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### Chapter 2. Demographics of the Principalship

The demographic characteristics of principals may be especially important because some research has suggested that factors such as sex predict both the types of activities in which school administrators engage and their career paths and ultimate accomplishments in the field. For example, Andrews and Basom (1990) noted that female principals spend more time observing teachers in their classrooms, are more concerned with student accomplishments, and value teacher productivity more than their male counterparts. Women administrators are more likely to be seen as instructional leaders in their schools (Smith & Andrews, 1989) by virtue of their greater years of experience as teachers and the different administrative and supervisory strategies they bring to the job.
School desegregation contributed to decreases in the number of African-American principals (Weinberg, 1977), and some researchers (e.g., Miklos, 1988) contend that subsequent school and district practices have meant that minority principals are more likely to be placed in schools with high proportions of students of similar ethnic or cultural groups and perhaps to have been appointed through application of special criteria. Both factors may affect opportunities for further advancement. In any case, minority principals may differ from nonminority administrators in important characteristics. These differences may include years of prior classroom teaching experience, the nature of their previous positions in the field, the nature of their current appointment, salaries and benefits, perceived control over the educational process, and age at hiring (see Miklos, 1988). 
Principal age may have important implications especially for career opportunities and accomplishments for both women and minorities (Miklos, 1988). Administrators assigned early in their careers (i.e., in their middle to late 30s) may be more likely to later serve in larger schools (e.g., as high school principals) and to hold district-level positions. Previous studies have shown, however, that women and minority administrators both teach longer and enter administration later than white males (Andrews & Basom, 1990; Miklos, 1988). These patterns may limit both the length and type of administrative careers because they conflict with career norms that favor youthful career entry.
Following an overview of the demographics of the principalship, the sections below address in turn issues of sex, race-ethnicity, and age. These demographic characteristics affect other issues as well. Thus, sex, race-ethnicity, and age will be examined further as other topics are addressed in subsequent chapters of the report.
Demographic Overview
Table 1 shows the total number of public and private school principals by region for the 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 school years./1  As the table indicates, the total number of public school principals grew between 1987-88 and 1993-94 (up 2.2 percent), reflecting a change in the number of public schools during that period.  The growth occurred mainly in the west (up 6.5 percent).  The number of private school principals showed no change across the six-year period.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------Table 1.-Number of public and private school principals by region: 1987-88,         1990-91, 1993-94----------------------------------------------------------------------------                      **Public****Private**             -------------------------  ------------------------------------                         **Region       1987-88   1990-91 1993-94  1987-88  1990-91  1993-94**----------------------------------------------------------------------------TOTAL         77,890   78,890   79,618   25,401   23,881   25,015Northeast     13,854   13,705   13,469    6,299    5,272    5,966South         25,890   25,838   26,308    6,995    6,115    6,777Midwest       22,465   23,124   23,144    7,644    7,462    7,302West          15,680   16,223   16,698    4,463    5,031    4,971----------------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Details may not add up to totals due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for EducationStatistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (AdministratorQuestionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator Questionnaires), 1993-94 (PrincipalQuestionnaires).----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 2 provides an overview of important characteristics of the public and private principal population for 1993-94.  Elementary principals outnumbered secondary principals by a ratio of almost three to one in public schools and nearly six to one in private schools.  Thirty percent of private school principals, however, served in schools that combine elementary and secondary levels, compared to 4 percent of public school principals.  In 1993-94, 65 percent of public school principals were men, compared to 46 percent of private school principals.  Most public and private principals were white non-Hispanic, and they were, on average, in their late 40s.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------Table 2.-Overview of characteristics of public and private school         principals: 1993-94----------------------------------------------------------------------------**Principal characteristic          Public  Private**----------------------------------------------------------------------------**School level**  Elementary                        71.9%    59.5%  Secondary                         24.4%    10.3%  Combined                           3.7%    30.2%**Sex**  Male                              65.4%    46.4%  Female                            34.5%    53.6%**Race-ethnicity**  American Indian/Alaska Native      0.8%     0.5%  Asian/Pacific Islander             0.8%     0.7%  Black non-Hispanic                10.1%     4.2%  White non-Hispanic                84.2%    92.5%  Hispanic                           4.1%     2.1%  Total minority                    15.7%     7.5%**Average age**                          47.7     47.1**Average salary**                    $54,857  $32,075----------------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for EducationStatistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (PrincipalQuestionnaires).----------------------------------------------------------------------------
The sections that follow examine specific demographic characteristics (sex, race-ethnicity, and age) of public and private school principals in relation to a variety of school and community characteristics and in relation to salaries and benefits. Comparisons among estimates from the 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 school years highlight trends.
Sex
As figure 1 illustrates, the majority of public school principals during the 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 school years were men. During the 1993-94 school year, 59 percent in urban fringe/large town public schools were male, and 75 percent of principals in rural/small town public schools were male, although in central city schools there were no sex differences (table A4). Similarly, for public schools in 1993-94, 63 percent of principals in districts with 5,000 to 9,999 students were male, 74 percent in districts with 1,000 to 4,000, and 79 percent in districts with less than 1,000 students (table A3). In public schools where 50 percent or more of the students were eligible to receive free or reduced-price lunch, 60 percent of the principals in 1993-94 were male; in schools where 20 to 40 percent were free-lunch eligible, 68 percent of principals were male; and in schools where less than 20 percent of the students were eligible, 69 percent of the principals were male (table A5).  Additionally, as figure 1 shows, in 1993-94 principals were more likely to be male in public secondary schools (86 percent) than they were in public elementary schools (59 percent).