Water Quality in the

Kanawha–New River Basin

West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina, 1996–98

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Circular 1204
POINTS OF CONTACT AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Front cover: The Kanawha River at Kanawha Falls, West Virginia. (Photograph by David Fattaleh, West Virginia 

Division of Tourism, and used by permission.)

Back cover: Left, Electrofishing on Sewell Creek at East Rainelle, West Virginia (photograph by Edward Vincent, 

USGS); right, Mountaintop coal mine near Kayford, West Virginia (photograph by James H. Eychaner, USGS). 

The companion Web site for NAWQA summary reports:

http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/

Kanawha–New River Basin contact and Web site:

USGS State Representative

U.S. Geological Survey

Water Resources Division

11 Dunbar Street

Charleston, WV 25301

e-mail: dc_wv@usgs.gov

http://wv.usgs.gov/nawqa/

National NAWQA Program:

Chief, NAWQA Program

U.S. Geological Survey

Water Resources Division

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, M.S. 413

Reston, VA 20192

http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/

River Basin Assessments

Albemarle-Pamlico Drainage Basin (Circular 1157)

Allegheny and Monongahela River Basins (Circular 1202)

Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River Basin (Circular 1164)

Central Arizona Basins (Circular 1213)

Central Columbia Plateau (Circular 1144)

Central Nebraska Basins (Circular 1163)

Connecticut, Housatonic, and Thames River Basins (Circular 1155)

Eastern Iowa Basins (Circular 1210)

Georgia-Florida Coastal Plain (Circular 1151)

Hudson River Basin (Circular 1165)

Lake Erie–Lake Saint Clair Drainages (Circular 1203)

Las Vegas Valley Area and the Carson and Truckee River Basins

(Circular 1170)

Lower Illinois River Basin (Circular 1209)

Long Island–New Jersey Coastal Drainages (Circular 1201)

Lower Susquehanna River Basin (Circular 1168)

Mississippi Embayment (Circular 1208)

Ozark Plateaus (Circular 1158)

Potomac River Basin (Circular 1166)

Puget Sound Basin (Circular 1216)

Red River of the North Basin (Circular 1169)

Other NAWQA summary reports

Rio Grande Valley (Circular 1162)

Sacramento River Basin (Circular 1215)

San Joaquin–Tulare Basins (Circular 1159)

Santee River Basin and Coastal Drainages (Circular 1206)

South-Central Texas (Circular 1212) 

South Platte River Basin (Circular 1167)

Southern Florida (Circular 1207)

Trinity River Basin (Circular 1171)

Upper Colorado River Basin (Circular 1214) 

Upper Mississippi River Basin (Circular 1211)

Upper Snake River Basin (Circular 1160)

Upper Tennessee River Basin (Circular 1205)

Western Lake Michigan Drainages (Circular 1156)

White River Basin (Circular 1150)

Willamette Basin (Circular 1161)

National Assessments

The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters—Nutrients and Pesticides (Circular 1225)
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR

Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina, 1996–98

1204

By Katherine S. Paybins, Terence Messinger, James H. Eychaner, Douglas B. 

Chambers, and Mark D. Kozar
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publications Data

The use of firm, trade, and brand names in this report is for identification purposes only and

does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Free on application to the

U.S. Geological Survey

Information Services

Box 25286 Federal Center

Denver, CO 80225

Or call: 1-888-ASK-USGS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

GALE A. NORTON, SECRETARY

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Charles G. Groat, Director

2000

Water Quality in the Kanawha-New River Basin, West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina, 1996–98 / by 

Katherine S. Paybins [et al.].

p. cm. -- (U.S. Geological Survey Circular ; 1204)

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 0-607-95412-4 (alk. paper)

1. Water quality--West Virginia--Kanawha River. 2. Water quality--Virginia. 3. Water quality--North 

Carolina. I. Paybins, Katherine S., 1966- II. Geological Survey (U.S.) III. Series.

TD224.W4 W36 2000

363.739’42’097543--dc21

00-049459
CONTENTS

III

NATIONAL WATER–QUALITY ASSESSMENT PROGRAM ................................................................... IV

SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS......................................................................................................... 1

Stream and River Highlights ............................................................................................................. 1

Ground-Water Highlights................................................................................................................... 2

INTRODUCTION TO THE KANAWHA–NEW RIVER BASIN.................................................................. 3

MAJOR FINDINGS.................................................................................................................................. 5

Persistent changes in water chemistry and aquatic biology are evident in coal-mined areas........... 5

REGIONAL STUDY—Sulfate concentrations and biological communities in Appalachian 

 coal fields indicated mining-related disturbances despite a general water-quality

 improvement between 1980 and 1998 ..................................................................................... 9

NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE—Effects of mining on invertebrate communities were of similar

 magnitude as the effects caused by urban development and agriculture nationally................. 11

Some contaminants are widespread and present at potentially harmful concentrations in 

 streambed sediment and fish tissue............................................................................................. 11

Fish communities differ considerably throughout the basin, but non-native species continue 

 to expand their range ................................................................................................................... 12

High concentrations of fecal bacteria remain in streams if sources are close .................................. 14

Nutrient and organic-chemical concentrations in surface water are low in most of the basin........... 15

Radon concentrations and bacterial contamination are the principal ground-water-quality 

 concerns ...................................................................................................................................... 16

NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE—Radon concentrations in ground water were among the

 highest in the Nation ................................................................................................................. 18

STUDY UNIT DESIGN ............................................................................................................................ 20

GLOSSARY............................................................................................................................................. 22

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 24

APPENDIX—WATER-QUALITY DATA FROM THE KANAWHA–NEW RIVER BASIN IN 

 A NATIONAL CONTEXT .................................................................................................................... 27
NATIONAL WATER-QUALITY ASSESSMENT PROGRAM

IV National Water-Quality Assessment Program 

THIS REPORT summarizes major findings about water quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin that emerged 

from an assessment conducted between 1996 and 1998 by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Water–

Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. Water quality is discussed in terms of local and regional issues and compared to conditions found in all 36 NAWQA study areas, called Study Units, assessed to date. Findings also are 

explained in the context of selected national benchmarks, such as those for drinking-water quality and the protection of aquatic organisms. The NAWQA Program was not intended to assess the quality of the Nation’s drinking 

water, such as by monitoring water from household taps. Rather, NAWQA assessments focus on the quality of the 

resource itself, thereby complementing many ongoing Federal, State, and local drinking-water monitoring programs. Comparisons made in this report to drinking-water standards and guidelines are only in the context of the 

available untreated resource. Finally, this report includes information about the status of aquatic communities and 

the condition of instream habitats as elements of a complete water-quality assessment.

Many topics covered in this report reflect the concerns of officials of State and Federal agencies, water-resource 

managers, and members of stakeholder groups who provided advice and input during this water-quality 

assessment. Residents of West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina who wish to know more about water quality 

in the areas where they live will find this report informative as well.

THE NAWQA PROGRAM of the USGS seeks to improve scientific and public understanding of water quality 

in the Nation’s major river basins and ground-water systems. Better understanding facilitates effective resource 

management, accurate identification of water-quality priorities, and successful development of strategies that protect and restore water quality. Guided by a nationally consistent study design and shaped by ongoing communication with local, State, and Federal agencies, NAWQA assessments support the investigation of local issues and 

trends while providing a firm foundation for understanding water quality at regional and national scales. The ability 

to integrate local and national scales of data collection and analysis is a unique feature of the USGS NAWQA Program. 

The Kanawha–New River Basin is one of 51 water-quality assessments initiated since 1991, when the U.S. Congress appropriated funds for the USGS to begin the NAWQA Program. As indicated on the map, 36 assessments 

have been completed, and 15 more assessments will conclude in 2001. Collectively, these assessments cover about 

one-half of the land area of the United States and include water resources that are available to more than 60 percent 

of the U.S. population.

1991–95

1994–98

1997–2001

Not yet scheduled

High Plains Regional

Ground Water Study, 

1999–2004

NAWQA Study Units— 

Assessment schedule

Kanawha–New 

River Basin
Summary of Major Findings 1

SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS

KILOMETERS

0 50

0 50

MILES

Appalachian

Plateaus

Province

Valley

and

Ridge

Province

Blue

Ridge

Province New

River

New R.

Gauley R.

Kanawha

River

Charleston

Boone

Blacksburg

Bluefield

Greenbrier R.

WV

VA

NC

The Kanawha–New River Basin is generally mountainous, forested, 

humid, and rural. Agriculture is concentrated in the southern half of 

the basin; major products are cattle and hay. Seven percent of all coal 

mined in the United States is produced from the Appalachian Plateaus 

Physiographic Province within the basin. 

37°

°

°

°

38

82

81

EXPLANATION

STREAM DATA-COLLECTION

SITE

Water quality, ecology,

bed sediment, and

fish tissue

Bed sediment and

fish tissue

GROUND-WATER 

STUDY AREA

Appalachian Plateaus

Blue Ridge

° 80

Elk R.

Stream and River Highlights 

The generally low population and intensity of agriculture and urban land uses throughout the 

Kanawha–New River Basin are reflected in low concentrations of nutrients and pesticides in streams and 

rivers. 

Streams in the coal region of the Appalachian 

Plateaus Physiographic Province generally improved 

between about 1980 and 1998 with respect to pH, 

total iron, total manganese, and sedimentation. These 

improvements were among the regulatory goals of 

the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 

1977 (SMCRA). Other unregulated factors, however, 

show the effects of continued mining. Mine drainage 

in the basin is rarely acidic but has high concentrations of sulfate, which decrease slowly after mining 

ends. Stream-bottom sedimentation in mined basins 

remains greater than in undisturbed basins. 

• Streams draining basins that have been mined 

since 1980 show increased dissolved sulfate, 

decreased median bed-sediment particle size, and 

impaired benthic-invertebrate communities compared to streams not mined since 1980. (p. 5–11)

• In all basins studied where more than 100,000 tons 

of coal per square mile have been mined, the 

stream benthic-invertebrate community is 

impaired in comparison to rural parts of the basin 

where less than 10,000 tons of coal per square 

mile have been mined since 1980. Some basins in 

which the benthic-invertebrate community is 

impaired, however, were not heavily mined. 

Benthic invertebrates are sensitive indicators of 

many types of disturbance and respond to impairment of either stream chemistry or physical 

habitat. (p. 7–8)

• Effects on stream benthic-invertebrate communities caused by coal mining were of similar magnitude to the effects caused by urban development 

and agriculture elsewhere in the Nation. (p. 11)

• Kanawha Falls is the upstream limit for the range 

of several fish species. Non-native fish continue to 

expand their range in tributaries of the New and 

Gauley Rivers. (p. 12–14)

• Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria concentrations 

exceeded the national guideline for public swimming areas in 26 percent of samples from major 

rivers and in 43 percent of samples from tributary streams, 

but no outbreak of waterborne disease was reported during 

1991–98. Inadequate sewage treatment and manure management contribute to elevated E. coli concentrations. 

(p. 14–15)

• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) continue to be detected 

in the Kanawha River downstream from the Charleston metropolitan area. (p. 16)

• Nickel, chromium, zinc, and certain toxic organic compounds were found in bed sediment in concentrations that 

could harm aquatic life. Elevated concentrations of cadmium, mercury, nickel, selenium, and zinc were measured in 

fish tissue at some sites. (p. 12) 

Major Influences on Streams and Rivers

•Coal mining

•Improper disposal of human and animal wastes

•Past industrial activities
2 Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

Ground-Water Highlights

Ground water in the Appalachian Plateaus and 

Blue Ridge Physiographic Provinces moves mostly 

in a network of narrow fractures within a few hundred feet of the land surface, and drains toward the 

nearest stream. Wells normally tap only a few of the 

many local fractures. The ridgetops bound each local 

aquifer, which generally are affected only by local 

contaminant sources. In small areas of the basin 

where caves and solution cavities in limestone bedrock are common, wells can have high yields but are 

susceptible to contamination from fecal bacteria, pesticides, and other toxic chemicals. 

• Radon concentrations in the Blue Ridge were among the 

highest in the Nation. Almost 90 percent of wells 

sampled there exceeded the proposed U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) primary drinkingwater standard of 300 picocuries per liter (pCi/L). Onethird of these wells contained more than 4,000 pCi/L, 

the proposed alternate drinking-water standard. Radon 

is a radioactive gas that forms during the decay of natural uranium. (p. 18–19)

• Modern well construction can prevent fecal bacteria from 

reaching drinking water in most areas of the basin. Bacteria 

were frequently detected only at older wells. (p. 19)

• Potentially explosive concentrations of methane were found 

in water at 7 percent of wells in the coal region of the Appalachian Plateaus. (p. 17)

• Nutrients, pesticides, and VOCs were detected in low concentrations throughout the basin. In the Blue Ridge, however, water from more than 50 percent of wells contained 

pesticides, an indication that the ground water is vulnerable 

to contamination. (p. 19)

• In the Appalachian Plateaus, iron and manganese concentrations exceeded USEPA drinking-water guidelines in at least 

40 percent of the wells and in about 70 percent of wells near 

reclaimed surface coal mines. Elevated sulfate concentration 

and slightly acidic water were more common at wells within 

1,000 feet of reclaimed mines than elsewhere. (p. 10 and 17) 

Major Influences on Ground Water

• Composition of soils and bedrock

• Improper disposal of human and animal wastes

• Current and past mining practices

• Pesticide usage and other toxic chemical releases

Small Streams Major Rivers

Agricultural

Coal

Mining 

Forest

Selected Indicators of Stream-Water Quality 

Mixed

Land Uses

—

Nutrients2

Pesticides1

Trace

elements4

Bacteria3

— * —

2 Phosphorus and nitrogen, sampled in water.

4 Nickel, chromium, zinc, and lead, sampled in streambed sediment.

Not assessed

Percentage of samples with no detection

(* Detected in 1 percent or less of samples)

—

Percentage of samples with concentrations less than

health-related national guidelines for drinking water,

protection of aquatic life, or contact recreation; or

below a national goal for preventing excess algal growth

Percentage of samples with concentrations greater

than or equal to health-related national guidelines for

drinking water, protection of aquatic life, or contact

recreation; or above a national goal for preventing 

excess algal growth

1 Insecticides, herbicides, and pesticide metabolites, sampled in water.

3 Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria, sampled in water.

Radon

Selected Indicators of Ground-Water Quality

Appalachian

Plateaus

Appalachian

Plateaus, Mining

Blue

Ridge

Pesticides1

Volatile

organics

Bacteria3

—

2 —

—

2 Solvents, refrigerants, fumigants, gasoline, and gasoline additives, 

 sampled in water.

Not assessed

Nitrate

Domestic Supply Wells

Percentage of samples with concentrations greater

than or equal to health-related national guidelines for 

drinking water

Percentage of samples with concentrations less than

health-related national guidelines for drinking water

Percentage of samples with no detection

1 Insecticides, herbicides, and pesticide metabolites, sampled in water.

3 Fecal coliform bacteria, sampled in water.
INTRODUCTION TO THE KANAWHA–NEW RIVER BASIN

Introduction to the Kanawha–New River Basin 3 

Population and Human Activities

The Kanawha River and its major tributary, the New 

River, drain 12,223 mi2

 in North Carolina, Virginia, 

and West Virginia (Messinger and Hughes, 2000). 

Most of the total basin population of 870,000 (1990 

data) live in rural areas, and industrial and residential 

areas cover less than 5 percent of the total area in the 

basin (fig. 1). Only about 30 percent of the population 

live in towns larger than 10,000 people, including the 

25 percent who live in the Charleston, W. Va., 

metropolitan area. The total population has not 

changed substantially since the 1950s, mostly because 

of emigration from rural parts of the basin to urban 

centers in the Midwest and the South. 

The only major industrial area in the basin is along 

the terrace of the Kanawha River, within about 20 

miles of Charleston (fig. 2). Chemical industry practices that profoundly polluted the Kanawha River during the 1950s and 1960s have changed, and discharge 

of pollutants to streams has greatly decreased, although 

bed sediment and fish remain 

contaminated with dioxin and 

other industrial chemicals 

(Henry, 1981; Kanetsky, 1988; 

West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, 2000). 

In the Kanawha–New River 

Basin, most coal is mined in the 

Appalachian Plateaus in West 

Virginia (McColloch, 1998). 

About 7 percent of the coal 

mined in the United States 

comes from the Kanawha–New 

River Basin (Fedorko and 

Blake, 1998; Messinger and 

Hughes, 2000). Most coal 

mined in the basin has a low sulfur content. Coal production has 

increased since passage of the 

Clean Air Act amendments of 

1990, which mandated a reduction of sulfate emissions to 

decrease acid precipitation. 

Physiography

The streams and rivers of the 

basin drain areas in three physiographic provinces: the Blue 

Ridge (17 percent), the Valley 

and Ridge (23 percent), and the 

Appalachian Plateaus (60 percent). In the Appalachian Plateaus, little of the land is flat, 

and most flat land is in the flood 

plains and terraces of streams.

Land use

in 1992–94

530

1,700 2,900

3,100

3,900

4,900

Elevation (in feet)

Forest

Agriculture

Urban Mining and other 

disturbed land

(82%)

(15%)

(2%)

(1%)

(82%)

(15%)

(2%) (1%)

(67%)

(31%)

(1%) (<1%)

Blue Ridge

Valley and Ridge

Appalachian 

Plateaus

Downtown Charleston

in winter

Falls of Hills Creek in the 

Allegheny Highlands *

Whitewater rafters in the

New River Gorge

Valley and Ridge agriculture

Christmas tree farming in the 

Blue Ridge

Figure 1. In the mountainous Kanawha–New River Basin, elevation ranges from over 

4,000 feet in the Allegheny Highlands of the Appalachian Plateaus Province and the 

Blue Ridge Province to about 560 feet at the mouth of the river at Point Pleasant, 

W. Va. Forest accounted for 81 percent of the land cover in 1993 (Multi-Resolution 

Land Characteristics Interagency Consortium, 1997). Logging is a major industry 

throughout the basin. The entire basin was logged by the early 20th century, and no 

undisturbed areas remain (Clarkson, 1964). Coal mining is prevalent in the Appalachian 

Plateaus. The Blue Ridge Province contains proportionally more agricultural land than 

the Appalachian Plateaus and Valley and Ridge Provinces. Cattle, hay, and corn grown 

as cattle feed are the primary agricultural products (National Agriculture Statistics 

Service, 1999). Physiographic provinces from Fenneman, 1938.

* Photograph by Julie Archer, and used by permission.

0 50

0 50

MILES

KILOMETERS

82°

°

°

°

38

81

37

Forest

Agriculture

Urban Mining and other 

disturbed land

Forest

Agriculture

Urban

Mining and other 

disturbed land
 4 Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

The Valley and Ridge is characterized by strongly 

folded ridges separated by relatively flat, broad valleys. 

These two regions are underlain by sedimentary rocks. 

The Blue Ridge is characterized by igneous and metamorphic rocks that have been folded and faulted.

Water Use 

In 1995, 61 percent of the basin’s population 

depended on surface-water supplies for domestic needs 

(Solley and others, 1998). Thirty percent relied on 

domestic water wells. The remaining nine percent used 

public-supply water wells. In 1995, total withdrawal of 

water was about 1,130 Mgal/d (million gallons per 

day); total consumptive use was about 118 

Mgal/d.

Hydrologic Conditions and Features

With some exceptions, mean streamflow 

during the study was within about 10 percent 

of long-term mean flows at most gaging stations (see records from a representative station 

in fig. 3). Major flooding occurred throughout 

the Appalachian Plateaus in January 1996, 

seven months before sampling began, and 

streamflow at several gaging stations within 

the Kanawha–New River Basin exceeded the 

100-year flood flow (Ward and others, 1997). 

A thunderstorm in June 1998 caused flooding 

in the northwestern part of the basin where 

flow on a few small streams exceeded the 

100-year recurrence interval (Ward and others, 

1999). With the exception of these floods, no 

other flows exceeded the 10-year recurrence 

interval. No streams in the basin were in drought conditions during the study. 

Streamflow varies most through the year in the western Appalachian Plateaus, and it varies least through 

the year in the Blue Ridge. On average, streamflow 

throughout the basin is greatest in February and March 

and least in September through October. Maximum 

streamflow does not coincide with maximum precipitation because summer vegetation uses a large fraction of 

the precipitation. 

The river system in the Kanawha–New River Basin 

is regulated by four major flood-control dams, three 

navigation dams, and several smaller dams. The two 

largest dams are on the Gauley River (Summersville 

Dam) and Elk River (Sutton Dam). The other two 

major dams are on the New River. The navigable reach 

of the Kanawha River is in backwater caused by the 

navigation dams. In this reach, stream depth is greater 

and velocity is less than in the undammed reaches of 

the major rivers. All pools behind dams in the basin 

collect sediment. Dams are also major barriers to fish 

movement.

STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECON

D

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

PRECIPITATION, IN INCHES

5

10

15

20

25

30

Precipitation

Streamflow

Figure 3. After a major flood in January 1996, streamflow from Williams

River at Dyer, W. Va., and precipitation from Richwood, W. Va., were

normal throughout the study period. The long-term average annual

streamflow at Williams River at Dyer, W. Va. is 336 cubic feet per second.

Long-term average precipitation at the Richwood, W. Va. location is

48 inches per year.

Figure 2. Coal and motor fuel commonly are transported by

barge on the Kanawha River, downstream from Kanawha Falls.
Major Findings 5

MAJOR FINDINGS

Persistent Changes in Water Chemistry and 

Aquatic Biology are Evident in Coal-Mined 

Areas

About 7 percent of all coal mined in the Nation 

comes from an area of 5,000 mi2 in the Appalachian 

Plateaus part of the Kanawha–New River Basin. Production of the mostly low-sulfur coal nearly doubled 

from 1980 to 1998 as mining technology advanced, 

individual mines became larger, and employment 

decreased. Total production is about 90 million tons per 

year. A coal seam 1 foot thick and 1 mile square weighs 

about 1 million tons.

 Most drainage basins within the coal region have 

been mined repeatedly as technology has advanced and 

economics have changed. Only three unmined basins 

greater than 10 mi2 in the coal mining region were identified in this study. Among mined basins, cumulative 

coal production of less than 10,000 ton/mi2

 of coal during 1980–95 is low. Cumulative production in many 

basins ranged from 100,000 to 1,000,000 ton/mi2

. 

Most water that drains from coal mines in the 

Kanawha–New River Basin is naturally neutral or alkaline rather than acidic.When iron pyrite in coal and 

adjacent rocks is exposed to air and water during mining, a series of chemical reactions produce dissolved 

iron and sulfuric acid (Rose and Cravotta, 1998). Natural or applied limestone, lye, or anhydrous ammonia 

can neutralize the acid (Skousen and others, 1998), but 

sulfate ions dissolved in water generally remain as evidence of the reactions. Sulfate concentrations in 

streams decrease slowly after mining ends (Sams and 

Beer, 2000). 

Since 1981, Total Iron and Manganese have 

Decreased in Stream Basins where Coal 

Mining has Continued, but Sulfate has 

Increased

During low flow in July 1998, water samples from 57 

wadeable streams (drainage area less than 1 to 128 mi2

) 

were analyzed once. Samples were collected from 

streams in the region of the Appalachian Plateaus 

where coal has been mined. At least three analyses were 

available for 51 of the sites for 1979–81, before the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) 

affected regional water quality (Ehlke and others, 

1982). Each 1998 analysis was compared to the one 

earlier analysis with the closest corresponding streamflow. Results were interpreted with respect to cumulative mining history and other land uses in each basin. 

Median concentrations of total iron and total manganese were lower in 1998 than during 1979–81 in 33 

basins that had been mined both before and after 

SMCRA, but sulfate concentration and specific conductance were higher (table 1). In 1998, median total manganese, specific conductance, sulfate, and pH were 

higher in 37 basins mined since 1980 than in 20 basins 

unmined since then; median total iron was lower in the 

mined basins, possibly reflecting aggressive treatment 

of permitted discharges. 

Table 1. Medians of regulated constituents improved between 

1979–81 and 1998 in 33 mined basins

[μg/L, micrograms per liter; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, 

milligrams per liter]

 Median value 

 1979–81 1998 

Regulated Constituents

pH (standard units) 7.1 7.5

Total iron (μg/L) 455 150

Total manganese (μg/L) 150 78

Unregulated Constituents

Specific conductance (μS/cm) 360 446

Sulfate (mg/L) 91 150

At the time the SMCRA and subsequent regulations 

were established, acidification and subsequent increase 

in metal concentrations, but not sulfate concentration, 

were known to degrade stream quality. Regulations,

BASINWIDE COAL PRODUCTION (MILLIONS OF

TONS MINED PER SQUARE MILE, 1980–95)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

1

10

100

1,000

Figure 4. Sites with a low concentration of sulfate drained

basins with little recent coal production. Sites with a high

concentration of sulfate drained basins with a wide range

of recent coal production.

Median = 59 mg/L

SULFATE CONCENTRATION,

IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER (mg/L)

Drinking-water guideline = 250 mg/L

10,000
 6 Water Quality of the Kanawha–New River Basin

therefore, were targeted at decreasing mining-related 

acidification and concentrations of iron and manganese, but were not designed to decrease sulfate concentrations. Sulfate concentrations less than 59 mg/L 

(milligrams per liter; study median) were measured 

only from basins where less than 142,000 ton/mi2 of 

coal were produced during 1980–95 (figs. 4 and 5). In 

contrast, manganese concentrations less than 32 μg/L 

(micrograms per liter; study median) were measured at 

several heavily mined basins (fig. 6). 

Sulfate concentration in streams draining mined 

areas does not correlate strongly with coal production 

because sulfate production depends on local geology, 

mining practice, and possibly results from activities in 

addition to mining. Sulfate concentration is higher than 

background, however, in basins with the greatest coal 

production. Background sulfate concentration was less 

than 25 mg/L in 16 of 20 basins not mined since 1980. 

In contrast, sulfate concentration was greater than 250 

mg/L in 8 of 15 mined basins drained by streams tributary to the Coal River. The USEPA guideline for sulfate 

in drinking water is 250 mg/L. 

For two years, water chemistry was analyzed 

monthly and at high flow at two streams in heavily 

mined basins, and at one stream where no coal had 

been mined since 1980. At the mined sites, sulfate, several other ions, and specific conductance decreased as 

streamflow increased; at the unmined site, major-ion 

concentrations were low at all flows (fig. 7). Dissolved 

iron and manganese concentrations were virtually unrelated to flow at all three sites. At both Peters Creek near 

Lockwood and Clear Fork at Whitesville, specific conductance was correlated with sulfate concentration, and 

correlations were nearly as strong between specific 

conductance and dissolved calcium, magnesium, 

sodium, and chloride. The same patterns were found in 

data for the sites before the implementation of the 

SMCRA. 

Streamflow, water temperature, pH, and specific 

conductance were measured hourly at the two mined 

sites during the same two years. In the Coal River 

Basin at Clear Fork, sulfate concentration (estimated 

from the hourly specific conductance) exceeded the 

COAL PRODUCTION (MILLIONS OF TONS

MINED PER SQUARE MILE, 1980–95)

DISSOLVED MANGANESE CONCENTRATIONS,

 IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER (

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

μg/L)

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

μ

Figure 6. Concentrations of manganese in about

half of the streams draining heavily mined basins

were less than the study median.

μg/L

BY COUNTY (1980–95)—

SULFATE IN STREAMS—

In milligrams per liter

10,001 – 20,000

In thousands of tons per year

0

1,001 10,000

less than 59

59 – 250

greater than 250

Figure 5. Sulfate concentration in wadeable streams

was highest in counties with the highest coal production.

EXPLANATION

Figure 7. The concentration of sulfate, like other major ions,

decreased with flow at two heavily mined sites but was

consistently low at a site with no recent mining (Clear Fork

R = 0.90, Peters Cr R = 0.91, Williams River R = 0.11). 

Clear Fork near

Whitesville (mining)

(not recently mined)

Peters Creek near

Lockwood (mining)

2

1

10

100

1,000

1 10 100 1,000 10,000

Drinking-water guideline = 250 mg/L

SULFATE CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS

 PER LITER (mg/L)

2 2
Major Findings 7

250-mg/L guideline about 25 percent of the time. Sulfate concentrations across a range of flow at Clear Fork 

were at least 10 percent greater in 1998 than in 1979–

81. 

Coal-mining methods in the Kanawha–New River 

Basin

In the Kanawha–New River Basin, half of the coal 

comes from underground mines and half from surface 

mines. Surface subsidence is expected above longwall 

mines, which remove about 90 percent of a coal seam, 

but is less common above room-and-pillar mines that 

may remove only 60 percent. Surface mines, both 

smaller contour mines and larger mountaintop mines, 

can remove 100 percent of a series of seams. Surfacemine operators working in steep-slope areas cannot 

simply replace all waste-rock material within the 

boundaries of the mine sites, because broken rock takes 

more space than consolidated rock. The excess is 

placed in valleys as fill material where the land is flat 

enough to provide a stable foundation, but the valley 

fills greatly affect the stream environment (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000). 

Stream Benthic-Invertebrate Communities are 

Impaired at Mined Sites

In all streams sampled that drain areas where large 

quantities of coal have been mined, the benthicinvertebrate community is impaired in comparison to 

rural parts of the study area where little or no coal has 

been mined since 1980 (fig. 8). Some streams in which 

the community is impaired drained areas that were not 

heavily mined. 

Invertebrate communities were sampled from riffles 

at 29 wadeable streams in areas of the Appalachian 

Plateaus where coal is or has been mined (Chambers 

and Messinger, 2001). The sites were separated into 

two groups by statistical comparison of species composition and abundance. Each group contained communities that were similar. The communities that included 

several insect taxa known for intolerance of fine sediment were identified as the less impaired group of sites. 

These taxa include Epeorus mayflies and Dolophilodes 

and Rhyacophila caddisflies (fig. 9). Epeorus is a genus 

of relatively large mayflies that cling to the bottom of 

large, loosely embedded rocks. Fine sediment can fill 

the openings in the stream bottom where they live. 

Caddisflies in the genus Dolophilodes spin finely 

meshed nets that can be clogged with silt. Rhyacophila

are mobile predators typically found in clean, coolwater streams. These intolerant taxa were not present in 

the invertebrate communities at sites identified as 

poorer. In addition, scores from the MHBI (Modified 

Hilsenhoff Biotic Index; see glossary) and proportions 

of pollution-tolerant taxa from the midge family were 

significantly greater at the more impaired group of 

sites. The MHBI and other biological metrics are mathematical summaries of characteristics that change predictably in response to environmental stress. They are 

used to measure ecological health of a system (Karr 

and Chu, 1999).

Dolophilodes

(Caddisfly larva) Epeorus

(Mayfly nymph)

Rhyacophila

(Caddisfly larva)

Figure 9. Invertebrates that are intolerant of fine 

sediment were present at unmined sites and sites 

with little coal production since 1980. (Photograph by 

* Jennifer Hiebert, University of Alberta; ** D.B. Chambers, 

USGS; *** Arturo Elosegi, North American Benthological 

Society. All photos reproduced with permission)

*

***

**

BASINWIDE COAL PRODUCTION, IN MILLIONS

OF TONS MINED PER SQUARE MILE, 1980–95

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

MODIFIED HILSENHOFF BIOTIC 

 INDEX SCORE (MHBI)

2

3

5

6

7

Figure 8. Only sites with little recent coal production

had healthy invertebrate communities as measured

by low (favorable) scores on the Modified Hilsenhoff

Biotic Index, although not all impaired sites were in

areas of high coal production.

Higher MHBI (impaired invertebrate 

community)

Lower MHBI (healthy invertebrate

community)

median
 8 Water Quality of the Kanawha–New River Basin

Differences in land use, stream habitat, and stream 

chemistry between the groups of sites suggest possible 

causes for the different invertebrate communities. The 

less impaired group of sites drained basins that were 

unmined, or where less than 10,000 ton/mi2 were 

mined during 1980–95. Most basins in the more 

impaired group of sites had been mined within the last 

20 years by both surface and underground methods; 

most contained abandoned mines that pre-dated 

SMCRA and produced 100,000 to 1,000,000 ton/mi2

 of 

coal. Some of the basins in the more impaired group, 

however, had not been mined since 1980. Coal production during 1980–95 is not an ideal indicator of the 

environmental disturbance caused by coal mining, but 

it related better to environmental measurements than 

did production over a shorter interval, number of abandoned mines, or mine discharge permits (Chambers 

and Messinger, 2001). 

At the more impaired sites, the proportion of total 

land area as strip mines, quarries, disturbed land, or 

gravel pits was significantly greater than at the less 

impaired sites. In addition, sulfate concentration, specific conductance, and alkalinity of stream water were 

all higher. Stream pH did not differ significantly 

between the two groups; pH is regulated in mine discharges. 

Two basins that were not mined since 1980 contained valley fills similar to those constructed at large 

surface mines. The invertebrate community in Mill 

Creek near Hopewell, W. Va., which drains an area 

with few relatively small fills, grouped with the less 

impaired sites. Davis Creek at Trace Creek, W. Va., 

drains several large fills at a shopping center and was in 

the poorer group. 

Instream habitat structure also differed significantly 

between the two groups. Sites from the less impaired 

group had less sand and silt in the stream bottom. 

Smaller median sediment size correlated with 

decreased number of taxa of mayflies, stoneflies, and 

caddisflies (EPT taxa) and an increased (more 

impaired) score on the Modified Hilsenhoff Biotic 

Index (fig. 10; r2

 = 0.46 and 0.43, respectively). Among 

the sites sampled, correlations between invertebrate 

metrics and coal production (or factors relating to coal 

mining) were weak, largely because some streams were 

impaired by other land uses. Erosion and sediment deposition in basins with active mines have decreased 

overall because of controls required under SMCRA, 

but temporal comparisons are not possible. Sedimentation in 1998 remained generally greater, however, at 

sites in basins with coal production since 1980 than in 

unmined basins. 

The invertebrate-community degradation represented the cumulative effects of mining before and after 

SMCRA, deep mining and surface mining, mines in 

and out of compliance with applicable regulations, and 

all other nonmining disturbances in the basins. 

Impaired sites from this region ranked near the middle 

of an index that ranked NAWQA sites representing different land uses throughout the United States. (See discussion of effects on invertebrate communities 

nationally, p. 11). Logging and ongoing construction 

probably contribute to sedimentation, but their extent in 

each basin could not be quantified. Logging may contribute more sediment per disturbed volume of soil than 

mining. 

Benthic invertebrates are good indicators of overall 

stream-water quality 

Benthic invertebrates are sensitive indicators of many 

types of stream disturbance (Barbour and others, 

1999). Because most have a life span of about a year 

and many remain in the same short section of stream 

during most of their lives, they are particularly well 

suited for assessments of short-term, local disturbances 

within a watershed. Fish, however, often move 

throughout a stream system, enabling them to seek refuge from such disturbances. An impaired invertebrate 

community is more than a disruption in the aquatic 

food web— it indicates that stream chemistry and (or) 

physical habitat are impaired. Stream-chemistry data 

provide useful information about the stream’s quality 

only for the time of sampling, but benthic-invertebrate 

communities can show the effects of short-term disturbances that can easily be missed when stream-quality 

assessments rely only on chemical measurements. 

SIZE, IN MILLIMETERS

0 40 80 120 160

MODIFIED HILSENHOFF

2

3

4

5

6

7

SULFATE CONCENTRATION,

IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

1 10 100 1,000

NU

MBER OF MAYFLY, STONEFLY, 

 AND CADDISFLY TAXA

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Figure 10. Invertebrate-community metrics show generally better

conditions (lower MHBI) at sites with coarser streambeds and

lower sulfate concentrations, although correlations are weak.

Median

Median
Major Findings 9

In a 1998 study to assess 

regional water-quality effects 

of coal mining (Eychaner, 

1999), samples representing 

the Northern Appalachian coal 

field were collected in the 

Allegheny and Monongahela 

River Basins (ALMN), where 

high-sulfur coal is common 

and acid mine drainage was 

historically severe, and samples for the Central Appalachian coal field were collected 

in the Kanawha–New River 

Basin (KANA), where acid 

drainage is uncommon 

(fig. 11).

Water chemistry in 178 

wadeable streams was analyzed once during low flow, in 

July and August 1998. Drainage area for most streams was 

between 4 and 80 mi2

. Most 

(170) of these sites were also 

part of a study on the effects of 

coal mining that was conducted during 1979–81 (Herb 

and others, 1981a, 1981b; 

1983; Ehlke and others, 1982), 

before regional water quality was affected by implementation of regulations from the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). At 61 sites, 

aquatic invertebrates (insects, worms, crustaceans, and 

mollusks) also were collected. Ground water was sampled from 58 wells near coal surface mines and 25 

wells in unmined areas. Wells sampled downgradient 

from reclaimed surface coal mines reflect the local 

effects of mining. 

Concentrations of Regulated Constituents 

Improved in Stream Base Flow From About 

1980 to 1998 

During low-flow conditions, sulfate in more than 70 

percent of samples from streams downstream from coal 

mines in both coal regions exceeded the regional background concentration. Background was calculated as 

about 21 mg/L sulfate from data for basins with no 

history of coal mining. The 

highest concentrations were 

measured in basins with the 

greatest coal production. Onefourth of all samples exceeded 

250 mg/L, the USEPA drinking-water guideline.

Total iron, total manganese, 

and total aluminum also 

exceeded regional background 

concentrations (129, 81, and 

23 μg/L, respectively) in many 

streams in mined basins. The 

median concentrations of total 

iron in the northern coal region 

were about equal between 

mined and unmined basins, but 

in the central region, concentrations of median total iron 

among mined basins were 

lower than among unmined 

basins. In both regions, median 

concentrations of total manganese among mined basins were 

about double that among 

unmined basins. 

Median pH increased, and 

median concentrations of total 

iron and total manganese 

decreased among mined basins between 1979–81 and 

1998 in both regions, reflecting that regulations 

restricting these constituents in mine drainage are 

effective. Even so, stream sites downstream from mines 

more commonly exceeded drinking-water guidelines 

for sulfate, iron, manganese, and aluminum concentrations than streams in unmined basins (fig. 12).

Regional study: Sulfate concentrations and biological communities in 

Appalachian coal fields indicated mining-related disturbances despite a 

general water-quality improvement between 1980 and 1998

Northern

Coal

Fields

Coal

TN

KY

WV

OH

PA

MD

VA

NC

NY

Lake Erie

0

0

40

40 MILES

KILOMETERS

ALMN

KANA

Co

M

C

APPROXIMATE

BOUNDARY BETWEEN

APPALACHIAN COAL FIELDS

Greater than 1.3

Less than 1.3

No data

MAJOR STREAMS

SULFUR CONTENT OF COAL,

EXPLANATION

STUDY UNIT

Figure 11. Coal seams in the Appalachian coal region

vary in sulfur content, and the fields are identified

primarily on the basis of this difference (Tully, 1996).

The Kanawha–New River Basin contains mostly lower

sulfur coal, while the Allegheny and Monongahela

River Basins contain mostly higher sulfur coal.

37

42

39

82 80 78

°

° °

°

°

°

41°

Figure 12.

drinking-water guidelines at mined sites than at

unmined sites.

PERCENTA

GE OF SAMPLED 

SITES THAT EXCEEDED 

DRINKIN

G-WATER GUIDELINES

Sulfate Aluminum
 10 Water Quality of the Kanawha–New River Basin

Aquatic Benthic Invertebrate Communities are 

Impaired in Mined Basins

Aquatic invertebrate communities tended to be more 

impaired where there was more coal mining, when 

compared to basins where there was little coal mining. 

Pollution-tolerant species are more likely to be present 

at mined sites than at unmined sites, whereas pollutionsensitive taxa were fewer in number or non existent in 

heavily mined basins. Increasing coal production correlated with both an increased concentration of sulfate 

and a decline in some aquatic insect populations (fig. 

13). Of the 61 sites where aquatic invertebrates were 

collected, those sites with sulfate concentrations higher 

than the estimated background concentration had the 

lower diversity of three groups of sensitive insect species (mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies), even though 

the pH of the water at all sites was greater than 6.5.

At the concentrations measured, the sulfate ion is 

relatively non toxic to aquatic organisms and may not 

represent the cause of the decline observed in mayflies 

and stoneflies. Sulfate concentration was, however, 

positively correlated with the total coal production 

from a basin (Sams and 

Beer, 2000). Other landscape disturbances associated with coal 

mining—changes in 

streamflow, siltation, or 

trace metal contamination—could affect the

invertebrate community. 

Negative effects on communities caused by mining were of similar 

magnitude to the effects 

of urban development, agriculture, large construction 

projects, flow alterations, or wastewater 

effluent.

Sulfate, Iron, and Manganese Concentrations 

were Elevated in Wells Near Reclaimed 

Surface Mines

At mined sites in both coal regions, pH was lower 

and sulfate concentration was greater at mined sites 

than at unmined sites. Sulfate concentrations in ground 

water were higher than background concentrations in 

shallow wells within 1,000 feet of reclaimed surface 

mines (fig. 14). Samples from wells in the northern 

coal region contained more sulfate than wells at 

unmined sites in the same region, or at any of the sites 

in the central coal region. Iron, manganese, and aluminum were higher than background concentrations within about 2,000 feet of 

reclaimed surface mines (1,800, 640, and 

11 μg/L, respectively).

Water from most wells, except at 

unmined sites in the northern coal region, 

exceeded guidelines for iron and manganese, which make the water unpleasant to 

drink (fig. 15). The concentrations in 

both regions were higher near reclaimed 

mines than at unmined sites.

NUMBER OF LARVAL MAYFLY, STONEFLY,

AND CADDISFLY TAXA

NORTHERN COAL FIELDS CENTRAL COAL FIELDS

MEDIAN

GREATER

THAN

21

LESS

THAN

21

SULFATE,

IN MILLI

GRAMS PER LITER

Figure 13. Sulfate concentration in stream water was inversely

related to the number of mayfly, stonefly, and caddisfly taxa

found at water-quality sampling sites.

0 10 20 30

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000

Northern coal region

Central coal region

Drinking-water guideline

Background level in

unmined areas g

Figure 14. Sulfate concentrations in ground water are

greater within 1,000 feet of reclaimed surface coal mines

and in the northern coal region than at greater distance

and in the central coal region.

DISTANCE FROM MINED AREA, IN FEET

3,500

Figure 15.

exceeded drinking-water guidelines in mined

areas than in unmined areas.

P

Sulfate Aluminum

ERCENTA

GE OF SAMPLED 

SITES THAT EXCEEDED 

DRINKIN

G-WATER GUIDELINES
Major Findings 11

Some Contaminants are Widespread and 

Present at Potentially Harmful Concentrations 

in Streambed Sediment and Fish Tissue

Ten Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons were Found in 

Streambed Sediments in Concentrations that may 

Harm Aquatic Life

Forty samples of streambed sediment from 36 sites 

in the Kanawha–New River Basin were analyzed for 

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during 

1996–98. PAHs are components of wood smoke, diesel 

exhaust, soot, petroleum, and coal. Their toxicity varies, and some are carcinogenic to humans and other 

animals. Of the 12 PAHs for which guidelines were 

available, 10 were detected at concentrations exceeding 

the Probable Effect Level (PEL; see information box 

on sediment-quality guidelines), and all were detected 

at concentrations exceeding the Threshold Effect Level 

(TEL). 

 High concentrations of PAHs were present in each 

physiographic setting in the basin except for the Blue 

Ridge, although the only high concentrations in the 

Valley and Ridge/Appalachian Plateaus transition zone 

were in basins where coal has been mined. The highest 

PAH concentrations measured in this study were in the 

Appalachian Plateaus. Some of the highest PAH concentrations were measured at some of the most heavily 

mined sites in the basin, although the correlation 

between coal production and streambed PAH conSediment Quality Guidelines

NAWQA’s bed-sediment sampling protocol (Shelton 

and Capel, 1994) is designed to maximize the chance 

of detecting contaminants that have been transported in 

a stream during the previous 1–3 years. The data from 

this study were compared to final Canadian Sediment 

Quality Guidelines (SQGs) rather than the preliminary 

USEPA guidelines. SQGs have been issued by Environment Canada for 8 trace elements and 12 PAHs 

(Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 

1999). At concentrations below a Threshold Effect 

Level (TEL), contaminants are rarely expected to have 

a toxic effect on aquatic life. At concentrations above a 

Probable Effect Level (PEL), toxic effects are expected 

frequently. Concentrations of substances that exceed 

SQGs may imply, but not prove, that organisms in the 

streams of interest are at risk from those substances.

Invertebrate communities at two coal 

mining stream sites ranked near the middle 

of more than 600 NAWQA sites sampled 

nationwide during 1991–98. These sites had 

index scores better than national median 

scores for urban sites, about the same as 

national median scores for agricultural 

sites, and worse than national median 

scores for undeveloped sites. The community at a forested and undeveloped site in 

the Appalachian Plateaus was within the 

best 10 percent of NAWQA sites nationally 

and within the best 25 percent of undeveloped sites.

Nationally, invertebrate communities at 

heavily agricultural sites were commonly 

highly impaired. In the Kanawha–New 

River Basin, agriculture is usually of low 

intensity and centers on pasturing small herds of cattle and growing cattle feed. Invertebrate communities at two 

agricultural sites, one in the Appalachian Plateaus and one in the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province, were within 

the best 10 percent of all sites nationally.

Agriculture

Mining

Mixed

Undeveloped

Urban

 NATIONAL INVERTEBRATE

0

20

40

60

80

100

Sites in undeveloped and agricultural basins in the Kanawha–New River

Basin rank among the best sites nationally in the National Invertebrate

Community Status Index. More impaired sites in the Kanawha–New River

Basin rank about the same or better than most sites that represent

developed land uses nationally. (Low scores correspond to diverse

invertebrate communities.)

EXPLANATION

10th percentile

25th percentile

Median

75th percentile

90th percentile

KANAWHA–NEW RIVER

BASIN SITES

NAWQA SITES NATIONWIDE

Effects of mining on invertebrate communities were of similar 

magnitude to the effects caused by urban development and 

agriculture nationally
 12 Water Quality of the Kanawha–New River Basin

centration was weak (r2 = 0.52, among 20 

wadeable stream sites within the coal 

region). Coal samples from several commonly mined seams in West Virginia were 

between 20 and 85 percent PAH by mass 

(W.H. Orem, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., July 2000). Coal particles are 

common in sediment from many streams in 

the coal fields. The PAHs from the coal particles, however, may not be bioavailable 

(Chapman and others, 1996). Unlike other 

NAWQA study areas, no correlation was 

found between most other land uses and 

PAH concentration.

Four Trace Elements were Present in 

Streambed Sediment in Concentrations 

That May Harm Aquatic Life

A total of 53 bed-sediment samples from 

47 sites in the Kanawha–New River Basin 

were analyzed for trace elements during 

1996–98. All eight of the trace elements for which criteria were available were found at some sites in concentrations exceeding their Threshold Effect Level (fig. 

16; see information box on sediment-quality guidelines). Nickel, chromium, zinc, and lead were detected 

at concentrations exceeding their Probable Effect 

Level. Nickel concentrations exceeded the Probable 

Effect Level most frequently (in 47 of the 53 samples), 

based on the 1995 Sediment Quality Guidelines; a final 

SQG was not issued for nickel at the time that other 

SQGs were finalized. 

Trace-element concentrations also were determined 

in livers of common carp or rock bass in 27 samples 

from 18 sites in 1996 and 1997. Some samples contained concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, and zinc that were among the 

highest 25 percent of more than 900 NAWQA samples 

nationwide (1991–98). Concentrations of cadmium, 

mercury, nickel, selenium, and zinc in fish-tissue samples from the Kanawha–New River Basin ranked 

among the highest 10 percent of all NAWQA samples; 

six samples contained cadmium concentrations ranking 

among the highest 10 percent of all NAWQA samples, 

and five samples contained selenium concentrations 

ranking among the highest 10 percent of all NAWQA 

samples. One fish-tissue sample, from Kanawha River 

at Winfield, contained cadmium at a concentration 

ranking in the highest 1 percent of all samples in the 

Nation. Determining the human health or ecological 

significance of these concentrations is problematic, 

because tissue samples were collected from many different species and because fish-liver tissue is not normally eaten by humans.

Fish Communities Differ Considerably 

Throughout the Basin, but Non-native 

Species Continue to Expand Their Range

Fish communities in the Kanawha–New River Basin 

are complex and vary widely among streams of different size, physiographic setting, and land use. Individual 

species are distributed in patches, particularly upstream 

from Kanawha Falls (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994). 

This patchy distribution can confound comparisons 

among streams (Strange, 1999). The quality of the 

regional fish community is generally good, although 

the national NAWQA fish index seems to underrate 

that quality because it does not consider the patchy distribution. 

Non-native Fish Continue to Expand Their Range in 

Tributaries of the New and Gauley Rivers 

Three fish species were collected for the first time at 

often-sampled sites in tributaries of the New and 

Gauley Rivers (Cincotta and others, 1999). Margined 

madtoms, a popular bait species, were collected for the 

CHROMIUM

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

ZINC

0

100

500

600

700

800

ARSENIC

0

10

20

30

40

50

Figure 16. 

exceeded Environment Canada's effects-based criteria at several sites in

the basin. Probable effects levels (PEL) are those concentrations at which

harmful effects to aquatic life are thought to be likely, and were exceeded

most frequently in the Allegheny Highlands and other Appalachian Plateaus

streams. Threshold effects levels (TEL) were exceeded at all sites by nickel

and chromium. *Valley and Ridge sites include transition zones between

provinces.

NICKEL

Blue Ridge

Valley and Ridge*

Main stem

CONCENTRATIONS, 

IN MICROGRAMS PER GRAM

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

TEL

PEL

Blue Ridge

Valley and Ridge*

Main stem

Valley and Ridge*

Blue Ridge

Main stem

Valley and Ridge*

Appalachian Plateaus

Main stem
Major Findings 13

first time from Second Creek near the village of Second 

Creek. Margined madtoms are native to some parts of 

the New River and some of its tributaries, but they had 

never before been collected from the Greenbrier River 

Subbasin. Telescope shiners (fig. 17), natives of the 

Tennessee River Basin, have been collected in the New 

River since 1958, and they continue to expand their 

range. Telescope shiners were collected from another 

often-sampled site, Williams River at Dyer, in the 

Gauley River Subbasin; this was their first collection 

upstream from Summersville Dam, a large impoundment. Telescope shiners also were collected for the first 

time from two Meadow River tributaries, also in the 

Gauley River Subbasin. Least brook lamprey were collected for the first time from Williams River at Dyer, 

their second collection from the Gauley River Subbasin. Populations of all these species were well established, and the ongoing expansion of their ranges 

suggests that all were relatively recent bait-bucket 

introductions to the New River system. Two of these 

reaches, and all of these streams, had been thoroughly 

sampled in the late 1970s (Hocutt and others, 1978, 

1979). 

Other fish collected for the first time in the basin 

were in tributaries of the Coal River. The new species 

in Coal River distribution records were from large tributaries where few or no surveys had been made since 

the 1930s. Mottled sculpin, bluebreast darter, river 

carpsucker, blacknose dace, and longnose dace all were 

collected for the first time from Clear Fork near 

Whitesville or Spruce Laurel Fork at Clothier, major 

tributaries to the Big or Little Coal Rivers, respectively. 

Several of these records represented the most upstream 

collections in their respective forks of the Coal River, 

although all had been collected from the Coal River 

Subbasin. These new-species records most likely represent undersampling of streams that have often been 

overlooked by investigators rather than new range 

expansions. 

In some regions of the United States, the highest proportion of non-native fish are typically present in the 

most impaired streams (Maret, 1997; Waite and Carpenter, 2000). In these regions, unimpaired streams are 

typically cold-water streams with complex physical 

habitat and low nutrient concentrations. In impaired 

streams where agricultural and urban land uses are 

common, stream temperature and nutrient concentrations are high and physical habitat is degraded. Many 

non-native fish tolerate these conditions better than 

many native species do, enabling the non-natives to 

displace the natives. No such relation was found in the 

Kanawha–New River Basin, where sedimentation and 

increased dissolved solids have impaired streams, but 

where temperature and nutrient concentrations have 

remained low (Messinger and Chambers, 2001, in 

press). The proportion of introduced fish in the New 

River system was high, even though other measures did 

not indicate impairment. 

Fish Species Common Throughout the Ohio River 

Basin are Not Native Upstream from Kanawha Falls 

The New River system, which fisheries biologists 

consider to include the Gauley River and its tributaries, 

supports a different collection of fish species than the 

downstream Kanawha River system, which is part of 

the larger Ohio River system (Jenkins and Burkhead, 

1994). Kanawha Falls (see front cover), a 24-foot 

waterfall 2 miles downstream from the confluence of 

the New and Gauley Rivers, is the boundary between 

the New River and Kanawha River systems. This 

waterfall has been a barrier to upstream fish movement 

since glaciers affected streams more than 1 million 

years ago. The New River system lacks native species 

diversity, and it has unfilled ecological niches. It has 

only 46 native fishes and the lowest ratio of native 

fishes to drainage area of any river system in the Eastern United States. 

The lack of native-species diversity allowed other 

species to develop in the New River system, which has 

the largest proportion of endemic species (found 

nowhere else in the world) in eastern North America (8 

of 46). Introduced fish species have prospered in the 

New River system; Jenkins and Burkhead (1994) cite 

the New River system as having the largest number and 

proportion (42 of 89) of introduced freshwater species 

Figure 17. Example of a telescope shiner

(Notropis telescopus), a non-native species

in the Kanawha–New River Basin.

(Photograph from Jenkins and Burkhead, 

1994; used by permission from the Virginia

Department of Game and Inland Fisheries)
 14 Water Quality of the Kanawha–New River Basin

of all major eastern and central North American drainages. 

Although many species have been introduced and 

become naturalized throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the New River fish fauna remain susceptible to 

invasion. In contrast, 118 fish species are reported from 

the Kanawha River system downstream from Kanawha 

Falls (Stauffer and others, 1995); none of these fish 

species are endemic to the Kanawha River system, and 

only 15 are considered possible, probable, or known 

introductions. 

Fish Communities are Controlled By a Variety of 

Environmental Factors in the Kanawha–New River 

Basin

In testing the possible effects of coal mining on fish 

communities, results were less definitive than for 

benthic invertebrates (p. 8–9). No common fish metrics 

(Karr and Chu, 1999; Barbour and others, 1999) correlated closely with mining intensity or its surrogate, sulfate concentration. The study included sites both 

upstream and downstream from Kanawha Falls, and 

differences in many metrics between the two groups 

mask differences among land-use categories 

(Messinger and Chambers, 2001, in press). However, 

fish were collected at only 13 wadeable sites in the coal 

region, which did not represent a full gradient of mining intensity.

High Concentrations of Fecal Bacteria 

Remain in Streams if Sources are Close 

Concentrations of 

Escherichia coli (E. 

coli) exceeded the 

national guideline for 

public swimming areas 

in 26 percent of samples from major rivers 

in the Kanawha–New 

River Basin and in 43 

percent of samples 

from tributary streams 

(fig. 18); however, no 

outbreak of waterborne disease was 

reported from the basin 

during 1991–98 (Barwick and others, 2000). 

Bacteria concentration 

in stream water varies widely, reflecting the changing 

balance between bacterial sources and many factors 

that help or hinder bacteria transport. Because of the 

wide variability, comparisons between streams based 

on only a few samples can be misleading; a few generalizations, however, can be made. 

First, streams contain more bacteria if the sources 

are close to the stream and the sampling site. Among 

large rivers, median concentrations of E. coli were lowest in the New River Gorge at Thurmond, in a reach 

distant from any large city (fig. 18). Concentrations 

were highest in the Kanawha River downstream from 

the Charleston metropolitan area at Winfield. In the 

two tributary basins with the highest median concentrations, most homes are clustered close to the streams 

because the land slopes steeply elsewhere. In contrast, 

four tributary streams in basins with more moderate 

slopes, where bacteria sources are more dispersed, had 

median E. coli concentrations less than half as high. 

Regardless of slope, direct contamination of a stream 

by sewage or manure can produce extremely high concentrations, as Gillies and others (1998) observed in the 

Greenbrier River.

Second, bacteria concentrations exceeding guidelines are much more common when streamflow is 

greater than average, so streams generally contain more 

bacteria in winter than in summer (fig. 19). E. coli concentrations exceeded guidelines in less than one-third 

of summer samples from moderate-slope tributaries 

and less than one-fifth from large rivers. In the three 

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

Steep Slopes Moderate slopes New River Kanawha River

Tributary streams Large rivers

EXPLANATION

Peters Cr

Clear Fork

Williams R

Reed Cr

Little R

Bluestone R

Second Cr

Glen Lyn

Thurmond

Kanawha Falls

Winfield

Figure 18. E. coli bacteria concentrations in streams vary widely.

USEPA GUIDELINE

FOR PUBLIC

SWIMMING AREAS

MEDIAN VALUE

MEASURED VALUE

ESCHERICHIA COLI CONCENTRATION, IN

COLONIES PER 100 MILLILITERS

SAMPLING SITES
Major Findings 15

tributary basins with steeper slope, however, concentrations were higher in summer than winter. 

Finally, streams contain more bacteria if the bacteria 

sources are large. Williams River, the tributary basin 

with the lowest median concentration of E. coli (fig. 

18) is home to only 5 people per square mile, compared 

to the average of 71 people per square mile throughout 

the entire Kanawha–New River Basin. For twice the 

population density, median E. coli was about 300 percent higher among steep-slope tributaries. Among the 

moderate-slope basins, however, including the Bluestone River Basin with 201 people per square mile, 

median E. coli was only about 10 percent higher for 

twice the population density. Neither the estimated 

number of cattle nor the percentage of agricultural land 

use in the tributary basins showed a relation to the 

median bacteria concentrations. 

Facts about E. coli

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a bacterium that grows in 

the intestines of people, other mammals, and birds. 

Most strains of E. coli do not cause disease, but they do 

indicate water contamination by feces, which could 

contain other disease-causing organisms. The national 

guideline for public swimming areas is less than 235 E. 

coli colonies per 100 milliliters of water (col/100 mL) 

in any single sample (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 1986). That level is intended to allow no more 

than 8 gastrointestinal illnesses per 1,000 swimmers. 

For waters infrequently used for full-body-contact recreation, the guideline is 576 col/100 mL. 

Nutrient and Organic-Chemical 

Concentrations in Surface Water 

are Low in Most of the Basin

Nutrients were Detected at Low Concentrations in 

Streams of the Kanawha–New River Basin 

Mean concentrations of nutrients in the Kanawha–

New River Basin were at or below national background 

levels. Most concentrations, however, exceed those 

measured at a stream-water-monitoring site at Williams 

River, which drains mostly National forest. The highest 

mean nitrate concentration measured was 1.5 mg/L. 

Flow-weighted mean ammonia concentrations ranged 

from less than 0.02 to 0.04 mg/L. Mean total phosphorus concentration was less than 0.1 mg/L at nine sites; 

the maximum was 0.15 mg/L. Nitrate and phosphorus 

are typically increased by agricultural or urban land 

uses, and certain nutrients, such as ammonia, can accumulate from natural sources. 

Differences in nutrient concentrations were found 

among sites because of differences in land use/land 

cover, and physiography. Generally, basins with more 

agriculture produced more mean total nitrogen than did 

forested basins. The lowest mean total nitrogen concentration in streams, 0.71 mg/L was that for mostly 

forested tributary basins in the Appalachian Plateaus 

produced (fig. 20). The lowest mean concentration in 

the basin, or background concentration, was 0.45 mg/L, 

at Williams River. Tributary streams with basins mostly 

or wholly within the Valley and Ridge Physiographic 

Province had the highest mean total nitrogen, 1.04 

mg/L. One stream in the Blue Ridge had a mean total 

nitrogen concentration of 0.94 mg/L. The mean total 

nitrogen concentration was not substantially different 

between large rivers and smaller tributaries (0.83 and 

0.90 mg/L respectively).

Four sites, draining forest mixed with agriculture or 

coal mining, ranked among the best sites in the Nation 

in a national Algal Status Index. This index measures 

the proportion of algal samples that belong to species 

that are tolerant of high nutrient concentrations and 

siltation.

Pesticides were Detected at Low Concentrations in 

Surface Water 

Pesticides were sampled for 9 to 25 times at four 

sites in 1997. Two sites were on main-stem, large 

streams. The other two sites on tributary streams 

drained basins with more than 30 percent agricultural 

0

20

40

60

80

100

Summer (May-October)

Winter (November-April)

Steep slopes Moderate slopes New River Kanawha River

Tributary streams Large rivers

Figure 19.

more often in winter than in summer for most 

streams.

PERCENTA

GE OF SAMPLES THAT 

EXCEEDED 235 COLONIES OF 
 16 Water Quality of the Kanawha–New River Basin

Figure 20. Because

much of the Kanawha–

New River Basin is

forested, surface water

and ground water 

contain low 

concentrations of 

nutrients and few

pesticides.

land and some urban land. (See Study Unit Design, 

p. 20). Time of sampling covered the seasonal spectrum of both climate and pesticide application. The 

pesticides detected at all sites are routinely detected at 

agricultural sites across the Nation.

Surface-water samples in the Kanawha–New River 

Basin contained only a few pesticides at low levels. In 

all, 23 of 83 pesticides analyzed for were detected 

(Ward and others, 1998). All pesticide detections were 

less than 1 μg/L; concentrations detected did not 

exceed USEPA drinking-water standards or aquatic-life 

criteria. The most commonly detected pesticides were 

atrazine, deethylatrazine (a breakdown product of atrazine), metolachlor, prometon, simazine, and tebuthiuron. Atrazine, deethylatrazine, metolachlor and 

simazine were detected in more than 90 percent of 

samples. 

Dioxin is a particularly toxic contaminant in certain 

herbicides formerly manufactured near Charleston and 

is a known contaminant in the lower Kanawha River, 

but it was not analyzed for this study. Dioxin in the 

lower Kanawha River is the target of ongoing regulatory investigations by USEPA and other agencies. 

Many VOCs Detected in the Lower Kanawha River 

Numerous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have 

been detected routinely at low concentrations in the 

Kanawha River downstream from the Charleston metropolitan area (Tennant and others, 1992). In this study, 

more than 20 VOCs were detected, at concentrations 

ranging from 0.015 to 0.3 μg/L, in each of two samples 

collected in late 1997 from the Kanawha River at Winfield. Each sample was analyzed for 85 compounds 

(Ward and others, 1998). The compounds detected at 

Winfield, downstream from Charleston, included 

chloroform, motor fuel and aromatic compounds such 

as benzene, and industrial compounds such as ethers. 

In contrast, only a single compound was detected in 

one of two samples collected from the Kanawha River 

upstream at Kanawha Falls. 

During 1987–96, one or more of 21 VOCs were 

detected in 50 percent of all daily samples collected for 

the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission 

(ORSANCO) from an industrial water intake at St. 

Albans, downstream from Charleston (Lundgren and 

Lopes, 1999). Benzene and toluene were the two most 

frequently detected compounds, and a maximum of 11 

compounds was detected in a single sample. Median 

concentrations ranged from 0.1 to 2.3 μg/L. Gasoline 

spills or leaks of as little as 10 gallons per day that 

reach the river could produce the concentrations measured at St. Albans.

Radon Concentrations and Bacterial 

Contamination are the Principal GroundWater-Quality Concerns

Physiographic Province, Geology, Well Construction, 

and Land Use Affect the Quality of Water from 

Domestic Wells

Ground water from private wells provides domestic 

supply for 30 percent of the people in the Kanawha–

New River Basin. High concentrations of radon are a 

concern in the Blue Ridge (p. 18), and private wells can 

be contaminated by fecal bacteria throughout the basin 

(p. 19), but the occurrence of other contaminants differs among the physiographic provinces.
Major Findings 17

APPALACHIAN PLATEAUS PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCE

In the layered sedimentary rocks of the Appalachian 

Plateaus, ground water moves mostly in a network of 

narrow fractures within a few hundred feet of the land 

surface (Wyrick and Borchers, 1981; Harlow and 

LeCain, 1993). Individual fractures typically connect to 

only a few others, and a well normally taps only a few 

of the many fractures nearby. Recharge comes from 

rain and melting snow. Ground water flows generally 

toward the nearest stream, forming local aquifers 

bounded by the ridgetops. Contamination of a local 

aquifer and its stream is most likely to come from local 

sources. 

Water samples were collected from 30 newer domestic wells or similar-capacity public-supply wells 

throughout the Appalachian Plateaus (Sheets and 

Kozar, 2000) and from 28 generally older domestic 

wells close to surface coal mines where reclamation 

was completed between 1986 and 1996. Wells near 

active mines were not sampled. Most of the wells were 

between 40 and 200 feet deep, and most water levels 

were between 10 and 90 feet below land surface. 

Concentrations of iron and manganese exceeded 

USEPA drinking-water guidelines in 40 and 57 percent, 

respectively, of the wells throughout the Appalachian 

Plateaus and in about 70 percent of wells near 

reclaimed mines. Water that exceeds these guidelines is 

unpleasant to drink and can stain laundry and plumbing 

fixtures, but it is not a health hazard. 

Potentially hazardous concentrations of methane, an 

odorless component of natural gas that is often associated with coal seams, were detected in water at 7 percent of the wells. At concentrations greater than about 

10 mg/L, methane can bubble out of water pumped 

from a well. If enough gas collects in a confined space, 

an explosion is possible. In the West Virginia coal 

fields, any well water that bubbles is a potential methane explosion hazard. 

Other chemical analyses of ground water samples 

collected as part of this study showed the following 

water-quality characteristics and conditions. Water 

from 61 percent of the wells near reclaimed mines was 

slightly acidic (pH less than 6.5) and could leach lead 

or copper from water pipes in homes. Only 23 percent 

of other Appalachian Plateaus wells produced acidic 

water. Radon exceeded the proposed USEPA standard 

at half the wells throughout the Appalachian Plateaus 

(p. 18). Water from half the wells exceeded 20 mg/L of 

sodium, the upper limit that USEPA suggests for people on a sodium-restricted diet. Arsenic in water from 7 

percent of the wells exceeded the 10-μg/L standard set 

in January 2001, but none exceeded the previous 

50-μg/L standard. Concentrations of radon, sodium, 

and arsenic were lower in wells near reclaimed mines 

than in wells remote from reclaimed mines. Home 

water-treatment techniques can remove lead, copper, 

sodium, and arsenic from drinking water. 

BLUE RIDGE PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCE

In the igneous and metamorphic bedrock of the Blue 

Ridge, as in the Appalachian Plateaus, ground water 

moves in a network of shallow fractures. Local aquifers generally drain toward the nearest stream (Coble 

and others, 1985). 

Water samples were collected from 30 newer domestic wells or similar low-capacity public-supply wells 

throughout the Blue Ridge. Most of the wells were 

between 100 and 350 feet deep, and most water levels 

were between 10 and 70 feet below land surface.

 Ground water in the Blue Ridge is susceptible to 

contamination. Chlorofluorocarbon concentrations 

showed that the water in 89 percent of the wells had 

been recharged within the previous 20 years, indicating 

that contaminants could be transmitted readily into the 

fractured rock aquifers (Kozar and others, 2001). 

Chemical analyses of ground water samples collected as part of this study indicated that concentrations 

of radon were among the highest in the Nation (p. 18); 

iron and manganese concentrations exceeded guidelines at only 17 percent of the wells; sodium exceeded 

20 mg/L at 3 percent of the wells; and arsenic did not 

exceed 1 μg/L at any of the sites. Pesticides were 

detected at 57 percent of the wells. The presence of the 

common agricultural herbicide atrazine in ground 

water, even in low concentrations, shows that potential 

contaminants could move quickly from the land surface 

into the drinking-water aquifer. 

Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province groundwater conditions can be inferred from studies in similar 

settings in the Potomac River Basin, which was one of 

the 1991 NAWQA study units. See Lindsey and Ator, 

1996 and Ator and others, 1998 for more details.
 18 Water Quality of the Kanawha–New River Basin

Ground-water Radon Concentrations were Highest in 

the Blue Ridge

Radon concentrations were greater than 300 pCi/L, the 

proposed drinking-water standard (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999), in 87 percent of wells 

sampled in the Blue Ridge (fig. 21). The maximum 

concentration detected was 30,900 pCi/L (Kozar and 

Sheets, 1997). Of the 30 wells sampled, 10 contained 

concentrations of radon greater than 4,000 pCi/L, the 

alternate standard USEPA has proposed for regions 

where action is taken to decrease airborne radon. As 

water is used in a home, radon in the water can lead to 

an increase in radon in the air, which is the major 

exposure path for people. 

Radon concentrations exceeded 300 pCi/L at 50 percent of wells sampled throughout the Appalachian Plateaus. The maximum in any sample was 2,500 pCi/L 

(fig. 21). The area is underlain primarily by sandstone, 

shale, coal, and limestone sedimentary rocks, in which 

uranium is less common than in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

At 28 wells downgradient from recently reclaimed 

surface coal mines, the median radon concentration 

was just 115 pCi/L, and the maximum was 450 pCi/L. 

Radon is a radioactive gas 

that forms during the decay 

of natural uranium. Igneous 

and metamorphic rocks, like 

those in the Blue Ridge, 

commonly contain more uranium than other rock types. 

Radon in the air in homes is 

the second leading cause of 

lung cancer; and radon 

causes 2–3 percent of all 

cancer deaths in the United 

States. Homes can be 

designed or remodeled to 

remove radon from both drinking water and interior air. The only way to determine if an individual well or home 

exceeds standards, however, is to have the water or air tested. Information on radon testing and removal is available at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/radon/qa1.html and other Web sites. 

Radon concentration exceeds 1,000 pCi/L (picocuries per liter) in at least 25 percent of ground-water samples 

collected in many areas of the Eastern United States. In the Kanawha–New River Basin, 30 percent of samples 

exceeded 1,000 pCi/L (Appendix, p. 27), making the basin comparable to the Potomac and Lower Susquehanna 

River Basins to the northeast. Within the basin, however, radon in two-thirds of samples from wells in the Blue 

Ridge exceeded 1,000 pCi/L, but only in 10 percent of samples from the Appalachian Plateaus. The northern part 

of the basin, therefore, is more comparable to the adjacent Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers and Upper 

Tennessee River Basins. 

Kanawha–New 

River Basin

Allegheny and

Monongahela Basins

w

Lower Susquehanna

River Basin

Potomac River Basin

Upper Tennessee

River Basin

EXPLANATION

STUDY UNITS WITH GROUND-WATER 

RADON CONCENTRATION EXCEEDING:

1,000 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) in

at least 25 percent of samples

600 pCi/L in at least 25 percent of samples

300 pCi/L in at least 25 percent of samples

300 pCi/L in fewer than 25 percent of samples

No data

Radon concentrations in ground water were among 

the highest in the Nation

EXPLANATION

Subunit survey

Mining land-use survey

SAMPLED WELLS

RADON CONCENTRATION—

In picocuries per liter

Less than 300

300–4,000

Greater than 4,000

Appalachian

Plateaus

Province

Valley

and

Ridge

Province

Blue Ridge

Province

Figure 21. Radon concentrations vary greatly among

physiographic provinces.
Major Findings 19

In comparison, at 15 wells in the same geologic units 

but not near mines, the median concentration was 200 

pCi/L. 

Modern Well Construction Can Prevent Fecal Bacteria 

from Reaching Drinking Water in Most Areas

Escherichia coli (E. coli) and the broader fecal 

coliform group of bacteria indicate the possible presence of disease-causing organisms. Standards for public drinking-water supplies do not permit the presence 

of any of these bacteria at detectable levels. Septic systems or livestock near a well are the probable sources 

of bacteria throughout the basin. Proper well construction can prevent bacteria from reaching the well water 

in some settings, and drinking water can be disinfected 

with chemicals or ultraviolet light. 

Water from wells less than 25 years old in the Appalachian Plateaus and Blue Ridge was generally free 

from fecal bacteria (table 2). The sampled wells were 

generally in good condition, with a section of solid pipe 

at the top of the well sealed with concrete into the soil 

and rock (Sheets and Kozar, 1997). A residential septic 

system typically was nearby, but no heavy livestock use 

was within several hundred yards. Bacteria were found, 

however, at one fourth of the wells in a second study in 

the Appalachian Plateaus, which included some older 

wells and some without seals. Near these wells, there 

also may have been bacteria sources other than a septic 

system. 

 

Most wells in limestone aquifers in the basin, including the Valley and Ridge, are at risk of contamination 

by bacteria (Boyer and Pasquarell, 1999), even if septic 

systems or livestock wastes are not nearby (Mathes, 

2000), because ground water moves rapidly through 

solution channels in the rock. The wide valleys that 

typically overlie limestone aquifers are heavily used for 

livestock and agriculture. 

Volatile Organic Compounds and Pesticides in Ground 

Water were Found in Low Concentrations

Both volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and pesticides were detected at low concentrations in the ground 

water of the Kanawha–New River Basin (Appendix, p. 

27). Thirteen percent of samples (9 of 60) contained 

VOC concentrations greater than 0.1 μg/L. Of the 

seven detected VOCs, however, only three have established drinking-water standards. None of the VOCs 

identified in samples exceeded these standards. Pesticides were found above a detection limit of 0.001 μg/L 

in 32 percent of samples (19 of 60). Of the 12 detected 

pesticides, 4 have established drinking-water standards, 

none of which was exceeded. 

Pesticides were detected in 17 of 30 wells sampled in 

the Blue Ridge, where 30 percent of the land was being 

used for agriculture in 1993. The most commonly 

detected pesticides, at one-third of the wells, were atrazine and its breakdown product deethylatrazine. The 

maximum concentration of all pesticides detected in a 

single sample was 0.14 μg/L. Two other pesticides, 

p,p′-DDE and simazine, were present in more than 10 

percent of samples at a maximum concentration of 

0.025 μg/L in this province. In the largely non agricultural Appalachian Plateaus, however, pesticides were 

detected only at two wells.

Nutrient Concentrations in Ground Water were At or 

Below National Background Levels 

Nutrients were prevalent at relatively low concentrations in ground water of the Kanawha–New River 

Basin. Nitrate concentration in 1 of 88 wells sampled in 

this study exceeded the USEPA drinking-water standard of 10 mg/L (as nitrogen). Most ground water contained less nitrate than does precipitation in the basin. 

Concentrations of other nutrients measured were at or 

below national background levels. These findings are 

consistent with national findings on nutrients in the 

ground water of forested areas, and the Kanawha-New 

River Basin is about 80 percent forested. 

In the water of Appalachian Plateaus wells, the relatively high median ammonia concentration for a forested region–0.16 mg/L– is probably a result of 

mineralization of organic material. In contrast, ground 

water in the Blue Ridge, where a greater percentage of 

land is used for agriculture, had ground water with a 

higher median nitrate concentration (0.42 mg/L) and a 

higher median dissolved-oxygen concentration (5.1 

mg/L). 

Table 2. E. coli or other fecal coliform bacteria were detected

 in few modern wells

Setting Percentage of wells where 

bacteria were detected

Appalachian Plateaus: 

Newer wells

Older wells

 3

26

Blue Ridge (newer wells only) 0
20 Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

STUDY UNIT DESIGN

Stream Chemistry and Ecology

The sampling network was designed to characterize 

the effects of land use on stream quality at various 

scales. Water chemistry, fish and invertebrate communities, habitat, and bed-sediment and fish-tissue chemistry were used as indicators of stream quality. Fixed 

Sites were chosen on large rivers at the boundary 

between the Valley and Ridge and Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Provinces, downstream from the 

Greenbrier and Gauley Rivers, and near the mouth of 

the Kanawha River. Fixed Sites also were chosen on 

tributaries to represent the effects of agriculture, coal 

mining, forest, and a relatively large human population 

in an otherwise rural setting. 

Ground-Water Quality

The ground-water network was designed to broadly 

characterize the resource. Little previous information 

was available in the aquifer-survey areas. Aquifer surveys examined more constituents than any previous 

study and included a random component in site selection that allows estimates to be made for the whole 

population of similar wells. The land-use study targeted current effects of mining reclamation standards 

that have developed since around 1980. 

Studies in the Kanawha–New River Basin were designed to describe the general quality of water and the aquatic 

ecosystem and to relate these conditions to natural and human influences (Gilliom and others, 1995). The design 

focused on the principal environmental settings—combinations of geohydrology, physiography, and land 

use—throughout the basin. The studies supplement assessment work by State agencies (Virginia Department of 

Environmental Quality, 1998; North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1999; West 

Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, 2000). 

EXPLANATION

Blue Ridge

Appalachian Plateaus

MINING LAND-USE

STUDY WELLS

Appalachian

Plateaus

Province

Valley

and

Ridge

Province

Blue Ridge

Province

AQUIFER SURVEY WELLS

ew .

.

Bl

R e C k

Coal-mining synoptic study

Bed sediment and tissue

Water quality and ecology

Pesticides

SURFACE STREAM-WATER

SITE LOCATION

.

Fk

.

Appalachian

Plateaus

Province

Valley

and

Ridge

Province

Blue Ridge

Province

EXPLANATION
Study Unit Design 21

 

Study 

component 

(Type of site)

What data were collected and why Types of sites sampled Number

of sites

Sampling 

frequency 

and period

STREAM CHEMISTRY AND ECOLOGY

Fixed sites—

General quality of 

the water column 

Concentration, seasonal variability, and load of major ions, 

common metals, nutrients, bacteria, organic carbon, 

dissolved oxygen, suspended sediment, pH, specific 

conductance, and temperature. Continuous streamflow 

monitoring. 

Large rivers with mixed land use, draining 3,700 

to 11,800 square miles at sites located between 

major tributaries or at boundaries of regional 

environmental settings. 

4 Monthly plus storms: 

about 30 samples 

during October 

1996 through September 1998. 

Tributary streams draining 40 to 300 square miles 

in basins with predominant land uses of agriculture, coal mining, forest, and rural 

residential. 

7

Fixed sites—

Dissolved

pesticides

Concentration and seasonal variability of 86 organic 

compounds in addition to the general water-column 

constituents listed above. 

One large river downstream from the Valley and 

Ridge Physiographic Province and one near the 

mouth of the Kanawha River.

2

Semimonthly to 

monthly; 14 or 15 

samples in 1997. 

Tributary streams with extensive agricultural land 

use. 2

Weekly to monthly 

during 1997; 9 or 

25 samples. 

Fixed sites—

General stream 

ecology and 

habitat 

Fish, benthic invertebrate, and algae communities were 

sampled and physical habitat was described to 

determine the presence and community structure of 

aquatic species. 

Fixed sites where general water-column samples 

were collected. 11

Once, in 1997; three 

reaches sampled at 

each of three tributary sites in 1998. 

Contaminants in fish 

tissue

To determine the presence of potentially toxic compounds 

in food chains that can include humans. Data included 

22 elements and 28 organic compounds. Samples were 

a composite of at least five fish from one species, 

usually rock bass or common carp.

Fixed sites where general water-column samples 

were collected, plus contrasting settings in 

three large basins with mixed land use and five 

tributaries. 

19

1 or 2 samples per site 

and species, during 

1996 or 1997; 27 

total samples. 

Contaminants in bed 

sediment

To determine the presence of potentially toxic compounds 

attached to sediments accessible to aquatic life. Data 

included 44 elements and more than 100 organic 

compounds. 

Same as sites for contaminants in fish. Composite 

samples were collected from depositional 

zones, where fine-grained sediments 

transported within the past year settle out of the 

water. 

19

1 or 2 samples during 

1996 or 1997; 21 

total samples.

Synoptic sites—

Coal mining

To assess the present effects of coal mining in Appalachian 

Plateaus streams and the change in stream chemistry 

since about 1980. Data included discharge, alkalinity, 

acidity, pH, specific conductance, sulfate, chloride, and 

dissolved and total iron, manganese, and aluminum. 

Coordinated with a similar study in the AlleghenyMonongahela study unit. 

Streams draining 0.2 to 128 square miles in areas 

of known mining history, including unmined 

basins. Most of the sites were sampled for 

water-column chemistry during 1979–81. 

 57, including 

3 Fixed 

Sites

One sample during 

low flow, July 

1998.

Benthic invertebrate community, physical habitat, 

contaminants in bed sediment, and other major 

ions in addition to constituents listed above. 

A subset of sites described above, draining 8.8 to

128 mi2. 30

Fish community, in addition to constituents listed above. A subset of benthic invertebrate sites. 10

GROUND-WATER

Aquifer Surveys—

Blue Ridge and 

Appalachian Plateaus

General water quality, to determine the occurrence and 

distribution of contaminants. Data included major ions, 

nutrients, bacteria, organic carbon, 19 trace elements, 

47 pesticides, 86 volatile organic compounds, dissolved 

oxygen, turbidity, pH, specific conductance, and temperature. Samples from the Blue Ridge were analyzed 

for an additional 39 pesticides. 

Domestic and public supply wells 25 years old 

and younger, and in good condition. 60 Once in 1997. 

Land-use effects, 

reclaimed surface 

coal mines

General water quality, to determine effects of present

reclamation requirements. Data included the constituents from aquifer surveys, without pesticides or volatile 

organic compounds. Coordinated with a similar study in 

the Allegheny-Monongahela Study Unit. 

Domestic wells within 3,100 feet downgradient 

from a fully reclaimed surface coal mine. 

Reclamation was complete between 2 and 12 

years before sampling. None of the sites were 

near “mountaintop removal” mines. Included 

both old and new wells. 

28, 

compared to 

10 unmined 

aquifer survey 

sites. 

Once in 1998.
22 Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

GLOSSARY 

Aquatic-life criteria—Water-quality guidelines for protection of aquatic life. Often refers to U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency water-quality criteria for protection 

of aquatic organisms.

Aquifer— A water-bearing layer of soil, sand, gravel, or 

rock that will yield usable quantities of water to a well. 

Background concentration— A concentration of a substance in a particular environment that is indicative of 

minimal influence by human (anthropogenic) sources. 

Bed sediment— The material that temporarily is stationary 

in the bottom of a stream or other watercourse. 

Benthic— Of, related to, or occurring on the bottom of a 

water body.

Community— In ecology, the species that interact in a common area. 

Constituent— A chemical or biological substance in water, 

sediment, or biota that can be measured by an analytical 

method. 

Criterion— A standard rule or test on which a judgment or 

decision can be based. Plural, Criteria.

Cubic foot per second (ft3/s, or cfs)— Rate of water discharge representing a volume of 1 cubic foot passing a 

given point during 1 second, equivalent to approximately 7.48 gallons per second, or 448.8 gallons per 

minute, or 0.02832 cubic meter per second. 

Detection limit— The minimum concentration of a substance that can be identified, measured, and reported 

within 99 percent confidence that the analyte concentration is greater than zero; determined from analysis of a 

sample in a given matrix containing the analyte. 

Dissolved constituent— Operationally defined as a constituent that passes through a 0.45-micrometer filter. 

Dissolved solids— Amount of minerals, such as salt, that are 

dissolved in water; amount of dissolved solids is an 

indicator of salinity or hardness. 

Downgradient— At or toward a location farther from the 

source of ground-water flow.

Drainage basin— The portion of the surface of the Earth 

that contributes water to a stream through overland runoff, including tributaries and impoundments. 

Drinking-water standard or guideline— A threshold concentration in a public drinking-water supply, designed 

to protect human health. As defined here, standards are 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations that 

specify the maximum contaminate levels for public 

water systems required to protect the public welfare; 

guidelines have no regulatory status and are issued in an 

advisory capacity. 

Escherichia coli—A common species of intestinal or fecal 

bacteria.

Fecal bacteria— Microscopic single-celled organisms (primarily fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci) found in 

the wastes of warm-blooded animals. Their presence in 

water is used to assess the sanitary quality of water for 

body-contact recreation or for consumption. Their presence indicates contamination by the wastes of warmblooded animals and the possible presence of pathogenic (disease producing) organisms. 

Intolerant organisms— Organisms that are not adaptable to 

human alterations to the environment and thus decline 

in numbers where human alterations occur. See also 

Tolerant species. 

Major ions—Constituents commonly present in concentrations exceeding 1.0 milligram per liter. Dissolved cations generally are calcium, magnesium, sodium, and 

potassium; the major anions are sulfate, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, and those contributing to alkalinity, most 

generally bicarbonate and carbonate. 

Maximum contaminant level (MCL)— Maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water that is delivered to 

any user of a public water system. MCLs are enforceable standards established by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency. 

Micrograms per liter (μg/L)— A unit expressing the concentration of constituents in solution as weight (micrograms) of solute per unit volume (liter) of water; 

equivalent to one part per billion in most streamwater 

and ground water. One thousand micrograms per liter 

equals 1 milligram per liter. 

Milligrams per liter (mg/L)— A unit expressing the concentration of chemical constituents in solution as 

weight (milligrams) of solute per unit volume (liter) of 

water; equivalent to one part per million in most streamwater and ground water. 

Minimum reporting level (MRL)— The smallest measured 

concentration of a constituent that may be reliably 

reported using a given analytical method. In many 

cases, the MRL is used when documentation for the 

detection limit is not available. 

Modified Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (MHBI)— The Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (HBI) is a benthic invertebrate community index developed by W.L. Hilsenhoff. The HBI is 

determined by assigning a pollution tolerance value for 

each family of benthic invertebrates, then computing 

the average tolerance for a sample. In a modification of 

the HBI developed by R.W. Bode and M.A. Novak, pollution tolerance values are assigned by genus, which 

provides greater resolution in the average tolerance.

Nutrient— In aquatic systems, a substance that contributes 

to algal growth. Nutrients of concern include nitrogen 

and phosphorus compounds, but not elemental nitrogen.

Picocurie (pCi)— One trillionth (1012) of the amount of 

radioactivity represented by a curie (Ci). A curie is the 

amount of radioactivity that yields 3.7 x 1010 radioactive disintegrations per second (dps). A picocurie yields 

2.22 disintegrations per minute (dpm), or 0.037 dps. 
Glossary 23

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)— A class of 

organic compounds with a fused-ring (aromatic) structure. PAHs result from incomplete combustion of 

organic carbon (including wood), municipal solid 

waste, and fossil fuels, as well as from natural or 

anthropogenic introduction of uncombusted coal and 

oil. PAHs include benzo(a)pyrene, fluoranthene, and 

pyrene. 

Recharge— Water that infiltrates the ground and reaches the 

saturated zone. 

Secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL)— The 

maximum contamination level in public water systems 

that, in the judgment of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), is required to protect the public 

welfare. SMCLs are secondary (nonenforceable) drinking water regulations established by the USEPA for 

contaminants that may adversely affect the odor or 

appearance of such water. 

Sediment— Particles, derived from rocks or biological 

materials, that have been transported by a fluid or other 

natural process, suspended or settled in water. 

Specific conductance— A measure of the ability of a liquid 

to conduct an electrical current. 

Suspended (as used in tables of chemical analyses)— The 

amount (concentration) of undissolved material in a 

water-sediment mixture. It is associated with the material retained on a 0.45-micrometer filter. 

Suspended sediment— Particles of rock, sand, soil, and 

organic detritus carried in suspension in the water column, in contrast to sediment that moves on or near the 

streambed. 

Taxon— Any identifiable group of taxonomically related 

organisms, such as a species or family. Plural, Taxa.

Tolerant species— Those species that are adaptable to (tolerant of) human alterations to the environment and 

often increase in number when human alterations occur. 

Trace element— An element found in only minor amounts 

(concentrations less than 1.0 milligram per liter) in 

water or sediment; includes arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc. 

Upgradient— At or toward a location nearer to the source 

of ground-water flow.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)— Organic chemicals 

that have a high vapor pressure relative to their water 

solubility. VOCs include components of gasoline, fuel 

oils, and lubricants, as well as organic solvents, fumigants, some inert ingredients in pesticides, and some 

by-products of chlorine disinfection. 

Water-quality standards— State-adopted and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-approved ambient standards for water bodies. Standards include the use of the 

water body and the water-quality criteria that must be 

met to protect the designated use or uses. 

Watershed— See Drainage basin. 

Babcock Mill at Babcock State Park, WV. 

Photograph by Douglas B. Chambers, USGS.
24 Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin 

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Water-Quality Data in a National Context 27 

Streams in agricultural areas 

Streams in urban areas

Streams and rivers draining mixed land uses 

Shallow ground water in agricultural areas

Shallow ground water in urban areas 

Major aquifers 

Detected concentration in Study Unit

Frequencies of detection, in percent. Detection frequencies 

were not censored at any common reporting limit. The lefthand column is the study-unit frequency and the right-hand 

column is the national frequency 

Not measured or sample size less than two

Study-unit sample size. For ground water, the number of 

samples is equal to the number of wells sampled

National ranges of detected concentrations, by land use, in 36 

NAWQA Study Units, 1991–98—Ranges include only samples

in which a chemical was detected

Drinking-water quality (applies to ground water and surface water)

Protection of aquatic life (applies to surface water only)

Prevention of eutrophication in streams not flowing directly into 

lakes or impoundments

No benchmark for drinking-water quality

No benchmark for protection of aquatic life

*

**

66 38

Other herbicides detected

Acetochlor (Harness Plus, Surpass) * **

Alachlor (Lasso, Bronco, Lariat, Bullet) **

Benfluralin (Balan, Benefin, Bonalan) * **

Cyanazine (Bladex, Fortrol) 

DCPA (Dacthal, chlorthal-dimethyl) * **

2,6-Diethylaniline (Alachlor breakdown product) * **

Dinoseb (Dinosebe) 

Diuron (Crisuron, Karmex, Diurex) **

EPTC (Eptam, Farmarox, Alirox) * **

Fenuron (Fenulon, Fenidim) * **

Molinate (Ordram) * **

Napropamide (Devrinol) * **

Oryzalin (Surflan, Dirimal) * **

Prometon (Pramitol, Princep) **

Triallate (Far-Go, Avadex BW, Tri-allate) * 

Triclopyr (Garlon, Grandstand, Redeem, Remedy) * **

Trifluralin (Treflan, Gowan, Tri-4, Trific) 

Herbicides not detected

Acifluorfen (Blazer, Tackle 2S) **

Bentazon (Basagran, Bentazone) **

Bromacil (Hyvar X, Urox B, Bromax) 

Bromoxynil (Buctril, Brominal) * 

Butylate (Sutan +, Genate Plus, Butilate) **

Chloramben (Amiben, Amilon-WP, Vegiben) **

Clopyralid (Stinger, Lontrel, Transline) * **

2,4-D (Aqua-Kleen, Lawn-Keep, Weed-B-Gone) 

2,4-DB (Butyrac, Butoxone, Embutox Plus, Embutone) * **

Dacthal mono-acid (Dacthal breakdown product) * **

Dicamba (Banvel, Dianat, Scotts Proturf) 

Dichlorprop (2,4-DP, Seritox 50, Lentemul) * **

Ethalfluralin (Sonalan, Curbit) * **

CHEMICALS IN WATER

Concentrations and detection frequencies, Kanawha–New River 

Basin, 1996–98—Detection sensitivity varies among chemicals and, 

thus, frequencies are not directly comparable among chemicals

Lowest

25 percent

Middle

50 percent

Highest

25 percent

National water-quality benchmarks

National benchmarks include standards and guidelines related to 

drinking-water quality, criteria for protecting the health of aquatic life, and 

a goal for preventing stream eutrophication due to phosphorus. Sources 

include the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Canadian 

Council of Ministers of the Environment

|

|

|

--

This appendix is a summary of chemical concentrations 

and biological indicators assessed in the Kanawha–New 

River Basin. Selected results for this basin are graphically 

compared to results from as many as 36 NAWQA Study 

Units investigated from 1991 to 1998 and to national 

water-quality benchmarks for human health, aquatic life, or 

fish-eating wildlife. The chemical and biological indicators 

shown were selected on the basis of frequent detection, 

detection at concentrations above a national benchmark, 

or regulatory or scientific importance. The graphs illustrate 

how conditions associated with each land use sampled in 

the Kanawha–New River Basin compare to results from 

across the Nation, and how conditions compare among 

the several land uses. Graphs for chemicals show only 

detected concentrations and, thus, care must be taken to 

evaluate detection frequencies in addition to concentrations when comparing study-unit and national results. For 

example, simazine concentrations in Kanawha–New River 

Basin agricultural streams were similar to the national 

distribution, but the detection frequency was much higher 

(94 percent compared to 61 percent).

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent

Pesticides in water—Herbicides

Study-unit sample size

12

Atrazine (AAtrex, Atrex, Atred, Gesaprim) 

100 88 | | 33 -- 86 | | 0 97 87 | | 29

-- 40 | 0 -- 30 | 0 20 18 | 60

Deethylatrazine (Atrazine breakdown product) * ** 100 75 33 -- 62 0 97 75 29

-- 39 0 -- 28 0 17 19 60

Metolachlor (Dual, Pennant) 100 81 | | 33 -- 64 | | 0 100 83 | | 29

-- 18 | 0 -- 9 | 0 0 5 | 60

Simazine (Princep, Caliber 90) 

94 61 | | 33 -- 77 | | 0 86 74 | | 29

-- 21 | 0 -- 18 | 0 10 5 | 60

Tebuthiuron (Spike, Tebusan) 36 22 | | 33 -- 39 | | 0 52 32 | | 29

-- 3 | 0 -- 7 | 0 0 3 | 60

APPENDIX—WATER-QUALITY DATA FROM THE

KANAWHA–NEW RIVER BASIN IN A NATIONAL CONTEXT

For a complete view of Kanawha–New River Basin data and for additional information about specific benchmarks used, visit our Web site at 

http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/. Also visit the NAWQA Data Warehouse for access to NAWQA data sets at http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/data. 
28 Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent

Pesticides in water—Insecticides

Study-unit sample size

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in ground water

These graphs represent data from 16 Study Units, sampled from 1996 to 1998

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection in percent Study-unit sample size

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 

Other insecticides detected 

Carbaryl (Carbamine, Denapon, Sevin) 

Carbofuran (Furadan, Curaterr, Yaltox) 

Chlorpyrifos (Brodan, Dursban, Lorsban) 

Diazinon (Basudin, Diazatol, Neocidol, Knox Out) 

alpha-HCH (alpha-BHC, alpha-lindane) **

gamma-HCH (Lindane, gamma-BHC) 

Malathion (Malathion) 

Insecticides not detected

Aldicarb (Temik, Ambush, Pounce) 

Aldicarb sulfone (Standak, aldoxycarb) 

Aldicarb sulfoxide (Aldicarb breakdown product) 

Azinphos-methyl (Guthion, Gusathion M) * 

Dieldrin (Panoram D-31, Octalox, Compound 497) 

Disulfoton (Disyston, Di-Syston) **

Ethoprop (Mocap, Ethoprophos) * **

Fonofos (Dyfonate, Capfos, Cudgel, Tycap) **

3-Hydroxycarbofuran (Carbofuran breakdown product) * **

Methiocarb (Slug-Geta, Grandslam, Mesurol) * **

Methomyl (Lanox, Lannate, Acinate) **

Methyl parathion (Penncap-M, Folidol-M) **

Oxamyl (Vydate L, Pratt) **

Parathion (Roethyl-P, Alkron, Panthion, Phoskil) * 

cis-Permethrin (Ambush, Astro, Pounce) * **

Phorate (Thimet, Granutox, Geomet, Rampart) * **

Propargite (Comite, Omite, Ornamite) * **

Propoxur (Baygon, Blattanex, Unden, Proprotox) * **

Terbufos (Contraven, Counter, Pilarfox) **

Other VOCs detected

Benzene 

Bromodichloromethane (Dichlorobromomethane) 

2-Butanone (Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)) * 

Carbon disulfide * 

Chlorodibromomethane (Dibromochloromethane) 

Chloromethane (Methyl chloride) 

1,4-Dichlorobenzene (p-Dichlorobenzene) 

Dichlorodifluoromethane (CFC 12, Freon 12) 

1,1-Dichloroethane (Ethylidene dichloride) * 

1,1-Dichloroethene (Vinylidene chloride) 

cis-1,2-Dichloroethene ((Z)-1,2-Dichloroethene) 

Diisopropyl ether (Diisopropylether (DIPE)) * 

1,2-Dimethylbenzene (o-Xylene) 

1,3 & 1,4-Dimethylbenzene (m-&p-Xylene) 

1-4-Epoxy butane (Tetrahydrofuran, Diethylene oxide) * 

Ethylbenzene (Phenylethane) 

Iodomethane (Methyl iodide) * 

Isopropylbenzene (Cumene) * 

Methylbenzene (Toluene) 

2-Propanone (Acetone) * 

Tetrachloroethene (Perchloroethene) 

Tribromomethane (Bromoform) 

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 

1,1,1-Trichloroethane (Methylchloroform) 

Trichloroethene (TCE) 

Trichlorofluoromethane (CFC 11, Freon 11) 

Trichloromethane (Chloroform) 

1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Pseudocumene) *

VOCs not detected

tert-Amylmethylether (tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME)) * 

Bromobenzene (Phenyl bromide) * 

Bromochloromethane (Methylene chlorobromide) 

Bromoethene (Vinyl bromide) * 

Bromomethane (Methyl bromide) 

n-Butylbenzene (1-Phenylbutane) * 

sec-Butylbenzene * 

tert-Butylbenzene * 

3-Chloro-1-propene (3-Chloropropene) * 

1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene (o-Chlorotoluene) 

1-Chloro-4-methylbenzene (p-Chlorotoluene) 

Chlorobenzene (Monochlorobenzene) 

Chloroethane (Ethyl chloride) * 

Chloroethene (Vinyl chloride) 

1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP, Nemagon) 

1,2-Dibromoethane (Ethylene dibromide, EDB) 

Dibromomethane (Methylene dibromide) * 

trans-1,4-Dichloro-2-butene ((Z)-1,4-Dichloro-2-butene) * 

1,2-Dichlorobenzene (o-Dichlorobenzene) 

1,3-Dichlorobenzene (m-Dichlorobenzene) 

1,2-Dichloroethane (Ethylene dichloride) 

trans-1,2-Dichloroethene ((E)-1,2-Dichlorothene) 

Dichloromethane (Methylene chloride) 

1,2-Dichloropropane (Propylene dichloride) 

2,2-Dichloropropane * 

1,3-Dichloropropane (Trimethylene dichloride) * 

trans-1,3-Dichloropropene ((E)-1,3-Dichloropropene) 

cis-1,3-Dichloropropene ((Z)-1,3-Dichloropropene) 

1,1-Dichloropropene * 

Diethyl ether (Ethyl ether) * 

Ethenylbenzene (Styrene)

Ethyl methacrylate * 

Fluometuron (Flo-Met, Cotoran) **

Linuron (Lorox, Linex, Sarclex, Linurex, Afalon) * 

MCPA (Rhomene, Rhonox, Chiptox) 

MCPB (Thistrol) * **

Metribuzin (Lexone, Sencor) 

Neburon (Neburea, Neburyl, Noruben) * **

Norflurazon (Evital, Predict, Solicam, Zorial) * **

Pebulate (Tillam, PEBC) * **

Pendimethalin (Pre-M, Prowl, Stomp) * **

Picloram (Grazon, Tordon) 

Pronamide (Kerb, Propyzamid) **

Propachlor (Ramrod, Satecid) **

Propanil (Stam, Stampede, Wham) * **

Propham (Tuberite) **

2,4,5-T **

2,4,5-TP (Silvex, Fenoprop) **

Terbacil (Sinbar) **

Thiobencarb (Bolero, Saturn, Benthiocarb) * **

p,p'-DDE 3 8 | | 33 -- 2 | | 0 0 4 | | 29

-- 4 | 0 -- 2 | 0 7 2 | 60

Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) 

-- 4 | 0 -- 16 | 0 7 6 | 60
Water-Quality Data in a National Context 29 

CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

Nutrients in water

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent Study-unit sample size

Dissolved solids in water

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent Study-unit sample size

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

Trace elements in ground water

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent Study-unit sample size

Ethyl tert-butyl ether (Ethyl-t-butyl ether (ETBE)) * 

1-Ethyl-2-methylbenzene (2-Ethyltoluene) * 

Hexachlorobutadiene 

1,1,1,2,2,2-Hexachloroethane (Hexachloroethane) 

2-Hexanone (Methyl butyl ketone (MBK)) * 

p-Isopropyltoluene (p-Cymene) * 

Methyl acrylonitrile * 

Methyl-2-methacrylate (Methyl methacrylate) * 

4-Methyl-2-pentanone (Methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK)) * 

Methyl-2-propenoate (Methyl acrylate) * 

Naphthalene 

2-Propenenitrile (Acrylonitrile) 

n-Propylbenzene (Isocumene) * 

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane * 

1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane 

Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachloride) 

1,2,3,4-Tetramethylbenzene (Prehnitene) * 

1,2,3,5-Tetramethylbenzene (Isodurene) * 

1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane (Freon 113) * 

1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene * 

1,1,2-Trichloroethane (Vinyl trichloride) 

1,2,3-Trichloropropane (Allyl trichloride) 

1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Hemimellitene) * 

1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Mesitylene) * 

Arsenic 

-- 58 | 0 -- 36 | 0 18 37 | 60

Chromium 

-- 85 | 0 -- 79 | 0 80 73 | 60

Radon-222 

-- 99 | 0 -- 100 | 0 87 97 | 60

Zinc 

-- 28 | 0 -- 29 | 0 55 66 | 60

CONCENTRATION, IN PICOCURIES PER LITER

 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent Study-unit sample size

Other trace elements detected

Lead 

Selenium 

Uranium 

Trace elements not detected

Cadmium 

Nutrients not detected

Dissolved ammonia plus organic nitrogen as N * **

Ammonia, as N * **

47 84 99 -- 86 0 52 75 208

-- 78 0 -- 71 0 45 70 60

Dissolved nitrite plus nitrate, as N ** 100 95 | 99 -- 97 | 0 99 91 | 208

-- 81 | 0 -- 74 | 0 62 71 | 60

Orthophosphate, as P * ** 59 79 99 -- 72 0 50 74 208

-- 59 0 -- 52 0 55 61 60

Total phosphorus, as P * **

39 92 | 99 -- 90 | 0 34 88 | 208

Dissolved solids * ** 100 100 98 -- 100 0 100 100 208

-- 100 0 -- 100 0 100 100 60
30 Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

Fish tissue from streams in agricultural areas

Fish tissue from streams in urban areas

Fish tissue from streams draining mixed land uses

Sediment from streams in agricultural areas 

Sediment from streams in urban areas 

Sediment from streams draining mixed land uses

Protection of fish-eating wildlife (applies to fish tissue)

Protection of aquatic life (applies to bed sediment)

No benchmark for protection of fish-eating wildlife

No benchmark for protection of aquatic life

|

|

**

CHEMICALS IN FISH TISSUE

AND BED SEDIMENT

Concentrations and detection frequencies, Kanawha–New River 

Basin, 1996–98—Detection sensitivity varies among chemicals and, 

thus, frequencies are not directly comparable among chemicals. 

Study-unit frequencies of detection are based on small sample sizes; 

the applicable sample size is specified in each graph

Lowest

25 percent

Middle

50 percent

Highest

25 percent

National benchmarks for fish tissue and bed sediment

National benchmarks include standards and guidelines related to 

criteria for protection of the health of fish-eating wildlife and aquatic 

organisms. Sources include the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

other Federal and State agencies, and the Canadian Council of 

Ministers of the Environment

*

Other organochlorines detected

o,p'+p,p'-DDD (sum of o,p'-DDD and p,p'-DDD) * 

Dieldrin+aldrin (sum of dieldrin and aldrin) **

Heptachlor epoxide (Heptachlor breakdown product) * 

Heptachlor+heptachlor epoxide (sum of heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide) **

Organochlorines not detected

Chloroneb (Chloronebe, Demosan) * **

DCPA (Dacthal, chlorthal-dimethyl) * **

Endosulfan I (alpha-Endosulfan, Thiodan) * **

Endrin (Endrine) 

gamma-HCH (Lindane, gamma-BHC, Gammexane) * 

Total-HCH (sum of alpha-HCH, beta-HCH, gamma-HCH, and delta-HCH) **

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) **

Isodrin (Isodrine, Compound 711) * **

p,p'-Methoxychlor (Marlate, methoxychlore) * **

o,p'-Methoxychlor * **

Mirex (Dechlorane) **

Pentachloroanisole (PCA) * **

cis-Permethrin (Ambush, Astro, Pounce) * **

trans-Permethrin (Ambush, Astro, Pounce) * **

Toxaphene (Camphechlor, Hercules 3956) * **

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER KILOGRAM

(Fish tissue is wet weight; bed sediment is dry weight)

 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER KILOGRAM

(Fish tissue is wet weight; bed sediment is dry weight)

 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

National ranges of concentrations detected, by land use, in 36 

NAWQA Study Units, 1991–98—Ranges include only samples

in which a chemical was detected

Detected concentration in Study Unit

Frequencies of detection, in percent. Detection frequencies 

were not censored at any common reporting limit. The lefthand column is the study-unit frequency and the right-hand 

column is the national frequency

Not measured or sample size less than two

Study-unit sample size

66 38

--

12

Organochlorines in fish tissue (whole body)

and bed sediment

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent Study-unit sample size

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent Study-unit sample size

1 The national detection frequencies for total PCB in sediment are biased low because about 

30 percent of samples nationally had elevated detection levels compared to this Study Unit. 

See http://water.usgs.gov/ for additional information.

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER KILOGRAM, DRY WEIGHT

 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent

Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs)

in bed sediment

Study-unit sample size

Total Chlordane (sum of 5 chlordanes) 

33 38 | 6 -- 75 | 0 82 56 | 11

0 9 | 5 -- 57 | 0 25 11 | 8

p,p'-DDE * **

67 90 6 -- 94 0 73 92 11

0 48 5 -- 62 0 25 39 8

o,p'+p,p'-DDE (sum of o,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDE) * 67 90 6 -- 94 0 73 92 11

0 48 | 5 -- 62 | 0 25 39 | 8

o,p'+p,p'-DDT (sum of o,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDT) * 

17 31 6 -- 53 0 0 29 11

0 19 | 5 -- 38 | 0 12 11 | 8

Total DDT (sum of 6 DDTs) **

67 90 | 6 -- 94 | 0 73 93 | 11

0 49 5 -- 66 0 38 41 8

Dieldrin (Panoram D-31, Octalox) * 17 53 6 -- 42 0 45 38 11

0 13 | 5 -- 30 | 0 12 9 | 8

Total PCB 1

33 38 | 6 -- 81 | 0 100 66 | 11

0 2 | 5 -- 21 | 0 25 9 | 8

Anthraquinone **

0 21 5 -- 83 0 88 39 8
Water-Quality Data in a National Context 31 

Other SVOCs detected

Acenaphthene 

Acenaphthylene 

Acridine **

C8-Alkylphenol **

Anthracene 

Benzo[a]pyrene 

Benzo[b]fluoranthene **

Benzo[ghi]perylene **

Benzo[k]fluoranthene **

Butylbenzylphthalate **

Chrysene 

p-Cresol **

Di-n-butylphthalate **

1,2-Dichlorobenzene (o-Dichlorobenzene) **

Diethylphthalate **

1,2-Dimethylnaphthalene **

1,6-Dimethylnaphthalene **

3,5-Dimethylphenol **

Dimethylphthalate **

2,4-Dinitrotoluene **

Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene **

Isoquinoline **

1-Methyl-9H-fluorene **

2-Methylanthracene **

4,5-Methylenephenanthrene **

1-Methylphenanthrene **

1-Methylpyrene **

Phenanthridine **

Pyrene 

Quinoline **

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene **

2,3,6-Trimethylnaphthalene **

SVOCs not detected

Azobenzene **

Benzo[c]cinnoline **

2,2-Biquinoline **

4-Bromophenyl-phenylether **

4-Chloro-3-methylphenol **

bis(2-Chloroethoxy)methane **

2-Chloronaphthalene **

2-Chlorophenol **

4-Chlorophenyl-phenylether **

Di-n-octylphthalate **

1,3-Dichlorobenzene (m-Dichlorobenzene) **

Isophorone **

Nitrobenzene **

N-Nitrosodi-n-propylamine **

Pentachloronitrobenzene **

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER KILOGRAM, DRY WEIGHT

 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent Study-unit sample size

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER KILOGRAM, DRY WEIGHT

 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent Study-unit sample size

Benz[a]anthracene 

80 44 | 5 -- 94 | 0 100 62 | 8

9H-Carbazole **

0 19 5 -- 76 0 88 33 8

Dibenz[a,h]anthracene 

0 8 | 5 -- 68 | 0 50 23 | 8

Dibenzothiophene **

0 12 5 -- 64 0 75 30 8

1,4-Dichlorobenzene (p-Dichlorobenzene) **

-- 6 0 62 7 8

2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene **

40 65 5 -- 74 0 100 77 8

bis(2-Ethylhexyl)phthalate **

100 91 5 -- 99 0 100 95 8

Fluoranthene 

100 66 | 5 -- 97 | 0 100 78 | 8

9H-Fluorene (Fluorene) 

0 22 | 5 -- 76 | 0 88 41 | 8

Naphthalene 

20 11 | 5 -- 47 | 0 88 30 | 8

N-Nitrosodiphenylamine **

0 2 5 -- 10 0 25 4 8

Phenanthrene 

100 50 | 5 -- 93 | 0 100 66 | 8

Phenol **

60 81 5 -- 82 0 75 80 8
32 Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

Biological indicator value, Kanawha–New River Basin, by 

land use, 1996–98

Biological status assessed at a site

National ranges of biological indicators, in 16 NAWQA Study 

Units, 1994–98

Streams in undeveloped areas

Streams in agricultural areas

Streams in urban areas

Streams in mixed-land-use areas

75th percentile

25th percentile

BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS

Higher national scores suggest habitat disturbance, water-quality 

degradation, or naturally harsh conditions. The status of algae, 

invertebrates (insects, worms, and clams), and fish provide a 

record of water-quality and stream conditions that waterchemistry indicators may not reveal. Algal status focuses on the 

changes in the percentage of certain algae in response to 

increasing siltation, and it often correlates with higher nutrient 

concentrations in some regions. Invertebrate status averages 11 

metrics that summarize changes in richness, tolerance, trophic 

conditions, and dominance associated with water-quality 

degradation. Fish status sums the scores of four fish metrics 

(percent tolerant, omnivorous, non-native individuals, and percent 

individuals with external anomalies) that increase in association 

with water-quality degradation

 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER GRAM

(Fish tissue is wet weight, bed sediment is dry weight)

 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 10,000 1,000 

Study-unit frequency of detection, in percent

National frequency of detection, in percent

Trace elements in fish tissue (livers) and 

bed sediment

Study-unit sample size

 0 5 10 15 20

Arsenic * 

33 56 6 -- 38 0 58 76 12

100 99 | 5 -- 98 | 0 100 97 | 8

Cadmium * 

83 77 6 -- 72 0 100 95 12

100 98 | 5 -- 100 | 0 100 98 | 8

Chromium * 67 62 6 -- 72 0 83 54 12

100 100 | 5 -- 99 | 0 100 100 | 8

Copper * 100 100 6 -- 100 0 100 100 12

100 100 | 5 -- 99 | 0 100 100 | 8

Lead * 

0 11 6 -- 41 0 42 41 12

100 100 | 5 -- 100 | 0 100 99 | 8

Mercury * 

67 71 6 -- 59 0 83 80 12

100 82 | 5 -- 97 | 0 100 93 | 8

Nickel * **

67 42 6 -- 44 0 75 50 12

100 100 5 -- 100 0 100 100 8

Selenium * 100 99 6 -- 100 0 100 99 12

100 100 | 5 -- 100 | 0 100 100 | 8

Zinc * 

100 100 6 -- 100 0 100 100 12

100 100 | 5 -- 99 | 0 100 100 | 8

 Algal status indicator

Undeveloped

Agricultural

Urban

Mixed

 Invertebrate status indicator

Undeveloped

Agricultural

Urban

Mixed

 Fish status indicator

Undeveloped

Agricultural

Urban

Mixed
A COORDINATED EFFORT

Coordination with agencies and organizations in the Kanawha-New River Basin was integral to the success of this 

water-quality assessment. We thank those who served as members of our liaison committee. 

Federal Agencies

National Park Service

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

U.S. Office of Surface Mining

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Agricultural Research Service

Natural Resources Conservation Service

Monongahela National Forest

State Agencies

North Carolina Division of Environmental Management

Virginia Department of Environmental Quality

Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries

Virginia Department of Health

Virginia Division of Mineral Resources

Virginia Division of Soil and Water Conservation

West Virginia Bureau for Public Health

West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection

West Virginia Division of Natural Resources

West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey

West Virginia Soil Conservation Agency

Universities

Marshall University

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

West Virginia University

Other public and private organizations

Cacapon Institute

Canaan Valley Institute

Greenbrier River Watershed Association 

National Committee for the New River

New River Community Partners

Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission

West Virginia American Water Company

West Virginia Citizens Action Group

West Virginia Coal Association

West Virginia Farm Bureau

West Virginia Highlands Conservancy

West Virginia Manufacturers Association

West Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association

West Virginia Rivers Coalition

West Virginia Rural Water Association

We gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of numerous property owners who provided access to sampling locations on their land. We also thank the following individuals for contributing data, knowledge, time, and expertise to 

this effort. 

Dennis Adams, Billy Barton, Steven Bolssen, Melody Bova, Freddie Brogan, Charlynn Sheets Buchanan, John 

Buchanan, Daniel Cincotta, Matthew Cooke, Gary Crosby, David Eaton, Michael Eckenwiler, Ronald Evaldi, Carl 

Faulkenburg, Patsy Francisco, Georganne Gillespie, Wesley Gladwell, Jeffrey Hajenga, Kristi Hanson, Harold 

Henderlite, Curt Hughes, Donna Justus, Lisa Ham Lahti, Melvin Mathes, Kimberly Miller, Dawn Newell, Jesse Purvis, Brian Rasmussen, Lary Rogers, Tom Rosier, Benjamin Simerl, Kimberly Smith, Stephen Sorenson, Janet 

Steven, Joan Steven, Edward Vincent, Stephen Ward, David Wellman, Jeremy White, Matthew Wooten, Dennis 

Wyatt, Humbert Zappia 
Paybins and others— Water Quality in the Kanawha–New River Basin

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1204

National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program

Kanawha–New River Basin

NAWQA

Kanawha River Gauley River

Elk River

New River

Greenb rier River

Pt. Pleasant

Charleston

Beckley

Bluefield

Wytheville

Blacksburg

Galax

Boone

WV

VA

TN

VA

NC

VA

WV

OH

VA

KY