SPECIAL FOREST PRODUCTS

Species Information Guide

for the Pacific Northwest

Nan C. Vance, Melissa Borsting, David Pilz, and

Jim Freed

United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest

Research Station

General Technical

Report

PNW-GTR-513

September 2001
Nan C. Vance is a principle plant physiologist, and David Pilz is a botanist, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331; Melissa

Borsting is a graduate student, College of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Box 352100, Seattle, WA 98195; and Jim Freed is an extension special

forest products specialist, Washington State University, PO Box 4703, Olympia,

WA 98504.

This publication reports research and management information involving mushroom and plant harvesting. It neither recommends the use and ingestion of mushrooms and plants nor implies that using wild plants and mushrooms is without

risks.

CAUTION: Mushroom and wild plant consumption can pose a serious, even fatal,

risk to humans. It is strongly recommended that you spend your first collecting

season using field identification guides and collecting with an expert if you intend to

collect wild plants or mushrooms to eat.

Authors

Disclaimer
Abstract Vance, Nan C.; Borsting, Melissa; Pilz, David; Freed, Jim. 2001. Special

forest products: species information guide for the Pacific Northwest. Gen.

Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-513. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 169 p.

This guide is a collection of information about economically important vascular

and nonvascular plants and fungi found in the Pacific Northwest that furnish

special forest products. Many of these plants and fungi are also found in

Alaska, northern Idaho, and western Montana. They contribute to many botanical, floral, woodcraft, and decorative industries and to the rapidly growing

medicinal, herbal, and natural foods industries. Internet commerce has made

these products available to consumers worldwide and expanded interest in

medicinal plants, decorative floral products, and edible wild fruits and mushrooms. This guide provides a consolidated information resource that briefly

describes biological, ecological attributes of over 60 plants and fungi, and their

wild harvest methods, alternatives to wild harvest, and uses. The harvest techniques described in the guide are based on the recommendations of experienced harvesters and experts who have worked with these botanical resources

and support sustainable practices. Information for this guide was gathered from

various documents and other sources. The technical areas of expertise consulted spanned a wide range of knowledge including plant biological and ecological sciences, ethnobotany, horticulture, mycology, and forest ecology.

Keywords: Special forest products, nontimber forest products, medicinal

plants, edible fungi, botanical industry, herbs, wildcraft, Pacific Northwest,

sustainable forestry.
Contents Introduction ............................................................................................... 1

How to Use This Guide ......................................................................... 2

General Harvest Guidelines .................................................................... 6

Harvesting Responsibilities ..................................................................... 7

Transplanting Tips.................................................................................. 9

Harvesting Mushrooms ........................................................................ 10

Methods .................................................................................................. 11

Explanation of Information Categories in This Guide .............................. 13

Plants....................................................................................................... 17

Abies procera....................................................................................... 17

Acer circinatum ................................................................................... 19

Achillea millefolium ............................................................................ 21

Anaphalis margaritacea ...................................................................... 23

Angelica spp. ....................................................................................... 25

Aralia californica ................................................................................ 27

Arctostaphylos spp. .............................................................................. 29

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi ....................................................................... 31

Arnica spp. .......................................................................................... 33

Artemisia douglasiana ........................................................................ 35

Asarum caudatum ................................................................................ 37

Berberis spp. ....................................................................................... 39

Bryophyta ............................................................................................ 43

Calocedrus decurrens .......................................................................... 45

Capsella bursa-pastoris ....................................................................... 47

Ceanothus spp. .................................................................................... 49

Chimaphila umbellata ......................................................................... 51

Coptis laciniata ................................................................................... 53

Crataegus spp. ..................................................................................... 55

Cupressus lawsoniana ......................................................................... 57

Cytisus scoparius ................................................................................ 59

Dipsacus spp. ...................................................................................... 61

Equisetum spp. .................................................................................... 63

Eriodictyon californicum .................................................................... 65

Frangula purshiana ............................................................................. 67

Gaultheria shallon ............................................................................... 69

Gentiana spp. ...................................................................................... 71

Gypsophila paniculata ........................................................................ 73

Hypericum perforatum ........................................................................ 75

Juniperus spp....................................................................................... 77

Ligusticum spp. ................................................................................... 81

Lomatium dissectum ............................................................................ 83
Oplopanax horridum ........................................................................... 85

Pachistima myrsinites ......................................................................... 87

Petasites frigidus var. palmatus .......................................................... 89

Polystichum munitum .......................................................................... 91

Prunella vulgaris ................................................................................. 93

Pteridium aquilinum var. pubescens ................................................... 95

Rosa spp. ............................................................................................. 97

Rubus idaeus ....................................................................................... 99

Rumex acetosella ............................................................................... 101

Rumex crispus.................................................................................... 103

Sambucus racemosa........................................................................... 105

Scutellaria spp. .................................................................................. 107

Taxus brevifolia ................................................................................. 109

Thuja plicata ......................................................................................111

Trillium ovatum ................................................................................. 113

Urtica dioica ..................................................................................... 115

Usnea spp. ......................................................................................... 117

Vaccinium spp. .................................................................................. 119

Valeriana spp. .................................................................................... 123

Verbascum thapsus............................................................................. 125

Xerophyllum tenax ............................................................................. 127

Fungi ..................................................................................................... 129

Boletus edulis .................................................................................... 129

Cantharellus spp. ............................................................................... 131

Leucangium carthusianum ................................................................ 133

Morchella spp. ................................................................................... 135

Tricholoma magnivelare .................................................................... 137

Tuber gibbosum ................................................................................. 139

Acknowledgments ................................................................................. 141

Illustration Credits ................................................................................. 141

Conversion Table .................................................................................. 142

References ............................................................................................. 143

Appendix 1: List of Species Not Described inText ............................... 156

Appendix 2: Common and Scientific Names ......................................... 159

Abundant biotic resources of North American forests have provided not only

recreational and personal collecting opportunities but also profitability in products that come from various plants, lichens, fungi, algae, and micro-organisms.

These special forest products are the basis of many botanical, floral, woodcraft, and decorative industries; they also contribute significantly to the rapidly

growing medicinal, herbal, and natural foods industries (Schlosser et al. 1992,

Schlosser and Blatner 1994, Vance and Thomas 1997).

Species harvested from forests for other than timber commodities have been

referred to variously as special forest products, nontimber forest products,

nonwood products, botanical products, and secondary forest products. They

refer to the same group of species—plants, lichens, fungi, and other organisms—collected from the forest for various uses including subsistence, education, research, recreation, and commercial enterprise. The process of collecting

from the wild is termed wildcrafting and is generally a term applied to collecting material from the wild to sell or trade. Native Americans regarded the use

and often the maintenance of the many species found in forests and prairies as

a fundamental part of their world and life, and would take exception to the

concept that they are “special.” It is important therefore to acknowledge that

the species we are discovering to be beneficial today were already intimately

known by people who lived on this continent and who collected and used these

fungi and plants for thousands of years.

Interest in special forest products has increased along with demand for herbal

medicines, decorative floral products, and edible wild fruits and mushrooms.

This increasing interest in the use of many of the wild botanical resources in

the Pacific Northwest accompanies a corresponding increase in questions

about how to determine what species are used for which purpose and how

are these species properly collected. At the same time, the forested and

nonforested habitats where many of these species normally thrive may be

altered by land management practices such as clearcutting and wildfire suppression, catastrophic wildfires, and other environmental disturbances. Species

such as beargrass, salal, and several medicinal plant species have been so

heavily harvested that the quality of the product may have changed. Species

growth and reproductive capacity may be affected as well as genetic and population structure. With few exceptions, these species have been harvested without inventories or monitoring, and without addressing sustainability or

conservation of the resources or their habitats.

How do all these pieces fit together? As people collect plants and fungi for

commercial products, how do they ensure that these species are not overexploited, that their habitats and environments are not being damaged, and that

Introduction

1
they are not adversely influencing important ecological functions such as critical

interactions with insect and animal pollinators, other mutualisms, and the provision

of food and habitat for wildlife. Many of the species being collected in commercial

quantities have not been thoroughly studied, yet there is considerable information

in the literature and among practitioners that collectively is informative and educational. This guide is a compilation of the information we found to date about selected species in the Pacific Northwest. It is incomplete because new information is

continually being generated. We have focused on that information most relevant

and useful to sustainable management and conservation of these valuable biological

resources growing in the wild.

Based on the information compiled for this publication, we list in table 1 the vascular plants covered in this guide noting species that are exotic, species that can be

cultivated, and species deemed vulnerable because the plant and or its habitat

may be jeoparized by harvest. Of the 76 vascular plant species, 59 species or

about 78 percent are available commercially as plant or seed; 10 species or about

13 percent are exotic weeds. About 32 percent are considered vulnerable based

direct and indirect effects of harvest. The nonvascular byrobphyes (mosses and

liverworts) and the lichen Usnea are not cultivated and are also considered vulnerable. Harvest pressure on these byrophytes continues while similar species in other

parts of the world are disappearing or threatened by habitat loss, environmental

pollution, and overharvest.

Although this guide is a collection of information about economically important

plants and fungi species found primarily in the Pacific Northwest, many of these

species also are found in Alaska, northern Idaho, and western Montana. The species lists were developed with the input of local harvesters, botanists, land managers, and researchers. This is not a comprehensive list of all plants with medicinal,

edible, or decorative uses. It is a compilation of species that commonly are harvested for commercial purposes and found on Forest Service lands. Many of these

species were and are important to indigenous people, and many tribes today have

first rights to collect and use these species. We hope the user of this guide will be

sensitive to tribal and treaty rights and the feelings of others who care about these

species.

How to Use This Guide

This guide primarily provides information that describes the biological and ecological attributes of each species. The guide is comprehensive but not detailed. It summarizes information while referring the reader to sources that have more specific

information. For those interested in harvesting these plants and fungi, this guide

includes useful information about low-impact harvest techniques. We also intend

for the information to be used to increase awareness of the importance of ethical

2
3

Table 1—List of vascular plants indicating those species that are exotic, commercially

available (CA) seed or plants (native species), and native plants that are vulnerable or

have vulnerable habitats if harvested

Seed or plant

Botanical name Common name Exotic CA Vulnerable

Abies procera Noble fir X

Acer circinatum Vine maple X

Achillea millefolium Common yarrow X

Anaphalis margaritacea Pearly everlasting X

Angelica genuflexa Kneeling angelica X

A. arguta Lyall’s angelica X

Aralia californica Spikenard X X

Arctostaphylos columbiana Hairy manzanita X

A. nevadensis Pinemat manzanita X

A. patula Greenleaf manzanita X

A. viscida White-leaved manzanita X

A. uva-ursi Kinnikinnick X

Arnica cordifolia Heart-leaved arnica X

A. latifolia Broadleaf arnica X

Artemisia douglasiana Mugwort X

Asarum caudatum Wild ginger X X

Berberis aquifolium Tall Oregon grape X

B. nervosa Dwarf Oregon grape X

Calocedrus decurrens Incense-cedar X

Capsella bursa-pastoris Shepherd’s purse X

Ceanothus velutinus Snowbrush ceanothus X

C. sanguineus Redstem ceanothus X

Chimaphila umbellata Pipsissewa X X

Coptis laciniata Oregon goldthread X X

C. trifolia Threeleaf goldthread X

C. occidentalis Western goldthread X

Crataegus douglasii Black hawthorn X

C. monogyna Oneseed hawthorn X X

C. suksdorfii Suksdorfi’s hawthorn X

Cupressus lawsoniana Port-Orford-cedar X X

Cytisus scoparius Scotch broom X

Dipsacus fullonum Common teasel X

D. sylvestris Wild teasel X

Equisetum arvense Common horsetail X

E. hyemale Scouring-rush X

Eriodictyon californicum Yerba santa X

Frangula purshiana Buckthorn X

Gaultheria shallon Salal X

Gentiana sceptrum King’s gentian X X
G. calycosa Mountain bog X X

Gypsophila paniculata Baby’s breath X

Hypericum perforatum St. John’s wort X

Juniperus occidentalis Western juniper X

J. scopulorum Rocky Mountain juniper X

Ligusticum apiifolium Celeryleaf lovage X

L. canbyi Canby’s lovage X

L. grayi Gray’s lovage X

Lomatium dissectum Desert parsley X X

Oplopanax horridum Devil’s club X X

Pachistima myrsinites False box X

Petasites frigidus v. palmatus Coltsfoot X

Polystichum munitum Western sword fern X

Prunella vulgaris Selfheal X

Pteridium aquilinum Bracken fern X

Rosa gymnocarpa Dwarf rose X

R. nutkana Nootka rose X

Rubus idaeus Red raspberry X

Rumex acetosella Sheep sorrel X

R. crispus Curly dock X

Sambucus racemosa ssp. pubens Red elderberry X

S. cerulea Blue elderberry X

Scutellaria lateriflora Blue skullcap X X

S. galericulata Marsh skullcap X

S. nana Dwarf skullcap X

Taxus brevifolia Pacific yew X

Thuja plicata Western redcedar X

Trillium ovatum Western trillium X X

Urtica dioica Stinging nettle X

Vaccinium membranaceum Black huckleberry X

V. deliciosum Cascade bilberry X

V. ovatum Evergreen huckleberry X

Valeriana sitchensis Sitka valerian X X

V. occidentalis Western valerian X X

V. scouleri Scouler’s valerian X X

Verbascum thapsus Mullein X X

Xerophyllum tenax Beargrass X X

Table 1—List of vascular plants indicating those species that are exotic, commercially

available (CA) seed or plants (native species), and native plants that are vulnerable or

have vulnerable habitats if harvested (continued)

Seed or plant

Botanical name Common name Exotic CA Vulnerable

4
and ecologically sensitive collection and use of these species. For example, it is

important to be certain of the exact botanical identity of the plant or fungus

being harvested. There are species look-alikes that are federally or state listed

as sensitive, threatened, or endangered; other look-alikes are poisonous or

toxic. Some species are exotic and invasive. It is important not to spread these

invasive or exotic species because of carelessness in harvest and transport.

Land managers who make decisions about how to structure permits or management plans, who are responsible for sensitive plants, or who determine

harvest impacts also may find this information useful. It is also useful for harvesters who simply want to learn more about the species they are working

with. There are also gaps in information revealing where further knowledge

may be needed. This guide is intended to increase awareness of the use of

many plants and fungi and of their importance to people and the ecosystem.

It is also intended to increase knowledge of techniques, whether cultivation

or careful harvest, that will promote sustainability and conservation of species,

plant and fungal communities, and habitats.

The harvest techniques described in this guide are those recommended by local

harvesters who have worked with the plants for years developing techniques

that promote sustainable harvest. These techniques have not been, for the most

part, field tested, monitored, or scientifically evaluated. Most of these harvest

recommendations are locally specific. Changes in climate or the environment can result in different reactions from species being harvested. Therefore, always consider the environment when collecting. For example, many

species grow in road cuts and fills. Before harvesting a species on a steep

slope, consider the consequences of that action to slope stability and erosion.

Before collecting along roadsides in particular, the application of herbicides or

pesticides should be determined. Consider any potential for adverse impacts on

both the species and the land. Note that for species growing on public lands,

transplanting is permitted for a limited number of species and not on all forests.

Transplanting is total removal of a plant with disturbance of soil and forest

floor. It is usually permitted only in areas where destruction of vegetation and

soil disturbance have to occur owing to such activity as increasing or maintaining power lines or road rights-of-way.

For many species, it is difficult to locate patches in the wild that are large

enough to harvest without impact and still collect enough to be economical.

Many are suitable for cultivation, but for some species, successful propagation

still eludes growers. Cultivation for commercial markets is not developed for

many species, so they tend to be collected only in the wild. In some cases, a

price difference exists between wildcrafted and cultivated species, but this is

more the exception rather than the rule. In fact, many cultivated species can be

5
certified organic, which increases their value, although as yet there is not a formal

process to certify wildcrafted species. For many species in this guide, cultivation is

a recommended alternative to wild harvest. For more detailed information on cultivation of the native plant species listed in this guide, we have referenced, for example, the journal Hortus West (1998), the publications “Seeds of Woody Plants

in the United States” (USDA Forest Service 1974), “Propagation of Pacific Northwest Plants” (Rose et al. 1998), “Collecting, Processing and Germinating Seeds of

Wildland Plants” (Young and Young 1986), and the web site http://gardenbed.com.

Over the timespan of preparing this guide, web-based information has increased

exponentially. We encourage using the Internet to find additional information but

caution that reliability of sources should be checked.

The publication is just a guide. The collector should make personal observations

about the effects of any harvest and note any significant changes in populations or

habitats across the landscape.

General Harvest Guidelines

Know the species that is to be collected.

Be sure of its identification before harvesting a plant or mushroom. Many plants

look similar but do not necessarily have the same properties. There are species in

the same genus that look similar to the more common species but may be rare, at

risk, or federally or state listed as threatened or endangered. Another reason for

careful identification is that certain plants and fungi have poisonous look-alikes!

If you are uncertain, take a small sample and consult a qualified botanist. You may

find one at most colleges and universities, or you can call your forest or agriculture

extension agent who will know where to refer you. Native plant societies have local

chapters and provide excellent opportunities to identify plants and fungi, and discover and learn the local flora as well.

Know the end use.

If collecting plants to sell, you should first contact the buyer and a discuss what

criteria and quality standards are to be met. Many buyers will only take products

that have been collected, dried, or processed in a certain way. Many plants are

sensitive enough that just a few days or even hours of improper handling can result

in unusable products. Know how to handle collected material properly and use

proper storage facilities or materials.

6
Pay attention to the environmental conditions.

Avoid harvesting during extreme conditions. After heavy rain, the soil will be

more prone to compaction or slippage. When harvesting plants that grow in

riparian areas, avoid taking plants that are critical to maintaining the integrity of

the streambanks. When it is particularly dry, some plants may become stressed.

Harvesting parts of a plant at this time may add to stress and negatively impact

regeneration. In addition, be aware of plants or plant parts that are diseased or

infested with insects so as not to spread contamination.

Learn about the life cycle of the plant you are harvesting.

Plants need to be able to reproduce or regenerate to continue to exist. For example, if you are collecting roots and the plant reproduces by seed, is it possible

to collect in fall after the seeds have dropped? This type of awareness will help

assure there are plants in the area to harvest again next year.

7

Harvesting Responsibilities

Wildcrafter training and responsibilities:

• Have in-field instruction on how to identify, harvest, and handle plant material properly

including quality control, sustainable harvest guidelines, bagging, bundling, tagging,

storing, and transporting.

• Know land and landowner regulations including use permit requirements with location,

harvest dates, full name of harvester, and owner’s signature; land use ethics.

Collector responsibilities:

• Train and supervise wildcrafters.

• Weigh, tag, and document harvested plant material including location.

• Transport plant material to processor.

• Communicate regularly with landowner and assure permit compliance.

Processor responsibilities:

• Train and supervise collector.

• Receive plant material and harvest documentation from collector.

• Inspect and process product. Bag tags identify each wildcrafter’s product.

• Communicate with landowner and be involved in use permit process.
Monitor and observe a patch over time.

Notice what impact your harvest is having. Take notes with map locations so you

know how to return to the same area. Evaluate harvest recommendations for your

area. Surprisingly, some plants may actually increase if harvested in the right quantities and if the right techniques are used.

Always secure permission to harvest on anyone’s land.

This applies to public land as well as private. In Oregon, a permit is required to

carry commercial quantities of product in your vehicle. This can a handwritten

permit from a private landowner. Other states in the Pacific Northwest have or are

now enacting similar laws. Know the requirements set forth in these laws. Public

lands also require permits for harvesting. Some public lands are off-limits to harvesting (such as national parks and many special management areas on national

forest lands). Presently, public land managers will sell permits for many of the species listed in this guide. They often want to know generally where harvesting is

occurring so that they can track areas of heavy use in order to balance impact

across the landscape. Personal-use permits are available for noncommercial harvest. Even if you do not like the current permit systems, getting involved with them

is the best way to have input into future changes.

Use harvest techniques that minimize disturbance.

This means using the right tools and using them correctly. If you are collecting

leaves and stems, gently clip them off of the plant. Do not simply break them off

or pull them out of the ground, as you tend to get more of the plant than you can

use. Also, breaking stems may produce more extensive injury and create sites for

pathogens. With roots, dig gently with a small shovel, trowel, or your hands (depending on the conditions). Avoid disturbing surrounding vegetation. Fill in any

holes you make after you finish collecting. Take out litter and trash with you.

Sustainable harvest does not come with a formula.

There are no bottom line numbers that work for each species. Think of the species

in context, as part of the ecosystem. For some species, ecological function or importance has already been documented and is described in this guide. Many species, however, have not been thoroughly researched. Draw conclusions about the

sensitivity of a patch by using observation and the information contained here.

Harvest conservatively. Then watch the results. Over the next few seasons, observe what impact harvesting had on the species collected as well its surroundings.

8
Transplanting Tips

The following transplanting tips have been adapted from the brochure “Collecting Native Plants Permit Conditions and Transplanting Tips” (Johnson

and Warner 1997).

• Be sure you have written permission first from the landowner or land

manager.

• Important! Know where your transplants will be located in your yard

before finding them. Select plants growing in conditions that match

where they will be planted; e.g., sun exposure, moisture, soil drainage,

frost, etc.

• Reduce transplant shock by collecting plants between October and May,

when soils are moist and plants are not actively growing. The best days

for transplanting are cool-overcast days.

• Avoid collecting on steep slopes to prevent soil erosion.

• Dig plants carefully, retaining as much soil around the roots as possible.

Keep roots moist at all times. Wrap wet newspapers or burlap around the

outside of the root ball.

• Completely cover your plants when carried in the back of an open truck.

The air movement will rapidly dry the foliage and roots, which severely

stresses the plants, possibly causing them to die. Roots must be kept

covered and moist at all times as they die rapidly when exposed to air.

• Replant your newly collected plants as soon as possible. Until then, keep

them cool, shaded, and slightly moist.

• Trees take 1 to 2 years to reestablish themselves in your landscape.

Supplemental watering is advised during this period. Keep shrubs,

grasses, and herbs watered until they are actively growing. During dry

summer months, water every 1 to 3 weeks (depending on species).

• Even with the greatest care, the establishment rate of transplanted herbs

can be low. We encourage you to propagate herbs with seeds or cuttings,

or obtain from a nursery.

9
10

The commercial value of the special forest products industry to the Pacific

Northwest has been reported in excess of $190 million (Schlosser and Blatner

1992). It is estimated that the value of the personal-use sector exceeds the

commercial value by 3 to 1. Today, as in the past, a major value of special

forest products from native plants and fungi of the Pacific Northwest is their

use by the ordinary person. Over 85,000 people enter the public forest each

year to collect plant material and mushrooms for their own personal use. Also

65 percent of 90,000 nonindustrial private forest land owners stated that a

primary reason for owning forest property was for other products besides

timber. These products represent the full range of commercial, educational,

environmental, and aesthetic uses for the owners, their families, friends, and

others. Protecting plants and fungi helps maintain forest complexity and is an

inclusive activity not only for ecosystem and species diversity but also for

engaging people who represent all of the values for which public forest lands

are managed.

Harvesting Mushrooms

The following harvest guidelines are adapted from the brochure “Mushroom

Picking—What Makes a Good Harvest?” (USDA Forest Service 1995).

Know where mushrooms grow.

Forest ecosystems provide diverse plant, animal, and fungal species. Unlike

green plants, fungi cannot use sunlight to make food but use other living organisms or dead organic matter for food and moisture. Mushrooms can be found

in different forest and nonforest environments. They commonly are found in

leaf litter or other plant organic material, and near trees in deciduous and coniferous woodlands as well as in nonforest lands. When locating mushrooms for

harvest, disturb the ground as little as possible as many grow during the rainy

season when the ground is soft.

Know the mushroom.

Know the mushroom before picking it! Remember, not all mushrooms are

edible, and some are poisonous. There are many guidebooks available at bookstores, local libraries, and county extension offices to assist with mushroom

identification. Picking mushrooms and identifying them later may result in

contamination and throwing out mushrooms that could do more good left on

site.
11

Take care of mushroom habitat.

Improper techniques, such as raking, can damage mushrooms by breaking caps

and stems. It also can damage mushroom habitat. Remember areas that are

disturbed because of picking should be carefully restored. This protects the

underground portions of the fungi, which produce the mushrooms. Mushrooms

will return almost every year if they are harvested carefully—and the weather

cooperates.

Know good harvesting techniques.

Depending on the type of mushroom, there are three methods a picker should

use to minimize resource damage during harvest:

• Grasp the mushroom at its base and gently rock and twist until it comes

loose.

• Use a sharp knife to cut the mushroom off at ground level.

• Insert a narrow object like a stick or knife under the base while prying

straight up and out of the ground. This method “pops” the mushroom out

without disturbing the surrounding area or damaging the mushroom.

Mushrooms damaged by improper harvesting or storage have little or no commercial value.

This information guide was developed in multiple stages. First, a selection

process was developed for including species in the document. Second, information categories were defined and refined. Third, information was collected

and carefully documented for each of the species. Finally, the document was

reviewed for completeness and content accuracy.

The species list for this guide was compiled first from permit lists obtained

from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service and U.S.

Department of the Interior (USDI), Bureau of Land Management. These lists

provided the names of species for which permits were obtained in the USDA

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. Additional species were added based

on recommendations from harvesters and business owners who knew that

other products were being collected. As other species were suggested, researchers determined what quantities were being removed and if the species

were commercially important enough to be included on the list.

A draft category list was completed in 1996. The original categories included

description, ecology, uses, and harvest suggestions. Throughout the data-collection process, these categories were reworked. For example, as more information became available on the cultivation of medicinal plants, a section on

Methods
12

propagation of the species was included. The section addressing markets was reduced in detail; it became clear that information would be difficult to keep current

with market and price information proliferating and becoming more fluid.

Drafts of a prototype were presented at workshops and conferences, which allowed an opportunity to refine the format. Feedback was solicited that provided

key areas on which to focus the work. Suggestions were made about how a category could be made more useful. As the document was tailored to fit the needs of

the users, additional categories were added and modified when necessary. For

example, land managers repeatedly mentioned that the literature would say that

nothing was known about many species. Thus, as data were collected, references

were listed, thereby allowing end users to followup with their own research as

needed. Our goal here was to summarize what information exists while providing

extensive references for accessing details on each species.

This feedback also helped streamline the categories that were included in the document. The result was an emphasis on the resource rather than products. People

wanted to know about the species, its ecological attributes and harvest concerns

rather than just focusing on its economic attributes. We have accompanied each

species or taxon with a botanical illustration, most of which for plant species are

from Hitchcock et al. (1969).

Information for this guide was gathered from documents that cover various sciences including ecology, ethnobotany, horticulture, and mycology. Other sources

were found on the Internet, a growing source of information. Because information

on the Internet often is updated more frequently than publications, web-based

information was consulted as recently as possible before this document went to

press. Important sources of unpublished information were provided by people with

experience or knowledge in harvesting these species or in processing their products.

They have been added as personal contacts and their credentials confirmed by

peers in their field. Information also was referenced against several lists including

threatened and endangered species lists, regional sensitive plant species lists, United

Plant Savers, and lists of seeds available in cultivation. All citations, including the

web sites, were cross checked for accuracy.

As information was collected, decisions had to be made about how to treat special

cases. We acknowledge that “moss” harvest includes many liverwort and moss

genera. We grouped them under the name “Bryophyta” and provided general information as applicable. Harvesters are not selective about which species of moss they

bring in because the market is concerned about the look of the moss, not the species. For genera such as Rosa and Juniperus, several species within the genus are

collected for the same purposes. We identified the most prominent, but other species within the genus also may be used. Where information was identical among

species, we did not provide species-specific information. Wherever possible when

we found species-specific information, we included it.
This guide was reviewed by scientists, managers, and special forest products

business people at various stages. Several reviewers were asked to review

those species with which they work most closely or have the most familiarity.

Identification

Botanical name: Binomial nomenclature is used (genus and species name in

Latin) followed by the accepted abbreviation of the person recognized as first

naming the species. The nomenclature used is primarily from the National

Plants Data Center (NPDC). Note exception with “mosses,” which are harvested bryophytes. Bryophyta is a taxonomic division.

Name: Most common name for the species, or for coverage of multiple species

under a single genus, the genus name, additional common names used in the

region for the species.

Family: The family name for each species. Nomenclature follows NPDC.

Plants code: Code established by the NPDC. Composed of the first two letters

of the genus and first two letters of the species. A number is added if there is

more than one species with the same first two letters.

Species names: Botanical, common names, and plants code where only genus

is listed. For those species covered together under the generic name, differences relating to an individual species are identified; otherwise a generic description is used.

Ecology

This section covers ecology that is most relevant to sustainable management

and conservation of the species.

Description: First, nativity to the United States is identified followed by a

botanical description of the species including size, shape, and color of leaves,

flowers, and fruits. Most species identified as exotics were introduced in the

United States for garden plants or for some other purpose.

Range and distribution: A generalized description of the range of the species

is given. Distribution includes geographic information and in general how the

species occurs; e.g., widely distributed but infrequent.

Associations: In most cases, we have included primary and dominant tree

associates, representative for the region. For any particular area, tree series and

plant associations can be found in national forest plant association guides within

13

Explanation of

Information

Categories in

This Guide
14

the Pacific Northwest in addition to material we have referenced. We did not include most zones, series, or associations but tried to include representative associated plants from most common habitats. For nonforest, weedy, or roadside species,

we suggest several types of plants that commonly would be associated with these

species.

Habitat: General descriptions of the types of environmental conditions in which

the species grow. If possible, this included general physiographic information, moisture, and temperature.

Successional stage: An indicator of the vegetative structure type where the species

is typically found, based on ecological theories of succession. For example, earlysuccessional stage refers to recently disturbed areas and open conditions, whereas

later successional stage refers to stages of development where the overstory tree

structure has developed relatively disturbance free, and in nonforest communities,

where the plant community structure is stable over time. It also refers to the response of a species to disturbance and its shade tolerance.

Ecological relations: Interactions between the species and other plants, animals,

the soil, or other components of the ecosystem are listed including pollinator-related information, if found. Also included are fire ecological relations, if known. In

some cases where information was not found for a specific species, inferences are

made based on associated plants. Far more ecological information exists than we

have found or included. The wide body of literature precludes our providing an

exhaustive list.

Biology

This section includes information on reproductive biology, applied seed biology,

and information related to propagation and cultivation of the species.

Flowering and fruiting: Includes the months or seasons that the species typically

flowers and descriptions of plant or fruit when fruit and seed are mature.

Seed: Includes seed dispersal and natural germination requirements where found,

as well as general germination requirements for artificial seed propagation. Most

seeds are stored dried, and noted if stored otherwise. For many species, there is

much literature on seed management; therefore, we provided key references rather

than details.

Vegetative reproduction: Regeneration in the wild vegetatively by layering,

coppicing, or by rhizomes; or in cultivation, species that can be vegetatively propagated, for example, by rooted cuttings.
15

Cultivation: Species that have been cultivated, or evidence that they can be

cultivated. In addition we denote as “commercially available” those species for

which seed and plants can be obtained from commercial nurseries based on

plants listed in the “Plant and Seed Directory” (Hortus West 1998.)

Transplant viability: Suitability for transplanting based on using good transplant techniques (see “Transplanting Tips”).

Collection

Information and recommendations were compiled from local harvesters who

emphasize long-term use of the resource, as well as from publications.

Part harvested: The part of plant or fungus that is harvested depending

on use.

Harvest techniques: Generally accepted ways to collect fungi, plant, or plant

parts.

Harvest season: Season in which fungi, plant, and plant parts typically are

harvested.

Regeneration after harvest: Describes how the species reacts to harvest.

Harvest of branch tips may stimulate secondary branch growth and increased

sprouting. Rhizomatous plants generally have better regenerative potential to

limited harvest of belowground tissue. Fungi may regenerate sporocarps after

harvest but take a full reproductive cycle.

Uses and Products

Lists of most common uses, products, and markets for which species are

collected.

Common uses: The primary uses for which the species are collected. This

includes personal medicinal, craft, and other uses as well as various commercial uses. In this category, there often are more individual uses than we have

listed.

Indigenous uses: A general list of various uses by native peoples of the Pacific

Northwest. Most likely, there are more specific uses of these species by Native

Americans than we have documented here.

Common products: Most common products and representative types of the

products distributed and sold in wholesale and retail markets. Many botanical

plant products are sold wholesale as bulk dried and cut or sifted. We usually
16

describe the common retail product; however, the diversification of products

has increased so rapidly that there are often many more types of products than

we list.

Types of markets: Categories of general markets. Extent of the market for the

commercial products where known; i.e., local, regional, national, or international. If local, regional, and national, we indicate those collectively as “domestic.” From its inception to when this guide was published, the markets have

expanded. Because of Internet commerce, many products find international

buyers; small local companies are able to reach consumers worldwide, so the

distinction between domestic and international has blurred. Some terms are

overlapping such as medicinal, herbal, nutraceutical, or dietary supplement. In

addition, the commercial enterprises we list, e.g., nursery, landscape, and horticultural, overlap.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Comments that may be important to the user or harvester, and additional information of interest or importance to conservation, sustainable harvest, or management have been placed in this section. We note other species in the same

genus as the harvested plants that are federally and state listed. We have included web sites where information on state listing can be obtained (see

“References”).

Referenced Material

All referenced material used for each species is listed alphabetically by name

and date. The full citation can be found under “References.” This section also

includes several publications and web sites of general interest or value to the

reader but not cited with any particular species.

Continued
Plants

17

Abies procera Rehder

Noble fir

Pinaceae

ABPR

Ecology

Description: Native. Evergreen coniferous tree, to

80 m tall; symmetrical; bark smooth on younger trees,

breaking up into plates with age; needles roughly foursided, 2-3 cm long, and bluish green; two rows of stomata below and one to two rows on top of needle surface, fine, white striped; pollen cones reddish; seed

cones large (10-15 cm long), erect; scales concealed by

bracts. Largest trees of the genus Abies.

Range and distribution: Cascade Range from Oregon

to British Columbia, about 900-1700 m. In Klamath

Mountains of northern California. Scattered populations

in Oregon and Washington Coast Range. Can occur in

pure stands or mixed with other conifers.

Associations: Primarily Pacific silver fir zone. Douglasfir, Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, mountain hemlock, western white pine, and lodgepole pine; huckleberry, various currants, beargrass, avalanche fawn-lily,

queencup beadlily, and inside-out flower.

Habitat: Higher elevation mixed-conifer to subalpine

forests; sheltered sites with moraine soil and hilly terrain. Can grow on a wide range of soils if moisture not

limiting. Grows best on sites characterized by rich herbaceous understories.

Successional stage: Early-successional or pioneer species. Early colonizer after stand-replacing fires. Shade

intolerant.

Ecological relations: Insects commonly prey on seeds

and cones. Black bears (Ursus americanus Pallas)

occasionally strip bark from trunks. The bark of young

noble fir is relatively thin; fire resistance of larger, thicker barked trees is low to moderate.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Monoecious, outcrosser and

hybridizes with other Abies species. Flowers from early

May to early June. Pollen dispersal occurs in early

June, and seed dispersal in late September to early

October.

Seed: Trees begin producing cones after 20 years old.

Seed quality is typically poor, with an average as low as

10 percent viable seeds. Seed quality is correlated with

cone crops, which must be medium size before sound

seed exceed 10 percent. Seed must be stratified and can

be stored for several years under proper conditions.

May regenerate after burns, but regeneration success is

variable.

Vegetative reproduction: Not known to reproduce

vegetatively.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available. Stratified seed should be sown

from February through March. Germination may take

several weeks; growth is best in shady, cool, and somewhat moist conditions. Initial growth is slow; stock

usually outplanted as 2- to 3-year-old seedlings or

3- to 4-year-old transplants.

Transplant viability: Fairly successful for seedlings

and small saplings. Has been successfully transplanted

from the wild for landscaping.

Abies procera
Plants

18

Collection

Part harvested: Branches, boughs, and cones. Entire

tree can be harvested for timber or Christmas trees.

Overstocked trees can be harvested when less than 3 m

tall for landscape industry.

Harvest techniques: Branches selected from trees

generally less than 18 m tall for blue-green to dark green

color, desirable form, symmetry, and needle curl. Standing on the ground, the harvester cuts the boughs with

strong clippers or pole pruners generally leaving lateral

branches closest to main bole. The boughs selected are

free of disease, insects, dirt, and broken or damaged

needles. All needles should be dark green and firmly

attached. Branches are kept cool during transport and

storage to prevent desiccation. Branches higher on the

bole are generally of better quality, have needles of

better color, and are curved and have less damage. Tree

branches can be reclipped after several years when

lateral branches have grown sufficiently to produce a

harvestable bough. Cones should be collected before

they open as they disintegrate quickly.

Harvest season: Fall to winter, ideally when autumn

precipitation and cooler temperatures are occurring.

Christmas greens are purchased from the second week

of September through the first week of December by

the largest buyers. Boughs are harvested after foliage

has hardened off. This usually follows a hard frost in

September.

Regeneration after harvest: Uncut lateral branches are

stimulated to grow after harvest of branch terminal in

younger trees and can be reharvested after several

years. Shaded branches lower on the bole have poorer

regeneration capacity.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Floral. Christmas trees, decorative

boughs; wood is valued for specialty products because

of its high strength-to-weight ratio. Also used for ornamental planting and landscaping.

Indigenous uses: Bark of fir trees used to tan leather.

Paiute used dried foliage as cold remedy and decoction

of leaves for cough medicine.

Common products: Branches: Christmas decorations,

wreathes, and decorative greens; tree: specialty wood,

plywood, and Christmas trees.

Types of markets: Christmas greens and trees, floral

crafts, landscaping, and timber. Domestic and international markets for Christmas trees, finished holiday

greenery products, bulk holiday greenery, floral, and

crafts. Domestic markets for landscaping and specialty

lumber.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Intergrades with Shasta red fir. Noble fir was introduced

into Denmark in the mid 19th century and is now common throughout the country. Boughs are harvested

commercially for decorative uses in Scandinavian countries. Noble fir young enough for bough harvest has

been reported to be decreasing in wild stands.

References

Burns and Honkala (1990), Cope (1993), Danish Forest

Sales Catalogue (n.d.), Franklin (1974), Hickman

(1993), Hortus West (1998), Moerman (1998a), Pojar

and MacKinnon (1994), USDA Forest Service (1963),

Young and Young (1992)
Plants

19

Acer circinatum Pursh

Vine maple

Aceraceae

ACCI

Ecology

Description: Native. Shrub or small tree, to 7 m,

sprawling branches often rooting and forming new

colonies; assumes erect, treelike form in clearings; diameter to 20 cm; bark gray or brown, smooth or finely

fissured; stems pale green, becoming dull brown; leaves,

opposite, deciduous, palmately lobed, 5-12 cm across,

3-6 cm long, seven to nine lobes, toothed, and hairy;

dense inflorescence, 4 to 10 flowers, purple sepals,

white petals, 6-9 mm broad, in clusters at end of shoots;

winged fruits (samaras), 2-4 cm green, becoming reddish brown, widely spreading. Autumn leaves vary from

yellow (in the shade) to shades of red (in open sun).

Range and distribution: Alaska to northern California,

coast to the east side of the Cascade Range; low to

middle elevations (1500 m). May form dense stands

when growing in the shade.

Associations: Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, Sitka

spruce zones. Douglas-fir, grand fir, western hazel,

dwarf Oregon grape, salal, trailing blackberry, western

sword fern, and twinflower.

Habitat: Shaded streambanks; moist to wet welldrained sites; generally under other trees but sometimes

in forest openings, open ridges, or talus slopes. In the

transition zone between wetland and upland where soils

are moist but not saturated for long periods.

Successional stage: From early- through late-successional stages, most frequent in mid-successional forests.

Moderately shade tolerant; grows in canopy gaps.

Ecological relations: Wildlife value high. Browse for

Acer circinatum

elk and deer; seeds, buds, and flowers food for birds

and small mammals; abundant pollen and nectar high in

sugar content important to bees; nest material; cover;

bank stabilization; buffer from wetland intrusion. Well

adapted to fire; sprouts from the root crown after disturbance.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from April through

June, fruits (samaras) ripen from September through

October, and dispersed through November.
Plants

20

Seed: Poor seed producer, small quantities produced

annually; dispersed in fall, germinate in spring. Bare

mineral soil required for natural seed germination.

Samaras collected when wings are green. Seed should

not be allowed to dry. Seeds require a cold, moist stratification; mechanical rupture of pericarp may aid germination.

Vegetative reproduction: Natural regeneration primarily by layering shaded forests. Cuttings difficult to root;

propagation by layering slow.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available. Seeds should be sown in fall in

mulched beds. Shade is important during seedling establishment. Seedlings can be transplanted as 2-year-old

stock. Four recognized cultivars developed for ornamentation. Grows best in slightly acidic soil with abundance of organic material.

Transplant viability: Seedlings growing around a dense

patch of vine maple, if not flowering or leafed out, may

be dug up and potted immediately, well into spring.

Collection

Part harvested: Branches, stems, whole plant, and

seeds.

Harvest techniques: Seeds are collected by hand or

by shaking on tarp. Branches and stems are clipped

with pruners. Whole plants are dug up as young saplings up to 1 m in height. (Note: widely available from

nurseries.)

Harvest season: Seed collection in September and

October. Stem, branches clipped preferably when buds

dormant. Branches best harvested when dormant but

can be harvested year-round. Whole plant is harvested

from late fall until spring bud break. Transplants are

taken in fall or early spring in cool, damp weather.

Regeneration after harvest: If a small proportion of

branches are clipped, regeneration is good.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Fresh and dried floral and greenery and

ornamental silk trees; used locally for tool handles,

firewood, roundwood furniture, and home decoration

crafting.

Indigenous uses: Snowshoe frames, drum hoops,

small implements, baskets, salmon scoop nets, bows,

and wood for smoking fish or fowl.

Common products: Silk tree stems and indoor ornamental plants. Native landscape or restoration plants,

traditional crafts, baskets and furniture, home interior

decorations, dried flower arrangements.

Types of markets: Floral (silk trees), crafts, and landscaping. International and domestic markets for floral,

silk tree stocks, specialty wood and finished traditional

crafts. Domestic markets for native landscape plants,

restoration plantings, and specialty furniture.

Comments and Areas of Concern

The tree grows to its largest size in older second-growth

and mature Pacific coastal forests. Vine maple stems

provide important habitat for many bryophytic species

(mosses, liverworts, and lichens) and associated organisms. They should not be harvested when heavily occupied by bryophytes and associates. Because of wide

adaptability and fibrous root system, vine maple is used

for reclamation, restoration, and erosion control.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Cooke (1997), Flessner et al.

(1992), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist

(1978), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993),

Olson and Gabriel (1974), Pojar and MacKinnon

(1994), Rose et al. (1998), Sudworth (1967), Thomas

and Schumann (1993), Uchytil (1989), USDA Forest

Service (1988), Vance and Kirkland (1997), Whitney

(1997)
Plants

21

Achillea millefolium L.

Common yarrow, yarrow

Asteraceae

ACMI2

Ecology

Description: Native and exotic. Perennial herb; 10-100

cm; erect stems; alternate, fernlike leaves, 3-15 cm

long; umbel inflorescence, flat or round topped cluster;

flower head, both ray and disk flowers; ray flowers

usually five, 2-4 mm long, white to pink or reddish; disk

flowers 10 to 30, cream color; fruits hairless flattened

achenes. Name translates to “thousand flowers.”

Range and distribution: Common throughout North

America, from sea level to above timberline, but generally at elevations of 1200-3350 m. Widely distributed

and scattered across open habitats.

Associations: Mixed dry forest types, brushfield, tall

forb prairie, and grassland plant communities. Ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, grand fir, snowberry, bitter-brush,

groundsel, bluebunch wheatgrass, and fescues.

Habitat: Open forest, dry meadows, brushlands, prairie, overgrazed grasslands, and open disturbed environments such as roadsides and vacant lots.

Successional stage: Early-successional species, often in

disturbed sites, roadcuts, etc. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: This aromatic herb is generally

unpalatable to animals, but flower heads may be grazed

by sheep, pronghorn, and deer. Pungency repels many

insects yet attracts others, thereby resulting in maintenance of biodiversity. Good soil binder, used in erosion

control because of extensive rhizomes. Yarrow is usually undamaged or only slightly damaged by fires of any

intensity. Severe fires that burn into the soil, however,

may damage rhizomes. Regeneration after fire is from

rhizomes and airborne seeds that spread from adjacent

sites. Because of extensive rhizome sprouting, yarrow

usually increases immediately in density, frequency,

and cover for at least the first few years after a fire.

Often an indicator of past overstocking and excessive

utilization.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers in April, at lower

elevations, through September, at higher elevations;

fruiting occurs from August through September.

Seed: Seeds are persistent and generally abundant.

When flower heads turn brown, the seed is mature and

ready to be collected. Germination requires light and

moderate temperatures.

Achillea millefolium
Plants

22

Vegetative reproduction: Can be propagated by sprigs

divided from parent plant and rhizomes.

Cultivation: Widely cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Good; regenerates naturally via

rhizomes.

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves, stems, and flowers.

Harvest techniques: Inflorescences differ and tend to

be larger in wetter more productive sites. Flowers and

leaves are collected by using sharp clippers to clip stem

during flowering; some stem and leaves of mature plant

should be left.

Harvest season: Generally during blooming period.

Regeneration after harvest: Plant responds to clipping

by producing more shoots.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Flowers, leaves, and stems: anti-inflammatory, styptic, astringent, and acute fever-reducer.

European phytomedicine herb for fever and colds, and

menstrual cramps. Skin and hair tonic: antidandruff,

facial steams; food seasoning, bitters, vermouths, and

beer. Dried flowers: summer and winter bouquets.

Whole plant: erosion control and xeric landscaping.

Indigenous uses: Used to treat colds, fevers, anorexia,

indigestion, gastric inflammations, and internal bleeding.

Fresh herb used as a styptic poultice, expectorant analgesic, and sweat inducer. Used to treat ear, tooth, and

headaches.

Common products: Teas, tinctures, decorative, smoking mixtures, and food additive; landscape plant.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal, pharmaceutical, herbal, floral; regional, nursery,

restoration.

Comments and Areas of Concern

May cause dermatitis; not recommended for use during

pregnancy. Herbicides often are used in roadsides and

areas where yarrow is common. Yarrow is traditionally

used by Native American tribes, and Alaska Natives

have requested limited commercial use. Often grows on

unstable slopes and roadcuts; should not be collected if

there is risk of increase in slope instability and erosion

potential.

References

Duke (1997), Everett (1997), Foster and Duke (1990),

Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Hickerson (1986), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus

West (1998), Leung and Foster (1996), Mizerak

(1998), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994),

Rose et al. (1998), Ross and Chambers (1988), Seda

(1989), Tilford (1998), USDA ARS (2000), USDA

NRCS (1999), Young and Young (1986)
Plants

23

Anaphalis margaritacea (L.)

Benth.

Pearly everlasting

Asteraceae

ANMA

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial herb from rhizomes;

multiple unbranched leafy stems; 20-100 cm; alternate

leaves, narrow lance shaped, 5-15 cm; umbel inflorescence, heads in dense, flat-topped clusters; flowers are

yellow disks surrounded by dry, pearly white involucral

bracts; fruit small, rough, hairless to sparsely hairy

achenes.

Range and distribution: Common and widespread,

from low to subalpine elevation, California through

Alaska to east coast, and most of northern and central

United States. May grow in dense patches.

Associations: Mixed forest types, brushfield shrubs and

herbs, bracken fern, common yarrow, fireweed, and

grasses such as red fescue.

Habitat: Rocky slopes, semidry open forest, clearings,

meadows, fields, roadsides, burned-over and cut-over

areas.

Successional stage: Early successional; responds favorably to disturbance; has invasive characteristics. Shade

tolerant.

Ecological relations: Larval food for American lady

butterfly (Vanessa virginiensis Drury); used by bees

attracted to nearby growing fireweed.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from June through

August.

Seed: Matures from July to September, wide seed

dispersal, carried long distances by hairs on seeds,

difficult to separate from the fluffy chaff. Seeds germinate easily.

Vegetative reproduction: Easy to propagate from

pieces of rhizome.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Can be dug up, divided, and

replanted when the clumps become too dense. Best

time to transplant is spring or fall.

Anaphalis margaritacea
Plants

24

Collection

Part harvested: Aerial part of stem with leaves and

inflorescence.

Harvest techniques: The herb is harvested by clipping

stem well above root crown.

Harvest season: When flowering is at its peak for dried

flowers and into late summer for herbal use.

Regeneration after harvest: Once inflorescence is

harvested, it does not produce new flowering stems the

same season.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Floral arrangements. Dried pearly

everlasting used to make long-lasting bouquets and

decorations. Infusion or teas for astringent and antiinflammatory properties, for soothing irritable stomach.

Leaf and flower poultice for bruises and sunburn.

Indigenous uses: Influenza medicine, poultice of boiled

leaves applied to burns, plants used for tuberculosis,

colds, and sore throat. Infusion of flower used as an

herbal steam for rheumatism and paralysis. Roots and

stalks used for diarrhea and dysentery. Also a hand

softener and smoking herb.

Common products: Dried floral decoratives, herbal

teas, and ingredient in personal care products.

Types of markets: Primarily domestic. Floral, herbal,

and personal care.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Considered a range weed; unpalatable to livestock. May

be a good candidate for restoration following fire and

other major disturbance on erosive sites.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Franklin and Dyrness (1973),

Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg

(1993), MacFarlane (1985), Moore (1993), Munz and

Keck (1959), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al.

(1998), USDA Forest Service (1988), USDA ARS

(2000), USDA NRCS (1999), Whitney (1997)
Plants

25

Angelica L. spp.

Angelica

Apiaceae

ANGEL

A. genuflexa Nutt., Kneeling angelica- ANGE2

A. arguta Nutt., Lyall’s angelica- ANAR3

Ecology

Description: Native. Angelica genuflexa: stout perennial from taproot, inside root usually solid; stem leafy,

hairless, hollow, arising from erect, tuberous, chambered stem base; stem 1-1.5 m, often purplish and

glaucous; leaves compound, 4-10 cm long, with three

major divisions, primary divisions bent back; leaf stalk

bent above the first pair of primary leaflets; ultimate

leaflets egg- to lance-shaped, coarsely toothed; veins

tending to end at the points of the teeth; leaf stalks

with inflated bases sheathing the main stem; flowers

white or pinkish, small in numerous compact heads

arranged in several umbrella-shaped clusters, more than

20 per umbel; involucral bracts lacking; fruits rounded,

3-4 mm, broadly winged lateral ribs. Angelica arguta

similar but does not have bent leaves and leaf stalks.

Range and distribution: Angelica genuflexa: common

at low to middle elevations in northern two-thirds of

region, sporadic southwards in Washington and Oregon,

Klamath Mountains and northern California coast;

A. arguta: scattered from southernmost British Columbia to California, more common in Oregon. Angelica

genuflexa forms large mats; A. arguta in high elevation

in dispersed stands.

Associations: Mountain hemlock, Pacific silver fir,

western hemlock zones. Red alder, thimbleberry, lady

fern, Sitka valerian, sedges, cow-parsnip, stinging nettle,

and common horsetail.

Habitat: Moist thickets, forest openings, swamps,

streambanks, wet ditches and clearings, and flooded or

ponded marshes.

Successional stage: Part of stable plant communities

but also populates openings or canopy gaps. Moderately

shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Habitat for ground-nesting birds

and mammals, concealment; pollinator attractor; rapid

decomposer contributes substantially to soil structure.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Blooms from July through

August.

Seed: Angelica is a perennial that may require two or

more seasons to produce seed. Seeds require cold stratification to germinate.

Vegetative reproduction: Unknown.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated from seed. Plants

are commercially available for species sea-watch

(Angelica lucida).

Transplant viability: Not known; probably more reliable to start from seed.

Angelica genuflexa

A. arguta
Plants

26

Collection

Part harvested: Root and seeds.

Harvest techniques: Seeds are collected before they

fall off, preferably when slightly green. Only mature

roots are collected. Size is checked by gently brushing

away soil. Unharvested parts of plant are left for mulch.

Most of the plants in a patch are left. Roots are collected only from plants growing in areas that will not be

sensitive to digging.

Harvest season: Seeds are gathered as late in season as

possible, late summer to early fall after seeds have

ripened. Roots are gathered in late summer to early fall.

Positive identification is more difficult after the seeds

have completely gone.

Regeneration after harvest: Gathering roots generally

kills the plant.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Seeds: upset stomach. Roots: medicinal, tea, tinctures for menstrual regulation, expectorant,

to induce sweating, antibacterial, antifungal, antispasmodic, and diuretic. Now angelica root rarely used as a

pharmaceutical preparation; fragrance ingredient in

soaps, detergent, creams, lotions, perfumes; flavor

ingredient in most major categories of food products;

beverages, baked goods, etc.

Indigenous uses: Spiritual uses, medicine, cathartic,

analgesic, headache, intestinal cramps; cooking tools;

soap and fragrance; spice; stems as underwater breathing tubes.

Common products: Tea, tinctures, food and beverage

additive, fragrance, herbals.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Herbal,

medicinal, food additives, and fragrances.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Similar in appearance to poisonous Douglas’ waterhemlock (Cicuta douglasii); be certain of identification. Riparian soils compact easily. Riparian areas and

streambanks susceptible to human disturbance. Native

Americans use Angelica for spiritual and cultural purposes. Precautions should be taken that the patch being

harvested is not a Native American gathering site. Encourage cultivation of this plant rather than wildcrafting.

Angelica polymorpha, primary source of Dong Quai, an

important Chinese herbal medicine, interbreeds with A.

genuflexa.

References

Cooke (1997), Hortus West (1998), Leung and Foster

(1996), Moerman (1998b), Moore (1993), Pojar and

MacKinnon (1994), Tilford (1993, 1998)
Plants

27

Aralia californica S. Wats.

California spikenard, spikenard

Araliaceae

ARCA2

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial shrub; erect stem 2-3 m;

one to three large pinnately compound leaves, 1-2 m;

umbels in clusters of two or in spreading panicle; yellowgreen flowers in panicles; fruits, blue-black berries in

globose clusters.

Range and distribution: Below 1800 m, southern

Oregon to the Sierras and along the California coast.

Grows in patches within its range.

Associations: Western hemlock, mixed-conifer zones.

Common associations in riparian plant communities;

Douglas-fir, tanoak, Oregon ash, alder, big-leaf maple,

sweet-cicely, bedstraw, and willow.

Habitat: Mixed forest type; moist, shady areas; creeks,

streams, and canyons.

Successional stage: Mid to late successional. Shade

tolerant.

Ecological relations: Streambank stabilizer.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from June through

August, fruits August through October.

Seed: Seeds small (4 mm wide). Fruits are collected in

late summer. Ferment berries to get viable seed. Berries

are black when seed is mature and ready to harvest. Can

be propagated from seed; seed needs stratification to

germinate.

Vegetative reproduction: Sprouts easily from root

division. Vegetative reproduction by roots. Cuttings root

best in early to mid winter.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants are commercially

available.

Transplant viability: Unknown.

Collection

Part harvested: Root, berries for seed, and occasionally leaves.

Harvest techniques: Center portion of root is cut out,

leaving the crown and outer nodes in the ground to

resprout.

Harvest season: The root is collected in winter or late

fall, after the plant has seeded (berries collected after

ripe, late September to October).

Aralia californica
Plants

28

Regeneration after harvest: Roots regenerate after

harvest, but sustainable harvest intervals have not been

determined.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Roots: tonic and lung expectorant;

whole plant: garden landscaping.

Indigenous uses: Decoction of roots used as a soak for

arthritis, consumption, colds, fevers, lung and stomach

diseases, and as a wash for itching sores.

Common products: Tinctures, dried herbal products

such as capsules, powders, and teas. Supplement to

American ginseng products.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Herbal

and nutraceutical.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Grows in fragile riparian areas; banks are sensitive to

erosion after roots are removed. Spikenard is a soughtafter source of ginsenglike products resulting in increasing harvest pressure; on United Plant Savers North

American medicinal plants “To Watch” list.

References

Blakley (1997), Dyrness et al. (1974), Hickman (1993),

Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Mizerak

(1998), Moore (1993), Munz and Keck (1959), Rolle

(1997), United Plant Savers (2000)
Plants

29

Arctostaphylos Adans. spp.

Manzanita

Ericaceae

ARCTO3

A. columbiana Piper, Hairy manzanita-ARCO3

A. nevadensis Gray, Pinemat manzanita-ARNE

A. patula Greene, Greenleaf manzanita-ARPA6

A. viscida Parry, White-leaved manzanita-ARVI4

Ecology

Description: Native. Includes about 50 species, mostly

evergreen, ranging from small mat-forming shrubs to

small trees up to 10 m; prostrate to erect stems; fireresistant burl sometimes present at base; bark generally

reddish, smooth or gray, rough and shredded; leathery,

alternate leaves, spoon to lance shaped, spreading to

ascending; inflorescence panicle or racemose clusters;

urn-shaped flowers, white to pink; blackish-red, berrylike fruit 6-8 mm.

Range and distribution: British Columbia south

to northern California. Arctostaphylos columbiana:

British Columbia to western Cascade Range south to

northwestern California. Arctostaphylos patula and

A. nevadensis: Washington south to California, east to

Idaho (A. nevadensis), east to Colorado (A. patula).

Arctostaphylos viscida: Southern Oregon to northern

California east to Sierra Nevada Range. Elevations from

60-2200 m. Widespread; some species form dense

stands.

Associations: Western hemlock, mixed-conifer zones.

Douglas-fir, white fir, ponderosa pine; oak, chaparral,

brushfield, and nonforest communities; Pacific rhododendron, ceanothus, groundsel, lupine, and bracken

fern.

Habitat: Foothills to high montane, semidry to dry,

open sites, well drained, rocky slopes or rock outcrops

on slightly acidic soil.

Successional stage: Early to mid successional; responds favorably to mild to moderate fire. Low to

moderate shade tolerance.

Ecological relations: Berries eaten and dispersed by

wildlife; deer and elk make some use of foliage in fall

and winter. Source of nectar for native pollinators;

major nectar source in the Rogue River valley and south

coast. Important watershed cover and erosion control.

Although fire kills aboveground portion of plant, may

grow back from root crown or regenerate by fire-stimulated germination of dormant seeds stored in the soil.

The plant has several characteristics related to fire intensity including shedding of bark and leaves, plant

dieback during droughts, and formation of dense stands.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Small flowers bloom in early

winter to spring; fruits ripen from summer to fall.

Seed: Seeds usually have hard seed coats and dormant

embryos so dormancy-breaking treatments are necessary.

Vegetative reproduction: Can be propagated by rooted

cuttings.

Arctostaphylos

patula

A. columbiana A. nevadensis
Plants

30

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Seedlings collected in the wild

can be transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves, branches, flowers, and berries.

Harvest techniques: Branches are pruned off on larger

bushes that may need thinning. If shrub is not to be

destroyed, branches with leaves on stems are carefully

selected and clipped leaving most leafy branches on

shrub.

Harvest season: Once the new growth is hardened off.

Late summer, early fall until new growth starts in

spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Plants that have branches

clipped can resprout the following growing season.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Floral and landscaping. Branches are

used for bird and reptile perches. Artificial trees made

from preserved branches. Berries are edible but said to

cause constipation; leaves and berries are used for

herbal remedies.

Indigenous uses: Berries used for food and drink,

dried for future use; decoction of bark for diarrhea,

poison-oak rash; leaves mixed with tobacco; flowers

sucked and eaten by children; wood has various uses.

Common products: Transplants, wreaths, decorative

branches and twigs, preserved stems, salves, and poultices.

Types of markets: Decorative and herbal. Domestic

and international markets for decorative material and

herbal products. Local markets for specialty interior

decoration crafts.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Manzanita protected by California law. Used in site

restoration and slope stabilization within its natural

range. Manzanita species have a high degree of hybridization. Gasquet manzanita (A. hispidula) found in the

Siskiyou region of southern Oregon and globally listed.

References

Burg (1974), Burgett et al. (1989), Everett (1997),

Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Hall (1988), Hickman

(1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West

(1998), Howard (1992a), Kruckeberg (1993), Mizerak

(1998), Oosting (1958), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994),

Steinfeld (1996), Thomas and Schumann (1993), Tilford (1998), USDA Forest Service (1988), Whitney

(1997), Young and Young (1986, 1992)
Plants

31

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.)

Spreng.

Kinnikinnick, bearberry

Ericaceae

ARUV

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial, trailing, low growing

shrub, 5-20 cm high; erect, woody, branches up to 75

cm long; opposite leaves rounded to oblong, 15-20 mm

long, 10 mm wide, dark green and shiny above, paler

below; long, woody, reddish-brown stems; raceme

inflorescence; flowers are pinkish white, urn shaped and

drooping, 4-5 mm long; berries smooth, bright red, 7-10

mm resembling miniature apples.

Range and distribution: Circumboreal species, Alaska

to Labrador, coastal California, Pacific Northwest,

Rocky Mountains; from sea level to 3400 m, low slopes

to alpine tundra. Common and widespread; forms extensive ground carpets.

Associations: Primarily Pacific silver fir zone. Douglasfir, subalpine fir, and grand fir series. Indicator species

or dominant part of several forest communities including

alpine communities; Oregon grape, pinemat manzanita,

arnica, beargrass, yarrow, balsamroot, and penstemon.

Habitat: Sun or partial shade, rocky outcrops, dry

slopes, sandy soils, acidic soils, shallow soils, chaparral,

and coniferous forest.

Successional stage: Early to mid successional. Enters

early-successional communities on glacial outwash in

pioneer stage or after fire, reaches highest cover early

in open savanna or meadow, declines with canopy cover

increase in early shrub stage. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Browsed by bighorn sheep

(Ovis canadensis Shaw), mountain goat (Oreamnos

americanus Blainville), deer; berries important source

of winter forage for birds, deer, elk, small mammals,

and for bear in autumn and early spring; nectar for bees

and hummingbirds; some cover value for small mammals and nongame birds; soil retention-stabilizer. A

sprouting species that is best suited to short fire cycles

with low fuel buildup and low fire intensities. When

rooted in mineral soil, it can survive moderate fire; in

organic soil horizons, however, a fire that removes

those horizons will kill bearberry. May sprout from root

crown or stolons.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Generally flowers from March

to May, fruit ripens from June through August, seed

dispersal from August to March. Seed somewhat fire

resistant.

Seed: Fruit turns bright red or pink on ripening from

June to August; collect from plants or ground. Sulfuric

acid bath and warm and cold stratification. Ferment

berries to separate seeds. Seeds need to be cold-stratified to germinate; collect berries in fall and freeze them

for spring planting or direct seed in fall.

Vegetative reproduction: Layering or rooted cuttings

are the surest means of propagation.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Plants

32

Transplant viability: Transplantable; stem cuttings best

method of establishment.

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves, stems, flowers, and berries.

Harvest techniques: Loose runners are gathered, after

checking that they have not rooted. Significant dieback

occurs; gather conservatively from periphery.

Harvest season: Gather any time plant is in good condition; during spring and summer chemical constituents

are highest.

Regeneration after harvest: Sensitive to harvest and

should be monitored. Regeneration in the wild is reported to be poor, especially in poor, high-elevation sites.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Strong astringent, urinary tract infections, first aid dressing. Urinary antiseptic, component

of diuretics and laxatives; herbal tea. Branches and

fruits used as Christmas decorations. Plants used for

erosion control along highway embankments; landscaping ground cover; dyes.

Indigenous uses: Plant salve for rashes and sores; a

mouthwash for cankers and sore gums; leaves roasted

to powder placed on cut for rapid healing; paste of

leaves applied to boils and pimples; leaves ingested for

dropsy, urinary diseases, and back pain; smoked leaves

used as a narcotic; raw berries, as a laxative.

Common products: Tinctures, herbals, smoking mixtures, floral bouquets and filler, and transplants.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Pharmaceutical, herbal, floral crafts, and landscaping.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Do not use internally during pregnancy; gather conservatively with awareness of erosion potential, never

when ground is wet; avoid stands that animals are using

for forage. It is listed as a European species of concern

by the World Wide Fund for Nature.

References

Craighead et al. (1991), Crane (1991), Franklin and

Dyrness (1973), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg

(1993), Leung and Foster (1996), Mizerak (1998),

Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al. (1998),

Thomas and Schumann (1993), Tilford (1993,1998),

USDA Forest Service (1988), Williams et al. (1995)
Plants

33

Arnica L. spp.

Arnica

Asteraceae

ARNIC

A. cordifolia Hook., Heartleaf arnica-ARCO9

A. latifolia Bong., Broadleaf arnica-ARLA8

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial herb, generally from

long, naked rhizomes; 10-50 cm; stems loose, generally

unbranched, white hairs; leaves opposite, basal leaves

heart-shaped and toothed, stem leaves, two to four

pairs, lance shaped to almost heart shape; flowers

bright yellow, daisylike; both ray and disk flowers, ray

flowers 10 to 15; fruits small 6-10 mm hairy achenes.

Arnica cordifolia usually single flower; A. latifolia one

or more sets paired flowers; however, these species

hybridize and may be difficult to distinguish.

Range and distribution: Widespread and abundant in

the West. Common in southwestern and central Oregon,

and California mountains; 1000 m to above timberline.

Grows in large, dense patches (colonies) in shady locations, forming almost pure stands.

Associations: Western hemlock, Pacific silver fir, and

grand fir zones. Douglas-fir, grand fir, subalpine fir

series. Dominant or indicator species in several forest

communities; ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, trembling

aspen, huckleberry, bunchberry dogwood, queencup

beadlily, and twinflower.

Habitat: Shaded, high meadows, hillsides and coniferous forest. Open canopy, often exposed, moderately dry

mineral soils.

Successional stage: Early to late successional; highest

coverage in late-successional stages of grand fir-globe

huckleberry association. Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Low palatability to animals but

important constituent of summer diets of mule deer and

elk; poor cover for wildlife; pollinator-attractor; extensive rhizomes aerate forest floor and provide habitat for

subterranean insects and others. Moderately fire resistant, typically sprouting from surviving rhizomes after

fire and occasionally from wind-borne seeds. Highintensity fires reduce quantities of plant, but moderate

fires tend to only kill the top portion of plant. Sprouts

from surviving rhizomes. May also rapidly colonize

burned areas by windborne seed.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from May through

August, first to emerge in early spring, short bloom or

not at all in drought; perennial after second year. Seeds

wind dispersed.

Arnica cordifolia
Plants

34

Seed: Up to 80 percent of the seeds are typically infertile. Seed heads should be harvested before turning to

fluff.

Vegetative reproduction: Can be propagated from

rhizomes.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Can be transplanted, but timing

and moisture are important. Plant is susceptible to

transplant shock.

Collection

Part harvested: Flowers and roots.

Harvest techniques: Stem is severed at base just

above root crown. Collecting roots destroys plants.

Roots should be collected leaving sufficient number of

plants in population intact. For commercial quantities,

cultivation is recommended. Collect during active growing period in dry weather to avoid soil compaction.

Harvest season: Collect flowers from mid-June

through July; collect root after flowers have seeded.

Regeneration after harvest: If upper stem of plant is

harvested, can regenerate vegetatively; for A. latifolia,

regeneration is slower. Removing flowers removes

ability to regenerate by seed that year. To ensure population viability a majority of flowering plants are left

intact.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Medicinal: used externally for bumps,

bruises, arthritis, bursitis, myalgia, sore throat, and

sprains.

Indigenous uses: Roots used as a love medicine;

plant used for sore eyes; mashed plant used for

swellings, bruises and cuts; infusion of plant taken

for tuberculosis.

Common products: Tinctures, salves, oils, gels, liniments, topical preparations; ingredient in foot powders.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Herbal

and medicinal.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Arnica’s primary use is external, not recommended for

internal use, some use sparingly (see Moore 1993). A

European species, mountain arnica (Arnica montana),

used in wound healing, is listed as a species of concern

by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Arnica is on United Plant Savers North American medicinal plants “To

Watch” list. Mount Shasta arnica (A. viscosa) is globally

and state (Oregon) listed.

References

Hall (1988), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist

(1978), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Mizerak (1998), Moore (1993), Reed (1993a), Ross and

Chambers (1988), Schofield (1989), Seda (1989), Tilford (1993, 1998), United Plant Savers (2000), USDA

Forest Service (1988), Williams et al. (1995)
Plants

35

Artemisia douglasiana Bess.

Mugwort, sagewort, wormwood

Asteraceae

ARDO3

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial aromatic herb, 50-250

cm from rhizomes; many erect, brown to gray-green

stems; evenly spaced, lanceolate leaves, lower ones

cleft, upper ones entire, slightly covered with matted

hairs above, densely matted below; panicle inflorescence, 10-30 cm, 3-9 cm wide; disk flowers generally

9 to 25; fruits, generally small less than 1 mm, smooth

achenes.

Range and distribution: Baja California to Washington

east to Idaho; below 2200 m. Locally abundant, grows

as scattered individuals or may form a colony of plants

connected by rhizomes.

Associations: Mixed-conifer/hardwood forests. Western hemlock, Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, black cottonwood. Varied plant communities, including a tall forb

meadow community in the Olympics. Component of

mixed grass-weed types, associated with fringed sage,

needlegrasses, and muhly grasses.

Habitat: Lower subalpine zone in open to shade, shallow gullies, waste places, riparian zones, drainages,

moist valleys, along the coast. Common on west slopes

of inland foothills.

Successional stage: Pioneer species also found in stable meadow communities. Low to moderate in shade

tolerance.

Ecological relations: Fire ecology is not well documented. The top portion of the plant is damaged or

killed by fires. Probably the rhizome will resprout after

most fires. Fire intensity may be mediated by the typically wet habitat of mugwort. Important nectar and

pollen source for pollinators.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from June through

October.

Seed: Little information on species. Most seeds of

genus stored dry.

Vegetative reproduction: Rhizomatous; divide rootstock.

Artemisia douglasiana
Plants

36

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Seeds are commercially

available for coastal mugwort.

Transplant viability: May be transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves and stems.

Harvest techniques: Aerial parts of plant are clipped in

spring just before onset of flowering; others recommend

summer or fall. Foliage and inflorescence are stripped

from cut stems and stored dry without crushing. Plants

are pruned to avoid removing important cover for other

plants.

Harvest season: Annually, late spring and summer

before going to seed.

Regeneration after harvest: Good, when only stems

are harvested.

Uses and Products

Common uses: As a tea for gastritis, gastric ulcers,

topical anesthetic and anti-inflammatory, antifungal,

and antimicrobial.

Indigenous uses: Has been an important plant in the

pharmacopoeia, as well as in the cleansing rituals and

religious ceremonies. Used as compress for wounds and

rheumatism. Bitter tea used for menstruation problems.

Oil liniment for sprains and bruises. Decoction of plant

to treat urinary problems, asthma, diarrhea, stomach

ache, and pin worms. The plant can be burned and

inhaled for grippe. Placed in nostril to treat headache.

In a dried bundle used as a smudge or incense. Used

to help prevent insect infestations in granaries and food

caches.

Common products: Herbal, teas, and tinctures.

Types of markets: International and domestic.

Medicinal and herbal.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Be cautious in collecting to avoid sensitive riparian

habitats. Artemisia species have been used since ancient times as a vermifuge (dewormer). Use moderately;

do not use during pregnancy. Can cause stomach upset

and overstimulate heart and circulation. Field sagewort

(A. campestris ssp. borealis var. wormskioldii), U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service Species of Concern, has endangered status in Washington. Other Artemisia species

including Suksdorf’s mugwort (A. suksdorfii) that occur

in the Pacific Northwest may be harvested. White sage

(A. ludoviciana ssp. estesii), U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service listed as Species of Concern and listed in

Oregon. Know identity of species being harvested.

References

Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Hickman (1993), Hortus

West (1998), Klein and Johnson (1997), Mizerak

(1998), Moore (1993), Munz and Keck (1959), Stevens

and Ryan (1997), USDA Forest Service (1988), Young

and Young (1986)
Plants

37

Asarum caudatum Lind.

Wild ginger

Aristolochiaceae

ASCA2

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial evergreen herb, 15-25

cm, extending from creeping rhizomes; stems trailing,

rooting freely; alternate, dark green, heart-shaped

leaves, two on each node, 4-10 cm long, to 15 cm

wide, velvety on underside; bell-shaped flowers brownish purple to greenish yellow, near ground, petallike

sepals extending from a cup-shaped base; fruits are

fleshy capsules.

Range and distribution: British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, northern California, Idaho, Montana;

below 1500 m; less frequent on east side of Cascade

Range. Localized, large, loose mats.

Associations: Western hemlock, Pacific silver fir

zones. Grand fir, western redcedar, western white pine,

Douglas-fir; pathfinder, queencup beadlily and western

goldthread.

Habitat: Old-growth, shady, moist forests; organic,

slightly acidic soil. Flowers often hidden by leaf litter.

Successional stage: Most common in mid- to latesuccessional stages. Shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Flowers give off odor, attracting

insects, especially flies. Seeds dispersed by ants. Extensive horizontal root system aerates soil and allows for

infiltration of water; structure for subterranean forest

floor life; key element in forest floor biocommunities.

Wild ginger is susceptible to fire-kill. Aboveground and

belowground parts can be killed by fires of even light to

moderate intensity because soils are usually shallow.

Reestablishment of new plants must be from seeding by

survivors or off-site individuals.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from April through

July, one flower per plant, flowers close to ground.

Seed: Small amount of seed produced per flower; seed

widely dispersed. Timing of seed collection may be

difficult.

Vegetative reproduction: Rhizomatous; reproduces

best from divisions taken when parent plant is not actively growing.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Transplant successful if habitat

requirements of overstory shade, soil, and moisture

are met.

Asarum caudatum
Plants

38

Collection

Part harvested: Entire plant; leaves most flavorful.

Harvest techniques: A length of rhizome is pulled up

(will have many plants connected to it). The ends are

clipped off, replacing the rest of the rhizome in the

ground.

Harvest season: Any time.

Regeneration after harvest: Readily regenerates from

rhizomes.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Secretory stimulant, relief of indigestion, antiseptic, to induce sweating; seasoning, flavor

substitute for ginger root; ground cover plant for shaded areas.

Indigenous uses: For stomach afflictions, tuberculosis,

boil for beverage; decoction of plant externally for

headache, intestinal and knee pain; decoction of roots

for stomach pains, as laxative; heated leaves applied to

boils; decoction of leaves to wash sores, baby’s navel.

Roots can be baked and eaten.

Common products: Tea, dried leaves or roots, for

flavoring, herbal; ornamental or landscape plant.

Types of markets: Domestic, herbal; international

landscape, nursery.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Often grows in stands with dense canopies where little

else can establish until the soil is aerated. Species identification should be verified to avoid harvesting a similar

but rare species of Asarum. Habitat sensitive to soil

compaction and disturbance. Streamside populations

and sensitive species in close proximity should not be

disturbed.

References

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1995), Hickman

(1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West

(1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Moore (1993), Pojar and

MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al. (1998), Stewart (1988),

Tilford (1998), Zimmerman and Griffith (1991)
Plants

39

Berberis L. spp.

Oregon grape

Berberidaceae

BERBE

B. aquifolium Pursh, Tall Oregon grape-BEAQ

B. nervosa Pursh, Dwarf Oregon grape-BENE2

Ecology

Description: Native. Berberis aquifolium: evergreen

shrub up to 2 m; woody stems, spreading to erect, bark

and wood yellowish; compound, 5 to 9 hollylike lanceshaped leaves, 5-10 cm long, spiny tipped, glossy

above, less so below, with one central vein; dense clusters of yellow flowers; clusters of 1-cm diameter dark

blue berries with waxy or powdery coating. Berberis

nervosa: evergreen shrub to 60 cm; woody stems, erect,

bark and wood yellowish; compound, 9 to 19 oblong to

egg-shaped leaves, spiny tipped, leathery, somewhat

glossy on both surfaces, with three to five central veins;

dense clusters of yellow flowers to 20 cm long; clusters

of 1-cm diameter, dark blue berries with waxy or powdery coating.

Range and distribution: Berberis aquifolium: Coast

to Cascade Range, Oregon through British Colombia,

mostly confined to western side of the Cascade Range;

400-2100 m. Fairly common forest floor covering,

broad, conspicuous undershrub. Berberis nervosa:

British Columbia to central California (Sierra Nevada)

to western Idaho; less than 2200 m. Common undershrub. Widely distributed in mixed and pure patches.

Associations: Western hemlock and Pacific silver fir

zones. Berberis aquifolium: Douglas-fir, western hemlock, oceanspray, white hawkweed, arnica, yarrow,

starry false Solomon’s seal, kinnikinnick, valerian, and

balsamroot. Berberis nervosa: understory dominant in

montane and submontane coniferous and mixed evergreen forests; western hemlock, Port-Orford-cedar, and

Douglas-fir; oceanspray, salal, Pacific rhododendron,

vine maple, salmonberry, huckleberry; snowqueen,

twinflower, and western sword fern.

Habitat: Berberis aquifolium: dry to moist coniferous

woodlands, shaded rocky slopes, occasionally openly

exposed slopes. Berberis nervosa: dry to fairly moist,

open to closed forest; common in second-growth

Douglas-fir forests.

Successional stage: Berberis aquifolium: important

component of both successional and climax communities. Berberis nervosa: important component of both

successional and climax communities, not prominent

until mid-successional stages. More shade tolerant than

B. aquifolium.

Berberis nervosa

B. aquifolium
Plants

40

Ecological relations: Occasional browse for deer, elk,

moose, bears, rodents; berries eaten and seeds dispersed

by small birds and mammals. Plant provides cover for

small animals. Berberis nervosa: important food for the

white-footed vole in the Coast Range of Oregon. Early

spring flowering important nectar source for bees and

other pollinators. The rhizomatous plant is important for

soil aeration and erosion control. Aerial portion of plant

killed by fire, resprouts from rhizomes after moderateintensity fires. Cover increases with distance from

stream.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers in early to late spring;

fruit ripens from July through August.

Seed: Fruit produced annually. The fruit contains one to

several seeds. Dispersal by birds and mammals. Fermentation needed to remove seed from berry, seeds

dormant and can be started after a cold or warm-cold

stratification in the case of Berberis aquifolium.

Vegetative reproduction: Easily propagated from rhizomes and stem cuttings. Berberis aquifolium: cuttings

taken in fall root best. Berberis nervosa: in the absence

of disturbance, gradually spreads from rhizomes.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Berberis aquifolium: field collected transplants do poorly and are slow to establish. Berberis nervosa: plants may be slow to establish.

Collection

Part harvested: Roots, stems, and leaves.

Harvest techniques: Berberis aquifolium: roots are

collected for medicinal products from fall into early

spring. This is the preferred species for commercial

collection because the roots are larger. Only lower stems

that have yellow color in them are collected. Berberis

nervosa: floral: new growth is dark green and free of

dirt and insect damage. Each stem is 40-45 cm long and

has 9 to 15 leaflets. Each bunch contains 25 to 28

stems. For both species, if collected for personal medicinal use, portions of the roots-rhizomes with shoot buds

are left in the ground or replanted.

Harvest season: Roots and stems are collected from

mid summer to winter. Leaves are collected from May

to mid fall. In fall, roots are most potent.

Regeneration after harvest: Regeneration has been

reported in productive habitats as long as sufficient

portion of roots and rhizomes are left in the ground to

resprout. Studies are needed to assess sprouting from

rhizomes left after harvest. Regeneration of foliage

differs widely depending on habitat and impact of harvest.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Berberis aquifolium: liver stimulant

and blood purifier, laxative, antimicrobial, digestive

tonic; berries as edibles; roots used to make a yellow

dye; landscaping, goldenseal substitute, and antiseptic.

Berberis nervosa: antimicrobial, tonic, roots or possibly

the leaves used for yellow dye, goldenseal substitute,

laxative, and antiseptic; in floral arrangements; landscaping border plant.

Indigenous uses: Berberis aquifolium: decoction of

root used for stomach trouble or hemorrhages, tuberculosis, as gargle for sore throat, wash for arthritis; fruits

if eaten cause diarrhea, used as laxative; root tonic used

for the kidneys; yellow dye from roots and inner bark.

Berberis nervosa: roots: laxative; decoction of root bark

taken or used as wash for arthritis, for syphilis, an

eyewash for red, itchy eyes; fruit also an excellent

laxative; berries used to make jelly; infusion of roots

and leaves taken for nosebleeds.
Plants

41

Common products: Berberis aquifolium: tincture, leaf

tea, tonics, eyedrops, herbal teas, and tonics. Berberis

nervosa: medicinal, herbal, floral crafts, ornamental

greens, yellow dye.

Types of markets: International and domestic.

Berberis aquifolium: medicinal, herbal, and landscaping. Berberis nervosa: medicinal, herbal, floral, nursery,

and landscaping.

Comments and Areas of Concern

The berries are important to wildlife for winter forage.

Identification of species may be difficult when gathering. Berberis nervosa and B. aquifolium may hybridize

in the wild. Berberis aquifolium introduced as an ornamental plant in Europe in 1822. It is now naturalized in

Europe and in some forested areas of Germany, considered an invasive species. Berberis on United Plant

Savers North American medicinal plants “To Watch”

list because it has been heavily collected in some areas.

References

Auge and Brandl (1997), British Columbia Ministry of

Forests (1995), Cooke (1997), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998), Huffman et al. (1994), Leung and Foster (1996), Logan et

al. (1987), Minore and Weatherly (1994), Mizerak

(1998), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994),

Rose et al. (1998), Seda (1989), Thomas and Schumann (1993), Tilford (1993, 1998), Tirmenstein

(1990c), United Plant Savers (2000), USDA Forest

Service (1988), Young and Young (1986)
Plants

42

Continued
Plants

43

Bryophyta (division)

Moss, tree moss, log moss

moss (musci), liverwort

(hepaticae)

Moss (most common species):

Antitrichia curtipendula (Hedw.) Brid.

Eurhynchium oreganum (Sull.) Jaeg.

Hypnum subimponens Lesq.

Isothecium myosuroides Brid.

Neckera douglasii Hook.

Liverwort:

Porella navicularis (Lehm. & Lindenb.) Pfeiff

Frullania nisquallensis Sull.

Ecology

Description: Photosynthesizing (chlorophyllous) nonvascular plants consisting of liverworts and mosses.

Liverworts thallose (flat bodied) or leafy. Moss colonizing branches may have small rhizoids or rootlets. Male

and female moss plants (gametophytes) have simple

leaves; sporophytes: thin stems (seta) emerging from

top of female plants, vary in color, topped by a capsule.

Capsule oval or long with a lid and an opening (peristome) where spores are released.

Range and distribution: Range differs among species.

Most species found in lower elevations of Coast Range

and the west side of Cascade Range from Washington

to northern California and in moist, shady pockets in

western Montana and northern Idaho.

Associations: Sitka spruce, western hemlock, Pacific

silver fir zones. Mixed-conifer/hardwood forests in the

spruce, hemlock, cedar series. Douglas-fir, western

redcedar, western hemlock, vine maple, big-leaf maple,

Oregon grape, and western sword fern.

Habitat: Grow on horizontal or vertical stems of hardwood trees, primarily vine maple and big-leaf maple.

Some tree (epiphytic) species grow on logs and stumps;

a few also may grow on forest floor often obscured by

leaf litter.

Successional stage: Grow in mid- to late-successional

forests, require shade. Mosses themselves are colonizers growing on substrate unoccupied by any other plant.

Ecological relations: Bryophytes provide food and

habitat for invertebrates and vertebrates, source of

readily decomposable organic material, contribute to

nutrient capture and cycling. Certain bryophytes are

important air quality indicators, particularly of SO2

pollutants. In areas that have heavy industrialization and

air pollution, bryophytes disappear. Bryophytes provide

nesting material for birds and mammals including the

threatened marbled murrelet. Most epiphytic bryophytes

are desiccation tolerant and able to tolerate a wide

range of moisture content or about 300 to less than

10 percent.

Eurhynchium

oreganum

Isothecium

myosuroides

Porella

navicularis

Neckera

douglasii
Plants

44

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Male plants release zoospores

(male sex cells), which, via water, unite with the female

reproductive cells of the female plant. The fertilized

female plant grows a leafless stem (sporophyte) and a

capsule at the tip, which produces spores. Water is an

essential vector to sexual reproduction. Liverworts

differ slightly from moss in their structures, but the life

cycle is similar.

Seed: Moss capsules release spores, which are spread

by air current or water. Require moisture to germinate

and grow into a plant.

Vegetative reproduction: All can reproduce

vegetatively.

Cultivation: Some mosses can be cultivated on proper

kinds of bark with mildly acidic pH, and sufficient moisture and shade; this has not been proven to be a viable

economic option.

Transplant viability: Some bryophytes can be

transplanted and grow in terrariums, but most require

conditions that replicate their original forest habitat

conditions.

Collection

Part harvested: Whole plants grow twined together in a

mat and are easily peeled off limbs and stumps forming

a kind of “pelt.”

Harvest techniques: Moss is selected from vine maple

and off the ground because it is relatively green, free

of dirt, needles, and leaves. Dry moss is stripped from

trees, cleaned of debris, and air dried. Moss clumps

and fragments are left on the stem bark as inoculum for

regrowth. Moss is not harvested from the tips of tree

branches, which also leaves some inoculum for new

growth. It is carried out of the woods in large burlap

sheets or bags. When thoroughly dry, it is bound into

25-pound bales for shipment.

Harvest season: Moss is harvested and purchased

primarily in summer. In the Coast Range and at lower

elevations, moss is harvested almost year-round.

Regeneration after harvest: Regeneration is slow.

Plants will regenerate by growing new leaves and

branches from any remaining moss branch fragments if

they have rhizoids anchored to the bark.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Packing material, decorative mulch

around potted plants, and decorations in floral crafts.

Mosses and liverworts contain several secondary metabolites being investigated for various agricultural,

phytochemical, and pharmacological products.

Indigenous uses: Used as absorbent material for cradleboards and wrapping material.

Common products: Dried decorative mulch; dried

decorative greens.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Floral

industry, U.S. exports primarily to The Netherlands and

Germany. Craft market, mass market outlets such as

large chain stores.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Bryophytes recover slowly from harvest. Past forest

management practices decreased the habitat that supports large-diameter vine maple and other hardwoods.

Managing for diverse forest structure should help in

creating and maintaining mixed-conifer hardwood forests. Harvest levels increased in the 1990s and remain

high. Bulk harvest does not distinguish among species,

including rare species.

References

Greenaway (1991), Peck (1997), Peck and McCune

(1998), USDA Forest Service (1965), USDA and USDI

(1994), Vance and Kirkland (1997), Vitt et al. (1988)
Plants

45

Calocedrus decurrens (Torr.)

Florin

(Libocedrus decurrens (Torr.)

Florin)

Incense-cedar

Cupressaceae

CADE27

Ecology

Description: Native. Tall pyramidal trees, 25-40 m;

thick, smooth purplish brown bark; small scalelike

leaves densely surrounding branchlets; leaves yellowishgreen in four rows; seed cones up to 2.5 cm long.

Range and distribution: Oregon to California, south to

Baja, Mexico, western Nevada; 300-2500 m. Common

in mixed-evergreen forests. Continuous stands in southwestern Oregon, distribution more interrupted in northern and central Oregon. The trees grow as scattered

individuals or in small groups, rarely in pure stands.

More common on serpentine soil and may comprise

up to 50 percent of stand.

Associations: Western hemlock zone and mixed-conifer forest: white fir, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, canyon

live oak, Oregon white oak, California black oak, and

Pacific madrone. Common understory species include

manzanita, salal, ceanothus, whipple vine, poison oak,

and western sword fern.

Habitat: Grows well in various soil and climate types;

typically grows in areas with dry summers.

Successional stage: Early to mid successional, can be

an early colonizer after disturbance but reproduces

under Douglas-fir canopy. Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Many insects feed on incense

cedar cones, bark, or leaves but rarely cause significant

damage. Mature trees are protected from fire by their

thick bark; however, fire scars make trees susceptible to

Calocedrus decurrens

pocket dry rot. Small trees highly susceptible to fire;

seedlings have flammable bark and foliage, usually

totally consumed by fire; more mature trees have a

thicker basal bark (up to 15 cm) that adequately protects them from ground fires. Trees shed needles each

fall, creating a thick duff layer that fuels medium- to

high-intensity fires; seedlings do well, however, in bare

mineral soil created by burns or light duff layers. Honey

bees have been known to collect honeydew from

the incense-cedar scale (Xylococculus macrocarpae

Coleman).

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Pollen cones produced in

September, pollen shed in late winter to early spring.

Seed cones are mature in late summer.

Seed: Easily grown from seed. Seeds require prechilling

for germination. Seeds sown in fall have higher and

more uniform emergence.
Plants

46

Vegetative reproduction: Progeny can be produced

from rooted cuttings, though incense cedar does not

reproduce vegetatively in nature. Cuttings are difficult to

root; however, hardwood cuttings taken in August show

the best potential for rooting success.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Small plants collected in the wild

transplant easily.

Collection

Part harvested: For holiday greens and decoratives: at

least 46 cm of branch tip is clipped. Tips desirable with

pollen cones.

Harvest techniques: The tips of branches are clipped

leaving a live side branch. This permits the tree to develop new tips for future harvest.

Harvest season: Once the temperatures are low enough

for a hard frost, the tree will harden off and cut boughs

will have longer storage and product life.

Regeneration after harvest: When bough tips are

removed correctly, branch sprouts regrow to reharvestable length in 3 to 5 years.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Boughs: decorative and floral uses;

wood: home exterior use because the lumber is exceptionally durable and resistant to decay; trees: landscaping. Primary wood used in making pencils.

Indigenous uses: Wood: housing and fence posts; bark:

temporary camp housing and basketry; roots: basketry;

boughs and twigs: brooms, implements and flavorings;

leaves: infusion steam for colds and stomach troubles.

Common products: Fresh and preserved Christmas

greenery, preserved craft materials, dried potpourri,

specialty woodcrafts and landscape ornamentals.

Types of markets: Local: direct marketing of finished

holiday greenery: products and retail landscape nursery

plants; Regional: wholesale bulk cut greenery; National:

preserved craft material for dried floral arrangements.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Incense-cedar is the one of three species in the genus

Calocedrus found in the United States. Calocedrus was

recently separated from the genus Libocedrus based on

geographic distribution, and vegetative and reproductive

morphology. It is not a true cedar but a member of the

Cupressaceae family that includes many of the most

important species in the horticultural trade.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Burns and Honkala (1990), Earle

(1999), Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Habeck (1992a),

Hall (1988), Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998),

Kruckeberg (1993), Moerman (1998a, 1998b), USDA

Forest Service (1963), Young and Young (1992)
Plants

47

Capsella bursa-pastoris

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)

Medik.

Shepherd’s purse

Brassicaceae

CABU2

Ecology

Description: Exotic. Annual herb; finely hairy; stems

to 50 cm, simple to usually branched; basal leaves in

rosette, 3-6 cm long including the stalks, lance shaped,

toothed to pinnately divided; stem leaves alternate,

stalkless and clasping, lance shaped to oblong, irregularly toothed; many flowered raceme inflorescence; small

white flowers, four petals each to 4 mm; fruits flattened, triangular to heartshaped silicles; many small

seeds, oblong, reddish brown with single ridge on each

side.

Range and distribution: Widespread weed throughout

most of North America; low to subalpine elevations.

Widespread and common.

Associations: Mixed-conifer/hardwood forests. Forbs

and grasses of open, disturbed land.

Habitat: Waste places, roadsides, fields, gardens, and

disturbed sites.

Successional stage: Early successional. Colonizes

following disturbance. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Seeds eaten by birds and small

rodents; when wet, seeds become sticky and can trap

insects; reported to reduce mosquito larvae; often harbors fungi that can be transmitted to cabbage, turnips

and other members of the mustard family.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: One of the first plants to flower in spring, flowering and seed production may occur

from April to September.

Seed: Seeds itself abundantly. Seed may be dispersed

by birds and foraging animals.

Vegetative reproduction: Does not reproduce

vegetatively.
Plants

48

Cultivation: Cultivation possible, but not recommended

because of weedy habit.

Transplant viability: Transplants best in early rosette

stage. Do not move plant during flowering and seed

production to avoid unwanted spread of species.

Collection

Part harvested: Entire plant.

Harvest techniques: Entire plant taken including roots.

Keep whole until used; does not store well.

Harvest season: Plants are harvested after plant forms

seed capsules. For proper identification, gather leaves

before flowering stage. Gather seeds summer to fall;

roots, autumn to spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Shepherd’s purse is an

annual and produces abundant seeds. As long as some

plants are left to produce seed, the patch will continue.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Medicinal, diuretic, astringent, and

styptic; edible leaves in salad, seeds as pepper, root as

ginger. Possibly to treat cancer and liver damage, antibiotic, and stop hemorrhaging (birth).

Indigenous uses: Young, peppery leaves used for food;

traditionally used during childbirth; analgesic, for dysentery and diarrhea, infusion for rashes, and poison ivy.

Common products: Tea, tincture, herbals, and food

and beverage additive.

Types of markets: Domestic. Herbal, natural, health

food, and condiment.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Use care not to spread the plant into uncontaminated

native plant communities. Other members of mustard

family may be mistaken for this species.

References

Burrill et al. (1996), Elias and Dykeman (1990), Foster

and Duke (1990), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and

Cronquist (1978), Moerman (1998b), Pojar and

MacKinnon (1994), Schofield (1989), Thomas and

Schumann (1993), Tilford (1998), Willard (1992)
Plants

49

Ceanothus L. spp.

Ceanothus, red root, buckbrush

Rhamnaceae

CEANO

C. velutinus Dougl. ex Hook., Snowbrush

ceanothus-CEVE

C. sanguineus Pursh, Redstem ceanothus-CESA

Ecology

Description: Native. Rounded to spreading, single to

many stemmed, thicket-forming evergreen shrub; typically 1-3 m, but can reach 3.7 m or more in the open;

bark olive-green when young, becoming gray or reddish-brown, finely furrowed and ridged at maturity;

roots often knotted, with inner bark characteristically

red; leaves alternate, evergreen, broadly oval, 3-6 cm

long, shiny and often sticky on top, velvety beneath,

three main veins, finely toothed, often tightly curling;

panicle inflorescence, 5-12 cm; small white flowers;

fruits three-lobed, explosive capsule, 4-5 mm, each with

single, shiny brown seed.

Range and distribution: Coast Range from British

Columbia to California, east to Alberta, South Dakota

and Colorado; C. velutinus var. hookeri (M.C.

Johnston), sea level up to 900 m; var. velutinus, 1000-

3000 m. Scattered individuals or patches, often forms

dense thickets on disturbed sites.

Associations: Western hemlock and Pacific silver fir,

grand fir zones. Douglas-fir, red fir, ponderosa pine and

mixed conifer, mountain maple, ninebark, manzanita,

serviceberry, shiny leaf spirea, and oceanspray.

Habitat: Dry to moist open forest habitats, rocky or

wooded slopes, sunny locations. Important component

of persistent brushfields after fire or timber harvest.

Successional stage: Colonizer following fire, early

successional. Shade intolerant.

Ceanothus velutinus

Ecological relations: Important food and cover for

various wildlife, especially in winter; browse for deer,

moose, mountain goats, small mammals; fruits and

seeds eaten by small mammals, birds and ants; attracts

bees and other pollinators; good secondary nectar and

pollen source; because of deep-rooting habit, can be

important in preventing soil erosion; nodules located on

the roots contain nitrogen-fixing fungi, which enhance

soil nutrients; soil aerator. As a shade-intolerant species,
Plants

50

snowbrush ceanothus requires disturbance for regeneration; regenerates from both long-lived seeds stored in

the soil and sprouts from the root crown. Often snowbrush forms dense stands after a fire.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from April to June,

fruits from May to August.

Seed: Prolific production, but varies annually; seed can

remain dormant in soil for 300 years; collect seed by

tying cloth bag over the clusters of capsules as the fruits

explode when ripe. Pretreatments of hot water and

prechilling are needed to soften seedcoat and to break

embryo dormancy; seeds are planted in fall or summer.

Early mortality of seedlings is high in the wild.

Vegetative reproduction: Propagated from stem cuttings; can sprout from the stump, root crown, or roots;

sprouting ability decreases with age of plant. Cuttings

are taken from young plants in summer.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Young seedlings can be transplanted, but for older plants, the deep taproot makes

transplanting almost impossible.

Collection

Part harvested: Foliar sprays, leaves, and root. Most

desirable roots have reddish or wine-colored bark.

Harvest techniques: No more than two of the smaller

peripheral roots are cut; not necessary to dig out the

entire root; removed soil is replaced; leaves gathered

conservatively.

Harvest season: Anytime; roots gathered in fall have

higher levels of active constituents.

Regeneration after harvest: Roots and foliage can

regenerate if plant is harvested conservatively.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Medicinal, lymphatic stimulant, astringent, tonic, antiseptic, for tonsillitis, to relieve internal

bleeding and nervous irritability; hair rinse; and ornamental. Is combined with purple bee balm for use in

cold and cough remedies. Substituted for commercial

black tea; crafted decorations.

Indigenous uses: Tea for tuberculosis, dermatological

aid, fevers, and coughs; tobacco, soaps, and cleaning.

Common products: Roots or leaves: herbal, tincture

(roots favored), and extracts. Foliage: dried craft materials for wreaths and floral arrangements.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal and herbal. Retail direct marketing at craft fairs and

farmer’s markets, wholesale commodity markets of raw

floral materials and unfinished wreaths.

Comments and Areas of Concern

There are more than 30 species of Ceanothus in the

Pacific West. Ceanothus sanguineus contains the surfactant glycoside, saponin. These compounds have a

soapy characteristic and may cause foaming when flower heads are shaken with water. Because saponins are

known toxins, products from this species should be

ingested with caution.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Conard et al. (1985), Franklin and

Dyrness (1973), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993),

Moerman (1998b), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al. (1998), Tilford (1993, 1998),

Tirmenstein (1990a), Willard (1992), Young and Young

(1992)
Plants

51

Chimaphila umbellata

Chimaphila umbellata (L.) Bart.

Pipsissewa, Prince’s pine

Ericaceae

CHUM

Ecology

Description: Native. Evergreen perennial subshrub;

stout stems to 35 cm long; whorled, oblong leaves

3-7 cm, shiny green above, toothed above the middle;

umbel inflorescence, several pink to red flowers (5 to

15) in small cluster, 5-7 mm long, radial and nodding;

fruits, 5-7 mm, erect capsules.

Range and distribution: Circumboreal, Alaska to

southern California to Eastern United States; 300-

2900 m. Common understory species in many habitat

types, but often does not reach dominance.

Associations: Pacific silver fir and western hemlock

zones. Present in many associations. Common in Pacific silver fir-Pacific rhododendron. Douglas-fir, Pacific

silver fir, and noble fir, subalpine fir, black huckleberry,

common snowberry, dwarf Oregon grape, rattlesnake

plantain, bunchberry dogwood, and twinflower.

Habitat: Dry to moist, cool, well-drained sites in conifer and mixed forests, clearings, humus and decomposing logs.

Successional stage: Mid to late successional. Shade

tolerant.

Ecological relations: Minor importance to elk. Component of white tailed deer winter diets. Pollinated by

bumblebees and staphylinid beetles. Soil aerator: the

long, horizontally spreading roots break up the soil and

allow the introduction of air, water, and organisms. Firesensitive species may survive moderate fire; however,

they are susceptible to damage and may show a strong

decline after fire. Typically absent on highly disturbed

sites.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from June to August.

Seed: Capsules contain thousands of seeds resembling

grains of dust, wind dispersed. Slow to germinate but

best propagation option; small size makes seed difficult

to collect; gathered in fall and sown immediately as

storage survival is not known. Requires stratification;

freeze-thaw cycles may help germination.
Plants

52

Vegetative reproduction: By division of underground

stems. The long rhizomes of the plant generally grow

quickly.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Difficult; seedlings may be transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Whole plant and leaves.

Harvest techniques: Aerial portion of plant collected

by using a knife or pruning shears, and clipping the

stems, leaving two brackets of leaves. If harvest is done

in this way, many of the plants in a patch can be collected without impacting regeneration. For medicinal purposes, only current year’s foliar growth is harvested. To

collect roots, a portion of the interconnected rhizome is

gently pulled up. Ends are clipped off and remaining

rhizome is replaced in the ground.

Harvest season: The herb is useful anytime; gathering

in fall allows seeds to mature; some herbalists prefer to

harvest plant in spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Generally poor for harvest

of roots or large amount of aerial portion. If foliage tip

is clipped, will regenerate with multiple branches.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Disinfectant, astringent reportedly less

irritating than manzanita, used for urinary tract infections and inflammation of the kidneys; leaves are edible.

Flavoring ingredient in some soft drinks and candy;

herbal teas; floral and decorative.

Indigenous uses: For head colds, backache, gonorrhea,

blisters, after birth for internal bleeding; root for eyedrops; for chest pain from heart conditions; tea for

kidney or bladder infection; for lowering blood sugar; to

induce sweating; and to flavor medicine.

Common products: Flavorings, herbal, medicinal,

dried, and fresh floral greens.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Beverage, herbal, and floral.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Has been harvested in large quantities for flavorings.

Monitoring of harvested plants in northern California is

indicating that recovery from total plant harvest takes

years. Chimaphila is on United Plant Savers North

American medicinal plants “To Watch” list.

References

Everett (1997), Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Hickman

(1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West

(1998), Leung and Foster (1996), Logan et al. (1987),

Matthews (1994), Mizerak (1998), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al. (1998), Seda (1989), Thomas

and Schumann (1993), Tilford (1998), United Plant

Savers (2000), Willard (1992)
Plants

53

Coptis laciniata Gray

Oregon goldthread, cut-leaved

goldthread

Ranunculaceae

COLA3

C. trifolia (L.) Salisb., Threeleaf goldthreadCOTR2

C. occidentalis (Nutt.) Torr. & Gray, Western

goldthread-COOC

Ecology

Description: Native. Evergreen perennial herb; 11-24

cm; bright yellow, threadlike rhizomes; touch of yellow

at base of leaf stalk; divided leaves with three deeply

lobed, toothed leaflets, shiny above, 2-6 cm; flowering

stalks shorter than the leaves, sepals linear, 8-10 mm,

greenish-white, petals shorter; fruits: follicles 10-12 mm;

follicle splits at maturity.

Range and distribution: Coptis laciniata: west-central

Washington to California; below 1000 m. Coptis trifolia: Alaska, British Columbia, northwest coast to Washington. Coptis occidentalis: eastern Washington, Idaho,

and western Montana; 600-1800 m.

Associations: Western hemlock, subalpine fir zones.

Western hemlock-Pacific rhododendron-dwarf Oregon

grape; Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, grand fir, red huckleberry, Oregon dogwood, evergreen violet, queencup

beadlily, and pipsissewa.

Habitat: Cool, moist, coastal forests at low to mid

elevation, wet sites, and streambanks.

Successional stage: Late successional. Predominant

ground cover in old-growth forests. Shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Rhizomes aid in soil aeration and

water infiltration. Used in small quantities as forage for

ruffed grouse. Adapted to dense shade and breaks up

the forest floor, thereby allowing micro-organisms important to breaking down decayed plant material and

releasing nutrients to thrive. Will sprout from the rhizome if undamaged after a fire; however, the rhizome is

sufficiently near the surface that moderately severe fires

may kill it. Leaves provide important deer forage in

some areas.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from March through

April. Fruits from April through June. Fruits consist of

follicles that contain 5 to 10 seeds each.

Seed: Small and difficult to collect, seeds disperse by

water. Fruits collected at maturity but before follicle

splits. Seeds sown as soon as ripe in ericaceous compost. Germination: 1 to 6 months at 10 °C. Seedlings

grown in cool shade.

Vegetative reproduction: Propagates easily from rhizomes.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants are commercially

available.

Transplant viability: Does not transplant well.

Coptis laciniata
Plants

54

Collection

Part harvested: Root primarily, also upper plant parts.

Harvest techniques: Recommended to gather carefully

from edge of patches. Collect only where species is

abundant. No more than 7.5 cm of rhizome and roots

are gently pulled up and clipped with shears. Roots are

clipped using clippers; do not pull out (see “Comments

and Areas of Concern” below).

Harvest season: Late summer and fall.

Regeneration after harvest: If rhizomes are impacted,

remaining plants may not survive well after harvest.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Roots: medicinal, antimicrobial, antiviral, liver stimulant, laxative, astringent, anti-inflammatory, uterotonic, antiparasitic, and styptic. Whole plant:

shady gardens and landscaping.

Indigenous uses: Native Americans chewed or made

tea from Coptis roots to treat mouth sores. The tea also

was used as an eyewash, to treat indigestion, and as a

tonic after prolonged illness.

Common products: Tea, tincture, capsules, and landscape plants. May be additive in goldenseal products.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Herbal,

horticultural, and landscape.

Comments and Areas of Concern

The rhizomes generally grow in the duff layer, rather

than the soil beneath, thereby making them highly susceptible to damage. Cannot support extensive collections. Moist areas and streamsides highly susceptible to

disturbance. Lives in sensitive habitat; yields a disproportionately small amount of medicine. One of the main

active ingredients in goldthread, berberine, also is found

in Oregon grape, a more common plant, thus, a better

substitute. This plant should not be used during pregnancy. Coptis is on United Plant Savers North American medicinal plants “To Watch” list. Fern-leaved

goldthread (Coptis aspleniifolia) and threeleaf goldthread (C. trifolia) are on the sensitive species list of

the Pacific Northwest Region.

References

Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Gardenbed (2000), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus

West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Munz and Keck

(1959), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Sullivan (1992),

Tilford (1993, 1998), United Plant Savers (2000)
Plants

55

Crataegus L. spp.

Hawthorn

Rosaceae

CRATA

C. douglasii Lindl., Black hawthorn-CRDO2

C. monogyna Jacq., Oneseed or common

hawthorn-CRMO3

C. suksdorfii (Sarg.) Kruschke, Suksdorfi’s

hawthorn-CRSU16

Ecology

Description: Crataegus douglasii: Native. Crataegus

monogyna: Naturalized, exotic. Crataegus suksdorfii:

Native. Crataegus: Deciduous tree or shrub to 5 m tall;

branches, lined with 2.5-7.6-cm curved thorns; flowers,

white in flat, terminate clusters; each flower has five

petals and many stamens; fruit, berry-sized pomes, in

clusters, and red to black.

Crataegus douglasii: leaves alternate 2-9 cm long,

wedge shaped, lobed, tip truncate, margin above base

toothed. Crataegus monogyna: leaves deeply lobed.

Crataegus suksdorfii: leaves wedge shaped, unlobed,

with a margin above base toothed.

Range and distribution: Crataegus douglasii: northern California to Alaska, east-central North America to

1700 m. Crataegus monogyna: chiefly western slope of

Cascade Range but has spread. Crataegus suksdorfii:

northern California montane, Coast Range and Klamath

north to British Columbia, east to Montana.

Associations: Mixed-hardwood/coniferous forests.

Black cottonwood, red alder, Oregon ash; nonforest

shrub-meadow communities, choke cherry, common

snowberry, wild rose, cow-parsnip, stinging nettle,

poison oak, and grasses.

Habitat: Prefers nitrogen-rich soils in open areas.

Streamsides, forest edges, meadows, grassland, roadsides, and along fencelines. Typically grows in riparian

thickets.

Successional stage: Early to mid successional. Responds to disturbance that creates openings particularly

in or near moist habitats. Low to moderate shade

tolerance.

Ecological relations: Provides food, nesting, and escape habitat to various animals and birds; dense thickets

serve as a buffer around wetland communities. Tolerates fire that does not damage root system; also an

offsite colonizer in the first two years after a fire. In

thick stands, provides fuel and can be severely impacted by fire. Good minor source of pollen for insects

where hawthorn is abundant.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from early May to

late August. Fruits ripen from mid July through

September.

Crataegus douglasii
Plants

56

Seed: Seed dispersed by animals. Fruits persist on tree

until winter. Collect fruit from tree or off the ground.

Seed extracted by maceration. Cold stratification increases germination, acid scarification also may help.

Sow seed early in fall or if stored in cold over winter,

sow in spring.

Vegetative reproduction: Can be propagated from

suckers that will sprout after removal of stems.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available for Crataegus douglasii.

Transplant viability: Can be purchased at nurseries;

grows well with ample watering, but grows slowly.

For best success, transplant a shrub that is at least

3 years old.

Collection

Part harvested: Flowering branch tips in spring (leaves,

flowers, buds, and thorns); berries in fall.

Harvest techniques: The outermost small limbs, when

flowering and leaves are just beginning to bud, are

clipped with pruners. Only leaves and berries within

reach from the ground are gathered to minimize impact

on the tree.

Harvest season: Spring for flowers, fall for berries.

Regeneration after harvest: Branches resprout from

buds on uncut portion of stem.

Uses and Products

Common uses: As a tonic to aid the cardiovascular

system. It is reported to increase circulation, serve as

an antioxidant, and steady a weak or erratic heartbeat.

Dried fruits (China), flowering tips, leaves, fruits

(Europe) carditonic, hypotensive, antibacterial, and

analgesic; cardiac drug preparations (Europe); flowering

tips used in sleep-inducing preparations; fruits as food,

in beverages, candied fruit slices, jams, wine in major

American Chinatowns.

Indigenous uses: Fruits and flowers used to create a

heart tonic. The wood, because of its strength, is used

for handles of small tools.

Common products: Dietary supplement, tea, tablets,

tinctures, and specialty foods.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Health

food and herbal.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Black hawthorn is similar to Columbia hawthorn

(Crataegus columbiana), which is hairier and smaller.

Notice which birds are feeding when harvesting hawthorn. Because it is so favored by various animals,

harvest lightly and over several locations. Suksdorfi’s

hawthorn and oneseed hawthorn, an introduced species

from Europe, may be invasive.

References

Antos et al. (1996), Burgett et al. (1989), Cooke

(1997), Habeck (1991), Hall (1988), Hickman (1993),

Hortus West (1998), Leung and Foster (1996), Pojar

and MacKinnon (1994), Rice (1997), Rose et al.

(1998), Sudworth (1967), Tilford (1998), USDA Forest

Service (1974)
Plants

57

Cupressus lawsoniana (A. Murr.)

(Chamaecyparis lawsoniana

(A. Murr.) Parl.)

Port-Orford-cedar

Cupressaceae

CULA3

Ecology

Description: Native. Evergreen tree, 20-65 m, pyramidal in youth, drooping branches; trunk less than 6 m

diameter, bark 15-25 cm thick, red-brown to tan, deep,

fibrous ridges, fire-resistant; scalelike leaves arranged in

fernlike sprays; pollen cone, pink to red, 2-3 mm; seed

cone, red-brown, 6-10 mm.

Range and distribution: Coastal northwest California,

Klamath Mountains, southwest Oregon; sea level to

below 1700 m. Uncommon; mixed stands with other

conifers, small pure stands or scattered trees.

Associations: Sitka spruce, western hemlock zones.

White fir, Douglas-fir, grand fir; dwarf Oregon grape,

salal, Pacific rhododendron, and evergreen huckleberry.

Habitat: Coastal conifer, mixed-evergreen, moist soils,

often on rocks with high magnesium and iron concentrations, sandy and clay loams. Grows in shade of other

conifers but grows faster in the open.

Successional stage: Early- and late-successional species. Shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Low palatability for browse;

mountain beavers and rabbits occasionally eat sapling

foliage, woodrats and porcupines eat the bark, squirrels

eat the cone seeds; susceptible to fatal root rot

(Phytophthora lateralis Tuck. & J.A. Milb.) caused

by soil-borne fungi.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Pollen and seed cones on

same branches; buds grow in spring, develop in summer, pollinate after spring; seeds mature in September

or October.

Seed: Dispersal from September through May. Seed

bearing starts from 5 years; production differs year to

year; heavy crops may occur every 4 to 5 years. Seeds

may be stored dried for more than 10 years.

Cupressus lawsoniana
Plants

58

Vegetative reproduction: Layering rarely occurs, and

plants do not naturally sprout. Stem cuttings easily

rooted if proper methods are followed.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Can be transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Boughs.

Harvest techniques: Branches are pruned from trees

leaving live side branches on each twig. No more than

50 percent of the total green mass is removed if future

harvest is planned. Boughs are not harvested when

raining or wet to avoid spread of root rot.

Harvest season: Annually, in fall after the first frost

when all growth has stopped and foliage cold hardened.

Regeneration after harvest: Can reproduce effectively

from seed after clearcutting or partial cutting stand of

trees.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Stems: poles, posts, specialty woodwork, and interior finishes; cut branches: flower arrangements and holiday greens; whole plant: wind

breaks and ornamental plantings. Popular in Asia for

woodenware, toys, and temple construction.

Indigenous uses: Wood: house planks, sweathouses,

and furniture; branches: brushes and brooms.

Common products: Branches: wreaths, swags, holiday and decorative crafts, aromatics; whole plant: landscaping or wind-break plant; stems: various wood

products.

Types of markets: Local: floral, crafts, restoration,

home landscaping, logs, and finished lumber. Regional:

floral, landscape, and restoration. International: floral,

landscape, and export logs and wood.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Buyers prefer boughs with “bloom”- yellow buds of

pollen cones, and will pay more for them. Leaves sometimes become needle or awllike because of grazing or

infection. Trees can live more than 600 years. Populations severely reduced by spread of Phytophthora. Use

caution in harvesting; guidelines available from Forest

Service to avoid spreading disease.

References

Burns and Honkala (1990), Franklin and Dyrness

(1973), Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998), Mizerak

(1998), Moerman (1998a), Munz and Keck (1959),

Uchytil (1990), USDA Forest Service (1965), Whitney

(1997), Young and Young (1992)
Plants

59

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link.

Scotch broom

Fabaceae

CYSC4

Ecology

Description: Exotic. Woody deciduous shrub to 3 m

tall, more or less erect; branches green and strongly five

angled; leaves small, dark green, mostly three-parted

with entire leaflets and arranged spirally up stems; stem,

dark green, waxy smooth, five-sided; stems group together to make a single branch cluster or shoot 50-100

cm long; flowers showy ranging from light yellow to

deep yellow with crimson wings, typical of pea family

having one banner petal, wings, and two keel petals.

Young plant often will spend 2 to 4 years in a grasslike

state until it has established an extensive root system.

Once established, it can grow annually from 30-75 cm

and generally attain heights of over 2.5 m.

Range and distribution: Western North America from

British Columbia to northern California. It is most invasive west of the Cascade Range but can be found on the

eastern slopes of the Cascade Range and in the Blue

Mountains of southeast Washington and northeastern

Oregon. Isolated populations have been identified in

cool, wet sites in northeastern Washington.

Associations: Mixed-hardwood/coniferous forests. Mid

to lower elevations. Also nonforest meadows, grasslands, farmland. Associated with various shrubs, forbs,

and grasses of fields and forest openings.

Habitat: Quickly invades areas where farming, forestry,

utility, and road building practices expose mineral soil.

May take advantage of land management practices that

favor spread of exotics. Tolerant of saline conditions.

Plants grow most rapidly in open areas having at least

12 hours of full sun and sufficient moisture.

Successional stage: Colonizer and early successional.

Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Like many leguminous species,

attractive to bees for its abundant pollen. Nitrogenfixing plant, does well in poor soil.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Fruits, black flattened pods

about 4 cm long. Flowering occurs on plants as young

as 2 years but is most abundant on plants over 4 years

old.

Seed: As the pod matures and dries, the two halves

warp in different directions and snap apart to throw the

seeds from 1-4 m. About 65,000 seeds per pound.

Seeds remain viable in the soil for many years.

Cytisus scoparius
Plants

60

Vegetative reproduction: Reproduces easily from

cuttings or suckers.

Cultivation: Introduced as ornamental; ornamental

cultivars and varieties sold at many commercial nurseries. Easy to cultivate and grow; it can take over a

garden.

Transplant viability: Readily transplantable if basic

requirements are met but not recommended because it

can spread readily to other areas.

Collection

Part harvested: Long straight shoots, without leaves,

seeds and flowers are desired.

Harvest techniques: Harvested stems are waxy and

green. Desired stems are unbranched single spikes

80-83 cm long gathered in 2-lb bunches. Stems hand

clipped with clippers are free of dirt, blemishes, insect

damage, and seed pods. Shoots must be dormant to

maintain quality during storage, processing, and shipment.

Harvest season: From September to May.

Regeneration after harvest: Good; branches sprout

below clipped top.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Erect green spikes with tiny leaves in

floral arrangements. Deep green color and waxy stems

used as accent in floral arrangements.

Indigenous uses: Not known.

Common products: Decorative stems, fresh and dried

flower arrangements.

Types of markets: Floral. International and domestic

markets for fresh floral, preserved floral arrangements,

and floral crafts.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Caution: Contains several toxic alkaloids that can depress the hearing and nervous system. Aggressive noxious weed, pollen common allergen during flowering

season. Native of Europe that escaped from cultivation

in 19th century to become a major pest to many landowners. Use care to not spread species inadvertently.

Washington State law requires scotch broom to be

controlled by landowners.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Burrill et al. (1996), Gill and

Pogge (1974), Kozloff (1976), Pojar and MacKinnon

(1994), Rice (1997), Schlosser and Blatner (1992),

USDA Forest Service (1965, 1974), Van Dersal et al.

(1938)
Plants

61

Dipsacus L. spp.

Teasel

Dipsacaceae

DIPSA

D. sylvestris Huds., Wild teasel- DISY

D. fullonum L., Common teasel- DIFU2

Ecology

Description: Exotic. Biennial herb, erect stem up to

2 m tall; stem is covered with several rows of downward-turned prickles; basal rosette of leaves and opposite leaves on stem; leaves deeply veined, up to 25 cm

long, entire or toothed; flowers 5-10 cm, purple, with

cylindrical heads; fruits four-angled and hairy. Dipsacus

sylvestris: flower subtended by prickly, curved involucral bracts that are longer than the head. Dipsacus

fullonom: spine tips of receptacular bracts recurved.

Range and distribution: Northern California to Oregon. Below 1700 m. Native to Europe. Common, increasing in the Pacific Northwest

Associations: Shrubs, herbs of open fields, moist

meadows; wild rose, thistle, grasses, and rushes.

Habitat: Moist sites, roadsides, pastures, old fields, and

disturbed areas.

Successional stage: Early successional. Colonizes after

disturbance. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Nectar producing, attracts bees.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from July to August.

Seed: Seed may be dispersed by birds and animals.

Readily germinates from seed.

Vegetative reproduction: Biennial; reproduction by

seed.

Cultivation: Was a commonly cultivated plant in

Europe; caution should be exercised because of weedy

habit.

Transplant viability: May be transplanted in rosette

stage, but has long tap-root.

Collection

Part harvested: Crown of plant and stems with seed

heads.

Dipsacus fullonum
Plants

62

Harvest techniques: Stems are prickly and may be

picked, but using shears or clippers and gloves is preferred.

Harvest season: Late summer through fall, after

flowering.

Regeneration after harvest: By seed only.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Stems and fruiting heads are preserved

for decorating and are commonly silvered or gilded for

winter bouquets. Fresh herb as bitter tonic; tea for

indigestion.

Indigenous uses: Medicinally for skin problems; seed

heads for carding wool (Navajo).

Common products: Dried floral decoration.

Types of markets: Domestic. Craft and floral.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Because it is a weedy exotic, care should be taken not

to spread seed. Has not been listed as noxious. Was

introduced in the west coast because seed heads used

for carding wool.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Burrill et al. (1996), Hickman

(1993), Hitchcock et al. (1969), Moerman (1998b),

USDA Forest Service (1963)
Plants

63

Equisetum L. spp.

Horsetail

Equisetaceae

EQUIS

E. arvense L., Common horsetail-EQAR

E. hyemale L., Scouring-rush-EQHY

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial. Rhizomatous; two

types of jointed stems: sterile stem: 10-60 cm, green,

branching (horsetail), hollow, whorled stems; fertile

stem: unbranched, 11-32 cm, fleshy, usually thick,

brown, tipped with a terminal cone, 2-3.5 cm long, of

clustered spores.

Range and distribution: Widespread, below 3000 m;

North America, Europe, Asia.

Associations: Conifer and mixed-conifer/hardwood

forests. Spruce, alder, Oregon ash, willow, salmonberry;

coltsfoot, and cow-parsnip.

Habitat: Various soils, moist to wet areas, from lowlands to alpine areas, in openings. Often found in disturbed, roadside ditches and irrigation waterways.

Successional stage: Early to late successional. Moderately shade tolerant

Ecological relations: Food for bears, low palatability to

deer and elk; shelter for small animals; rhizomes help

reduce erosion. Horsetail habitat is usually wet enough

that it does not go through frequent fires; however,

rhizomes are deep and typically survive even severe

fires.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Fertile stems appear first in

early spring; green sterile stems, later.

Seed: Produces spores, dispersed by wind or water.

Vegetative reproduction: Spreads from rhizomes.

Segments of rhizomes will sprout.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants are commercially available.

Transplant viability: Poor, but possible if entire plant

and root ball is dug up with the surrounding soil and

transplanted into a similar environment.

Collection

Part harvested: Whole female plant, also stems.

Harvest techniques: Stems are gathered in early

growth before leaves have elongated and silica concentrates in stem. Stalk just above base of plant is cut with

sharp clippers or knife.

Equisetum arvense
Plants

64

Harvest season: Early to mid spring.

Regeneration after harvest: If root-crown and rhizomes are intact, will resprout following season.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Silica extracted from horsetail is used in

remineralizing and diuretic medicinals. Aboveground

green portion used as medicinal, astringent, diuretic, and

to stop bleeding. Tender, young shoots are eaten raw or

boiled. Black, edible nodules attached to roots used for

food; dye. Additive in shampoos and skin care products; herbal dietary supplement for mineral content, pet

food flavoring; because it can concentrate gold in its

tissues, it has been used as an indicator in bioassays.

Indigenous uses: Poultice of stem for rash under arm

and groin; fertile stem roots used as powerful diuretic;

powdered stem in shoe to avoid foot cramps; for kidneys, strong infusion for constipation; stem for dysuria,

joint ache, headache, teething, cuts, poison ivy wash,

and as an abrasive.

Common products: Tincture, tea, and capsules.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Herbal

and medicinal.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Soil often sensitive to compaction; gather from the

margins of driest stands. Considered a weed with some

crops, and probably toxic to surrounding vegetation;

considered noxious in Oregon. Mature stems are not

considered edible because of high silicaceous content.

References

Ambrose and Johnson (1999), Burrill et al. (1996),

Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998), Mizerak (1998),

Moore (1993), Munz and Keck (1959), Ody (1993),

Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rice (1997), Schofield

(1989), Sullivan (1993), Tilford (1998)
Plants

65

Eriodictyon californicum (Hook.

& Arn.) Torr.

Yerba santa, mountain balm

Hydrophyllaceae

ERCA6

Ecology

Description: Native. Evergreen shrub; stems 1-3 m

erect with shedding bark, twigs sticky; leaves simple,

alternate, leathery, sticky, lance shaped to oblong,

4-15 cm; flowers white to purple, funnel to bell shaped,

at end of stems; fruit a four-valved capsule; seeds

1-1.5 mm.

Range and distribution: Northwest California, Cascade Range, Oregon; 60-1900 m. With decreased competition, can form pure, dense stands.

Associations: Annual grassland and oak woodland,

member of chaparral community; narrow-leaved buckbrush, white-leaved manzanita.

Habitat: Dry habitats of foothills, slopes, fields, roadsides, woodland, and chaparral. Common on south- or

east-facing slopes.

Successional stage: Both a residual colonizer and survivor in disturbed communities; mature shrubs found in

early-successional communities. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Lightly browsed by deer in winter

and spring; full seed capsules may be eaten by birds and

rodents; seeds by insects. Young shrubs provide cover

for birds and small mammals; in California found to be

valuable to bees for nectar and pollen. Yerba santa establishes after fire by sprouting from rhizomes or

through germination of seed stored in the soil. Resinous

leaves and branches produce flammable litter. Rhizomes

survive low- to moderate-intensity fires.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: From May to July; seed ripe

in September.

Seed: Germinates after disturbance such as a fire or

mechanical site preparation. Seedlings may be abundant

after fire.

Vegetative reproduction: Vegetative reproduction is

the most successful method of self-propagation.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. May be difficult but

can be done if the correct growing medium is created.

Plants are commercially available.

Transplant viability: May be transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves. Leaves of yerba santa and

narrow-leaf yerba santa (Eriodictyon angustifolium)

are carefully dried to avoid mold.

Eriodictyon californicum
Plants

66

Harvest techniques: Leaves are pruned, leaving most

of the plant intact. For commercial quantities, harvest

only in patches where plants are sufficiently abundant.

Harvested patches should be monitored for plant survival and regrowth.

Harvest season: Spring and early summer while foliage

is fresh and green and resins are high in the stem.

Regeneration after harvest: Does not regenerate

leaves after harvest.

Uses and Products

Common uses: For treating colds and asthma, pharmaceutical flavoring and expectorant, and food flavoring in

beverages and baked goods.

Indigenous uses: Branches and leaves in steam bath

for rheumatism; chewed plant for colds; leaves in a

wash for painful, fatigued limbs; poultice of heated

leaves applied to headaches; leaves-plant for rheumatism, tuberculosis, colds, to purify blood, gonorrhea,

stomach pains, asthma; also used by early settlers.

Common products: Tincture, smoking mixture, food

additive, and herbal medicinals.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal, herbal, and food processing.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Can be used in rangeland rehabilitation because the

plant establishes well in disturbed soil. Attractive to

pollinators. Eriodictyon is on United Plant Savers North

American medicinal plants “To Watch” list.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Franklin and Dyrness (1973),

Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998), Howard

(1992b), Leung and Foster (1996), McMinn (1970),

Mizerak (1998), Moore (1993), Munz and Keck

(1959), Thomas and Schumann (1993)
Plants

67

Frangula purshiana DC. Cooper

(Rhamnus purshiana DC. Cooper)

Buckthorn, cascara buckthorn,

chittum

Rhamnaceae

FRPU7

Ecology

Description: Native. Deciduous, erect, tall shrub or

small tree, up to 20 m; bark thin, smooth, silver-gray,

bitter tasting, trunk diameter 10-40 cm; twigs red to

brown; terminal bud not covered with scale; alternate

leaves, oblong, dark glossy green, 6-12 cm long, finely

toothed, prominent parallel veins; flowers greenishyellow, 3-4 mm, five sepals, petals and stamens,

8 to 40 in umbrella-shaped clusters in axils of leaves;

fruits blue-black to purplish-black berries, 5-8 mm

containing two to three seeds.

Range and distribution: British Columbia to California, mostly in western slope of Cascade and Coast

Ranges, but can be found in northern Idaho and northwestern Montana; below 2000 m. Widespread, brushy

stands, but not abundant.

Associations: Sitka spruce, western hemlock zones.

Coniferous and mixed-evergreen forests; Douglas-fir,

ponderosa pine, red alder, and vine maple.

Habitat: Lower mountain slopes, wet to semidry,

semishady sites, mixed-coniferous forest edge, and

chaparral.

Successional stage: Early to mid successional, often

found in understory of second-growth forests; rose

shrub community of Willamette Valley grasslands. Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Birds are the predominant distributors of seeds, as well as bears, raccoon, and other

mammals; browsed by deer, elk, and bears; thermal and

hiding cover. Cascara will sprout from the root crown

after low-intensity fires. Important nectar and pollen

source for pollinators, especially bees.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from April through

July, fruit ripens from July to September.

Seed: Usually reproduces by seed. Collect seed about

2 weeks before fruit is ripe. Sow outdoors in autumn or

cold stratify.

Vegetative reproduction: Layering and cuttings possible. Take hardwood cuttings in fall. Layering possible in

spring. Cut stems will resprout or coppice.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Seedlings and small saplings can

be transplanted.

Frangula purshiana
Plants

68

Collection

Part harvested: Bark of limbs and small trunks, should

come off with ease; underneath side a bright golden

yellow color; store bark as long as possible before use,

at least 1 year; pick fruit about 2 weeks before fully

ripe.

Harvest techniques: After harvesting bark, tree is cut

leaving sufficient stump so it can resprout.

Harvest season: Collection from mid-April to end of

August.

Regeneration after harvest: May resprout stems from

stump of cut tree assuming a shrubby form.

Uses and Products

Common uses: For digestive tract, skin protectant.

Indigenous uses: Bark boiled, tea as laxative, washing

sores and swellings, treating heart strain, and internal

strains.

Common products: Bark yields cathartic drugs. Bark

widely collected and processed by pharmaceutical companies for laxatives; sunscreen; dyes.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal, herbal, and mass market.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Bark and fruits toxic in excess, especially to children.

The inner bark is especially potent before it is cured.

Older trees cut for bark are becoming uncommon. Most

sprout back but trees converted to shrubs. Frangula is

on United Plant Savers North American medicinal

plants “To Watch” list.

References

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1995), Franklin

and Dyrness (1973), Habeck (1992b), Hickman (1993),

Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998),

Kruckeberg (1993), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al. (1998), Seda (1989), Sudworth

(1967), Thomas and Schumann (1993), United Plant

Savers (2000), Whitney (1997), Willard (1992), Young

and Young (1992)
Plants

69

Gaultheria shallon Pursh

Salal

Ericaceae

GASH

Ecology

Description: Native. Erect to spreading evergreen

shrub; stems branched, hairy, 0.4-3.0 m; twigs reddish

brown with shredding bark; leaves alternate, leathery,

thick, shiny, egg-shaped, 5-10 cm long, sharply and

finely toothed; inflorescence raceme; sticky flowers

white or pinkish, 5 to 15, 7-10 mm long, urn shaped

on terminal clusters; fruits round, covered with tiny

hairs, reddish blue to dark purple 6-10 mm, each containing an average of 126 brown, 1-mm seeds.

Range and distribution: British Columbia from the

eastern slope of the Cascade Range to the coast along

southern California; below 800 m. Common forest

understory shrub in coastal forests, forms large, dense

thickets.

Associations: Sitka spruce, western hemlock, Pacific

silver fir, mixed-conifer zones. Western hemlock,

Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, red alder, vine maple, dwarf

Oregon grape, rhododendron, and western sword fern.

Habitat: Warm, moist forest margins, moist to dry

woods, rocky bluffs, brushfields, acidic soils pH about

5.0, and tolerates poor soil.

Successional stage: Not typically a colonizer; survives

disturbance. Commonly attains peak abundance in midsuccessional stages after fire, grows best at mid-light

levels. Shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Pollinated by bees and flies,

abundant nectar producer; seeds dispersed by various

birds and mammals; leaves, buds, and twigs browsed by

deer and elk, mountain beaver, white-footed vole; cover

for various species. Salal is adapted to shade and infrequent fires. The plant can sprout from rhizomes if the

aboveground portion is burned.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Generally flowers in late

spring or early summer, from May to July; fruit ripening

from August to October, may persist on the stem until

December. Flowers produce abundant nectar; honey is

light amber colored. Fruits are modified sepals, fleshy,

purple black with many seeds.

Seed: Propagation from seed is the most economical

means. Prechilling and light appear to help with germination; however, various sources have different recommendations. Seedling production is poor; few seedlings

establish; slow growing.

Vegetative reproduction: Grows from roots, rhizomes, underground stems, and layering; best results

from cuttings of new wood taken in late summer. Slow

to establish, but once established spreads well. Planting

spacing should be about 1 m.

Gaultheria shallon
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70

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available. Plants are commercially available for alpine wintergreen (Gaultheria humifusa) and

Oregon wintergreen (G. ovatifolia).

Transplant viability: Small plants have been successfully transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Fruit, branches, and leaves.

Harvest techniques: For floral markets, select green

and healthy branches, free of spots, blemishes, or insect

damage. Partial shade is required for a bright green

color and flattened sprays. Most buyers want a mixture

of “sprays” and single stems. Leaves are inspected for

deformities, spots, and insects. Brown spot disease

(Phyllostica gaultheriae Ell. & Ev.) is commonly the

limiting factor in determining whether a spray is marketable. Leaves are clipped from plants leaving over half of

the branches on each plant. Harvest is conservative and

spread over a wide area. Recommendation is for removal of no more than 25 percent of foliage from

plants on good sites. Fruit is picked by hand; some fruit

is left on each plant.

Harvest season: Fruit: from August through October;

branches: year-round, best in late spring to mid fall.

Regeneration after harvest: Fair to good depending on

site quality. Harvest rotation of 3 years reported on

better sites. Foliage reported to readily grow back.

Long-term monitoring is needed.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Medicinal: astringent and anti-inflammatory; floral: used as dried decorative filler, for

wreaths; landscaping: ornamental shrub, landscaping

ground cover, erosion control; food: fruit jams and

leaves of related species, for wintergreen flavoring

agent.

Indigenous uses: Food: fruit, berries eaten fresh, dried

or in cakes; trading and selling; medicinal: young leaves

chewed as hunger suppressant, leaves dried and mixed

with kinnikinnick and smoked; leaves to heal burns and

sores, teas used to treat coughs, tuberculosis and diarrhea, used in rituals and dances.

Common products: Teas and dried and dyed decorative greenery.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Floral,

craft suppliers, herbal, specialty, food, and nursery;

wholesale commodity markets buy greens directly from

harvester.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Salal is traditionally used by American tribes, and

Alaska Natives have requested limited commercial use

for salal. Anecdotal reports of scarcity of harvestable

plants in Washington and Oregon, smaller sized plants,

and plants with leaves showing more fungal disease.

Care should be taken not to spread disease through

collection practices. Creeping snowberry (Gaultheria

hispidula) listed as sensitive in Washington. Creeping

snowberry is rare in the United States and closely related to eastern tea berry (G. procumbens), a natural

source of wintergreen.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Cooke (1997), Freed (2000),

Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978),

Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Moore

(1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al.

(1998), Thomas and Schumann (1993), Tirmenstein

(1990b), USDA Forest Service (1963, 1965), Vance

and Thomas (1997), Whitney (1997), Young and

Young (1992)

Continued
Plants

71

Gentiana L. spp.

Gentian

Gentianaceae

GENTI

G. sceptrum Griseb., King’s gentian-GESC

G. calycosa Griseb., Explorer’s gentian-GESA

Ecology

Description: Native. About 300 species, 36 in Western

United States; annual or perennial herb; simple stems;

fleshy roots or slender rhizomes; opposite, occasionally

whorled, often clasping leaves; inflorescence compact

cyme or solitary flowers, bell or funnel shaped, four or

five lobed corollas, blue, violet purple, greenish, yellow,

red or white; capsule, two valved, many seeded. Gentiana sceptrum, 25-100 cm, leaves 10 to 15, 3-6 cm,

blue 3-4.5 cm flowers; G. calycosa, 5-30 cm.

Range and distribution: Temperate to subarctic and

alpine America and Eurasia. Gentiana sceptrum: from

British Columbia to California, western slope of Cascade Range to coast; G. calycosa: also to Rocky Mountains. Widespread and common for some species; others

locally abundant.

Associations: Sitka spruce, western hemlock, Pacific

silver fir zones. Western redcedar, alder, willow, black

cottonwood, and bog or moist meadow. Gentiana calycosa: mountain heather, black huckleberry, broadleaf

lupine, and showy sedge.

Habitat: Meadows; G. calycosa, moist open sites in

mountains; other gentian species including G. sceptrum,

lower foothills and near coast.

Successional stage: Component of well-developed,

stable plant communities. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Deer and elk have been known to

browse.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Gentiana sceptrum blooms

from July through September, G. calycosa from July

through October.

Seed: Abundant seed producer; seeds small; disperse

well. Seeds are sown in autumn to early spring on top

of well-drained, sandy soil, watered from beneath.

Germination in full sunlight.

Vegetative reproduction: May be rooted from stem

cuttings; difficult to start.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available for G. calycosa, G. sceptrum,

and other Gentiana species.

Gentiana calycosa G. sceptrum
Plants

72

Transplant viability: Difficult to transplant from the

wild. Should not be attempted.

Collection

Part harvested: All parts, but please see “Comments

and Areas of Concern.” Rhizomes and roots harvested

for medicinal purposes.

Harvest techniques: Plant tops are clipped, whole

plants have been dug up but not recommended.

Harvest season: Late summer and early fall.

Regeneration after harvest: Poor; regrowth slow.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea) native

to Europe is a well-known wild herb used as a bitter, for

anti-inflammatory tonics, beverages, and liqueur flavorings. Gentiana species: for improving thyroid function,

to aid digestion, and treat infection; rock garden landscaping.

Indigenous uses: Roots of some species used for

medicine.

Common products: Herbal tonic and tincture; garden

plants and seed.

Types of markets: International for herbal products,

landscaping plants and seeds.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Glaucous gentian (Gentiana glauca), swamp gentian

(G. douglasiana), and slender gentian (G. tenella) are

listed as sensitive (vulnerable or declining) in Washington; Newberry’s gentian (G. newberryi), elegant gentian

(G. plurisetosa), and Mendocino gentian (G. setigera)

are listed in Oregon. The latter two are U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service “species of concern.” Macoun’s

fringed gentian (G. macounii) and one-flowered gentian

(G. simplex) are listed in Montana as imperiled, and

four-parted gentian (G. propinqua) is listed in Idaho.

Yellow gentian (G. lutea) is listed as a European species

of concern by the World Wide Fund for Nature.

Gentiana sceptrum, national wetland indicator species.

Moist habitats highly susceptible to damage. Gentiana is

on United Plant Savers North American medicinal

plants “To Watch” list. Do not recommend wildcrafting.

References

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1995), Cooke

(1997), Duke (1997), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and

Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg

(1993), Moerman (1998b), Moore (1993), Pojar and

MacKinnon (1994), United Plant Savers (2000), USDA

NRCS (1999), USDA Forest Service (1988), Whitney

(1997), Williams (1990a, 1990b)
Plants

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Gypsophila paniculata L.

Baby’s breath

Caryophyllaceae

GYPA

Ecology

Description: Exotic. Perennial herb, 40 to 80 cm tall,

thick root; leaves opposite, narrow, 1.8 to 10 cm long

with pointed tips; flowers many, tiny, white, massed in

clusters, 1.6-3.2 mm wide; inflorescence diffusely

branched.

Range and distribution: Widely over Pacific Northwest, primarily east of the Cascade Range, 1200-2000

m. Native to east and central Europe. Widely scattered,

dense stands.

Associations: Dry Douglas-fir types, ponderosa pine,

bitter-brush, yarrow, sagewort, fescues and other graminoids.

Habitat: Dry, disturbed areas, pastures, and rangeland.

Grows on well-drained, poor, and alkaline soil.

Successional stage: Early colonizer; however, can

become firmly established after colonization. Appears

shade intolerant; cultivated species tolerate shade.

Ecological relations: Noxious weed. Once established,

it is difficult to control.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from June through

August.

Seed: Two to five black seeds about 2 mm long in small

capsule. Reproduces easily from seed; germinate in 1 to

2 weeks at about 20-27 oC temperature.

Vegetative reproduction: For cultivated varieties,

cuttings and tissue culture.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated, but can readily escape

and is difficult to control.

Transplant viability: Large taproot makes plant difficult to transplant.

Collection

Part harvested: Branching stems with inflorescent tops.

Harvest techniques: Stems clipped with knives or

clippers.

Harvest season: Summer, when plant is in early to mid

flower.

Regeneration after harvest: As long as root intact, will

Gypsophila paniculata
Plants

74

readily resprout following season. In favorable sites,

may regrow second crown with inflorescence after

clipping, during same season.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Flowering stems as filler in floral arrangements; whole plant, in gardens and flower borders.

Indigenous uses: Not known.

Common products: Floral, dried and fresh flower tops

and xeric landscape plant.

Types of markets: Domestic. Fresh floral, and floral

crafts; xeric or natural landscape.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Gypsophila from Latin meaning “gypsum loving.” This

Eurasian species originally brought to the United States

as an ornamental; has escaped cultivation and is now

scattered at low elevations throughout the region, especially in dry climates. Listed as a noxious weed in California and Washington. Once established, difficult to

control.

References

Antos et al. (1996), Burrill et al. (1996), Rice (1997),

USDA NRCS (1999)
Plants

75

Hypericum perforatum L.

St. John’s wort, Klamath weed

Hypericaceae (Clusiaceae)

HYPE

Ecology

Description: Exotic. Perennial herb from taproot; many

branched, erect stems 0.3-1.2 m, rust colored, woody at

base; leaves opposite, linear to oblong, 1.5-2.5 cm,

edges rolled under, black-dotted, lower surface cleardotted; flowers bright yellow, five petals, 8-12 mm with

black-dotted margins, twice as large as sepals, many

stamens; flowers bruise red, stain purple; fruit 7-8 mm,

brown seeds less than 1-mm with rows of pits.

Range and distribution: From Tacoma, Washington,

to southern California; below 1500 m, Pacific Coast to

Rocky Mountains. Weedy; commonly grows in dense

patches.

Associations: Various species of open grasslands, disturbed openings including annual fescues, wild oats,

bromes, needlegrass and bluegrass; and other exotics,

oxeye daisy, Queen Anne’s lace, as well as native herbs.

Habitat: Full sunshine on well-drained slopes, pastures,

abandoned fields, roadsides, and disturbed places.

Successional stage: Colonizer, early successional.

Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Flowers attract bees and other

pollinators; toxic to livestock; invader of disturbed sites;

listed as a noxious weed in several Pacific Northwest

states; has been successfully controlled in some areas

by the introduced beetle, Chrysolina quadrigemina

Suffrian; research directed toward controlling further

spread is ongoing.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Abundant; flowering late June

to August; flowers attractive to bees.

Seed: Copious seed production. Washing seeds can

improve germination capacity. A germination inhibitor

is present in the seed capsule exudate. Also, pretreatment for 7 to 14 days at 4 oC can increase germination

percentage.

Vegetative reproduction: Sprouts seasonally from tap

root, short runners or rhizomes. One creeping root

mass may have many aboveground plants. Occasional

clipping of flowering tops promotes root spread and

invigorates aerial stem growth.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Seeds are commercially

available from various sources.

Transplant viability: Can be transplanted, but exercise

caution because it spreads rapidly.

Hypericum perforatum
Plants

76

Collection

Part harvested: Flowering tops (leaves and flowers).

Harvest techniques: The uppermost flowering stems

of the plant provide the highest quality product. Plants

are cleaned of insects before collecting. Plants are

clipped in late spring-early summer when flowers are a

mixture of buds and blossoms. If flowering stems are

cut early in the season, they will rebloom and seed.

Harvest season: Annually, from early to mid bloom,

June to early August.

Regeneration after harvest: Good, resilient perennial.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Used as an antidepressant and sedative, for various mood and nervous disorders, antiinflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, astringent,

antiseptic, and for healing wounds. Reported to have

antiretroviral activity especially in the presence of light.

Indigenous uses: Used traditionally in Europe most

commonly as a wound healer, but was also hung over

doorways, pinned onto clothes or kept under the pillow

for symbolic protection against the “evil spirits” that

were thought to cause illness. Indigenous American

(Cherokee and Iroquois) uses include an infusion taken

for bloody flux and bowel complaint, cough, fever, and

crushed plant sniffed for nosebleed; milky substance on

sores and venereal disease; root as wash to give infants

strength; to prevent sterility.

Common products: Tinctures, oils, capsules, tea bags,

red dye, and extract in alcoholic beverages.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Dietary

supplement and herbal.

Comments and Areas of Concern

When collecting wild Hypericum perforatum, check for

herbicide application particularly near roadsides and

settled or farmed areas. Grows in disturbed sites; typical

impact from harvest may encourage spread. An invasive

species exotic to North America, considered a noxious

weed in Montana, Oregon, and Washington. Cultivation

should be undertaken with care to prevent the spread of

the plant beyond the cultivated area. Seeds readily stick

to animals, vehicles, and clothes. NOTE: It is illegal to

grow H. perforatum in Washington and Montana; seed

suppliers will not ship to these states.

References

Brevoort (1998), Burrill et al. (1996), Campbell and

Delfosse (1984), Cooke (1997), Everett (1997), Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998), Leung and Foster

(1996), Mizerak (1998), Moerman (1998b), Moore

(1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rice (1997),

Thomas and Schumann (1993), Tilford (1998), USDA

Forest Service (1988), Vance and Thomas (1997)
Plants

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Juniperus L. spp.

Juniper

Cupressaceae

JUNIP

J. occidentalis Hook., Western juniper-JUOC

J. scopulorum Sarg., Rocky Mountain juniper-JUSC2

Ecology

Description: Native. About 60 species in the Northern

Hemisphere, 13 native to the United States; Juniperus

occidentalis and J. scopulorum most common in the

Northwest; shrub, tree, generally dioecious; bark thin,

peeling in strips; leaves opposite and four-ranked or

whorled in threes and six ranked, scalelike to less often

needlelike; male flower, short catkin, 3-5 mm, pollen sacs

two to six per scale; seed cone 5-18 mm, scales fused and

fleshy, berrylike; seeds one to three per cone, flat, unwinged; immature “berries” greenish, ripen blue-black to

red-brown, covered with white, waxy bloom. Juniperus

occidentalis: slow growing and long lived; full crowned,

heavy limbed tree 4.6-9.1 m, average circumference 107

cm; bark reddish brown, furrowed, and shredded; spreading branches; leaves mostly in threes 1.5 mm, scalelike,

gray-green; cones 6-10 mm, berrylike, blue-black with a

bloom, juicy, resinous, two to three seeds. Juniperus

scopulorum: shrub to small tree, conical crown shape;

6.1-15.3 m, diameter to 45 cm; bark reddish gray to

brown, furrowed and shredded; slender twigs; blue-green

scalelike leaves 1-4 mm, mostly opposite; cones berrylike,

bright blue with whitish coat, juicy, resinous, and two

seeds.

Range and distribution: Widely distributed throughout

the temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern

Hemisphere; common juniper (J. communis) is the only

conifer with worldwide distribution; J. occidentalis: from

central, southeast Washington to California, to 3048 m;

J. scopulorum: of junipers reaching tree size, it is the

most widely distributed in North America; much of

Pacific Northwest, Rocky Mountains, Great Basin, central British Columbia, to eastern Washington and Oregon;

Juniperus scopulorum J. occidentalis

California juniper (J. californica), southwest Oregon

and California. Juniperus occidentalis: scattered individuals, small groups, extensive stands depending

on range (greatest abundance in central Oregon);

J. scopulorum: scattered, but concentrations generally

follow Rocky Mountains.

Associations: Juniperus occidentalis: ponderosa pine,

big sagebrush, Idaho fescue, and bluebunch wheatgrass; J. scopulorum: component of the foothills or

woodland coniferous zone, complex transition zones or

exposed or severe sites within other forest types; most

common understory is big sagebrush.
Plants

78

Habitat: Juniperus occidentalis: mountain slopes and

plateaus, mostly on shallow, rocky soils; occurs in zone

between ponderosa pine communities and sagebrush

steppe; J. scopulorum: open, exposed sites, rocky calcareous soils, wide range of sites in drier lower foothills

of Rocky Mountains and northern plains.

Successional stage: Juniperus occidentalis: indicator

of climax in many sagebrush-grassland, shrub-steppe

and drier conifer habitat types; J. scopulorum: indicator

of climax in many ponderosa pine, mountain brushland,

and sagebrush-grassland habitat types; because of its

ability to survive where other species cannot, it is considered a pioneer species in some early-successional

communities. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Wildlife cover, nesting and hibernation sites, shade, and food; seeds disseminated during

fall primarily by birds and mammals; browsed only on

winter ranges; helps prevent erosion on steep hillsides.

In general, junipers are highly vulnerable to fire and

usually occur in large numbers only in fire refugia.

Typically juniper does not resprout after fire, but seeds

in the soil may germinate. Some juniper species can

survive light fires.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Begin bearing at 10 to 20

years old; flowers borne in spring, fruit ripens in fall of

second year; remains on tree for 2 years until mature.

Seed: Seeds dispersed in fall usually by birds. Good

seed production; seeds removed by macerating and

flotation, and store quite well; warm and cold stratification needed; sown in fall or spring, germination completed in several weeks.

Vegetative reproduction: Does not naturally reproduce

vegetatively; grafting, cutting, and layering possible.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Does not transplant well from

natural environment.

Collection

Part harvested: Berries, leaves, and branches.

Harvest techniques: Berries are picked when dark blue

and juicy; collect fruit by handpicking or after berries

drop off tree to ensure picking 2-year-old ripe fruit;

leaves and branch tips clipped. Berries can be picked in

bunches by pruning twig tips; also can be removed by

hitting branches with a strong stick and collecting berries

on a plastic ground cloth. Twigs with firm, blue berries

are harvested by pruning the branches. Branches need

to be at least 30 cm long.

Harvest season: Collect berries in fall; leaves and

branches anytime. Floral products: branches are picked

after the berries harden off but before they fall. Best

time is mid summer.

Regeneration after harvest: New branches can sprout

below clip point, particularly if younger branches are

clipped. In dry locations regrowth is slow.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Wood: fencing, decks, paneling, furniture, particleboard, toys, and firewood; boughs: Christmas wreaths and decorations; used as a diuretic,

laxative; in soaps, detergents, perfumes; extracts and

oils used in major food categories, gin, herbal tea flavoring; cosmetics; insecticides; whole plant: to inhibit bacteria, as a tonic, for low blood sugar; as a garden

ornamental and for landscaping.

Indigenous uses: Food, gastrointestinal aid, coughs,

colds, analgesic, poultice for wounds, liniment, ceremonial paint, and decorations.
Plants

79

Common products: Specialty lumber, finish wood,

decorative fruits and greens, Christmas wreaths, table

decorations, grave blankets, door arches, medicinal

herbal products, and transplants.

Types of markets: Domestic and international markets

for holiday greenery, health food, herbal, specialty food,

and specialty lumber. Domestic markets for home decoration materials and native landscaping products.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Do not use during pregnancy or in presence of kidney

disease; gather conservatively; it is important wildlife

food and shelter source, and it regenerates slowly. Juniper is traditionally used by Alaska tribes, and Alaska

Natives have requested limited commercial use. Is considered an invasive species in sagebrush-steppe rangelands of eastern Oregon where fire has become less

frequent. Since 1936, juniper forests have increased

fivefold from 456,000 to 2.2 million acres in eastern

Oregon.

References

Burns and Honkala (1990), Gedney et al. (1999), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus

West (1998), Leung and Foster (1996), Moerman

(1998b), Schofield (1989), Tilford (1998), Tirmenstein

(1986a, 1986b), USDA Forest Service (1974), Whitney

(1997), Willard (1992), Young and Young (1992)
Plants

80
Plants

81

Ligusticum L. spp.

Lovage, osha, licorice-root

Apiaceae

LIGUS

L. apiifolium (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray) Gray,

Celeryleaf lovage- LIAP

L. canbyi Coult. & Rose, Canby’s lovage-LICA2

L. grayi Coult. & Rose, Gray’s lovage- LIGR

Ecology

Description: Native. About 25 species in North America and Eurasia. Perennial herb to 120 cm; stems hollow

and stout; root large, brown, fibrous at base, spicy

celery odor; mostly basal leaves pinnately divided into

one to four pairs, up to 20.3 cm long; umbel inflorescence 5-13 cm broad; flowers white or pinkish; fruit,

small oblong, ribbed.

Range and distribution: High elevations in British

Columbia, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Blue Mountains in Oregon; most species ring the Great Basin, east

of the Sierras, Nevada ranges and along the Rocky

Mountains; up to 3658 m. Ligusticum apiifolium from

Washington to California at low elevations, L. canbyi in

Washington, Idaho, Blue Mountains, L. grayi in the

Cascade and Sierra Ranges to Nevada.

Associations: True fir, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine,

mixed-coniferous forests. Willow, angelica, false

Solomon’s seal, stinging nettle, cow-parsnip, sedges,

and bluegrass.

Habitat: Wet mountain meadows, montane forests,

marshes, along streambanks, sparsely wooded slopes

and prairies.

Successional stage: Mid to late successional; in stable

plant communities. Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Eaten by moose, deer, and other

large animals; flowers attract pollinators. Called “bear

medicine” based on observations of sick bears eating

Ligusticum apiifolium L. canbyi

the plant and rolling in patches of osha. Highly palatable

to livestock.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Ligusticum apiifolium flowers

from May through July; L. grayi and L. canbyi flower

from July to September.

Seed: Small, about 1-2 mm in length. Difficult to start

from seed. Reproduction naturally poor from seed.

Vegetative reproduction: From root division.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Seeds are commercially

available for Porter’s lovage (L. porteri).

Transplant viability: Nearly impossible to transplant.
Plants

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Collection

Part harvested: Root.

Harvest techniques: Roots are dug conservatively from

healthy patches. Patches are approached carefully as the

wet environment is sensitive to impact. Roots are dried

quickly as they are susceptible to mold.

Harvest season: After flowers have gone to seed but

before aerial parts die back (making identification difficult).

Regeneration after harvest: Osha and its habitat are

sensitive to harvest. Consider alternatives for the same

effects.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Antiviral, expectorant, to induce sweating, upper respiratory infections, herbal baths and deodorants; parsley substitute.

Indigenous uses: Colds, sore throats, and sinus infections.

Common products: Teas, tinctures, capsules, and

essential oils.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Herbal

and medicinal.

Comments and Areas of Concern

About 18 species occur in the mountain ranges of the

West. Ligusticum species is being substituted for Chinese Ligusticum herbs. Because of market pressure and

habitat loss, Ligusticum species are becoming increasingly rare; suggest finding alternatives. Use caution

when collecting; osha resembles poison hemlock. One

of the seven wild medicinal plants under a moratorium

imposed on harvest or removal from Montana State

lands. No permits are being issued on National Forest

System lands and collection or harvest is not permitted

on National Forest System lands in the Northwestern

and Intermountain Regions. Ligusticum on United Plant

Savers North American medicinal plants “At Risk” list.

References

Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978),

Hortus West (1998), Medicine Roots (2001), Moore

(1993), Niehaus (1976), Ross and Chambers (1988),

Schofield (1989), Tilford (1993), United Plant Savers

(2000), USDA Forest Service (1988), USDA NRCS

(1999), Willard (1992)
Plants

83

Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.)

Mathias & Constance

Desert parsley, fern-leaved

lomatium

Apiaceae

LODI

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial herb; 30-140 cm; stalks

extending well above foliage; umbel inflorescence,

bracts of umbellets narrow; basal, leaves, finely dissected, fernlike, 15-35 cm wide; flowers yellow or purple;

fruits 12-16 mm; seeds large, flat oval, slightly winged.

Range and distribution: Mainly the Great Basin,

eastern Washington and southern Oregon to Colorado;

sporadically from California to Western Canada; 150-

3000 m. Large stands, but widely separated.

Associations: Dry Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, junipersagebrush, shrub-steppe zones. Ponderosa pine, black

hawthorn, common snowberry, big sagebrush, arrowleaf balsamroot, yarrow, penstemon, bluebunch

wheatgrass, and fescue.

Habitat: Wooded or brushy, rocky slopes, dry hillsides,

and meadow steppe.

Successional stage: Part of established prairie plant

community, but can be colonizer after disturbance on

exposed rocky soil. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Large taproot stabilizes soil;

forage plant, sometimes upper parts and roots are eaten

by rodents, bears, bighorn sheep, deer, and elk; flowers

are pollinator attractors, among first to bloom in spring.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Blooms in early spring, from

April through June.

Seed: Reproduction primarily by seed. Collect seed

before fully dried to avoid beetles drilling seed. Bring

into greenhouse to dry. Multicycle germinator; needs

pretreatment for full germination.

Vegetative reproduction: Can reproduce from tuberous portions of the root.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Seeds are commercially

available.

Transplant viability: Young plants can be put into

“long cells” to increase root systems before transplanting; difficult to propagate; do not transplant well.

var. eatonii var. multifidum

Lomatium dissectum
Plants

84

Collection

Part harvested: Root.

Harvest techniques: Do not collect commercially in

southern Oregon. If it is collected for personal use, be

sure root crowns are replanted. Easier to find, identify

and dig earlier in the year.

Harvest season: Late spring, summer, early fall (spring

is easiest time to identify).

Regeneration after harvest: If enough of root and

root crown left, can regenerate from root.

Uses and Products

Common uses: As an antiviral, expectorant, antimicrobial, immunostimulant, for respiratory and skin infections; starchy root stock has been used as flour

substitute in allergenic diets.

Indigenous uses: Infusion of root to increase appetite,

and to treat tuberculosis, arthritis, dandruff, and pimples. Root combined with tobacco for sinus trouble.

Pounded roots applied to open cuts, sores, and bruises;

root chewed for sore throat; young shoots eaten; mature tops and roots considered poisonous, and purple

shoots considered poisonous by Okanogan and Colville

Native Americans.

Common products: Medicinal and herbal.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal and herbal, dietary supplement.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Loose, rocky growing site can be heavily impacted

during harvest; slow growing. Consumer demand increasing. There are several dozen species in the Pacific

Northwest; many of them are sensitive, rare, and at

risk. One of the seven wild medicinal plants under a

moratorium imposed on harvest or removal from Montana State lands. In Northwestern and Intermountain

Regions of the USDA Forest Service, removal or collection of all Lomatium species is not permitted. In the

Pacific Northwest Region of the USDA Forest Service,

12 Lomatium species are listed. Geyer’s lomatium (L.

geyeri) is listed in Montana as critically imperiled, and

in Idaho, Salmon River lomatium (L. salmoniflorum) is

listed as rare and imperiled. Lomatium dissectum on

United Plant Savers North American medicinal plants

“At Risk” list.

References

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1995), Craighead

et al. (1991), Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Hickman

(1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West

(1998), Mizerak (1998), Moore (1993), Niehaus

(1976), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Tilford (1993,

1998), United Plant Savers (2000), USDA Forest Service (1988)
Plants

85

Oplopanax horridum (Smith) Miq.

Devil’s club

Araliaceae

OPHO

Ecology

Description: Native. Erect to slightly spreading deciduous shrub, 1-3 m; stems 1-4 cm thick, crooked, almost

unbranched but often entangled, dense large yellowish

spines up to 1 cm long; leaves alternate, up to 35 cm

across, maple-leaf shape, prominent veins, seven to

nine sharply pointed and toothed lobes, numerous

spines on underside; flowers small, 5-6 mm, whitish,

numerous in compact pyramidal terminal clusters; bright

red, flattened shiny berries, 5-8 mm, in large clusters,

with two to three seeds.

Range and distribution: Alaska to Oregon, east and

west slope of the Cascade Range, east to Idaho and

Montana, also sparsely distributed as far east as Ontario

and upper peninsula of Michigan; low to middle elevations, below 1525 m. In cool, moist, shaded habitats

may form nearly pure, dense stands.

Associations: Sitka spruce, Pacific silver fir, mountain

hemlock, western hemlock zones. Sitka spruce, western

redcedar, Alaska-cedar, western hemlock, Douglas-fir;

Alaska huckleberry, salmonberry, vine maple; deerfoot

vanillaleaf, western trillium, lady fern, and bedstraw.

Habitat: Moist woods, along streams, wet but welldrained seepage sites, and avalanche tracks.

Successional stage: Mid to late successional, will

fill in alluvial openings. Shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Emergent leaves and stems in

spring and fruit in summer eaten by bears; browsed

lightly by deer and elk; leaves eaten by slugs; provides

shade cover for salmonid fishes and eggs; hiding, escape, and thermal cover for various birds and rodents;

provides stream-edge protection and buffer to prevent

human-livestock intrusion into wetlands.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers in late spring to mid

summer from June through August, fruits ripen about

4 weeks later and remain over winter.

Seed: Seeds collected from ripe fruit and sown in

autumn. Requires moist shady conditions and rich,

well drained potting soil. Seedlings transplant after

1 year old.

Vegetative reproduction: Regenerates naturally

through layering. To vegetatively propagate, cuttings

should be taken in late spring. Take cuttings from horizontal branches with at least one leaf bud scar; stick

into well-drained potting mix; keep moist and cool.

Oplopanax horridum
Plants

86

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Transplants well into appropriate

habitat by using rooted stem cuttings.

Collection

Part harvested: Root bark or whole roots, aerial and

layered stems, berries, and leaves.

Harvest techniques: Stem harvesting concentrated on

outer edges of patches. As many true roots are left with

attached stem pieces in the ground as possible. If patch

is greater than 100 m2

, interior patch harvesting is more

acceptable but proceed cautiously, especially in Oregon

and southern Washington where Devil’s club is not as

extensively distributed as in areas farther north. Until

monitoring shows otherwise, no more than 20 percent

of patch is harvested. After being harvested, a patch

is left undisturbed until regrowth replaces amount

harvested.

Harvest season: Late summer-early fall. Occasionally

spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Good, damage to stems

initiates new shoot growth.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Astringent, cathartic, to induce sweating and lower blood sugar, expectorant and respiratory

stimulant; only the young spring shoots are edible. Increasingly used as a specialty ornamental species in

shaded gardens.

Indigenous uses: Extensively used; to Alaska natives

and indigenous people of the north Pacific coast it is

one of the most important of all medicinal plants. Roots

are the major part used for many ailments, including

arthritis, ulcers, digestive tract ailments, diabetes (still

used today), medicinal tea, poultice, and liniment; hair

tonic; protective charms and body paint; fishing lures

and dyes.

Common products: Dietary supplement, bulk milled

and dried for tea and herbal tinctures, fresh tinctures.

Types of markets: International and domestic; herbal and medicinal. Primarily domestic for landscape

markets.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Devil’s club has the potential to be overharvested as

its popularity increases. This species may be found in

easily damaged habitats. Riverbanks and other sensitive

areas should be avoided. Central Oregon marks its

southern range, where it is limited to moist draws.

Devil’s club is listed as threatened in Michigan. Commercial harvest is not permitted on the Tongass National Forest in Alaska.

References

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1995), Cooke

(1997), Gardenbed (2000), Hitchcock and Cronquist

(1978), Hortus West (1998), Howard (1993), Kruckeberg (1993), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon

(1994), Roorbach (1999), Rose et al. (1998), Thomas

and Schumann (1993), Vance and Thomas (1997),

Whitney (1997)
Plants

87

Pachistima myrsinites Raf.

False box, Oregon boxwood

Celastraceae

PAMY

Ecology

Description: Native. Low, evergreen shrub to 60 cm

tall; oval to elongate leaves, opposite, 1-3 cm long,

leathery, toothed margins, and darkly evergreen; flowers

small and maroon, in clusters along branches; fruit

mostly white, oval capsules.

Range and distribution: Northern Mexico to British

Columbia, Rocky Mountains; 600-2000 m. Common

throughout mountainous forests of the West. Dominant

shrub in many habitat types.

Associations: Subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, grand

fir zones. Hemlock, western redcedar, lodgepole pine,

mountain maple, mountain snowberry, bunchberry

dogwood, huckleberry, ninebark, sweet-cicely, queencup beadlily, heartleaf arnica, meadow rue, and

pinegrass.

Habitat: Shaded places, dense woods, also rocky openings, and clearings.

Successional stage: Early to late succession. Will

establish in openings. Shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Good browse for deer, elk, and

moose. Occasionally browsed by livestock but not considered an important forage. Can be used to revegetate

disturbed sites. Can sprout from buds on the taproot or

from the root crown after low- or moderateintensity fire.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Fruits from June through

September. The seed may remain viable for decades.

Seed: Dispersed by gravity. Seeds retain viability for

long period. Some seedling establishment may occur

from seedbank in soil. May need stratification to break

dormancy.

Vegetative reproduction: Easily reproduced from

cuttings. Stem cuttings are taken in early fall. Reproduces naturally from layering.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Although transplantable, a less

intrusive procedure is to take stem cuttings. With this

method, there is less risk of forest ground cover and soil

disturbance.

Pachistima myrsinites
Plants

88

Collection

Part harvested: Leafy fanlike branches 60-75 m long

that are free of fruit-flowers. Leaves must be dark green

to obtain best prices.

Harvest techniques: Selected branches from no more

than 25 percent of total foliage of plant are clipped with

sharp clippers. Stems must be 40-45 cm long. A bunch

of branches called a “hand” contains 26 to 28 pieces

and weighs slightly less than 1 lb. Hands are placed in

bundles weighing 40 to 60 lbs. Stem tips clipped for

rooting cuttings are refrigerated until stuck for rooting.

Harvest season: Late summer-fall when leaves have

hardened, before new growth begins in spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Regrowth occurs, but

slowly in the wild. If plant and growing conditions are

favorable, regrowth may be sufficient for plant foliage

to be collected on an alternate year schedule. New

growth will develop where harvest cuts have been

made. Often multiple new stems grow from harvest cut

on a single older stem.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Branches for floral decorations, a substitute for evergreen huckleberry and salal in floral arrangement, preserved and dried crafts. Whole plant

easily shaped and adapts well to both sunny and shady

spots, thereby making it ideal for an ornamental and

ground cover.

Indigenous uses: Tea for colds, tuberculosis, and

kidney troubles. To heal broken bones and internal

ailments.

Common products: Floral greenery and landscape

plant.

Types of markets: International and domestic for finished floral and craft products and bulk raw materials.

Domestic for florist, landscaping, and nursery.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Patches of Pachistima near urban centers have been

depleted by harvest of branches and leaves for floral

industry.

References

Antos et al. (1996), Franklin and Dyrness (1973),

Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg

(1993), Rose et al. (1998), Snyder (1991), USDA

Forest Service (1963)
Plants

89

Petasites frigidus (L.) Fries

var. palmatus (Ait.) Cronq.

Coltsfoot, palmate coltsfoot

Asteraceae

PEFRP

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial herb, from rhizome;

numerous stems 20-60 cm; basal leaves, to 40 cm wide,

palmately lobed and veined, coarsely toothed, hairless

above, white woolly below; umbel inflorescence; flowers in flat-topped clusters, ray flowers creamy white,

2-7 mm, disk flowers white to pinkish, 3-5 mm; fruits,

hairless achenes. Flowering stems grow before leaves.

Range and distribution: Circumboreal, widespread at

low to mid elevations. Patchy distribution; may grow in

pure stands.

Associations: Pacific silver fir, western hemlock zones.

Big-leaf maple, vine maple, alder, maple, ferns and

allies, Brewer’s mitrewort, foamflower, and horsetail.

Habitat: Small forest openings, generally moist soil,

along embankments, streams; also found in clearcuts

and in moist, open meadows.

Successional stage: Early to late successional. Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Plants eaten by elk; as a riparian

plant with large leaves, it helps to keep the ground moist

and provides habitat for animals including salamanders.

Early blooming flowers provide first nectar of season

for bees. Goldfinches line nests with the underleaf

“felt.”

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from April to June,

fruits mid to late summer.

Seed: Collect before the seeds turn to fluff; time is

required to separate the seed from the chaff.

Vegetative reproduction: Easy to propagate from

division of rhizome.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available for Petasites frigidus palmatus.

Seeds are commercially available for P. frigidus.

Transplant viability: Can be transplanted.

Petasites frigidus var. palmatus
Plants

90

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves, stems, and roots.

Harvest techniques: Leaves are cut from stems with

a serrated knife. Stems are plucked at ground level.

Roots are dug carefully. Avoid collecting in sensitive

riparian areas.

Harvest season: Mid June to late August for stems and

leaves. Root harvested in spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Regeneration from stem

harvest good if root crown and rhizomes left intact.

Leaves regenerate after spring.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Cough medicine, antispasmodic, nerve

sedative, and topical first aid (anti-inflammatory, sedates nerve pain). Stems, leaves, and roots edible;

tobacco substitute-additive. Used as a facial compress;

salt obtained from burned ashes.

Indigenous uses: Tobacco or snuff additive, infusion

of leaves for colds, and head or chest congestion.

Young leaves and stems eaten as salad, cooked as potherb or as “sauerkraut.” Seed heads used for mattress

stuffing with duck feathers. Roots applied to boils,

sores, and to help soothe itching.

Common products: Tincture, smoking mixture, tea,

and poultice.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Herbal

and dietary supplement.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Coltsfoot (Petasites frigidus var. palmatus) is listed in

Idaho as critically imperiled; it should not be harvested.

In Montana, sweet coltsfoot (P. frigidus var. nivalis)

is listed as critically imperiled. Petasites hybridizes

readily; because of this, difficult to distinguish varieties. Arrowleaf coltsfoot (P. sagittatus) is also listed in

Idaho. Although Petasites is not listed in Washington

and Oregon, wild harvest should be conducted with restraint, if at all. Use cautiously; contains traces of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, a potential liver toxin; some local

companies use imported European species. The root is

commonly referred to as “butterbur.”

References

Brill and Dean (1994), Hickman (1993), Hortus West

(1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Miller (1988), Mizerak

(1998), Moore (1993), Munz and Keck (1959), Pojar

and MacKinnon (1994), Saunders (1976), Schofield

(1989), Thomas and Schumann (1993), Toogood

(1993)
Plants

91

Polystichum munitum (Kaulfuss)

K. Presl.

Western sword fern

Dryopteridaceae

POMU

Ecology

Description: Native. Large, to 1.5 m, evergreen with

erect leaves forming a crown from a stout, woody, scaly

rhizome; leaves, stipe dry-scaly, blade lance shaped,

erect to arching, 50-180 cm, once pinnate, leaflets alternate, 3-15 cm, pointed, sharp toothed with incurved

spine tips, with small lobe pointing forward at bottom;

sori large, circular, halfway between mid vein and margin; indusium round with fringed margins, centrally

attached.

Range and distribution: Alaska to California, Washington to northern Idaho to Montana; low to mid elevations. Common and widespread.

Associations: Primarily Sitka spruce, western hemlock

and Pacific silver fir zones. Also mixed-conifer/hardwood forest. Douglas-fir, red alder, vine maple, salmonberry, salal, dwarf Oregon grape, and evergreen

huckleberry.

Habitat: Moist forests, wooded hillsides, and slopes;

greatest in outer edges of riparian zones.

Successional stage: May be present in all, but best

growth and persistence in mid- to late-successional

stages.

Ecological relations: Forage for elk, deer, and black

bear. Sword fern sprouts from woody underground

rhizomes after fire. A single plant also can produce

millions of spores that can colonize burn sites.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Fronds unroll by May; spores

near maturity by late July.

Seed: Spores.

Vegetative reproduction: Limited, but can occur

through division of rhizome.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants are commercially

available.

Transplant viability: Transplants well.

Polystichum munitum
Plants

92

Collection

Part harvested: Fronds (leaf blade).

Harvest techniques: Fronds are cut by using a special

small, curved knife that is attached to a ring that fits

over the finger. Fronds must be green and healthy. The

underside of the frond has few or no spore cases. Spore

cases when present are firm. All fronds are free of insect damage and dirt and 65-70 cm long; all bunches

must have 52 frond blades stacked flat and evenly.

Harvest season: Year-round, but if harvested too early

in spring, tips will wilt. Edible young fronds (fiddleheads) in early spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Good when less than

50 percent of the new fronds are harvested at any one

time.

Uses and Products

Common uses: In flower arrangements, as a decorative; edible (young fronds); and garden landscaping.

Indigenous uses: Edible, cooking, protective layer in

ovens, dermatological aid, burn dressing, sore throats,

gynecological aid, flooring, and bedding.

Common products: Floral background or filler for

fresh flower arrangements.

Types of markets: International and domestic markets

for floral and floral crafts. Small domestic landscaping

and restoration markets.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Some species of fern are carcinogenic; should not be

eaten unless identification is certain and the carcinogenic

properties are known. California sword fern

(Polystichum californicum), found in the Cascade

Range of Oregon is listed as imperiled. The more common sword fern resembles this species; collecting not

permitted on the Willamette National Forest where it is

found.

References

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1995), Crane

(1989a), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist

(1978), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Moerman (1998b), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Seda

(1989), Thomas and Schumann (1993), USDA Forest

Service (1963, 1965), Vance and Thomas (1997)
Plants

93

Prunella vulgaris L.

Selfheal

Lamiaceae

PRVU

Ecology

Description: Native and exotic. Perennial herb, fibrous,

rooted from a short rhizome or stem base; 10-50 cm;

stems solitary or clustered, erect to spreading or reclining, square in cross section, unbranched; leaves opposite, few, lower petioled, 5-30 mm, upper subsessile,

2-7 cm, 1-4 cm wide, oval to lance shaped, margins

smooth or obscurely toothed; inflorescence bract,

2-6.5 cm; flowers purplish to pink, 1-2 cm, sepals united in two-lipped tube, petals fused into two-lipped tube,

upper lip hooded, lower lip fringed; fruits four nutlets.

Prunella vulgaris var. lanceolata is native to North

America; var. vulgaris is introduced from Eurasia.

Range and distribution: Global; low to mid elevations,

under 2400 m. Widely scattered.

Associations: Most forests; treeless areas in Sitka

spruce zone. Widely associated with moist meadow and

roadside herbs; field mint, St. John’s wort, thistle, and

oxeye daisy.

Habitat: Moist roadsides, clearings, fields, lawns, and

forest edges.

Successional stage: Early successional, colonizer after

disturbance. Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Forage; flowers attract pollinators; rhizomes are soil aerators.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: From May through

September.

Seed: Seed dispersal in fall, tiny seeds disperse quickly

once mature.

Vegetative reproduction: Typically grown best from

seed. Sow seed in neutral-basic soil in mid to late

spring.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Good for seedlings and young

plants.

Collection

Part harvested: All aboveground parts.

Harvest techniques: Stems are cut at base without

pulling the roots. Do not damage roots while harvesting.

Prunella vulgaris
Plants

94

Harvest season: Gather while blooming.

Regeneration after harvest: Generally poor although

may resprout the following year if root-rhizome intact.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Medicinal, astringent, tonic, healing

wounds, anti-inflammatory; contains ursolic acid, a

diuretic, and anti-tumor compound. Medicinal ingredient

in several all-purpose salves, ointments, and lotions for

burns, wounds, and irritations.

Indigenous uses: As a skin ointment, to treat boils

and skin inflammations, as a heart medicine, to reduce

fevers, and back and eyewash for horses.

Common products: Teas, capsules, dried herb, ointment, and salves.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Herbal,

medicinal, and nutraceutical.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Avoid soil compression in marshy areas; avoid gathering

near roads, as it absorbs toxic compounds; use caution

where herbicides may have been sprayed as it commonly grows in association with weedy species.

References

Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Gardenbed (2000),

Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978),

Hortus West (1998), Moerman (1998b), Niehaus

(1976), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Tilford (1993,

1998)
Plants

95

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn

var. pubescens L. Underw.

Bracken fern, western bracken

fern

Dennstaedtiaceae

PTAQ

Ecology

Description: Native. Fronds large, solitary, erect, deciduous, to 3 m, sometimes up to 5 m; rhizomes spreading,

hairy; leaf blades triangular, two to three times pinnate,

hairy; stipes stout, straw colored to greenish, longer

than the blades; leaflets 10 or more pairs, mostly opposite, lowest pair broadly triangular, upper ones progressively reduced and lance shaped; ultimate segments

round toothed, margins rolled under; sori marginal,

continuous, indusium not evident.

Range and distribution: Coast to subalpine elevations.

Alaska to California, to Colorado; cosmopolitan and

widespread.

Associations: Western hemlock and Pacific silver fir

hemlock zones. East of Cascade Range, Douglas-fir,

ponderosa pine; salal, red huckleberry, thimbleberry,

Sitka valerian, fireweed, and grasses.

Habitat: Various habitats, meadows, roadsides, dry

to wet forests, open and disturbed sites.

Successional stage: Colonizer, invasive following disturbance. In early-successional communities. Shade

intolerant.

Ecological relations: Elk and deer eat new fronds;

cover for birds and small mammals; insect habitat in

decomposing litter. Bracken fern is adapted to fire and

promotes fires by producing a highly flammable layer of

dry fronds each fall. Deeply buried rhizomes allow the

fern to resprout after fire. Wind-borne spores and surviving rhizomes result in bracken fern being an effective

postfire colonizer. Rhizomes effective at mobilizing

phosphorus and contributes to potassium cycling.

Allelopathic.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Fronds emerge between

March and early May.

Seed: Spore production differs from year to year. Few

plants have been found in the wild that start from

spores, but germination in culture is common. Spores

germinate best at 1 to 2 oC and in soil at pH range of

5.5 to 7.5.

Vegetative reproduction: Most regeneration is vegetative by rhizomes.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants are commercially

available.

Transplant viability: Good, best with young plants.

Propagation by division most successful.

Collection

Part harvested: Fiddlehead (tightly coiled new growth

of fern frond) and rhizome.

Pteridium aquilinum
Plants

96

Harvest techniques: Fronds are cut from rhizomes.

Rhizomes are carefully dug from soil leaving portions to

resprout buried in the ground. Fronds must be green

and healthy. The underside of the frond generally has

few or no spore cases. Spore case when present must

be firm. All fronds are free of insect damage and dirt.

Harvest season: Spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Will resprout the following

season if root crown left intact.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Food, floral, and ornamental. Fronds

and rhizomes have been used for brewing beer, food

and herbal remedy, and rhizome starch for confections;

potential source of insecticides; indicator of acid rain

pollution.

Indigenous uses: Young shoots, tonic, antiemetic,

decoctions made for various ailments, tuberculosis,

rheumatism. Protective layers in ovens, rhizomes and

sprouts eaten (sparingly); bronchitis remedy. Roasted

and peeled rhizomes used for a starch, also used medicinally. Fronds: to wrap fish and as camp bedding.

Common products: Preserved and dyed craft materials. Young shoots, culinary dishes based on oriental

cuisine.

Types of markets: International market for fresh and

processed fiddleheads, particularly Japan. Domestic

markets for dried and dyed floral and craft products.

Comments and Areas of Concern

All portions of fern, both green and dried, are toxic to

livestock in quantity; contains thiaminase, which lead to

severe deficiency of vitamin B1

; also contains ptaquilside a substance reported to be a potent carcinogen. No

sources we found recommend eating this plant.

Commercially sold edible fiddleheads primarily from

ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) found in eastern North America. Fiddleheads may be similar in appearance among fern species, know species being eaten.

References

Cooke (1997), Crane (1990a), Franklin and Dyrness

(1973), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist

(1978), Hortus West (1998), Moerman (1998b), Pojar

and MacKinnon (1994), Seda (1989), USDA ARS

(2001), USDA Forest Service (1963), USDI Bureau of

Land Management (1999)
Plants

97

Rosa L. spp.

Wild rose

Rosaceae

ROSA5

R. gymnocarpa Nutt., Baldhip rose-ROGY

R. nutkana Presl., Nootka rose-RONU

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial shrub that looks similar

to domesticated roses. Wild rose leaves and flowers are

smaller, flowers five-petaled. Rosa gymnocarpa: bristly

stems, compound leaves, five- to nine-toothed leaflets,

smooth on both sides; flowers, pale pink to rose, 1-2

cm across, borne singly at the end of branches on glandular stalks; fruit, or hips, orange to scarlet without

attached sepals. Rosa nutkana: leaves compound with

five- to seven-toothed leaflets, slightly hairy underneath;

flowers pink and large, 4-8 cm across, borne singly at

the end of side branches; hips purplish red with sepals

remaining on top.

Range and distribution: Pacific Northwest, western California to Alaska. Rosa gymnocarpa below

2000 m; R. nutkana below 700 m, scattered and locally

common.

Associations: Open-conifer shrub, prairie grass, and

mixed-conifer/hardwood forests. Douglas-fir, ponderosa

pine, Oregon white oak; snowberry, shinyleaf spirea,

oceanspray, white hawkweed, groundsel, heartleaf

arnica, and wood violet.

Habitat: Moist flats, forests, and shrublands. Rosa

nutkana: dry to moist habitats both west and east of the

Cascade Range; occurs in upland wooded regions or in

open shrub wetlands. Rosa gymnocarpa: moist to dry

woods.

Successional stage: Primarily in early-successional

open shrub and grasslands, persists in established plant

communities and forest openings. Intolerant to moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Birds, deer, coyotes, bears, and

other animals browse rose hips. Thick stands of wild

rose bushes provide habitat for various animals and

insects. The flowers attract pollinators including honey

bees. Well adapted to low- to medium-severity fires.

Sprout from both root crowns and rhizomes and are

off-site colonizers.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from May through

July; fruits develop late summer into fall. Fruits often

are retained over winter on plant.

Seed: Seeds dispersed by animals. Seeds germinate

slowly, over-winter stratification helps. One of the most

effective means for propagating roses is to sow freshly

cleaned seeds before they dry out.

Vegetative reproduction: For Rosa nutkana, small

offshoots from parent root transplant easily; plant

sprouts form the root crown. Can root semihardwood

cuttings of R. gymnocarpa.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Small shrubs can be transplanted.

Rosa gymnocarpa R. nutkana var. hispida
Plants

98

Collection

Part harvested: Flowers, fruits, bark, and roots.

Harvest techniques: Flowers and fruits (hips) are

clipped. Bark is harvested by using a sharp pair of pruning shears to harvest young stems, and bark is peeled

off with a sharp knife. Root bark is collected by digging

around the base of the shrub to find a side root. Carefully collecting these roots will not permanently harm

the plant.

Harvest season: Rose hips gathered after the petals

have fallen and the hips have turned bright red. Buds

and flowers gathered early to mid summer. Bark is best

collected in early spring.

Regeneration after harvest: Stems readily resprout

after clipping.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Leaves and stems: astringent, different

plant parts offer differing levels of effectiveness; soothing herbal teas, digestion, dermatitis, urinary tract infection, anti-inflammatory; rosehips: beverages, jellies,

decoratives, and potpourri.

Indigenous uses: Tonics, smoking powder, and an

eyewash. Hips were usually only eaten when no other

food was available. The interior Salish believe the Nootka rose offers protection from any bad influences and

cleanses people after contact with the dead. Rose leaves

were chewed and put on insect bites to alleviate pain

and swelling. The Ninilchik people of Alaska make tea

from hips and petals of the Nootka rose. Jelly and syrup

made from hips, sometimes in combination with other

fruit.

Common products: Major commercial source of rose

hips for vitamin C, tablets and capsules, herbal teas,

vitamin supplement, hot, cold beverages, syrups, jellies,

botanical crafts, and ingredient in various herbal

products.

Types of markets: International and domestic.

Food, herbal, nutraceutical, health care, and floral

craft.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Rosa species can substitute well for other less common

plants with similar uses. However, wild rose species are

traditionally used by American tribes, and Alaska Natives have requested limited commercial use for native

rose species in their region. Wood’s rose (Rosa woodsii) widely distributed east of the Cascade Range and

cluster rose (R. pisocarpa) west of the Cascade Range

also are popular for similar uses as R. gymnocarpa and

R. nutkana.

References

Cooke (1997), Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Hickman

(1993), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Leung

and Foster (1996), Reed (1993b), Rose et al. (1998),

Russell (1994), Tilford (1998), Young and Young

(1992)
Plants

99

Rubus idaeus L.

Red raspberry

Rosaceae

RUID

Ecology

Description: Native. Deciduous, erect or arching,

thicket-forming shrub, 0.5-3 m; woody stems bristly or

prickly (main prickles not hooked) with shredded, exfoliating yellow brown bark; leaves are alternate and pinnately compound in leaflets of three to five; small white

flowers in cluster of one to four; fruit is several drupelets (berry), pink and hard as immature, red or pinkish

purple when mature.

Range and distribution: Over much of temperate

North America and Eurasia; the common species on the

drier east side of the Coast and Cascade Ranges; low to

mid elevations. Common and locally abundant, dense

thickets.

Associations: Grand fir, Douglas-fir zones. Mixed

conifer, cedar, black cottonwood, trembling aspen,

spirea, and serviceberry.

Habitat: Moist or dry woods to open and often rocky

mountain slopes, clearings or borders in boreal forests,

ravines, bluffs, and streambanks, and on talus.

Successional stage: Pioneer or early successional.

Vigorously invades and colonizes many types of

disturbed sites, decreases as canopy closes. Shade

intolerant.

Ecological relations: Provides forage and cover for

various wildlife; fruits important for bear, grouse, quail,

and other birds. Deer, elk browse leaves and berries.

Seed dispersed by birds and mammals; provides nesting

habitat and erosion control and used in restoration

projects. Minor producer of pollen and nectar; primarily

pollinated by bees.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from June through

July, fruits soon after, from July through September.

Attractive to bees. Honey-bee pollination is considered

important in formation of well-shaped fruit and a good

crop.

Seed: Produces an abundance of seed, but production

varies annually according to climate and age; germination slow, requires both warm and cold stratification;

can remain viable for 60 to 100 years. Seed germination

about 70 to 90 percent. Best germination usually follows late-summer or early-fall sowing of scarified seeds.

Vegetative reproduction: Rhizomes, root sprouts, and

leaf bud cuttings.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: When plants dormant can be

transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Usually fruits, shoots, leaves, and

sometimes roots.

ssp. idaeus var. peramoenus

Rubus idaeus
Plants

100

Harvest techniques: Leaves are gathered just after

flower buds form in early spring; fruits, when ripe.

Harvest season: Shoots in spring; leaves in spring to

summer; fruits in summer; roots in spring and fall.

Regeneration after harvest: Shoots readily sprout

back; if portion of root system taken, roots will readily

regenerate.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Leaves, as an astringent, reproductive

tonic, source of vitamin C, diuretic, to relieve diarrhea,

and mild sedative; roots, diuretic; fruits, in jams, jellies,

flavor additives, juice, tea, and syrup.

Indigenous uses: Eaten fresh, boiled and dried into

cakes, preserved for winter use, various medicinal preparations, urinary aid, antidiarrhea, and dermatological

aid.

Common products: Teas and food. Dried leaves sold

in bulk.

Types of markets: Primarily domestic. Food, herbal

and nutritional supplement.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Biology and use of blackcap raspberry (Rubus

leucodermis) are similar to R. idaeus and collection

techniques would be the same. Rubus leucodermis

grows in foothills from British Columbia to Wyoming;

common in brushy draws and second-growth forests.

Use leaves either dried or fresh as wilted leaves can be

toxic; be aware of herbicide use when collecting near

roadsides.

References

Burgett et al. (1989), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978),

Hortus West (1998), Moerman (1998b), Pojar and

MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al. (1998), Schofield

(1989), Tilford (1998), Tirmenstein (1990d), USDA

Forest Service (1988), Willard (1992), Young and

Young (1992)
Plants

101

Rumex acetosella L.

Sheep sorrel, red sorrel

Polygonaceae

RUAC3

Ecology

Description: Exotic. Perennial herb from slender rhizome; several unbranched, slender stems 15-50 cm,

somewhat woody at base; leaves generally basal, arrowhead shaped, 2-10 cm; flowers small reddish (female)

or yellowish (male) along erect panicle; fruits triangular,

yellow brown, 1-2 mm achenes.

Range and distribution: Common and widespread to

3000 m throughout temperate North America. Grows in

groups from common rhizome.

Associations: Willow, bull thistle, redstem ceanothus,

ninebark, perennial bunchgrass communities, and annual grasses.

Habitat: Flood-plain and riparian habitats, disturbed

sites, pastures, meadows, grasslands, woods, and hillsides.

Successional stage: Early successional, colonizes from

seed after disturbance. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Summer food of ruffed grouse

(Bonasa umbellus L.) and Canada geese (Branta

canadensis L.); seeds are common diet of groundfeeding birds; deer eat the leaves; probably sought by

black bears (Ursus americanus Pallas) and grizzly bears

(Ursus arctos L.); food for American copper butterfly

larvae (Lycaena phlaeas L.). Colonizes disturbed sites,

but erosion control is low. Data are limited, but sheep

sorrel probably resprouts after fire from rhizomes and

roots and is reestablished by seeds in the soil. Presence

of sheep sorrel indicates poor soils.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: From May through September

in Washington and Oregon; from March through August

in California; fruits small reddish and three angled.

Seed: Flower stalk turns brown when seeds are mature.

Seed is triangular and mahogany colored. Can be grown

from seed.

Rumex acetosella
Plants

102

Vegetative reproduction: Can propagate from portions

of rhizome.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants are commercially

available for western dock, a native Rumex species.

Transplant viability: Can be transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves and roots.

Harvest techniques: Roots are gathered by pulling up

gently. Leaves are clipped from stem; 40 to 50 percent

of the plants in a patch can be collected without impact.

Should be checked to be sure they have not been treated with herbicides.

Harvest season: Late spring-summer, before flower is

mature.

Regeneration after harvest: If part of root rhizome

system left intact, may regenerate new aerial stems the

following year.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Edible; astringent, sore throat, as a

source of vitamin C; dyes. Ingredient in two commercial

herbal tonics used by cancer patients.

Indigenous uses: Poultice of bruised leaves and blossoms applied to old sores, fresh leaves chewed as a

stomach aid, and to treat tuberculosis; leaves eaten raw

or boiled; tart tangy leaves used with salt in a brine for

cucumbers.

Common products: Tinctures, fresh leaves, dried

herb, and root.

Types of markets: International and domestic markets

for herbal use. Medicinal, herbal, and nutraceutical.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Contains oxalic acid, which can be poisonous in large

quantities. Considered a noxious weed in 6 states, none

of which are in the Northwest. Because it is a weedy

exotic, care should be taken not to spread seed.

References

Brill and Dean (1994), Burrill et al. (1996), Cooke

(1997), Craighead et al. (1991), Elias and Dykeman

(1990), Esser (1995), Everett (1997), Franklin and

Dyrness (1973), Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998),

Klein and Johnson (1997), Mizerak (1998), Pojar and

MacKinnon (1994), Rice (1997), Richardson et al.

(2000), Ross and Chambers (1988), Schofield (1989)
Plants

103

Rumex crispus L.

Curly dock

Polygonaceae

RUCR

Ecology

Description: Exotic. Perennial herb from taproot; stems

unbranched below flower clusters, 50 cm-1.5 m often

slightly reddish; leaves both basal and stem, oblong to

lance shaped 10 to 30 cm long, 5 cm wide, with curly

edges; flowers ovate to round, greenish to rusty brown,

clustered on stalk; entire plant turns reddish to rusty

brown at maturity; fruit: triangular reddish brown

1-2 mm achenes.

Range and distribution: Abundant through North

America in disturbed areas, below 2500 m. Scattered

over wide expanses of open ground.

Associations: Common dandelion, mullein, common

yarrow, chickweed, perennial and annual grasses.

Habitat: Waste places, roadsides, meadows, fields,

pastures; also in undisturbed wet sites; adapted to areas

that dry out in summer.

Successional stage: Early colonizer, thrives in disturbed

places. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Taproot aerates compacted soils,

help prevent erosion; provides iron as a nutrient.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Blooms from June to September, mature achenes release in fall.

Seed: Winged seeds disperse by wind and water. Germinates in light, 18 to 24 oC.

Vegetative reproduction: May regenerate aerial stems

from root crowns.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants are commercially

available for western dock, a native Rumex species.

Transplant viability: Easily transplanted.

Collection

Part harvested: Roots for medicinal, flowers for floral.

Harvest techniques: Roots are collected before the

plant goes to seed. A tool is used to dig roots out of the

ground.

Rumex crispus
Plants

104

Harvest season: Flowers are collected in spring at the

beginning of flowering; roots in fall after seeding.

Regeneration after harvest: If entire plant and root is

removed, will not regenerate. Space may be reoccupied

by seedlings germinating from seed bank.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Dried flowers used in floral arrangements. Leaves used as a potherb, roots used to stimulate and aid digestion, for skin disorders, and an iron

source; as a dye.

Indigenous uses: Mashed root used for swellings and

sores. Infusion of root used to treat constipation, dysentery, to correct fluids, and as salve for various skin

problems. Leaves rubbed in mouth for sore throat,

decoction of plant for urinary problems, and roots for

jaundice, eaten as greens. Rumex fenestratus and

R. arcticus are called wild rhubarb by the Ninilchik

people and other Alaska natives.

Common products: Roots, herbal; dried bulk supplied

in manufacture of herbal cancer tonics, flowering stems,

dried decorative.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal, herbal, nutraceutical, floral, and crafts.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Along roadsides be aware of herbicide use. Is considered a noxious weed in Midwestern Unites States. Curly

dock is the Rumex species preferred by herbalists.

Leaves contain oxalic acid, which can cause digestive

and urinary tract problems when used excessively.

References

Brill and Dean (1994), Burrill et al. (1996), Cooke

(1997), Elias and Dykeman (1990), Everett (1997),

Hortus West (1998), Klein and Johnson (1997), Mizerak (1998), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon

(1994), Rice (1997), Russell (1994), Schofield (1989),

Thomas and Schumann (1993), Tilford (1993, 1998),

Young and Young (1986)
Plants

105

Sambucus racemosa L.

Red elderberry, bear berry

(locally, Alaska)

Caprifoliaceae

SARAP

S. cerulea Raf., Blue elderberry-SACE3

Ecology

Description: Native. Deciduous shrub to small tree,

0.5-6 m tall; bark dark reddish brown, warty; soft pithy

twigs; foliage with strong characteristic odor; leaves

large, opposite compound, with five to nine leaflets,

lance shaped, 5-15 cm long, pointed, sharply toothed,

somewhat hairy beneath; small flowers white to creamy,

with unpleasant odor, numerous in a pyramidal cluster;

fruits bright red, berrylike drupes; two to four seeds.

Sambucus is a genus in which there is much hybridization and backcrossing. Sambucus racemosa is the designation of a circumboreal species; the American plants

are considered S. racemosa ssp. pubens by many authorities. Black elderberry (var. melanocarpa) has black

or purplish-black fruits, blue elderberry, S. cerulea, has

blue fruits (edible) with a whitish bloom.

Range and distribution: Across North America; red

elderberry (S. racemosa ssp. pubens) is most common on the coastal and western slope of the Cascade

Range from Alaska to California; black elderberry (var.

melanocarpa), eastern slope of the Cascade Range,

British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, northeastern

California; blue elderberry, S. cerulea, from British

Columbia to California, east into Montana, most common in eastern Oregon and Washington, and Willamette

Valley in Oregon. In low valleys, may form large

clumps; where found in upland sites, it is high in frequency and low in density.

Associations: Sitka spruce, western hemlock, Pacific

silver fir, and grand fir zones. Grand fir, Douglas-fir,

and ponderosa pine forests; trembling aspen, red alder,

snowberry, and serviceberry; in coastal forests, vine

maple, salmonberry, red huckleberry, and western

sword fern.

Habitat: Streambanks, swampy thickets, moist clearings and open forests, and cooler uplands; low to subalpine elevations; S. cerulea, open hillsides and roadsides,

and along fence rows.

Successional stage: Sambucus racemosa, early to

mid successional; can persist in relatively open conifer

stands; may also persist in long-lived deciduous forests

of trembling aspen or red alder; S. cerulea, primarily

short lived early successional; intolerant to slightly

shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Fruit, food for many bird species

and small mammals; nectar for hummingbirds; elk and

deer browse on var. melanocarpa and S. cerulea; pollinated by insects; valuable for cover and nesting habitat;

stabilizes soil and helps prevent erosion on moist sites.

Elder responds to disturbance including fire by resprouting from root crowns, rhizomes, or regenerating

from long-lived seed bank. Seeds may be stored in soil,

will germinate even if the plant is completely killed or

not present before fire. Because of extensive root systems, valuable for streambank or slope stabilization.

Sambucus racemosa S. cerulea
Plants

106

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Blooms from May through

July, fruit ripens from June through September.

Seed: Dispersed by birds and other animals that eat

fruit. Direct seeding can be erratic. Seeds are difficult to

germinate because of their hard seed coats and dormant

embryos; heat treatment or sulfuric acid scarification

and stratification can hasten germination. Long-term

storage viability.

Vegetative reproduction: Regenerates from sprouts,

rhizome suckers and layering; softwood cuttings are

taken in June.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Wild shrubs do not transplant

well, but those from nurseries are easy to establish.

Collection

Part harvested: Flowers, berries, leaves, and inner

bark.

Harvest techniques: Flower clusters and berries are

gathered that are only within easy reach, minimizing

impact to each tree and the surrounding area. Limbs

break easily.

Harvest season: Flower clusters are gathered when

beginning to open; fruits when fully ripe.

Regeneration after harvest: If inner bark is harvested,

will not regenerate. Leaves and branch tips regenerate

the following season if not overharvested.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Fruits for foods and flavoring, fruits

and flowers for beverages, wine, jelly; medicinal uses

from berries and other plant parts; antioxidant protection, diuretic, expectorant, laxative, antiviral, and skin

care; bark, fruit, and stems for dyes; dried leaves for

insecticides; whole plant used for restoration, landscaping, and windbreaks.

Indigenous uses: Important food source; analgesic,

cathartic, gastrointestinal aid, emetic, and witchcraft

medicine. Ninilchik people make jelly and wine (and

possibly ketchup) from the berry. Branches have been

used as steam bath switches.

Common products: Fruits, jams, yogurts, desserts,

beverages, flavorings, and coloring; whole plant or

parts, tea, nutraceutical, capsules, and tablets; perfumes; nursery crop for landscape restoration, wildlife,

and orchards.

Types of markets: Food, herbal, and landscaping.

International and domestic markets for finished food

and herbal products. Domestic markets for live plants,

nursery, and restoration industries.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Gather conservatively, be aware of possible animal

presence. Berries should always be cooked and seeds

removed, as raw berries may cause nausea; stems,

bark, leaves, and roots are toxic because of presence of

cyanide-producing glycosides. Elder is traditionally used

by American tribes, and Alaska Natives have requested

limited commercial harvest.

References

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1995), Cooke

(1997), Crane (1989b, 1989c), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998), Kilham (2000), Leung and Foster (1996), Moerman (1998b), Pojar and

MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al. (1998), Russell (1994),

Tilford (1998), USDA Forest Service (1963), Whitney

(1997), Willard (1992), Young and Young (1992)
Plants

107

Scutellaria L. spp.

Skullcap

Lamiaceae

SCUTE

S. lateriflora L., Blue skullcap-SCLA2

S. galericulata L., Marsh skullcap-SCGA

S. nana Gray, Dwarf skullcap-SCNA

Ecology

Description: Native. About 300 species; perennial herb;

from rhizomes or tubers; stems erect, square; leaves

opposite, basal, and cauline; bracted raceme inflorescence; solitary flowers in leaf axis, bilaterally symmetric, with five fused sepals and five petals usually fused

into a five-lobed, two-lipped tube; stamens two or four;

fruit of four nutlets. Scutellaria galericulata 20-90 cm,

lance-shaped, blunt-toothed leaves 2-5 cm long, single

blue or pink-purple flower on axils; S. lateriflora 20-

150 cm, leaves 3-10 cm, several flowers on leaf axils.

Range and distribution: Circumboreal; low to mid

elevations (S. galericulata and S. lateriflora); S. nana

and snapdragon skullcap (S. antirrhinoides) Oregon to

Idaho. At low elevations, S. lateriflora may grow in

pure stands.

Associations: Mixed-conifer hardwoods throughout

region. Alder, willow, stinging nettle, bedstraw, field

mint, sedges, and rushes.

Habitat: Scutellaria galericulata and S. lateriflora are

facultative wetland species; wet meadows, marshes,

bottomlands, streams; S. lateriflora, alluvial thickets,

meadows and swampy woods; S. galericulata, moist

acidic or calcareous soils near water; S. nana foothills

and plains, open, dry soil.

Successional stage: Varies from early to late successional. Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Nectar source for pollinators

including bees and flies.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Scutellaria lateriflora and

S. galericulata blooms July to September. Several

to many flowers in elongate clusters. Fruits yellowish,

warty nutlets, late summer to fall, July through

September.

Seed: Four nutlets each contain a single seed.

Seedling production: Sow outside in late spring. If

only small amounts of seed, better to germinate seed in

a cold frame in March and April. When large enough to

handle, seedlings are put into individual pots and then

planted in early summer.

Vegetative reproduction: Basal cuttings in early summer in a frame.

Scutellaria laterifolia
Plants

108

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Seeds are commercially

available for S. lateriflora.

Transplant viability: Sensitive to transplant from wild;

not recommended.

Collection

Part harvested: Flowering aerial portion of plant.

Harvest techniques: Grows in moist soil so care should

be taken not to pull out whole plant. Top should be

clipped with clippers.

Harvest season: Late in flowering period.

Regeneration after harvest: If root crown and some

aerial stem is left, plant will regrow the following season. Care is taken not to harvest aerial parts of one

plant too frequently as harvest of crowns removes

flowers and seeds and removes ability to regenerate

sexually.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Substituted for valerian for sleeplessness; as a nerve sedative, for drug withdrawal symptoms, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,

antispasmodic, astringent; garden ornamental.

Indigenous uses: Heart medicine, to treat rabies, menstrual cramps, and colds.

Common products: Herbal tea, tincture, and landscape

plant.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal, herbal, seed, horticulture, and landscape.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Some species grow on moist habitats highly susceptible

to disturbance. The distribution of Scutellaria

galericulata in California is limited and species endangered in a portion of its range. This species rarely used

in herbal medicine, may promote miscarriage; use with

caution.

References

Cooke (1997), Gardenbed (2000), Hanes (1998), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus

West (1998), Moore (1993), Ody (1993), Plants for a

Future (1997), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Thomas

and Schumann (1993), Tilford (1998), Willard (1992)

Continued
Plants

109

Taxus brevifolia Nutt.

Pacific yew

Taxaceae

TABR2

Ecology

Description: Native. Small dioecious evergreen tree,

5-10 m tall; bark light red brown, thin, and papery;

needles flat, yellow green, pale below, sharply pointed,

and attached to twigs by short-ridged stalks in two rows

forming flat sprays; both male and female “flowers”

(strobili) inconspicuous; fruit fleshy, red aril, attached

on lower side of branches.

Range and distribution: Pacific Northwest, north and

central California to Alaska, to western Montana; from

sea level to 1500 m; widely, but variably distributed

from scattered individuals to thick understory patches.

Associations: Sitka spruce, western hemlock, Pacific

silver fir, grand fir and mixed-conifer zones. Douglas-fir,

grand fir, white fir, Pacific silver fir, and western hemlock; vine maple, dwarf Oregon grape, deerfoot vanillaleaf, queencup beadlily, wild ginger, and western sword

fern.

Habitat: Dense, moist, mature, mixed-evergreen forest,

and mid to lower slopes or canyon bottoms. Seedlings

found in open forests or after management activity or

fires remove canopy and expose bare mineral soil.

Successional stage: Common component of oldgrowth Douglas-fir, grand fir, and western redcedar

communities. Shade tolerant, but reproduces from

seed in openings.

Ecological relations: Birds and small mammals eat

fruit and disperse seed. Moose, deer, and elk browse

foliage in winter. Browsed heavily in western Montana

and northern Idaho; retains shrubby form. Pacific yew

snags are habitat for cavity-nesting birds. In mountainous riparian areas, an important streambank stabilizer.

Susceptible to heat damage; can resprout after mechanical or some fire damage, but because of thin bark, it

rarely survives major fires. After fire, generally reestablishes by means of bird-dispersed offsite seed or

seed bank as the overstory canopy develops.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from April to June;

arils ripen from September to October; fruit and seed

production increases with openness of canopy but predation by birds and animals also increases.

Seed: Seeds are mature when fleshy aril turns red.

Fruits should be picked as soon as they are ripe to avoid

losses to predation. If used for seedling production,

seeds are extracted from fruit, put immediately into

prechilling treatments, and stored at recommended

temperatures. Warm stratification followed by chilling

can break dormancy of yew seeds. Seeds from freshly

collected fruit and sown directly in bed may not germinate until second spring. Stored seeds can be pretreated

and seeded in spring. Seeds are high in fat content; dry

to low moisture content to retain viability during longterm freezer storage.

Taxus brevifolia
Plants

110

Vegetative reproduction: Easily propagated from

cuttings. In many areas, layering is the primary means

of reproduction in the wild. Branch-tip cuttings collected

fall and winter after current growth has stopped.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated; under cultivation, susceptible to root weevil. Plants and seeds are commercially available.

Transplant viability: Good for small saplings or seedlings; seedling establishment usually better in some

shade.

Collection

Part harvested: Bark and foliage.

Harvest techniques: Bark peeled with knives in vertical

strips from cut stem or standing tree. If bark is peeled

from circumference of trunk, tree will die. Foliage:

bough tips are clipped with sharp clippers up to point

where stem begins to become woody (about 15-20 cm).

Harvest season: Bark is harvested in spring and early

summer when sap flow makes it easier to peel off.

Bough tips are harvested in summer and early fall.

Regeneration after harvest: Cut trees may resprout if

sufficient stump is left, but not always. Bark will not

regenerate. When foliage harvested by clipping bough

tips, new sprouting and growth will occur from secondary buds. New growth will replace removed material in

about 3 to 4 years.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Bark source of phytopharmaceutical

used for chemotherapy on certain forms of cancer.

Foliage used as herbal medicine for boosting immune

system, and externally for skin problems. Occasionally

used as an ornamental plant. Wood used for crafts.

Indigenous uses: Wood is highly prized by the west

coast Native Americans because it is strong and dense.

Used for making bows, other tools, and carvings.

Common products: Pharmaceutical products from

bark of Taxus brevifolia and foliage of other Taxus

species. Foliage: salves, tinctures, and teas. Wood:

carved specialty products; landscape plant.

Types of markets: All parts, international and domestic;

whole plant, domestic landscape nursery. Foliage, domestic; international bulk export medicinal markets.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Although foliar plant parts are low in toxic alkaloids,

seeds may have higher levels. Other species in this

genus are toxic so use caution in harvesting and know

precisely the species. Yew bark harvest and past timber

harvest practices have resulted in losses or reductions in

populations, which have not yet recovered. Yew is

traditionally used by Alaskan tribes; Alaska Natives

have requested limited commercial use.

References

Antos et al. (1996), Cooke (1997), DiFazio et al.

(1998), Hortus West (1998), Tirmenstein (1990e),

USDA Forest Service (1963, 1974), Walters-Vertucci

et al. (1996)
Plants

111

Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don

Western redcedar

Cupressaceae

THPL

Ecology

Description: Native. Evergreen tree, 30-70 m, tapering

trunk 0.6-1.2 m in diameter, occasionally to 1.8 m or

more; bark 1-2 cm thick, gray to reddish brown, tearing

off in long fibrous strips, aromatic wood; mature trees

fluted and buttressed at base; many have forked tops;

branches tend to spread or droop slightly then turn

upward, J-shaped; branchlets spraylike, strongly flattened horizontally; leaves scalelike, opposite pairs in

four rows, the leaves in one pair folded, in the other

pair, unfolded, closely pressed to stem in overlapping

shingled arrangement, 1.5-3 mm long; cones are clustered near the ends of twigs and become turned up on

short stalks; pollen cones 1.5-2 mm, numerous; seed

cones green, becoming brown, 10-19 mm; winged

seeds, three to six per cone, 4-6 mm, narrow, light

brown.

Range and distribution: Pacific coast, Alaska to

northern California, Cascade Range from central

Oregon to British Columbia to western Montana.

Pure stands cover some small areas, but it is usually

associated with other tree species.

Associations: Western hemlock, Pacific silver fir, grand

fir zones. Western hemlock, Douglas-fir, red alder,

Devil’s club, salal, false box, black huckleberry, raspberry, western sword fern, maidenhair fern, and

prince’s pine.

Habitat: Wet soils, shady forests, best on seepage and

alluvial sites, also in drier habitats in richer soils; low to

mid elevations; below 1800 m.

Successional stage: Late successional in most forests,

but can be found in all stages of forest succession.

Shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Deer, elk, and rodent browse;

black bears remove bark feed on exposed sapwood;

hiding and thermal cover for several wildlife species,

mammal dens, and nest trees for cavity nesting birds;

host for several damaging insect species, such as the

gall midge (Mayetiola thujae Hedlin) and western

redcedar borer (Trachykele blondeli Marseul), fungi

host, leaf blight (Didymascella thujina (E.J. Durand)

Maire) and trunk and root rots (Poria asiatica

(Pilát) Overholt) and (Phellinus weirii (Murrill) R.L.

Gilbertson), respectively; erosion control and long-term

revegetation potential.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Reproductive cycle over 16

months; flowers in late May to early June, cones ripen

in early August, seedfall in October to November.

Thuja plicata
Plants

112

Seed: Seeds germinate well without stratification; generally in fall or spring. Seedling survival is low in the wild.

Vegetative reproduction: Layering, rooting of fallen

branches, and rooting of stem cuttings all successful.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Young seedlings transplant well.

Collection

Part harvested: Branches, cones, bark, small roots,

and wood.

Harvest techniques: Foliage is clipped; roots are dug

and pulled; bark is scored and pulled; wood, usually

downed wood with splitting wedge and maul. Live

branches with healthy green foliage are clipped in

lengths from 30-75 cm. Branches in 40- to 60-lb bundles kept wet, shaded, and cool until used. Branches

should be free of dirt, leaf spot, insect damage, or mechanical damage.

Harvest season: Branches of younger trees are gathered in summer or fall for highest oil content; cones

collected when they turn from yellow to brown; bark in

spring when sap runs and bark can be peeled; foliage

for Christmas greens in fall after cool temperatures

harden off foliage; roots and wood all year. Holiday

greenery is harvested typically from late September

until two weeks before Christmas for wholesale raw

materials. For local finished decorations, the harvest

season runs until the week before Christmas.

Regeneration after harvest: Foliage branches can

sprout laterally after branch tip is clipped. Bark does not

regenerate. Taking bark leaves permanent scar. The tree

and its branches will recover to its original mass within

3 to 5 years depending on the health of the tree. If side

limbs are removed leaving small green growth on each

limb, the new growth will replace the removed material

in 3 years when fertilized and 5 years under natural

conditions.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Boughs used as an antifungal, antibacterial, mild diuretic, for toothaches, oil for warts, and

fungus infections; aromatic oil and incense, embalming

fluids, salves, liniments; industrial cleaners; ornamental

and floral. Tree bole and branches used for building

material, shingles, shakes, siding, utility poles, fence

posts, interior finishing, closets, chests, boxes, etc.;

perfumes and deodorants; insecticides; medicinal preparations; veterinary soaps; extractives and residues in

lead refining and glue extenders.

Indigenous uses: The most valuable tree to Native

Americans on the Pacific Northwest coast up through

Alaska and in the Cascade Range, providing wood to

make canoes, house planks, totem poles, tools and

implements, baskets, and clothing. Foliage or bark used

to treat various ailments; tea of boughs for coughs and

colds, and diarrhea.

Common products: Ornamental boughs, oil, and herbal tinctures.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal, herbal, floral, crafts, and wood products.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Oil of leaves can be toxic, causing low blood pressure

and convulsion. Redcedar is traditionally used by Native

American tribes, and Alaska Natives have requested

limited commercial use. Bark and root harvest stress the

tree; best to collect from trees being felled for legitimate

purposes.

References

British Columbia Ministry of Forests (1995), Burns and

Honkala (1990), Cooke (1997), Davis (2000), Franklin

and Dyrness (1973), Freed (2000), Hickman (1993),

Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998),

Kruckeberg (1993), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rose et al. (1998), Tesky (1992), Thomas

and Schumann (1993), Willard (1992)
Plants

113

Trillium ovatum Pursh

Western trillium, wake-robin

Melanthiaceae

TROV2

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial, erect unbranched herb

to 45 cm; single stalk from short, fleshy rhizome; three

stemless leaves, 4-20 cm at end of the stalk; flowers

erect to nodding, solitary, erect, with three green sepals

0.5-6 cm long and three white pink or purple (with age)

petals 0.5-7 cm long; fruits oval, berrylike capsule with

many seeds.

Range and distribution: Common. British Columbia

to California from coast inland to Montana; lowland

forest and montane forest zones; 10-2000 m. Widespread.

Associations: Western hemlock/western sword fern,

Pacific silver fir/rosy twisted stalk associates; white fir,

grand fir, Alaska huckleberry, starry false Solomon seal,

prince’s pine, queencup beadlily, and salal.

Habitat: Mixed evergreen forest on moist wooded

slopes, damp meadows, streambanks, and often boggy

in spring.

Successional stage: Mid to late successional. Shade

tolerant but also found in small openings.

Ecological relations: The oil-rich appendage of the

seed is eaten by ants.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: From March through June;

one flower for each plant annually.

Seed: Grows readily from seed. Seed requires cold

stratification, 15 oC is recommended, may take from 1

month to 3 years. Care taken not to keep conditions too

moist as seedlings prone to damping off.

Vegetative reproduction: Cultivated plants may be

propagated from rhizome division.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants and seeds are

commercially available.

Transplant viability: Does not survive transplanting,

seed propagation more successful.

Trillium ovatum
Plants

114

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves, stems, and roots.

Harvest techniques: Has small roots; do not encourage

collection from wild. Leaves and stems are collected

late in the season (just as they are about to turn yellow)

so the roots will have already stored adequate nutrients

for winter and can produce new growth. Plants should

be collected in small quantities. Plant patches are easily

reduced by harvest. Gathering leaves in early summer

or during bloom will harm and may kill plant.

Harvest season: Late fall.

Regeneration after harvest: None. If leaves collected

just before they yellow late in season, plant may not be

harmed and will produce new aerial stem and leaves the

following season.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Cut flowers for fresh floral bouquets.

Stems, leaves, and roots, for medicinal purposes, uterine bleeding, bladder irritation, and nosebleeds. Whole

plant, landscaping and as shade plant.

Indigenous uses: Roots used as an eye wash for sore

eyes, childbirth aid, and sometimes cooked for greens.

Common products: Fresh floral, herbal, and landscape

plant.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Florist,

herbal, landscape nursery, and horticultural.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Large amounts reported removed from east coast forest

for use abroad. In California, collecting and habitat loss

have reduced populations. One of the seven wild medicinal plants under a moratorium on harvest or removal

from Montana State lands. Harvest prohibited on national forests in the Northern and Intermountain Regions (Montana and Idaho), and no permits are being

issued. Ensure that harvest is not locally restricted before collecting. On United Plant Savers North American

medicinal plants “At Risk” list. Siskiyou trillium

(Trillium angustipetalum) is listed in Oregon as “critically imperiled” and on Forest Service Northern Region

sensitive species list.

References

Craighead et al. (1991), Franklin and Dyrness (1973),

Gardenbed (2000), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and

Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg

(1993), Logan et al. (1987), Mizerak (1998), Moerman

(1998b), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994),

Ross and Chambers (1988), Stewart (1988), Toogood

(1993), United Plant Savers (2000)
Plants

115

Urtica dioica L.

Stinging nettle

Urticaceae

URDI

Ecology

Description: Native. Erect, perennial, rhizomatous

herb, 1-3 m tall; four-angled stems; stems, leaves, and

flowers sparsely to moderately covered with stinging

hairs; leaves opposite, lance shaped to oval, 7-15 cm,

coarsely toothed, prominent stipules 5-15 mm; paniclelike inflorescence, 1-7 cm; flowers greenish in dense

drooping clusters in the leaf axils and at stem tips; fruits

flattened, ovate achenes. Urtica dioica ssp. dioica

introduced from Eurasia.

Range and distribution: Much of United States and

southern Canada; lowlands to subalpine elevations,

under 3000 m. Dense colonial patches can dominate

large areas.

Associations: Mixed-conifer/hardwood forests; most

coniferous zones in the Pacific Northwest. Common

understory component of riparian communities, such as

in black hawthorn/cow-parsnip associations; and wet

meadow grasses, sedges, and rushes.

Habitat: Moist, forested riparian areas; in and adjacent

to marshes and meadows, thickets, streambanks; grows

in deep, rich, and undisturbed soils.

Successional stage: Colonizes following disturbance,

also part of stable riparian communities. Low to intermediate in shade tolerance.

Ecological relations: Cover for small animals and

birds; may have value for rehabilitation of disturbed

sites as it may be tolerant of metal-contaminated soil;

replenishes the soil through rapid decomposition; protects riparian habitats from human encroachment. Impenetrable stands may be used to keep livestock out of

streams. Stinging nettle regenerates from buried rhizomes and seed after fire. Stinging nettle is a common

early species on burned sites. Frequent fires during the

growing season, however, may negatively impact the

plants.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Coastal plants bloom in spring,

mountain plants in early summer; seeds are mature by

mid to late summer.

Seed: Produces abundant seed, have germinated after

10 years of storage.

Seedling production: Initiate vegetative spread in first

growing season.

Vegetative reproduction: By rhizomes.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Seeds are commercially

available.

Transplant viability: Can transplant seedlings and

rhizomatous cuttings.

Urtica dioica
Plants

116

Collection

Part harvested: Whole plant, leaves, and root.

Harvest techniques: Gathered before it begins to

bloom in early spring; stems are cut at an angle, at least

5 cm above ground level; roots are dug conservatively

from the periphery of a patch.

Harvest season: Spring, leaves and stems; springsummer, new growth at end of stems; late summer,

seeds; fall to spring, rootstalks.

Regeneration after harvest: If aerial parts harvested,

will resprout from root stalk and rhizomes. If whole

plant removed but root and rhizome system fairly intact,

can grow new stems.

Uses and Products

Common uses: The leaves can be steamed and eaten

as a potherb, vegetable. As a diuretic, antispasmodic,

antiallergenic, for rheumatic complaints, and urinary

tract inflammation; as treatment for benign prostatic

hyperplasia; as a supplement in shampoos and hair

conditioners, for skin care; for vitamin and mineral

content.

Indigenous uses: Young leaves and stems eaten; general spring tonic, analgesic, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and gynecological aid; fiber is used for fishnets and

snares.

Common products: Skin care and cosmetic, beverage

supplement, herbal teas, tablets, and nutritional supplement.

Types of markets: Dietary supplement, specialty foods,

cosmetic, and health care.

Comments and Areas of Concern

The stems and leaves are covered in stinging hairs that

cause contact dermatitis until dried. Once it begins to

bloom, older leaves can develop particles that can be

irritating to the kidneys; thrives in easily damaged moist

habitats; on grazing lands considered a weedy pest; may

have been sprayed with herbicides; absorbs compounds

from industrial and agribusiness areas. Traditionally

used by Native American tribes, and Alaska Natives

have requested limited commercial harvest of nettle.

References

Burrill et al. (1996), Carey (1995), Cooke (1997), Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock

and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998), Leung and

Foster (1996), Moerman (1998b), Moore (1993), Pojar

and MacKinnon (1994), Russell (1994), Schofield

(1989), Tilford (1998), Vance and Thomas (1997)
Plants

117

Usnea Dill. ex Adans. spp.

Old man’s beard

Parmeliaceae

USNEA2

U. longissima Ach., Beard lichen-USLO50

U. wirthii P. Clerc, Blood spattered beard-USWI

Ecology

Description: Native. General: fruticose, hanging lichen,

brown, greenish yellow, and whitish gray. Usnea wirthii

tufted, multiple, stiff branches two to four long, pale

yellow central cord, sparse red spotting. Usnea longissima hairlike, 15 to more than 35 cm long, single unbranched central strand with short lateral branchlets;

inside strand a white central cord.

Range and distribution: Widespread. Forested areas

of temperate North America; at least four species of

Usnea are abundant throughout the Western United

States, Canada to southeast coastal Alaska. Usnea

longissima infrequent but locally abundant. Usnea

wirthii frequent.

Associations: Sitka spruce, western hemlock zones.

Mixed-conifer/hardwood forests. Oregon white oak, red

alder, and big-leaf maple, other lichens.

Habitat: Usnea wirthii grows on conifers in open

lowland. Usnea longissima grows on various trees and

shrubs, in open, well-ventilated deciduous and mixedconifer/deciduous forests; rare on conifer branches;

common in trees along beach and riparian areas.

Successional stage: Mid to late successional. Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: Browsed by deer and food for

invertebrates; natural antifungal, may serve that role for

trees. Because of sensitivity to SO2

, good index of air

quality.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Does not flower.

Seed: Not applicable.

Vegetative reproduction: Reproduces from detached

tissue that falls from one tree branch and reestablishes

on another branch.

Cultivation: Not cultivated.

Transplant viability: Can be transplanted within its

forest habitat to other host trees.

Collection

Part harvested: Whole plant.

Usnea spp.
Plants

118

Harvest techniques: It is not known how long it takes

Usnea to regrow. The lichen is gently removed from

tree branches. Because regrowth and recovery not

known, care is taken to leave sufficient lichen to maintain growth and to recover. Generally what is easily

reached from ground or collected from fallen trees is

taken.

Harvest season: No special time; however, in summer

it is often too dry and disintegrates easily.

Regeneration after harvest: Unknown; regrowth

thought to be slow and recovery takes years. Monitoring needed.

Uses and Products

Common uses: As an immunostimulant, antifungal,

antimicrobial, and antitumor. Lab studies and clinical

trials suggest Usnea may be used to inhibit grampositive bacteria, for dried floral arrangements, and

as a decorative.

Indigenous uses: In bags as pillows when feathers are

unavailable; to wipe slime when cleaning salmon;

wound dressing material and bandages; baby diapers

and female sanitary napkins; source of yellow dye;

antifungal.

Common products: Craft material, floral filler, nutraceutical, teas, and tinctures.

Types of markets: Primarily domestic for floral and

crafts. International and domestic for medicinal and

herbal.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Has threatened or extinct status in most of its European

range owing to air pollution and habitat destruction.

Does not occur in young forests because it generally

spreads from tall older trees to younger trees. Can be

confused with witch’s hair (Alectoria sarmentosa);

however, A. sarmentosa lacks a central cord inside

strand. Loss of old-growth habitat and harvest threatens

species. Has already disappeared throughout much of its

range.

References

Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Geiser et al. (1994), Hale

and Cole (1988), Mizerak (1998), Moerman (1998b),

Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Tilford

(1998)
Plants

119

Vaccinium L. spp.

Huckleberry, blueberry, bilberry

Ericaceae

VACCI

V. membranaceum Dougl. ex Torr., Black

huckleberry-VAME

V. deliciosum Piper., Cascade bilberry-VADE

V. ovatum Pursh., Evergreen huckleberry-VAOV2

Ecology

Description: Native. Vaccinium leaves are deciduous,

ovate, simple, and alternate; V. ovatum, evergreen,

shiny, and toothed. Flowers are pink to red and are

usually bell shaped, typical of the heath family in clusters of 3-10. Vaccinium deliciosum, low mat-forming

shrub; fruits dusk blue. Vaccinium membranaceum is

an upright spreading shrub; fruits, purple to reddish

black; V. ovatum fruit usually shiny and purplish black.

Range and distribution: Vaccinium ovatum, British

Columbia south, west side of Cascade Range to coast to

northwest California. Vaccinium membranaceum, British Columbia south through Oregon mountains to California east to Idaho and western Montana. Vaccinium

deliciosum, British Columbia south to northern Oregon

Cascade Range and Olympic Mountains.

Associations: Vaccinium membranaceum,

V. deliciosum: Pacific silver fir zone. Mountain hemlock, beargrass; V. deliciosum, mountain heather communities. Vaccinium ovatum: Sitka spruce zone. Salal

and rhododendron.

Habitat: Vaccinium ovatum: Edges and openings of

coniferous forests near coastal areas; V. membranaceum

and V. deliciosum, high-elevation forests mid to alpine;

V. deliciosum, subalpine parklands, heaths, and edges

of wet meadows.

Successional stage: Early to late successional. Shade

tolerant but flowering, fruiting, and reproduction increase in openings, or after fire.

Ecological relations: Browse for deer, elk, and sheep.

Fruits are eaten by various birds and mammals. Huckleberry can resprout from root crowns, but seedling establishment is rare. New shoots tend to produce more

fruit, so burning can help berry production. Fire suppression and canopy closure has reduced productive

huckleberry areas. High-intensity fire, however, also has

been shown to delay berry production for 5 to 20 years.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from May through

July depending on elevation; fruits from July through

September. Fruit may contain several dozen seeds.

Vaccinium ovatum flowers and fruits earlier than other

species, but fruits remain on plant up to December.

Seed: Seeds are collected from macerated fruit and

dried. Seed may germinate without stratification, but

stratification may aid germination; overwintering outside

is helpful. Light is essential for the germination of

Vaccinium seeds. Seedlings can be reared in a mixture

of peat and sand, are small, and must be transplanted

several times before being established outside.

Vaccinium ovatum V. deliciosum V. membranaceum
Plants

120

Vegetative reproduction: Primary means of natural

regeneration. Can be started from layering or rhizome

and stem cuttings.

Cultivation: Vaccinium membranaceum, V. ovatum,

and V. deliciosum can be cultivated. Plants and seeds

are commercially available for various Vaccinium species.

Transplant viability: Possible for seedlings but may

not become established if soil conditions are not favorable. Transplant should have a large root ball with minimum root exposure.

Collection

Part harvested: Vaccinium membranaceum and

V. deliciosum: berries. Vaccinium ovatum: branches

with foliage and leaves. Leaves and stems for floral

markets, berries for food markets, and the total plant

of V. ovatum for landscape market.

Harvest techniques: For V. ovatum (floral greens),

branches are snapped off by hand, or clipped, flat

branches, deep green in color without flowers or berries

are desired. Desirable growth and color characteristics

are found under partial shade. Older plants with heavy

stems are pruned back heavily to encourage new

growth. This method produces the most attractive

sprays. Large sprays of dark-green foliage, 60-75 cm

long, and sprays 30-50 cm long for tips are harvested

from understory plants. New growths spikes 45-60 cm

long are harvested from plants grown in open areas for

the red-huck markets. All foliage is free of dirt, insect

damage, and black leaf spots. Transplants: small plants

from rhizome sprouts are dug carefully so as not to

disturb other plants, and must be placed in transplant

bed for 1 year to be sold in the commercial nursery

market. Food: berries picked by hand or with small

hand rake. Large rakes that strip foliage with berries not

recommended. Berries are cooled to below 5 oC within

1 hour of picking to maintain freshness and salability.

Harvest season: Berries when ripe, in late summer and

early fall. Vaccinium ovatum is harvested for its greens

in late summer through fall after new growth hardens

off, up until new growth begins in spring. For transplants, plants are dug after buds are dormant (late fall to

winter).

Regeneration after harvest: New growth sprouts from

buds below harvested branch. Floral: healthy plants

under favorable growing conditions have been observed

replacing removed foliage within 2 to 3 years. Good

response is expected if less than 40 percent of the green

leaf areas of the plant are removed.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Huckleberry leaves combined with

raspberry, rose hips, and hibiscus flowers in teas.

Vaccinium membranaceum and V. deliciosum: berries

used in various processed foods and condiments, eaten

fresh, as a natural food coloring, source of vitamins,

antioxidant, juice as a beverage and to make wine, fruits

and leaves, astringent, and diuretic; leaves (Europe) for

diabetes, gastrointestinal, kidney, and urinary tract disorder; fruits for diarrhea, mucous membrane inflammation of mouth and throat, and improved vision; for

food, beverage, and wine coloring. Vaccinium ovatum:

foliage is used in fresh and preserved floral arrangements; many horticultural uses including as a hedge

plant or ground cover.

Indigenous uses: Fruit of the evergreen huckleberry

was traditionally used by many indigenous peoples of

the west coast and interior as a fresh or dried staple.

The Capella Indians reportedly traveled up to 30 to

50 km annually to harvest the fruit. Berries were eaten

fresh, mashed, or dried and made into cakes. Preserved

berries provided essential vitamin C during winter.

Common products: Vaccinium deliciosum and

V. membranaceum: fresh and frozen berries, jams,

syrups, candies, beverages, and other food items.

Vaccinium ovatum: dried and fresh floral greens, landscaping, and restoration material.
Plants

121

Types of markets: International and domestic markets

for all food and crafts products. Specialty and dessert

food, and floral. Domestic markets for nursery stock.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Vaccinium species are traditionally used by American

tribes, and Alaska Natives have requested limited commercial use for several species. Poor berry crops in the

interior to northern Rocky Mountains are of concern as

berries are a substantial part of the diet of some wildlife

including grizzly bear (Ursus arctos L.). Illegal harvest

is an increasing problem, and some areas are being

heavily impacted by harvesters. Bog cranberry (V. oxycoccos) is listed as imperiled in Idaho. Velvetleaf huckleberry (V. myrtilloides) is listed in Oregon.

References

Antos et al. (1996), Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Gardenbed (2000), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998), Kruckeberg (1993), Leung and Foster

(1996), Minore (1972), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994),

Rose et al. (1998), Thomas and Schumann (1993),

Tilford (1998), Tirmenstein (1990f), USDA Forest

Service (1965), Vance and Thomas (1997), Young and

Young (1992)
Plants

122
Plants

123

Valeriana L. spp.

Valerian

Valerianaceae

VALER

V. sitchensis Bong., Sitka valerian-VASI

V. occidentalis Heller, Western valerian-VAOC2

V. scouleri Rydb., Scouler’s valerian-VASC2

Ecology

Description: Native. About 200 species: perennial herb

from rhizomes. Valeriana sitchensis: erect stems 30-

120 cm; short, hairy leaves, mostly undivided basal

leaves, one or more sets of opposite, dissected stem

leaves; clustered inflorescence; flowers white or pink;

fruit generally compressed, veined achene. Valeriana

occidentalis: commonly 30-90 cm. Valeriana scouleri:

15-70 cm tall; fibrous rooted from a stout branched

rhizome; crenate leaves.

Range and distribution: Genus worldwide in temperate zone, over a dozen species in Western States, fewer

species in California; moderate to high elevations, 1500-

3000 m. Often found in small, dense colonies but generally widely dispersed.

Associations: Pacific silver fir, mountain hemlock,

white fir zones. Valeriana sitchensis: American false

hellebore, sedge, black huckleberry, lupine, and arnica.

Valeriana scouleri: Western hemlock zone. Douglas-fir

and sedge.

Habitat: Moist sites in coniferous forests, subalpine

meadows, cliffs and streambanks, open or shaded soils.

Successional stage: Early to late successional in meadow communities. Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Common browse for deer,

elk, bear, moose, and smaller animals; indicates cool,

moist sites with heavy winter snow pack; cats and rats

attracted to root odor.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Flowers from June to August;

fruit is small, hard ribbed with feathery plumes.

Seed: Timing is critical when collecting seed as it can

fall in a few days after mature. Seed is small. Easily

established from seed; establishes well in rich, moist

soil, but can survive drought.

Vegetative reproduction: Can reproduce from rhizomes. In cultivation, clumps can be divided to get new

plants.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Seeds are commercially

available for Valeriana officinalis. Plants are commercially available for V. scouleri (Scouler’s valerian).

Transplant viability: Can be transplanted, but because

plants are easily established from seed and populations

are small, do not recommend.

Valeriana scouleri V. columbiana V. sitchensis
Plants

124

Collection

Part harvested: Roots.

Harvest techniques: Sitka valerian (Valeriana

sitchensis) is the most popular commercially wildcrafted species but is not being cultivated as much as other

species. It is easier to grow in commercial quantities.

For fall and winter collecting, patches are located when

the plants are flowering.

Harvest season: Late summer through fall; in fall, roots

have higher medicinal potency.

Regeneration after harvest: Low; entire root is collected; if seeds are present, spread them at time of harvest

or wait until seeds have dispersed before harvesting.

Uses and Products

Common uses: As an antispasmodic and hypotensive;

skin softener; flavoring in beverages and desserts; to

relieve anxiety and promote sleep.

Indigenous uses: Rubbed on sore muscles; pounded

roots rubbed on rheumatism and for swelling, root as a

tapeworm medicine, raw root poisonous and cooked

root for food; plant for stomach troubles; dried roots as

incense; leaves mixed with tobacco as flavoring.

Common products: Tea, tinctures, capsules, ingredient

in heath care as specialty products.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Medicinal, herbal, and health care.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Check for signs of browse before harvesting; gather

conservatively from dense, healthy patches; avoid gathering on fragile, steep slopes and when the soil is wet

and prone to compaction; moist sites susceptible to

disturbance. Not always well-tolerated, use cautiously at

first.

References

Brevoort (1998), Craighead et al. (1991), Elias and

Dykeman (1990), Hartmann et al. (1990), Hickman

(1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West

(1998), Leung and Foster (1996), Mizerak (1998),

Moerman (1998b), Moore (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Thomas and Schumann (1993), Tilford

(1993,1998), USDA Forest Service (1988)
Plants

125

Verbascum thapsus L.

Mullein, common mullein, woolly

mullein

Scrophulariaceae

VETH

Ecology

Description: Exotic. Biennial herb, densely covered

with wooly hairs; first year producing rosette of wooly

basal leaves; second year producing single erect stem

30 cm-2 m tall; basal leaves 8-50 cm long, wider at end;

stem leaves alternate, 30-40 cm long, smaller up the

stem; raceme inflorescence; flowers yellow, circular,

15-30 mm wide, five stamens, upper three hairy, yellow, lower two hairless; seeds in ovoid capsule, 8 mm

long.

Range and distribution: Throughout temperate North

America; below 2200 m. Widespread and common.

Associations: Herbs of open fields, dock, burdock,

common dandelion, chickweed, and common yarrow.

Habitat: Common on roadsides, along river bottoms,

fields, and dry open waste places or disturbed areas in

rocky mineral soil.

Successional stage: Early successional; colonizes following disturbance, frequently in bare mineral soil.

Shade intolerant.

Ecological relations: Important for soil stabilization,

breaking up compacted soil; reintroducing pollinators

and first source of small animal habitat in disturbed

areas; seeds are a source of winter food for small birds;

elk will eat the dry leaves and stems on overused winter

ranges.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: From June to September;

fruits are capsules.

Seed: Seeds numerous and wingless, complex germination requirements, best temperature, 30 °C, slow to

germinate, but establishes easily.

Vegetative reproduction: Can be propagated by root

cuttings taken in early spring.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated. Plants are commercially

available.

Transplant viability: Easily transplanted in rosette

stage.

Verbascum thapsus
Plants

126

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves and flowers.

Harvest techniques: Best product when harvested in

spring of the first year of growth. Second year is still

usable. Leaves and flowers are harvested to minimize

environmental consequences of reducing shade and

microsites that the plant may be providing.

Harvest season: Leaves in summer, May to August

best condition; flowers when buds are half open.

Regeneration after harvest: Biennial plant will not

regenerate if flowering head is removed. If small percentage of leaves are removed from rosette, the plant

will produce plant stem the following year.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Medicinal, as an expectorant, mild

diuretic, sedative, astringent, and herbal cough remedy;

to treat bronchitis and asthma; dyes; oil as skin emollient.

Indigenous uses: Medicinal, roots worn as necklace by

teething babies, decoction of leaf taken for colds,

cough, and fever. Leaf poultice applied to cuts; scalded

leaves used on swollen glands; plant smoked as cure for

people not in their right mind; powdered root for skin

infections; smoking mixture base.

Common products: Tea, tincture, oil, cough syrup,

eardrops, and eyewash.

Types of markets: Domestic. Medicinal, herbal, and

health care.

Comments and Areas of Concern

May be used for restoration purposes in harsh degraded

areas. Harvest with caution in areas where it may be

important for slope stabilization. Although nonnative, is

generally not invasive and not considered noxious in

Pacific Northwest states.

References

Abrams and Ferris (1960), Brill and Dean (1994), Burrill et al. (1996), Craighead et al. (1991), Hartmann et al.

(1990), Hickman (1993), Hortus West (1998), Mizerak

(1998), Munz and Keck (1959), Moerman (1998b),

Ody (1993), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Rice

(1997), Thomas and Schumann (1993), Tilford (1993,

1998), Young and Young (1986)
Plants

127

Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.

Beargrass, Indian basket grass

Melanthiaceae

XETE

Ecology

Description: Native. Perennial herb; grows from 1-2

cm thick woody rhizome; stem 15 cm-1.5 m; basal

leaves 30-100 cm long, 2-6 mm wide, grasslike, rough

edged, tough, and wiry in large clumps; stem leaves

shorter farther up the stem, green on upper, pale gray

below; many white flowers, 5-10 mm on long stalk in a

dense, conical, terminal cluster; fruits 5-7 mm threelobed capsules; seeds 4 mm.

Range and distribution: British Columbia to California

to Rocky Mountains; near sea level to over 2600 m,

primarily in higher elevations. In Washington, from near

sea level to subalpine. In patches, can be abundant in

certain areas (drier subalpine meadows and understory), but not common.

Associations: Western hemlock and Pacific silver fir

zones. Also, understory dominant on cool upper slopes

in western spruce-fir forests; Douglas-fir, mountain

hemlock, subalpine fir, noble fir; black huckleberry,

rhododendron, whortleberry, bearberry, and sedges.

Habitat: Open woods, clearings, meadows, slopes,

ridges, coniferous forests, well-drained soils, and nonforested talus slopes; serpentine soils in Siskiyou Mountains. Can grow well on shallow or rocky soils. Grows

well on serpentine soils, but does not tolerate limestonebased soils.

Successional stage: Early to late successional; pioneer

species and highly tolerant of disturbance; regenerates

or resprouts well after fire. Persistent, long-lived species, but rarely blooms under a dense forest canopy.

Moderately shade tolerant.

Ecological relations: The fleshy leaf bases or rootstock is food for bears in spring, as well as mice and

pocket gophers; elk and deer eat the more tender leaves

year-around; the leaves remain over winter, providing

food for the mountain goat in cold weather. Fair cover

for small mammals. Long-term revegetation and erosion

control is provided from the roots. The primary fire

adaptation of beargrass is its ability to sprout from rhizomes following fire. Beargrass is a survivor species

that is present before a fire and regrows in place after

the fire. Meristematic region of the rhizome, however, is

near the soil surface so plant may be killed by highintensity fires.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: From May to August; stalks

of white flowers bloom in mid summer; perennial,

nonflowering for several years. Tends to bloom in

multiple-year cycles, possibly based on environmental

conditions.

Seed: Needs cold stratification for germination. Good

germination rates have been obtained.

Xerophyllum tenax
Plants

128

Vegetative reproduction: Will sprout from rhizomes

more frequently than flowering.

Cultivation: Can be cultivated, but difficult. Has been

successfully cultivated at the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden. Plants and seeds are commercially available.

Transplant viability: Mature plants do not transplant

well. Seedling can be transplanted. Strongly mycorrhizal; may need appropriate soil to grow.

Collection

Part harvested: Leaves and flowers.

Harvest techniques: Leaves of current year’s growth

gently are pulled or cut at base of plant. All stems must

be free of dirt and brown tips removed. Leaves commercially harvested are collected into about 1⁄2-lb

bunches.

Harvest season: Late fall and winter.

Regeneration after harvest: Good, after growing season if rhizome left intact. Cutting into or tearing out

rhizome to collect leaves is detrimental to the plant.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Filler in floral arrangements; basket

weaving; fresh flower arrangements.

Indigenous uses: Baskets; garments; for decoration;

poultice of chewed roots applied to wounds; grated

roots used to stop bleeding.

Common products: Floral greens, fresh, dried, dyed,

and preserved; basket weaving materials.

Types of markets: International and domestic. Dried

and fresh floral, and crafts; export primarily to Japan

and Europe.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Clearcutting and soil scarification may severely reduce

beargrass (Montana) or increase density (Oregon). After

a disturbance that opens canopy, beargrass increases in

size and number; declines under canopy closure. Because of high level of harvest taking place on highelevation sites, there is concern for degradation of

habitat.

References

Craighead et al. (1991), Crane (1990b), Franklin and

Dyrness (1973), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock and Cronquist (1978), Hortus West (1998), Pojar and MacKinnon (1994), Ross and Chambers (1988), Smart and

Minore (1977), Thomas and Schumann (1993), USDA

Forest Service (1988), Vance and Thomas (1997),

Whitney (1997)

Continued
Fungi

129

Boletus edulis Bull. ex Fr.

King bolete

Boletaceae

Ecology

Description: Native. Cap 8-30 cm wide, convex or bun

shaped, brown to yellow brown; undercap pore spongelike, white when young, then yellowish brown; stalk

8-25 cm long, 2-7 cm thick, white to brown; flesh thick,

does not turn blue when bruised; spore print olive

brown.

Range and distribution: Temperate forests throughout

Northern Hemisphere. Widespread and locally common;

solitary or in groups.

Associations: Conifers, especially spruce species in the

Pacific Northwest.

Habitat: Terrestrial, woods, and edges.

Successional stage: Clearcutting eliminates fruiting until

a new stand is established.

Ecological relations: Forms ectomycorrizae with range

of conifer and hardwood species. Fire ecology is unknown.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Main fruiting in autumn, especially on the coast. A complex of similar species fruit

from spring through autumn at high elevations.

Seed: Wind-dispersed spores.

Vegetative reproduction: Mycelia might be transported by insects or animals to establish new colonies.

New harvestable parts are produced from a perennial

mycelium

Cultivation: Not cultivated in North America.

Transplant viability: Techniques under development in

Europe and New Zealand.

Collection

Part harvested: Mushroom (fruiting body, sporocarp).

Harvest techniques: Plucked or cut. Harvested when

young or else becomes riddled with insect larvae.

Harvest season: During fruiting season locally.

Regeneration after harvest: Perennial mycelium and

ectomycorrhizae.

Uses and Products

Common uses: As food, specialty food in restaurants.

Indigenous uses: As part of diet, cooked on hot stones,

baked, or fried.

Common products: Fresh or dried food product.

Types of markets: Specialty food markets, restaurants,

and export to Europe.

Boletus edulis
Fungi

130

Comments and Areas of Concern

Long-term reduction of spore dispersal. Effects of timber management on productivity and managing stands

to sustain and enhance production.

References

Arora (1986, 1991), Moerman (1998b), Molina et al.

(1993)
Fungi

131

Cantharellus spp.

Chanterelle

Cantharellaceae

C. formosus Corner, Pacific golden chanterelle

C. subalbidus Smith & Moorse, White chanterelle

Ecology

Description: Native. Trumpet shaped; orange to yellow-orange cap 3-15 cm wide, concave or wavy when

mature; gills veinlike with folds and ridges running down

stalk, same color as cap or paler; solid stalk 2-10 cm

long; 0.5-3 cm wide; spore print creamy or yellow; odor

fruity like apricots. White chanterelle is off-white, bruises yellow orange, and is more robust.

Range and distribution: Edible chanterelle species

widespread globally. Cantharellus formosus and

C. subalbidus restricted to coniferous forests of the

Pacific Northwest. Singly, but often in groups, occasionally in fused clusters.

Associations: Douglas-fir/hemlock forests.

Habitat: Terrestrial, conifer forests; C. formosus common in young stands, but similar (undescribed) species

may be an old-growth associate. White chanterelles in

conifer forests and somewhat higher elevations.

Successional stage: Regenerated stands must be 15

years or older before fruiting resumes.

Ecological relations: Forms symbiotic relations with

roots of forest trees through ectomycorrhizae.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Fruits in cool, moist weather,

summer through autumn.

Seed: Wind-dispersed spores.

Vegetative reproduction: Mycelia might be transported by insects or animals to establish new colonies.

New harvestable parts are produced from a perennial

mycelium.

Cultivation: Not cultivated in North America.

Transplant viability: Commercial cultivation not yet

achieved, although methods are being developed in

Sweden.

Collection

Part harvested: Mushroom (fruiting body, sporocarp).

Harvest techniques: Plucked or cut. Dirty base removed before placing in collection container.

Harvest season: From summer through autumn.

Regeneration after harvest: Regeneration is from

perennial mycelium and ectomycorrhizae. Better regeneration if these are not disturbed.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Food for personal use and in

restaurants.

Cantharellus
Fungi

132

Indigenous uses: Only two documented cases in western North America.

Common products: Fresh or canned mushrooms.

Occasionally dried and exported.

Types of markets: Specialty produce markets, restaurants, and export to Europe.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Long-term reduction of spore dispersal. Effects of timber management on productivity and managing stands

to sustain and enhance production.

References

Arora (1986, 1991), Molina et al. (1993)
Fungi

133

Leucangium carthusianum

Tuslane & Tuslane

Oregon black truffle

Helvellaceae

Ecology

Description: Native. Potato-shaped, underground fruiting body, 0.5-4.5 cm broad, round to irregular, minutely

warty; dark brown to black; interior solid with pockets

of fertile tissue, marbled with paler sterile veins, whitish

when young, becoming gray to green-gray; aroma of

pineapple.

Range and distribution: Pacific Northwest and Europe. Singly or small groups.

Associations: Douglas-fir forests.

Habitat: Underground with Douglas-fir in the Northwest, other tree genera in Europe.

Successional stage: Most common in young dense

plantations at low elevations and valley margins; often

on private land.

Ecological relations: Forms mycorrhizae with Douglas-fir. Fire ecology unknown.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Late fall through early spring.

Seed: Spores. Sporulates underground; odor induces

mammal mycophagy. Spores dispersed in feces.

Vegetative reproduction: Mycelia might be transported by insects or animals to establish new colonies.

New harvestable parts are produced from perennial

mycelium.

Cultivation: Not cultivated in North America other

than informal inoculation trials.

Transplant viability: Anecdotal evidence of spore

slurries enhancing production; not confirmed

statistically.

Collection

Part harvested: Truffle (fruiting body, sporocarp).

Harvest techniques: Litter and duff layers are raked.

Dogs can be used to sniff out ripe truffles. Look for

rodent digs. Disturbed duff and litter should be replaced. Marketing unripe truffles can diminish product

reputation.

Harvest season: From October through February.

Regeneration after harvest: Perennial mycelium and

ectomycorrhizae.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Flavoring, added to sauces, popular

gourmet item in restaurants.

Indigenous uses: None documented.

Common products: Fresh, frozen, and preserved in

oil.

Types of markets: Restaurants.

Leucangium carthusianum
Fungi

134

Comments and Areas of Concern

Damage to soil, tree roots or truffle mycelium from

deep raking. Possible spread of root rot fungi on rake

tines.

References

Arora (1986), Molina et al. (1993)
Fungi

135

Morchella spp.

Morel

Morchellaceae

M. elata Fr.:Fr. sensu Weber (1995), Natural or

 black morel

Ecology

Description: Native. Many species. The black morel

has a fertile head, 2-17 cm high, 2-6 cm wide, round to

cone-shaped, honeycombed with pits and ridges; grayish

tan to brown to black; pits lighter color than ridges; cap

ingrown to stalk, minutely grandular stalk 1.5-10 cm

long, 1-4 cm wide, without a sack or cup at base; color

from ivory to tan; cap and stem hollow.

Range and distribution: Various species widespread

throughout North America; natural or black morel

(M. elata) common in intermountain West. Widespread;

solitary to clustered.

Associations: Mixed conifers at mid to high elevations.

Habitat: Terrestrial, forested, and previously forested

areas; streamsides, and burned or disturbed areas.

Successional stage: Early to late successional; some

species fruit perennially, others in large flushes after

fires, tree death, or ground disturbance.

Ecological relations: Most species saprobic, some may

be facultatively mycorrhizal; complex life cycles. Large

flushes of some morel species fruit for the first spring or

two after fires.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Fruiting in spring and summer

after snowmelt.

Seed: Wind-dispersed spores.

Vegetative reproduction: New harvestable parts are

produced from a perennial mycelium. Pseudosclerotia

serve as nutrient storage structures.

Cultivation: Small cultivation industry in North

America.

Transplant viability: Spores generate readily in culture,

but difficult to fruit, some commercial cultivation,

mycelium can be purchased to establish “patches.”

Collection

Part harvested: Fruiting body.

Harvest techniques: Cut with a knife about 1.5 cm

from the ground to obtain clean specimens. Leave the

mycelium in the ground and undisturbed. Some of the

mushrooms are left, especially old ones (spores mature

late). Search areas disturbed the previous year by logging, fire, or tree death.

Harvest season: From spring through summer.

Regeneration after harvest: Unknown mechanism,

possibly perennial pseudosclerotia, mycelium, mycorrhizae, or spores.

Morchella
Fungi

136

Uses and Products

Common uses: Food.

Indigenous uses: Documented uses not found.

Common products: Dried or fresh mushroom products.

Types of markets: Specialty produce markets, restaurants, and export to Europe.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Multiple species with differing ecological relations.

Potentially reduced spore dispersal among species that

only fruit episodically after disturbance.

References

Arora (1986, 1991), Mizerak (1998), Molina et al.

(1993), Weber (1988)
Fungi

137

Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck)

Redhead

Matsutake, American matsutake,

pine mushroom

Tricholomataceae

Ecology

Description: Native. White robust mushroom; stem is

solid, firm, and fibrous; 4-15 cm long, 1-5 cm thick,

base of stalk tapered and without a bulb; cap 5-20 cm,

is smooth; ring on stem develops from a cottony veil;

spore print is white; aroma is spicy.

Range and distribution: Widespread in North America, coincides with boreal and temperate conifer forests;

most abundant in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and northern California: Olympic Peninsula to

Cascade Range, sand dunes of coastal Oregon, southern

Cascade Range and Klamath Mountains. Fruits from

3-2000 m. Widespread but in clustered patterns; can

vary greatly in occurrence, abundance, and distribution

from year to year.

Associations: Douglas-fir, western hemlock, grand fir,

Shasta red fir, lodgepole pine; in southwestern Oregon

and along northern California coast, it often associates

with tanoak.

Habitat: Various soils, climates, and host trees. Most

abundant in well-drained, infertile soils.

Successional stage: Rarely fruits in stands under

40 years old.

Ecological relations: Forms symbiotic relations

with roots of forest trees through its ectomycorrhizae.

Mycelium form a dense mat in the soil. Animals eat

mushroom and disperse spores. Fire ecology unknown.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Fruits in late summer to winter

depending on habitat, elevation, and latitude.

Seed: Wind-dispersed spores. Possible dispersal in

animal feces.

Vegetative reproduction: New harvestable fruits are

produced from a perennial mycelium that may fragment

into multiple colonies. Insects or animals may distribute

mycelium.

Cultivation: Not cultivated in North America.

Transplant viability: No successes.

Collection

Part harvested: Mushroom (fruiting body, sporocarp).

Harvest techniques: The mushroom is carefully

plucked, as cutting the stem destroys its commercial

value. Avoid disturbing the mycelium. Do not use rakes

or other tools to search under the duff layer. Learn how

to spot the mounds that matsutakes make under the

ground, and carefully move the soil away. Cover any

holes. Commercial harvest concentrated in lodgepole

pine, Shasta red fir, and tanoak forests.

Tricholoma magnivelare
Fungi

138

Harvest season: Autumn.

Regeneration after harvest: Perennial mycelium.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Eaten fresh.

Indigenous uses: Food and flavoring.

Common products: Fresh mushrooms.

Types of markets: International. Specialty-produce

markets and restaurants. Japan imports over 90 percent.

Comments and Areas of Concern

Though a common practice has been raking litter and

soil to find young and most valuable mushrooms, this

may negatively impact subsequent mushroom production and should be avoided. Long-term reduction of

spore dispersal. Optimal habitat may be affected by

timber harvest practices.

References

Arora (1986, 1991), Hosford et al. (1997), Mizerak

(1998), Molina et al. (1993)
Fungi

139

Tuber gibbosum Gilkey

Oregon white truffle

Tuberaceae

Ecology

Description: Native. Potato-shaped, underground fruiting body, 1.5-5 cm broad, round to irregular knobby

and firm, color whitish when young, becoming buff to

dark brown, exterior lacks hairs or warts; often cracks

with age; interior solid, white when young becoming

dark brown to red-brown with white veins when mature; odor strong and garliclike when mature.

Range and distribution: Northern California to British

Columbia west of Cascades. Singly or more commonly

in groups; common in Oregon.

Associations: Douglas-fir.

Habitat: Underground, almost exclusively under Douglas-fir.

Successional stage: Most common in young dense

plantations at low elevations and valley margins; often

on private land.

Ecological relations: Spores disseminated by rodents;

forms mycorrhizae with Douglas-fir. Fire ecology unknown.

Biology

Flowering and fruiting: Late fall through early spring.

Seed: Spores. Sporulates underground. Odor induces

mammal mycophagy, spores dispersed in feces.

Vegetative reproduction: Mycelia might be transported by insects or animals to establish new colonies.

New harvestable parts are produced from a perennial

mycelium.

Cultivation: Not widely cultivated in North America

other then informal inoculation trials.

Transplant viability: Anecdotal evidence of spore

slurries enhancing production; not confirmed statistically.

Collection

Part harvested: Truffle (fruiting body, sporocarp).

Harvest techniques: Litter and duff layers are raked.

Dogs can be used to sniff out ripe truffles. Look for

rodent digs. Disturbed duff and litter should be replaced.

Marketing unripe truffles can diminish product reputation.

Harvest season: From October through March.

Regeneration after harvest: Perennial mycelium and

ectomycorrhizae.

Uses and Products

Common uses: Flavoring, as gourmet item in

restaurants.

Indigenous uses: None documented.

Common products: Fresh, frozen, or preserved in oil.

Types of markets: Restaurants.

Tuber gibbosum
Fungi

140

Comments and Areas of Concern

Damage to soil, tree roots, or truffle mycelium from

deep raking. Possible spread of root rot fungi on rake

tines.

References

Arora (1986, 1991), Molina et al. (1993)

Continued
141

We appreciate the contributions of Cindy Donegan, Nolie Hoye, Mark

McDonald, Stephanie Roberts, Suzanne SanRomani, Daniel Shaw, and Eric

Stoal. Special thanks to Emmalie Goodwin who spent long hours researching,

proofreading, and revising the manuscript. We also are grateful to John Davis,

Leonard Lake, and Bill Stein for sharing their expertise and helpful comments

in reviewing this manuscript. This project was funded in part by a Community

Economic Revitalization Team (CERT) grant from USDA Forest Service,

Cooperative Forestry; and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Native

Plants Initiative.

The following illustrations were reprinted from Hitchcock et al. (1969).

Reprinted by permission of the University of Washington Press:

Abies procera, Acer circinatum, Achillea millefolium, Anaphalis

margaritacea, Angelica arguta, A. genuflexa, Arctostaphylos columbiana,

A. nevadensis, A. patula, A. uva-ursi, Arnica cordifolia, Asarum

caudatum, Berberis aquifolium, B. nervosa, Calocedrus decurrens,

Capsella bursa-pastoris, Ceanothus velutinus, Chimaphila umbellata,

Coptis laciniata, Crataegus douglasii, Cupressus lawsoniana, Cytisus

scoparius, Dipsacus fullonum, Equisetum arvense, Frangula purshiana,

Gaultheria shallon, Gentiana calycosa, G. sceptrum, Gypsophila

paniculata, Juniperus occidentalis, J. scopulorum, Lomatium dissectum,

Oplopanax horridum, Pachistima myrsinites, Petasites frigidus var.

palmatus, Polystichum munitum, Prunella vulgaris, Pteridium

aquilinum, Rosa gymocarpa, R. nutkana var. hispida, Rubus idaeus,

Rumex acetosella, R. crispus, Sambucus racemosa, S. cerulea,

Scutellaria lateriflora, Taxus brevifolia, Thuja plicata, Trillium ovatum,

Urtica dioica, Vaccinium ovatum, V. deliciosum, V. membranaceum,

Valeriana scouleri, V. columbiana, V. sitchensis, Verbascum thapsus,

Xerophyllum tenax.

The following illustration was reprinted from Randall et al. (1994) with permission from Jensen:

Crataegus douglasii

The following illustrations were drawn by Stephanie Korschun:

Artemisia douglasii, Eriodictyon californicum, Hypericum perforatum

The following illustration was reprinted from Hickman (1993):

Aralia californica

Acknowledgments

Illustration Credits
142

The following illustration was drawn by Alexander Mikulin: reprinted from Geiser,

et al. (1994):

Usnea longissima

The following illustration was reprinted from USDA Forest Service (1995). Ronald

Glover, illustrator:

Tricholoma magnivelare

The following illustrations were drawn by Eduardo Nouhara:

Boletus edulis, Cantharellus formosus

The following illustrations were reprinted from Tulanse (1970):

Leucangium carthusianum, Tuber gibbosum

The following illustration was reprinted from a USDA Forest Service poster:

Morchella spp.

English to metric Metric to English

1 inch (in) = 2.540 cm 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.394 in

1 foot (ft) = 0.305 m 1 meter (m) = 3.281 ft

1 acre (acre) = 0.405 ha 1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 acres

1 pound (lb) = 453.592 g 1 gram (g) = 0.003 lb

Degrees Fahrenheit (oF) = 9/5(oC) + 32 Degrees Celsius (oC) = 5/9(oF-32)

Metric and English

Equivalents
143

1 mile (mi) =1.609 km 1 kilometer (km) = 0.622 mi

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false morels of Michigan. Lansing, MI: Two Peninsula Press. 209 p.

Whitney, Stephan. 1997. Western forests, National Audubon Society nature

guides. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 670 p.

Willard, Terry. 1992. Edible and medicinal plants of the Rocky Mountains and

neighboring territories. Calgary, AB: Wild Rose College of Natural Healing,

Ltd. 276 p.

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effects information system [Database]. (2000 July).

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fire effects information system [Database]. (2000 July).

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Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 375 p.

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Young, James A.; Young, C.G. 1992. Seeds of woody plants in North America.

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156

Additional species used and traded in the Pacific Northwest not described

in text. Other medicinal and useful plants not included in this text are described in publications in the “References” section of this paper.

Florals:

Maidenhair fern (Adiantum pedatum L.)

Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii Pursh)

Deer fern (Blechnum spicant L. Sm.)

Coastal reindeer lichen (Cladina portentosa (Dufour) Follmann)

Red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera Michx.)

Oceanspray (Holodiscus discolor (Pursh) Maxim.)

Yellow moss(Homalothecium fulgescens (Mitt. ex C. Muell) Lawt.)

Western bog laurel (Kalmia microphylla (Hook.) Heller)

Pacific willow (Salix lucida Muhl.)

Hardhack (Spiraea douglasii Hook.)

Common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus (L.) Blake)

Twisted ulota moss (Ulota obtusiuscula C. Muell. & Kindb.)

Medicinals:

Yerba mansa (Anemopsis californica (Nutt.) Hook. & Arn.)

Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii Pursh)

Arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt.)

Bunchberry dogwood (Cornus canadensis Michx.)

Bleeding heart (Dicentra formosa (Haw.) Walp.)

Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.)

Labrador tea (Ledum glandulosum Nutt.)

False Solomon’s seal (Maianthemum racemosa (L.) Link)

Licorice fern (Polypodium glycyrrhiza D.C. Eat.)

Balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera L.)

Milkthistle (Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.)

California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica (Hook. & Arn.) Nutt.)

Blue vervain (Verbena hastata L.)

Appendix 1
157

Edibles:

Burdock (Arctium minus Bernh.)

Lamb’s quarter’s (Chenopodium album L.)

Miner’s lettuce (Claytonia perfoliata Donn ex Willd.)

Wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh.)

Mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill)

Currant (Ribes L. spp.)

Blackberries (Rubus L. spp.)

Common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale G.H. Weber ex Wiggers)

Cat-tail (Typha latifolia L.)

Edible mushrooms:

Giant puffball (Calvatia booniana A.H.S.)

Shaggy mane (Coprinus comatus (Müll. ex Fr.) S.F.G.)

Hen of the woods (Grifolia frondosa (Fr.) S.F.G.)

Lion’s mane (Hericium erinaceus (Fr.) Pers.)

Hedgehog (Hydnum repandum (Fr.) S.F.G.)

Lobster mushroom (Hypomyces lactiflorum (Schw. ex Fr.) Tul.)

Candy cap (Lactarius fragilis (Burl.))

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus Fr.)

Pink coral (Ramaria botrytis (Fr.) Rick.)

Cauliflower mushroom (Sparassis crispa Wulf. ex Fr.)

Several mushrooms illustrated in this publication are representative of several

closely related species that are all commercially harvested, especially the chanterelles, morels, and boletes. As many as 20 other edible mushroom species are

harvested commercially in the Pacific Northwest. Arora (1991) provides a succinct overview of most of the major edible mushrooms in the Western United

States. The ones that are harvested commercially differ greatly depending on

region, season, buyers, markets, and whether they appear similar to poisonous

species.

Christmas greenery:

American holly (Ilex opaca Ait.)

Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.)
158

Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana Dougl.)

Western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don)

Coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb. ex D. Don) Endl.)

Christmas trees:

Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis Dougl. ex Forbes)

Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.)

Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis Lemm)

Coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb. ex D. Don) Endl.)

Craft materials:

Big-leaf maple shoots (Acer macrophyllum Pursh)

Coastal reindeer lichen (Cladina portentosa (Dufour) Follmann)

Antlered perfume lichen (Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach.)

Common scissor-leaf liverwort (Herbertus aduncus (Dicks.) Gray)

Sitka spruce cone (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.)

Sugar pine cone (Pinus lambertiana Dougl.)

Ponderosa pine cone (Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson)
159

Alaska-cedar Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach

Alaska huckleberry Vaccinium alaskaense How.

Alder Alnus P. Mill.

Alpine wintergreen Gaultheria humifusa (Graham) Rydb.

American false hellebore Veratrum viride Ait.

American matsutake Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck) Redhead

Angelica Angelica L.

Angelica Angelica polymorpha Maxim.

Arnica Arnica L.

Arrowleaf balsamroot Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt.

Arrowleaf coltsfoot Petasites sagittatus (Banks ex Pursh) Gray

Avalanche fawn-lily Erythronium montanum Wats.

Baby’s breath Gypsophila paniculata L.

Baldhip rose Rosa gymnocarpa Nutt.

Balsamroot Balsamorhiza Nutt.

Bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.

Beard lichen Usnea longissima Ach.

Beargrass Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.

Bedstraw Galium L.

Big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata Nutt.

Big-leaf maple Acer macrophyllum Pursh

Bilberry Vaccinium L.

Bitter-brush Purshia tridentata (Pursh) DC

Black cottonwood Populus trichocarpa Torr. & Gray ex Hook.

Black elderberry Sambucus racemosa L. var. melanocarpa (Gray)

McMinn

Black hawthorn Crataegus douglasii Lindl.

Black huckleberry Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. ex Torr.

Black morel Morchella elata Fr.:Fr. sensu Weber (1995)

Blackcap raspberry Rubus leucodermis Dougl. ex Torr & Gray

Appendix 2 Common name Scientific name
160

Blood spattered beard Usnea wirthii P. Clerc

Blue elderberry Sambucus cerulea Raf.

Blue skullcap Scutellaria laterifolia L.

Blueberry Vaccinium L.

Bluebunch wheatgrass Agropyron spicatum (Pursh) Scribn. & J.G. Sm.

Bluegrass Poa L.

Bog cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccos L.

Bracken fern Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn var. pubescens L.

 Underw.

Brewer’s mitrewort Mitella breweri Gray

Broadleaf arnica Arnica latifolia Bong.

Broadleaf lupine Lupinus latifolius Lindl. ex J.G. Agardh

Brome Bromus L.

Buckbrush Ceanothus L.

Buckthorn Frangula purshiana (DC.) Cooper

Bull thistle Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

Bunchberry dogwood Cornus canadensis L.

Burdock Arctium L.

California black oak Quercus kelloggii Newberry

California juniper Juniperus californica Carr.

California spikenard Aralia californica S.Wats.

California sword fern Polystichum californicum (DC. Eat.) Diels

Canby’s lovage Ligusticum canbyi Coult. & Rose

Canyon live oak Quercus chrysolepis Liebm.

Cascade bilberry Vaccinium deliciosum Piper.

Cascara buckthorn Frangula purshiana (DC.) Cooper

Ceanothus Ceanothus L.

Cedar Thuja L.

Celeryleaf lovage Ligusticum apiifolium (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray)

Gray

Common name Scientific name
161

Chanterelle Cantharellus Corner

Chickweed Stellaria media (L.) Vill.

Chittum Frangula purshiana (DC.) Cooper

Choke cherry Prunus virginiana L.

Cluster rose Rosa pisocarpa Gray

Coltsfoot Petasites frigidus (L.) Fries var. palmatus (Ait.)

Cronq.

Columbia hawthorn Crataegus columbiana T.J. Howell

Common dandelion Taraxacum officinale G.H. Weber ex Wiggers

Common hawthorn Crataegus monogyna Jacq.

Common horsetail Equisetum arvense L.

Common juniper Juniperus communis L.

Common mullein Verbascum thapsus L.

Common snowberry Symphoricarpos albus (L.) Blake

Common teasel Dipsacus fullonum L.

Common yarrow Achillea millefolium L.

Cow-parsnip Heracleum lanatum Micht.

Creeping snowberry Gaultheria hispidula (L.) Muhl. ex Bigelow

Curly dock Rumex crispus L.

Currant Ribes L.

Cut-leaved goldthread Coptis laciniata Gray

Deerfoot vanillaleaf Achlys triphylla (Smith) DC.

Desert parsley Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.) Mathias &

Constance

Devil’s club Oplopanax horridum Miq.

Dock Rumex L.

Douglas’ water-hemlock Cicuta douglasii (DC.) Coult. & Rose

Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco

Dwarf Oregon grape Berberis nervosa Pursh

Dwarf skullcap Scutellaria nana Gray

Common name Scientific name
162

Eastern tea berry Gaultheria procumbens L.

Elegant gentian Gentiana plurisetosa C.T. Mason

Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.

Evergreen huckleberry Vaccinium ovatum Pursh.

Evergreen violet Viola sempervirens Greene

Explorer’s gentian Gentiana calycosa Griseb.

False box Pachistima myrsinites Raf.

False box Paxistima myrsinites Raf. (see Pachistima)

False Solomon’s seal Maianthemum racemosa (L.) Link

Fern-leaved goldthread Coptis asplenifolia (Salisb.)

Fern-leaved lomatium Lomatium dissectum ( Nutt.) Mathias &

Constance

Fescue Festuca L.

Field mint Mentha arvensis L.

Field sagewort Artemisia campestris ssp. borealis (Pallas) Hall

& Clements var. wormskioldii (Bess. Ex Hook.)

Cronq.

Fir Abies P. Mill.

Fireweed Epilobium angustifolium L.

Foamflower Tiarella trifoliata L.

Four-parted gentian Gentiana propinqua Richards

Fringed sage Artemisia frigida Willd.

Gasquet manzanita Arctostaphylos hispidula T.J. Howell

Gentian Gentiana L.

Geyer’s lomatium Lomatium geyeri (S. Wats.) Mathias & Constance

Glaucous gentian Gentiana glauca Pallas

Globe huckleberry Vaccinium globulare Rydb.

Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis L.

Grand fir Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don.) Lindl.

Gray’s lovage Ligusticum grayi Coult. & Rose

Common name Scientific name
163

Greenleaf manzanita Arctostaphylos patula Greene

Groundsel Senecio L.

Hairy manzanita Arctostaphylos columbiana Piper

Hawthorn Crataegus L.

Heartleaf arnica Arnica cordifolia Hook.

Hemlock Tsuga Carr.

Horsetail Equisetum L.

Huckleberry Vaccinium L.

Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis Elmer

Incense cedar Calocedrus decurrens (Torr.) Florin

Indian basket grass Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.

Inside-out flower Vancouveria hexandra (Hook.) Morr. & Dec.

Juniper Juniperus L.

King bolete Boletus edulis Bull. ex Fr.

King’s gentian Gentiana sceptrum Griseb.

Kinnikinnick Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.

Klamath weed Hypericum perforatum L.

Kneeling angelica Angelica genuflexa Nutt.

Lady fern Athyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth

Licorice-root Ligusticum L.

Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.

Lovage Ligusticum L.

Lupine Lupinus L.

Lyall’s angelica Angelica arguta Nutt.

Macoun’s fringed gentian Gentiana macounii (Holm) Iltis

Maidenhair fern Adiantum pedatum L.

Manzanita Arctostaphylos Adans.

Maple Acer L.

Marsh skullcap Scutellaria galericulata L.

Common name Scientific name
164

Matsutake Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck) Redhead

Meadow rue Thalictrum L.

Mendocino gentian Gentiana setigera Gray

Morel Morchella Pers.:Fr.

Moss Musci (Bryophyta)

Mountain arnica (European) Arnica montana L.

Mountain balm Eriodictyon californicum (Hook. & Arn.) Torr.

Mountain heather Phyllodoce empetriformis (Sm.) D. Don

Mountain hemlock Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr.

Mountain maple Acer glabrum Torr.

Mountain snowberry Symphoricarpos oreophilus Gray

Mt. Shasta arnica Arnica viscosa Gray

Mugwort Artemisia douglasiana Bess.

Muhly grass Muhlenbergia Schreb.

Mullein Verbascum thapsus L.

Narrow-leaf yerba santa Eriodictyon angustifolium Nutt.

Narrow-leaved buckbrush Ceanothus cuneatus (Hook.) Nutt.

Natural morel Morchella elata Fr.:Fr. sensu Weber (1995)

Needlegrass Stipa L.

Newberry’s gentian Gentiana newberryi Gray

Ninebark Physocarpus malvaceus (Greene) Kuntze

Noble fir Abies procera Rehd

Nootka rose Rosa nutkana Presl.

Oak Quercus L.

Oceanspray Holodiscus discolor (Pursh) Maxim.

Old man’s beard Usnea Dill. ex Adans.

One-flowered gentian Gentiana simplex Gray

Oneseed hawthorn Crataegus monogyna Jacq.

Oregon ash Fraxinus latifolia Benth.

Common name Scientific name
165

Oregon black truffle Leucangium carthusianum Tuslane & Tuslane

Oregon boxwood Pachistima myrsinites Raf.

Oregon dogwood Cornus nuttallii Audubon ex Torr. & Gray

Oregon goldthread Coptis laciniata Gray

Oregon grape Berberis L.

Oregon white oak Quercus garryana Dougl. ex Hook.

Oregon white truffle Tuber gibbosum Gilkey

Oregon wintergreen Gaultheria ovatifolia Gray

Osha Ligusticum L.

Ostrich fern Matteuccia struthiopteris L. Tod.

Oxeye daisy Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.

Pacific golden chanterelle Cantharellus formosus Corner

Pacific madrone Arbutus menziesii Pursh

Pacific rhododendron Rhododendron macrophyllum G. Don ex G. Don

Pacific silver fir Abies amabilis Dougl. ex Forbes

Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia Nutt.

Palmate coltsfoot Petasites frigidus (L.) Fries var. palmatus (Ait.)

Cronq.

Pathfinder Adenocaulon bicolor Hook

Pearly everlasting Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth

Penstemon Penstemon Mitch.

Pine Pinus L.

Pine mushroom Tricholoma magnivelare (Peck) Redhead

Pinegrass Calamagrostis rubescens Buckl.

Pinemat manzanita Arctostaphylos nevadensis Gray

Pipsissewa Chimaphila Pursh

Pipsissewa Chimaphila umbellata (L.) W. Bart.

Poison oak Toxicodendron diversilobum (Torr. & Gray)

Greene

Ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa P. & C. Lawson

Common name Scientific name
166

Porter’s lovage Ligusticum porteri Coult. & Rose

Port-Orford-cedar Cupressus lawsoniana (A. Murr.)

Prince’s pine Chimaphila Pursh

Prince’s pine Chimaphila umbellata (L.) W. Bart.

Purple bee balm Monarda fistulosa L.

Queen Anne’s lace Daucus carota L.

Queencup beadlily Clintonia uniflora (Schult.) Kunth

Raspberry Rubus L.

Rattlesnake plantain Goodyera oblongifolia Raf.

Red alder Alnus rubra Bong.

Red elderberry Sambucus racemosa L. ssp. pubens (Michx.)

House

Red fescue Festuca rubra L.

Red fir Abies magnifica A. Murr.

Red huckleberry Vaccinium parviflorum Sm.

Red raspberry Rubus idaeus L.

Red root Ceanothus L.

Red sorrel Rumex acetosella L.

Redstem ceanothus Ceanothus sanguineus Pursh

Rhododendron Rhododendron L.

Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.

Rosy twisted stalk Streptopus roseus Michx.

Sagewort Artemisia douglasiana Bess.

Salal Gaultheria shallon Pursh

Salmon River lomatium Lomatium salmoniflorum (Coult. & Rose)

Mathias & Constance

Salmonberry Rubus spectabilis Pursh

Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link

Scouler’s valerian Valeriana scouleri Rydb.

Scouring-rush Equisetum hyemale L.

Common name Scientific name
167

Sea-watch Angelica lucida L.

Sedge Carex L.

Selfheal Prunella vulgaris L.

Serviceberry Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. ex M. Roemer

Serviceberry Amelanchier Medik.

Shasta red fir Abies magnifica var. shastensis Lemm

Sheep sorrel Rumex acetosella L.

Shepherd’s purse Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.

Shinyleaf spirea Spiraea betulifolia Pall. var. lucida (Dougl.)

Hitchc.

Showy sedge Carex spectabilis Dewey

Siskiyou trillium Trillium angustipetalum (Torr.) J.D. Freeman

Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.

Sitka valerian Valeriana sitchensis Bong.

Skullcap Scutellaria L.

Slender gentain Gentiana tenella Rottb.

Snapdragon skullcap Scutellaria antirrhinoides Benth.

Snowberry Symphoricarpos Duhamel

Snowbrush ceanothus Ceanothus velutinus Dougl. ex Hook.

Snowqueen Synthyris reniformis (Dougl. ex Benth.) Benth.

Spikenard Aralia californica S.Wats.

Spirea Spiraea L.

Spruce Picea A. Dietr.

St. John’s wort Hypericum perforatum L.

Starry false Solomon’s seal Maianthemum stellata (L.) Link

Stinging nettle Urtica dioica L.

Subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

Suksdorf’s mugwort Artemisia suksdorfii (Piper)

Suksdorfi’s hawthorn Crataegus suksdorfii (Sarg.) Kruschke

Swamp gentian Gentiana douglasiana Bong.

Common name Scientific name
168

Sweet coltsfoot Petasites frigidus (L.) Fries var. nivalis (Greene)

Cronq.

Sweet-cicely Osmorhiza chilensis Hook & Arn.

Tall Oregon grape Berberis aquifolium Pursh

Tanoak Lithocarpus densiflora (Hook & Arn.) Rehd.

Teasel Dipsacus L.

Thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus Nutt.

Thistle Cirsium P. Mill.

Threeleaf goldthread Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb.

Trailing blackberry Rubus ursinus Cham. & Schlect.

Trembling aspen Populus tremuloides Michx.

Twinflower Linnaea borealis L.

Usnea Usnea Dill. ex Adans.

Valerian Valeriana L.

Velvetleaf huckleberry Vaccinium myrtilloides Michx.

Vine maple Acer circinatum Pursh

Wake-robin Trillium ovatum Pursh

Western bracken fern Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn var. pubescens

L. Underw.

Western dock Rumex occidentalis S. Wats

Western goldthread Coptis occidentalis (Nutt.) Torr. & Gray

Western hazel Corylus cornuta Marsh

Western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.

Western juniper Juniperus occidentalis Hook.

Western redcedar Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don

Western sword fern Polystichum munitum (Kaulfuss) K. Presl.

Western trillium Trillium ovatum Pursh

Western valerian Valeriana occidentalis Heller

Western white pine Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don

Whipple vine Whipplea modesta Torr.

Common name Scientific name
169

White chanterelle Cantharellus subalbidus Corner

White fir Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. ex

Hildebr.

White hawkweed Hieracium albiflorum Hook.

White sage Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. ssp. estesii

Chambers

White-leaved manzanita Arctostaphylos viscida Parry

Whortleberry Vaccinium scoparium Leib. ex Coville

Wild ginger Asarum caudatum Lindl.

Wild oats Avena fatua L.

Wild rhubarb Rumex arcticus Trautv.

Wild rhubarb Rumex fenestratus Greene

Wild rose Rosa L.

Wild teasel Dipsacus sylvestris Huds.

Willow Salix L.

Witch’s hair Alectoria sarmentosa Ach. (Ach.)

Wood violet Viola glabella Nutt.

Wood’s rose Rosa woodsii Lindl.

Woolly mullein Verbascum thapsus L.

Wormwood Artemisia douglasiana Bess.

Yarrow Achillea millefolium L.

Yellow gentian Gentiana lutea L.

Yerba santa Eriodictyon californicum (Hook. & Arn.) Torr.

Common name Scientific name
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