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| Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast   Asia 
**March 2001  DEA-20026**

**CONTENTS**

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE OPIUM POPPY

THE OPIUM POPPY PLANT

OPIUM POPPY GROWING AREAS

FIELD SELECTION AND LAND CLEARING

LAND PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION METHODS

OPIUM HARVESTING METHODS

COOKING OPIUM

EXTRACTION OF MORPHINE FROM OPIUM

CONVERSION OF MORPHINE TO HEROIN BASE

CONVERSION OF HEROIN BASE TO HEROIN NO. 3

CONVERSION OF HEROIN BASE TO HEROIN NO. 4

CONCLUSIONS

GLOSSARY
 **  ORIGIN       AND HISTORY OF THE OPIUM POPPY**
The source of opium is the opium poppy, *Papaver somniferum*, one of the   few species of *Papaver* that produces opium. Through centuries of cultivation   and breeding the poppy for its opium, a species of the plant evolved that is   now known as *somniferum*. The genus, *Papaver*, is the Greek word   for “poppy.” The species, *somniferum*, is Latin for “sleep-inducing.”

The psychological effects of opium may have been known to the ancient Sumerians   (circa 4000 B.C.) whose symbol for the poppy was *hul* (joy) and *gil*   (plant). The plant was known in Europe at least 4,000 years ago, as evidenced   by fossil remains of poppy seed cake and poppy pods found in the Swiss lake   dwellings of the Neolithic Age. Opium was probably consumed by the ancient Egyptians   and was known to the Greeks as well. References to the poppy are found in Homer’s   works *The Iliad* and *The Odyssey*. Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.), the   Father of Medicine, recommended drinking the juice of the white poppy mixed   with the seed of nettle.

The opium poppy probably reached China about the 7th century A.D. through the   efforts of Arab traders who advocated its use for medicinal purposes. In Chinese   literature, however, there are earlier references to its use. The noted Chinese   surgeon Hua To of the Three Kingdoms (220-264 A.D.) used opium preparations   and *Cannabis indica* for his patients to swallow before undergoing major   surgery.

The beginning of widespread opium use in China has been associated by some   historians with the introduction of tobacco into that country by the Dutch from   Java in the 17th century. The Chinese were reported to mix opium with tobacco.   The practice was adopted throughout the area and eventually resulted in increased   opium smoking, both with and without tobacco.

In 1803, the German pharmacist F. W. Serturner isolated and described the principal   alkaloid in opium, which he named morphium after Morpheus, the Greek god of   dreams. The invention of the syringe and the discovery of other alkaloids of   opium soon followed: *codeine* in 1832 and *papaverine* in 1848. By   the 1850s, the medicinal use of pure alkaloids, rather than crude opium preparations,   was common in Europe.

In the United States, opium preparations became widely available in the 19th   century and morphine was used extensively as a painkiller for wounded soldiers   during the Civil War. The inevitable result was opium addiction, contemporarily   called “the army disease” or “soldier’s disease.” These   opium and morphine abuse problems prompted a scientific search for potent, but   nonaddictive, painkillers. In the 1870s, chemists developed an opium-based and   supposedly nonaddictive substitute for morphine. The Bayer Pharmaceutical Company   of Germany was the first to produce the new drug in large quantities under the   brand name *Heroin*. This product was obtained by the acetylation of morphine.   Soon thereafter studies showed heroin to have narcotic and addictive properties   far exceeding those of morphine. Although heroin has been used in the United   Kingdom in the treatment of the terminally ill, its “medical value”   is a subject of intense controversy.
 **  THE       OPIUM POPPY PLANT**The opium poppy, *Papaver somniferum*, is an annual plant, i.e., the plant matures one time, and does not regenerate itself. New seed must be planted each season. From a small seed, it grows, flowers, and bears fruit (a pod) only once. The entire growth cycle for most varieties of this plant takes about 120 days. The tiny seeds (like the seeds on a poppy seed roll) germinate quickly in warm air and sufficient soil moisture. In less than 6 weeks, the young plant emerges from the soil, grows a set of four leaves, and resembles a small cabbage in appearance. The lobed, dentate (jagged-edged) leaves are glaucous green with a dull gray or blue tint. 
Within   2 months, the plant will grow from 1 to 2 feet in height, with one primary,   long, smooth stem. The upper portion of this stem is without leaves and is called   the “peduncle.” One or more secondary stems, called “tillers,”   may grow from the main stem of the plant. Single poppy plants in Southeast Asia   often have more than one tiller.

The main stem of a fully matured *Papaver somniferum* ranges between 2   and 5 feet in height. The green leaves are oblong, toothed and lobed and vary   between 4 to 15 inches in length at maturity. The matured leaves have no commercial   value except for use as animal fodder.

As the plant grows tall, the main stem and each tiller terminate in a flower   bud. During the development of the bud, the peduncle portion of the stem elongates   and forms a distinctive “hook” that causes the bud to be turned upside   down. As the flower develops, the peduncle straightens and the buds point upward.   A day or two after the buds first point upward, the two outer segments of the   bud, called “sepals,” fall away, exposing the flower petals. At first,   the exposed flower blossom is crushed and crinkled, but the petals soon expand   and become smooth in the sun. Poppy flowers have four petals. The petals may   be single or double and are either white, pink, reddish purple, crimson red,   or variegated. 

Opium poppies generally flower after about 90 days of growth and continue to   flower for 2 to 3 weeks. The petals eventually drop to reveal a small, round,   green pod which continues to develop. These pods (also called seed pods, capsules,   bulbs, or poppy heads) are either oblate, elongated, or globular and mature   to about the size of a chicken egg. The oblate-shaped pods are more common in   Southeast Asia.

Only the pod portion of the plant can produce opium alkaloids. The skin of   the poppy pod encloses the wall of the pod ovary. The ovary wall consists of   three layers: the outer, middle and inner layers. The plant’s latex (raw   opium gum) is produced within the ovary wall and drains into the middle layer   through a system of vessels and tubes within the pod. The cells of the middle   layer secrete more than 95 percent of the plant’s opium when the pod is   scored and harvested.

Farmers harvest the opium from each pod while it remains on the plant by making   vertical incisions with a specially designed homemade knife. After the opium   is collected, the pods are allowed to dry on the stem. Once dry, the largest   and most productive pods are cut from the stem, and the seeds are removed and   dried in the sun before storing for the following year’s planting. An alternative   method of collecting planting seeds is to collect them from intentionally unscored   pods, because scoring may diminish the quality of the seeds. Aside from being   used as planting seed, poppy seed may also be pressed to produce cooking oil.   Poppy seed oil may also be used in the manufacture of paints and perfumes. Poppy   seed oil is straw yellow in color, odorless, and has a pleasant, almond-like   taste. 
 **  OPIUM       POPPY GROWING AREAS**
The opium poppy thrives in temperate, warm climates with low humidity, and   requires only a moderate amount of water before and during the early stages   of growth. 

The opium poppy plant can be grown in a variety of soils—clay, sandy loam,   sandy, and sandy clay—but it grows best in a sandy loam soil. This type   of soil has good moisture-retentive and nutrient-retentive properties, is easily   cultivated, and has a favorable structure for root development. Clay soil types   are hard and difficult to pulverize into a good soil texture. The roots of a   young poppy plant cannot readily penetrate clay soils, and growth is inhibited.   Sand soil, by contrast, does not retain sufficient water or nutrients for proper   growth of the plant.

Excessive moisture or extremely arid conditions will affect the poppy plant’s   growth adversely thus reducing the alkaloid content. Poppy plants can become   waterlogged and die after a heavy rainfall in poorly drained soil. Heavy rainfall   in the second and third months of growth can leach alkaloids from the plant   and spoil the harvest. Dull, rainy, or cloudy weather during this growth stage   may reduce both the quantity and the quality of the alkaloid content.

The   major legal opium production areas in the world today are in government-regulated   opium farms in India, Turkey, and Tasmania (Australia). The major illegal growing   areas are in Southwest Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran) and in the highlands   of Mainland Southeast Asia (Burma, Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand) —popularly   known as the “Golden Triangle.” Opium poppy is also grown in Colombia,   Mexico, and Lebanon.

Opium poppies containing small amounts of opium alkaloids were, at one time,   widely grown as an ornamental plant and for seeds in the United States. The   possession of this plant was declared illegal by the Opium Poppy Control Act   of 1942.

The highlands of Mainland Southeast Asia, at elevations of 800 meters or more   above sea level, are prime poppy-growing areas. Generally speaking, these poppy-farming   areas do not require irrigation, fertilizer, or insecticides for successful   opium yields. Most of the opium poppies of Southeast Asia are found in Burma,   specifically in the Wa and Kokang areas which are in the northeastern quadrant   of the Shan State of Burma. Laos is the second-largest illicit opium producing   country in Southeast Asia and third-largest in the world behind Afghanistan   and Burma. In Laos poppy is cultivated extensively in Houaphan and Xiangkhoang   Provinces, in addition to the six northern provinces of Bokeo, Louangnamtha,   Louangphabang, Oudomxai, Phongsali, and Xaignabouli. Poppy is also grown in   many of the remote, mountainous areas of northern Thailand, particularly in   Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Mae Hong Son, Nan, and Tak Provinces. Successful eradication   programs together with highland programs of agricultural development and crop   substitution in Northern Thailand have reduced poppy cultivation to minimal   levels.

Lai Chau Province, situated between China and Laos, is a major opium poppy   cultivation area in Vietnam, as is Nghe An Province, in the areas bordering   Laos. In China, small crops of opium poppies are cultivated by ethnic minority   groups in the mountainous frontier regions of Yunnan Province, particularly   along the border area with Burma’s Kokang area in the Shan State. 

It is noteworthy that the dominant ethnic groups of Mainland Southeast Asia   are not poppy cultivators. The Burmans and Shan of Burma, the Lao of Laos, the   Thai of Thailand, the Han Chinese of Yunnan, China, and the Vietnamese of Vietnam   are lowlanders and do not traditionally cultivate opium poppies. Rather, it   is the ethnic minority highlander groups, such as the Wa, Pa-O, Palaung, Lahu,   Lisu, Hmong, and Akha who grow poppies in the highlands of Mainland Southeast   Asia. 

A typical household of Mainland Southeast Asian highlanders averages between   five and 10 persons, including two to five adults. Such a household of poppy   farmers can cultivate and harvest about 1 acre of opium poppy per year. Most   of the more fertile fields can support opium poppy cultivation for 10 years   or more without fertilization or insecticides before the soil is depleted and   new fields must be cleared.
 **  FIELD       SELECTION AND LAND CLEARING**
**Land Areas Standard Units           of Measurement**
U.S.           football field          4,459 sq. meters          0.533 hectare          1.11 acres          2.79 rai          8 mu
In choosing a field to grow opium poppies, soil quality, access to sunlight,   and acidity are critical factors, so experienced poppy farmers choose their   fields carefully. In Mainland Southeast Asia, westerly orientations are typically   preferred to optimize sun exposure. Most fields are on mountain slopes at elevations   of 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) or more above sea level. Slope gradients of between   20 to 40 degrees are considered best for drainage of rainwater.

In Mainland Southeast Asia, virgin land is prepared by cutting and piling all   brush, vines, and small trees in the field during March, at the end of the dry   season. After allowing the brush to dry in the hot sun for several days, the   field is set afire. This method, called “slash-and-burn” or “swidden”   agriculture, is commonly practiced by dry field farmers–both highland and   lowland–throughout Mainland Southeast Asia in order to ready the land for   a variety of field crops, including opium poppy. The ash in the burnt fields   is a natural source of nutrients for the soil.

Before the rainy season in April, thousands of highland poppy fields all over   the region are set ablaze. A fog-like yellow haze hangs over the area for weeks,   reducing visibility for hundreds of miles. In the mountains, the density of   haze can block out the sun and sting the eyes. Nearby provincial airports are   occasionally closed due to poor visibility caused by burning fields. 
**  Dry       season in Mainland Southeast Asia**
A typical highlander family will plant an area of 2 or 3 *rai* in opium   poppy (2.53 *rai* is equivalent to 1 acre compared to the smaller size   *mu* which is the standard land measurement used in China). In areas where   drug financiers are active, larger plots are cultivated. 
 **sq.       meters****hectare****acres*****rai******mu*****hectare**10,0001.002.466.2315.0**acre**4,0330.4031.002.536.05**rai       (lai)**1,6000.1600.3971.002.40**mu**6670.06670.1650.4171.0
 
 **  LAND       PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION METHODS**
Toward the end of the rainy season in August or September, highland farmers   in Mainland Southeast Asia prepare fields selected for opium poppy planting.   By this time, the ash resulting from the burn-off of the previous dry season   has settled into the soil, providing additional nutrients, especially potash.   The soil is turned with long-handled hoes after it is softened by the rains.   The farmers then break up the large clumps of soil. Weeds and stones are tossed   aside and the ground is leveled off.

Traditionally, most highland and upland farmers in Mainland Southeast Asia   do not use fertilizer, but in recent years poppy farmers have started using   both natural and chemical fertilizers to increase yields. Chicken manure, human   feces, or the region’s abundant natural supply of bat droppings are often   mixed into the planting soil before the poppy seed is planted. The planting   is usually completed by the end of October. 

The opium poppy seed can be sown several ways: broadcast or tossed by hand;   or fix-dropped by hand into shallow holes dug with a dibble stick, which is   used to poke holes in the soil. About 1 kilogram of opium poppy seed is needed   to sow 1 acre of land. Approximately 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds) of seed are used   for each hectare (equivalant to 2.46 acres). The seeds may be white, yellow,   coffee-colored, gray, black, or blue. Seed color is not related to the color   of the flower petals. Beans, cabbages, cotton, parsley, spinach, squash, or   tobacco are usually planted with opium poppy. These crops neither help nor hinder   the cultivation of the opium poppy, but are planted solely for personal consumption   or as a cash crop.

In   the highlands of Mainland Southeast Asia, it is also common practice to plant   maize and opium poppies in the same fields each year. The maize keeps down excessive   weeds and provides feed for the farmer’s pigs and ponies. It is grown from   April to August. After harvesting the maize, with the stalks still standing   in the fields, the ground is weeded and pulverized. Just before the end of the   rainy season, in successive sowings throughout September and October, the poppy   seed is broadcast among the maize stalks. These stalks protect young opium poppy   plants from heavy rains.

The         opium poppy plants form leaves in the first growth stage, called the “cabbage”         or “lettuce” stage. After a month of growth, when the opium         poppy is about a foot high, some of the weaker plants are removed (called         “thinning”) to allow the other plants more room to grow. The         optimum spacing between plants is between 20 and 40 centimeters, or about         8 to 12 plants per square meter. Some researchers in Northern Thailand         have reported as many as 18 plants per square meter, but such crowding         is believed to hinder plant growth.

During the first 2 months, the opium poppies may be damaged or   stunted by nature because of the lack of adequate sunshine, excessive rainfall,   insects, worms, hailstones, early frost, or trampling by animals. The third   month of growth does not require as much care as the first 2 months. Between   3 and 4 months after planting—from late December to early February, the   opium poppies are in full bloom. Mature plants range between 3 and 5 feet in   height. Most opium poppy varieties in Southeast Asia produce three to five mature   pods per plant.

A typical opium poppy field has 250,000 poppy plants per hectare, with a range   of 300,000 to 500,000 opium-producing pods. The actual opium yield will depend   largely on weather conditions and the precautions taken by individual farmers   to safeguard the crop. The farmer and his family generally move into the field   for the final 2 weeks, setting up a small field hut on the edge of the opium   poppy field.
 **  OPIUM       HARVESTING METHODS**
The scoring of the pods (also called lancing, incising, or tapping) begins   about 2 weeks after the flower petals fall from the pods. The farmer may examine   the pod and the tiny crown portion on the top of the pod very carefully before   scoring. The grayish-green pod will become a dark green color as it matures   and it will swell in size. Another indication of the pod’s readiness for   tapping is if the points of the pod’s crown are standing straight out or   are curved upward. If the crown’s points turn downward, the pod may not   yet be fully matured. Not all the plants in a field will be ready for scoring   at the same time. Each pod can be tapped from two to four times.

A   set of three or four small blades of iron, glass, or glass splinters bound tightly   together on a wooden handle is used to score two or three sides of the pod in   a vertical direction. If the blades cut too deep into the wall of the pod, the   opium (latex) will drain into the interior of the pod, rather than to the surface,   where it can be collected. If the incisions are too shallow, the flow will be   too slow and the opium will coagulate over the incisions and block the flow.   A depth of about 1 millimeter is desired for the incision. Using a blade-tool   designed to cut to that depth, scoring ideally starts in late afternoon so the   white latex-like raw opium, which has a 60 percent water content, can ooze out   and slowly dry on the surface of the pod overnight. If the scoring begins too   early in the afternoon, the sun will cause the opium to dry and block the flow.   The opium oxidizes, darkens, and thickens in the cool night air. Early the next   morning, the sticky opium gum is scraped from the surface of the pods with a   short-handled, crescent-shaped, flat, iron blade 3 to 4 inches wide. The opium   gum is collected in a container which hangs from the farmer’s neck or waist.

Opium harvesters work their way backwards across the field to minimize brushing   up against scored (wet) pods, so as not to spill the sticky ooze inadvertently.   The lower, mature pods are usually scored before the taller pods. The pods will   continue to secrete opium for several days. Farmers will return to these plants—sometimes   up to three or four times—to gather additional opium until the gum content   is depleted totally. 

In   Mainland Southeast Asia, the opium yield from a single pod varies greatly, ranging   from 10 to 100 milligrams of opium gum per pod. (Opium gum yield per capsule   correlates very closely with capsule volume.) The average yield of raw opium   gum per pod is about 80 milligrams. The dried opium yield ranges between 8 and   20 kilograms per hectare in this region.

As the farmers gather the opium, the larger or more productive pods are sometimes   tagged with colored string or yarn. These pods will later be cut from their   stems, cut open, dried in the sun and their seeds will be used for the following   year’s planting. An acre of poppy will produce at least 20 kilograms of   seed, but only a portion is collected for future planting.

The         wet opium gum collected from the pods contains a relatively high amount         of water and needs to be dried for several days. High-quality raw opium         will be brown (rather than black) in color and will retain its sticky         texture. It will contain no more than 15 percent water. Experienced opium         traders can determine quickly if the opium has been mixed with tree sap,         sand, or other such materials.

Raw opium in Burma, Laos, and Thailand is usually sun-dried, weighed in a standard   1.6-kilogram quantity (called a *viss* in Burma; a *choi* in Laos   and Thailand), wrapped in a banana leaf or plastic, and then stored until ready   to sell, trade, or smoke. Some opium smoking is common among many adult opium   poppy farmers to ward off hunger and cold. Heavy addiction generally is limited   to older, male farmers and is used as an analgesic for chronic pain. Based on   studies in Thailand, the average yearly consumption of cooked opium per smoker   is estimated to be 1.6 kilograms.

A typical opium poppy farmer household in Southeast Asia will collect 2 to   5 *choi* or *viss* (3 to 9 kilograms) of opium from a year’s   harvest of a one-acre field, although yields can vary widely due to a number   of variables, such as weather and less than ideal field selection. That opium   will be dried, wrapped, and placed on a shelf by February or March. If the opium   has been properly dried, it can be stored indefinitely. Excessive moisture and   heat can cause the opium to deteriorate slightly but, once dried, opium is relatively   stable. In fact, as opium dries and becomes less pliable, its value increases,   due to the decrease in water weight per kilogram.
 **  COOKING       OPIUM*****Cooking         Opium***Raw       opium is placed in boiling water and cooked in large cooking vats or 55-gallon       drums. After a short time, the opium alkaloids dissolve. The solution is       then strained through cheesecloth to remove impurities such as twigs and       plant scrapings. Then the liquid is reheated until the water has evaporated       and a thick paste remains.Before opium is smoked, it is usually cooked. Uncooked opium contains moisture, vegetable matter, and other impurities which detract from a smooth-smoking product. The raw opium which is collected from the pod is placed in an open pot of boiling water where the sticky glob of opium alkaloids quickly dissolves. The soil, twigs, and plant scrapings remain undissolved. The solution is strained through cheesecloth to remove these impurities. The clear brown liquid, sometimes called “liquid opium,” is actually opium in solution. This liquid then is reheated over a low flame until the water turns to steam. When the water has evaporated, a thick paste remains. This paste is called “prepared opium,” “cooked opium,” or “smoking opium” and it is dried in the sun until it has a putty-like consistency. The net weight of the cooked opium is generally about 20 percent less than than the original raw opium. 
Cooked opium is suitable for smoking or eating by opium users. Traditionally,   there is only one group of opium poppy farmers, the Hmong, who often do not   cook their opium before smoking. Most other ethnic groups, including Chinese   opium addicts, prefer smoking cooked opium.

Opium, either raw or cooked, will not degrade, or otherwise spoil, for an indefinite   period of time, as long as it remains relatively dry and cool. These are the   normal conditions in the highlands of Mainland Southeast Asia. There are cases   of opium being stored on a shelf for 10 years without deterioration. 

If the opium is to be sold to traders for use in morphine or heroin laboratories,   it is not necessary to cook it first. The laboratory operators generally use   55-gallon oil drums or huge cooking vats to cook the raw opium in water before   beginning the morphine extraction process.
 **  EXTRACTION       OF MORPHINE FROM OPIUM**
Raw or cooked opium contains more than 35 different alkaloids, including morphine,   codeine, and thebaine. In Mainland Southeast Asia, the morphine alkaloid alone   accounts for approximately 10 percent of the total weight of opium. Heroin manufacturers   must first extract the morphine from the opium, before converting the morphine   to heroin. The extraction is a simple process, requiring only a few chemicals   and a supply of water. Morphine sometimes is extracted from opium in small clandestine   laboratories, which are typically set up near the opium poppy fields. Since   the morphine base is about one-tenth the weight and volume of raw opium, it   is desirable to reduce the opium to morphine before transporting the product   from the field to a heroin laboratory.

The process of extracting morphine from opium involves dissolving opium in   boiling water, adding lime (calcium oxide), or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide),   or limestone (calcium carbonate) to precipitate non-morphine alkaloids, and   then pouring off the morphine in solution. Ammonium chloride is then added to   the solution to precipitate morphine from the solution. The chemicals used to   process opium to morphine have a number of legitimate purposes and are widely   available on the open market. An empty oil drum, some cooking pots, and filter   cloths or filter paper are needed.
**The following is a step-by-step       description of morphine extraction in a typical Mainland Southeast Asian       laboratory**
An empty 55-gallon oil drum is placed on bricks about a foot above the         ground and a fire is built under the drum. Thirty gallons of water are         added to the drum and brought to a boil. Ten to 15 kilograms of raw opium         are added to the boiling water.

 With stirring, the raw opium eventually dissolves in the boiling water,         while soil, leaves, twigs, and other non-soluble materials float in the         solution. Most of these materials are scooped out of the clear, dark brown         “liquid opium” solution.

 Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or, more often, a readily available         chemical fertilizer with a high content of lime, is added to the solution.         Lime will convert water- insoluble morphine alkaloid into water-soluble         calcium morphenate. (Other opium alkaloids do not react with lime to form         water-soluble calcium salts, as does morphine.) Codeine is an opium alkaloid         that is slightly water-soluble and some codeine will be carried over with         the calcium morphenate in the liquid. Otherwise, for the most part, the         other alkaloids will become a part of the “sludge.”

 As the solution cools, the morphine solution is scooped from the drum         and poured through a filter. Cloth rice sacks are often used as filters         and can then be squeezed in a press to remove most of the solution from         the wet sacks. Liquid saponated cresol (“lysol”) is commonly         added to the solution to facilitate filtering. The morphine-rich solution         is then poured into large cooking pots and reheated but, this time, not         boiled.

Ammonium chloride (a powder) is added to the heated calcium morphenate         solution to adjust the alkalinity to a pH of 8 to 9, and the solution         is then allowed to cool. Within 1 or 2 hours, morphine base precipitates         (“crashes”) out of the solution and settles to the bottom of         the cooking pot.

 The solution is then poured off through cloth filters. Any solid morphine         base chunks in the solution will remain on the cloth. The morphine base         is removed from both the cooking pot and from the filter cloths, wrapped         and squeezed in cloth, and then dried in the sun. When dry, the crude         morphine base is a coffee-colored coarse powder. This form of morphine         is commonly known by the Chinese term *pi-tzu* in Mainland Southeast         Asia. 

 If morphine base is to be stored or transported to another location,         it may be pressed into blocks. Crude morphine base is generally 50 percent         to 70 percent morphine, and is an intermediate product in the heroin process.         (This morphine base is generally not used by addicts.)

 This crude morphine base may be further purified (and changed to morphine         hydrochloride) by dissolution in hot water and hydrochloric acid, then         adding activated charcoal, reheating, and filtering. The solution is filtered         several times before being allowed to cool. As the solution cools, morphine         hydrochloride precipitates out of the solution and settles to the bottom.         The precipitate is trapped (or “captured”) by filtration. 

 If the morphine hydrochloride is to be stored or transported to another         location, it may be pressed into bricks. Morphine hydrochloride (often         tainted with codeine hydrochloride) is usually pressed into brick-sized         blocks in a press and wrapped in paper or cloth. The most common block         size is 2 inches by 4 inches by 5 inches, and weighs about 3 pounds (1.3         kilograms). It takes a full day to extract morphine from opium.

**MORPHINE         EXTRACTION PROCESS**

Ten           kilograms of opium are added to 30 gallons of hot water and dissolved.           

Solid           impurities are scooped off.

Non-morphine           alkaloids of opium precipitate to the bottom of the barrel.

Morphine           solution is scooped into other containers.

Approximately 13 kilograms of opium (from approximately one hectare of opium   poppies) are needed to produce each morphine block of this size. The morphine   blocks are then bundled and packed for transport to heroin laboratories by human   couriers or by pack animals. Pack mules are able to carry 100-kilogram payloads   over 200 miles of rugged mountain trails in less than three weeks.

  
 **  CONVERSION       OF MORPHINE TO HEROIN BASE**
The conversion of morphine to heroin base is a relatively simple and inexpensive   procedure. The necessary chemicals for conversion to heroin are commonly available   as industrial chemicals. The equipment is very basic and quite portable. Heroin   conversion laboratories are generally located in isolated, rural areas due to   the telltale odors of the laboratory’s chemicals. Acetic anhydride, in   particular, is a key chemical with a very pungent odor resembling vinegar. Thai-speakers   in the Golden Triangle Area commonly refer to acetic anhydride as *nam-som*   (vinegar).

As described in the preceding paragraphs, the chemicals used to isolate morphine   from opium (known as extraction) include calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) and   ammonium chloride. The precursor chemical normally used in the conversion of   morphine to heroin (known as acetylation) is acetic anhydride. Chemical reagents   used in the conversion process include sodium carbonate and activated charcoal.   Chemical solvents needed are chloroform, ethyl alcohol (ethanol), and ethyl   ether. Other chemicals may be substituted for these preferred chemicals, but   most or all of these preferred chemicals are readily available from smugglers   and suppliers. 

Laboratory equipment includes large Chinese cooking woks, measuring cups, funnels,   filter paper, litmus paper, and enamel (or stainless steel) pots. Only the most   sophisticated heroin laboratories use glass flasks, propane gas ovens, vacuum   pumps, autoclaves, electric blenders, venting hoods, centrifuges, reflux condensers,   electric drying ovens, and elaborate exhaust systems. It is common to find portable,   gasoline-powered generators at clandestine heroin conversion laboratories. Generators   are used to power various electrical devices.

Heroin synthesis from morphine (either morphine base or morphine hydrochloride)   is a two-step process that requires between 4 and 6 hours to complete. Heroin   base is the intermediate product. Typically, morphine hydrochloride bricks are   pulverized and the dried powder is then placed in an enamel pot. Acetic anhydride   is added, which then reacts with the morphine to form heroin acetate. (This   acetylation process will work either with morphine hydrochloride or morphine   base.) The pot lid is tied or clamped on, using a damp towel for a gasket. The   pot is carefully heated for about 2 hours, below boiling, at a constant temperature   of 85° Celsius (185° Fahrenheit). It is never allowed to boil or to   become so hot as to vent fumes into the room. The mixture is agitated by tilting   and rotation until all of the morphine has dissolved. When cooking is completed,   the pot is cooled and opened. During this step, morphine and the anhydride become   chemically bonded, creating an impure form of diacetylmorphine (heroin). 

Water is added to the thick, soupy mixture and the mixture is stirred as the   heroin dissolves in the solution. Sodium carbonate (a crystalline powder) is   dissolved in hot water and then added slowly to the heroin solution until effervescence   stops. This precipitates heroin base, which is then filtered and dried by heating   in a steam bath. For each kilogram of morphine, 685 grams to 937 grams of crude   heroin base is formed, depending on the quanity of morphine.

The tan-colored heroin base (about 70 percent pure heroin) may be dried, packed,   and transported to a heroin-refining laboratory, or it may be purified further   before conversion to heroin hydrochloride (a water-soluble salt form of heroin)   at the same site.

Mainland Southeast Asian heroin base is an intermediate product that can be   further converted to either “smoking heroin” (heroin no. 3) or “injectable   heroin” (heroin no. 4). 
 **  CONVERSION       OF HEROIN BASE TO HEROIN NO. 3****HEROIN NO. 3 (SMOKING HEROIN)**
To make heroin no. 3, the crude base is mixed with hydrochloric acid, resulting   in heroin hydrochloride (HCl). Adulterants, including caffeine, are added after   this conversion. For each kilogram of crude heroin base, about one kilogram   of caffeine is used. Various “flavorings” such as quinine hydrochloride   or strychnine hydrochloride are sometimes added to heroin no. 3. Next, the wet   paste mix is stirred to dryness over a steam bath.

The resulting dry heroin no. 3 will be in the form of coarse lumps. The lumps   are crushed and passed through a mesh sieve, and the grains (pieces) are then   packaged for sale.

The entire process takes about 8 hours and requires only minimal skill. While   extra attention to stirring is required to assure dryness, one person can prepare   1-kilogram of heroin no. 3 during this time.
 **  CONVERSION       OF HEROIN BASE TO HEROIN NO. 4****HEROIN NO. 4 (INJECTABLE HEROIN)**
The   reaction of morphine with acetic anhydride produces heroin acetate. To the heroin   acetate mixture in the pot, water is added and mixed by stirring. A small amount   of chloroform is added. The mixture is stirred and then allowed to stand for   20 minutes. Doing so dissolves highly colored impurities and a red, greasy liquid   is formed at the bottom of the container. The water layer is carefully poured   off and saved in a clean pot, leaving the red grease in the pot.

In a clean pot, activated charcoal is stirred into the aqueous solution and   is filtered to remove solid impurities. The decolorizing effects of the charcoal,   combined with the chloroform treatment, will leave a light yellow solution.   The use of charcoal is repeated one or more times, until the solution is colorless. 

Sodium carbonate (a crystalline powder) is dissolved in hot water and then   added slowly to the heroin solution until effervescence stops. This precipitates   the heroin base, which is then filtered and dried by heating on a steam bath.   The heroin base is heated until dried. The powder should be very white at this   stage. If not white, the base is redissolved in diluted acid, treated repeatedly   with activated charcoal, re-precipitated, and dried. The ultimate purity and   color of the resulting heroin HCl will depend largely on the quality of the   heroin base.

The heroin base is then dissolved in ethyl ether. Conversion to the hydrochloride   salt is achieved by adding hydrochloric acid in ethanol to the heroin mixture.   The heroin then precipitates.
**Heroin         (quantities trafficked)**Metric         SystemU.S.         Equivalent gram       (gm.)0.001 kgs.002 ozs unit0.700       kgs1.54       lbs kilogram       (kg.)1,000.0       gms2.2046       lbs ounce       (oz.)28.35       gms0.0625       lbs pound       (lb.)453.59       gms16.0 ozs
The mixture becomes nearly solid after an hour. At this point, it is filtered   and the solids are collected on clean filter paper. Batches of between 5 and   10 kilograms (occasionally as much as 20 kilograms) are commonly made at one   time. The paper is wrapped around the crystals and placed on wooden trays, usually   over lime rock, to dry.

When the white crystals of pure heroin HCl are dry, the powder is compressed   into bricks in a hydraulic heroin press. These machine-compressed bricks, often   bear a “999” logo impression on one side. Mainland Southeast Asian   heroin bricks are not adulterated with any type of substance. This high-purity,   odorless heroin, ranges from 85 to 95 percent purity. The standard-sized bricks,   called “units” (700-gram) or “half-units” (350 grams), are   then placed in plastic bags and heat-sealed, ready for sale to heroin brokers   and wholesalers. Each full unit measures 5½-inches long, 4-inches wide,   and 2-inches deep. A standard briefcase, measuring 14 inches by 20 inches, and   5 inches deep, can easily hold 18 units (12.6 kilograms) of Mainland Southeast   Asian heroin, stacked in two layers. A standard 1.8 cubic foot microwave oven   can hold approximately 42 units (29.4 kilograms) of Mainland Southeast Asian   heroin.

Although highly soluble in water, heroin HCl is very stable, and can be stored   in a relatively cool, dry, and dark area for an indefinite period of time. 
 **  CONCLUSIONS**
The   Golden Triangle Area of Mainland Southeast Asia is ideally suited for the cultivation   of opium poppy. Although the poppy plant will grow remarkably well in this climate,   soil, and humidity with little to no effort, farmers in this region, nonetheless,   expend a considerable amount of time and effort caring for their crop. Poppy   farmers typically spend 6 months of the year in their poppy fields, nurturing   and safeguarding their family’s primary cash crop. In contrast, the synthesis   of heroin from opium takes only a day or two. But heroin chemists or, more precisely,   heroin “cooks,” in Mainland Southeast Asia must possess a higher level   of knowledge and skills than the poppy farmers who produce the opium. In addition,   the owners and operators of such heroin laboratories must provide an elaborate   support system of cash, armed protection, chemicals, equipment, transportation,   and access to reliable wholesale heroin buyers.
 **  GLOSSARY**-   acetic acid, glacial
- Also known as ethanoic acid or vinegar acid. Glacial acetic acid is the     pure compound, as distinguished from the usual water solutions known as acetic     acid. A clear, colorless liquid with a pungent odor. Miscible with water,     alcohol, glycerin, and ether. Highly concentrated, produces burns on the skin.     Chronic exposure may cause erosion of dental enamel, bronchitis, eye irritation.     Excellent solvent for many organic compounds. Widely used in commercial organic     synthesis. Normally contained in 5-pound bottles (corrosive liquid). In illicit     heroin production, can be used in place of ammonium chloride or ammonia solutions     as a reagent to adjust alkalinity in the precipitation of morphine from an     opium solution. 
-  
- acetic anhydride
- Also known as acetic oxide; acetyl oxide. A colorless liquid with a strong,     vinegar-like odor. Fumes in moist air, and its vapor is extremely irritating     to eyes, nose, and throat. Not readily miscible with water, forming a separate     layer on the bottom, but will form acetic acid eventually . Soluble in chloroform     or ether. Readily combustible (fire hazard). Normally contained in various     sizes of glass or plastic bottles, 5-gallon glass carboys, and 55-gallon metal     drums lined with stainless steel or polyethylene. Used in the textile, leather     tanning, pharmaceutical (particularly aspirin), and photography industries.     Under strict government regulation in some countries. Manufactured in the     United States, Western Europe, and Japan. In illicit heroin production, acetic     anhydride is the most commonly used acetylating agent in the acetylation of     morphine. A key precursor chemical and reagent in heroin synthesis.
-  
- acetylation
- The key chemical process in converting morphine base to heroin. Can be accomplished     using either acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride. Acetyl chloride is flammable,     irritating to the eyes, reacts violently with water or alcohol, and requires     careful handling in laboratory processes. For these reasons, processors of     heroin do not favor acetylation using acetyl chloride. Although acetic anhydride     is corrosive and requires care in handling, it is less hazardous to the user     than acetyl chloride and hence is the key chemical used in processing of heroin.
-  
- adulterant
- Substance added to heroin after the heroin conversion process is completed.     Adulterants are pharmacologically active. Quinine and procaine are typical     adulterants added to heroin.
-  
- alcohol (ethyl alcohol)
- An anhydrous alcohol, also known as ethanol, grain alcohol, fermentation     alcohol, “drinking alcohol,” anhydrous alcohol, ethyl hydroxide,     and methyl carbinol. A clear, colorless, volatile, flammable liquid with a     pleasant, sweet odor. Absorbs water rapidly from air. Miscible with water.     Must be stored in tightly closed container, cool, and away from flame. Most     ethyl alcohol is used in alcoholic beverages in suitable dilutions. Shipped     in metal or plastic containers, such as 55-gallon drums, gerry cans, etc.     Some drums may be lined with phenolic resin. In illicit heroin production,     used as a solvent during purification of heroin base and in the conversion     of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride.
-  
- alkaloid 
- Any of various physiologically active, nitrogen-containing organic bases     derived from plants. Common alkaloids include atropine, caffeine, cocaine,     codeine, mescaline, morphine, narcotine, nicotine, noscapine, papaverine,     quinine, strychnine, and thebaine.
-  
- ammonium chloride
- Also known as ammonium muriate, sal ammoniac, salmiac. Colorless, odorless     crystals or crystalline chunks; may also be a white, granular powder. Tendency     to cake. Soluble in ethanol; near-insoluble in acetone or ether. Cooling,     saline taste. Major industrial uses are in manufacture of dry cell batteries;     dyes; fertilizers; washing powders; etc. Medical use as an expectorant. Normally     packaged in barrels or multiwall paper or polyethylene sacks. In illicit heroin     production, ammonium chloride can be used as a reagent to adjust alkalinity     in the precipitation of morphine (as crude morphine base) from an opium solution.
-  
- brown sugar heroin
- A common name for heroin (any source) which has the appearance of light     brown, granulated sugar. Commonly produced in Southwest Asia (Afghanistan,     Pakistan, and Iran). Used in contrast with the white, fluffy powder or crystal     form of heroin, such as Southeast Asian “China White” heroin. Like     white heroin, brown sugar heroin may be injected, snorted, or smoked.
-  
- caffeine
- White masses of long crystals. A bitter, white alkaloid found in coffee,     tea, and cola nuts. Caffeine is generally used in combined forms, such as     caffeine monohydrate, caffeine acetate, or other compounds. In addition to     its use as a stimulant and diuretic, crystalline caffeine is commonly used     as an diluent in heroin hydrochloride, or as a necessary ingredient in “smoking     heroin” (e.g., Southeast Asian heroin no. 3). Also used as a preferred     diluent in Southeast Asian methamphetamine tablets.
-  
- calcium hydroxide  See “ lime, slaked .”
-  
- carbon, activated  See “ charcoal, activated .”
-  
- chandu
- A Hindi-Bengali term for cooked opium (“smoking opium”). Term     used in India and some parts of Burma. Term used in some historical reports     on Southeast Asian opium.
-  
- charcoal, activated
- A fine, black carbonaceous powder prepared commercially from wood and vegetables.     Also known as “activated carbon” or “animal black.” Highly     adsorptive. Used in medicine as an antidote and in treatment of diarrhea.     Used in laboratories for clarifying, deodorizing, decolorizing, and filtering     various chemicals. Marketed under trade names as Norit, Carboraffin, Ultracarbon,     Opocarbyl, etc. In illicit heroin production, used as a reagent in the purification     of heroin.
-  
- China White
- Southeast Asian heroin no. 4 in white powder form. Term is used by English-speaking     westerners to contrast the white powder form with the light brown, granular     form of heroin (see “ brown sugar heroin ”).     May be injected, snorted, or smoked. The term “China White” also     has been used in recent years as an alternate name for fentanyl, a synthetically-produced     compound with heroin-like properties.
-  
- chloroform
- Also known as trichloromethane. A clear, colorless, heavy, and very volatile     liquid with a characteristic sweet odor. It is an irritant to the skin and     eyes and may also be a carcinogenic. Not miscible with water, forming a separate     layer on the bottom. Miscible with alcohol. Shipped in bottles, tins, or drums;     stainless steel for very high-purity products. Used in industry as a solvent     for fats, oils, rubber, alkaloids, waxes, and resins. Used extensively as     a solvent in the rubber industry; used to make the refrigerant Fluorocarbon-22.     In illicit heroin production, it can be used as a solvent in the synthesis     of heroin.
-  
- *choi (joi)*
- A standard unit of weight used in Mainland Southeast Asia for opium (only).     Equivalent to 1.60 kilograms (3.528 pounds). 
-  
- conversion (heroin conversion) 
- A chemical conversion process wherein heroin base is converted into a soluble     salt form of heroin, generally heroin hydrochloride.
-  
- diluent
- A chemical diluent is an ingredient used to reduce the concentration of     an active material. Another common definition of diluent is a substance added     to finished product (such as heroin) to increase bulk. In this sense, there     is no clear distinction between a diluent and an extender. In heroin manufacture,     “diluents” refer to extenders. Typical diluents for heroin are mannitol,     sucrose, lactose, and starch.
-  
- ether (ethyl ether)
- Also known as diethyl ether; ethyl oxide; diethyl oxide; sulfuric ether;     anesthetic ether; or simply ether. A colorless, mobile, very volatile and     highly flammable liquid. Characteristic, sweetish, pungent odor, more agreeable     than chloroform. Ether vapors are heavier than air. Tends to form explosive     peroxides under the influence of the air and light. When shaken under absolutely     dry conditions, ether can generate enough static electricity to start a fire.     Shipped in cans, drums, barrels, and tank cars. Not miscible with water, forming     a separate layer on the surface. In addition to its well-known use as an anesthetic,     ether is used as a solvent in fats, waxes, dyes, perfumes, oils, resins, etc.     In illicit heroin production, ether is used as a solvent in the conversion     of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride.
-  
- ethyl alcohol  See “ alcohol .”
-  
- ethyl ether  See “ ether .”
-  
- Golden Triangle
- Area of Mainland Southeast Asia comprising the Shan Plateau and Kachin Hills     of northeastern Burma, the highlands of northwestern Laos, and the highlands     of northern Thailand. Term was popularized by Western journalists in the 1970s     to designate one of the principal source areas in the world for illicit opium     and its derivatives, morphine and heroin. The region’s poppy cultivation     area also includes northern Vietnam and the adjacent areas of southern China.
-  
- gram
- A standard unit of weight in the metric system equal to one-thousandth of     a kilogram. 28.350 grams equal one ounce.
-  
- **hai**
- Northern Thai-Shan term used with land areas. See  rai      and  lai  (Lao).
-  
- hectare
- A metric unit of area equal to 2.471 acres (10,000 square meters). Also     equivalent to 6.25  rai .
-  
- heroin
- Also known as diacetylmorphine. A highly addictive synthetic narcotic derived     from morphine.
-  
- heroin base (Southeast Asia)
- Diacetylmorphine. Also known as “crude heroin.” Actually, heroin     base is morphine base that has undergone acetylation. Formed as a precipitate     (solid) by adding soda ash (sodium carbonate) to an acetylated morphine solution.     Sometimes called Southeast Asian heroin no. 2. Not readily soluble in water,     and therefore not injectable in this form. This form of heroin can be smoked.     However, heroin base generally is considered an intermediate form of heroin     that may be further refined to either no. 3 or no. 4 heroin.
-  
- heroin hydrochloride
- A chemical salt form of heroin, usually powder or crystal, that is water     soluble and therefore suitable for injection. Sometimes called Southeast Asian     heroin no. 4. Formed when heroin base is treated with hydrochloric acid. This     type of heroin is most commonly used by heroin users who inject the drug.
-  
- heroin no. 3
- A smokeable form of Southeast Asian heroin. Not as highly refined as no.     4. Color ranges from purple to tan to off-white. Although considered a smoking     heroin, it may also be injected intravenously. Caffeine is a necessary component     of heroin no. 3. In contrast, strychnine or quinine are adulterants, which     are sometimes added to heroin no. 3, allegedly to modify the taste of the     product.
-  
- heroin no. 4
- An injectable form of Southeast Asian heroin. Also known as heroin hydrochloride     or China White. Highly refined heroin produced in Southeast Asia. Usually     a fine white powder, flakes, or crystals. May be smoked or snorted. Diluents,     such as lactose, are not normally added until the heroin is diluted (or “cut”     or “whacked”) for street sales.
-  
- highlander (Mainland Southeast Asia)
- A hill dweller. Hill tribesmen are a typical example of highlanders in Mainland     Southeast Asia. However, some hill tribesmen have migrated into the lowlands,     and are now permanent dwellers in lowland communities. Conversely, some members     of ethnic groups (such as Yunnanese Chinese , or “Haw”) who are     generally lowland dwellers have settled permanently in highland areas in Mainland     Southeast Asia.
-  
- hill tribe (Mainland Southeast Asia)
- Any one of numerous ethnic groups which share a distinct culture, language,     and social structure and who are regarded, as a group, to be hill dwellers     or  montagnards  (French). The Hmong (Miao), the Iu Mien (Yao), Lahu     (Musoe),  inter alia , are hill tribe groups in Mainland Southeast Asia.
-  
- hydrochloric acid
- A solution of hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) in water. Also known as muriatic     acid. Fumes in the air. A colorless liquid (sometimes yellow) with an acrid     odor. Acid is poisonous and corrosive. Shipped in glass bottles or glass carboys,     or rubber-lined steel drums. Used in petroleum production, as a chemical intermediate,     and in ore reduction, food processing, pickling, and metal cleaning. In illicit     heroin production, hydrochloric acid is used to convert morphine base to morphine     hydrochloride (e.g., “999” morphine blocks or bricks) or to convert     heroin base to heroin hydrochloride.
-  
- *jin*
- A metric unit of weight in Chinese system. Equivalent to ½ kilogram     (500 grams). Chinese term, romanized:  jin  (Pinyin) or  chin  (Wade-Giles     Mandarin). 
-  
- kilogram
- A metric unit of weight equal to 1,000 grams or 2.2046 pounds.
-  
- lactose
- Also known as milk sugar, saccharum lactis. Present in milk in mammals.     White, hard crystalline mass or white powder; sweet taste, odorless. Stable     in air. Soluble in water, insoluble in ether and chloroform; very slightly     soluble in alcohol. Used commercially in infant foods, baking and confectionery,     margarine and butter manufacture, etc. Shipped in multiwall paper sacks or     in bulk. Commonly used as a diluent (or extender) by heroin dealers to increase     bulk of injectable heroin (e.g., Southeast Asian heroin no. 4).
-  
- *lai*
- A standard unit of land area measurement in Laos, equivalent to 1,600 square     meters. Corresponds to  rai  measurement used in Thailand (see  below ).
-  
- lime, slaked
- Also known as calcium hydroxide, calcium hydrate, caustic lime, hydrated     lime. Crystals or soft, odorless, granules or powder, with a slightly bitter     taste. Slightly soluble in water. Readily absorbs carbon dixoide (CO 2 )     from air, forming calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ). Used in industry to     manufacture cement, pesticides, fertilizers, and in water treatment. Normally     packaged in tightly closed and dry containers, such as wooden barrels or multiwall     paper sacks. Used as a reagent in the extraction of morphine from opium by     forming an intermediate calcium salt (calcium morphenate).
-  
- liter
- A metric unit of volume. Equivalent to 1.056 liquid quarts. 
-  
- lowlander (Southeast Asia)
- A lowland dweller, in either a rural or urban community. The ethnic Lao     are a typical example of lowlanders in Southeast Asia. However, some Lao have     migrated into the highlands and are now permanent dwellers in highland communities.     Conversely, some members of ethnic groups who are generally highland dwellers     (e.g., the Hmong hill tribe) have moved permanently into lowland areas in     Laos and Thailand.
-  
- mannitol
- Also known as mannite, manna sugar. A white, crystalline, sweetish, water-soluble     carbohydrate alcohol. Used as a nutrient, a dietary supplement, and as the     basis of dietetic sweets. Mannitol is used commonly as a mild laxative for     infants. Shipped in multiwall paper sacks or bulk. Commonly used as a diluent     (or extender) by heroin dealers to increase bulk of “injectable heroin”     (e.g., Southeast Asian heroin no. 4).
-  
- morphine
- An organic compound (alkaloid) found in the  Papaver somniferum  (opium     poppy). Morphine must first be extracted from opium. The soluble salts of     morphine (morphine carbonate, morphine sulfate, morphine hydrochloride, etc.)     are used in human and veterinary medicine as a light anesthetic or as a sedative.
-  
- morphine base
- Morphine base is an intermediate product between morphine alkaloid in opium     and a morphine brick (morphine hydrochloride). The base is formed as a precipitate     (solid) when ammonium chloride is added to a solution of calcium morphenate.     This base is usually quite crude (50% to 70% pure) because of the marginal     conditions under which it is prepared. Morphine base is not easily soluble     in water, and thus is not readily absorbed by the human body. Morphine base     must therefore be converted to a (water-soluble) salt form, viz., morphine     hydrochloride or heroin hydrochloride, by treating it with hydrochloric acid.
-  
- morphine brick
- Morphine hydrochloride, ranging between 82 and 94 percent morphine content,     compressed (by a morphine press) into a standard-sized brick shape measuring     approximately 2 inches by 4 inches by 5 inches and weighing approximately     1.3 kilograms (about 3 pounds). Also known as a morphine block. Properly compressed     morphine hydrochloride is very dry and hard.
-  
- morphine press
- A metal or wood piece of equipment which can squeeze water from morphine     hydrochloride, leaving the morphine dry and in uniform, brick-sized blocks.
-  
- morphine salt
- A water-soluble chemical form of morphine. In extracting morphine from opium,     slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) powder is added to opium dissolved in water.     Lime reacts with morphine in opium (morphine content ranges from 9% to 16%     by weight of the opium) to form calcium morphenate in solution. Calcium morphenate     is a chemical salt form of morphine. Other morphine salts include morphine     sulfate, morphine hydrochloride, and morphine acetate—all legitimate     compounds used in medicine.
-  
- *nuai*
- A general nonspecific term in Thai-Lao-Shan which means “unit.”     However, has special meaning when used in reference to heroin. A  nuai      is a standard unit of weight for Southeast Asian heroin, equivalent to 700     grams (.7 kilograms) or 1.54 pounds.
-  
- opium
- A bitter, yellowish-brown, strongly-addictive naturally-occurring narcotic     derived from the dried latex juice of the opium poppy,  Papaver somniferum .     Source of morphine and heroin. Opium poppy is cultivated legally in India,     Turkey, China, Commonwealth of Independent States (formally the Soviet Union),     and Tasmania, Australia; and is cultivated illegally in Afghanistan, Burma,     Colombia, Guatemala, Iran, Laos, Lebanon, Mexico, Pakistan, and Thailand.
-  
-  opium, liquid
- Also known as opium solution. Refers to opium which has been dissolved in     water, either to prepare the opium for smoking, i.e., “cooking”     the opium, or as the first step in extracting morphine from the opium. Liquid     opium is usually a clear, dark brown liquid.
-  
-  opium, prepared
- Also known as cooked opium, processed opium, and smoking opium. Raw opium     is dissolved in hot water in order to remove impurities and vegetable matter.     It is heated to reduce its water content. As the solution cools, the opium     reverts to a solid. Most opium smokers prefer to smoke prepared opium. By     contrast, morphine and heroin laboratory operators can process both cooked     and raw opium. 
-  
- opium, raw 
- Also known as opium gum, crude opium, and opium sap. Opium which has not     been “cooked.” Often contains plant scraping, leaf pieces, and other     impurities. Initially, is soft and pliable due to high moisture content, but     may be dried to a hard consistency. Has strong odor. Weighs more than prepared     opium (contains more water). It is smoked or eaten by addicts.
-  
- *pi-tzu*
- A Chinese term used to refer to impure, or crude, morphine base. Romanized     spellings of the term include  pizi  (Pinyin) and  p’i-tzu      (Wade-Giles Mandarin).
-  
- pong
- A standard unit of weight used in Southeast Asia for opium only. Equivalent     to 0.375 kilograms (13.23 ounces). Thai-Shan-Lao term. 
-  
- poppy (opium poppy)
- An annual plant,  Papaver somniferum , having grayish-green leaves     and variously colored flowers. The sole source of opium.
-  
- poppy pod
- Sometimes called the seedpod, capsule, bulb, or head. Refers to the egg-sized     fruit which enlarges as the flower petals fall from the plant. The poppy pod     is the mature ovary of the opium poppy plant. The ovarian wall produces the     white latex (opium).
- poppy pod, scoring
- Cutting into the surface of an opium poppy pod, using a sharp bladed instrument,     in order to allow the opium to exude from the pod. Also known as lancing,     incising, or tapping.
-  
- poppy pod, scraping
- Using flat-bladed instrument to collect gummy opium from pod surface. The     instrument resembles a paint scraper.
-  
- poppy plants, weeding and thinning 
- Removing weeds, grasses, and some poppy plants in order to provide more     growing space for remaining poppies.
-  
- precipitation (chemical precipitation)
- The separation of a solid from a solution. The resulting solid is called     the precipitate.
-  
- precursor
- A precursor is a chemical that is the raw material for a new product. Morphine     is a precursor in the production of heroin.
-  
- processing (heroin processing)
- A general term that refers to the overall process of manufacturing heroin.     Includes the acetylation process, a number of intermediate purification and     precipitation processes, and the process of chemically converting heroin base     to a soluble salt form of heroin, generally heroin hydrochloride. Heroin processing     can also include the extraction of morphine from opium, and may include other     operations, such as filtering, drying, pressing, and packaging the finished     heroin product.
-  
- purification (chemical purification)
- The removal of extraneous materials (impurities) from a substance or a mixture     by one or more separation techniques. Such techniques include crystallization,     precipitation, distillation, adsorption, extraction, etc. For example, heroin     base is usually treated with decolorizing charcoal (a purification process)     after it is acetylated from morphine base.
-  
- *rai*
- A standard unit of land area measurement in Thailand equivalent to 1,600     square meters. Corresponds to  lai  measurement used in Laos (see  above ).      Rai  is also a general term in Thai-Lao-Shan for cultivated land (except     irrigated ricefields). Called  hai  in northern and northeastern Thailand.     Called  hai  in Laos only when used to refer to cultivated fields. 
-  
- reagent (chemical reagent)
- A reagent is a chemical which reacts with a precursor to form a new compound.     For example, acetic anhydride is a reagent used in the manufacture of heroin.
-  
- slash-and-burn agriculture
- Also known as “swidden” agriculture. Agricultural method of clearing     land for cultivation. Involves cutting down all the trees and underbrush on     a wooded hillside and, when it is thoroughly dried, burning it off in preparation     for planting. This type of shifting cultivation is used widely by highland     groups in Southeast Asia.
-  
- soda ash (sodium carbonate)
- Crude, anhydrous sodium carbonate. Also known as Solvay soda; washing soda;     soda. A white or transparent, odorless, crystalline powder with a salty, bitter     taste. Shipped in 25-pound, 50-pound, and 100-pound bags; 275-pound and 400-pound     drums; or bulk. An industrial chemical used in manufacturing sodium bicarbonate;     sodium nitrate; glass; ceramics; water softening agents; detergents; and soaps.     An alkaline material commonly used in the production of heroin base.
-  
- solvent (chemical solvent)
- A solvent does not react chemically with a precursor chemical or reagent     and does not become part of the finished product. Solvents are used to dissolve     solid precursors or reagents, to dilute reaction mixtures, and to separate     and purify other chemicals.
-  
- swidden agriculture
- An agricultural method. See slash-and-burn agriculture.
-  
- *tua*  See  *nuai* . 
-  
- unit
- Special meaning when used in reference to heroin. A “unit” is     a standard unit of weight for Southeast Asian heroin. Called  nuai  in     Thai and Lao;  chien  in Chinese. Equivalent to 700 grams (.7 kilogram)     or 1.54 pounds. Approximate dimensions: 5½ inches length, 4 inches     width, 2 inches depth. Derivation of use as standard not known.
-  
- **viss**
- A standard unit of weight used in southern India and Burma. Equivalent to     1.657 kilograms (3.652 pounds). Commonly used when weighing meat, flour, rice,     and other such bulk items. In Burma, the  viss  is also used in the opium     trade. Burmese term:  beittha . (The term  viss  is not used in     Thailand, Laos, or China.) Derived from Tamil term, visai. Also spelled  vise      (Telugu) and  vis . Often rounded to 1.6 kilograms or 3.6 pounds in modern     usage. 

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