−2−1

Airspace Classes

MSL - mean sea level

AGL - above ground level

FL - flight level

CLASS B CLASS B

CLASS C CLASS C

CLASS E CLASS E

CLASS D CLASS D

CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G

Nontowered

Airport

Nontowered

Airport

FL 600

18,000 MSL

FL 600

18,000 MSL

14,500 MSL 14,500 MSL

700 AGL 1,200 AGL

CLASS A CLASS A
AIM 7/26/12

3−2−2 Controlled Airspace

g. Ultralight Vehicles. No person may operate an

ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C, or

Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of

the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an

airport unless that person has prior authorization from

the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that

airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 103.)

h. Unmanned Free Balloons. Unless otherwise

authorized by ATC, no person may operate an

unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the

surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B,

Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for

an airport. (See 14 CFR Part 101.)

i. Parachute Jumps. No person may make a

parachute jump, and no pilot−in−command may

allow a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft,

in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D

airspace without, or in violation of, the terms of an

ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having

jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 105.)

3−2−2. Class A Airspace

a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from

18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600,

including the airspace overlying the waters within

12 nautical miles off the coast of the 48 contiguous

States and Alaska; and designated international

airspace beyond 12 nautical miles off the coast of the

48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of

domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar

coverage, and within which domestic procedures are

applied.

b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment

Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized, all

persons must operate their aircraft under IFR. (See

14 CFR Section 71.33 and 14 CFR Section 91.167

through 14 CFR Section 91.193.)

c. Charts. Class A airspace is not specifically

charted.

3−2−3. Class B Airspace

a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from the

surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation’s

busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or

passenger enplanements. The configuration of each

Class B airspace area is individually tailored and

consists of a surface area and two or more layers

(some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down

wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all

published instrument procedures once an aircraft

enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for

all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that

are so cleared receive separation services within the

airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR

operations is “clear of clouds.”

b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment

Requirements for VFR Operations. Regardless of

weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required

prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots

should not request a clearance to operate within

Class B airspace unless the requirements of 14 CFR

Section 91.215 and 14 CFR Section 91.131 are met.

Included among these requirements are:

1. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft

must be equipped with an operable two-way radio

capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate

frequencies for that Class B airspace.

2. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft

at the following primary airports within Class B

airspace unless the pilot−in−command holds at least

a private pilot certificate:

(a) Andrews Air Force Base, MD

(b) Atlanta Hartsfield Airport, GA

(c) Boston Logan Airport, MA

(d) Chicago O’Hare Intl. Airport, IL

(e) Dallas/Fort Worth Intl. Airport, TX

(f) Los Angeles Intl. Airport, CA

(g) Miami Intl. Airport, FL

(h) Newark Intl. Airport, NJ

(i) New York Kennedy Airport, NY

(j) New York La Guardia Airport, NY

(k) Ronald Reagan Washington National

Airport, DC

(l) San Francisco Intl. Airport, CA

3. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft

at an airport within Class B airspace or operate a civil

aircraft within Class B airspace unless:

(a) The pilot−in−command holds at least a

private pilot certificate; or

AIM 7110.65R CHG 2 3/15/07 3/713
7/26/12 AIM

Preflight 5−1−3

Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs, Pointer NOTAMs, and

Military NOTAMs.

1. NOTAM (D) information is disseminated for

all navigational facilities that are part of the National

Airspace System (NAS), all public use airports,

seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the Airport/

Facility Directory (A/FD). The complete file of all

NOTAM (D) information is maintained in a computer

database at the Weather Message Switching Center

(WMSC), located in Atlanta, Georgia. This category

of information is distributed automatically via

Service A telecommunications system. Air traffic

facilities, primarily FSSs, with Service A capability

have access to the entire WMSC database of

NOTAMs. These NOTAMs remain available via

Service A for the duration of their validity or until

published. Once published, the NOTAM data is

deleted from the system. NOTAM (D) information

includes such data as taxiway closures, personnel

and equipment near or crossing runways, and airport

lighting aids that do not affect instrument approach

criteria, such as VASI.

All NOTAM Ds must have one of the following

keywords as the first part of the text after the location

identifier:

Keyword Definition

RWY .......

 Example

Runway

ABC XX/XXX ABC RWY 3/21 CLSD

TWY .......

 Example

Taxiway

ABC XX/XXX ABC TWY F LGTS OTS

RAMP ......

 Example

Ramp

ABC XX/XXX ABC RAMP TERMINAL

EAST SIDE CONSTRUCTION

APRON .....

 Example

Apron

ABC XX/XXX ABC APRON SW TWY

C NEAR HANGARS CLSD

AD .........

 Example

Aerodrome

ABC XX/XXX ABC AD ABN OTS

OBST .......

 Example

Obstruction

ABC XX/XXX ABC OBST TOWER 283

(246 AGL) 2.2 S LGTS OTS (ASR

1065881) TIL 1003282300

NAV ........

 Example

Navigation

ABC XX/XXX ABC NAV VOR OTS

COM .......

 Example

Communications

ABC XX/XXX ABC COM ATIS OTS

SVC ........

 Example

Services

XX/XXX ABC SVC JET FUEL

UNAVBL TIL 1003291600

Keyword Definition

AIRSPACE . .

 Example

Airspace

ABC XX/XXX ABC AIRSPACE

AIRSHOW ACFT 5000/BLW 5 NMR

AIRPORT AVOIDANCE ADZD TIL

1003152200

U ........... Unverified Aeronautical Information

(for use only where authorized by Letter

of Agreement)*

O .......... Other Aeronautical Information**

* Unverified Aeronautical Information can be

movement area or other information received that

meets NOTAM criteria and has not been confirmed

by the Airport Manager (AMGR) or their designee. If

Flight Service is unable to contact airport management, Flight Service must forward (U) NOTAM

information to the United States NOTAM System

(USNS). Subsequent to USNS distribution of a (U)

NOTAM, Flight Service will inform airport management of the action taken as soon as practical. Any

such NOTAM will be prefaced with “(U)” as the

keyword and followed by the appropriate keyword

contraction, following the location identifier.

** Other Aeronautical Information is that which

is received from any authorized source that may be

beneficial to aircraft operations and does not meet

defined NOTAM criteria. Any such NOTAM will be

prefaced with “(O)” as the keyword following the

location identifier.

2. FDC NOTAMs

(a) On those occasions when it becomes

necessary to disseminate information which is

regulatory in nature, the National Flight Data Center

(NFDC), in Washington, DC, will issue an FDC

NOTAM. FDC NOTAMs contain such things as

amendments to published IAPs and other current

aeronautical charts. They are also used to advertise

temporary flight restrictions caused by such things as

natural disasters or large-scale public events that may

generate a congestion of air traffic over a site.

(b) FDC NOTAMs are transmitted via

Service A only once and are kept on file at the FSS

until published or canceled. FSSs are responsible for

maintaining a file of current, unpublished FDC

NOTAMs concerning conditions within 400 miles of

their facilities. FDC information concerning conditions that are more than 400 miles from the FSS, or

that is already published, is given to a pilot only on

request.

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

5−1−4 Preflight

NOTE−

1. DUATS vendors will provide FDC NOTAMs only upon

site-specific requests using a location identifier.

2. NOTAM data may not always be current due to the

changeable nature of national airspace system components, delays inherent in processing information, and

occasional temporary outages of the U.S. NOTAM system.

While en route, pilots should contact FSSs and obtain

updated information for their route of flight and

destination.

3. Pointer NOTAMs. NOTAMs issued by a

flight service station to highlight or point out another

NOTAM, such as an FDC or NOTAM (D) NOTAM.

This type of NOTAM will assist users in

cross−referencing important information that may

not be found under an airport or NAVAID identifier.

Keywords in pointer NOTAMs must match the

keywords in the NOTAM that is being pointed out.

The keyword in pointer NOTAMs related to

Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) must be

AIRSPACE.

4. Special Use Airspace (SUA) NOTAMs.

SUA NOTAMs are issued when Special Use

Airspace will be active outside the published

schedule times and when required by the published

schedule. Pilots and other users are still responsible

to check published schedule times for Special Use

Airspace as well as any NOTAMs for that airspace.

5. Military NOTAMs. NOTAMs pertaining

to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy

navigational aids/airports that are part of the NAS.

c. An integral part of the NOTAM System is the

Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) published

every four weeks. Data is included in this publication

to reduce congestion on the telecommunications

circuits and, therefore, is not available via Service A.

Once published, the information is not provided

during pilot weather briefings unless specifically

requested by the pilot. This publication contains two

sections.

1. The first section consists of notices that meet

the criteria for NOTAM (D) and are expected to

remain in effect for an extended period and FDC

NOTAMs that are current at the time of publication.

Occasionally, unique information is included in this

section when it will contribute to flight safety.

2. The second section contains special notices

that are either too long or concern a wide or

unspecified geographic area and are not suitable for

inclusion in the first section. The content of these

notices vary widely and there are no specific criteria

for their inclusion, other than their enhancement of

flight safety.

3. The number of the last FDC NOTAM

included in the publication is noted on the first page

to aid the user in updating the listing with any FDC

NOTAMs which may have been issued between the

cut-off date and the date the publication is received.

All information contained will be carried until the

information expires, is canceled, or in the case of

permanent conditions, is published in other publications, such as the A/FD.

4. All new notices entered, excluding FDC

NOTAMs, will be published only if the information

is expected to remain in effect for at least 7 days after

the effective date of the publication.

d. NOTAM information is not available from a

Supplemental Weather Service Locations (SWSL).

TBL 5−1−1

NOTAM CONTRACTIONS

A

AADC ........ Approach and Departure Control

ABV . . . . . . . . . . Above

A/C . . . . . . . . . . . Approach Control

ACCUM ....... Accumulate

ACFT ......... Aircraft

ACR . . . . . . . . . . Air Carrier

ACTV/ACTVT . Active/Activate

ADF . . . . . . . . . . Automatic Direction Finder

ADJ . . . . . . . . . . Adjacent

ADZ/ADZD .... Advise/Advised

AFD . . . . . . . . . . Airport/Facility Directory

ALS . . . . . . . . . . Approach Light System

ALTM . . . . . . . . . Altimeter

ALTN/ALTNLY . Alternate/Alternately

ALSTG ........ Altimeter Setting

AMDT ........ Amendment

APCH ......... Approach

APL . . . . . . . . . . Airport Lights

ARFF ......... Aircraft Rescue & Fire Fighting

ARPT ......... Airport

ARSR ......... Air Route Surveillance Radar

ASDE ......... Airport Surface Detection Equipment

ASOS ......... Automated Surface Observing System

ASPH ......... Asphalt

ASR . . . . . . . . . . Airport Surveillance Radar

ATC . . . . . . . . . . Air Traffic Control

ATCT . . . . . . . . . Airport Traffic Control Tower

ATIS . . . . . . . . . . Automated Terminal Information

Service

AVBL . . . . . . . . . Available
7/26/12 AIM

Departure Procedures 5−2−5

4. Expect Departure Clearance Time

(EDCT). The EDCT is the runway release time

assigned to an aircraft included in traffic management

programs. Aircraft are expected to depart no earlier

than 5 minutes before, and no later than 5 minutes after the EDCT.

b. If practical, pilots departing uncontrolled airports should obtain IFR clearances prior to becoming

airborne when two-way communications with the

controlling ATC facility is available.

5−2−7. Departure Control

a. Departure Control is an approach control function responsible for ensuring separation between

departures. So as to expedite the handling of departures, Departure Control may suggest a takeoff

direction other than that which may normally have

been used under VFR handling. Many times it is preferred to offer the pilot a runway that will require the

fewest turns after takeoff to place the pilot on course

or selected departure route as quickly as possible. At

many locations particular attention is paid to the use

of preferential runways for local noise abatement programs, and route departures away from congested

areas.

b. Departure Control utilizing radar will normally

clear aircraft out of the terminal area using DPs via radio navigation aids.

1. When a departure is to be vectored immediately following takeoff, the pilot will be advised prior

to takeoff of the initial heading to be flown but may

not be advised of the purpose of the heading.

2. At some airports when a departure will fly an

RNAV SID that begins at the runway, ATC may advise aircraft of the initial fix/waypoint on the RNAV

route. The purpose of the advisory is to remind pilots

to verify the correct procedure is programmed in the

FMS before takeoff. Pilots must immediately advise

ATC if a different RNAV SID is entered in the aircraft’s FMC. When this advisory is absent, pilots are

still required to fly the assigned SID as published.

EXAMPLE−

Delta 345 RNAV to MPASS, Runway26L, cleared for

takeoff.

NOTE−

1. The SID transition is not restated as it is contained in the

ATC clearance.

2. Aircraft cleared via RNAV SIDs designed to begin with

a vector to the initial waypoint are assigned a heading before departure.

3. Pilots operating in a radar environment are

expected to associate departure headings or an RNAV

departure advisory with vectors or the flight path to

their planned route or flight. When given a vector taking the aircraft off a previously assigned nonradar

route, the pilot will be advised briefly what the vector

is to achieve. Thereafter, radar service will be provided until the aircraft has been reestablished

“on-course” using an appropriate navigation aid and

the pilot has been advised of the aircraft’s position or

a handoff is made to another radar controller with further surveillance capabilities.

c. Controllers will inform pilots of the departure

control frequencies and, if appropriate, the transponder code before takeoff. Pilots must ensure their

transponder is adjusted to the “on” or normal operating position as soon as practical and remain on during

all operations unless otherwise requested to change to

“standby” by ATC. Pilots should not change to the departure control frequency until requested. Controllers

may omit the departure control frequency if a DP has

or will be assigned and the departure control frequency is published on the DP.

5−2−8. Instrument Departure Procedures

(DP) − Obstacle Departure Procedures

(ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures

(SID)

Instrument departure procedures are preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) procedures which provide

obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the

appropriate en route structure. There are two types of

DPs, Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs), printed

either textually or graphically, and Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs), always printed graphically.

All DPs, either textual or graphic may be designed using either conventional or RNAV criteria. RNAV

procedures will have RNAV printed in the title,

e.g., SHEAD TWO DEPARTURE (RNAV). ODPs

provide obstruction clearance via the least onerous

route from the terminal area to the appropriate en

route structure. ODPs are recommended for obstruction clearance and may be flown without ATC

clearance unless an alternate departure procedure

(SID or radar vector) has been specifically assigned

by ATC. Graphic ODPs will have (OBSTACLE)

printed in the procedure title, e.g., GEYSR THREE

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5−2−6 Departure Procedures

DEPARTURE (OBSTACLE), or, CROWN ONE

DEPARTURE (RNAV) (OBSTACLE). Standard Instrument Departures are air traffic control (ATC)

procedures printed for pilot/controller use in graphic

form to provide obstruction clearance and a transition

from the terminal area to the appropriate en route

structure. SIDs are primarily designed for system enhancement and to reduce pilot/controller workload.

ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID.

All DPs provide the pilot with a way to depart the airport and transition to the en route structure safely.

Pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 91 are strongly

encouraged to file and fly a DP at night, during marginal Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) and

Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC), when

one is available. The following paragraphs will provide an overview of the DP program, why DPs are

developed, what criteria are used, where to find them,

how they are to be flown, and finally pilot and ATC

responsibilities.

a. Why are DPs necessary? The primary reason is

to provide obstacle clearance protection information

to pilots. A secondary reason, at busier airports, is to

increase efficiency and reduce communications and

departure delays through the use of SIDs. When an instrument approach is initially developed for an

airport, the need for DPs is assessed. The procedure

designer conducts an obstacle analysis to support departure operations. If an aircraft may turn in any

direction from a runway within the limits of the assessment area (see paragraph 5−2−8b3) and remain

clear of obstacles, that runway passes what is called

a diverse departure assessment and no ODP will be

published. A SID may be published if needed for air

traffic control purposes. However, if an obstacle penetrates what is called the 40:1 obstacle identification

surface, then the procedure designer chooses whether

to:

1. Establish a steeper than normal climb gradient; or

2. Establish a steeper than normal climb gradient with an alternative that increases takeoff minima

to allow the pilot to visually remain clear of the obstacle(s); or

3. Design and publish a specific departure route;

or

4. A combination or all of the above.

b. What criteria is used to provide obstruction

clearance during departure?

1. Unless specified otherwise, required obstacle

clearance for all departures, including diverse, is

based on the pilot crossing the departure end of the

runway at least 35 feet above the departure end of runway elevation, climbing to 400 feet above the

departure end of runway elevation before making the

initial turn, and maintaining a minimum climb gradient of 200 feet per nautical mile (FPNM), unless

required to level off by a crossing restriction, until the

minimum IFR altitude. A greater climb gradient may

be specified in the DP to clear obstacles or to achieve

an ATC crossing restriction. If an initial turn higher

than 400 feet above the departure end of runway

elevation is specified in the DP, the turn should be

commenced at the higher altitude. If a turn is specified at a fix, the turn must be made at that fix. Fixes

may have minimum and/or maximum crossing altitudes that must be adhered to prior to passing the fix.

In rare instances, obstacles that exist on the extended

runway centerline may make an “early turn” more desirable than proceeding straight ahead. In these cases,

the published departure instructions will include the

language “turn left(right) as soon as practicable.”

These departures will also include a ceiling and visibility minimum of at least 300 and 1. Pilots

encountering one of these DPs should preplan the

climb out to gain altitude and begin the turn as quickly

as possible within the bounds of safe operating practices and operating limitations. This type of departure

procedure is being phased out.

NOTE−

“Practical” or “feasible” may exist in some existing departure text instead of “practicable.”

2. ODPs and SIDs assume normal aircraft performance, and that all engines are operating.

Development of contingency procedures, required

to cover the case of an engine failure or other

emergency in flight that may occur after liftoff, is

the responsibility of the operator. (More detailed

information on this subject is available in Advisory

Circular AC 120−91, Airport Obstacle Analysis, and

in the “Departure Procedures” section of chapter 2 in

the Instrument Procedures Handbook,

FAA−H−8261−1.)

3. The 40:1 obstacle identification surface

(OIS) begins at the departure end of runway (DER)

and slopes upward at 152 FPNM until reaching the

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Departure Procedures 5−2−7

ture. This assessment area is limited to 25 NM from

the airport in nonmountainous areas and 46 NM in

designated mountainous areas. Beyond this distance,

the pilot is responsible for obstacle clearance if not

operating on a published route, if below (having not

reached) the MEA or MOCA of a published route, or

an ATC assigned altitude. See FIG 5−2−1. (Ref 14

CFR 91.177 for further information on en route altitudes.)

NOTE−

ODPs are normally designed to terminate within these distance limitations, however, some ODPs will contain routes

that may exceed 25/46 NM; these routes will ensure

obstacle protection until reaching the end of the ODP.

FIG 5−2−1

Diverse Departure Obstacle Assessment to 25/46 NM

4. Obstacles that are located within 1 NM of the

DER and penetrate the 40:1 OCS are referred to as

“low, close−in obstacles.” The standard required

obstacle clearance (ROC) of 48 feet per NM to clear

these obstacles would require a climb gradient greater

than 200 feet per NM for a very short distance, only

until the aircraft was 200 feet above the DER. To

eliminate publishing an excessive climb gradient, the

obstacle AGL/MSL height and location relative to the

DER is noted in the “Take−off Minimums and

(OBSTACLE) Departure Procedures” section of a

given Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) booklet. The purpose of this note is to identify the

obstacle(s) and alert the pilot to the height and location of the obstacle(s) so they can be avoided. This

can be accomplished in a variety of ways, e.g., the

pilot may be able to see the obstruction and maneuver

around the obstacle(s) if necessary; early liftoff/climb

performance may allow the aircraft to cross well

above the obstacle(s); or if the obstacle(s) cannot be

visually acquired during departure, preflight planning should take into account what turns or other

maneuver may be necessary immediately after

takeoff to avoid the obstruction(s).

5. Climb gradients greater than 200 FPNM are

specified when required to support procedure design

constraints, obstacle clearance, and/or airspace restrictions. Compliance with a climb gradient for these

purposes is mandatory when the procedure is part of

the ATC clearance, unless increased takeoff minimums are provided and weather conditions allow

compliance with these minimums. Additionally, ATC

required crossing restrictions may also require climb

gradients greater than 200 FPNM. These climb gradients may be amended or canceled at ATC’s discretion.

Multiple ATC climb gradients are permitted. An ATC

climb gradient will not be used on an ODP.

EXAMPLE−

“Cross ALPHA intersection at or below 4000; maintain

6000.” The pilot climbs at least 200 FPNM to 6000. If 4000

is reached before ALPHA, the pilot levels off at 4000 until

passing ALPHA; then immediately resumes at least 200

FPNM climb.

EXAMPLE−

“TAKEOFF MINIMUMS: RWY 27, Standard with a minimum climb of 280’ per NM to 2500, ATC climb of 310’ per

NM to 4000 ft.” A climb of at least 280 FPNM is required

to 2500 and is mandatory when the departure procedure is

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5−2−8 Departure Procedures

included in the ATC clearance. ATC requires a climb gradient of 310 FPNM to 4000, however, this ATC climb

gradient may be amended or canceled.

6. Climb gradients may be specified only to an

altitude/fix, above which the normal gradient applies.

EXAMPLE−

“Minimum climb 340 FPNM to ALPHA.” The pilot climbs

at least 340 FPNM to ALPHA, then at least 200 FPNM to

MIA.

7. Some DPs established solely for obstacle

avoidance require a climb in visual conditions to

cross the airport or an on−airport NAVAID in a specified direction, at or above a specified altitude. These

procedures are called Visual Climb Over the Airport

(VCOA).

EXAMPLE−

“Climb in visual conditions so as to cross the McElory Airport southbound, at or above 6000, then climb via

Keemmling radial zero three three to Keemmling VORTAC.”

c. Who is responsible for obstacle clearance? DPs

are designed so that adherence to the procedure by the

pilot will ensure obstacle protection. Additionally:

1. Obstacle clearance responsibility also rests

with the pilot when he/she chooses to climb in visual

conditions in lieu of flying a DP and/or depart under

increased takeoff minima rather than fly the climb

gradient. Standard takeoff minima are one statute

mile for aircraft having two engines or less and one−

half statute mile for aircraft having more than two

engines. Specified ceiling and visibility minima

(VCOA or increased takeoff minima) will allow visual avoidance of obstacles until the pilot enters the

standard obstacle protection area. Obstacle avoidance is not guaranteed if the pilot maneuvers farther

from the airport than the specified visibility minimum

prior to reaching the specified altitude. DPs may also

contain what are called Low Close in Obstacles.

These obstacles are less than 200 feet above the departure end of runway elevation and within one NM

of the runway end, and do not require increased takeoff minimums. These obstacles are identified on the

SID chart or in the Take−off Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures section of the U. S.

Terminal Procedure booklet. These obstacles are especially critical to aircraft that do not lift off until

close to the departure end of the runway or which

climb at the minimum rate. Pilots should also consider drift following lift−off to ensure sufficient

clearance from these obstacles. That segment of the

procedure that requires the pilot to see and avoid obstacles ends when the aircraft crosses the specified

point at the required altitude. In all cases continued

obstacle clearance is based on having climbed a minimum of 200 feet per nautical mile to the specified

point and then continuing to climb at least 200 foot

per nautical mile during the departure until reaching

the minimum enroute altitude, unless specified otherwise.

2. ATC may assume responsibility for obstacle

clearance by vectoring the aircraft prior to reaching

the minimum vectoring altitude by using a Diverse

Vector Area (DVA). The DVA has been assessed for

departures which do not follow a specific ground

track. ATC may also vector an aircraft off a previously assigned DP. In all cases, the 200 FPNM climb

gradient is assumed and obstacle clearance is not provided by ATC until the controller begins to provide

navigational guidance in the form of radar vectors.

NOTE−

When used by the controller during departure, the term

“radar contact” should not be interpreted as relieving pilots of their responsibility to maintain appropriate terrain

and obstruction clearance which may include flying the obstacle DP.

3. Pilots must preplan to determine if the aircraft

can meet the climb gradient (expressed in feet per

nautical mile) required by the departure procedure,

and be aware that flying at a higher than anticipated

ground speed increases the climb rate requirement in

feet per minute. Higher than standard climb gradients

are specified by a note on the departure procedure

chart for graphic DPs, or in the Take−Off Minimums

and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures section of the

U.S. Terminal Procedures booklet for textual ODPs.

The required climb gradient, or higher, must be maintained to the specified altitude or fix, then the

standard climb gradient of 200 ft/NM can be resumed. A table for the conversion of climb gradient

(feet per nautical mile) to climb rate (feet per minute),

at a given ground speed, is included on page D1 of the

U.S. Terminal Procedures booklets.

d. Where are DPs located? DPs will be listed by

airport in the IFR Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle)

Departure Procedures Section, Section C, of the Terminal Procedures Publications (TPPs). If the DP is

textual, it will be described in TPP Section C. SIDs

and complex ODPs will be published graphically and

named. The name will be listed by airport name and

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Departure Procedures 5−2−9

runway in Section C. Graphic ODPs will also have

the term “(OBSTACLE)” printed in the charted procedure title, differentiating them from SIDs.

1. An ODP that has been developed solely for

obstacle avoidance will be indicated with the symbol

“T” on appropriate Instrument Approach Procedure

(IAP) charts and DP charts for that airport. The “T”

symbol will continue to refer users to TPP Section C.

In the case of a graphic ODP, the TPP Section C will

only contain the name of the ODP. Since there may be

both a textual and a graphic DP, Section C should still

be checked for additional information. The nonstandard takeoff minimums and minimum climb

gradients found in TPP Section C also apply to

charted DPs and radar vector departures unless different minimums are specified on the charted DP.

Takeoff minimums and departure procedures apply to

all runways unless otherwise specified. New graphic

DPs will have all the information printed on the

graphic depiction. As a general rule, ATC will only

assign an ODP from a nontowered airport when compliance with the ODP is necessary for aircraft to

aircraft separation. Pilots may use the ODP to help

ensure separation from terrain and obstacles.

e. Responsibilities

1. Each pilot, prior to departing an airport on an

IFR flight should:

(a) Consider the type of terrain and other obstacles on or in the vicinity of the departure airport;

(b) Determine whether an ODP is available;

(c) Determine if obstacle avoidance can be

maintained visually or if the ODP should be flown;

and

(d) Consider the effect of degraded climb performance and the actions to take in the event of an

engine loss during the departure. Pilots should notify

ATC as soon as possible of reduced climb capability

in that circumstance.

NOTE−

Guidance concerning contingency procedures that

address an engine failure on takeoff after V1 speed on a

large or turbine−powered transport category airplane

may be found in AC 120−91, Airport Obstacle Analysis.

2. After an aircraft is established on an SID and

subsequently vectored or cleared off of the SID or

SID transition, pilots must consider the SID canceled,

unless the controller adds “expect to resume SID.”

Aircraft may not be vectored off of an ODP until at or

above the MVA/MIA, at which time the ODP is canceled.

3. Aircraft instructed to resume a SID that contains ATC altitude restrictions, shall be

issued/reissued all applicable restrictions or shall be

advised to comply with those restrictions.

4. If prior to or after takeoff an altitude restriction is issued by ATC, all previously issued “ATC”

altitude restrictions are cancelled including those

published on a SID.

5. ATC crossing altitude restrictions published

on SIDs are identified on the chart with “(ATC)” following the altitude restriction. This will indicate to

the pilot and the controller that this restriction is for

ATC purposes and may be deleted by ATC. When an

ATC crossing altitude has been established prior to

the beginning of a transition route, a minimum altitude for obstruction clearance or other design

constraints will also be published at the same fix adjacent/below the “(ATC)” altitude. The absence of

“(ATC)” at a “minimum altitude” indicates the restriction is there to support obstacle clearance,

airspace restrictions, Navaid reception, and/or other

reason(s) that mandate compliance. These altitudes

CANNOT be lowered or cancelled by ATC. A standalone “(ATC)” altitude restriction may also be

located on a transition route; however, it must never

be lower than the published Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA).

6. Altitude restrictions published on an ODP are

necessary for obstacle clearance and/or design constraints. Compliance with these restrictions is

mandatory and CANNOT be lowered or cancelled by

ATC.

f. RNAV Departure Procedures

All public RNAV SIDs and graphic ODPs are

RNAV 1. These procedures generally start with an

initial RNAV or heading leg near the departure runway end. In addition, these procedures require system

performance currently met by GPS or DME/DME/

IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria discussed

in AC 90−100A, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area

Navigation (RNAV) Operations. RNAV 1 procedures require the aircraft’s total system error remain

bounded by 1 NM for 95% of the total flight time.

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En Route Procedures 5−3−5

5−3−4. Airways and Route Systems

a. Three fixed route systems are established for air

navigation purposes. They are the Federal airway

system (consisting of VOR and L/MF routes), the jet

route system, and the RNAV route system. To the

extent possible, these route systems are aligned in an

overlying manner to facilitate transition between

each.

1. The VOR and L/MF (nondirectional radio

beacons) Airway System consists of airways

designated from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in

some instances higher) up to but not including 18,000

feet MSL. These airways are depicted on IFR Enroute

Low Altitude Charts.

NOTE−

The altitude limits of a victor airway should not be

exceeded except to effect transition within or between route

structures.

(a) Except in Alaska, the VOR airways are:

predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC navigation

aids; depicted in black on aeronautical charts; and

identified by a “V” (Victor) followed by the airway

number (for example, V12).

NOTE−

Segments of VOR airways in Alaska are based on L/MF

navigation aids and charted in brown instead of black on

en route charts.

(1) A segment of an airway which is

common to two or more routes carries the numbers of

all the airways which coincide for that segment.

When such is the case, pilots filing a flight plan need

to indicate only that airway number for the route filed.

NOTE−

A pilot who intends to make an airway flight, using VOR

facilities, will simply specify the appropriate “victor”

airway(s) in the flight plan. For example, if a flight is to be

made from Chicago to New Orleans at 8,000 feet, using

omniranges only, the route may be indicated as “departing

from Chicago−Midway, cruising 8,000 feet via Victor 9 to

Moisant International.” If flight is to be conducted in part

by means of L/MF navigation aids and in part on

omniranges, specifications of the appropriate airways in

the flight plan will indicate which types of facilities will be

used along the described routes, and, for IFR flight, permit

ATC to issue a traffic clearance accordingly. A route may

also be described by specifying the station over which the

flight will pass, but in this case since many VORs and L/MF

aids have the same name, the pilot must be careful to

indicate which aid will be used at a particular location.

This will be indicated in the route of flight portion of the

flight plan by specifying the type of facility to be used after

the location name in the following manner: Newark L/MF,

Allentown VOR.

(2) With respect to position reporting,

reporting points are designated for VOR Airway

Systems. Flights using Victor Airways will report

over these points unless advised otherwise by ATC.

(b) The L/MF airways (colored airways) are

predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids and are

depicted in brown on aeronautical charts and are

identified by color name and number (e.g., Amber

One). Green and Red airways are plotted east and

west. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north and

south.

NOTE−

Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway

system exists only in the state of Alaska. All other such

airways formerly so designated in the conterminous U.S.

have been rescinded.

(c) The use of TSO−C145 (as revised) or

TSO−C146 (as revised) GPS/WAAS navigation

systems is allowed in Alaska as the only means of

navigation on published air traffic service (ATS)

routes, including those Victor, T−Routes, and colored

airway segments designated with a second minimum

en route altitude (MEA) depicted in blue and

followed by the letter G at those lower altitudes. The

altitudes so depicted are below the minimum

reception altitude (MRA) of the land−based

navigation facility defining the route segment, and

guarantee standard en route obstacle clearance and

two−way communications. Air carrier operators

requiring operations specifications are authorized to

conduct operations on those routes in accordance

with FAA operations specifications.

2. The jet route system consists of jet routes

established from 18,000 feet MSL to FL 450

inclusive.

(a) These routes are depicted on Enroute

High Altitude Charts. Jet routes are depicted in black

on aeronautical charts and are identified by a “J” (Jet)

followed by the airway number (e.g., J12). Jet routes,

as VOR airways, are predicated solely on VOR or

VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska).

NOTE−

Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF

navigation aids and are charted in brown color instead of

black on en route charts.

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5−3−6 En Route Procedures

(b) With respect to position reporting,

reporting points are designated for jet route systems.

Flights using jet routes will report over these points

unless otherwise advised by ATC.

3. Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes.

(a) Published RNAV routes, including

Q−Routes and T−Routes, can be flight planned for

use by aircraft with RNAV capability, subject to any

limitations or requirements noted on en route charts,

in applicable Advisory Circulars, or by NOTAM.

RNAV routes are depicted in blue on aeronautical

charts and are identified by the letter “Q” or “T”

followed by the airway number (for example, Q−13,

T−205). Published RNAV routes are RNAV−2 except

when specifically charted as RNAV−1. These routes

require system performance currently met by GPS,

GPS/WAAS, or DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that

satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90−100A, U.S.

Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV)

Operations.

NOTE−

AC 90−100A does not apply to over water RNAV routes

(reference 14 CFR 91.511, including the Q−routes in the

Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic routes) or Alaska

VOR/DME RNAV routes (“JxxxR”). The AC does not apply

to off−route RNAV operations, Alaska GPS routes or

Caribbean routes.

(1) Q−routes are available for use by RNAV

equipped aircraft between 18,000 feet MSL and

FL 450 inclusive. Q−routes are depicted on Enroute

High Altitude Charts.

NOTE−

Aircraft in Alaska may only operate on GNSS Q-routes

with GPS (TSO-C129 (as revised) or TSO-C196 (as

revised)) equipment while the aircraft remains in Air

Traffic Control (ATC) radar surveillance or with

GPS/WAAS which does not require ATC radar surveillance.

(2) T−routes are available for use by GPS or

GPS/WAAS equipped aircraft from 1,200 feet above

the surface (or in some instances higher) up to but not

including 18,000 feet MSL. T−routes are depicted on

Enroute Low Altitude Charts.

NOTE−

Aircraft in Alaska may only operate on GNSS T-routes

with GPS/WAAS (TSO-C145 (as revised) or TSO-C146 (as

revised)) equipment.

(b) Unpublished RNAV routes are direct

routes, based on area navigation capability, between

waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude

coordinates, degree−distance fixes, or offsets from

established routes/airways at a specified distance and

direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all

unpublished RNAV routes.

(c) Magnetic Reference Bearing (MRB) is the

published bearing between two waypoints on an

RNAV/GPS/GNSS route. The MRB is calculated by

applying magnetic variation at the waypoint to the

calculated true course between two waypoints. The

MRB enhances situational awareness by indicating a

reference bearing (no−wind heading) that a pilot

should see on the compass/HSI/RMI, etc., when

turning prior to/over a waypoint en route to another

waypoint. Pilots should use this bearing as a reference

only, because their RNAV/GPS/GNSS navigation

system will fly the true course between the

waypoints.

b. Operation above FL 450 may be conducted on

a point-to-point basis. Navigational guidance is

provided on an area basis utilizing those facilities

depicted on the enroute high altitude charts.

c. Radar Vectors. Controllers may vector aircraft within controlled airspace for separation

purposes, noise abatement considerations, when an

operational advantage will be realized by the pilot or

the controller, or when requested by the pilot. Vectors

outside of controlled airspace will be provided only

on pilot request. Pilots will be advised as to what the

vector is to achieve when the vector is controller

initiated and will take the aircraft off a previously

assigned nonradar route. To the extent possible,

aircraft operating on RNAV routes will be allowed to

remain on their own navigation.

d. When flying in Canadian airspace, pilots are

cautioned to review Canadian Air Regulations.

1. Special attention should be given to the parts

which differ from U.S. CFRs.

(a) The Canadian Airways Class B airspace

restriction is an example. Class B airspace is all

controlled low level airspace above 12,500 feet MSL

or the MEA, whichever is higher, within which only

IFR and controlled VFR flights are permitted. (Low

level airspace means an airspace designated and

defined as such in the Designated Airspace

Handbook.)

(b) Unless issued a VFR flight clearance by

ATC, regardless of the weather conditions or the

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En Route Procedures 5−3−7

height of the terrain, no person may operate an

aircraft under VMC within Class B airspace.

(c) The requirement for entry into Class B

airspace is a student pilot permit (under the guidance

or control of a flight instructor).

(d) VFR flight requires visual contact with

the ground or water at all times.

2. Segments of VOR airways and high level

routes in Canada are based on L/MF navigation aids

and are charted in brown color instead of blue on

en route charts.

FIG 5−3−1

Adhering to Airways or Routes

5−3−5. Airway or Route Course Changes

a. Pilots of aircraft are required to adhere to

airways or routes being flown. Special attention must

be given to this requirement during course changes.

Each course change consists of variables that make

the technique applicable in each case a matter only the

pilot can resolve. Some variables which must be

considered are turn radius, wind effect, airspeed,

degree of turn, and cockpit instrumentation. An early

turn, as illustrated below, is one method of adhering

to airways or routes. The use of any available cockpit

instrumentation, such as Distance Measuring Equipment, may be used by the pilot to lead the turn when

making course changes. This is consistent with the

intent of 14 CFR Section 91.181, which requires

pilots to operate along the centerline of an airway and

along the direct course between navigational aids or

fixes.

b. Turns which begin at or after fix passage may

exceed airway or route boundaries. FIG 5−3−1

contains an example flight track depicting this,

together with an example of an early turn.

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5−3−8 En Route Procedures

c. Without such actions as leading a turn, aircraft

operating in excess of 290 knots true air speed (TAS)

can exceed the normal airway or route boundaries

depending on the amount of course change required,

wind direction and velocity, the character of the turn

fix (DME, overhead navigation aid, or intersection),

and the pilot’s technique in making a course change.

For example, a flight operating at 17,000 feet MSL

with a TAS of 400 knots, a 25 degree bank, and a

course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed

the width of the airway or route; i.e., 4 nautical miles

each side of centerline. However, in the airspace

below 18,000 feet MSL, operations in excess of

290 knots TAS are not prevalent and the provision of

additional IFR separation in all course change

situations for the occasional aircraft making a turn in

excess of 290 knots TAS creates an unacceptable

waste of airspace and imposes a penalty upon the

preponderance of traffic which operate at low speeds.

Consequently, the FAA expects pilots to lead turns

and take other actions they consider necessary during

course changes to adhere as closely as possible to the

airways or route being flown.

5−3−6. Changeover Points (COPs)

a. COPs are prescribed for Federal airways, jet

routes, area navigation routes, or other direct routes

for which an MEA is designated under 14 CFR

Part 95. The COP is a point along the route or airway

segment between two adjacent navigation facilities or

waypoints where changeover in navigation guidance

should occur. At this point, the pilot should change

navigation receiver frequency from the station

behind the aircraft to the station ahead.

b. The COP is normally located midway between

the navigation facilities for straight route segments,

or at the intersection of radials or courses forming a

dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When

the COP is NOT located at the midway point,

aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and

give the mileage to the radio aids.

c. COPs are established for the purpose of

preventing loss of navigation guidance, to prevent

frequency interference from other facilities, and to

prevent use of different facilities by different aircraft

in the same airspace. Pilots are urged to observe COPs

to the fullest extent.

5−3−7. Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA)

Due to increased airspeeds at 10,000 ft MSL or above,

the published minimum enroute altitude (MEA) may

not be sufficient for obstacle clearance when a turn is

required over a fix, NAVAID, or waypoint. In these

instances, an expanded area in the vicinity of the turn

point is examined to determine whether the published

MEA is sufficient for obstacle clearance. In some

locations (normally mountainous), terrain/obstacles

in the expanded search area may necessitate a higher

minimum altitude while conducting the turning

maneuver. Turning fixes requiring a higher minimum

turning altitude (MTA) will be denoted on

government charts by the minimum crossing altitude

(MCA) icon (“x” flag) and an accompanying note

describing the MTA restriction. An MTA restriction

will normally consist of the air traffic service (ATS)

route leading to the turn point, the ATS route leading

from the turn point, and the required altitude; e.g.,

MTA V330 E TO V520 W 16000. When an MTA is

applicable for the intended route of flight, pilots must

ensure they are at or above the charted MTA not later

than the turn point and maintain at or above the MTA

until joining the centerline of the ATS route following

the turn point. Once established on the centerline

following the turning fix, the MEA/MOCA determines the minimum altitude available for assignment.

An MTA may also preclude the use of a specific

altitude or a range of altitudes during a turn. For

example, the MTA may restrict the use of 10,000

through 11,000 ft MSL. In this case, any altitude

greater than 11,000 ft MSL is unrestricted, as are

altitudes less than 10,000 ft MSL provided

MEA/MOCA requirements are satisfied.

5−3−8. Holding

a. Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other

than the destination airport and delay is expected, it

is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue

complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is

charted), an EFC time and best estimate of any

additional en route/terminal delay.

NOTE−

Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government

or commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)

low/high altitude enroute, and area or STAR charts should

be used.

b. If the holding pattern is charted and the

controller doesn’t issue complete holding instructions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the
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Arrival Procedures 5−4−21

for a “normal” glidepath, due to its location down the

runway.

3. Accordingly, pilots are advised to carefully

review approach procedures, prior to initiating the

approach, to identify the optimum position(s), and

any unacceptable positions, from which a descent to

landing can be initiated (in accordance with 14 CFR

Section 91.175(c)).

k. Area Navigation (RNAV) Instrument

Approach Charts. Reliance on RNAV systems for

instrument operations is becoming more commonplace as new systems such as GPS and augmented

GPS such as the Wide Area Augmentation System

(WAAS) are developed and deployed. In order to

support full integration of RNAV procedures into the

National Airspace System (NAS), the FAA

developed a new charting format for IAPs (See

FIG 5−4−9). This format avoids unnecessary

duplication and proliferation of instrument approach

charts. The original stand alone GPS charts, titled

simply “GPS,” are being converted to the newer

format as the procedures are revised. One reason for

the revision is the addition of WAAS based minima

to the approach chart. The reformatted approach chart

is titled “RNAV (GPS) RWY XX.” Up to four lines

of minima are included on these charts. Ground

Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing System (GLS) was a placeholder for future WAAS and

LAAS minima, and the minima was always listed as

N/A. The GLS minima line has now been replaced by

the WAAS LPV (Localizer Performance with

Vertical Guidance) minima on most RNAV (GPS)

charts. LNAV/VNAV (lateral navigation/vertical

navigation) was added to support both WAAS

electronic vertical guidance and Barometric VNAV.

LPV and LNAV/VNAV are both APV procedures as

described in paragraph 5−4−5a7. The original GPS

minima, titled “S−XX,” for straight in runway XX, is

retitled LNAV (lateral navigation). Circling minima

may also be published. A new type of nonprecision

WAAS minima will also be published on this chart

and titled LP (localizer performance). LP will be

published in locations where vertically guided

minima cannot be provided due to terrain and

obstacles and therefore, no LPV or LNAV/VNAV

minima will be published. GBAS procedures are published on a separate chart and the GLS minima line is

to be used only for GBAS. ATC clearance for the

RNAV procedure authorizes a properly certified pilot

to utilize any minimums for which the aircraft is certified (for example, a WAAS equipped aircraft utilizes

the LPV or LP minima but a GPS only aircraft may

not). The RNAV chart includes information formatted for quick reference by the pilot or flight crew at the

top of the chart. This portion of the chart, developed

based on a study by the Department of Transportation, Volpe National Transportation System Center, is

commonly referred to as the pilot briefing.

1. The minima lines are:

(a) GLS. “GLS” is the acronym for GBAS

Landing System. The U.S. version of GBAS has

traditionally been referred to as LAAS. The

worldwide community has adopted GBAS as the

official term for this type of navigation system. To

coincide with international terminology, the FAA is

also adopting the term GBAS to be consistent with the

international community. This line was originally

published as a placeholder for both WAAS and LAAS

minima and marked as N/A since no minima was

published. As the concepts for GBAS and WAAS

procedure publication have evolved, GLS will now

be used only for GBAS minima, which will be on a

separate approach chart. Most RNAV(GPS) approach

charts have had the GLS minima line replaced by a

WAAS LPV line of minima.

(b) LPV. “LPV” is the acronym for localizer

performance with vertical guidance. RNAV (GPS)

approaches to LPV lines of minima take advantage of

the improved accuracy of WAAS lateral and vertical

guidance to provide an approach that is very similar

to a Category I Instrument Landing System (ILS).

The approach to LPV line of minima is designed for

angular guidance with increasing sensitivity as the

aircraft gets closer to the runway. The sensitivities are

nearly identical to those of the ILS at similar

distances. This was done intentionally to allow the

skills required to proficiently fly an ILS to readily

transfer to flying RNAV (GPS) approaches to the

LPV line of minima. Just as with an ILS, the LPV has

vertical guidance and is flown to a DA. Aircraft can

fly this minima line with a statement in the Aircraft

Flight Manual that the installed equipment supports

LPV approaches. This includes Class 3 and 4

TSO−C146 GPS/WAAS equipment.

(c) LNAV/VNAV. LNAV/VNAV identifies

APV minimums developed to accommodate an

RNAV IAP with vertical guidance, usually provided

by approach certified Baro−VNAV, but with lateral

and vertical integrity limits larger than a precision

approach or LPV. LNAV stands for Lateral

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5−4−22 Arrival Procedures

Navigation; VNAV stands for Vertical Navigation.

This minima line can be flown by aircraft with a

statement in the Aircraft Flight Manual that the

installed equipment supports GPS approaches and

has an approach−approved barometric VNAV, or if

the aircraft has been demonstrated to support

LNAV/VNAV approaches. This includes Class 2, 3

and 4 TSO−C146 GPS/WAAS equipment. Aircraft

using LNAV/VNAV minimums will descend to

landing via an internally generated descent path

based on satellite or other approach approved VNAV

systems. Since electronic vertical guidance is

provided, the minima will be published as a DA.

Other navigation systems may be specifically

authorized to use this line of minima. (See Section A,

Terms/Landing Minima Data, of the U.S. Terminal

Procedures books.)

(d) LP. “LP” is the acronym for localizer

performance. Approaches to LP lines of minima take

advantage of the improved accuracy of WAAS to

provide approaches, with lateral guidance and

angular guidance. Angular guidance does not refer to

a glideslope angle but rather to the increased lateral

sensitivity as the aircraft gets closer to the runway,

similar to localizer approaches. However, the LP line

of minima is a Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA)

rather than a DA (H). Procedures with LP lines of

minima will not be published with another approach

that contains approved vertical guidance

(LNAV/VNAV or LPV). It is possible to have LP and

LNAV published on the same approach chart but LP

will only be published if it provides lower minima

than an LNAV line of minima. LP is not a fail−down

mode for LPV. LP will only be published if terrain,

obstructions, or some other reason prevent publishing

a vertically guided procedure. WAAS avionics may

provide GNSS−based advisory vertical guidance

during an approach to an LP line of minima.

Barometric altimeter information remains the

primary altitude reference for complying with any

altitude restrictions. WAAS equipment may not

support LP, even if it supports LPV, if it was approved

before TSO−C145b and TSO−C146b. Receivers

approved under previous TSOs may require an

upgrade by the manufacturer in order to be used to fly

to LP minima. Receivers approved for LP must have

a statement in the approved Flight Manual or

Supplemental Flight Manual including LP as one of

the approved approach types.

(e) LNAV. This minima is for lateral

navigation only, and the approach minimum altitude

will be published as a minimum descent altitude

(MDA). LNAV provides the same level of service as

the present GPS stand alone approaches. LNAV

minimums support the following navigation systems:

WAAS, when the navigation solution will not support

vertical navigation; and, GPS navigation systems

which are presently authorized to conduct GPS

approaches.

NOTE−

GPS receivers approved for approach operations in

accordance with: AC 20−138, Airworthiness Approval of

Positioning and Navigation Systems, qualify for this minima. WAAS navigation equipment must be approved in

accordance with the requirements specified in TSO−C145b

or TSO−C146b and installed in accordance with Advisory

Circular AC 20−138.

2. Other systems may be authorized to utilize

these approaches. See the description in Section A of

the U.S. Terminal Procedures books for details.

Operational approval must also be obtained for

Baro−VNAV systems to operate to the LNAV/VNAV

minimums. Baro−VNAV may not be authorized on

some approaches due to other factors, such as no local

altimeter source being available. Baro−VNAV is not

authorized on LPV procedures. Pilots are directed to

their local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)

for additional information.

NOTE−

RNAV and Baro−VNAV systems must have a manufacturer

supplied electronic database which must include the

waypoints, altitudes, and vertical data for the procedure to

be flown. The system must be able to retrieve the procedure

by name from the aircraft navigation database, not just as

a manually entered series of waypoints.

3. ILS or RNAV (GPS) charts.

(a) Some RNAV (GPS) charts will also contain an ILS line of minima to make use of the ILS

precision final in conjunction with the RNAV GPS

capabilities for the portions of the procedure prior to

the final approach segment and for the missed approach. Obstacle clearance for the portions of the

procedure other than the final approach segment is

still based on GPS criteria.

NOTE−

Some GPS receiver installations inhibit GPS navigation

whenever ANY ILS frequency is tuned. Pilots flying

aircraft with receivers installed in this manner must wait

until they are on the intermediate segment of the procedure

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Arrival Procedures 5−4−23

prior to the PFAF (PFAF is the active waypoint) to tune the

ILS frequency and must tune the ILS back to a VOR frequency in order to fly the GPS based missed approach.

(b) Charting. There are charting differences

between ILS, RNAV (GPS), and GLS approaches.

(1) The LAAS procedure is titled “GLS

RWY XX” on the approach chart.

(2) The VDB provides information to the

airborne receiver where the guidance is synthesized.

(3) The LAAS procedure is identified by a

four alpha−numeric character field referred to as the

RPI or approach ID and is similar to the IDENT feature of the ILS.

(4) The RPI is charted.

(5) Most RNAV(GPS) approach charts

have had the GLS (NA) minima line replaced by an

LPV line of minima.

(6) Since the concepts for LAAS and

WAAS procedure publication have evolved, GLS

will now be used only for LAAS minima, which will

be on a separate approach chart.

4. Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

(a) Pilots are advised to refer to the

“TERMS/LANDING MINIMUMS DATA”

(Section A) of the U.S. Government Terminal

Procedures books for aircraft approach eligibility

requirements by specific RNP level requirements.

(b) Some aircraft have RNP approval in their

AFM without a GPS sensor. The lowest level of

sensors that the FAA will support for RNP service is

DME/DME. However, necessary DME signal may

not be available at the airport of intended operations.

For those locations having an RNAV chart published

with LNAV/VNAV minimums, a procedure note may

be provided such as “DME/DME RNP−0.3 NA.”

This means that RNP aircraft dependent on

DME/DME to achieve RNP−0.3 are not authorized to

conduct this approach. Where DME facility

availability is a factor, the note may read “DME/DME

RNP−0.3 Authorized; ABC and XYZ Required.”

This means that ABC and XYZ facilities have been

determined by flight inspection to be required in the

navigation solution to assure RNP−0.3. VOR/DME

updating must not be used for approach procedures.

5. Chart Terminology

(a) Decision Altitude (DA) replaces the

familiar term Decision Height (DH). DA conforms to

the international convention where altitudes relate to

MSL and heights relate to AGL. DA will eventually

be published for other types of instrument approach

procedures with vertical guidance, as well. DA

indicates to the pilot that the published descent profile

is flown to the DA (MSL), where a missed approach

will be initiated if visual references for landing are not

established. Obstacle clearance is provided to allow

a momentary descent below DA while transitioning

from the final approach to the missed approach. The

aircraft is expected to follow the missed instructions

while continuing along the published final approach

course to at least the published runway threshold

waypoint or MAP (if not at the threshold) before

executing any turns.

(b) Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) has

been in use for many years, and will continue to be

used for the LNAV only and circling procedures.

(c) Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) has

been traditionally used in “precision” approaches as

the height of the glide slope above threshold. With

publication of LNAV/VNAV minimums and RNAV

descent angles, including graphically depicted

descent profiles, TCH also applies to the height of the

“descent angle,” or glidepath, at the threshold. Unless

otherwise required for larger type aircraft which may

be using the IAP, the typical TCH is 30 to 50 feet.

6. The MINIMA FORMAT will also change

slightly.

(a) Each line of minima on the RNAV IAP is

titled to reflect the level of service available; e.g.,

GLS, LPV, LNAV/VNAV, LP, and LNAV.

CIRCLING minima will also be provided.

(b) The minima title box indicates the nature

of the minimum altitude for the IAP. For example:

(1) DA will be published next to the

minima line title for minimums supporting vertical

guidance such as for GLS, LPV or LNAV/VNAV.

(2) MDA will be published where the

minima line was designed to support aircraft with

only lateral guidance available, such as LNAV or LP.

Descent below the MDA, including during the missed

approach, is not authorized unless the visual

conditions stated in 14 CFR Section 91.175 exist.

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5−4−24 Arrival Procedures

(3) Where two or more systems, such as

LPV and LNAV/VNAV, share the same minima, each

line of minima will be displayed separately.

7. Chart Symbology changed slightly to

include:

(a) Descent Profile. The published descent

profile and a graphical depiction of the vertical path

to the runway will be shown. Graphical depiction of

the RNAV vertical guidance will differ from the

traditional depiction of an ILS glide slope (feather)

through the use of a shorter vertical track beginning

at the decision altitude.

(1) It is FAA policy to design IAPs with

minimum altitudes established at fixes/waypoints to

achieve optimum stabilized (constant rate) descents

within each procedure segment. This design can

enhance the safety of the operations and contribute

toward reduction in the occurrence of controlled

flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents. Additionally, the

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

recently emphasized that pilots could benefit from

publication of the appropriate IAP descent angle for

a stabilized descent on final approach. The RNAV

IAP format includes the descent angle to the

hundredth of a degree; e.g., 3.00 degrees. The angle

will be provided in the graphically depicted descent

profile.

(2) The stabilized approach may be

performed by reference to vertical navigation

information provided by WAAS or LNAV/VNAV

systems; or for LNAV−only systems, by the pilot

determining the appropriate aircraft

attitude/groundspeed combination to attain a

constant rate descent which best emulates the

published angle. To aid the pilot, U.S. Government

Terminal Procedures Publication charts publish an

expanded Rate of Descent Table on the inside of the

back hard cover for use in planning and executing

precision descents under known or approximate

groundspeed conditions.

(b) Visual Descent Point (VDP). A VDP

will be published on most RNAV IAPs. VDPs apply

only to aircraft utilizing LP or LNAV minima, not

LPV or LNAV/VNAV minimums.

(c) Missed Approach Symbology. In order

to make missed approach guidance more readily

understood, a method has been developed to display

missed approach guidance in the profile view through

the use of quick reference icons. Due to limited space

in the profile area, only four or fewer icons can be

shown. However, the icons may not provide

representation of the entire missed approach

procedure. The entire set of textual missed approach

instructions are provided at the top of the approach

chart in the pilot briefing. (See FIG 5−4−9).

(d) Waypoints. All RNAV or GPS

stand−alone IAPs are flown using data pertaining to

the particular IAP obtained from an onboard

database, including the sequence of all WPs used for

the approach and missed approach, except that step

down waypoints may not be included in some

TSO−C129 receiver databases. Included in the

database, in most receivers, is coding that informs the

navigation system of which WPs are fly−over (FO) or

fly−by (FB). The navigation system may provide

guidance appropriately − including leading the turn

prior to a fly−by WP; or causing overflight of a

fly−over WP. Where the navigation system does not

provide such guidance, the pilot must accomplish the

turn lead or waypoint overflight manually. Chart

symbology for the FB WP provides pilot awareness

of expected actions. Refer to the legend of the U.S.

Terminal Procedures books.

(e) TAAs are described in paragraph 5−4−5d,

Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). When published, the

RNAV chart depicts the TAA areas through the use of

“icons” representing each TAA area associated with

the RNAV procedure (See FIG 5−4−9). These icons

are depicted in the plan view of the approach chart,

generally arranged on the chart in accordance with

their position relative to the aircraft’s arrival from the

en route structure. The WP, to which navigation is

appropriate and expected within each specific TAA

area, will be named and depicted on the associated

TAA icon. Each depicted named WP is the IAF for

arrivals from within that area. TAAs may not be used

on all RNAV procedures because of airspace

congestion or other reasons.

(f) Hot and Cold Temperature Limitations.

A minimum and maximum temperature limitation

is published on procedures which authorize

Baro−VNAV operation. These temperatures

represent the airport temperature above or below

which Baro−VNAV is not authorized to

LNAV/VNAV minimums. As an example, the

limitation will read: “Uncompensated Baro−VNAV

NA below −8C (+18F) or above 47C (117F).”

This information will be found in the upper left hand

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Arrival Procedures 5−4−25

box of the pilot briefing. When the temperature is

above the high temperature or below the low

temperature limit, Baro−VNAV may be used to

provide a stabilized descent to the LNAV MDA;

however, extra caution should be used in the visual

segment to ensure a vertical correction is not

required. If the VGSI is aligned with the published

glidepath, and the aircraft instruments indicate on

glidepath, an above or below glidepath indication on

the VGSI may indicate that temperature error is

causing deviations to the glidepath. These deviations

should be considered if the approach is continued

below the MDA.

NOTE−

Many systems which apply Baro−VNAV temperature

compensation only correct for cold temperature. In this

case, the high temperature limitation still applies. Also,

temperature compensation may require activation by

maintenance personnel during installation in order to be

functional, even though the system has the feature. Some

systems may have a temperature correction capability, but

correct the Baro−altimeter all the time, rather than just on

the final, which would create conflicts with other aircraft

if the feature were activated. Pilots should be aware of

compensation capabilities of the system prior to

disregarding the temperature limitations.

NOTE−

Temperature limitations do not apply to flying the LNAV/

VNAV line of minima using approach certified WAAS

receivers when LPV or LNAV/VNAV are annunciated to be

available.

(g) WAAS Channel Number/Approach ID.

The WAAS Channel Number is an optional

equipment capability that allows the use of a 5−digit

number to select a specific final approach segment

without using the menu method. The Approach ID is

an airport unique 4−character combination for

verifying the selection and extraction of the correct

final approach segment information from the aircraft

database. It is similar to the ILS ident, but displayed

visually rather than aurally. The Approach ID

consists of the letter W for WAAS, the runway

number, and a letter other than L, C or R, which could

be confused with Left, Center and Right, e.g., W35A.

Approach IDs are assigned in the order that WAAS

approaches are built to that runway number at that

airport. The WAAS Channel Number and Approach

ID are displayed in the upper left corner of the

approach procedure pilot briefing.

(h) At locations where outages of WAAS

vertical guidance may occur daily due to initial

system limitations, a negative W symbol ( ) will be

placed on RNAV (GPS) approach charts. Many of

these outages will be very short in duration, but may

result in the disruption of the vertical portion of the

approach. The symbol indicates that NOTAMs or

Air Traffic advisories are not provided for outages

which occur in the WAAS LNAV/VNAV or LPV

vertical service. Use LNAV minima for flight

planning at these locations, whether as a destination

or alternate. For flight operations at these locations,

when the WAAS avionics indicate that LNAV/VNAV

or LPV service is available, then vertical guidance

may be used to complete the approach using the

displayed level of service. Should an outage occur

during the procedure, reversion to LNAV minima

may be required. As the WAAS coverage is

expanded, the will be removed.

5−4−6. Approach Clearance

a. An aircraft which has been cleared to a holding

fix and subsequently “cleared . . . approach” has not

received new routing. Even though clearance for the

approach may have been issued prior to the aircraft

reaching the holding fix, ATC would expect the pilot

to proceed via the holding fix (his/her last assigned

route), and the feeder route associated with that fix (if

a feeder route is published on the approach chart) to

the initial approach fix (IAF) to commence the

approach. WHEN CLEARED FOR THE

APPROACH, THE PUBLISHED OFF AIRWAY

(FEEDER) ROUTES THAT LEAD FROM THE

EN ROUTE STRUCTURE TO THE IAF ARE PART

OF THE APPROACH CLEARANCE.

b. If a feeder route to an IAF begins at a fix located

along the route of flight prior to reaching the holding

fix, and clearance for an approach is issued, a pilot

should commence the approach via the published

feeder route; i.e., the aircraft would not be expected

to overfly the feeder route and return to it. The pilot

is expected to commence the approach in a similar

manner at the IAF, if the IAF for the procedure is

located along the route of flight to the holding fix.

c. If a route of flight directly to the initial approach

fix is desired, it should be so stated by the controller

with phraseology to include the words “direct . . . ,”

“proceed direct” or a similar phrase which the pilot

can interpret without question. When uncertain of the

clearance, immediately query ATC as to what route of

flight is desired.

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5−4−26 Arrival Procedures

d. The name of an instrument approach, as

published, is used to identify the approach, even

though a component of the approach aid, such as the

glideslope on an Instrument Landing System, is

inoperative or unreliable. The controller will use the

name of the approach as published, but must advise

the aircraft at the time an approach clearance is issued

that the inoperative or unreliable approach aid

component is unusable.

e. The following applies to aircraft on radar

vectors and/or cleared “direct to” in conjunction with

an approach clearance:

1. Maintain the last altitude assigned by ATC

until the aircraft is established on a published segment of a transition route, or approach procedure

segment, or other published route, for which a lower

altitude is published on the chart. If already on an established route, or approach or arrival segment, you

may descend to whatever minimum altitude is listed

for that route or segment.

2. Continue on the vector heading until intercepting the next published ground track applicable to

the approach clearance.

3. Once reaching the final approach fix via the

published segments, the pilot may continue on approach to a landing.

4. If proceeding to an IAF with a published

course reversal (procedure turn or hold-in-lieu of PT

pattern), except when cleared for a straight in approach by ATC, the pilot must execute the procedure

turn/hold-in-lieu of PT, and complete the approach.

5. If cleared to an IAF/IF via a NoPT route, or

no procedure turn/hold-in-lieu of PT is published,

continue with the published approach.

6. In addition to the above, RNAV aircraft may

be issued a clearance direct to an Intermediate Fix followed by a straight-in approach clearance.

NOTE−

Refer to 14 CFR 91.175 (i).

5−4−7. Instrument Approach Procedures

a. Aircraft approach category means a grouping of

aircraft based on a speed of VREF, if specified, or if

VREF is not specified, 1.3 VSO at the maximum

certified landing weight. VREF, VSO, and the

maximum certified landing weight are those values as

established for the aircraft by the certification

authority of the country of registry. A pilot must use

the minima corresponding to the category determined

during certification or higher. Helicopters may use

Category A minima. If it is necessary to operate at a

speed in excess of the upper limit of the speed range

for an aircraft’s category, the minimums for the

higher category must be used. For example, an

airplane which fits into Category B, but is circling to

land at a speed of 145 knots, must use the approach

Category D minimums. As an additional example, a

Category A airplane (or helicopter) which is

operating at 130 knots on a straight−in approach must

use the approach Category C minimums. See the

following category limits:

1. Category A: Speed less than 91 knots.

2. Category B: Speed 91 knots or more but less

than 121 knots.

3. Category C: Speed 121 knots or more but

less than 141 knots.

4. Category D: Speed 141 knots or more but

less than 166 knots.

5. Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.

NOTE−

VREF in the above definition refers to the speed used in

establishing the approved landing distance under the

airworthiness regulations constituting the type

certification basis of the airplane, regardless of whether

that speed for a particular airplane is 1.3 VSO, 1.23 VSR, or

some higher speed required for airplane controllability.

This speed, at the maximum certificated landing weight,

determines the lowest applicable approach category for

all approaches regardless of actual landing weight.

b. When operating on an unpublished route or

while being radar vectored, the pilot, when an

approach clearance is received, must, in addition to

complying with the minimum altitudes for IFR

operations (14 CFR Section 91.177), maintain the

last assigned altitude unless a different altitude is

assigned by ATC, or until the aircraft is established on

a segment of a published route or IAP. After the

aircraft is so established, published altitudes apply to

descent within each succeeding route or approach

segment unless a different altitude is assigned by

ATC. Notwithstanding this pilot responsibility, for

aircraft operating on unpublished routes or while

being radar vectored, ATC will, except when

conducting a radar approach, issue an IFR approach

clearance only after the aircraft is established on a

segment of a published route or IAP, or assign an

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Arrival Procedures 5−4−27

altitude to maintain until the aircraft is established on

a segment of a published route or instrument

approach procedure. For this purpose, the procedure

turn of a published IAP must not be considered a

segment of that IAP until the aircraft reaches the

initial fix or navigation facility upon which the

procedure turn is predicated.

EXAMPLE−

Cross Redding VOR at or above five thousand, cleared

VOR runway three four approach. 

 or

Five miles from outer marker, turn right heading three three

zero, maintain two thousand until established on the

localizer, cleared ILS runway three six approach.

NOTE−

The altitude assigned will assure IFR obstruction

clearance from the point at which the approach clearance

is issued until established on a segment of a published route

or IAP. If uncertain of the meaning of the clearance,

immediately request clarification from ATC.

c. Several IAPs, using various navigation and

approach aids may be authorized for an airport. ATC

may advise that a particular approach procedure is

being used, primarily to expedite traffic. If issued a

clearance that specifies a particular approach

procedure, notify ATC immediately if a different one

is desired. In this event it may be necessary for ATC

to withhold clearance for the different approach until

such time as traffic conditions permit. However, a

pilot involved in an emergency situation will be given

priority. If the pilot is not familiar with the specific

approach procedure, ATC should be advised and they

will provide detailed information on the execution of

the procedure.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Advance Information on Instrument Approach, Paragraph 5−4−4.

d. The name of an instrument approach, as

published, is used to identify the approach, even

though a component of the approach aid, such as the

glideslope on an Instrument Landing System, is

inoperative or unreliable. The controller will use the

name of the approach as published, but must advise

the aircraft at the time an approach clearance is issued

that the inoperative or unreliable approach aid

component is unusable, except when the title of the

published approach procedures otherwise allows, for

example, ILS or LOC.

e. Except when being radar vectored to the final

approach course, when cleared for a specifically

prescribed IAP; i.e., “cleared ILS runway one niner

approach” or when “cleared approach” i.e., execution

of any procedure prescribed for the airport, pilots

must execute the entire procedure commencing at an

IAF or an associated feeder route as described on the

IAP chart unless an appropriate new or revised ATC

clearance is received, or the IFR flight plan is

canceled.

f. Pilots planning flights to locations which are

private airfields or which have instrument approach

procedures based on private navigation aids should

obtain approval from the owner. In addition, the pilot

must be authorized by the FAA to fly special

instrument approach procedures associated with

private navigation aids (see paragraph 5−4−8).

Owners of navigation aids that are not for public use

may elect to turn off the signal for whatever reason

they may have; e.g., maintenance, energy

conservation, etc. Air traffic controllers are not

required to question pilots to determine if they have

permission to land at a private airfield or to use

procedures based on privately owned navigation aids,

and they may not know the status of the navigation

aid. Controllers presume a pilot has obtained

approval from the owner and the FAA for use of

special instrument approach procedures and is aware

of any details of the procedure if an IFR flight plan

was filed to that airport.

g. Pilots should not rely on radar to identify a fix

unless the fix is indicated as “RADAR” on the IAP.

Pilots may request radar identification of an OM, but

the controller may not be able to provide the service

due either to workload or not having the fix on the

video map.

h. If a missed approach is required, advise ATC

and include the reason (unless initiated by ATC).

Comply with the missed approach instructions for the

instrument approach procedure being executed,

unless otherwise directed by ATC.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Missed Approach, Paragraph 5−4−21.

AIM, Missed Approach, Paragraph 5−5−5.

i. ATC may clear aircraft that have filed an

Advanced RNAV equipment suffix to the

intermediate fix when clearing aircraft for an

instrument approach procedure. ATC will take the

following actions when clearing Advanced RNAV

aircraft to the intermediate fix:

1. Provide radar monitoring to the intermediate

fix.

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

5−4−28 Arrival Procedures

2. Advise the pilot to expect clearance direct to

the intermediate fix at least 5 miles from the fix.

NOTE−

This is to allow the pilot to program the RNAV equipment

to allow the aircraft to fly to the intermediate fix when

cleared by ATC.

3. Assign an altitude to maintain until the

intermediate fix.

4. Ensure the aircraft is on a course that will

intercept the intermediate segment at an angle not

greater than 90 degrees and is at an altitude that will

permit normal descent from the intermediate fix to

the final approach fix.

5−4−8. Special Instrument Approach

Procedures

Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) charts reflect

the criteria associated with the U.S. Standard for

Terminal Instrument [Approach] Procedures

(TERPs), which prescribes standardized methods for

use in developing IAPs. Standard IAPs are published

in the Federal Register (FR) in accordance with

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 97,

and are available for use by appropriately qualified

pilots operating properly equipped and airworthy

aircraft in accordance with operating rules and

procedures acceptable to the FAA. Special IAPs are

also developed using TERPS but are not given public

notice in the FR. The FAA authorizes only certain

individual pilots and/or pilots in individual

organizations to use special IAPs, and may require

additional crew training and/or aircraft equipment or

performance, and may also require the use of landing

aids, communications, or weather services not

available for public use. Additionally, IAPs that

service private use airports or heliports are generally

special IAPs.

5−4−9. Procedure Turn and Hold−in−lieu of

Procedure Turn

a. A procedure turn is the maneuver prescribed

when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish

the aircraft inbound on an intermediate or final

approach course. The procedure turn or

hold−in−lieu−of−PT is a required maneuver when it

is depicted on the approach chart, unless cleared by

ATC for a straight−in approach. Additionally, the

procedure turn or hold−in−lieu−of−PT is not

permitted when the symbol “No PT” is depicted on

the initial segment being used, when a RADAR

VECTOR to the final approach course is provided,

or when conducting a timed approach from a holding

fix. The altitude prescribed for the procedure turn is

a minimum altitude until the aircraft is established on

the inbound course. The maneuver must be

completed within the distance specified in the

profile view. For a hold−in−lieu−of−PT, the holding

pattern direction must be flown as depicted and the

specified leg length/timing must not be exceeded.

NOTE−

The pilot may elect to use the procedure turn or

hold−in−lieu−of−PT when it is not required by the

procedure, but must first receive an amended clearance

from ATC. If the pilot is uncertain whether the ATC

clearance intends for a procedure turn to be conducted or

to allow for a straight−in approach, the pilot must

immediately request clarification from ATC (14 CFR

Section 91.123).

1. On U.S. Government charts, a barbed arrow

indicates the maneuvering side of the outbound

course on which the procedure turn is made.

Headings are provided for course reversal using the

45 degree type procedure turn. However, the point at

which the turn may be commenced and the type and

rate of turn is left to the discretion of the pilot (limited

by the charted remain within xx NM distance). Some

of the options are the 45 degree procedure turn, the

racetrack pattern, the teardrop procedure turn, or the

80 degree  260 degree course reversal. Racetrack

entries should be conducted on the maneuvering side

where the majority of protected airspace resides. If an

entry places the pilot on the non−maneuvering side of

the PT, correction to intercept the outbound course

ensures remaining within protected airspace. Some

procedure turns are specified by procedural track.

These turns must be flown exactly as depicted.

2. Descent to the procedure turn (PT)

completion altitude from the PT fix altitude (when

one has been published or assigned by ATC) must not

begin until crossing over the PT fix or abeam and

proceeding outbound. Some procedures contain a

note in the chart profile view that says “Maintain

(altitude) or above until established outbound for

procedure turn” (See FIG 5−4−14). Newer

procedures will simply depict an “at or above”

altitude at the PT fix without a chart note (See

FIG 5−4−15). Both are there to ensure required

obstacle clearance is provided in the procedure turn

entry zone (See FIG 5−4−16). Absence of a chart note

AIM 7110.65R CHG 2 3/15/07 3/713
7/26/12 AIM

Arrival Procedures 5−4−29

or specified minimum altitude adjacent to the PT fix

is an indication that descent to the procedure turn

altitude can commence immediately upon crossing

over the PT fix, regardless of the direction of flight.

This is because the minimum altitudes in the PT entry

zone and the PT maneuvering zone are the same.

FIG 5−4−14

FIG 5−4−15

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

5−4−30 Arrival Procedures

FIG 5−4−16

3. When the approach procedure involves a

procedure turn, a maximum speed of not greater than

200 knots (IAS) should be observed from first

overheading the course reversal IAF through the

procedure turn maneuver to ensure containment

within the obstruction clearance area. Pilots should

begin the outbound turn immediately after passing

the procedure turn fix. The procedure turn maneuver

must be executed within the distance specified in the

profile view. The normal procedure turn distance is

10 miles. This may be reduced to a minimum of

5 miles where only Category A or helicopter aircraft

are to be operated or increased to as much as 15 miles

to accommodate high performance aircraft.

4. A teardrop procedure or penetration turn may

be specified in some procedures for a required course

reversal. The teardrop procedure consists of

departure from an initial approach fix on an outbound

course followed by a turn toward and intercepting the

inbound course at or prior to the intermediate fix or

point. Its purpose is to permit an aircraft to reverse

direction and lose considerable altitude within

reasonably limited airspace. Where no fix is available

to mark the beginning of the intermediate segment, it

must be assumed to commence at a point 10 miles

prior to the final approach fix. When the facility is

located on the airport, an aircraft is considered to be

on final approach upon completion of the penetration

turn. However, the final approach segment begins on

the final approach course 10 miles from the facility.
7/26/12 AIM

Meteorology 7−1−1

Chapter 7. Safety of Flight

Section 1. Meteorology

7−1−1. National Weather Service Aviation

Products

a. Weather service to aviation is a joint effort of the

National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal

Aviation Administration (FAA), the military weather

services, and other aviation oriented groups and

individuals. The NWS maintains an extensive

surface, upper air, and radar weather observing

program; a nationwide aviation weather forecasting

service; and provides limited pilot briefing service

(interpretational). Pilot weather briefings are provided by personnel at Flight Service Stations

operated by FAA (in Alaska) or by federal contract

facilities (elsewhere in the U.S.). Aviation routine

weather reports (METAR) are taken manually by

NWS, FAA, contractors, or supplemental observers.

METAR reports are also provided by Automated

Weather Observing System (AWOS), Automated

Surface Observing System (ASOS), and Automated

Weather Sensor System (AWSS).

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 7−1−12, Weather Observing Programs.

b. Aerodrome forecasts are prepared by approximately 100 Weather Forecast Offices (WFOs). These

offices prepare and distribute approximately

525 aerodrome forecasts 4 times daily for specific

airports in the 50 States, Puerto Rico, the Caribbean

and Pacific Islands. These forecasts are valid for

24 hours and amended as required. WFOs prepare

over 300 route forecasts and 39 synopses for briefing

purposes and for Transcribed Weather Broadcasts

(TWEB) only outside the continental United States

(OCONUS). The route forecasts are issued 4 times

daily; each forecast is valid for 12 hours. A

centralized aviation forecast program originating

from the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) in Kansas

City was implemented in October 1995. In the

conterminous U.S., all inflight advisories, Significant

Meteorological Information (SIGMETs), Convective

SIGMETs, and Airmen’s Meteorological Information (AIRMET−text bulletins [WA] and graphics

[G−AIRMETs]), and all Area Forecasts (FAs) (6

areas) are now issued by AWC. FAs are prepared 3

times a day in the conterminous U.S. and Alaska (4

times in Hawaii), and amended as required. Inflight

advisories are issued only when conditions warrant.

Winds aloft forecasts are provided for 176 locations

in the 48 contiguous States and 21 locations in

Alaska for flight planning purposes. (Winds aloft

forecasts for Hawaii are prepared locally.) All the

aviation weather forecasts are given wide distribution

through the Weather Message Switching Center

Replacement (WMSCR) in Atlanta, Georgia, and

Salt Lake City, Utah.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 7−1−6, Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories.

c. Weather element values may be expressed by

using different measurement systems depending on

several factors, such as whether the weather products

will be used by the general public, aviation interests,

international services, or a combination of these

users. FIG 7−1−1 provides conversion tables for the

most used weather elements that will be encountered

by pilots.

7−1−2. FAA Weather Services

a. The FAA maintains a nationwide network of

Flight Service Stations (FSSs) to serve the weather

needs of pilots. In addition, NWS meteorologists are

assigned to most ARTCCs as part of the Center

Weather Service Unit (CWSU). They provide Center

Weather Advisories (CWAs) and gather weather

information to support the needs of the FAA and other

users of the system.

b. The primary source of preflight weather

briefings is an individual briefing obtained from a

briefer at the FSS. These briefings, which are tailored

to your specific flight, are available 24 hours a day

through the use of the toll free number (1−800−WX

BRIEF). Numbers for these services can be found in

the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) under “FAA

and NWS Telephone Numbers” section. They may

also be listed in the U.S. Government section of your

local telephone directory under Department of

Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 7−1−4, Preflight Briefing, explains the types of preflight

briefings available and the information contained in each.

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

7−1−2 Meteorology

FIG 7−1−1

Weather Elements Conversion Tables
7/26/12 AIM

Meteorology 7−1−23

7−1−11. Flight Information Services (FIS)

a. FIS. Aviation weather and other operational

information may be displayed in the cockpit through

the use of FIS. FIS systems are of two basic types:

Broadcast only systems (called FIS−B) and two−way

request/reply systems. Broadcast system components

include a ground− or space−based transmitter, an

aircraft receiver, and a portable or installed cockpit

display device. Two−way systems utilize transmitter/

receivers at both the ground− or space−based site and

the aircraft.

1. Broadcast FIS (i.e., FIS−B) allows the pilot to

passively collect weather and other operational data

and to display that data at the appropriate time. In

addition to textual weather products such as Aviation

Routine Weather Reports (METARs)/ Aviation

Selected Special Weather Reports (SPECIs) and

Terminal Area Forecasts (TAFs), graphical weather

products such as radar composite/mosaic images,

temporary flight restricted airspace and other

NOTAMs may be provided to the cockpit. Two−way

FIS services permit the pilot to make specific weather

and other operational information requests for

cockpit display. A FIS service provider will then

prepare a reply in response to that specific request and

transmit the product to that specific aircraft.

2. FIS services are available from four types of

service providers:

(a) A private sector FIS provider operating

under service agreement with the FAA using

broadcast data link over VHF aeronautical spectrum

and whose products have been reviewed and accepted

by the FAA prior to transmission. (Products and

services are defined under subparagraph c.)

(b) Through an FAA operated service using a

broadcast data link on the ADS−B UAT network.

(Products and services are defined under subparagraph d.)

(c) Private sector FIS providers operating

under customer contracts using aeronautical spectrum.

(d) Private sector FIS providers operating

under customer contract using methods other than

aeronautical spectrum, including Internet data−to−

the−cockpit service providers.

3. FIS is a method of receiving aviation weather

and other operational data in the cockpit that

augments traditional pilot voice communication with

FAA’s Flight Service Stations (FSSs), ATC facilities,

or Airline Operations Control Centers (AOCCs). FIS

is not intended to replace traditional pilot and

controller/flight service specialist/aircraft dispatcher

pre−flight briefings or inflight voice communications. FIS; however, can provide textual and

graphical background information that can help

abbreviate and improve the usefulness of such

communications. FIS enhances pilot situational

awareness and improves safety.

4. To ensure airman compliance with Federal

Aviation Regulations, manufacturer’s operating

manuals should remind airmen to contact ATC

controllers, FSS specialists, operator dispatchers, or

airline operations control centers for general and

mission critical aviation weather information and/or

NAS status conditions (such as NOTAMs, Special

Use Airspace status, and other government flight

information). If FIS products are systematically

modified (for example, are displayed as abbreviated

plain text and/or graphical depictions), the modification process and limitations of the resultant product

should be clearly described in the vendor’s user

guidance.

b. Operational Use of FIS. Regardless of the

type of FIS system being used, several factors must

be considered when using FIS:

1. Before using FIS for inflight operations,

pilots and other flight crewmembers should become

familiar with the operation of the FIS system to be

used, the airborne equipment to be used, including its

system architecture, airborne system components,

coverage service volume and other limitations of the

particular system, modes of operation and indications

of various system failures. Users should also be

familiar with the specific content and format of the

services available from the FIS provider(s). Sources

of information that may provide this specific

guidance include manufacturer’s manuals, training

programs and reference guides.

2. FIS should not serve as the sole source of

aviation weather and other operational information.

ATC, FSSs and, if applicable, AOCC VHF/HF voice

remain as a redundant method of communicating

aviation weather, NOTAMs, and other operational

information to aircraft in flight. FIS augments these

traditional ATC/FSS/AOCC services and, for some

products, offers the advantage of being displayed as

graphical information. By using FIS for orientation,

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

7−1−24 Meteorology

the usefulness of information received from

conventional means may be enhanced. For example,

FIS may alert the pilot to specific areas of concern

that will more accurately focus requests made to FSS

or AOCC for inflight updates or similar queries made

to ATC.

3. The airspace and aeronautical environment is

constantly changing. These changes occur quickly

and without warning. Critical operational decisions

should be based on use of the most current and

appropriate data available. When differences exist

between FIS and information obtained by voice

communication with ATC, FSS, and/or AOCC (if

applicable), pilots are cautioned to use the most

recent data from the most authoritative source.

4. FIS aviation weather products (e.g., graphical

ground−based radar precipitation depictions) are not

appropriate for tactical avoidance of severe weather

such as negotiating a path through a weather hazard

area. FIS supports strategic weather decision making

such as route selection to avoid a weather hazard area

in its entirety. The misuse of information beyond its

applicability may place the pilot and aircraft in

jeopardy. In addition, FIS should never be used in lieu

of an individual pre−flight weather and flight

planning briefing.

5. FIS NOTAM products, including Temporary

Flight Restriction (TFR) information, are advisory−

use information and are intended for situational

awareness purposes only. Cockpit displays of this

information are not appropriate for tactical navigation − pilots should stay clear of any geographic area

displayed as a TFR NOTAM. Pilots should contact

FSSs and/or ATC while en route to obtain updated

information and to verify the cockpit display of

NOTAM information.

6. FIS supports better pilot decision making by

increasing situational awareness. Better decision−

making is based on using information from a variety

of sources. In addition to FIS, pilots should take

advantage of other weather/NAS status sources,

including, briefings from Flight Service Stations,

FAA’s en route “Flight Watch” service, data from

other air traffic control facilities, airline operation

control centers, pilot reports, as well as their own

observations.

c. FAA FISDL (VHF) Service. The FAA’s

FISDL (VHF datalink) system is a VHF Data Link

(VDL) Mode 2 implementation that provides pilots

and flight crews of properly equipped aircraft with a

cockpit display of certain aviation weather and flight

operational information. This information may be

displayed in both textual and graphical formats. The

system is operated under a service agreement with the

FAA, using broadcast data link on VHF aeronautical

spectrum on two 25 KHz spaced frequencies

(136.450 and 136.475 MHz). The FAA FISDL

(VHF) service is designed to provide coverage

throughout the continental U.S. from 5,000 feet AGL

to 17,500 feet MSL, except in areas where this is not

feasible due to mountainous terrain. Aircraft

operating near transmitter sites may receive useable

FISDL signals at altitudes lower than 5,000 feet

AGL, including on the surface in some locations,

depending on transmitter/aircraft line of sight

geometry. Aircraft operating above 17,500 feet MSL

may also receive useable FISDL signals under certain

circumstances.

1. FAA FISDL (VHF) service provides, free of

charge, the following basic text products:

(a) Aviation Routine Weather Reports

(METARs).

(b) Aviation Selected Special Weather

Reports (SPECIs).

(c) Terminal Area Forecasts (TAFs), and their

amendments.

(d) Significant Meteorological Information

(SIGMETs).

(e) Convective SIGMETs.

(f) AIRMET text bulletins (WA).

(g) Pilot Reports (both urgent and routine)

(PIREPs); and,

(h) Severe Weather Forecast Alerts and

Warnings (AWWs/WW) issued by the NOAA Storm

Prediction Center (SPC).

2. The format and coding of these text products

are described in Advisory Circular AC−00−45,

Aviation Weather Services, and paragraph 7−1−30,

Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation

Routine Weather Report (METAR).
7/26/12 AIM

Potential Flight Hazards 7−5−1

Section 5. Potential Flight Hazards

7−5−1. Accident Cause Factors

a. The 10 most frequent cause factors for general

aviation accidents that involve the pilot-in-command

are:

1. Inadequate preflight preparation and/or

planning.

2. Failure to obtain and/or maintain flying

speed.

3. Failure to maintain direction control.

4. Improper level off.

5. Failure to see and avoid objects or

obstructions.

6. Mismanagement of fuel.

7. Improper inflight decisions or planning.

8. Misjudgment of distance and speed.

9. Selection of unsuitable terrain.

10. Improper operation of flight controls.

b. This list remains relatively stable and points out

the need for continued refresher training to establish

a higher level of flight proficiency for all pilots. A

part of the FAA’s continuing effort to promote

increased aviation safety is the Aviation Safety

Program. For information on Aviation Safety

Program activities contact your nearest Flight

Standards District Office.

c. Alertness. Be alert at all times, especially

when the weather is good. Most pilots pay attention

to business when they are operating in full IFR

weather conditions, but strangely, air collisions

almost invariably have occurred under ideal weather

conditions. Unlimited visibility appears to encourage

a sense of security which is not at all justified.

Considerable information of value may be obtained

by listening to advisories being issued in the terminal

area, even though controller workload may prevent a

pilot from obtaining individual service.

d. Giving Way. If you think another aircraft is too

close to you, give way instead of waiting for the other

pilot to respect the right-of-way to which you may be

entitled. It is a lot safer to pursue the right-of-way

angle after you have completed your flight.

7−5−2. VFR in Congested Areas

A high percentage of near midair collisions occur

below 8,000 feet AGL and within 30 miles of an

airport. When operating VFR in these highly

congested areas, whether you intend to land at an

airport within the area or are just flying through, it is

recommended that extra vigilance be maintained and

that you monitor an appropriate control frequency.

Normally the appropriate frequency is an approach

control frequency. By such monitoring action you can

“get the picture” of the traffic in your area. When the

approach controller has radar, radar traffic advisories

may be given to VFR pilots upon request.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Paragraph 4−1−15, Radar Traffic Information Service.

7−5−3. Obstructions To Flight

a. General. Many structures exist that could

significantly affect the safety of your flight when

operating below 500 feet AGL, and particularly

below 200 feet AGL. While 14 CFR Part 91.119

allows flight below 500 AGL when over sparsely

populated areas or open water, such operations are

very dangerous. At and below 200 feet AGL there are

numerous power lines, antenna towers, etc., that are

not marked and lighted as obstructions and; therefore,

may not be seen in time to avoid a collision. Notices

to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued on those lighted

structures experiencing temporary light outages.

However, some time may pass before the FAA is

notified of these outages, and the NOTAM issued,

thus pilot vigilance is imperative.

b. Antenna Towers. Extreme caution should be

exercised when flying less than 2,000 feet AGL

because of numerous skeletal structures, such as radio

and television antenna towers, that exceed 1,000 feet

AGL with some extending higher than 2,000 feet

AGL. Most skeletal structures are supported by guy

wires which are very difficult to see in good weather

and can be invisible at dusk or during periods of

reduced visibility. These wires can extend about

1,500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all

skeletal structures should be avoided horizontally by

3/7/13 AIM
AIM 7/26/12

7−5−2 Potential Flight Hazards

at least 2,000 feet. Additionally, new towers may not

be on your current chart because the information was

not received prior to the printing of the chart.

c. Overhead Wires. Overhead transmission and

utility lines often span approaches to runways,

natural flyways such as lakes, rivers, gorges, and

canyons, and cross other landmarks pilots frequently

follow such as highways, railroad tracks, etc. As with

antenna towers, these high voltage/power lines or the

supporting structures of these lines may not always be

readily visible and the wires may be virtually

impossible to see under certain conditions. In some

locations, the supporting structures of overhead

transmission lines are equipped with unique sequence

flashing white strobe light systems to indicate that

there are wires between the structures. However,

many power lines do not require notice to the FAA

and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. Many

of those that do require notice do not exceed 200 feet

AGL or meet the Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR

Part 77 and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted.

All pilots are cautioned to remain extremely vigilant

for these power lines or their supporting structures

when following natural flyways or during the

approach and landing phase. This is particularly

important for seaplane and/or float equipped aircraft

when landing on, or departing from, unfamiliar lakes

or rivers.

d. Other Objects/Structures. There are other

objects or structures that could adversely affect your

flight such as construction cranes near an airport,

newly constructed buildings, new towers, etc. Many

of these structures do not meet charting requirements

or may not yet be charted because of the charting

cycle. Some structures do not require obstruction

marking and/or lighting and some may not be marked

and lighted even though the FAA recommended it.

7−5−4. Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned

Balloons

a. The majority of unmanned free balloons

currently being operated have, extending below

them, either a suspension device to which the payload

or instrument package is attached, or a trailing wire

antenna, or both. In many instances these balloon

subsystems may be invisible to the pilot until the

aircraft is close to the balloon, thereby creating a

potentially dangerous situation. Therefore, good

judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft

should remain well clear of all unmanned free

balloons and flight below them should be avoided at

all times.

b. Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free

balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility

with which communication is established. Such

information will assist FAA ATC facilities to identify

and flight follow unmanned free balloons operating

in the airspace.

7−5−5. Unmanned Aircraft Systems

a. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), formerly

referred to as “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles” (UAVs)

or “drones,” are having an increasing operational

presence in the NAS. Once the exclusive domain of

the military, UAS are now being operated by various

entities. Although these aircraft are “unmanned,”

UAS are flown by a remotely located pilot and crew.

Physical and performance characteristics of unmanned aircraft (UA) vary greatly and unlike model

aircraft that typically operate lower than 400 feet

AGL, UA may be found operating at virtually any

altitude and any speed. Sizes of UA can be as small

as several pounds to as large as a commercial

transport aircraft. UAS come in various categories

including airplane, rotorcraft, powered−lift (tilt−

rotor), and lighter−than−air. Propulsion systems of

UAS include a broad range of alternatives from

piston powered and turbojet engines to battery and

solar−powered electric motors.

b. To ensure segregation of UAS operations from

other aircraft, the military typically conducts UAS

operations within restricted or other special use

airspace. However, UAS operations are now being

approved in the NAS outside of special use airspace

through the use of FAA−issued Certificates of Waiver

or Authorization (COA) or through the issuance of a

special airworthiness certificate. COA and special

airworthiness approvals authorize UAS flight

operations to be contained within specific geographic

boundaries and altitudes, usually require coordination with an ATC facility, and typically require the

issuance of a NOTAM describing the operation to be

conducted. UAS approvals also require observers to

provide “see−and−avoid” capability to the UAS crew

and to provide the necessary compliance with 14 CFR

Section 91.113. For UAS operations approved at or

above FL180, UAS operate under the same

requirements as that of manned aircraft (i.e., flights
3/7/13 Pilot/Controller Glossary

PCG−1

PILOT/CONTROLLER

GLOSSARY

PURPOSE

a. This Glossary was compiled to promote a common understanding of the terms used in the Air Traffic

Control system. It includes those terms which are intended for pilot/controller communications. Those terms

most frequently used in pilot/controller communications are printed in bold italics. The definitions are primarily

defined in an operational sense applicable to both users and operators of the National Airspace System. Use of

the Glossary will preclude any misunderstandings concerning the system’s design, function, and purpose.

b. Because of the international nature of flying, terms used in the Lexicon, published by the International

Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), are included when they differ from FAA definitions. These terms are

followed by “[ICAO].” For the reader’s convenience, there are also cross references to related terms in other parts

of the Glossary and to other documents, such as the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and the Aeronautical

Information Manual (AIM).

c. This Glossary will be revised, as necessary, to maintain a common understanding of the system.

EXPLANATION OF CHANGES

a. Terms Added:

GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS) [ICAO]

GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR 

 ALTITUDE (GNSS MEA)

b. Editorial/format changes were made where necessary. Revision bars were not used due to the insignificant

nature of the changes.

Pilot/Controller Glossary 2/9/12

PCG G−1

G

GATE HOLD PROCEDURES− Procedures at

selected airports to hold aircraft at the gate or other

ground location whenever departure delays exceed or

are anticipated to exceed 15 minutes. The sequence

for departure will be maintained in accordance with

initial call-up unless modified by flow control

restrictions. Pilots should monitor the ground

control/clearance delivery frequency for engine

start/taxi advisories or new proposed start/taxi time

if the delay changes.

GBT−

(See GROUND−BASED TRANSCEIVER.)

GCA−

(See GROUND CONTROLLED APPROACH.)

GDP−

(See GROUND DELAY PROGRAM.)

GENERAL AVIATION− That portion of civil

aviation which encompasses all facets of aviation

except air carriers holding a certificate of public

convenience and necessity from the Civil Aeronautics Board and large aircraft commercial operators.

(See ICAO term GENERAL AVIATION.)

GENERAL AVIATION [ICAO]− All civil aviation

operations other than scheduled air services and

nonscheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire.

GEO MAP− The digitized map markings associated

with the ASR-9 Radar System.

GLIDEPATH−

(See GLIDESLOPE.)

GLIDEPATH [ICAO]− A descent profile determined

for vertical guidance during a final approach.

GLIDEPATH INTERCEPT ALTITUDE−

(See GLIDESLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE.)

GLIDESLOPE− Provides vertical guidance for

aircraft during approach and landing. The glideslope/

glidepath is based on the following:

a. Electronic components emitting signals which

provide vertical guidance by reference to airborne

instruments during instrument approaches such as

ILS/MLS, or

b. Visual ground aids, such as VASI, which

provide vertical guidance for a VFR approach or for

the visual portion of an instrument approach and

landing.

c. PAR. Used by ATC to inform an aircraft making

a PAR approach of its vertical position (elevation)

relative to the descent profile.

(See ICAO term GLIDEPATH.)

GLIDESLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE− The

minimum altitude to intercept the glideslope/path on

a precision approach. The intersection of the

published intercept altitude with the glideslope/path,

designated on Government charts by the lightning

bolt symbol, is the precision FAF; however, when the

approach chart shows an alternative lower glideslope

intercept altitude, and ATC directs a lower altitude,

the resultant lower intercept position is then the FAF.

(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.)

(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT

APPROACH PROCEDURE.)

GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM

(GNSS) [ICAO]− A worldwide position and time

determination system that includes one or more

satellite constellations, aircraft receivers and system

integrity monitoring, augmented as necessary to

support the required navigation performance for the

intended operation.

GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM

MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE (GNSS

MEA)− The minimum en route IFR altitude on a

published ATS route or route segment which assures

acceptable Global Navigation Satellite System

reception and meets obstacle clearance requirements.

(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)

(Refer to 14 CFR Part 95.)

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)− A

space-base radio positioning, navigation, and

time-transfer system. The system provides highly

accurate position and velocity information, and

precise time, on a continuous global basis, to an

unlimited number of properly equipped users. The

system is unaffected by weather, and provides a

worldwide common grid reference system. The GPS

concept is predicated upon accurate and continuous

knowledge of the spatial position of each satellite in

the system with respect to time and distance from a

3/7/13 Pilot/Controller Glossary
Pilot/Controller Glossary 2/9/12

PCG G−2

transmitting satellite to the user. The GPS receiver

automatically selects appropriate signals from the

satellites in view and translates these into threedimensional position, velocity, and time. System

accuracy for civil users is normally 100 meters

horizontally.

GNSS [ICAO]−

(See GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE

SYSTEM.)

GNSS MEA−

(See GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE

SYSTEM MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR

ALTITUDE.)

GO AHEAD− Proceed with your message. Not to be

used for any other purpose.

GO AROUND− Instructions for a pilot to abandon

his/her approach to landing. Additional instructions

may follow. Unless otherwise advised by ATC, a

VFR aircraft or an aircraft conducting visual

approach should overfly the runway while climbing

to traffic pattern altitude and enter the traffic pattern

via the crosswind leg. A pilot on an IFR flight plan

making an instrument approach should execute the

published missed approach procedure or proceed as

instructed by ATC; e.g., “Go around” (additional

instructions if required).

(See LOW APPROACH.)

(See MISSED APPROACH.)

GPD−

(See GRAPHIC PLAN DISPLAY.)

GPS−

(See GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM.)

GRAPHIC PLAN DISPLAY (GPD)− A view

available with URET that provides a graphic display

of aircraft, traffic, and notification of predicted

conflicts. Graphic routes for Current Plans and Trial

Plans are displayed upon controller request.

(See USER REQUEST EVALUATION TOOL.)

GROUND−BASED TRANSCEIVER (GBT)− The

ground−based transmitter/receiver (transceiver) receives automatic dependent surveillance−broadcast

messages, which are forwarded to an air traffic

control facility for processing and display with other

radar targets on the plan position indicator (radar

display).

(See AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT

SURVEILLANCE-BROADCAST.)

GROUND CLUTTER− A pattern produced on the

radar scope by ground returns which may degrade

other radar returns in the affected area. The effect of

ground clutter is minimized by the use of moving

target indicator (MTI) circuits in the radar equipment

resulting in a radar presentation which displays only

targets which are in motion.

(See CLUTTER.)

GROUND COMMUNICATION OUTLET (GCO)−

An unstaffed, remotely controlled, ground/ground

communications facility. Pilots at uncontrolled

airports may contact ATC and FSS via VHF to a

telephone connection to obtain an instrument

clearance or close a VFR or IFR flight plan. They may

also get an updated weather briefing prior to takeoff.

Pilots will use four “key clicks” on the VHF radio to

contact the appropriate ATC facility or six “key

clicks” to contact the FSS. The GCO system is

intended to be used only on the ground.

GROUND CONTROLLED APPROACH− A radar

approach system operated from the ground by air

traffic control personnel transmitting instructions to

the pilot by radio. The approach may be conducted

with surveillance radar (ASR) only or with both

surveillance and precision approach radar (PAR).

Usage of the term “GCA” by pilots is discouraged

except when referring to a GCA facility. Pilots should

specifically request a “PAR” approach when a

precision radar approach is desired or request an

“ASR” or “surveillance” approach when a nonprecision radar approach is desired.

(See RADAR APPROACH.)

GROUND DELAY PROGRAM (GDP)− A traffic

management process administered by the ATCSCC;

when aircraft are held on the ground. The purpose of

the program is to support the TM mission and limit

airborne holding. It is a flexible program and may be

implemented in various forms depending upon the

needs of the AT system. Ground delay programs

provide for equitable assignment of delays to all

system users.

GROUND SPEED− The speed of an aircraft relative

to the surface of the earth.

GROUND STOP (GS)− The GS is a process that

requires aircraft that meet a specific criteria to remain

on the ground. The criteria may be airport specific,

airspace specific, or equipment specific; for example,

all departures to San Francisco, or all departures

entering Yorktown sector, or all Category I and II

Pilot/Controller Glossary 3/7/13
Pilot/Controller Glossary 2/9/12

PCG G−3

aircraft going to Charlotte. GSs normally occur with

little or no warning.

GROUND VISIBILITY−

(See VISIBILITY.)

GS−

(See GROUND STOP.)

3/7/13 Pilot/Controller Glossary

3/7/13 AIM

Index I−1

INDEX

[References are to page numbers]

A

Accident, Aircraft, Reporting, 7−6−1

Accident Cause Factors, 7−5−1

Adherence to Clearance, 4−4−5

ADIZ. See Air Defense Identification Zones

ADS−B. See Automatic Dependent Broadcast Services

ADS−R. See Automatic Dependent

Surveillance−Rebroadcast

Advisories

Braking Action, 4−3−11

Inflight Aviation Weather, 7−1−9

Minimum Fuel, 5−5−6

Runway Friction, 4−3−11

Traffic, 5−5−4

Aerobatic Flight, 8−1−8

Aerodrome Forecast (TAF), 7−1−70, 7−1−71

Aeronautical

Charts, 9−1−1

Publications, 9−1−1

Aeronautical Light Beacons, 2−2−1

AFIS. See Automatic Flight Information Service

AHRS. See Attitude Heading Reference System

Air Ambulance Flights, 4−2−4

Air Defense Identification Zone, Land−Based, 5−6−1

Air Defense Identification Zones, 5−6−1, 5−6−8

Air Route Surveillance Radar, 4−5−7

Air Route Traffic Control Centers, 4−1−1

Air Traffic Control

Aircraft Separation, 4−4−1

Clearances, 4−4−1

Pilot Services, 4−1−1

Air Route Traffic Control Centers, 4−1−1

Airport Reservations, 4−1−21

Approach Control Service, Arriving VFR Aircraft,

4−1−2

Automatic Terminal Information Service, 4−1−7

Communications, Release of IFR Aircraft, Airports

without Operating Control Tower, 4−1−1

Control Towers, 4−1−1

Flight Service Stations, 4−1−1

Ground Vehicle Operations, 4−1−6

Hazardous Area Reporting Service, 4−1−18

IFR Approaches, 4−1−6

Operation Raincheck, 4−1−2

Operation Take−off, 4−1−2

Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft, 4−1−11

Radar Traffic Information Service, 4−1−8

Recording and Monitoring, 4−1−1

Safety Alert, 4−1−10

Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, 4−1−12

Tower En Route Control, 4−1−14

Traffic Advisory Practices, Airports Without

Operating Control Towers, 4−1−2

Transponder Operation, 4−1−15

Unicom, Use for ATC Purposes, 4−1−7

Unicom/Multicom, 4−1−6

Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System, 4−1−15,

4−5−2

Aircraft

Arresting Devices, 2−3−30

Call Signs, 4−2−3

Lights, Use in Airport Operations, 4−3−23

Unmanned, 7−5−2

VFR, Emergency Radar Service, 6−2−1

Aircraft Conflict Alert, 4−1−11

Airport

Aids, Marking, 2−3−1

Holding Position, 2−3−12

Pavement, 2−3−1

Holding Position, 2−3−1

Other, 2−3−1

Runway, 2−3−1

Taxiway, 2−3−1

Airport Advisory/Information Services, 3−5−1

Lighting Aids, 2−1−1

Local Airport Advisory (LAA), 4−1−3

Operations, 4−3−1

Communications, 4−3−16

Exiting the Runway, After Landing, 4−3−21

Flight Check Aircraft, In Terminal Areas, 4−3−24

Flight Inspection, 4−3−24

Gate Holding, Departure Delays, 4−3−17

Intersection Takeoffs, 4−3−12

Low Approach, 4−3−15

Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection

Systems, 4−3−11

Option Approach, 4−3−23

Signals, Hand, 4−3−24

Taxi During Low Visibility, 4−3−20

Traffic Control Light Signals, 4−3−15

Traffic Patterns, 4−3−1, 4−3−2

Use of Aircraft Lights, 4−3−23
AIM 3/7/13

I−2 Index

[References are to page numbers]

Use of Runways, 4−3−6

VFR Flights in Terminal Areas, 4−3−17

VFR Helicopter at Controlled Airports, 4−3−17

With Operating Control Tower, 4−3−1

Without Operating Control Tower, 4−3−5

Remote Airport Advisory (RAA), 3−5−1, 4−1−4

Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS), 3−5−1,

4−1−4

Signs, 2−3−1, 2−3−19

Destination, 2−3−28

Direction, 2−3−25

Information, 2−3−29

Location, 2−3−23

Mandatory Instruction, 2−3−20

Runway Distance Remaining, 2−3−29

Airport Reservations, 4−1−21

Airport Surface Detection Equipment − Model X,

4−5−7

Airport Surveillance Radar, 4−5−7

Airspace, 3−1−1

Basic VFR Weather Minimums, 3−1−1

Class D, 3−2−8

Class E, 3−2−9

Class G, 3−3−1

Controlled, 3−2−1

Advisories, Traffic, 3−2−1

Alerts, Safety, 3−2−1

Class A, 3−2−2

Class B, 3−2−2

Class C, 3−2−4

IFR Requirements, 3−2−1

IFR Separation, 3−2−1

Parachute Jumps, 3−2−2

Ultralight Vehicles, 3−2−2

Unmanned Free Balloons, 3−2−2

VFR Requirements, 3−2−1

Flight Levels, 3−1−2

General Dimensions, Segments, 3−1−1

Military Training Routes, 3−5−1

Other Areas, 3−5−1

Parachute Jumping, 3−5−5

Special Use, 3−4−1

Temporary Flight Restrictions, 3−5−2

Terminal Radar Service Areas, 3−5−9

VFR Cruising Altitudes, 3−1−2

VFR Routes, Published, 3−5−5

Class B Airspace, VFR Transition Routes, 3−5−7

VFR Corridors, 3−5−7

VFR Flyways, 3−5−5

Airway, 5−3−5

Airways, Course Changes, 5−3−7

Alcohol, 8−1−1

Alert, Safety, 4−1−10, 5−5−3

Alert Areas, 3−4−2

Alignment of Elements Approach Slope Indicator,

2−1−5

Alphabet, Phonetic, 4−2−5

ALS. See Approach Light Systems

Altimeter

Density Altitude, 7−5−4

Errors, 7−2−3

Setting, 7−2−1

High Barometric Pressure, 7−2−4

Low Barometric Pressure, 7−2−4

Altitude

Automatic Reporting, 4−1−15

Effects, 8−1−3

Hypoxia, 8−1−3

High Altitude Destinations, 5−1−27

Mandatory, 5−4−6

Maximum, 5−4−6

Minimum, 5−4−6

Ambulance, Air, 4−2−4

Amended Clearances, 4−4−2

Approach

Advance Information, Instrument Approach, 5−4−3

Approach Control, 5−4−2

Clearance, 5−4−25

Contact, 5−4−59, 5−5−2

Direction Finding, Emergency, 6−2−1

Instrument, 5−5−2

Instrument Approach Procedure, Charts, 5−4−4

Instrument Approach Procedures, 5−4−26

Low, 4−3−15

Minimums, 5−4−49

Missed, 5−4−52, 5−5−2

No−Gyro, 5−4−35

Option, 4−3−23

Overhead Approach Maneuver, 5−4−59

Precision, 5−4−34

Surveillance, 5−4−34

Visual, 5−4−57, 5−5−5

Approach Control Service, VFR Arriving Aircraft,

4−1−2

Approach Light Systems, 2−1−1
3/7/13 AIM

Index I−3

[References are to page numbers]

Approaches

IFR, 4−1−6

Parallel Runways, ILS/MLS, 5−4−36

Radar, 5−4−34

Timed, 5−4−31

Area Navigation (RNAV), 1−2−1, 5−1−15, 5−3−6,

5−5−7

Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes, 5−3−6

Area Navigation (RNAV) Standard Terminal Arrival

(STAR), 5−4−1

ARFF (Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting) Emergency

Hand Signals, 6−5−1

ARFF (Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting) Radio Call

Sign, 6−5−1

Arresting Devices, Aircraft, 2−3−30

ARSR. See Air Route Surveillance Radar

ARTCC. See Air Route Traffic Control Centers

ASDE−X. See Airport Surface Detection

Equipment−Model X

Ash, Volcanic, 7−5−7

ASOS. See Automated Surface Observing System

ASR. See Airport Surveillance Radar; Surveillance

Approach

ATCRBS. See Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon

System

ATCT. See Control Towers

ATIS. See Automatic Terminal Information Service

Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS), 1−1−18

Authority, Statutory, 1−1−1

Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), 4−3−28,

7−1−29

Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS),

4−3−28, 7−1−27

Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS), 4−3−28

Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS), 7−1−29

Automatic Altitude Reporting, 4−1−15

Automatic Dependent Surveillance−Broadcast Services,

4−5−14

Automatic Dependent Surveillance−Rebroadcast,

4−5−20

Automatic Flight Information Service (AFIS) − Alaska

FSSs Only, 4−1−8

Automatic Terminal Information Service, 4−1−7

AWOS. See Automated Weather Observing System

B

Balloons, Unmanned, 7−5−2

Free, 3−2−2

Beacon

Aeronautical Light, 2−2−1

Code, 2−2−1

Marker, 1−1−9

Nondirectional Radio, 1−1−1

Beacons, Airport/Heliport, 2−1−14

Bird

Bird Strike

Reduction, 7−4−1

Reporting, 7−4−1

Hazards, 7−4−1

Migratory, 7−4−1

Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Reporting, Form. See

Appendix 1

Block Island Reporting Service, 4−1−19

Braking Action Advisories, 4−3−11

Braking Action Reports, 4−3−11

Briefing, Preflight, 7−1−6

C

Call Signs

Aircraft, 4−2−3

Ground Station, 4−2−4

Cape Code Radar Overwater Flight Following, 4−1−19

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning, 8−1−5

CAT. See Clear Air Turbulence

CDR. See Coded Depature Route

Changeover Points, 5−3−8

Charted Visual Flight Procedures, 5−4−58

Charts, Aeronautical, 9−1−1

Class A Airspace, 3−2−2

Definition, 3−2−2

Operating Rules, 3−2−2

Pilot/Equipment Requirements, 3−2−2
AIM 3/7/13

I−4 Index

[References are to page numbers]

Class B Airspace, 3−2−2

ATC Clearances, 3−2−3

Definition, 3−2−2

Flight Procedures, 3−2−3

Mode C Veil, 3−2−3

Operating Rules, 3−2−2

Pilot/Equipment Requirements, VFR Operations,

3−2−2

Proximity Operations, 3−2−4

Separation, 3−2−3

VFR Transition Routes, 3−5−7

Class C Airspace, 3−2−4

Air Traffic Services, 3−2−5

Aircraft Separation, 3−2−5

Definition, 3−2−4

Operating Rules, 3−2−4

Outer Area, 3−2−5

Pilot/Equipment Requirements, 3−2−4

Secondary Airports, 3−2−6

Class D Airspace, 3−2−8

Definition, 3−2−8

Operating Rules, 3−2−8

Pilot/Equipment Requirements, 3−2−8

Separation for VFR Aircraft, 3−2−8

Class E Airspace, 3−2−9

Definition, 3−2−9

Operating Rules, 3−2−9

Pilot/Equipment Requirements, 3−2−9

Separation for VFR Aircraft, 3−2−9

Types, 3−2−9

Vertical Limits, 3−2−9

Class G Airspace, 3−3−1

IFR Requirements, 3−3−1

VFR Requirements, 3−3−1

Clear Air Turbulence, 7−1−49

Clearance

Abbreviated IFR Departure, 5−2−2

Adherence, 4−4−5

Air Traffic, 5−5−1

Air Traffic Control, 4−4−1

Amended, 4−4−2

Approach, 5−4−25

IFR, VFR−on−Top, 4−4−4

IFR Flights, 4−4−5

Issuance, Pilot Responsibility, 4−4−4

Items, 4−4−1

Altitude Data, 4−4−2

Clearance Limit, 4−4−1

Departure Procedure, 4−4−1

Holding Instructions, 4−4−2

Route of Flight, 4−4−1

Pre−Taxi, 5−2−1

Prefix, 4−4−1

Taxi, 5−2−1

VFR Flights, 4−4−5

Void Times, 5−2−4

Clearances, Special VFR Clearances, 4−4−3

Clearing Procedures, Visual, 4−4−10

CNF. See Computer Navigation Fix

Coded Depature Route, 4−4−3

Collision, Avoidance, Judgment, 8−1−8

Communication, Radio

Contact, Reestablishing, 6−4−2

Two−way Failure, 6−4−1

IFR Conditions, 6−4−1

Transponder Usage, 6−4−2

VFR Conditions, 6−4−1

Communications

ARTCC, 5−3−1

Additional Reports, 5−3−4

Position Reporting, 5−3−3

Distress, 6−3−1

Radio, 4−2−1

Phonetic Alphabet, 4−2−5

Release, 4−1−1

Urgency, 6−3−1

Computer Navigation Fix (CNF), 1−1−27

Conflict Alert, Aircraft, 4−1−11

Contact Approach, 5−4−59

Contact Procedures, 4−2−1

Initial Contact, 4−2−1

Control of Lighting Systems, 2−1−11

Control Towers, 4−1−1

Controlled Firing Areas, 3−4−2

Controller, Responsibility, 5−3−8, 5−4−58, 5−5−1

COP. See Changeover Points

CORONA, 7−5−9

Course Lights, 2−2−1

CVFP. See Charted Visual Flight Procedures

D

Decompression Sickness, 8−1−4

Density Altitude, Effects, 7−5−4
3/7/13 AIM

Index I−5

[References are to page numbers]

Departure, Restrictions, 5−2−4

Departure Control, 5−2−5

Departures, Instrument, 5−5−6

DF. See Direction Finder

Direct User Access Terminal System, 7−1−3

Direction Finder, VHF, 1−1−17

Discrete Emergency Frequency, 6−5−1

Distance Measuring Equipment, 1−1−3, 1−1−9, 5−3−12

Distress, 6−3−1

Ditching Procedures, 6−3−3

DME. See Distance Measuring Equipment

Doppler Radar, 1−1−18

DUATS. See Direct User Access System

E

Ear Block, 8−1−4

EFAS. See En Route Flight Advisory Service

EFVS. See Enhanced Flight Vision Systems

ELT. See Emergency Locator Transmitters

Emergency, 6−1−1

Air Piracy, 6−3−6

Airborne Aircraft Inspection, 7−5−8

Aircraft, Overdue, 6−2−5

Body Signals, 6−2−6

Direction Finding Instrument Approach, 6−2−1

Ditching Procedures, 6−3−3

Explosives Detection, FAA K−9 Team Program,

6−2−4

Fuel Dumping, 6−3−7

Inflight Monitoring and Reporting, 6−2−4

Intercept and Escort, 6−2−2

Locator Transmitters, 6−2−2

Obtaining Assistance, 6−3−2

Pilot Authority, 6−1−1

Pilot Responsibility, 6−1−1

Request Assistance Immediately, 6−1−1

Search and Rescue, 6−2−5

Services, 6−2−1

Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in Difficulty,

6−2−1

Survival Equipment, 6−2−6

Transponder Operation, 6−2−1

VFR Search and Rescue Protection, 6−2−6

Emergency Locator Transmitter, 6−2−2

En Route Flight Advisory Service, 7−1−8

Enhanced Flight Vision Systems, 5−4−55

Escort, 6−2−2

Explosives, FAA K−9 Detection Team Program, 6−2−4

F

FAROS. See Final Approach Runway Occupancy

Signal (FAROS)

Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS),

2−1−9

Final Guard, 3−5−1

FIS−B. See Flight Information Service−Broadcast

Fitness, Flight

Alcohol, 8−1−1

Emotion, 8−1−2

Fatigue, 8−1−2

Hypoxia, 8−1−3

Stress, 8−1−2

Flight

Aerobatic, 8−1−8

Fitness, 8−1−1

Illusions, 8−1−5

Over National Forests, 7−4−1

Over National Parks, 7−4−1

Over National Refuges, 7−4−1

Safety, Meteorology, 7−1−1

Vision, 8−1−6

Flight Check Aircraft, 4−3−24

Flight Information Service−Broadcast, 4−5−18

Flight Information Services, 7−1−23

Flight Inspections Aircraft, 4−3−24

Flight Management System, 1−2−3, 5−1−13

Flight Management System Procedures, 5−4−1

Flight Plan

Change, 5−1−29

Proposed Departure Time, 5−1−30

Closing

DVFR, 5−1−30

VFR, 5−1−30

Composite, VFR/IFR, 5−1−11

DVFR Flights, 5−1−10

Explanation of IFR, 5−1−16

Explanation of VFR, 5−1−9

Form 7233−1, 5−1−9, 5−1−17
AIM 3/7/13

I−6 Index

[References are to page numbers]

IFR, Canceling, 5−1−30

IFR Flights, Domestic, 5−1−11

VFR Flights, 5−1−8

Flight Restrictions, Temporary, 3−5−2

Flight Service Stations, 4−1−1

Flights, Outside the United States, 5−1−28

Fly Visual to Airport, 5−4−19

Flying, Mountain, 7−5−3

FMS. See Flight Management System

FMSP. See Flight Management System Procedures

Forms

Bird Strike Incident/Ingestion Report, Appendix 1−1

Volcanic Activity Reporting Form, Appendix 2−1

Frequency, Instrument Landing System, 1−1−10

FSS. See Flight Service Stations

Fuel Dumping, 6−3−7

G

Gate Holding, 4−3−17

GBAS. See Ground Based Augmentation System

Glideslope, Visual Indicators, 2−1−1

Global Navigation Satellite System, 1−1−17, 1−1−35,

5−1−13

Global Positioning System, 1−1−18

Database, 1−1−25

Equipment, 1−1−25

GPS Approach Procedures, 1−1−25

GNSS. See Global Navigation Satellite System

GPS. See Global Positioning System

GPS Approach Procedures, 1−1−25

Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS), 1−1−36

Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing

System (GLS), 1−1−35

Ground Station, Call Signs, 4−2−4

Ground Vehicle Operations, 4−1−6

Gulf of Mexico Grid System, 10−1−6

H

Half−Way Signs, 7−5−5

Hand Signals, 4−3−24

Hazard

Antenna Tower, 7−5−1

Bird, 7−4−1

Flight

Obstructions to Flight, 7−5−1

Potential, 7−5−1

VFR in Congested Areas, 7−5−1

Ground Icing Conditions, 7−5−12

Mountain Flying, 7−5−3

Overhead Wires, 7−5−2

Thermal Plumes, 7−5−13

Unmanned Balloons, 7−5−2

Volcanic Ash, 7−5−7

Hazardous Area Reporting Service, 4−1−18

HDTA. See High Density Traffic Airports

Helicopter

IFR Operations, 10−1−1

Landing Area Markings, 2−3−19

VFR Operations at Controlled Airports, 4−3−17

Special Operations, 10−2−1

Wake Turbulence, 7−3−6

High Density Traffic Airports, 4−1−21

Hold, For Release, 5−2−4

Holding, 5−3−8

Holding Position Markings, 2−3−1, 2−3−12

for Instrument Landing Systems, 2−3−12

for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections, 2−3−12

Holding Position Signs, Surface Painted, 2−3−12

Hypoxia, 8−1−3

I

Icing Terms, 7−1−45

IFR, 4−4−4

Operations, To High Altitude Destinations, 5−1−27

Procedures, Use When Operating VFR, 5−1−2

IFR

Approaches, 4−1−6

Military Training Routes, 3−5−2

Separation Standards, 4−4−7
3/7/13 AIM

Index I−7

[References are to page numbers]

ILS. See Instrument Landing System

In−Runway Lighting, 2−1−6

Taxiway Centerline Lead−off Lights, 2−1−6

Taxiway Centerline Lead−On Lights, 2−1−6

Touchdown Zone Lighting, 2−1−6

Incident, Aircraft, Reporting, 7−6−1

Inertial Navigation System, 1−1−18

Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), 1−1−18, 5−1−13

Initial Contact, 4−2−1

INS. See Internal Navigation System

Instrument Departure Procedures (DP), 5−2−5

Instrument Landing System, 1−1−7

Category, 1−1−10

Compass Locator, 1−1−10

Course, Distortion, 1−1−11

Distance Measuring Equipment, 1−1−9

Frequency, 1−1−10

Glide Path, 1−1−9

Glide Slope, 1−1−9

Critical Area, 1−1−11

Holding Position Markings, 2−3−12

Inoperative Components, 1−1−11

Localizer, 1−1−8

Critical Area, 1−1−11

Locators, Compass, 1−1−7

Marker Beacon, 1−1−9

Minimums, 1−1−10

Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC), 5−2−6

Integrated Terminal Weather System, 4−3−11

Intercept, 6−2−2

Interception

Procedures, 5−6−2

Signals, 5−6−6

Interchange Aircraft, 4−2−4

International Flight Plan, IFR, Domestic, International,

5−1−18

International Flight Plan (FAA Form 7233−4)− IFR

Flights (For Domestic or International Flights),

5−1−18

Intersection Takeoffs, 4−3−12

IR. See IFR Military Training Routes

IRU. See Inertial Reference Unit

ITWS. See Integrated Terminal Weather System

K

K−9 Explosives Detection Team, 6−2−4

L

LAHSO. See Land and Hold Short Operations

Land and Hold Short Lights, 2−1−6

Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO), 4−3−13

Landing

Minimums, 5−4−49

Priority, 5−4−59

Laser Beam Exposure Questionnaire, Appendix 3−1

Laser Operations, 7−5−10

Law Enforcement Operations

Civil, 5−6−5

Military, 5−6−5

LDA. See Localizer−Type Directional Aid

Leased Aircraft, 4−2−4

Lifeguard, 4−2−4

Light Signals, Traffic Control, 4−3−15

Lighting

Aeronautical Light Beacons, 2−2−1

Aids

Airport, 2−1−1

Approach Light Systems, 2−1−1

Control of Lighting Systems, 2−1−11

In−Runway Lighting, 2−1−6

Pilot Control of Airport Lighting, 2−1−11

Runway End Identifier Lights, 2−1−6

Taxiway Lights, 2−1−15

Airport/Heliport Beacons, 2−1−14

Airport, Radio Control, 4−1−6

Code Beacon, 2−2−1

Course, 2−2−1

Navigation, 2−2−1

Obstruction, 2−2−1

Line Up and Wait , 5−2−1

LLWAS. See Low Level Wind Shear Alert System

Local Airport Advisory (LAA), 3−5−1, 4−1−3

Local Flow Traffic Management Program, 5−4−2

Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance, 1−1−31

Localizer−Type Directional Aid, 1−1−8

Locator, Compass, 1−1−10
AIM 3/7/13

I−8 Index

[References are to page numbers]

Long Island Sound Reporting Service, 4−1−18

Long Range Navigation, 1−1−17

LORAN. See Long Range Navigation

Low Approach, 4−3−15

Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS),

4−3−11, 7−1−53

Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection Systems,

4−3−11

LPV. See Localizer Perfomance with Vertical Guidance

LUAW. See Line Up and Wait

M

MAYDAY, 6−3−1

Medical

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning, 8−1−5

Decompression Sickness, 8−1−4

Facts, Pilots, 8−1−1

Flight, Ear Block, 8−1−4

Illness, 8−1−1

Medication, 8−1−1

Sinus Block, 8−1−4

Meteorology, 7−1−1

ATC InFlight Weather Avoidance, 7−1−38

Automated Surface Observing System, 7−1−29

Categorical Outlooks, 7−1−19

Clear Air Turbulence, 7−1−49

Cloud Heights, Reporting, 7−1−42

Direct User Access Terminal System, 7−1−3

Drizzle, Intensity, 7−1−43

En Route Flight Advisory Service, 7−1−8

FAA Weather Services, 7−1−1

ICAO, Weather Formats, 7−1−64

Icing, Airframe, 7−1−44

Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories, 7−1−9

Inflight Weather Broadcasts, 7−1−20

Microbursts, 7−1−49

National Weather Service, Aviation Products, 7−1−1

Pilot Weather Reports, 7−1−43

Precipitation, Intensity, 7−1−42

Preflight Briefing, 7−1−6

Runway Visual Range, 7−1−40

Telephone Information Briefing Service, 7−1−20

Thunderstorms, 7−1−59

Flying, 7−1−60

Transcribed Weather Broadcast, 7−1−20

Turbulence, 7−1−48

Visibility, Reporting, 7−1−42

Weather, Radar Services, 7−1−34

Weather Observing Programs, 7−1−27

Wind Shear, 7−1−49

Microwave Landing System, 1−1−14

Approach Azimuth Guidance, 1−1−14

Data Communications, 1−1−15

Elevation Guidance, 1−1−15

Operational Flexibility, 1−1−16

Range Guidance, 1−1−15

Military NOTAMs, 5−1−4

Military Operations Areas, 3−4−2

Military Training Routes, 3−5−1

IFR, 3−5−2

VFR, 3−5−2

Minimum, Fuel Advisory, 5−5−6

Minimum Safe Altitudes, 5−4−7

Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA), 5−3−8

Minimum Vectoring Altitudes, 5−4−18

Minimums

Approach, 5−4−49

Instrument Landing Systems, 1−1−10

Landing, 5−4−49

Missed Approach, 5−4−52

MLS. See Microwave Landing System

MOA. See Military Operations Areas

Mode C, 4−1−15

Mountain Flying, 7−5−3

Mountain Wave, 7−5−4

Mountainous Areas, 5−6−8

MSA. See Minimum Safe Altitudes

MTA. See Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA)

Multicom, 4−1−6

MVA. See Minimum Vectoring Altitudes

N

National Forests, 7−4−1

National Geospatial−Intelligence Agency (NGA),

5−4−6

National Parks, 7−4−1

National Refuges, 7−4−1

National Security Areas, 3−5−9
3/7/13 AIM

Index I−9

[References are to page numbers]

National Weather Service, Aviation Products, 7−1−1

NAVAID

Identifier Removal During Maintenance, 1−1−16

Maintenance, 1−1−16

Performance, User Report, 1−1−17

Service Volumes, 1−1−4

with Voice, 1−1−17

Navigation, Aids, 1−1−1

Nondirectional Radio Beacon, 1−1−1

Radio, VHF Omni−directional Range, 1−1−1

Navigation Reference System (NRS), 5−1−16

Navigational

Aids, Radio

Distance Measuring Equipment, 1−1−3

Doppler Radar, 1−1−18

Identifier Removal During Maintenance, 1−1−16

Instrument Landing System, 1−1−7

Localizer−Type Directional Aid, 1−1−8

Long Range Navigation, 1−1−17

Microwave Landing System, 1−1−14

Navaid Service Volumes, 1−1−4

NAVAIDs with Voice, 1−1−17

Performance, User Report, 1−1−17

Simplified Directional Facility, 1−1−12

Tactical Air Navigation, 1−1−3

VHF Direction Finder, 1−1−17

VHF Omni−directional Range/Tactical Air

Navigation, 1−1−3

Inertial Navigation System, 1−1−18

NDB. See Nondirectional Radio Beacon

Near Midair Collision, 7−6−2

NGA. See National Geospatial−Intelligence Agency

NMAC. See Near Midair Collision

Nondirectional Radio Beacon, 1−1−1

Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings, 2−3−18

NOTAM. See Notice to Airmen

Notice to Airmen, 5−1−2

FDC NOTAM, 5−1−3

NOTAM Contractions, 5−1−4

NOTAM D, 5−1−3

Notice to Airmen System, 5−1−2

O

Obstacle Departure Procedures, 5−2−5

Obstruction Alert, 4−1−10

Operation Raincheck, 4−1−2

Operation Take−off, 4−1−2

Operational Information System (OIS), 5−1−10

Option Approach, 4−3−23

P

P−static, 7−5−9

PAN−PAN, 6−3−1

PAPI. See Precision Approach Path Indicator

PAR. See Precision Approach; Precision Approach

Radar

Parachute Jumps, 3−2−2, 3−5−5

Phonetic Alphabet, 4−2−5

Pilot

Authority, 6−1−1

Responsibility, 4−1−14, 4−4−1, 4−4−4, 5−4−58,

5−5−1, 6−1−1, 7−3−6

Pilot Control of Airport Lighting, 2−1−11

Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities, 4−1−1

Pilot Weather Reports, 7−1−43

Piracy, Air, Emergency, 6−3−6

PIREPs. See Pilot Weather Reports

Pointer NOTAMs, 5−1−4

Position Reporting, 5−3−3

Pre−departure Clearance Procedures, 5−2−1

Precipitation Static, 7−5−9

Precision Approach, 5−4−34

Precision Approach Path Indicator, 2−1−4

Precision Approach Radar, 4−5−7

Precision Approach Systems, 1−1−35

Preflight, Preparation, 5−1−1

Priority, Landing, 5−4−59

Procedure Turn, 5−4−28

Limitations, 5−4−31
AIM 3/7/13

I−10 Index

[References are to page numbers]

Procedures

Arrival, 5−4−1

En Route, 5−3−1

Instrument Approach, 5−4−26

Interception, 5−6−2

Prohibited Areas, 3−4−1

Publications, Aeronautical, 9−1−1

Published Instrument Approach Procedure Visual

Segment, 5−4−19

Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator, 2−1−5

R

Radar

Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System, 4−5−2

Airport Route Surveillance Radar, 4−5−7

Airport Surveillance Radar, 4−5−7

Approach Control, 5−4−3

Approaches, 5−4−34

Capabilities, 4−5−1

Doppler, 1−1−18

Limitations, 4−5−1

Monitoring of Instrument Approaches, 5−4−35

Precision Approach, 4−5−7

Precision Approach Radar, 4−5−7

Surveillance, 4−5−7

Vector, 5−5−3

Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft, 4−1−11

Radar Beacon, Phraseology, 4−1−17

Radar Sequencing and Separation, VFR Aircraft,

TRSA, 4−1−13

Radar Traffic Information Service, 4−1−8

Radio, Communications, 4−2−1

Altitudes, 4−2−6

Contact Procedures, 4−2−1

Directions, 4−2−6

Inoperative Transmitter, 4−2−7

Phonetic Alphabet, 4−2−5

Receiver Inoperative, 4−2−7

Speeds, 4−2−6

Student Pilots, 4−2−4

Technique, 4−2−1

Time, 4−2−6

Transmitter and Receiver Inoperative, 4−2−7

VFR Flights, 4−2−8

RCLS. See Runway Centerline Lighting

Receiver, VOR, Check, 1−1−2

REIL. See Runway End Identifier Lights

REL. See Runway Entrance Lights

Release Time, 5−2−4

Remote Airport Advisory (RAA), 3−5−1, 4−1−4

Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS), 3−5−1,

4−1−4

Required Navigation Performance (RNP), 1−2−1,

5−4−23

Required Navigation Performance (RNP) Operations,

5−1−30, 5−5−7

Rescue Coordination Center

Air Force, 6−2−5

Alaska, 6−2−5

Coast Guard, 6−2−5

Joint Rescue, Hawaii, 6−2−5

Reservations, Airport, 4−1−21

Responsibility

Controller, 5−3−8, 5−4−58, 5−5−1

Pilot, 4−1−14, 4−4−1, 4−4−4, 5−4−58, 5−5−1, 6−1−1,

7−3−6

Restricted Areas, 3−4−1

Restrictions

Departure, 5−2−4

Flight, Temporary, 3−5−2

RIL. See Runway Intersection Lights (RIL)

RNAV. See Area Navigation

RNP. See Required Navigation Performance

Route

Coded Departure Route, 4−4−3

Course Changes, 5−3−7

Route System, 5−3−5

Runway

 Friction Reports, 4−3−11

Aiming Point Markings, 2−3−2

Centerline Markings, 2−3−2

Closed

Lighting, 2−3−18

Marking, 2−3−18

Demarcation Bar, 2−3−4

Designators, 2−3−2

Friction Advisories, 4−3−11

Holding Position Markings, 2−3−12

Markings, 2−3−1

Separation, 4−4−9

Shoulder Markings, 2−3−3

Side Stripe Markings, 2−3−3

Signs, Distance Remaining, 2−3−29
3/7/13 AIM

Index I−11

[References are to page numbers]

Threshold Bar, 2−3−4

Threshold Markings, 2−3−3

Touchdown Zone Markers, 2−3−2

Runway

 Edge Light Systems, 2−1−6

End Identifier Lights, 2−1−6

Entrance Lights, 2−1−7

Centerline Lighting System, 2−1−6

Status Light (RWSL) System, 2−1−7, 2−1−8

Runway Intersection Lights (RIL), 2−1−9

RWSL System, Runway Status Light (RWSL) System.

See Runway Status Light (RWSL) System

Runway, Visual Range, 7−1−40

Runways, Use, 4−3−6

RVR. See Runway Visual Range

S

Safety

Alert, 5−5−3

Alerts, 3−2−1

Aircraft Conflict, 3−2−1

Mode C Intruder, 3−2−1

Terrain/Obstruction, 3−2−1

Aviation, Reporting, 7−6−1

Seaplane, 7−5−6

Safety Alert, 4−1−10

Aircraft Conflict Alert, 4−1−11

Obstruction Alert, 4−1−10

Terrain Alert, 4−1−10

SAR. See Search and Rescue

SCAT−I DGPS. See Special Category I Differential

GPS

Scuba Diving, Decompression Sickness, 8−1−4

SDF. See Simplified Directional Facility

Seaplane, Safety, 7−5−6

Search and Rescue, 6−2−2, 6−2−5

Security, National, 5−6−1

Security Identification Display Area, 2−3−31

See and Avoid, 5−5−4

Separation

IFR, Standards, 4−4−7

Runway, 4−4−9

Visual, 4−4−9, 5−5−5

Wake Turbulence, 7−3−7

Sequenced flashing lights (SFL), 2−1−11

SFL. See Sequenced flashing lights

SIDA. See Security Identifications Display Area

Side−Step Maneuver, 5−4−49

Signs

Airport, 2−3−1

Half−Way, 7−5−5

Simplified Directional Facility, 1−1−12

Sinus Block, 8−1−4

Special Category I Differential GPS (SCAT−I DGPS),

1−1−36

Special Instrument Approach Procedures, 1−1−35,

5−4−28

Special Traffic Management Programs, 4−1−21

Special Use Airspace, 3−4−1

Alert Areas, 3−4−2

Controlled Firing Areas, 3−4−2

Military Operations Areas, 3−4−2

Prohibited Areas, 3−4−1

Restricted Areas, 3−4−1

Warning Areas, 3−4−1

Special Use Airspace (SUA) NOTAMs, 5−1−4

Special VFR Clearances, 4−4−3

Speed, Adjustments, 4−4−7, 5−5−4

Standard Instrument Departures, 5−2−5

Standard Terminal Arrival, 5−4−1

STAR. See Standard Terminal Arrival

Surface Painted Holding Position Signs, 2−3−12

Surveillance Approach, 5−4−34

Surveillance Radar, 4−5−7

Surveillance Systems, 4−5−1

T

TACAN. See Tactical Air Navigation

Tactical Air Navigation, 1−1−3

TAF. See Aerodrome Forecast

Takeoff Hold Lights (THL), 2−1−8

Takeoffs, Intersection, 4−3−12

Taxi

Clearance, 5−2−1

During Low Visibility, 4−3−20
AIM 3/7/13

I−12 Index

[References are to page numbers]

Taxiway

Centerline Markings, 2−3−7

Closed

Lighting, 2−3−18

Marking, 2−3−18

Edge Markings, 2−3−7

Geographic Position Markings, 2−3−10

Holding Position Markings, 2−3−12

Markings, 2−3−1, 2−3−7

Shoulder Markings, 2−3−7

Surface Painted Direction Signs, 2−3−10

Surface Painted Location Signs, 2−3−10

Taxiway Centerline Lead−Off Lights, 2−1−6

Taxiway Lights, 2−1−15

Centerline, 2−1−15

Clearance Bar, 2−1−15

Edge, 2−1−15

Runway Guard, 2−1−15

Stop Bar, 2−1−15

TCAS. See Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance

System

TDWR. See Terminal Doppler Weather Radar

TDZL. See Touchdown Zone Lights

TEC. See Tower En Route Control

Telephone Information Briefing Service, 7−1−20

Temporary Flight Restrictions, 3−5−2

Terminal Arrival Area (TAA), 5−4−7

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), 4−3−11,

7−1−54

Terminal Radar Service Areas, 3−5−9

Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, 4−1−12

Terminal Weather Information For Pilots System

(TWIP), 7−1−59

Terrain Alert, 4−1−10

THL. See Takeoff Hold Lights

TIBS. See Telephone Information Briefing Service

Time

Clearance Void, 5−2−4

Release, 5−2−4

TIS. See Traffic Information Service

TIS−B. See Traffic Information Service−Broadcast

TLS. See Transponder Landing System

Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL), 2−1−6

Tower, Antenna, 7−5−1

Tower En Route Control, 4−1−14

Traffic

Advisories, 5−5−4

Local Flow Traffic Management Program, 5−4−2

Traffic Advisory Practices, Airports Without Operating

Control Towers, 4−1−2

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System, 4−4−10

Traffic Control Light Signals, 4−3−15

Traffic Information Service, 4−5−8

Traffic Information Service (TIS), 4−4−10

Traffic Information Service−Broadcast , 4−5−17

Traffic Patterns, 4−3−2

Transcribed Weather Broadcast, 7−1−20

Transponder Landing System (TLS), 1−1−35

Transponder Operation, 4−1−15

Automatic Altitude Reporting, 4−1−15

Code Changes, 4−1−16

Emergency, 6−2−1

Ident Feature, 4−1−16

Mode C, 4−1−15

Under Visual Flight Rules, 4−1−17

VFR, 4−1−17

Tri−Color Visual Approach Slope Indicator, 2−1−4

TRSA. See Terminal Radar Service Areas

Turbulence, Wake, 7−3−1

Air Traffic Separation, 7−3−7

Helicopters, 7−3−6

Pilot Responsibility, 7−3−6

Vortex Behavior, 7−3−2

Vortex Generation, 7−3−1

Vortex Strength, 7−3−1

TWEB. See Transcribed Weather Broadcast

TWIP. See Terminal Weather Information For Pilots

System

U

Ultralight Vehicles, 3−2−2

Unicom, 4−1−6

Unidentified Flying Object (UFO) Reports, 7−6−3

Unmanned Aircraft, 7−5−2

Urgency, 6−3−1
3/7/13 AIM

Index I−13

[References are to page numbers]

V

VASI. See Visual Approach Slope Indicator

VCOA. See Visual Climb Over the Airport

VDP. See Visual Descent Points

Vector, Radar, 5−5−3

Vehicle Roadway Markings, 2−3−16

Vertical Navigation, 5−1−13

VFR Corridors, 3−5−7

VFR Flights in Terminal Areas, 4−3−17

VFR Flyways, 3−5−5

VFR Military Training Routes, 3−5−2

VFR Transition Routes, 3−5−7

VFR−on−Top, 5−5−6

VHF, Direction Finder, 1−1−17

VHF Omni−directional Range, 1−1−1

VHF Omni−directional Range/Tactical Air Navigation,

1−1−3

Visual

Approach, 5−4−57, 5−5−5

Clearing Procedures, 4−4−10

Glideslope Indicators, 2−1−1

Separation, 4−4−9, 5−5−5

Visual Approach Slope Indicator, 2−1−1

Visual Climb Over the Airport (VCOA), 5−2−8

Visual Descent Points, 5−4−18

Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC), 5−2−6

Visual Segment, 5−4−19

VNAV. See Vertical Navigation

Void Times, Clearance, 5−2−4

Volcanic, Ash, 7−5−7

Volcanic Activity Reporting, Forms. See Appendix 2

VORSee also VHF Omni−directional Range

Receiver Check, 1−1−2

VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings, 2−3−16

VORTAC. See VHF Omni−directional Range/Tactical

Air Navigation

VR. See VFR Military Training Routes

W

Waivers, 4−1−23

Wake, Turbulence, 7−3−1

Warning Areas, 3−4−1

Weather

Deviations in Oceanic Controlled Airspace, 7−1−39

ICAO, Weather Formats, 7−1−64

Weather System Processor (WSP), 4−1−23, 4−3−11,

7−1−55

WSP. See Weather System Processor