Public and Private School Principals in the

United States: A Statistical Profile,

1987–88 to 1993–94

April 1997
Public and Private School Principals in the

United States: A Statistical Profile,

1987–88 to 1993–94

Thomas A. Fiore

Thomas R. Curtin

Research Triangle Institute

Charles H. Hammer

Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics

Executive Summary

Principals constitute a primary group in the

school reform process, being both the agents

of change by virtue of their roles as school

managers and instructional leaders, and targets

of change given their increased accountability

for school outcomes. Small, descriptive studies

have examined specific aspects of the reform

process in relation to principals, and large

studies have examined segments of the school

administrator population in relation to specific

topics. Little broad, policy-relevant research is

available, however, to assess the impact of the

reform movement on the principalship or to

inform future policy initiatives.

The National Center for Education Statistics’

(NCES) Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS)

partially fills this void by providing descriptive

information about the changing nature of the

individuals who serve as principals in public

and private schools, including their perceptions

of challenges they face. The integrated structure of SASS enriches the information through

the linkage between principal responses and

contextual data collected from teachers,

schools, and districts.

This report uses data from the 1987-88, 1990-

91, and 1993-94 administrations of SASS to

examine the principalship in the reform environment of the late 1980s and early 1990s. For

each of those years, approximately 80,000

principals served in the nation’s public schools

and approximately 25,000 served in private

schools. Following are some of the key

findings:

Demographics

• The majority of public school principals

were men during 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94, although the percentage of female

principals in public schools increased

between 1987-88 and 1993-94 from 25 to

34 percent.

• For private schools, women constituted a

clear majority (54 percent) of the principals

for the first time in 1993-94.

• The percentage of minority principals in

public schools increased between 1987-88

and 1993-94 from 13 to 16 percent, while

the percentage of minority private school

principals did not change during that time

period.

Salary and Benefits

• On average during 1993-94, public school

principals earned a salary of $54,857 and

private school principals earned $32,075.

• For 1993-94, public principals were more

likely than private school principals to

receive benefits such as medical insurance,

dental insurance, life insurance, and retirement plans. Only inkind benefits were more

frequently available to private school principals.

iii
• For public schools in 1993-94, average salaries for male and female principals were

similar ($54,922 for males, $54,736 for

females), while average salaries for minority principals ($56,956) were higher than

those for white principals ($54,466).

Education and Experience

• Most principals hold more than one college

degree, and many pursue a different field of

study for each degree. Educational administration remained the predominant field of

college study for public school principals in

1993-94, with over two-thirds of all principals holding a degree in that field. Additionally, more than one-third of principals

held degrees in elementary education.

• For 1993-94, public and private female

principals had more experience as teachers

before becoming principals than did males

(13 versus 10 years for public school principals and 11 versus 8 years for private

school principals).

• Across school years 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94, athletic coaching prior to becoming a principal remained a common experience for male principals (38 percent, 39

percent, and 38 percent) and a relatively

rare experience for women (4 percent, 4

percent, and 6 percent).

• Female principals were more likely than

males to have prior experience as curriculum specialists or coordinators in 1993-94

(30 percent versus 11 percent), the first year

that item appeared in SASS.

Perceptions of Serious Problems

• For 1993-94, public and private elementary

school principals identified poverty (17

percent of public school principals, 3 percent of private school principals) and lack

of parent involvement (10 percent, 2 percent) relatively often as serious problems in

their schools.

• For public secondary principals in 1993-94,

lack of parent involvement (selected by 20

percent of principals) ranked first on the list

of serious problems facing their schools.

The list also included student apathy (15

percent), poverty (13 percent), and student

use of alcohol (13 percent).

• For 1993-94, private secondary principals

frequently identified three alcohol and drugrelated problems as serious problems in

their schools: student use of alcohol (12

percent), parent alcohol/drug abuse (9 percent), and student drug abuse (7 percent).

They identified these problems at rates

comparable to their public school counterparts.

• Although public secondary principals relatively infrequently cited student possession

of weapons as a serious problem for school

years 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (0.4

percent, 0.6 percent, and 1 percent), it is

notable that by 1993-94 one of every hundred public secondary principals identified

this dangerous behavior as a serious problem in their school.

Other Findings

Other findings from the study show principals’

goals for their schools; their perceptions of

their influence in critical areas such as establishing curriculum, hiring new teachers, and

setting discipline policy; and their career continuation plans.

iv
Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all the persons who

provided assistance and support during the

preparation of this report. We particularly

appreciate the thoughtful and patient guidance

provided by Charles Hammer, the National

Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Project

Officer. Other individuals within NCES reviewed the report in various stages of its

development and provided valuable suggestions: Robert Burton, Marilyn McMillen,

Claire Geddes, Frank Johnson, and Daniel

Kasprzyk. Robert Burton served as the report

adjudicator.

Many useful comments were provided by reviewers outside NCES. Within the Department

of Education they were Carol Cichowski,

Office of the Undersecretary, Michelle Doyle,

Office of Nonpublic Education, Mary Jean

LeTendre, Office of Elementary and Secondary

Education, and Laurence Peters, Office of

Educational Research and Improvement. Outside the Department, they were Ronald

Areglado, National Association of Elementary

School Principals, and Susan Galletti, National

Association of Secondary School Principals.

Catherine Marshall, with the University of

North Carolina at Chapel Hill, served as a

consultant to the project. She provided guidance in the preparation of the background

materials and in the framing of research questions.

This report would not have been possible

without the essential contributions of many

individuals at the Research Triangle Institute.

The RTI project team included Sara Wheeless,

Jill Kavee, B.J. George, and Karen Blackwell

who provided expert programming, data

management, and statistical support. Jan

Shirley efficiently managed the production of

the report, guiding it through many revisions.

Linda Gaydosh provided timely and accurate

word processing and Sharon Davis created the

graphics.

Tom Fiore

T.R. Curtin

Research Triangle Institute

v
Contents

Chapter Page

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Acknowledgments .............................................. v

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

List of Text Tables .............................................. x

List of Appendix Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

1 Introduction .................................................. 1

Context for Examining the Principalship ............................ 2

The Schools and Staffing Survey ................................. 2

Overview of the Report ........................................ 4

2 Demographics of the Principalship ................................... 5

Demographic Overview ........................................ 5

Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Race-Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Training and Educational Experiences of Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Formal Education and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Inservice Training in Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Field of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Prior Experience in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4 Principals’ Perceptions of Problems in Their Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Serious Problems Identified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Principals’ Goals, Influence, and Career Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Principals’ Educational Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Principals’ Perception of Their Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Principals’ Career Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

vii
Contents (continued)

Appendixes Page

A Tables of Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

Section 1—Public and Private School Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-3

Section 2—Affiliation/Typology Tables for Private Schools ............. A-49

Section 3—State Tables for Public Schools ........................ A-55

B Tables of Standard Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1

Section 1—Public and Private School Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3

Section 2—Affiliation/Typology Tables for Private Schools ............. B-49

Section 3—State Tables for Public Schools ........................ B-55

C Technical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1

D Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) Data Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1

viii
List of Figures

Figure Page

1 Percentage of public school principals by sex and sex within school

level: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 .............................. 8

2 Percentage of new public and private school principals by sex: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 ......................................... 9

3 Percentage of private school principals by sex and sex within school

level: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 Percentage of public and private school principals by race-ethnicity:

1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5 Percentage of public and private school principals in the oldest and

youngest age groups: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

6 Percentage of public school principals by highest degree earned:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

7 Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree

earned by school level: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

8 Percentage of public and private school principals by field of study for

bachelor’s and higher degrees: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

9 Percentage of public and private school principals with prior experience

in teaching and other selected education roles: 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

10 Public and private school principals’ average years of experience as

teachers and principals: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

11 Percentage of public and private school principals who rated specific

educational goals as first, second, or third most important: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . 31

12 Mean ratings of public and private school principals regarding their

influence in specific areas: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

13 Percentage of public and private school principals by plans to remain

principals: 1990-91 and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

ix
List of Text Tables

Table Page

1 Number of public and private school principals by region: 1987-88,

1990-91, 1993-94 ............................................ 6

2 Overview of characteristics of public and private school principals:

1993-94 ................................................... 7

3 Public and private school principals’ average salary by sex and highest

degree earned: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Public school principals’ average salary by race-ethnicity and highest

degree earned: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Percentage of public and private school principals selecting problems as

serious in their schools: 1987-88, 1990-91, 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

x
List of Appendix Tables

Table Page

Section 1—Public and Private School Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-3

A1 Number and percentage of public and private school principals by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-4

A2 Percentage of public and private school principals by geographic region,

by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . A-6

A3 Percentage of public school principals by district size, by sex, raceethnicity, and age of principals: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . A-8

A4 Percentage of public school principals by community type, by sex, raceethnicity, and age: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-9

A5 Percentage of public school principals by percentage of free or reducedprice lunch recipients in their schools, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age of

principals: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ........................ A-10

A6 Percentage of public and private school principals by school level, by

sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . A-11

A7 Percentage of public and private school principals with less than three

years of experience as a principal, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-

88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 .................................... A-13

A8 Average salary of public and private school principals by sex and raceethnicity, by highest degree earned and years of experience as a

principal: 1993-94 ......................................... A-14

A9 Average salary of public and private school principals, by school level

and community type: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ................. A-16

A10 Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received,

by community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 ....................................... A-17

A11 Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree

earned, by school level, school size, minority enrollment, free-lunch

recipients, district size, and community type: 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94 ................................................. A-21

xi
List of Appendix Tables (continued)

Table Page

A12 Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree

earned, by race-ethnicity and sex: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ........ A-24

A13 Percentage of public and private school principals participating in

training or development programs, by region, community type, school

level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ........... A-26

A14 Percentage of public and private school principals by sex, by field of

study for bachelor’s and higher degrees earned: 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94 ................................................. A-28

A15 Percentage of public and private school principals by sex, by prior

experience in teaching and other specified education roles: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 ....................................... A-30

A16 Average years of experience in education for public and private school

principals, by selected school and principal characteristics: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 ....................................... A-31

A17 Percentage of public and private school principals who view various

issues as serious problems in their schools, by school level: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 ....................................... A-33

A18 Percentage of public and private elementary school principals who view

certain issues as serious problems in their schools, by selected school

characteristics: 1993-94 ...................................... A-35

A19 Percentage of public and private secondary school principals who view

certain issues as serious problems in their schools, by selected school

characteristics: 1993-94 ...................................... A-36

A20 Percentage of public and private combined school principals who view

certain issues as serious problems in their schools, by selected school

characteristics: 1993-94 ...................................... A-37

A21 Percentage of public elementary school principals who view certain

issues as serious problems in their schools, by sex, age, experience, and

race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94 ............................. A-38

xii
List of Appendix Tables (continued)

Table Page

A22 Percentage of public secondary school principals who view certain

issues as serious problems in their schools, by sex, age, experience, and

race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94 ............................. A-39

A23 Percentage of public combined school principals who view certain

issues as serious problems in their schools, by sex, age, experience, and

race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94 ............................. A-40

A24 Percentage of public and private school principals who rated specific

educational goals as first, second, or third most important for students to

achieve, by school level, community type, and minority enrollment:

1993-94 ................................................. A-41

A25 Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their

influence in establishing curriculum, hiring new teachers, and setting

discipline policy, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94 ................................................. A-42

A26 Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their

influence in establishing curriculum, hiring new teachers, and setting

discipline policy, by selected school characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 ............................................. A-44

A27 Percentage of public and private school principals by plans to remain

principals, by school level, minority enrollment, school size, and

community type: 1993-94 .................................... A-46

A28 Percentage of public school principals by plans to remain principals, by

age and years of experience as a principal within sex: 1993-94 .......... A-48

Section 2—Affiliation/Typology Tables for Private Schools ........... A-49

A29 Percentage of private school principals by private school affiliation, by sex,

race-ethnicity, highest degree earned, average age, salary, and years as a

principal: 1993-94 ......................................... A-50

A30 Percentage of private school principals by private school type, by sex,

race-ethnicity, highest degree earned, average age, salary, and years as a

principal: 1993-94 ......................................... A-52

xiii
List of Appendix Tables (continued)

Table Page

A31 Percentage of private school principals by benefits received, by private

school type: 1993-94 ........................................ A-53

Section 3—State Tables for Public Schools ....................... A-55

A32 Percentage of public school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by

state: 1993-94 ............................................ A-56

A33 Percentage of public school principals by highest degree earned and

average salary, by state: 1993-94 ............................... A-58

A34 Percentage of public school principals by employment benefits received,

by state: 1993-94 .......................................... A-60

Section 1—Public and Private School Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3

B1 Standard errors for Table A1: Number and percentage of public and

private school principals by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-

91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4

B2 Standard errors for Table A2: Percentage of public and private school

principals by geographic region, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-

88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6

B3 Standard errors for Table A3: Percentage of public school principals by

district size, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age of principals: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8

B4 Standard errors for Table A4: Percentage of public school principals by

community type, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-9

B5 Standard errors for Table A5: Percentage of public school principals by

percentage of free or reduced-price lunch recipients in their schools, by

sex, race-ethnicity, and age of principals: 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94 ................................................. B-10

B6 Standard errors for Table A6: Percentage of public and private school

principals by school level, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-11

xiv
List of Appendix Tables (continued)

Table Page

B7 Standard errors for Table A7: Percentage of public and private school

principals with less than three years of experience as a principal, by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ............... B-13

B8 Standard errors for Table A8: Average salary of public and private

school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by highest degree earned

and years of experience as a principal: 1993-94 ..................... B-14

B9 Standard errors for Table A9: Average salary of public and private

school principals, by school level and community type: 1987-88, 1990-

91, and 1993-94 ........................................... B-16

B10 Standard errors for Table A10: Percentage of public and private school

principals by benefits received, by community type, school level, sex,

and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ................... B-17

B11 Standard errors for Table A11: Percentage of public and private school

principals by highest degree earned, by school level, school size,

minority enrollment, free-lunch recipients, district size, and community

type: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ............................ B-21

B12 Standard errors for Table A12: Percentage of public and private school

principals by highest degree earned, by race-ethnicity and sex: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 ....................................... B-24

B13 Standard errors for Table A13: Percentage of public and private school

principals participating in training or development programs, by region,

community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-

91, and 1993-94 ........................................... B-26

B14 Standard errors for Table A14: Percentage of public and private school

principals by sex, by field of study for bachelor’s and higher degrees

earned: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 .......................... B-28

B15 Standard errors for Table A15: Percentage of public and private school

principals by sex, by prior experience in teaching and other specified

education roles: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ..................... B-30

xv
List of Appendix Tables (continued)

Table Page

B16 Standard errors for Table A16: Average years of experience in

education for public and private school principals, by selected school

and principal characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ............ B-31

B17 Standard errors for Table A17: Percentage of public and private school

principals who view various issues as serious problems in their schools,

by school level: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 .................... B-33

B18 Standard errors for Table A18: Percentage of public and private

elementary school principals who view certain issues as serious

problems in their schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94 ...... B-35

B19 Standard errors for Table A19: Percentage of public and private

secondary school principals who view certain issues as serious problems

in their schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94 ............. B-36

B20 Standard errors for Table A20: Percentage of public and private

combined school principals who view certain issues as serious problems

in their schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94 ............. B-37

B21 Standard errors for Table A21: Percentage of public elementary school

principals who view certain issues as serious problems in their schools,

by sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94 ........ B-38

B22 Standard errors for Table A22: Percentage of public secondary school

principals who view certain issues as serious problems in their schools,

by sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94 ........ B-39

B23 Standard errors for Table A23: Percentage of public combined school

principals who view certain issues as serious problems in their schools,

by sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94 ........ B-40

B24 Standard errors for Table A24: Percentage of public and private school

principals who rated specific educational goals as first, second, or third

most important for students to achieve, by school level, community

type, and minority enrollment: 1993-94 ........................... B-41

xvi
List of Appendix Tables (continued)

Table Page

B25 Standard errors for Table A25: Mean ratings by public and private

school principals regarding their influence in establishing curriculum,

hiring new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by sex, race-ethnicity,

and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 .......................... B-42

B26 Standard errors for Table A26: Mean ratings by public and private

school principals regarding their influence in establishing curriculum,

hiring new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by selected school

characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 ..................... B-44

B27 Standard errors for Table A27: Percentage of public and private school

principals by plans to remain principals, by school level, minority

enrollment, school size, and community type: 1993-94 ................ B-46

B28 Standard errors for Table A28: Percentage of public school principals

by plans to remain principals, by age and years of experience as a

principal within sex: 1993-94 .................................. B-48

Section 2—Affiliation/Typology Tables for Private Schools ........... B-49

B29 Standard errors for Table A29: Percentage of private school principals

by private school affiliation, by sex, race-ethnicity, highest degree

earned, average age, salary, and years as a principal: 1993-94 ........... B-50

B30 Standard errors for Table A30: Percentage of private school principals

by private school type, by sex, race-ethnicity, highest degree earned,

average age, salary, and years as a principal: 1993-94 ................. B-52

B31 Standard errors for Table A31: Percentage of private school principals

by benefits received, by private school type: 1993-94 ................. B-53

Section 3—State Tables for Public Schools ....................... B-55

B32 Standard errors for Table A32: Percentage of public school principals

by sex and race-ethnicity, by state: 1993-94 ........................ B-56

B33 Standard errors for Table A33: Percentage of public school principals

by highest degree earned and average salary, by state: 1993-94 .......... B-58

B34 Standard errors for Table A34: Percentage of public school principals

by employment benefits received, by state: 1993-94 .................. B-60

xvii
List of Appendix Tables (continued)

Table Page

Appendix C Tables

C1 Weighted and unweighted percent response rates by SASS instrument:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-7

C2 Unweighted item-response rates for SASS questionnaires, by year . . . . . . . . . C-8

C3 Decision rules for estimate suppression ........................... C-10

xviii
Chapter 1 • Introduction

American school principals have highly com1

See appendix C for a more extensive description of

SASS.

plex jobs that are variously described as

building managers, personnel administrators,

agents of change, boundary spanners, disciplinarians, cheerleaders, and instructional

leaders (Smith & Andrews, 1989). Regardless

of the roles these individuals play, however,

few dispute that principals have emerged as

primary players in the improvement of school

instructional programs. Remarkably, this

important role for administrators in school

improvement has not always been apparent to

educational researchers. Early educational

research almost ignored the characteristics of

these leaders or their influence on schools. As

Behling and Champion (1984) noted in their

review of principals as instructional leaders,

Considerable research over the past

seventy-five years has focused on learners, teachers, and school classrooms, but

the role of the principal has been addressed only indirectly. (p. v)

This omission has changed in recent years,

however, as concerns with the nation’s educational system have encouraged increased scrutiny of schools and school leaders by education, governmental, business, and community

groups. Yet, despite the acknowledged primary

role of principals in the educational process

and the many reform initiatives proposed and

implemented in the nation during the last

decade, few large-scale, national studies have

examined principals’ characteristics, behaviors,

and beliefs, or tracked the changes occurring

in light of the new policies, programs, and

expectations.

The 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 administrations of the Schools and Staffing Survey

(SASS) provide the opportunity to use national

data to examine policy-relevant issues about

the principalship in the reform environment of

the late 1980s and early 1990s. The National

Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the

U.S. Department of Education regularly

conducts this national survey of public and

private schools, public school districts,

principals, and teachers. First conducted during

the 1987-88 school year, the SASS samples

approximately 10 percent of the nation’s

schools. The school administrators or principals of these schools are surveyed, along

with a subsample of each school’s teachers.

Additionally, for public schools, the district

superintendent for each of the sampled schools

receives a questionnaire focused on districtlevel information. The integrated structure of

SASS allows links between principal responses

and contextual data collected from teachers,

schools, and districts.1

Schools and Staffing Survey data cannot

directly demonstrate the effectiveness of

educational programs and practices or their

influence on the characteristics or performance

of school leaders. The data can, however,

provide strong descriptive information about

the principalship during this important period,

and the data can be linked to important policy

issues. The data from the three SASS

administrations can also indicate changes that

have taken place between 1987 and 1994, a

period when policy makers developed and

1
implemented many reform initiatives. Thus the

purposes of this report are to provide

descriptive information about the principalship,

place that information in a policy context, and

identify significant trends that may have implications for future policy.

Context for Examining the Principalship

Publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983 (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) catalyzed widespread school

improvement initiatives in the 1980s. State

agencies and local communities answered the

call for reform by enacting policies to tighten

educational standards, strengthen professional

certification requirements, and increase accountability. One report (U.S. Department of

Education, 1984) estimated that 275 state and

local task forces were formed to work on educational issues within 12 months of publication

of A Nation at Risk. Notably, these early reform activities were based predominantly on

the belief that school professionals had become “lax” and that increased supervision and

regulation would improve the process and outcomes of schooling (Hallinger, Murphy, &

Hausman, 1992). For example, Illinois’ Education Reform Act of 1985 (1) mandated that

principals spend the majority of their time as

instructional leaders, (2) increased requirements for all types of state certification, and

(3) required that local education agencies

publish yearly “report cards” comparing student outcomes to state and local standards

(Illinois State Board of Education, 1985).

While the release of A Nation at Risk initiated

a wave of reform activities in many states (see

e.g., U.S. Department of Education, 1984;

Miller, 1987), concern with the effectiveness

of American schooling continued, ultimately

resulting in a second round of reform activities

precipitated in 1989 by the Governors Education Summit in Charlottesville, Virginia. In the

aftermath of that meeting, American school reform was transformed into school restructuring, a process that focused, at least initially,

not on repairs to the existing system as targeted under the earlier reform activities, but rather on the “reshaping of the entire educational

enterprise” (Hallinger et al., 1992, p. 330).

Principals constitute a primary group in school

restructuring, being both the agents of change

by virtue of their roles as school managers and

instructional leaders (see e.g., Bossert, Dwyer,

Rowan, & Lee, 1982; Pajak & McAfee, 1992),

and targets of change given their increased

accountability for school outcomes and the

restructuring efforts that require principals to

share decision making with teachers (see e.g.,

Heck, Larsen, & Marcoulides, 1990).

Small, descriptive studies have examined specific aspects of the reform process including,

for example, administrative support for reform

(see e.g., Hallinger et al., 1992), the activities

of principals in this transitional period

(Stronge, 1988), and the elements of success

for effective principals (Cooper, 1989; Queen,

1989). Other larger studies examined only segments of the school administrator population

(e.g., the National Association of Elementary

School Principals’ decennial survey of elementary principals reported by Doud, 1989) or focused on single topics (e.g., fringe benefits and

the opinions of school personnel reported by

the research arm of the major principal and

administrator professional associations, the

Educational Research Service [ERS], 1986,

1991). Little broad policy-relevant research,

however, is available to assess the impact of

the two waves of school reform on the principalship or to inform future policy initiatives.

The Schools and Staffing Survey partially fills

this void by providing descriptive information

about the changing nature of the individuals

who serve as principals, including their perceptions of challenges they face.

The Schools and Staffing Survey

The multiple administrations of SASS (1987-

88, 1990-91, and 1993-94) provide a unique

2
opportunity to examine the policies, practices,

and perceptions of the nation’s public and private schools, school districts, principals, and

teachers. Schools and Staffing Survey has been

described as:

The most thorough and comprehensive

survey of American education concerning

the school work force and teacher supply

and demand that has ever been conducted in this country (Choy et al., 1993,

p. iii).

Major categories of data collected by SASS

include school and school administrator characteristics, teacher characteristics, programs

and policies, teacher supply and demand, and

the opinions and attitudes of teachers and

school administrators regarding policies and

working conditions. The ability to link survey

data for individual principals, schools, teachers, and districts enhances the analytical

potential of the data, as does the use of

comparable questions in each round of administration.

This report is based mainly on responses to

survey questions that examined the demographic characteristics, educational backgrounds, training and experiences, and attitudes and perceptions of the nation’s public

and private school principals during the 1987-

88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 school years. These

data were from responses to the following

questionnaires:

• School Administrator Questionnaire, 1987-

1988;

• Public School Administrator Questionnaire,

1990-1991;

• Private School Administrator Questionnaire,

1990-1991;

• Public School Principal Questionnaire,

1993-1994; and

• Private School Principal Questionnaire,

1993-1994.

Analyses of school-level administrators could

not be done, however, without also considering

the environment in which they operate. Consequently, the following additional SASS

instruments were used, where necessary, to

obtain descriptive information about the

schools in which administrators are located

and the teachers whom they lead, including

factors such as student characteristics and

school descriptors:

• Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire for Public School Districts, 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94;

• Public and Private School Questionnaires,

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94; and

• Public and Private School Teacher Questionnaires, 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94.

One of the objectives for this descriptive

report of public and private school principals

was the comparison of findings between

school years (i.e., the results of 1987-88 vs.

1990-91 vs. 1993-94 findings). While the overall focus of the School Principal Questionnaire

remained essentially unchanged between 1987-

88 and 1993-94, the questionnaire was expanded each year. Comparisons between

school years were complicated slightly by

modifications in sampling design and questionnaire and item development between the three

administrations. Appendix C discusses those

differences and their relationship to the methodology employed.

This report uses SASS data to provide a comprehensive portrait of the American public and

private school principalship during the 1993-

94 school year and to assess changes over the

six previous years. To highlight trends, many

of the tables and figures in this report present

results from each of the three survey years.

Other tables and figures present only 1993-94

3
data where current information is more relevant or when temporal changes are insignificant.

Overview of the Report

Many issues guided the preparation of this

report. These issues were identified through a

careful review of the current literature on

school administration, especially in the context

of school reform; a detailed examination of the

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 SASS instruments; and the reports developed from the

1987-88 and 1990-91 SASS (Hammer &

Gerald, 1990; Hammer & Rohr, 1993; Choy,

Henke, Alt, Medrich, & Bobbitt, 1993). The

issues fell under the following four broad

topics, which correspond to the subsequent

chapters of this report:

• Demographics of the principalship;

• Training and experience of principals;

• Principals’ perceptions of problems in their

schools; and

• Principals’ goals, influence, and career

plans.

2

A description of the statistical procedures is included

in appendix C.

This report presents findings of interest to

practicing educators, researchers, and policy

makers at the national, state, and local levels.

The body of the report is nontechnical and

descriptive in nature, with considerable effort

devoted to the presentation of analytic findings

in ways that facilitate comprehension. Reading

this report does not require any statistical

expertise. Differences and similarities discussed in the text, however, have been evaluated for statistical significance using Student’s t statistic adjusted for multiple comparisons with the Bonferroni procedure at the

α=.05 level.2

This first chapter has provided background

information that sets the stage for the discussions of specific issues that follow. The

remaining chapters of the report are organized

around the topics listed above. The chapters

highlight and display data of particular interest

on issues relevant to each topic.

All numbers appearing in the figures and

tables in the following chapters, as well as

numbers cited in the text, also appear in the

tables of estimates in appendix A. The figures

and tables in the chapters highlight important

variables discussed in the text. Where numbers

cited in the text do not appear in these figures

or tables, a reference for an appendix table is

provided (in parentheses with the prefix A).

Appendix B includes tables of standard errors

for the estimates presented in appendix A.

Appendix C contains technical notes for the

report and includes a discussion of sampling,

data collection, and analysis. Appendix D

provides a list of additional reports and other

publications on the Schools and Staffing

Survey.

National Center for Education Statistics is

interested in the readers’ reactions to the

information presented in this report and to the

content of the surveys used to collect the

information. Recommendations to improve the

survey effort are welcomed. If you have suggestions or comments, want more information

about this report, or would like copies of the

questionnaires, please contact:

Education Surveys Program

Surveys and Cooperative Systems Group

National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education

555 New Jersey Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20208-5651

4
Chapter 2 • Demographics of the

Principalship

The demographic characteristics of principals

may be especially important because some

research has suggested that factors such as sex

predict both the types of activities in which

school administrators engage and their career

paths and ultimate accomplishments in the

field. For example, Andrews and Basom

(1990) noted that female principals spend

more time observing teachers in their classrooms, are more concerned with student

accomplishments, and value teacher productivity more than their male counterparts.

Women administrators are more likely to be

seen as instructional leaders in their schools

(Smith & Andrews, 1989) by virtue of their

greater years of experience as teachers and the

different administrative and supervisory

strategies they bring to the job.

School desegregation contributed to decreases

in the number of African-American principals

(Weinberg, 1977), and some researchers (e.g.,

Miklos, 1988) contend that subsequent school

and district practices have meant that minority

principals are more likely to be placed in

schools with high proportions of students of

similar ethnic or cultural groups and perhaps

to have been appointed through application of

special criteria. Both factors may affect opportunities for further advancement. In any case,

minority principals may differ from nonminority administrators in important characteristics.

These differences may include years of prior

classroom teaching experience, the nature of

their previous positions in the field, the nature

of their current appointment, salaries and

benefits, perceived control over the educational

process, and age at hiring (see Miklos, 1988).

Principal age may have important implications

especially for career opportunities and accomplishments for both women and minorities

(Miklos, 1988). Administrators assigned early

in their careers (i.e., in their middle to late

30s) may be more likely to later serve in

larger schools (e.g., as high school principals)

and to hold district-level positions. Previous

studies have shown, however, that women and

minority administrators both teach longer and

enter administration later than white males

(Andrews & Basom, 1990; Miklos, 1988).

These patterns may limit both the length and

type of administrative careers because they

conflict with career norms that favor youthful

career entry.

Following an overview of the demographics of

the principalship, the sections below address in

turn issues of sex, race-ethnicity, and age.

These demographic characteristics affect other

issues as well. Thus, sex, race-ethnicity, and

age will be examined further as other topics

are addressed in subsequent chapters of the

report.

Demographic Overview

Table 1 shows the total number of public and

private school principals by region for the

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 school years.1

1

Text tables and figures highlight important variables.

All numbers and percentages are drawn from tables of

estimates in appendix A (referenced in the text with the

prefix A).

As the table indicates, the total number of

public school principals grew between 1987-88

5
and 1993-94 (up 2.2 percent), reflecting a

Table 1.—Number of public and private school principals by region:

1987-88, 1990-91, 1993-94

Public Private

Region 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

TOTAL 77,890 78,890 79,618 25,401 23,881 25,015

Northeast 13,854 13,705 13,469 6,299 5,272 5,966

South 25,890 25,838 26,308 6,995 6,115 6,777

Midwest 22,465 23,124 23,144 7,644 7,462 7,302

West 15,680 16,223 16,698 4,463 5,031 4,971

NOTE: Details may not add up to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1987-88 (Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator Questionnaires), 1993-94

(Principal Questionnaires).

change in the number of public schools during

that period. The growth occurred mainly in the

west (up 6.5 percent). The number of private

school principals showed no change across the

six-year period.

Table 2 provides an overview of important

characteristics of the public and private principal population for 1993-94. Elementary principals outnumbered secondary principals by a

ratio of almost three to one in public schools

and nearly six to one in private schools. Thirty

percent of private school principals, however,

served in schools that combine elementary and

secondary levels, compared to 4 percent of

public school principals. In 1993-94, 65 percent of public school principals were men,

compared to 46 percent of private school principals. Most public and private principals were

white non-Hispanic, and they were, on average, in their late 40s.

The sections that follow examine specific

demographic characteristics (sex, race-ethnicity, and age) of public and private school

principals in relation to a variety of school and

community characteristics and in relation to

salaries and benefits. Comparisons among estimates from the 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

school years highlight trends.

Sex

As figure 1 illustrates, the majority of public

school principals during the 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 school years were men. During

the 1993-94 school year, 59 percent in urban

fringe/large town public schools were male,

and 75 percent of principals in rural/small

town public schools were male, although in

central city schools there were no sex differences (table A4). Similarly, for public schools

in 1993-94, 63 percent of principals in districts

with 5,000 to 9,999 students were male, 74

percent in districts with 1,000 to 4,000, and 79

percent in districts with less than 1,000 students (table A3). In public schools where 50

percent or more of the students were eligible

to receive free or reduced-price lunch, 60 percent of the principals in 1993-94 were male; in

schools where 20 to 40 percent were free6
lunch eligible, 68 percent of principals were

Table 2.—Overview of characteristics of public and private school principals:

1993-94

Principal characteristic Public Private

School level

Elementary 71.9% 59.5%

Secondary 24.4% 10.3%

Combined 3.7% 30.2%

Sex

Male 65.4% 46.4%

Female 34.5% 53.6%

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.8% 0.5

Asian/Pacific Islander 0.8% 0.7

Black non-Hispanic 10.1% 4.2%

White non-Hispanic 84.2% 92.5%

Hispanic 4.1% 2.1%

Total minority 15.7% 7.5%

Average age 47.7 47.1

Average salary $54,857 $32,075

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

male; and in schools where less than 20

percent of the students were eligible, 69

percent of the principals were male (table A5).

Additionally, as figure 1 shows, in 1993-94

principals were more likely to be male in

public secondary schools (86 percent) than

they were in public elementary schools (59

percent).

In contrast to the continuing male majority in

the principalship, the proportion of female

principals in public schools increased between

the 1987-88 and 1993-94 school years. Thirtyfour percent of principals were women in

1993-94, up from 25 percent in 1987-88 (table

A1). The increase is prominent in public

elementary schools, where women occupied 30

percent of the principalships in 1987-88 and

41 percent in 1993-94 (table A6), but also can

be seen in secondary schools (9 percent in

1987-88 to 14 percent in 1993-94). No change

is found in public combined schools. The trend

is also strong in larger districts, where the

proportion of female principals rose from 22

percent in 1987-88 to 37 percent in 1993-94 in

districts with 5,000 to 9,999 students, and

from 35 percent to 47 percent in districts with

10,000 or more students (table A3).

Both attrition and hiring can contribute to

changes in principal demographics. Examining

characteristics of principals with less than

three years of experience highlights hiring

7
patterns. For each of the school years 1987-88,

Figure 1.—Percentage of public school principals by sex and sex within school level:

 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

1993-94

1990-91

1987-88

1993-94

1990-91

1987-88

1993-94

1990-91

1987-88

0 25 50 75 100

Percent

Male Female

Sex Overall

Sex Within 

School Level

Elementary Secondary

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator

 Questionnaire), 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaire).

75.4 24.6

70.0 30.0

65.4 34.5

69.9 30.1

63.5 36.5

58.9 41.1

90.6 9.4

89.0 11.0

86.2 13.8

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.

1990-91, and 1993-94, the proportion of new

public school principals who were women was

greater than the overall proportion of female

principals (table A7). Additionally, as figure 2

illustrates, the percentage of new public school

principals who were female rose from 41 percent in 1987-88 to 48 percent in 1993-94.

These data suggest that changing hiring patterns, not simply a higher attrition rate for

men, have contributed to the increase in the

proportion of public school principals who are

women.

The picture is different for private schools. As

figure 3 shows, for the 1993-94 school year,

women constituted a majority of private school

principals. Comparable percentages of female

principals existed in both 1987-88 and 1990-

91. Nearly two-thirds of elementary principals

were women in each year, while, as with

public schools, a greater percentage of private

8
secondary principals were men. In contrast to

0 25 50 75 100

Percent

Private Public

58.8 41.2

54.6 45.4

51.9 48.1

48.2 51.8

49.8 50.2

42.7 57.3

Figure 2.—Percentage of new public and private school principals by sex: 1987-88,

 1990-91, and 1993-94

1993-94

1990-91

1987-88

1993-94

1990-91

1987-88

Male Female

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator

 Questionnaires), 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

public schools, the proportion of men to

women principals in private schools remained

relatively constant in elementary and secondary schools for the three school years. Additionally, as figure 2 illustrates, the proportion

of new private school principals who were

female (52 percent for 1987-88, 50 percent for

1990-91, and 57 percent for 1993-94) was

comparable for each of the years to the overall

percentages of private school principals who

were female. The data suggest little change in

hiring patterns among private schools.

The increasing ratio of female to male principals in public schools is one indication of

greater equity in school leadership. Another

indication is the comparability of the salaries

and benefits these principals received. For the

1993-94 school year, average salaries for male

and female principals in public schools were

quite similar ($54,922 for males, $54,736 for

females). Moreover, salaries for male and

female principals were comparable at all education levels (table 3). For public schools

during the 1993-94 school year, there was also

little difference between men and women principals with regard to the employment benefits

they received, including medical and life insurance and retirement plans (table A10).

9
For private schools, differences between male

47.8

48.7

34.9

34.3

32.3

67.5

71.1

66.0

46.4

Figure 3.—Percentage of private school principals by sex and sex within school level:

 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

1993-94

1990-91

1987-88

1993-94

1990-91

1987-88

1993-94

1990-91

1987-88

0 25 50 75 100

Percent

Male Female

Sex Overall

Sex Within 

School Level

Elementary Secondary

52.2

51.2

53.6

65.1

65.7

67.7

32.5

28.9

34.0

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator

 Questionnaire), 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaire).

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.

and female principals in salaries and benefits

were apparent. For example, as table 3 shows,

in 1993-94 private male principals earned an

average of $35,597 while female principals

earned an average of $29,185. For 1993-94,

private principals overall were less likely to

receive benefits than were public school principals, with the exception of inkind benefits,

which were more frequently available to private school principals (table A10). As with

public schools, however, no sex-related differences were found in regard to benefits in

1993-94.

Race-Ethnicity

Figure 4 illustrates that, in 1993-94, the great

majority of public and private school principals were white non-Hispanic (84 percent for

public schools, 92 percent for private schools).

The white majority was found in all regions of

10
the country (table A2). The percentage of

Table 3.—Public and private school principals’ average salary by sex and

highest degree earned: 1993-94

Sex

Highest degree Male Female

Public

All degrees $54,922 $54,736

Bachelor's 44,907 38,112

Master's 53,820 54,241

Ed. specialist/prof. diploma 55,424 55,313

Doctorate 62,694 59,535

Private

All degrees 35,597 29,185

Less than bachelor's 14,428 23,197

Bachelor's 26,180 22,982

Master's 39,029 31,432

Ed. specialist/prof. diploma 40,947 31,449

Doctorate 52,729 47,239

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

minority principals in public schools did

increase, however, between 1987-88 and 1993-

94 from 13 to 16 percent (table A1).

For public schools, the proportion of minority

principals was low in all types of communities, although the proportion varied considerably among the community types. Specifically,

for 1993-94, 35 percent of principals in central

city schools were minorities, 15 percent in

urban fringe/large town schools were minorities, and in rural/small town schools 7 percent

were minorities (table A4). For that same year,

the percentage of minority public principals

was low for elementary (17 percent) and

secondary schools (12 percent) (table A6).

Relatively few minority principals served in

public schools in districts with less than 1,000

students (4 percent in 1993-94) (table A3).

The percentage of minority principals increased, however, as district size increased;

and in districts with 10,000 or more students,

29 percent of principals were minorities. Additionally, for 1993-94, in public schools with

less than 20 percent of students eligible to

receive free or reduced-price lunch, 7 percent

of the principals were minorities; and in

schools where 50 percent or more students

were eligible, 32 percent of principals were

minorities (table A5).

Overall, private schools employed a smaller

proportion of minority principals than did

public schools, as figure 4 illustrates. For

1993-94, approximately 8 percent of private

school principals were minorities. This percentage changed little between the 1987-88

and 1993-94 school years (table A1). Eight

11
percent of new private school principals (those

Figure 4.—Percentage of public and private school principals by race-ethnicity: 

 1993-94

Public Private

White non-Hispanic Black non-Hispanic

Hispanic Other

84.2%

10.1%

4.1%

1.6%

92.5% 4.2%

2.1%

1.2%

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

with less than three years as principals) were

minorities in 1993-94, which does not signal

any meaningful change (table A7).

As is the case with sex, comparing salaries

and benefits of principals by race-ethnicity

provides an indication of the extent to which

equity exists. Table 4 shows that, for public

schools in 1993-94, average salaries for minority principals ($56,956) were higher than those

for white principals ($54,466).2 For private

2

Higher average salaries for minority principals in

public schools are likely to be associated with higher

salaries in central city schools (table A9), where the

relative proportion of minority principals is highest

(table A4).

schools, salary differences between white and

minority principals were not significant (table

A8). In 1993-94, for both public and private

schools, white and minority principals did not

differ in regard to receiving medical insurance,

dental insurance, life insurance, or retirement

plans (table A10). This finding regarding benefits changed for public schools since 1987-88,

when white principals were more likely than

minority principals to receive medical

insurance, life insurance, and retirement plans.

Age

The average age of public school principals

rose slightly from school years 1987-88 (46.8

years) to 1993-94 (47.7 years), as did the average age of private school principals (45.4

years to 47.1 years) (table A1). For 1993-94,

the average age of private school principals

did not differ from public principals. Figure 5

highlights the age distribution by showing the

proportion of oldest and youngest public and

private principals for each school year. In

public schools, the percentage of principals in

12
the 55-and-over group changed little between

Table 4.—Public school principals’ average salary by race-ethnicity and highest

degree earned: 1993-94

Race-Ethnicity

Highest degree

Am. Ind./

AK Nat.

Asian/

Pac. Isl.

Black

nonHispanic

White

nonHispanic Hispanic

Total

minority

All degrees $51,117 $59,446 $57,699 $54,466 $55,862 $56,956

Master's 49,035 60,041 56,870 53,488 55,990 56,342

Ed. specialist/

prof. diploma

57,390 55,952 56,765 55,242 54,458 56,284

Doctorate — — 63,725 61,270 61,413 62,854

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaire).

1987-88 (18 percent) and 1993-94 (15 percent). Across those years, however, the percentage of principals in the under-40 group

dropped from 19 percent to 10 percent. In

private schools between 1987-88 and 1993-94,

the under-40 group also decreased from 30

percent to 22 percent, while the 55-and-over

group showed no significant change.

An examination of public school principals’

average age in 1993-94 in relation to school

and community variables finds few noteworthy

differences. The average age of principals,

however, did increase as district size increased. Thus for 1993-94, principals’ average

age was 46.3 years in districts of less than

1,000 students and 48.8 years in districts of

10,000 or more (table A3).

Not surprising, new public and private school

principals (those with fewer than three years

as principals) were younger than the average

principal (table A7). For 1993-94, new public

principals’ average age was 44.1 years, compared to 47.6 years for all public principals.

The average age for new public principals,

however, rose across the six-year period, from

41.6 years in 1987-88 to 44.1 years in 1993-

94. Looking at new public school principals

across age groups shows that the percentage of

new principals under age 35 dropped significantly between 1987-88 (13 percent) and

1993-94 (7 percent), as did the percentage in

the 35-39 group (from 27 percent to 15 percent). On the other hand, an increase occurred

in the 45-49 age group, which rose from 18

percent to 32 percent.

13
Figure 5.—Percentage of public and private school principals in the oldest and

 youngest age groups: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

< 40

55

< 40

55

Age Group Age Group

0 10 20 30 40 50

0 10 20 30 40 50

Percent

Percent

18.6

13.6

9.5

17.9

17.8

15.4

30.2

25.3

22.0

18.9

21.0

23.7

Public 

Private

>

>

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator

 Questionnaires), 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

14
Chapter3•Training and Educational

Experiences of Principals

Most states require public school principals

(and, in some states, private school principals)

to have training in educational administration

from state-approved programs, which often

leads to a master’s or other advanced degree

in educational administration. The approved

programs, however, have been criticized in

recent years (e.g., Hodgkinson, 1992;

Marshall, Rogers, & Steele, 1993; Smith &

Greene, 1990). Principals have been among the

harshest critics. For example, as Miller (1987)

has reported, principals have argued that their

specified academic preparation was inadequate

and unrelated to the realities of their jobs. In

fact, the most important element of training

identified by these individuals was unrelated to

the formal curriculum at all. As these current

principals pointed out, their teaching experience and their on-the-job experience as principals provided the best training (Miller, 1987).

The assistant principalship often serves as the

training and orientation for prospective principals. Unfortunately, this position usually

pulls administrators away from an orientation

to instruction and attunes them to political,

bureaucratic, and managerial functions

(Marshall, 1989, 1992; Greenfield, 1985;

Greenfield, Marshall, & Reed, 1986).

Proposed revisions to administrator preparation

programs have been frequent. Some researchers suggest that advanced degrees in curriculum and instruction (Smith & Greene, 1990) or

in a substantive area besides education be prerequisites for training in educational administration. The National Association of Elementary School Principals’ report, Principals

for the 21st Century, identified several building blocks for administrator training programs.

The group’s suggestions included less generic

preparation for administrators in favor of other

approaches that address the specific challenges

of principals in particular schools, replacement

of the existing principal internship with experiences that provide more practical job-related

activities, and additional training in effective

instructional and school practices (e.g., vision,

communication strategies, evaluation, and

instructional development).

This chapter examines the preparation of principals. Schools and Staffing Survey questions

related to this issue focus mainly on formal

education but also include items on internships, inservice training, and prior educational

experiences, which researchers have highlighted as important preparatory factors for

administrators. The data available through

SASS also allow examination of principals’

education levels, professional experiences,

academic disciplines, and training in relation

to various community, school, and demographic characteristics. Looking at changes

across the three survey years provides some

indication of the impact of reform initiatives

directed toward preparing principals as instructional experts and leaders. The chapter is

organized under three areas: education and

training, field of study for degree programs,

and prior experience in education.

Formal Education and Training

In 1993-94, almost two-thirds of public school

principals held master’s degrees as their highest degree and slightly over one-third were educated at a post-master’s level (i.e., education

specialist/professional diploma or doctorate).

15
Figure 6 displays the percentage of principals

Figure 6.—Percentage of public school principals by highest degree earned:

 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

0

25

50

75

100

2.4

53.4

35.1

8.9

1.8

60.5

28.2

9.4

1.4

63.4

25.8

9.3

Bachelor's Master's Ed. specialist/

prof. diploma Doctorate

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator

 Questionnaire), 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaire).

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding and because the figure does not

 include principals with less than a bachelor's degree (<1 percent).

at each education level for the three survey

years. As the graphic shows, the percentage of

principals in public schools with the master’s

as their highest degree increased from 53

percent in 1987-88 to 63 percent in 1993-94,

while the percentage of principals with doctorates remained essentially unchanged for those

two years. The increase in the percentage of

public school principals with master’s degrees

appears to be related to a decline in education

specialist degrees and professional diplomas.

The percentage of principals with those degrees, which require at least one year of training beyond the master’s degree, decreased

from 35 in 1987-88 to 26 in 1993-94.

One factor contributing to this change may be

the lack of financial rewards for post-master’s

training below the doctorate level. In 1993-94,

public school principals with education specialist degrees and professional diplomas

earned an average of $55,383 annually, which

was only slightly more than those with

master’s degrees, who averaged $53,959 (table

A8). The financial incentives associated with

16
earning a doctorate were higher, however, as

principals with doctorates earned an average of

$61,545.

The education levels of public school principals were similar for different community

and school types (table A11). Also, as shown

in figure 7, for 1993-94, public secondary and

elementary principals were nearly equally

likely to hold master’s degrees (63 percent

versus 64 percent) and doctorates (10 percent

versus 9 percent).

Differences are apparent between the education

level of public and private school principals in

1993-94, as figure 7 illustrates. At the elementary school principals held a bachelor’s as

their highest degree; 26 percent of private

elementary principals held a bachelor’s as their

highest degree. Additionally, approximately

one in three public elementary principals and

one in eight private elementary principals

completed education above the master’s level.

At the secondary level, the percentages of

public and private principals holding master’s

degrees and doctorates were comparable. For

example, in 1993-94, 63 percent of public

secondary principals and 67 percent of private

secondary principals held a master’s as their

highest degree, while 10 percent of public and

12 percent of private secondary principals held

doctorates. Differences are apparent, however,

in the percentage of principals who completed

an education specialist degree or held a professional diploma (25 percent for public and

14 percent for private).

Salary differences between public and private

school principals across education levels are

also apparent. In 1993-94, private school principals with doctorates earned an average

annual salary of $51,190, which was $10,355

less than comparable public school principals

(table A8). Those with master’s degrees averaged $34,789, or $19,170 less than their public

counterparts, and those with bachelor’s degrees

averaged $24,249 or $17,359 less.

Inservice Training in Administration

In 1993-94, 39 percent of public school principals indicated that, prior to becoming a principal, they had participated in a district or

school program for aspiring principals, 86 percent indicated that they had received in-service

training in evaluation and supervision, 75 percent had received training in management

techniques, and 41 percent had participated in

an administrative internship aside from course

work for a degree (table A13). For 1993-94,

the percentage of private school principals

who reported having had aspiring principals

training (38 percent) was approximately the

same as public principals. Private school principals, however, were less likely to report

training in evaluation and supervision (65 percent), training in management techniques (58

percent), and participation in an administrative

internship (22 percent).

For public schools in 1993-94, noteworthy

variations existed in the percentage of principals who participated in training when

viewed in relation to principal and school

characteristics (table A13). For example, for

1993-94, more female public principals than

male public principals reported having participated in a program for aspiring principals (45

percent versus 36 percent) and in an administrative internship (46 percent versus 39 percent). A contrast is also found for that same

year when comparing minority and white public school principal participation in aspiring

principals training (58 percent versus 35 percent). With regard to school characteristics, for

1993-94, public principals in central city and

urban fringe/large town communities were

more likely than principals in rural/small town

communities to have participated in an aspiring principals program (52 percent, 43 percent,

and 30 percent, respectively).

17
Figure 7.—Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree

 earned by school level: 1993-94

0

25

50

75

100

Elementary Secondary Total*

0

25

50

75

100

Elementary Secondary Total*

* Total includes combined schools.

Public

Private

Less than 

bachelor's Bachelor's Master's Ed. specialist/prof. diploma Doctorate

# Estimate is <0.05.

# 1.5

64.1

25.7

8.6

# 1.2

63.0

25.4

10.3

# 1.4

63.4

25.8

9.3

7.0

26.1

54.2

8.0

4.7 6.0

0.2

67.4

14.0

12.4

8.4

25.9

51.6

8.2 5.9

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools

 and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.

18
Field of Study

As figure 8 illustrates, for 1993-94, educational administration remained the predominant

field of study for public school principals.1 For

1

SASS provides information about principals' field of

study for each earned degree, including education specialist degrees and professional diplomas that represent

at least one year of post-master's study. Because most

principals hold more than one degree and may pursue a

different field of study for each degree, many principals

provided multiple responses to the field-of-study items

on the principal questionnaires. Thus the field of study

variable is most appropriately analyzed using a duplicated principal count that captures all fields of study

across all degrees held. Figure 8 and table A14 show

the percentage of public and private school principals

who pursued each listed field of study for one or more

of their degrees.

each of the school years 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94, approximately two-thirds of all

principals held a degree in that field. Many

principals also held degrees in elementary

education (39 percent in 1993-94). Overall,

few changes were apparent in public school

principals’ fields of study for the 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 school years (table

A14).

A number of differences can be found between

the educational backgrounds of male and

female public principals. For 1993-94, 71 percent of male principals and 58 percent of

female principals had degrees in educational

administration (table A14). Public female

principals were as likely to hold degrees in

elementary education (58 percent) as in educational administration, and a smaller percentage

of male (29 percent) than female principals

held elementary education degrees. For 1993-

94 in public schools, men were more likely

than women to hold degrees in physical education (14 percent versus 3 percent) and more

likely to hold degrees in social studies (10

percent versus 3 percent). On the other hand,

women were more likely than men to report a

degree in special education (11 percent versus

4 percent).

For 1993-94, private school principals were

considerably less likely than their public

counterparts to have academic backgrounds in

educational administration, with less than 30

percent reporting such degrees (figure 8).

Private female principals were more likely to

report degrees in elementary education (45

percent for 1993-94) than in educational

administration (27 percent); and, for 1993-94,

private male principals were as likely to have

backgrounds in subject area education (30

percent) as in educational administration (31

percent) (table A14).

Prior Experience in Education

Not surprising, nearly every principal was a

classroom teacher before becoming a principal.

Principals in private schools were less likely to

have teaching experience than those in public

schools, but the overall percentage of both

public (99 percent) and private (88 percent)

principals with teaching experience remained

high in 1993-94 (figure 9).

Across school years 1987-88, 1990-91, and

1993-94, athletic coaching remained a common experience for male principals (38 percent, 39 percent, and 38 percent in public

schools in 1993-94; 30 percent, 29 percent,

and 29 percent in private schools) and a relatively rare experience for women (4 percent, 4

percent, and 6 percent in public schools in

1993-94; 4 percent, 5 percent, and 4 percent in

private schools) (table A15). On the other

hand, female principals in public schools were

more likely to have experience as curriculum

specialists or coordinators compared to male

principals (30 percent versus 11 percent) as

were female principals in private schools (16

percent versus 10 percent) in 1993-94, the first

year that item appeared in SASS.

19
Figure 8.—Percentage of public and private school principals by field of study for

 bachelor's and higher degrees: 1993-94

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

Percent

Public

1.8

39.3

7.4

40.7

6.2

5.7

66.3

0.7

6.8

14.1

1.4

3.7

10.0

2.4

32.3

6.5

26.9

5.8

2.9

28.5

1.0

2.5

27.2

1.6

3.2

9.1

Social science

Natural science

Foreign language

General

Counseling and guidance

Educational psychology

Educational administration

Curriculum and instruction

Special education

Subject area education

Secondary

Elementary

Early childhood

Education Areas Noneducation 

Areas

Social science

Natural science

Foreign language

General

Counseling and guidance

Educational psychology

Educational administration

Curriculum and instruction

Special education

Subject area education

Secondary

Elementary

Early childhood

Education Areas Noneducation 

Areas

Private

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

Because most principals hold more than one degree and may pursue a different field of study for 

each degree, the figure reports multiple responses from principals with multiple fields of study.

NOTE:

20
Figure 9.—Percentage of public and private school principals with prior experience

 in teaching and other selected education roles: 1987-88, 1990-91,

 and 1993-94

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Teacher

Assistant principal or 

program director

Guidance counselor

Athletic coach

Teacher

Assistant principal or 

program director

Guidance counselor

Athletic coach

Public

Private

98.9

98.7

98.8

49.7

51.0

54.1

10.1

9.2

7.6

29.8

28.7

26.6

89.0

87.0

87.8

31.4

33.0

29.0

7.7

8.3

6.3

16.3

16.7

15.6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator

 Questionnaires), 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

21
Also of particular relevance in regard to experience are the number of years of teaching principals have prior to becoming principals and

the number of years they have been principals.

Overall, the average years of teaching is substantial and seems more than adequate to provide the hands-on instructional foundation

most observers believe principals should have

(figure 10). For public school principals, the

average years of experience as teachers increased slightly from 10 in 1987-88 to 11 in

1993-94, and the average years on the job as

principals decreased slightly over the six years

(from 10 to 9) (table A16). Private school

principals showed no changes overall between

1987-88 and 1993-94 in teaching experience,

but exhibited a slight increase in average years

as principals (from 8 to 9 years).

A focus on sex and race-ethnicity of principals

provides some interesting contrasts. Figure 10

shows that, in 1993-94, public female principals had more experience as teachers before

becoming principals than did males (13 versus

10 years). Similarly, private female principals

had more teaching experience than their male

colleagues (11 versus 8 years). Public female

principals in 1993-94 had been in that position

for fewer years than their male counterparts (6

versus 10). For public schools in 1993-94, a

difference was also apparent in white

principals’ average teaching experience (11

years) compared to minority principals in

general (12 years) and black principals in

particular (13 years) (table A16).

22
Figure 10.—Public and private school principals' average years of experience

 as teachers and principals: 1993-94

Public

Private

Male

Female

Teacher

Male

Female

Principal

Male

Female

Teacher

Male

Female

Principal

10.0

13.0

10.2

5.6

7.7

11.0

9.2

8.5

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Years of Experience

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Years of Experience

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

23
Chapter 4 • Principals’ Perceptions of

Problems in Their Schools

The number of problems facing school principals is almost infinite and varies by school

type, community, and area. Several studies

have enumerated some of the problems (see

e.g., Goldhammer et al., 1971; ERS, 1991); the

Gallup organization’s annual public opinion

survey of American education is perhaps the

best known. The 1992 edition of this Annual

Poll of the Public’s Attitudes Toward the

Public Schools (Elam, Rose, & Gallup, 1992)

identified the biggest problems facing local

schools as (1) use of drugs, (2) lack of

discipline, (3) lack of proper financial support

for education, and (4) overcrowding and too

large schools. Poor curriculum and standards,

the focus of much of the early reform activities, ranked a distant fifth place.

The Educational Research Service Educator

Opinion Poll poses similar questions to principals on a regular basis. The respondents in the

1991 study identified limited financial support

for education as the primary factor hindering

the schools (identified by 30 percent of the

responding principals). External threats to

education were the next most important elements, including inadequate interest and involvement on the part of parents in their

children’s education (22 percent) and poverty

(19 percent). In contrast to current conventional wisdom about American schools, school

safety and security issues (e.g., crime, vandalism, gangs) were not considered the most

important problems by most principals or the

general public.

The next decade will present new and difficult

challenges in addition to the current array

threatening today’s schools. The Schools and

Staffing Survey provides the opportunity to

examine principals’ perceptions of the most

serious problems facing their schools and to

compare these perceptions over time. This

analysis provides an indication of whether

problems vary by school and district characteristics and whether the problems facing

American schools are becoming more serious.

Serious Problems Identified

For each of the survey years, SASS asked principals to rate a list of potential problems as

either serious, moderate, minor, or not a problem in their school. The list of problems contained in the principal questionnaires varied

over the three years, with each subsequent

questionnaire adding or deleting items to

reflect more accurately current issues in

education. The 1987-88 instrument listed 13

items, and the 1990-91 instrument had 22

items. For 1993-94, the questionnaire added

four new items (students come to school unprepared to learn, poor nutrition, poor student

health, and student problems with the English

language) and excluded two items (physical

abuse of teachers and cultural conflict) to

create a 24-item list.

Table 5 presents, by school level for each of

the three years, the problems principals identified most frequently as serious problems in

their school and the percentage of principals

who selected each of those problems. The

table lists all the problems that were in the top

five for any of the three years. Public elementary school principals most often identified

poverty as a serious problem for the two years

it appeared in the survey (15 percent in 1990-

25
Table 5.—Percentage of public and private school principals selecting problems

as serious in their schools: 1987-88, 1990-91, 1993-94

Most frequently identified problems 1987-88 1990-90 1993-94

PUBLIC

Elementary

Poverty (a) 15.4 17.0

Lack of parent involvement (a) 11.9 10.2

Parent alcohol/drug abuse (a) 6.4 7.0

Student apathy (a) 4.7 5.6

Student absenteeism 3.6 3.6 2.4

Teacher absenteeism 1.6 1.1 0.8

Student tardiness 2.7 3.0 2.3

Physical conflicts among students 2.6 2.3 3.4

Vandalism of school property 0.8 1.0 1.4

Students come unprepared to learn (a) (a) 11.6

Secondary

Poverty (a) 11.5 13.3

Lack of parent involvement (a) 19.8 19.7

Student apathy (a) 13.7 14.7

Student absenteeism 15.3 14.3 11.6

Student tardiness 10.5 10.2 9.2

Student use of alcohol 11.7 14.0 13.3

Students come unprepared to learn (a) (a) 12.5

Student pregnancy 6.3 7.4 8.4

Student drug abuse 5.6 3.8 4.6

PRIVATE

Elementary

Poverty (a) 3.0 3.0

Lack of parent involvement (a) 1.1 1.9

Student apathy (a) 0.6 0.9

Teacher absenteeism 0.8 0.5 0.1

Students come unprepared to learn (a) (a) 1.3

Student tardiness 0.9 1.3 1.2

Student disrespect for teachers (a) 0.7 0.5

Secondary

Poverty (a) 2.4 6.3

Lack of parent involvement (a) 3.5 5.2

Parent alcohol/drug abuse (a) 2.9 8.6

Student absenteeism 5.0 1.7 2.3

Student tardiness 5.8 2.0 4.3

Student use of alcohol 5.3 4.1 11.6

Student drug abuse 3.7 1.8 7.1

Student disrespect for teachers (a) 2.1 3.2

(a) Item not included on SASS questionnaire that year.

NOTE: Principals were instructed to rate each problem as serious, moderate, minor, or not a problem in their

schools. The table lists the top five problems principals rated as serious for any of the three years.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing

Survey: 1987-88 (Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91 (Administrator Questionnaires), 1993-94 (Principal

Questionnaires).

26
91 and 17 percent in 1993-94). Twelve percent

of public elementary principals identified

students come to school unprepared to learn

as a serious problem, making it the second

most common problem for 1993-94, the only

year in which it appeared in the survey. Lack

of parent involvement was also identified as a

serious problem by more than 10 percent of

public elementary principals for 1990-91 and

1993-94, the two years it appeared.

For public secondary principals for 1990-91

and 1993-94, lack of parent involvement

ranked first on the list of problems facing

schools, with nearly one-fifth of principals

selecting it as a serious problem. Student

apathy (14 percent in 1990-91, 15 percent in

1993-94) and poverty (12 percent in 1990-91,

13 percent in 1993-94) were also identified

frequently for those two years by public

secondary principals. Among the items that

were on the questionnaires all three years,

public secondary principals selected student

use of alcohol (12 percent in 1987-88, 14

percent in 1990-91, 13 percent in 1993-94),

student absenteeism (15 percent, 14 percent,

12 percent), and student tardiness (10 percent,

10 percent, 9 percent) among the top problems

each of those years. Students come to school

unprepared to learn was also selected relatively frequently by public secondary principals for 1993-94 (12 percent).

Two problems involving serious misconduct

that were identified with low frequency by

public secondary school principals are worth

noting: verbal abuse of teachers and student

possession of weapons. Verbal abuse of teachers is noteworthy because the percentage of

secondary principals selecting it as a serious

problem tripled between the 1987-88 and

1993-94 school years, increasing from 1

percent in 1987-88 to 3 percent in 1993-94.

On the other hand, student possession of

weapons remained relatively infrequently cited

as a serious problem (1 percent in 1993-94).

Given the seriousness of this problem, however, it is notable that for 1993-94 one of

every one hundred secondary principals identified this item as a serious problem.

Private school principals were less likely than

their public counterparts to identify problems

in their schools as serious, but they did identify many of the same problems as their public

counterparts (table 5). As with the public

schools, private elementary principals selected

poverty (3 percent in 1993-94) and lack of

parent involvement (2 percent in 1993-94) with

the greatest frequency. They identified these

problems, however, at much lower rates than

their public school colleagues.

A notable exception to the lower frequency of

identification of serious problems for private

schools can be found in the ratings of three

alcohol and drug-related problems by secondary principals for 1993-94 (table A17). For

that year, 12 percent of private principals

identified student use of alcohol as a serious

problem in their school, 9 percent identified

parent alcohol/drug abuse, and 7 percent identified student drug abuse. Private secondary

principals selected those problems at percentages comparable to public secondary principals

(13 percent, 8 percent, and 5 percent). Private

secondary principals, like public principals,

also frequently selected poverty (6 percent in

1993-94) and lack of parent involvement (5

percent in 1993-94) as serious problems, but

they were less likely to select these problems

than their public counterparts.

Not surprising, serious problems identified by

principals varied by community type. For example, in public elementary schools for 1993-

94 (table A18), central city principals were

more likely to identify poverty (26 percent) as

a serious problem than were principals in

either rural/small town schools (16 percent) or

urban fringe/large town schools (11 percent).

Elementary principals in central cities were

27
also more likely to select students come to

school unprepared to learn (19 percent) and

lack of parent involvement (16 percent) as

serious problems than were their counterparts

in urban fringe/large town schools (8 percent,

7 percent) or rural/small town schools (10 percent, 9 percent).

At the secondary level for 1993-94, a pattern

of problem identification similar to elementary

schools emerged (table A19). As with elementary principals, public secondary principals in

central cities were more likely to identify

poverty (22 percent) as a serious problem than

were principals in either rural/small town

schools (13 percent) or urban fringe/large town

schools (8 percent). Central city secondary

principals were also more likely to select

students come to school unprepared to learn

(17 percent) and lack of parent involvement

(24 percent) as serious problems than were

their counterparts in urban fringe/large town

schools (9 percent, 16 percent). One frequently

identified problem, student alcohol use, was

more commonly identified as a serious problem by public secondary principals in rural/

small towns (16 percent) than those in urban

fringe/large towns (11 percent) or in central

cities (6 percent).

28
Chapter 5 • Principals’ Goals,

Influence, and Career Plans

This chapter focuses on three separate issues

that are important in understanding the principal’s place in the work environments of

school and district. The first of these, educational goals, provides insight into the extent to

which a principal has a sense of direction and

articulates that direction. The second, influence, relates to the important issue of the principal’s control over critical factors that affect

the school’s performance. The third, plans to

continue as a principal, reflects on job satisfaction, self-efficacy, and leadership continuity, all factors that affect a principal’s performance and effectiveness.

The articulation of goals for schools and, especially, the ability to mobilize resources to

obtain the goals are important attributes of the

effective school principal (Bookbinder, 1992).

The ability to identify both short- and longterm goals is one of the distinguishing elements between the “beacons of brilliance” and

“potholes of pestilence” described by Goldhammer and his colleagues’ (1971) study of

principals. Typically, goals are described as

the instructional leader’s “vision”; and effective school leaders are said to have distinct,

active, ambitious, and performance-oriented

visions. Leithwood and Montgomery (1982)

categorized the goals of effective principals in

terms of three basic orientations—toward students, teachers, and the larger school district—

with primacy assigned to “the achievement

and happiness of students” (p. 320). As Finn

(1987, p. 21) noted, effective school leaders

are “intellectually and emotionally committed

to meeting challenges, producing achievements, and uniting the school in shared dedication to excellence” through their goals.

“Producing achievements,” however, requires

that principals not only set meaningful goals,

but that they have the influence to mobilize

resources and make changes that will address

their goals. Global questions about school

effectiveness are essentially meaningless without further specification of the goals desired

and the approaches that can be used to

accomplish the goals. Thus, it is critical to

assess the goals of school administrators and

to have an understanding of the influence

school leaders have in areas critical to

accomplishing their goals.

Principals’ career plans have broad implications for policy makers and planners, as well

as great potential impact on day-to-day school

operations. Estimates of the magnitude of the

turnover vary, but most who have studied the

issue agree that over half of the nation’s

public school principals will depart in the

1990s (Miller, 1987; National Association for

Elementary School Principals, 1990; Doud,

1989). This numbers over 39,000 principals

who must be replaced by new, trained administrators. Examining school administration as

a career becomes important for understanding,

to the extent possible, the reasons for continuation or departure. This information may

be useful in reducing exiting and in improving

the chances that the best candidates are recruited, hired, and sustained.

The survey method limits the depth with

which the Schools and Staffing Survey can

address principals’ goals and influence, and

many questions of interest in these areas cannot be posed in a structured format. For

example, close-ended questions limit the

29
amount of detail that can be obtained about

specific local goals and limit the information

that can be obtained about principals’ influence directly in relation to achieving those

specific goals. The survey responses, however,

do provide some broad information about general goals principals view as important and

their perceptions of their influence in areas

related to these goals. Schools and Staffing

Survey provides more complete information

about principals’ plans for continuing their

careers as principals, which can be viewed in

relation to school and principal characteristics.

The following sections address these issues.

Principals’ Educational Goals

Schools and Staffing Survey asks principals to

choose the three educational goals they consider most important from a list of eight. The

lists for the public and private principal

questionnaires included the following seven

items:

• building basic literacy skills (reading, math,

writing, speaking);

• encouraging academic excellence;

• promoting occupational or vocational skills;

• promoting good work habits and self-discipline;

• promoting personal growth (self-esteem,

self-knowledge, etc.);

• promoting human relations skills; and

• promoting specific moral values.

The public principal questionnaire also included the following eighth item: promoting

multicultural awareness or understanding. For

private principals the eighth item was as

follows: fostering religious or spiritual

development.

Figure 11 shows, for 1993-94, the percentage

of public and private principals who rated each

educational goal as first, second, or third most

important. Public school principals most often

selected goals related to academic performance

or to personal development that supports academic performance. Specifically, 72 percent of

public school principals selected building basic

literacy skills as an important goal in their

school, 63 percent selected encouraging academic excellence, and 58 percent selected promoting good work habits and self-discipline.

Compared to those three goals, they selected

goals regarding vocational skills (15 percent),

moral values (6 percent), or multicultural

awareness (11 percent) less frequently.

One of the goals private school principals

most frequently selected as important for their

school in 1993-94, fostering religious or

spiritual development (61 percent), was not

included in the public school principal questionnaire. Otherwise, private principals’ pattern

of selection was similar to that of public

school principals. They, too, frequently

selected goals related to academic performance

(62 percent chose encouraging academic excellence, 46 percent chose building basic literacy skills), and they were even less likely than

their public counterparts to choose as top goals

those related to vocational skills (6 percent) or

human relations skills (12 percent). Additionally, private school principals were more likely

than public school principals to select promoting specific moral values as an important

goal (28 percent versus 6 percent).

For 1993-94, the goals selected by principals

varied by school level and community type

(table A24). For example, public elementary

principals were more likely than secondary

principals to choose building basic literacy

skills (75 percent versus 64 percent) and

promoting personal growth (53 percent versus

44 percent) as one of their top three goals.

Private elementary principals were also more

30
Figure 11.—Percentage of public and private school principals who rated specific

 educational goals as first, second, or third most important: 1993-94

Building basic 

literary skills

Encouraging academic 

excellence

Promoting occupational 

or vocational skills

Promoting good work habits

and self-discipline

Promoting personal 

growth

Promoting human 

relations skills

Promoting specific 

moral values

Promoting multicultural

awareness or understanding

Fostering religious or

spiritual development

Public Private

Percent

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

72.1

46.4

62.9

62.0

15.2

5.9

57.7

41.5

43.7

24.3

11.7

6.3

27.8

11.2

61.0

50.3

31
likely than their private school counterparts in

secondary schools to choose building basic

literacy skills (48 percent versus 30 percent) as

one of their top three goals. Public secondary

principals were more likely than elementary

principals to choose promoting occupational or

vocational skills (30 percent versus 9 percent).

Public school principals were more likely to

choose promoting multicultural awareness in

central city communities (17 percent) and in

urban fringe/large town communities (15 percent) than they were in rural/small town communities (6 percent). On the other hand, public

principals in rural/small town communities

were more likely to choose promoting occupational or vocational skills (19 percent) than

were their colleagues in central city communities (14 percent) or urban fringe/large

town communities (10 percent).

Principals’ Perception of Their Influence

Schools and Staffing Survey asked principals

to rate their influence in three important

activity areas: establishing curriculum, hiring

new teachers, and setting discipline policy.

The ratings were on a six-point scale where 1

represented no influence and 6 indicated a

great deal of influence.1 Figure 12 shows the

1

The 1993-94 questionnaires used a zero to five scale,

and these ratings were adjusted for this analysis to be

consistent with the one to six scale used in 1987-88 and

1990-91.

mean ratings of public and private principals

for 1993-94. Overall, principals reported they

had a great deal of influence in all areas, with

public school principals reporting less

influence in establishing curriculum (4.4) than

hiring new teachers (5.3) or setting discipline

policy (5.4). Compared to public school

principals, principals in private schools

reported more influence in establishing

curriculum (5.3 versus 4.4), hiring new teachers (5.6 versus 5.3), and setting discipline

policy (5.7 versus 5.4).

The high overall ratings by principals create a

ceiling effect that makes detection of trends

difficult. Nevertheless, comparing ratings for

1987-88 to those for 1993-94 provides some

evidence of an increase in public school principal influence in two areas (table A25). Compared to 1987-88, in 1993-94 public principals

reported greater influence over hiring new

teachers (5.3 versus 4.9) and setting discipline

policy (5.4 versus 5.1). Their ratings across the

two time periods yielded no difference in

establishing curriculum (4.4 for both years).

A review of the relationship between public

and private principals’ ratings of their

influence and their demographic characteristics

reveals that their ratings were about the same

regardless of characteristics such as sex, raceethnicity, and age (table A25). For example,

for 1993-94, public male principals’ average

rating of their influence in establishing curriculum was 4.4 compared to 4.5 for public

female principals, and private male principals’

average rating of their influence in setting

discipline policy was 5.6 compared to 5.8 for

private female principals.

Examination of community characteristics also

discloses mostly nonsignificant differences for

public or private principals across school level,

school size, and minority enrollment (table

A26). For example, for 1993-94, public elementary school principals’ average rating of

their influence in hiring new teachers was 5.3

compared to 5.4 for public secondary principals, and private elementary principals’

average rating of their influence in establishing

curriculum was 5.3 compared to 5.5 for private secondary principals. For public principals, however, for each of the years 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94, ratings of their influence in one area, establishing curriculum,

showed a significant inverse relationship to

district size (table A26). For 1993-94, for

example, principals’ mean ratings of their

influence in establishing curriculum were 4.7

32
in districts of less than 1,000 and 4.2 in

Figure 12.—Mean ratings of public and private school principals regarding their

 influence in specific areas: 1993-94

1

2

3

4

5

6

Establishing 

curriculum

Hiring new 

teachers

Setting discipline 

policy

Public Private

Ratings

NOTE: Principals were asked to rate their influence on each activity,

 on a one to six scale (none to a great deal).

4.4

5.3 5.4 5.3

5.6 5.7

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Principal Questionnaires).

districts of 10,000 or more.

Principals’ Career Plans

Schools and Staffing Survey questionnaires for

1990-91 and 1993-94 asked principals to

choose from five alternative responses to

indicate how long they planned to remain

principals. Figure 13 shows the percentage of

public and private principals who selected

each of the responses for 1990-91 and 1993-

94. As the graph illustrates, the majority of

public and private principals indicated plans to

remain as principals as long as they are able

or until retirement.

In 1993-94, nearly one-third of the principals

in public schools planned to remain as principals as long as they are able and 23 percent

planned to stay until retirement; while, among

private principals, more than half planned to

remain as long as able and 9 percent until retirement. Thus, private school principals in

1993-94 were more likely than public school

principals to report that they will remain

principals as long as they are able, but more

public school principals reported plans to

remain until eligible to retire. Combining these

two response categories shows that, in 1993-

94, 59 percent of private school principals and

55 percent of public school principals have

plans to stay as principals, although the length

of their intended tenure is not indicated. For

33
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Percent Percent

As long 

as able

Until 

eligible to 

retire

Unless 

something 

better 

comes 

along

Leave as 

soon as 

possible

Undecided

As long 

as able

Until 

eligible to 

retire

Unless 

something 

better 

comes 

along

Leave as 

soon as 

possible

Undecided

Public

Private

1990-91 1993-94

31.5

33.8

23.1

14.9 15.5

2.2 2.7

17.6

26.9

52.4 51.5

8.4 8.8 8.5 7.9

3.8 2.7

27.0 29.0

Figure 13.—Percentage of public and private school principals by plans to remain

 principals: 1990-91 and 1993-94

31.8

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and

 Staffing Survey: 1990-91 (Administrator Questionnaires), 1993-94 (Principal

 Questionnaires).

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.

34
the same year, relatively few public (less than

3 percent) or private (also less than 3 percent)

principals indicated plans to leave as soon as

possible.

A review of the relationship between public

and private principals’ plans to remain principals and selected school characteristics

indicates that principals’ plans in 1993-94

differed little across school level, minority

enrollment, school size, and community type

(table A27). For example, 32 percent of public

elementary principals plan to remain principals

as long as they are able, compared to 31 percent of public secondary principals. Rural/

small town public school principals reported

plans to remain principals as long as they are

able (30 percent) and plans to leave as soon as

possible (3 percent) at approximately the same

rates as urban fringe/large town principals (33

percent, 2 percent) and central city principals

(34 percent, 3 percent). Private school principals in schools of less than 150 students did

not differ in their rates of reporting plans to

remain principals as long as they are able (48

percent) or plans to leave as soon as possible

(2 percent) from private principals in schools

with 150 to 499 students (54 percent, 3 percent), schools with 500 to 749 students (46

percent, 3 percent), or schools with 750 or

more students (46 percent, 2 percent).

For public principals, plans also differed little

by sex, years of experience, or age (table

A28). For example, for 1993-94, public male

principals reported plans to remain as long as

they are able (32 percent) or until eligible to

retire (24 percent) at rates comparable to those

for public female principals (32 percent, 22

percent). Public male principals were more

likely than female principals (3 percent versus

2 percent) to report plans to leave as soon as

possible. Public male principals with fewer

than 3 years of experience as principals were

not significantly less likely to report plans to

stay until eligible to retire (20 percent) or to

leave as soon as possible (3 percent) than were

public male principals with 3 to 9 years of

experience (24 percent, 3 percent) or those

with 10 or more years of experience (26 percent, 4 percent). Similarly, public female principals with fewer than 3 years of experience

reported plans to remain principals until

eligible to retire (18 percent) and plans to

leave as soon as possible (1 percent) at rates

comparable to public female principals with 3

to 9 years of experience (22 percent, 2 percent) and those with 10 or more years of

experience (25 percent, 1 percent).

With regard to age, differences in plans for

public male principals are found when comparing the oldest age group to the other age

groups. Although public male principals 55

years and older are no more likely than

younger principals to report plans to remain as

long as they are able (36 percent), they are

less likely to report that they plan to stay until

eligible to retire (14 percent) than are their

colleagues in the 50-54 group (25 percent), 45-

49 group (31 percent), or 40-44 group (22 percent).2 The older male principals are more

2

This finding may result from principals already

“eligible to retire” selecting another response because

they have passed that point.

likely to report plans to leave as soon as

possible (6 percent) than their colleagues in

the 40-44 group (2 percent) and the under-35

group (1 percent). No corresponding differences with regard to age are found for

female principals.

35
Chapter 6 • Summary

Publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983 catalyzed widespread school improvement initiatives in the 1980s. State agencies and local

communities answered the call for reform by

enacting policies to tighten educational standards, strengthen professional certification

requirements, and increase accountability.

Concern with the effectiveness of American

schooling continued, ultimately resulting in a

second round of reform activities precipitated

in 1989 by the Governors Education Summit.

In the aftermath of that meeting, American

school reform was transformed into school

restructuring, a process that focused on reshaping the entire education enterprise. Throughout

this period of school reform, by virtue of their

roles as school managers and instructional

leaders accountable for school outcomes, principals have been both agents of change and

targets of change.

The National Center for Education Statistics’

Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) provides

descriptive information about public and private school principals in the 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 school years. The integrated

structure of SASS allows links between principal responses and contextual data collected

from teachers, schools, and districts. Thus,

SASS data are a window through which to

view the changing landscape of the American

public and private school principalship in the

reform environment of the late 1980s and

early 1990s.

This report includes information about principals’ sex, age, race-ethnicity, training, experience, salary and benefits, career plans, perceptions of the severity of school and schoolrelated problems, and perceptions of their

influence in establishing school policy. The

following paragraphs highlight some of the

findings.

Women and minorities are moving into more

leadership positions. The percentage of female

principals in public schools increased markedly, rising from 25 percent in the 1987-88

school year to 34 percent in 1993-94. In private schools, while there was no change during this period, the percentage of women principals remained higher than that in public

schools, averaging about 52 percent. The percentage of minority principals in public

schools rose from 13 percent in 1987-88 to 16

percent in 1993-94. In private schools, the

percentage remained at approximately 8 percent.

In 1993-94, average salaries for male and

female public school principals were similar

($54,922 for males, $54,736 for females),

while average salaries for minority principals

($56,956) were higher than those for white

principals ($54,466). White principals in

public schools in 1987-88 were more likely

than minority principals to receive medical

insurance, life insurance, and retirement plans;

by 1993-94, however, the percentages of white

and minority public school principals receiving

these benefits did not differ.

Salary differences between public and private

school principals were apparent. In 1993-94,

private school principals with doctorates

earned an average annual salary of $51,190,

which was $10,355 less than comparable public school principals. Those with master’s

degrees averaged $34,789, or $19,170 less

than their public counterparts, and those with

37
bachelor’s degrees averaged $24,249 or

$17,359 less.

Significant percentages of public school principals identified a number of problems in their

schools as serious. In public schools in the

1993-94 school year, poverty and lack of parent involvement were among the problems

most frequently identified as serious by

principals in elementary schools (17 percent

and 10 percent) and secondary schools (13

percent and 20 percent). In schools with

minority enrollment greater than 50 percent,

however, the percentage of principals identifying these problems as serious was considerably higher (38 percent and 21 percent in

elementary schools, and 36 percent and 39

percent in secondary schools) than in schools

with minority enrollment less than 20 percent

(9 percent and 5 percent in elementary

schools, and 7 percent and 14 percent in secondary schools. Other problems, while identified as serious by smaller percentages of

principals are, nonetheless, issues of concern.

Weapons possession, in particular, although

considered a serious problem by only 1 percent of public secondary principals in the

1993-94 school year, is extremely serious

whenever it occurs in schools.

The percentages of private school principals

identifying problems as serious in their schools

were generally smaller than those of public

school principals, with a few notable exceptions. Approximately 12 percent of private

secondary principals in the 1993-94 school

year cited student use of alcohol as a serious

problem, approximately 9 percent cited parental alcohol/drug abuse, and approximately 7

percent cited student drug abuse. Private

school principals cited each of these at rates

comparable to public secondary principals.

Many other principal characteristics and descriptors changed little or were unchanged from

the 1987-88 to the 1993-94 school year. For

example, in 1993-94, educational administration remained the most common field of

study for public school principals (66 percent

of public school principals held at least one of

their degrees in that field) and the second most

common for private school principals (28 percent), while elementary education remained the

second most common field for public school

principals (39 percent) and the most common

for private (32 percent). Athletic coaching

remained a common prior work experience for

male public school principals across school

years 1987-88, 1990-91, 1993-94 (38 percent,

39 percent, and 38 percent) and for male private school principals (30 percent, 29 percent,

29 percent) and a relatively rare experience for

women in either public (4 percent, 4 percent,

6 percent) or private (4 percent, 5 percent, 4

percent) schools.

The next administration of SASS, in the 1999-

2000 school year, will provide an opportunity

to obtain a portrait of the public and private

school principalship for that time period and to

examine changes in the principalship since the

1987-88 school year.

38
References

Andrews, R.L., & Basom, M.R. (1990). Instructional leadership: Are women principals better? Principal, 70(2), 38-40.

Behling, H.E., Jr., & Champion, R.H. (1984).

The principal as instructional leader.

Lutherville, MD: Instructional Improvement

Institute.

Bookbinder, R.M. (1992). The principal:

Leadership for the effective and productive

school. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Bossert, S.T., Dwyer, D., Rowan, B., & Lee,

G.V. (1982). The instructional management

role of the principal. Educational Administration Quarterly, 18(3), 34-64.

Choy, S.P., Henke, R.R., Alt, M.N., Medrich,

E.A., & Bobbitt, S.A. (1993). Schools and

Staffing in the United States: A Statistical

Profile, 1990-91. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

Cooper, L.A. (1989). The principal as instructional leader. Principal, 68(3), 13-16.

Doud, J.L. (1989). The K-8 principal in 1988.

Principal, 68(3), 6-12.

ERS (Educational Research Service). (1986).

Fringe benefits for administrators in public

schools, 1985-1986. Arlington, VA: Author.

ERS (Educational Research Service). (1991).

Educator opinion poll. Arlington, VA:

Author.

Elam, S.M., Rose, L.C., & Gallup, A.M.

(1992). The 24th annual Gallup/Phi Delta

Kappan poll of the public’s attitudes toward

the public schools. Phi Delta Kappan,

74(1), 41-53.

Finn, C.E., Jr. (1987). How to spot an effective principal. Principal, 67(1), 20-22.

Goldhammer, J., Becker, G., Withycombe, R.,

Doyle, F., Miller, E., Morgan, C., Deloreto,

L., & Alderidge, B. (1971). Elementary

principals and their schools—Beacons of

brilliance and potholes of pestilence.

Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, Center

for the Advanced Study of Educational

Administration.

Greenfield, W.D. (1985). Developing an instructional role for the assistant principal.

Education and Urban Society, 18(1), 85-92.

Greenfield, W., Marshall, C., & Reed, D.

(1986). Experience in the vice principalship:

Preparation for leading schools? American

Journal of Education, 24(1), 137-147.

Hallinger, P., Murphy, J., & Hausman, C.

(1992). Restructuring schools: Principals’

perceptions of fundamental educational

reform. Educational Administration

Quarterly, 28, 330-349.

Hammer, C., & Gerald, E. (1990). Selected

characteristics of public and private school

administrators (principals): 1987-1988.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Education.

Hammer, C.H., & Rohr, C.L. (1993). Teaching, administrative, and other work

experience of public school principals.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Education.

Heck, R.H., Larsen, T.J., & Marcoulides, G.A.

(1990). Instructional leadership and school

achievement: Validation of a causal model.

39
Educational Administration Quarterly, 26,

94-125.

Hodgkinson, H.L. (1992). A demographic look

at tomorrow. Washington, DC: Institute for

Educational Leadership, Center for Demographic Policy.

Illinois State Board of Education. (1985). The

education package of 1985. Springfield, IL:

Author.

Leithwood, K.A., & Montgomery, D.J. (1982).

The role of the elementary school principal

in program improvement. Review of

Research in Education, 52, 309-339.

Marshall, C. (1989). More than black face and

skirts: New leadership to confront major

dilemmas in education. Agenda, 1(4), 4-11.

Marshall, C. (1992). The assistant principal:

Leadership choices and challenges.

Newbury Park, CA: Corwin.

Marshall, C., Rogers, D., & Steele, J. (1993,

April). Caring as career: An alternative

model for educational administration. Paper

presented at the Annual Meeting of the

American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, GA.

Miklos, E. (1988). Administrator selection,

career patterns, succession, and socialization. In N.J. Boyan (Ed.), Handbook of

Research on Educational Administration

(pp. 53-76). New York: Longman.

Miller, E.A. (1987). A new balance: Reshaping the principalship. Trenton, NJ: New

Jersey Principals and Supervisors

Association.

National Education Goals Panel. (1993). The

1993 National Education Goals Report:

Building the Best. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

National Association of Elementary School

Principals. (1990). Over 50% of the principals in American will retire in the next

ten years. Principal, 70(4), 65.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The

imperative of educational reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office.

Pajak, E., & McAfee, L. (1992). The principal

as school leader, curriculum leader. National Association of Secondary School

Principals Bulletin, 76(547), 21-30.

Queen, J.A. (1989). What does it take to be an

effective principal? Principal, 68(3), 34-35.

Smith, D.C., & Greene, E.E. (1990). Preparing

tomorrow’s principals today. Principal,

70(1), 20-24.

Smith, W.F, & Andrews, R.L. (1989). Instructional leadership: How principals make a

difference. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development

Press.

Stronge, J.H. (1988). The elementary school

principalship: A position in transition?

Principal, 67(5), 32-33.

U.S. Department of Education. (1984). The

nation responds: Recent efforts to improve

education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Weinberg, M. (1977). A chance to learn: A

history of race and education in the U.S.

New York: Cambridge University Press.

40
A-1

Appendix A • Tables of Estimates 

Section Page

1 Public and Private School Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-3

2 Affiliation/Technology Tables for Private Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-49

3 State Tables for Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-55
A-3

Section 1 • Public and Private School

Tables
A-4

Table A1.—Number and percentage of public and private school principals, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94

All

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Principal characteristics Number Percent Number Percent Number PercentTotal 103,291 100 102,771 100 104,634 100Sex

Male 70,853 68.6 66,896 65.1 63,719 60.9Female 32,437 31.4 35,875 34.9 40,915 39.1

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 946 0.9 824 0.8 762 0.7Asian/Pacific Islander 637 0.6 670 0.7 787 0.8Black non-Hispanic 7,433 7.2 7,412 7.2 9,078 8.7White non-Hispanic 91,087 88.2 90,161 87.7 90,214 86.2Hispanic 3,186 3.1 3,704 3.6 3,793 3.6

Total minority 12,203 11.8 12,610 12.3 14,419 13.8Age

Under 35 6,291 6.1 4,950 4.8 4,194 4.035-39 15,909 15.4 11,786 11.5 8,850 8.540-44 23,252 22.5 25,932 25.2 22,004 21.045-49 21,074 20.4 22,644 22.0 30,290 28.950-54 17,982 17.4 18,372 17.9 21,132 20.255 or over 18,782 18.2 19,087 18.6 18,164 17.4

Average age 46.4 47.0 47.5
A-5

Table A1.—Number and percentage of public and private school principals, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 (continued)

Public Private

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Principal characteristics Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number PercentTotal 77,890 100 78,890 100 79,618 100 25,401 100 23,881 100 25,015 100Sex

Male 58,700 75.4 55,256 70.0 52,114 65.5 12,154 47.8 11,640 48.7 11,606 46.4Female 19,190 24.6 23,634 30.0 27,505 34.5 13,247 52.2 12,241 51.3 13,410 53.6

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 836 1.1 700 0.9 631 0.8 110 0.4 124 0.5 131 0.5Asian/Pacific Islander 391 0.5 529 0.7 620 0.8 246 1.0 140 0.6 168 0.7Black non-Hispanic 6,655 8.5 6,770 8.6 8,018 10.1 778 3.1 642 2.7 1,060 4.2White non-Hispanic 67,460 86.6 67,794 85.9 67,081 84.2 23,628 93.0 22,366 93.7 23,133 92.5Hispanic 3,548 3.3 3,097 3.9 3,269 4.1 639 2.5 607 2.5 524 2.1

Total minority 10,430 13.4 11,096 14.1 12,537 15.7 1,773 7.0 1,514 6.3 1,882 7.5Age

Under 35 3,376 4.3 2,490 3.2 1,831 2.3 2,916 11.5 2,460 10.3 2,364 9.435-39 11,160 14.3 8,205 10.4 5,708 7.2 4,749 18.7 3,581 15.0 3,142 12.640-44 17,855 22.9 20,730 26.2 17,289 21.7 5,396 21.2 5,201 21.8 4,715 18.845-49 16,528 21.2 18,319 23.2 25,396 31.9 4,546 17.9 4,325 18.1 4,894 19.650-54 14,989 19.2 15,079 19.1 17,160 21.6 2,993 11.8 3,293 13.8 3,971 15.955 or over 13,980 17.9 14,067 17.8 12,234 15.4 4,802 18.9 5,020 21.0 5,930 23.7

Average age 46.8 47.2 47.7 45.4 46.4 47.1NOTE: Details may not add to totals or 100 percent due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
A-6

Table A2.—Percentage of public and private school principals by geographic region, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Geographic region

Northeast Midwest South West

PUBLIC

Total number 13,854 13,705 13,469 22,465 23,124 23,144 25,890 25,838 26,308 15,680 16,223 16,698Sex

Male 76.7 72.8 68.6 79.4 74.0 71.2 73.6 68.6 62.8 71.4 64.4 59.1Female 23.3 27.2 31.4 20.6 26.0 28.8 26.4 31.4 37.2 28.6 35.6 40.9

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 1.4 0.1 0.3 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 1.3 0.9 1.8 1.0 1.2Asian/Pacific Islander 0.2 0.5 0.3 — — — 0.2 0.1 0.3 2.0 2.6 2.9Black non-Hispanic 5.5 4.3 8.2 5.4 6.6 8.3 15.9 15.5 15.5 3.7 3.9 5.4White non-Hispanic 91.3 93.3 89.7 92.8 91.8 89.9 79.6 78.9 78.9 85.1 82.5 80.5Hispanic 1.7 1.8 1.6 0.9 0.7 0.9 3.7 4.2 4.4 7.4 9.9 10.0

Total minority 8.7 6.7 10.3 7.2 8.2 10.1 20.4 21.1 21.1 14.9 17.5 19.5

Age

Under 35 2.9 0.9 0.8 6.1 4.8 3.6 3.9 2.8 2.0 3.8 3.3 2.135-39 12.5 6.4 4.9 15.7 11.6 8.9 14.9 11.5 7.7 13.1 10.3 5.940-44 20.7 27.9 21.6 21.9 25.1 21.5 24.8 27.8 22.3 23.2 24.1 21.245-49 21.7 23.8 33.5 20.1 23.3 30.4 21.3 22.6 32.8 22.2 23.6 31.350-54 20.1 21.9 23.1 18.6 18.0 19.7 19.3 18.0 21.8 19.3 20.1 22.555 or over 22.1 19.1 16.2 17.6 17.2 15.9 15.9 17.2 13.4 18.3 18.6 17.1

Average age 47.8 48.2 48.4 46.3 46.8 47.2 46.5 47.0 47.5 47.0 47.4 48.0
Table A2.—Percentage of public and private school principals by geographic region, by sex, race-ethnicity, and

age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Geographic region

Northeast Midwest South West

A-7

PRIVATE

Total number 6,299 5,272 5,966 7,644 7,462 7,302 6,995 6,115 6,777 4,463 5,031 4,971Sex

Male 39.9 39.8 39.5 54.4 53.6 51.5 49.0 50.3 50.4 46.0 49.0 41.7Female 60.1 60.2 60.5 45.6 46.4 48.5 51.0 49.7 49.6 54.0 51.0 58.3

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — — — — — — — — — — —Asian/Pacific Islander — — — — — — — — — — — —Black non-Hispanic 3.6 2.4 4.2 2.7 2.3 3.5 3.4 2.2 4.8 2.4 4.1 4.5White non-Hispanic 94.6 94.6 94.0 95.5 96.1 93.9 91.4 94.3 92.2 89.2 88.2 88.9Hispanic 1.3 1.8 1.4 1.2 0.9 2.2 4.6 3.2 1.6 3.2 4.8 3.5

Total minority 5.4 5.3 6.0 4.5 3.8 6.1 8.6 5.7 7.8 10.8 11.8 11.1

Age

Under 35 10.0 7.2 5.9 14.9 11.7 13.4 9.3 9.4 8.2 10.9 12.6 9.535-39 16.0 13.0 14.6 19.3 13.5 13.8 19.4 15.9 10.0 20.4 18.2 11.940-44 20.7 21.7 16.9 21.9 24.5 22.0 22.2 20.1 18.1 19.3 19.9 17.545-49 19.0 17.4 20.2 16.6 18.9 18.3 17.3 19.5 22.1 19.5 16.0 17.350-54 10.9 15.1 14.7 10.8 14.0 15.5 13.9 13.4 16.0 11.3 12.6 17.755 or over 23.3 25.6 27.6 16.4 17.5 17.0 17.9 21.7 25.5 18.6 20.7 26.3

Average age 46.3 48.0 48.0 44.3 45.6 45.3 45.7 46.5 48.0 45.3 45.5 47.5

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding or cell suppression.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
A-8

Table A3.—Percentage of public school principals by district size, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age of principals: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

District size

Less than 1,000 1,000-4,999 5,000-9,999 10,000 or more

Sex

Male 82.9 80.3 78.9 81.8 76.6 74.0 77.8 69.5 63.4 65.4 58.7 53.0Female 17.0 19.7 21.1 18.1 23.4 26.0 22.1 30.5 36.6 34.6 41.3 46.9

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 2.5 2.1 1.5 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6Asian/Pacific Islander 0.0 — 0.5 0.2 — 0.1 — 0.7 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8Black non-Hispanic 0.7 1.0 0.7 4.8 3.3 4.2 7.1 6.0 9.2 16.9 18.4 19.7White non-Hispanic 95.0 95.3 96.2 92.2 94.1 92.9 89.9 88.6 84.2 74.8 72.3 70.6Hispanic 1.7 1.6 1.1 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.4 3.9 4.8 6.0 7.2 7.3

Total minority 4.9 4.7 3.8 7.8 5.9 7.0 10.1 11.4 15.8 25.2 27.7 29.4Age

Under 35 6.7 7.8 5.7 5.4 2.8 2.3 3.0 2.4 2.0 2.6 1.6 0.935-39 17.7 14.0 10.9 15.4 10.6 8.0 15.0 9.5 5.8 11.1 8.7 4.640-44 26.2 26.6 23.8 23.4 29.5 24.8 22.7 25.4 21.6 20.7 23.6 18.645-49 18.8 21.6 28.6 20.5 23.1 31.1 22.0 25.4 34.7 22.3 23.1 32.850-54 15.6 14.3 16.7 18.9 18.9 20.5 19.8 20.7 20.0 21.6 21.4 25.455 or over 14.9 15.7 14.4 16.4 15.0 13.3 17.5 16.6 15.9 21.7 21.6 17.6Average age 45.3 45.7 46.3 46.3 46.7 47.1 46.8 47.5 47.7 48.0 48.3 48.8

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Teacher Demand andShortage Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public School Administrator and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public School Principal and TeacherDemand and Shortage Questionnaires).
A-9

Table A4.—Percentage of public school principals by community type, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1993-94Principal characteristics Central city Urban fringe/large town Rural/small town

Community type

Total number 19,027 21,700 38,891Sex

Male 52.6 59.2 75.2Female 47.4 40.8 24.8

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.6 0.5 1.0Asian/Pacific Islander 1.4 1.3 0.2Black non-Hispanic 24.3 8.8 3.8White non-Hispanic 65.4 84.9 93.1Hispanic 8.3 4.5 1.8

Total minority 34.6 15.1 6.9Age

Under 35 1.2 1.2 3.435-39 5.0 6.1 8.840-44 19.5 19.3 24.145-49 31.8 34.0 30.850-54 24.7 23.2 19.155 or over 17.7 16.2 13.8

Average age 48.6 48.2 46.9NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
A-10

Table A5.—Percentage of public school principals by percentage of free or reduced-price lunch recipients in their schools, by

sex, race-ethnicity, and age of principals: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Percentage of free or reduced-price lunch recipients in schools

Less than 20% 20-49% 50% or more

Sex

Male 79.5 74.9 69.0 76.4 70.7 68.3 66.1 62.7 59.5Female 20.5 25.1 31.0 23.6 29.3 31.7 33.8 37.3 40.5

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.5 1.9 1.5 1.1Asian/Pacific Islander 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.8 1.0Black non-Hispanic 3.8 2.6 4.2 5.8 5.6 6.3 22.2 21.5 21.0White non-Hispanic 93.4 94.4 92.6 90.6 90.6 89.7 67.0 66.6 67.9Hispanic 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.3 2.6 2.8 7.8 9.5 8.9

Total minority 6.6 5.5 7.4 9.4 9.4 10.3 33.0 33.3 32.1Age

Under 35 3.9 3.3 1.9 5.2 3.7 2.5 3.8 2.4 2.235-39 13.7 8.7 6.4 15.4 11.4 8.2 12.9 10.7 6.540-44 22.2 26.6 22.4 23.7 25.6 21.6 22.8 26.7 20.845-49 22.8 24.6 32.2 20.1 23.5 31.2 20.3 21.1 32.550-54 20.5 18.5 23.0 19.0 19.5 21.0 18.2 19.1 22.055 or over 16.9 18.2 13.9 16.6 16.1 15.5 22.0 20.0 15.9

Average age 46.9 47.4 47.7 46.3 46.9 47.4 47.4 47.6 47.9NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Public SchoolQuestionnaires), 1990-91 (Public School Administrator and School Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public School Principal and School Questionnaires).
A-11

Table A6.—Percentage of public and private school principals by school level, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94

School level

Elementary Secondary Combined

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94PUBLIC

Sex

Male 69.9 63.5 58.9 90.6 89.0 86.2 79.5 74.4 76.0Female 30.1 36.5 41.1 9.4 11.0 13.8 20.5 25.6 24.0

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.9 0.6 0.7 1.2 1.4 1.0 2.1 0.8 1.6Asian/Pacific Islander 0.5 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6Black non-Hispanic 9.2 9.1 10.8 6.6 6.6 7.3 7.1 7.5 6.3White non-Hispanic 85.8 85.1 83.0 88.9 88.9 88.2 89.7 88.7 89.1Hispanic 3.6 4.4 4.5 2.7 2.6 3.2 0.8 2.6 2.4

Total minority 14.2 14.9 17.0 11.0 11.1 11.8 10.3 11.3 10.9Age

Under 35 4.9 3.3 2.4 2.1 2.5 2.3 7.6 5.3 2.735-39 14.2 10.2 7.2 13.2 9.6 6.9 17.8 13.4 6.940-44 22.0 26.1 22.1 25.5 26.5 21.7 23.3 26.9 19.145-49 20.7 22.3 30.9 22.6 26.8 34.6 21.2 20.8 33.850-54 19.1 19.2 21.6 20.9 19.0 21.3 17.7 18.4 22.455 or over 19.2 18.9 16.0 15.7 15.6 13.2 12.5 15.2 15.1

Average age 46.9 47.4 47.7 46.9 47.1 47.4 45.1 46.2 47.8
Table A6.—Percentage of public and private school principals by school level, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School level

Elementary Secondary Combined

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

A-12

PRIVATE

Sex

Male 34.9 34.3 32.3 67.5 71.1 66.0 72.0 73.2 63.9Female 65.1 65.7 67.7 32.5 28.9 34.0 28.0 26.8 36.1

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — — — — — — — —Asian/Pacific Islander — — — — — — — — —Black non-Hispanic 3.2 2.9 5.0 1.4 1.7 1.5 2.9 2.2 1.9White non-Hispanic 93.1 93.8 91.1 89.7 94.3 96.1 93.9 94.8 95.1Hispanic 2.3 2.1 2.1 6.5 3.8 2.0 1.9 2.1 2.4

Total minority 6.9 6.2 8.9 10.3 5.7 3.9 6.1 5.2 4.9Age

Under 35 11.2 9.8 8.5 6.8 4.0 3.4 13.9 15.8 12.935-39 17.9 14.5 11.0 15.6 15.3 11.9 22.2 17.0 16.540-44 19.7 21.3 18.3 26.7 23.5 21.1 23.4 22.1 18.945-49 19.3 16.5 20.0 17.5 21.8 19.9 14.8 18.1 17.950-54 11.5 14.0 14.8 14.3 14.7 24.6 10.7 12.6 16.055 or over 20.5 24.0 27.4 19.1 20.6 19.1 15.0 14.3 17.8

Average age 45.8 47.0 48.0 46.3 47.4 47.9 43.9 44.2 45.3

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding or cell suppression.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
A-13

Table A7.—Percentage of public and private school principals with less than three years of experience as a principal, by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Public Private

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94Total number 14,680 16,617 18,165 6,156 6,064 6214Sex

Male 58.8 54.6 51.9 48.2 49.8 42.7Female 41.2 45.4 48.1 51.8 50.2 57.3

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.8 0.6 1.0 0.2 0.1 0.4Asian/Pacific Islander 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.1 1.2Black non-Hispanic 8.2 10.2 11.4 2.9 3.2 4.3White non-Hispanic 84.5 84.5 81.7 93.4 94.3 92.2Hispanic 5.7 3.8 5.4 2.9 2.4 1.8

Total minority 15.5 15.5 18.3 6.6 5.7 7.8Age

Under 35 13.3 9.4 6.9 19.7 23.9 24.935-39 26.7 20.5 15.1 28.5 21.8 17.840-44 28.7 34.7 29.0 20.4 23.3 26.245-49 18.2 20.7 31.7 14.1 12.4 15.050-54 8.7 10.8 12.6 9.5 9.6 8.855 or over 4.4 3.9 4.7 7.9 9.0 7.3

Average age 41.6 42.6 44.1 41.3 41.2 40.9NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
A-14

Table A8.—Average salary of public and private school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by highest degree earned and years of experience as a principal: 1993-94Principal characteristics principals principals minority Male Female AK Nat. Pac. Isl. non-Hispanic non-Hispanic Hispanic

Total

number of All Total Am. Ind./ Asian/ Black White

Sex Race-ethnicity

PUBLIC

All degrees

All 79,618 $54,857 $54,922 $54,736 $51,117 $59,446 $57,699 $54,466 $55,862 $56,956Fewer than 3 years 18,165 52,070 52,046 52,096 46,048 55,489 55,405 51,617 52,672 54,0863 to 9 years 32,885 54,712 54,197 55,432 48,822 59,732 58,252 54,075 56,542 57,58210 years or more 28,568 56,799 56,669 57,400 57,131 62,682 58,802 56,549 58,704 58,752

Less than bachelor's

All — — — — — — — — — —Fewer than 3 years — — — — — — — — — —3 to 9 years — — — — — — — — — —10 years or more — — — — — — — — — —

Bachelor's

All 1,140 41,608 44,907 38,112 — — — 40,103 — 52,356Fewer than 3 years 423 36,520 38,964 35,002 — — — 36,462 — 38,2183 to 9 years 491 44,924 49,605 37,823 — — — 42,803 — 52,53410 years or more 225 43,925 41,563 47,036 — — — 42,290 — 61,834

Master's

All 50,469 53,959 53,820 54,241 49,035 60,041 56,870 53,488 55,990 56,342Fewer than 3 years 11,965 51,331 51,043 51,675 45,798 57,053 54,737 50,689 53,486 53,8843 to 9 years 20,745 53,887 53,221 54,921 48,262 60,963 58,048 53,076 56,625 57,45710 years or more 17,758 55,812 55,560 57,056 52,684 61,216 56,979 55,639 58,447 57,120

Ed. spec./prof. dipl.

All 20,573 55,383 55,424 55,313 57,390 55,952 56,765 55,242 54,458 56,284Fewer than 3 years 4,574 54,166 54,524 53,818 47,832 45,806 55,667 54,226 49,368 53,8483 to 9 years 8,590 54,994 54,306 55,751 52,824 56,891 56,344 54,717 56,915 56,37810 years or more 7,408 56,586 56,574 56,639 66,076 56,680 59,248 56,371 54,835 58,947

Doctorate

All 7,430 61,545 62,694 59,535 — — 63,725 61,270 61,413 62,854Fewer than 3 years 1,203 56,920 58,224 55,998 — — 61,271 56,567 51,868 58,8753 to 9 years 3,051 61,099 61,669 60,316 — — 63,848 60,819 60,912 62,29010 years or more 3,176 63,726 64,333 61,621 — — 64,403 63,498 67,819 64,876
Table A8.—Average salary of public and private school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by highest degree earned and

years of experience as a principal: 1993-94 (continued)

Principal characteristics principals principals minority Male Female AK Nat. Pac. Isl. non-Hispanic non-Hispanic Hispanic

Total

number of All Total Am. Ind./ Asian/ Black White

Sex Race-ethnicity

A-15

PRIVATE

All degrees

All 25,015 $32,075 $35,597 $29,185 $31,632 $35,961 $34,383 $31,969 $31,350 $33,450Fewer than 3 years 6,214 27,063 28,514 26,024 — 39,168 36,574 26,385 28,476 34,8483 to 9 years 9,136 32,856 35,074 31,083 29,496 45,223 31,932 32,844 35,686 33,00210 years or more 9,665 34,673 40,160 29,625 34,267 32,266 37,049 34,794 29,257 32,761

Less than bachelor's

All 2,110 18,294 14,428 23,197 — — — 18,059 — —Fewer than 3 years 658 15,386 13,556 19,574 — — — 15,007 — —3 to 9 years 708 16,427 16,110 16,685 — — — 15,686 — —10 years or more 745 24,236 14,328 — — — — 24,205 — —

Bachelor's

All 6,480 24,249 26,180 22,982 — — 24,375 23,858 30,437 28,469Fewer than 3 years 2,298 19,462 21,989 18,088 — — 25,169 18,351 26,050 29,0503 to 9 years 2,488 25,945 24,496 26,987 — — 20,235 25,987 33,942 25,56710 years or more 1,694 29,059 33,768 25,487 — — 46,874 28,734 — 38,481

Master's

All 12,900 34,789 39,029 31,432 — — 37,070 34,750 35,191 35,348Fewer than 3 years 2,745 33,998 35,780 32,869 — — 37,261 33,732 39,727 37,0773 to 9 years 4,570 35,396 38,001 33,324 — — 40,088 35,236 39,394 37,89410 years or more 5,585 34,675 41,126 29,024 — — 33,709 34,834 31,447 32,369

Ed. spec./prof. dipl.

All 2,049 35,113 40,947 31,449 — — — 35,207 — —Fewer than 3 years 314 31,513 35,962 28,737 — — — 31,513 — —3 to 9 years 892 36,986 42,005 34,389 — — — 36,323 — —10 years or more 842 34,382 41,699 28,703 — — — 35,490 — —

Doctorate

All 1,476 51,190 52,759 47,236 — — — 51,252 — —Fewer than 3 years 198 49,592 51,995 43,662 — — — 44,732 — —3 to 9 years 479 50,652 51,747 47,023 — — — 50,871 — —10 years or more 799 51,918 53,647 48,156 — — — 53,173 — —

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Because of rounding, details may not add to totals.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public and Private School PrincipalQuestionnaires).
A-16

Table A9.—Average salary of public and private school principals, by school level and community type: 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94

All Public Private

School characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94School level

Elementary $36,251 $44,341 $49,337 $40,881 $48,829 $54,161 $19,427 $25,106 $28,779Secondary 42,984 50,634 55,204 44,562 51,999 56,601 28,736 38,134 43,683Combined 31,960 38,135 39,732 38,492 46,455 52,825 26,573 31,816 33,634

Community type

Central city 38,077 46,148 50,436 44,741 53,253 58,023 23,248 29,683 34,357Urban fringe/large town 39,987 49,716 54,745 46,248 56,304 61,810 22,717 29,431 35,186Rural 34,876 41,839 46,000 37,271 44,272 49,430 18,999 24,604 25,017

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Public SchoolQuestionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator and Public and Private School Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal andPublic and Private School Questionnaires).
See footnote at end of table.

A-17

Table A10.—Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received, by community type, school level, sex, and

race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal/school characteristics insurance insurance insurance plan benefits insurance insurance insurance plan benefits

1987-88 1990-91

Benefits Benefits

Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind

1 1

PUBLIC Total 86.0 60.9 67.0 58.4 41.1 86.1 63.7 67.9 60.9 44.5Sex

Male 86.6 60.3 67.1 59.0 41.9 86.1 62.3 67.5 61.8 45.5Female 83.8 62.5 66.8 56.5 38.5 86.2 66.9 68.8 58.7 42.2

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 85.1 64.8 65.4 65.0 41.5 63.6 55.7 62.3 53.7 38.9Asian/Pacific Islander 77.0 62.6 56.7 62.9 41.2 93.6 88.5 80.2 73.1 32.4Black non-Hispanic 76.7 57.9 67.2 55.6 26.8 78.1 66.8 71.2 59.3 29.6White non-Hispanic 86.9 61.2 67.6 59.2 42.7 87.1 63.0 67.6 61.2 46.4Hispanic 85.4 58.7 53.5 42.0 35.0 87.2 69.8 66.2 57.9 39.7

Total minority 79.5 58.9 63.3 53.4 30.5 80.5 68.0 69.7 59.2 33.1Community type

Central city 89.5 69.9 75.6 64.3 37.0 87.3 71.7 75.6 66.8 38.0Urban fringe/large town 89.3 72.1 75.0 63.3 45.3 91.0 77.4 78.4 67.7 50.0Rural/small town 81.9 48.8 57.2 52.0 41.0 83.0 52.7 58.8 54.6 44.7

School level

Elementary 86.1 61.6 68.3 58.0 40.2 86.8 64.8 69.2 61.8 43.6Secondary 86.4 60.9 65.6 60.0 42.6 85.3 62.0 65.9 58.8 47.0Combined 82.5 51.5 57.5 56.6 45.7 78.3 52.5 58.4 56.3 46.3
Table A10.—Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received, by community type, school level, sex, and

race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

See footnote at end of table.

A-18

Principal/school characteristics insurance insurance insurance plan benefits

1993-94

Benefits

Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind

1

PUBLIC Total 91.8 66.1 70.7 70.4 46.2Sex

Male 92.3 64.6 70.6 71.1 47.7Female 90.7 69.1 70.7 69.2 43.6

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 79.3 51.9 60.7 57.1 49.0Asian/Pacific Islander 97.7 90.8 84.7 73.6 39.0Black non-Hispanic 88.6 71.6 71.3 74.8 34.7White non-Hispanic 92.1 65.1 70.5 70.0 48.4Hispanic 94.6 71.6 71.1 69.8 31.8

Total minority 90.1 71.5 71.4 72.5 34.9Community type

Central city 94.2 73.2 76.0 75.9 37.8Urban fringe/large town 95.4 81.2 80.3 76.6 48.8Rural/small town 88.7 54.3 62.6 64.3 49.1

School level

Elementary 92.3 67.0 72.0 70.9 44.7Secondary 90.6 63.3 68.3 68.5 49.1Combined 87.0 56.7 62.6 66.8 48.5
Table A10.—Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received, by community type, school level, sex, and

race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

See footnote at end of table.

A-19

Principal/school characteristics insurance insurance insurance plan benefits insurance insurance insurance plan benefits

1987-88 1990-91

Benefits Benefits

Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind

1 1

PRIVATE Total 68.5 32.5 33.6 41.8 64.3 65.3 32.3 34.5 43.8 60.2Sex

Male 72.1 35.9 40.7 45.1 62.3 67.5 33.6 37.0 46.7 63.2Female 65.2 29.3 27.0 38.8 62.5 63.2 31.0 32.1 41.1 57.3

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — — — — — — — — —Asian/Pacific Islander — — — — — — — — — —Black non-Hispanic 50.8 37.4 28.1 25.0 47.8 39.6 29.5 24.3 33.8 49.4White non-Hispanic 69.0 32.5 34.1 42.9 65.6 65.7 31.9 35.0 44.3 60.4Hispanic 76.1 28.9 29.1 33.9 45.4 80.5 45.9 37.7 40.5 61.4

Total minority 63.4 33.2 27.0 28.1 48.9 59.1 37.7 27.4 36.1 56.2Community type

Central city 70.3 34.7 37.5 43.4 59.6 72.1 37.4 39.2 49.6 59.7Urban fringe/large town 71.8 36.6 34.6 45.0 67.6 69.1 35.9 38.6 46.9 63.4Rural/small town 61.6 24.0 25.9 35.5 68.5 52.2 21.7 24.2 33.0 57.3

School level

Elementary 69.4 33.8 31.1 45.9 63.6 66.4 33.4 32.4 47.3 57.6Secondary 82.2 42.7 44.4 50.0 66.9 86.3 49.2 50.8 62.4 70.1Combined 61.8 26.1 35.6 29.8 65.2 56.6 23.9 34.2 29.9 64.3
Table A10.—Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received, by community type, school level, sex, and

race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

A-20

Principal/school characteristics insurance insurance insurance plan benefits

1993-94

Benefits

Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind

1

PRIVATE Total 64.0 35.0 35.2 46.3 55.1Sex

Male 65.0 35.4 37.4 46.4 58.8Female 63.2 34.5 33.3 46.3 52.0

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 60.4 21.4 57.2 32.7 36.9Asian/Pacific Islander 54.9 42.2 25.4 34.1 54.9Black non-Hispanic 51.6 38.9 23.7 32.9 43.6White non-Hispanic 64.3 34.3 35.3 47.1 55.4Hispanic 81.3 55.6 52.7 46.8 70.1

Total minority 60.7 42.6 34.3 36.9 51.5Community type

Central city 67.5 36.1 37.3 49.1 53.4Urban fringe/large town 71.7 42.1 39.9 48.6 56.1Rural/small town 49.6 24.4 26.6 39.6 56.4

School level

Elementary 66.9 36.6 34.3 52.0 51.4Secondary 85.2 58.0 55.2 68.3 65.3Combined 50.8 24.0 30.5 28.7 58.5

In-kind benefits include housing, meals, tuition, and transportation. 1

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Public and PrivateSchool Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator and School Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
A-21

Table A11.—Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by school level, school size, minority

enrollment, free-lunch recipients, district size, and community type: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

School characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

1987-1988

School level

Elementary 0.1 2.6 54.3 34.4 8.6 3.4 26.3 52.2 13.2 4.9Secondary 0.1 1.2 51.0 37.8 9.9 0.4 12.3 62.6 15.9 8.7Combined 0.0 5.5 51.3 35.3 8.0 10.0 28.1 44.0 9.1 8.8

School size

Less than 150 — 12.5 54.5 24.8 7.8 8.7 38.0 41.0 6.6 5.7150-499 — 1.7 55.1 36.2 7.0 1.3 14.8 60.7 17.1 6.2500-749 — 0.9 52.8 36.6 9.6 — 2.6 63.3 23.0 10.8750 or more 0.2 0.4 48.2 37.3 13.9 — 5.4 58.3 21.8 13.9

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.1 2.8 53.6 35.6 7.8 6.1 26.3 50.3 11.0 6.320-50% 0.0 2.3 53.5 35.1 9.1 2.7 25.0 49.8 14.6 7.8More than 50% — 1.3 52.3 34.6 11.7 1.2 21.5 55.4 16.6 5.3

Free-lunch recipients

Less than 20% 0.1 2.1 52.7 35.1 9.9 5.6 26.1 50.0 11.8 6.520-49% — 2.5 54.5 35.1 9.8 0.5 18.4 63.2 15.9 2.050% or more 0.2 2.8 52.5 35.8 8.6 3.0 18.7 55.1 15.1 8.1

District size

Less than 1,000 — 6.9 55.0 32.5 5.4 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)1,000-4,999 — 2.4 52.6 37.0 7.9 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)5,000-9,999 — 1.5 54.5 35.8 8.1 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)10,000 or more — 0.8 54.0 32.9 12.2 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)

Community type

Central city — 1.1 55.7 32.1 11.2 3.5 22.9 52.2 13.6 7.9Urban fringe/large town — 0.7 53.0 34.1 12.1 3.3 21.4 54.6 14.1 6.5Rural/small town 0.2 4.2 52.1 37.9 5.6 9.3 34.6 44.5 7.9 3.7
Table A11.—Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by school level, school size, minority

enrollment, free-lunch recipients, district size, and community type: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

See footnote at end of table.

A-22

1990-1991

School level

Elementary 0.0 1.8 60.7 28.6 8.9 7.2 27.2 50.6 11.5 3.6Secondary — 1.5 61.2 26.9 10.3 — 8.9 57.9 17.9 14.9Combined — 2.9 56.6 29.5 10.4 10.3 35.8 35.7 7.7 10.5

School size

Less than 150 — 8.4 63.9 20.1 7.4 13.9 40.4 32.3 7.9 5.5150-499 — 1.2 61.5 29.6 7.8 0.5 16.1 62.8 13.9 6.7500-749 0.0 0.7 58.8 30.6 9.8 — 4.7 64.3 20.0 10.6750 or more 0.0 0.7 58.3 26.5 14.5 0.0 2.5 62.7 13.9 20.8

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% — 2.4 60.2 28.8 8.6 9.0 27.5 47.7 10.5 5.420-50% — 0.9 61.5 28.1 9.4 4.2 28.0 45.8 14.0 8.0More than 50% 0.0 1.3 60.8 26.7 11.2 3.2 27.5 47.8 10.5 11.0

Free-lunch recipients

Less than 20% — 1.4 59.8 26.7 12.1 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a)20-49% — 22.0 61.6 29.5 6.7 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a)50% or more — 1.6 60.6 28.5 9.3 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a)

District size

Less than 1,000 — 5.9 61.9 25.5 6.6 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)1,000-4,999 — 1.4 59.9 31.6 7.1 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)5,000-9,999 0.0 — 59.7 29.5 10.7 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)10,000 or more 0.0 0.8 60.7 26.1 12.4 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)

Community type

Central city — 0.5 60.3 26.0 13.1 3.4 22.7 53.4 12.6 7.9Urban fringe/large town 0.0 1.1 60.6 27.1 11.1 4.8 25.1 49.0 13.3 7.9Rural/small town — 2.7 60.7 29.8 6.7 15.1 36.6 38.0 6.8 3.5
Table A11.—Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by school level, school size, minority

enrollment, free-lunch recipients, district size, and community type: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

A-23

1993-1994

School level

Elementary — 1.5 64.1 25.7 8.6 7.0 26.1 54.2 8.0 4.7Secondary 0.0 1.2 63.0 25.4 10.3 — 6.0 67.4 14.0 12.4Combined 0.0 2.6 60.2 27.8 9.4 14.3 29.4 44.2 6.6 5.4

School size

Less than 150 0.0 7.9 67.5 18.9 5.7 14.9 34.8 37.9 7.2 5.2150-499 — 0.8 64.7 26.4 8.0 1.4 15.1 68.4 9.4 5.7500-749 0.0 0.4 61.8 29.0 8.9 0.7 11.4 71.0 8.1 8.8750 or more 0.0 0.6 61.6 23.7 14.0 — 4.2 71.1 9.5 13.3

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.0 1.7 63.2 26.9 8.2 9.8 26.3 50.8 7.4 5.720-50% 0.0 1.3 63.0 25.5 10.2 7.8 21.5 56.8 8.2 5.7More than 50% — 1.0 65.8 23.2 10.0 3.9 23.1 55.6 11.6 5.7

Free-lunch recipients

Less than 20% 0.0 0.6 62.1 25.4 11.9 0.0 13.6 73.3 7.6 5.520-49% 0.0 1.8 64.2 26.4 7.5 4.0 19.1 67.6 8.0 1.350% or more — 1.4 64.9 26.0 7.7 1.5 31.6 51.8 9.0 6.0

District size

Less than 1,000 — 4.2 68.1 22.6 5.2 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)1,000-4,999 0.0 1.1 64.1 27.1 7.7 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)5,000-9,999 0.0 2.0 62.7 25.9 9.4 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)10,000 or more 0.0 0.2 61.7 26.2 11.8 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)

Community type

Central city 0.0 0.5 64.8 23.1 11.5 5.4 19.3 59.2 10.1 6.0Urban fringe/large town 0.0 1.1 62.1 24.0 12.7 8.4 25.0 50.0 8.8 7.8Rural/small town — 2.1 64.1 27.9 5.9 12.9 32.9 46.5 4.8 2.9

(a) Item not included on SASS instrument that year.(*) Item not applicable to private school principals.—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding or cell suppression.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator, Public School, andTeacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand and ShortageQuestionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
A-24

Table A12.—Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by race-ethnicity and sex: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s Prof. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s Prof. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

1987-88

Total 0.1 2.4 53.4 35.1 8.9 4.7 25.7 51.0 12.2 6.4Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — 50.8 35.2 12.9 — — 78.1 — —Asian/Pacific Islander — 2.3 51.5 34.1 12.1 — 31.5 38.0 8.7 12.6Black non-Hispanic — — 51.1 37.2 11.5 — 23.0 55.7 8.7 12.3White non-Hispanic — 2.6 53.6 35.1 8.5 4.8 25.5 50.9 12.5 6.2Hispanic — 4.3 54.5 30.4 10.8 — 35.8 51.4 — 2.1

Sex

Male — 1.9 55.6 34.3 8.2 5.2 26.2 49.6 9.8 9.2Female — 4.1 46.5 37.8 11.3 4.3 25.2 52.3 14.4 3.8

1990-91

Total — 1.8 60.5 28.2 9.4 7.4 26.9 47.4 11.5 6.8Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — 52.8 28.0 13.2 — — 56.9 — —Asian/Pacific Islander — 7.1 64.8 20.6 7.5 — 23.7 29.1 12.6 31.9Black non-Hispanic — — 57.8 27.4 13.9 14.0 24.0 44.1 4.7 13.2White non-Hispanic — 1.7 60.5 28.6 9.1 7.2 26.6 47.9 11.7 6.6Hispanic — 4.1 67.5 21.6 6.4 2.8 44.8 36.0 12.8 3.5

Sex

Male — 1.5 62.5 27.5 8.4 10.0 28.0 42.9 9.2 9.8Female — 2.5 55.8 29.8 11.8 4.8 25.9 51.7 13.7 3.9
Table A12.—Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by race-ethnicity and sex: 1987-88,

1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Principal characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s Prof. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s Prof. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

A-25

1993-94

Total — 1.4 63.4 25.8 9.3 8.4 25.9 51.6 8.2 5.9Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — 1.1 65.8 24.8 8.2 0.0 42.5 52.4 — —Asian/Pacific Islander — 6.7 50.9 25.4 17.0 — 22.9 50.5 — 4.5Black non-Hispanic — — 64.3 23.7 11.9 14.3 26.5 43.6 11.0 4.6White non-Hispanic — 1.5 62.8 26.5 9.2 8.4 25.6 52.1 8.1 5.8Hispanic — 2.7 74.5 17.3 5.5 — 34.5 44.0 9.2 12.1

Sex

Male — 1.1 65.0 24.7 9.1 11.3 23.1 49.6 6.8 9.2Female — 2.0 60.2 27.9 9.8 6.0 28.3 53.3 9.4 3.0

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding or cell suppression.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
See footnote at end of table.

A-26

Table A13.—Percentage of public and private school principals participating in training or development programs, by region,

community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Training or development program

Program for Training in evaluation Training in Administrative

aspiring principals and supervision management techniques internship

Principal/school characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94PUBLIC

 Total (a) 35.7 38.9 89.2 87.4 86.5 73.2 74.3 74.7 36.6 37.6 41.2Sex

Male (a) 33.2 35.6 89.4 88.0 86.8 73.3 74.5 75.6 34.7 34.2 38.9Female (a) 41.8 45.1 88.9 86.0 85.8 72.9 73.8 73.0 42.3 45.4 45.6

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native (a) 44.8 41.2 90.8 93.6 83.8 70.4 78.7 83.1 48.7 35.6 49.4Asian/Pacific Islander (a) 50.7 67.6 91.3 95.4 92.7 83.1 90.1 80.5 67.7 52.3 49.0Black non-Hispanic (a) 56.8 58.0 89.8 89.0 88.2 80.2 81.1 79.4 42.3 44.0 45.1White non-Hispanic (a) 33.0 35.4 89.0 86.9 86.0 72.0 73.1 73.8 35.0 36.2 40.0Hispanic (a) 45.0 57.6 93.4 92.0 90.3 84.9 83.2 78.8 54.0 50.2 52.1

Total minority (a) 52.4 57.5 90.8 90.4 88.7 80.6 82.0 79.5 46.6 45.6 47.3Community type

Central city (a) 44.2 51.7 89.0 89.2 89.2 77.4 80.0 78.9 40.5 39.1 43.2Urban fringe/large town (a) 41.6 43.0 91.2 86.4 86.2 76.6 75.0 76.1 34.9 40.5 42.8Rural/small town (a) 28.8 30.3 88.2 87.1 85.2 68.6 71.4 71.9 35.2 35.3 39.3

School level

Elementary (a) 36.8 39.4 89.3 87.1 86.7 73.0 73.9 74.3 36.1 37.0 41.3Secondary (a) 33.5 36.5 89.3 88.3 86.6 74.9 75.0 75.0 37.2 38.6 40.8Combined (a) 31.3 40.0 88.2 87.9 85.7 67.9 76.5 74.7 39.6 39.2 47.0
Table A13.—Percentage of public and private school principals participating in training or development programs, by region,

community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Training or development program

Program for Training in evaluation Training in Administrative

aspiring principals and supervision management techniques internship

Principal/school characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

A-27

PRIVATE

 Total (a) 40.0 38.5 68.6 64.7 64.7 56.3 53.7 57.6 23.6 20.7 22.0Sex

Male (a) 37.8 35.3 64.8 62.0 62.8 56.2 51.8 56.3 19.9 16.6 18.4Female (a) 41.9 41.3 72.2 67.4 66.2 56.5 55.6 58.8 27.1 24.5 25.1

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native (a) 31.5 70.7 73.6 75.4 78.6 36.7 71.3 78.6 12.1 24.8 53.7Asian/Pacific Islander (a) 18.4 53.7 72.3 57.3 65.3 73.1 71.2 79.0 35.1 0.0 35.0Black non-Hispanic (a) 59.7 49.3 71.0 52.1 76.3 66.5 46.5 73.7 24.8 32.1 33.5White non-Hispanic (a) 39.6 37.4 68.9 64.6 64.0 55.9 53.5 56.1 23.4 20.1 20.8Hispanic (a) 37.6 57.7 53.0 82.8 67.2 55.7 63.0 79.4 28.6 34.2 40.2

Total minority (a) 45.1 51.9 64.7 66.4 73.0 61.4 57.2 76.1 26.8 29.4 36.9Community type

Central city (a) 41.4 39.6 68.2 68.4 68.6 55.5 58.0 62.5 24.5 23.9 25.1Urban fringe/large town (a) 39.9 40.5 73.0 65.3 65.7 57.3 51.9 59.0 26.2 21.7 22.8Rural/small town (a) 38.0 34.6 64.0 59.4 57.9 56.5 50.3 49.1 19.0 15.4 16.6

School level

Elementary (a) 37.8 41.6 69.6 64.5 66.2 53.3 52.8 57.6 25.6 21.4 24.1Secondary (a) 43.8 33.4 67.6 62.6 68.3 54.9 57.2 62.1 25.4 22.3 20.6Combined (a) 43.4 33.5 66.7 66.1 60.0 63.6 54.6 53.6 18.4 18.3 16.0

(a) Item not included on SASS instrument that year.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Public and PrivateSchool Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator and School Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
A-28

Table A14.—Percentage of public and private school principals by sex, by field of study for bachelor's and higher degrees

earned: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Field of study

All

Sex

Male Female

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

PUBLIC

Education areas

Early childhood 0.9 1.3 1.8 0.3 0.3 0.6 2.8 3.6 3.9Elementary 40.8 39.6 39.3 33.6 30.4 29.3 62.8 61.2 58.1Secondary 9.4 7.3 7.4 11.3 8.9 9.2 3.5 3.6 4.0Subject area education

English 2.6 3.6 3.1 2.1 2.9 2.5 4.0 5.0 4.2Industrial arts 2.3 1.8 1.7 3.0 2.6 2.6 0.2 0.1 0.1Mathematics 1.7 2.6 2.3 2.0 3.3 3.0 0.5 0.9 0.8Physical education 9.2 10.3 10.2 11.3 13.4 14.1 2.8 2.9 2.8Science 1.8 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.8 2.6 0.8 0.5 0.8Social studies 4.9 9.0 7.8 5.9 11.5 10.5 1.8 3.0 2.8Home economics 0.3 0.5 0.6 — — 0.0 1.2 1.8 1.8Other 10.7 13.0 13.0 8.8 10.6 11.1 16.6 18.6 16.7

Special education 4.4 5.4 6.2 2.9 3.3 3.8 8.9 10.2 11.0Curriculum and instruction 5.9 5.4 5.7 4.7 4.7 4.2 9.6 7.2 8.5Educational administration 67.1 68.4 66.3 69.3 71.1 70.8 60.6 62.1 57.8Educational psychology 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.3 0.7 1.0 1.1 0.7Counseling and guidance 6.2 7.4 6.8 6.3 7.3 6.7 6.1 7.6 7.0

Noneducation areas

General

English 3.1 3.1 3.4 2.8 2.3 2.7 4.1 5.1 4.8Mathematics 0.5 1.8 1.3 0.7 2.2 1.7 0.0 0.7 0.7Agriculture 3.0 — — 3.7 — — 1.0 — —Military science 2.0 — — 1.9 — — 2.1 — —Psychology — 1.8 2.5 — 1.8 2.7 — 1.9 2.1Home economics 1.0 — — 1.1 — — 0.6 — —Religion, theology 0.4 — — — — — 1.6 — —Other 7.8 5.8 6.9 8.3 5.8 6.7 6.2 5.8 7.2

Foreign language 1.1 1.1 1.4 0.8 0.7 0.8 2.1 1.9 2.5Natural science 5.7 4.1 3.7 7.0 5.0 4.7 1.5 2.0 1.8Social science 14.0 10.0 10.0 16.2 12.1 12.0 7.3 5.1 6.3
Table A14.—Percentage of public and private school principals by sex, by field of study for bachelor's and higher degrees

earned: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Field of study

All

Sex

Male Female

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

A-29

PRIVATE

Education areas

Early childhood 2.5 2.9 2.4 0.8 0.3 0.2 4.1 5.5 4.2Elementary 36.8 35.0 32.3 22.6 20.8 17.4 49.9 48.6 45.2Secondary 5.8 4.3 6.5 6.5 5.6 9.0 5.2 2.9 4.3Subject area education

English 3.2 3.2 3.4 2.5 1.5 2.3 3.9 4.8 4.3Industrial arts — — — — — — — — —Mathematics 1.4 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.2 1.2 1.9 1.1Physical education 2.2 1.9 3.4 3.3 3.0 5.6 1.2 0.9 1.5Science — 1.4 1.2 — 1.4 1.7 — 1.4 0.8Social studies 2.1 4.9 4.7 3.0 5.8 6.3 1.3 4.1 3.3Home economics — — — — — — — — —Other 10.4 14.1 12.6 9.0 15.4 11.7 11.6 12.8 13.4

Special education 6.4 5.7 5.8 4.1 3.3 3.3 8.5 8.0 7.9Curriculum and instruction 2.6 3.5 2.9 2.9 3.2 3.2 2.2 3.8 2.7Educational administration 27.8 28.6 28.5 29.6 28.3 30.7 26.2 28.8 26.6Educational psychology — 0.8 1.0 — 1.0 0.7 — 0.7 1.3Counseling and guidance 2.3 3.1 2.5 2.6 3.4 2.8 2.1 2.7 2.2

Noneducation areas

General

English 6.3 4.4 5.0 5.6 3.9 5.0 7.0 4.9 5.0Mathematics — 2.0 1.8 — 2.4 1.7 — 1.8 1.8Agriculture 2.8 — — 3.0 — — 2.6 — —Military science 3.7 0.0 0.0 3.4 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.0Psychology — 2.7 3.4 — 2.6 2.5 — 2.7 4.2Home economics 12.1 — — 19.0 — — 5.9 — —Religion, theology — 7.2 5.2 — 12.2 8.2 — 2.5 2.5Other 10.2 8.3 11.8 13.0 11.2 15.7 7.6 5.4 8.5

Foreign language 2.0 2.0 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.2 2.6 2.8 1.8Natural science 2.6 3.6 3.2 3.3 4.5 4.8 2.0 2.7 1.8Social science 13.7 10.9 9.1 17.6 13.5 10.8 10.1 8.3 7.7

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Multiple responses are possible because most principals have more than one degree. Response options for fields of study varied slightly between 1987-88 and1990-91 instruments.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
A-30

Table A15.—Percentage of public and private school principals by sex, by prior experience in teaching and other specified

education roles: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Experience area

All

Sex

Male Female

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

PUBLIC

Teacher 98.9 98.7 98.8 98.9 98.6 98.6 98.7 99.0 99.0Department head 24.4 24.6 19.6 21.0 22.6 20.4 34.5 29.3 18.0Curriculum specialist or coordinator (a) (a) 17.4 (a) (a) 10.8 (a) (a) 29.8Assistant principal or program 49.7 51.0 54.1 50.1 52.7 53.9 48.8 47.0 54.6

director

Guidance counselor 10.1 9.2 7.6 10.5 9.7 7.5 8.9 7.9 7.8Library media specialist/librarian (a) (a) 1.4 (a) (a) 0.7 (a) (a) 2.6Athletic coach 29.8 28.7 26.6 38.1 39.1 37.7 4.4 4.4 5.6Student club sponsor 25.3 26.3 27.9 27.9 29.3 30.2 17.5 19.4 23.5Other (a) 24.5 21.4 (a) 20.2 18.8 (a) 34.5 26.4

PRIVATE

Teacher 89.0 87.0 87.8 81.5 79.7 84.6 95.8 94.0 90.6Department head 28.3 28.2 18.7 24.7 25.2 19.6 31.6 31.1 18.0Curriculum specialist or coordinator (a) (a) 13.2 (a) (a) 10.4 (a) (a) 15.7Assistant principal or program 31.4 33.0 29.0 32.4 34.2 32.4 30.4 31.7 26.1

director

Guidance counselor 7.7 8.3 6.3 11.3 11.0 8.1 4.4 5.8 4.8Library media specialist/librarian (a) (a) 1.2 (a) (a) 0.5 (a) (a) 1.8Athletic coach 16.3 16.7 15.6 29.8 29.3 28.6 4.0 4.6 4.3Student club sponsor 20.5 21.4 17.3 18.7 21.2 19.1 20.5 21.6 15.7Other (a) 17.4 19.1 (a) 16.0 18.2 (a) 18.8 19.9

(a) Item not included on SASS instrument that year.NOTE: Multiple responses are possible because most principals have more than one prior experience.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
A-31

Table A16.—Average years of experience in education for public and private school principals, by selected school and principal characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

School/principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Professional experience in education

Average years as teachers Average years as principals

PUBLICTotal 9.8 10.5 11.0 10.0 9.3 8.6

School level

Elementary 9.8 10.7 11.2 10.4 9.6 8.9Secondary 9.7 10.1 10.6 9.3 9.0 8.0Combined 9.3 10.4 10.9 8.4 8.0 7.5

School size

Less than 150 9.7 9.9 10.1 8.2 8.6 8.0150-499 9.8 10.8 11.4 10.6 9.6 9.0500-749 9.9 10.6 11.0 9.9 9.5 8.6750 or more 9.5 10.1 10.6 9.5 9.0 8.3

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 9.3 10.3 10.7 10.5 9.9 9.320-50% 10.0 10.3 11.0 9.9 9.1 8.5More than 50% 11.0 11.3 11.7 8.7 8.2 7.3

Free-lunch recipients

Less than 20% 9.4 10.2 11.0 10.4 9.9 9.020-49% 9.6 10.4 10.9 10.1 9.4 8.950% or more 10.8 11.1 11.4 9.1 8.6 8.1

District size

Less than 1,000 9.1 10.0 10.6 9.5 8.8 8.51,000-4,999 9.7 10.5 11.1 10.2 9.7 8.85,000-9,999 9.4 10.3 10.9 10.6 10.0 9.010,000 or more 10.3 10.8 11.2 9.7 9.0 8.6

Community type

Central city 10.3 10.9 11.3 9.6 9.0 8.3Urban fringe/large town 9.6 10.6 11.2 10.7 9.5 8.8Rural/small town 9.5 10.2 10.8 9.8 9.4 8.8

Sex

Male 9.0 9.6 10.0 11.2 10.8 10.2Female 12.2 12.5 13.0 6.1 5.8 5.6

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 9.3 10.0 9.9 9.8 7.7 8.2Asian/Pacific Islander 10.9 11.2 11.7 7.5 6.7 5.6Black non-Hispanic 11.8 12.0 12.7 8.9 8.3 7.0White non-Hispanic 9.6 10.3 10.8 10.2 9.6 9.0Hispanic 9.6 10.6 11.3 6.7 7.4 6.3Total minority 11.0 11.5 12.2 8.4 8.0 6.8
Table A16.—Average years of experience in education for public and private school principals, by selected school and

principal characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School/principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Professional experience in education

Average years as teachers Average years as principals

A-32

PRIVATETotal 9.6 9.4 9.4 7.9 8.6 8.8

School level

Elementary 10.5 10.2 10.4 8.4 9.0 9.4Secondary 11.2 11.2 10.5 7.4 8.1 7.8Combined 6.8 6.7 7.4 7.0 7.8 8.0

School size

Less than 150 7.1 7.2 7.3 6.8 7.5 8.0150-499 12.0 11.7 12.0 8.8 9.8 9.7500-749 11.8 11.6 11.7 10.7 10.2 9.9750 or more 12.5 11.4 12.3 9.9 9.6 9.9

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 9.3 9.1 9.5 7.8 8.6 8.720-50% 9.7 9.6 9.1 8.6 8.7 9.3More than 50% 10.7 10.5 10.0 8.0 8.5 8.8

Sex

Male 6.7 6.5 7.6 8.1 9.0 9.0Female 12.3 12.1 11.0 7.8 8.6 8.4

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 6.6 9.7 13.4 6.1 14.1 11.1Asian/Pacific Islander 6.4 8.0 5.3 9.3 10.9 9.3Black non-Hispanic 9.9 10.9 7.4 6.4 6.9 8.3White non-Hispanic 9.6 9.4 9.5 8.0 8.7 8.7Hispanic 11.0 9.6 12.1 7.9 7.0 10.1Total minority 9.4 10.0 8.9 7.5 7.9 9.1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator, Public and PrivateSchool, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand andShortage Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
See footnote at end of table.

A-33

Table A17.—Percentage of public and private school principals who view various issues as serious problems in their schools,

by school level: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

School problems 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

School level

Elementary Secondary Combined

PUBLICTeacher absenteeism 1.6 1.1 0.8 2.7 2.3 1.2 3.0 2.2 1.6Student tardiness 2.7 3.0 2.3 10.5 10.2 9.2 4.1 5.2 4.7Student absenteeism 3.6 3.6 2.4 15.3 14.3 11.6 10.4 9.2 8.3Students cutting class 0.2 0.1 0.0 4.3 3.3 3.9 1.4 1.8 1.2Student dropping out (a) 0.5 0.2 (a) 9.0 6.8 (a) 4.8 5.2Student apathy (a) 4.7 5.6 (a) 13.7 14.7 (a) 12.6 13.1Physical conflicts among students 2.6 2.3 3.4 1.4 1.6 3.1 2.8 3.2 5.4Robbery or theft 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.3 0.6 1.0Vandalism of school property 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.5 1.9Student pregnancy 0.2 0.2 0.2 6.3 7.4 8.4 4.4 4.5 4.4Student use of alcohol 0.4 0.7 0.2 11.7 14.0 13.3 7.2 7.2 5.7Student drug abuse 0.3 0.3 0.2 5.6 3.8 4.6 3.8 2.7 2.7Student possession of weapons — — 0.2 — — 1.0 — — 1.1Student disrespect for teachers (a) 2.8 2.7 (a) 3.2 4.4 (a) 3.6 6.5Verbal abuse of teachers 0.6 1.2 1.4 0.9 1.9 2.7 2.9 3.9 5.2Lack of academic challenge (a) 2.0 1.2 (a) 4.0 4.0 (a) 4.9 4.1Lack of parent involvement (a) 11.9 10.2 (a) 19.8 19.7 (a) 19.4 20.9Parental alcohol/drug abuse (a) 6.4 7.0 (a) 6.0 7.6 (a) 8.7 9.8Poverty (a) 15.4 17.0 (a) 11.5 13.3 (a) 17.0 19.2Racial tension (a) 0.4 1.1 (a) 0.7 1.2 (a) 2.1 1.2Students come unprepared to learn (a) (a) 11.6 (a) (a) 12.5 (a) (a) 13.1Poor nutrition (a) (a) 4.1 (a) (a) 2.6 (a) (a) 3.8Poor student health (a) (a) 2.4 (a) (a) 1.3 (a) (a) 5.5Student problems with English language (a) (a) 4.6 (a) (a) 2.5 (a) (a) 3.2Cultural conflict (a) 1.1 (a) (a) 1.4 (a) (a) 2.9 (a)Physical abuse of teachers — — (a) — — (a) — 0.7 (a)
Table A17.—Percentage of public and private school principals who view various issues as serious problems in their schools,

by school level: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School problems 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

School level

Elementary Secondary Combined

A-34

PRIVATETeacher absenteeism — — — — — — — — —Student tardiness 0.9 1.3 1.2 5.8 2.0 4.3 1.4 1.2 0.6Student absenteeism — — 0.0 — — 2.3 — — 0.7Students cutting class — — 0.0 — — — — — 0.2Student dropping out (a) — 0.0 (a) — — (a) — 0.1Student apathy (a) 0.6 0.9 (a) 2.0 5.0 (a) 2.4 2.9Physical conflicts among students — — — — — 2.6 — — 0.9Robbery or theft — — — — — — — — —Vandalism of school property — — 0.5 — — 1.8 0.7 — 0.4Student pregnancy — — 0.0 — — 1.9 — — —Student use of alcohol — — — — 4.1 11.6 — 0.9 1.2Student drug abuse — — — — — 7.1 — — 0.5Student possession of weapons 0.0 — — 0.0 — — 0.0 — —Student disrespect for teachers (a) — 0.5 (a) — 3.2 (a) — 3.2Verbal abuse of teachers — 0.5 0.2 — 1.5 1.8 — 2.7 3.4Lack of academic challenge (a) — — (a) — — (a) — —Lack of parent involvement (a) 1.1 1.9 (a) 3.5 5.2 (a) 3.3 4.6Parental alcohol/drug abuse (a) 0.2 0.8 (a) 2.9 8.6 (a) 3.7 2.4Poverty (a) 3.0 3.0 (a) 2.4 6.3 (a) 5.0 3.2Racial tension (a) — — (a) — — (a) — —Students come unprepared to learn (a) (a) 1.3 (a) (a) 2.5 (a) (a) 3.8Poor nutrition (a) (a) 1.1 (a) (a) 0.0 (a) (a) 2.0Poor student health (a) (a) — (a) (a) 0.0 (a) (a) 2.0Student problems with English language (a) (a) 1.0 (a) (a) — (a) (a) 0.4Cultural conflict (a) — (a) (a) — (a) (a) — (a)Physical abuse of teachers — 0.1 (a) 0.0 — (a) — 0.3 (a)(a) Item not included on SASS questionnaire that year.— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public and Private School PrincipalQuestionnaires).
A-35

Table A18.—Percentage of public and private elementary school principals who view certain issues as serious problems in

their schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in elementary schools

School characteristics Poverty unprepared to learn involvement drug abuse apathy

Students come Lack of parent Parent alcohol/ Student

PUBLIC

Total 17.0 11.6 10.2 7.0 5.6

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 8.6 6.0 5.0 3.6 3.620% to 50% 14.7 13.1 11.3 8.6 8.1More than 50% 38.4 23.1 20.9 13.3 7.9

School size

Less than 150 14.6 6.0 5.4 6.6 2.9150 to 499 16.2 10.0 10.0 7.0 4.7500 to 749 16.4 15.1 9.8 6.2 7.0750 or more 23.9 14.2 15.0 8.7 8.3

District size

Less than 1,000 12.9 5.8 5.9 6.9 4.31,000-4,999 13.6 9.7 7.7 4.6 6.05,000-9,999 14.3 10.1 12.4 6.0 6.510,000 or more 22.4 15.3 13.3 9.1 5.9

Community type

Central city 26.1 18.8 15.8 10.2 6.3Urban fringe/large town 10.6 8.3 7.4 4.9 3.6Rural/small town 16.0 9.6 8.7 6.5 6.4

PRIVATE

Total 3.0 1.3 1.9 0.8 0.9Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.020% to 50% 1.3 0.3 1.4 0.9 —More than 50% 11.6 4.8 8.5 3.4 4.7

School size

Less than 150 2.9 1.4 2.0 1.5 1.2150 to 499 2.9 1.3 1.4 — 0.7500 to 749 — 0.0 — 0.0 0.0750 or more — 0.0 — 0.0 0.0

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in elementary schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal, Public School, andTeacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
A-36

Table A19.—Percentage of public and private secondary school principals who view certain issues as serious problems in their

schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in secondary schools

School characteristics involvement Student apathy alcohol use Poverty unprepared to learn

Lack of parent Student Students come

PUBLIC

Total 19.7 14.7 13.3 13.3 12.5Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 13.7 12.0 15.6 7.0 8.620% to 50% 20.8 16.1 12.3 12.3 14.4More than 50% 38.7 21.9 7.0 36.0 23.3

School size

Less than 150 22.4 14.3 15.9 16.3 11.0150 to 499 19.3 13.2 15.4 13.6 14.7500 to 749 17.3 13.5 11.9 11.7 8.8750 or more 20.0 16.6 11.2 12.6 13.1

District size

Less than 1,000 17.8 10.3 17.7 12.7 11.11,000-4,999 17.9 15.6 14.2 11.7 11.85,000-9,999 18.5 13.5 9.9 9.2 8.510,000 or more 24.2 17.6 9.1 19.0 16.3

Community type

Central city 23.8 16.3 6.1 21.6 17.2Urban fringe/large town 16.4 13.2 11.4 8.4 9.2Rural/small town 19.8 14.7 16.3 12.9 12.5

PRIVATE

Total 5.2 5.0 11.6 6.3 2.5Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.7 — 8.5 — —20% to 50% 7.0 9.2 — 10.7 1.7More than 50% 19.4 16.5 42.5 21.4 —

School size

Less than 150 7.6 8.1 18.4 10.2 5.4150 to 499 5.8 5.0 5.0 6.2 —500 to 749 0.0 0.0 11.0 0.0 —750 or more 0.0 0.0 13.9 0.0 0.0

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in secondary schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal, Public School, andTeacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
A-37

Table A20.—Percentage of public and private combined school principals who view certain issues as serious problems in

their schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in combined schools

School characteristics involvement Poverty apathy unprepared to learn drug abuse

Lack of parent Student Students come Parent alcohol/

PUBLIC

Total 20.9 19.2 13.1 13.1 9.8Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 14.0 11.8 10.0 8.0 5.820% to 50% 15.4 13.2 9.9 8.6 6.2More than 50% 36.3 35.7 21.3 25.0 19.1

School size

Less than 150 24.6 26.8 16.3 17.7 17.3150 to 499 20.1 15.8 11.4 10.3 7.6500 to 749 16.3 14.6 12.3 10.4 1.7750 or more 17.2 12.6 11.0 12.8 2.9

District size

Less than 1,000 15.2 17.9 12.0 8.9 12.31,000-4,999 20.5 21.1 13.5 13.2 9.85,000-9,999 26.2 13.6 12.4 16.0 4.410,000 or more 25.6 23.4 15.0 16.0 9.5

Community type

Central city 29.2 30.9 17.4 22.5 11.5Urban fringe/large town 21.0 15.8 15.8 8.3 8.6Rural/small town 18.3 16.4 11.2 11.4 9.5

PRIVATE

Total 4.6 3.2 2.9 3.8 2.4Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 2.8 — 1.8 2.4 —20% to 50% 4.2 11.6 4.9 2.8 6.8More than 50% 16.5 10.6 6.5 14.2 4.4

School size

Less than 150 6.2 3.8 3.1 5.6 3.6150 to 499 1.7 2.7 2.8 — 0.0500 to 749 0.0 0.0 — 0.0 0.0750 or more 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in combined schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal, Public School, andTeacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
A-38

Table A21.—Percentage of public elementary school principals who view certain issues as serious problems in their schools, by

sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in public elementary schools

Principal characteristics Poverty unprepared to learn involvement drug abuse apathy

Students come Lack of parent Parent alcohol/ Student

Total 17.0 11.6 10.2 7.0 5.6

Sex

Male 14.9 9.9 10.5 5.8 6.6Female 20.0 14.0 9.6 8.6 4.1

Age

Under 35 20.3 6.4 10.5 11.5 4.235-39 16.6 8.8 8.6 8.7 4.340-44 14.4 11.9 10.4 4.5 5.345-49 17.8 12.8 10.8 8.1 7.750-54 18.8 12.4 11.1 7.8 4.455 and over 16.3 9.8 7.9 5.6 4.4

Experience as a principal

Fewer than 3 years 21.6 12.5 12.0 8.2 5.53 to 9 years 15.7 11.5 9.3 6.8 5.210 years or more 15.7 11.2 9.9 6.3 6.1

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 29.4 16.5 12.7 9.7 5.6Asian/Pacific Islander 17.2 14.5 7.1 — —Black non-Hispanic 30.0 16.1 16.1 9.6 5.7White non-Hispanic 14.2 10.5 9.2 6.4 5.7Hispanic 35.3 18.8 14.0 10.5 3.8

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in elementary schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
A-39

Table A22.—Percentage of public secondary school principals who view certain issues as serious problems in their schools, by

sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in public secondary schools

Principal characteristics involvement Student apathy Student alcohol use Poverty unprepared to learn

Lack of parent Students come

Total 19.7 14.7 13.3 13.3 12.5

Sex

Male 19.4 14.2 13.5 12.2 11.9Female 21.6 17.3 12.4 20.0 16.2

Age

Under 35 10.1 10.7 13.8 9.7 5.235-39 17.5 15.3 13.5 11.5 11.740-44 19.9 16.5 13.3 14.8 12.645-49 19.7 11.7 13.5 12.2 11.350-54 21.4 17.2 13.8 13.9 14.955 and over 19.3 15.7 12.0 14.3 13.2

Experience as a principal

Fewer than 3 years 22.0 13.8 12.9 15.3 12.83 to 9 years 19.8 15.1 14.5 13.7 12.510 years or more 18.0 14.7 12.2 11.5 12.4

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 15.2 8.9 10.8 11.7 6.5Asian/Pacific Islander 15.2 19.7 7.1 5.6 8.2Black non-Hispanic 35.2 18.8 1.2 28.4 23.4White non-Hispanic 18.1 14.3 14.5 11.3 11.6Hispanic 28.4 17.3 8.9 35.6 15.1

NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in secondary schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
A-40

Table A23.—Percentage of public combined school principals who view certain issues as serious problems in their schools, by

sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in public combined schools

Principal characteristics involvement Poverty Student apathy unprepared to learn drug abuse

Lack of parent Students come Parent alcohol/

Total 20.9 19.2 13.1 13.1 9.8

Sex

Male 19.0 16.9 12.2 12.3 8.4Female 27.0 26.3 16.2 15.9 14.1

Age

Under 35 31.0 13.1 13.7 9.5 —35-39 16.9 20.0 5.4 5.9 6.740-44 20.2 20.1 11.9 14.7 8.345-49 18.1 19.0 13.4 11.1 9.850-54 24.8 19.4 14.3 14.8 12.655 and over 22.5 18.6 15.8 17.2 10.2

Experience as a principal

Fewer than 3 years 21.8 21.5 17.4 16.9 10.13 to 9 years 20.7 20.7 11.9 10.5 10.410 years or more 20.4 15.0 10.7 13.1 8.7

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 20.9 23.9 — — 13.9Asian/Pacific Islander — 16.7 0.0 — 0.0Black non-Hispanic 48.4 48.5 2.9 40.6 7.1White non-Hispanic 19.1 16.3 11.6 10.6 10.2Hispanic 12.6 47.0 — 39.7 —

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in combined schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
A-41

Table A24.—Percentage of public and private school principals who rated specific educational goals as first, second, or third

most important for students to achieve, by school level, community type, and minority enrollment: 1993-94

Goals

School characteristics literacy excellence voc. skills habits growth relations moral values ness/religious dev.

Building Encouraging Promoting Promoting Promoting Promoting Promoting

basic academic occupational/ work personal human Promoting multicultural awarePUBLIC

Total 72.1 62.4 15.2 57.7 50.3 24.3 6.3 11.2School level

Elementary 75.4 61.7 8.5 58.7 53.2 24.6 6.2 11.6Secondary 63.6 66.6 30.3 56.3 43.9 23.2 6.6 9.5Combined 69.9 51.1 40.6 55.1 45.0 20.4 9.0 9.0

Community type

Central city 71.3 64.9 13.6 53.3 48.0 24.9 6.2 17.4Urban fringe/large town 68.2 67.0 9.9 54.4 53.8 25.6 5.9 15.2Rural/small town 74.5 59.5 18.9 61.6 49.6 23.2 6.6 5.9

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 72.1 62.0 14.8 61.1 52.5 24.6 6.2 6.620% to 50% 71.1 60.6 14.8 57.7 47.0 27.0 6.5 15.3More than 50% 74.0 65.6 15.7 50.6 49.5 20.2 6.9 17.6

PRIVATE Total 46.4 62.0 5.9 41.5 43.7 11.7 27.8 61.0

School level

Elementary 47.8 60.5 3.1 37.5 47.3 10.4 26.1 67.2Secondary 29.9 68.0 4.4 40.7 55.4 16.5 28.5 56.5Combined 51.2 59.7 10.7 49.4 35.7 13.7 28.2 51.3

Community type

Central city 44.1 64.9 4.7 43.0 44.0 9.6 31.4 58.2Urban fringe/large town 43.5 65.0 6.5 38.1 49.8 14.2 23.3 59.6Rural/small town 53.1 54.0 6.8 43.7 35.8 11.6 28.3 66.6

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 46.2 61.8 4.8 41.0 43.1 10.5 27.9 64.720% to 50% 44.6 64.7 6.4 46.7 48.6 16.6 21.4 50.9More than 50% 52.3 54.4 7.8 38.4 47.2 14.0 28.7 57.2

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
A-42

Table A25.—Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their influence in establishing curriculum, hiring

new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Activity area

Establishing curriculum Hiring new teachers Setting discipline policy

PUBLICTotal 4.4 4.3 4.4 4.9 5.2 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.4

Sex

Male 4.5 4.3 4.4 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.4Female 4.4 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.4

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 4.6 4.3 4.3 5.0 5.0 5.2 5.1 5.1 5.2Asian/Pacific Islander 4.5 4.3 4.7 4.9 5.3 5.6 5.3 5.3 5.5Black non-Hispanic 4.1 4.0 4.4 4.4 4.6 4.8 4.8 5.0 5.3White non-Hispanic 4.5 4.3 4.4 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.2 5.3 5.4Hispanic 4.4 4.4 4.7 4.6 4.9 5.4 5.2 5.1 5.5

Age

Under 35 4.6 4.5 4.5 5.0 5.4 5.3 5.3 5.5 5.435-39 4.6 4.4 4.6 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.2 5.4 5.540-44 4.4 4.3 4.5 5.1 5.2 5.4 5.2 5.3 5.445-49 4.5 4.2 4.4 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.2 5.3 5.450-54 4.4 4.2 4.4 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.1 5.2 5.355 or over 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.6 5.0 5.1 5.0 5.2 5.3
Table A25.—Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their influence in establishing curriculum, hiring

new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94(continued)

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Activity area

Establishing curriculum Hiring new teachers Setting discipline policy

A-43

PRIVATETotal 5.2 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.6 5.5 5.7 5.7

Sex

Male 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.2 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.6Female 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.6 5.8 5.8

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 4.8 5.3 5.7 5.8 6.0 4.5 5.7 5.6 6.0Asian/Pacific Islander 4.9 4.8 5.4 5.9 5.7 5.6 5.9 5.6 6.0Black non-Hispanic 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.2 5.6 5.6White non-Hispanic 5.2 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.6 5.5 5.7 5.7Hispanic 5.5 5.3 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.9 5.6 5.6 5.8

Age

Under 35 5.2 5.2 4.8 5.0 5.1 4.9 5.4 5.6 5.435-39 5.2 5.5 5.3 5.4 5.8 5.5 5.4 5.7 5.740-44 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.7 5.5 5.7 5.745-49 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.750-54 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.7 5.7 5.8 5.6 5.7 5.855 and over 5.2 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.7 5.5 5.7 5.8

NOTE: Principals were asked to rate how much actual influence they had on each activity on a scale of 1 to 6, where 1 represented none and 6 represented a great deal. The 1993-94 questionnaires used a 0 to 5 scale, and 1993-94 scores in this table have been adjusted to the 1 to 6 scale. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
A-44

Table A26.—Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their influence in establishing curriculum, hiring

new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by selected school characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

School characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Activity area

Establishing curriculum Hiring new teachers Setting discipline policy

PUBLIC

Total 4.4 4.3 4.4 4.9 5.2 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.4School level

Elementary 4.4 4.2 4.4 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.1 5.2 5.3Secondary 4.6 4.4 4.6 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.2 5.4 5.5Combined 4.7 4.5 4.5 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.2 5.3 5.3

School size

Less than 150 4.7 4.5 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.4150-499 4.5 4.3 4.4 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.3500-749 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.9 5.3 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.4750 or more 4.4 4.2 4.4 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.2 5.2 5.4

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 4.6 4.4 4.5 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.2 5.4 5.420%-50% 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.1 5.3 5.4More than 50% 4.2 4.0 4.4 4.4 4.7 5.0 4.9 5.1 5.2

District size

Less than 1,000 5.0 4.7 4.7 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.41,000-4,999 4.7 4.5 4.5 5.2 5.4 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.45,000-9,999 4.4 4.2 4.3 4.9 5.2 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.310,000 or more 4.0 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.9 5.1 4.9 5.1 5.3
Table A26.—Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their influence in establishing curriculum, hiring

new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by selected school characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94(continued)

School characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Activity area

Establishing curriculum Hiring new teachers Setting discipline policy

A-45

PRIVATE

Total 5.2 5.4 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.5 5.7 5.7School level

Elementary 5.2 5.4 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.7 5.8Secondary 5.4 5.3 5.5 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.4 5.7 5.8Combined 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.3 5.6 5.6 5.5 5.6 5.6

School size

Less than 150 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.6150-499 5.3 5.5 5.4 5.7 5.8 5.8 5.6 5.8 5.8500-749 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.8 5.9 5.9 5.7 5.7 5.8750 or more 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.8 5.8 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.8

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 5.2 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.5 5.5 5.7 5.720%-50% 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.7 5.5 5.8 5.8More than 50% 5.3 5.1 5.4 5.6 5.5 5.8 5.6 5.7 5.8

NOTE: Principals were asked to rate how much actual influence they had on each activity on a scale of 1 to 6, where 1 represented none and 6 represented a great deal. The 1993-94 questionnaires used a 0 to 5 scale, and 1993-94 scores in this table have been adjusted to the 1 to 6 scale. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator, Public and PrivateSchool, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand andShortage Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
A-46

Table A27.—Percentage of public and private school principals by plans to remain principals, by school level, minority

enrollment, school size, and community type: 1993-94

School characteristics As long as able Until eligible to retire better comes possible Undecided

Plans to remain principal

Unless something Leave as soon as

PUBLIC

Total 31.8 23.1 15.5 2.7 26.9School level

Elementary 32.3 22.6 15.2 2.6 27.3Secondary 30.9 25.4 15.5 3.3 24.9Combined 29.4 25.1 18.5 2.1 24.9

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 30.9 23.7 15.3 3.0 27.120% to 50% 33.4 24.5 12.7 2.4 27.0More than 50% 32.9 21.4 8.1 2.3 25.2

School size

Less than 150 32.0 22.8 15.8 5.2 24.2150 to 499 30.3 25.7 14.7 2.7 26.5500 to 749 32.8 20.5 17.2 1.9 27.6750 or more

Community type

Central city 33.5 21.2 16.3 2.6 26.4Urban fringe/large town 33.4 22.3 13.2 2.3 28.8Rural/small town 30.1 24.5 16.3 3.1 26.1
Table A27.—Percentage of public and private school principals by plans to remain principals, by school level, minority

enrollment, school size, and community type: 1993-94 (continued)

School characteristics As long as able Until eligible to retire better comes possible Undecided

Plans to remain principal

Unless something Leave as soon as

A-47

PRIVATE

Total 51.5 8.8 7.9 2.7 29.0School level

Elementary 47.5 9.0 8.6 2.6 32.3Secondary 49.7 7.5 8.5 1.6 32.6Combined 56.2 9.3 7.1 2.9 24.5

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 49.3 10.4 7.3 2.3 30.120% to 50% 54.6 5.9 7.6 2.7 29.2More than 50% 50.6 5.8 10.0 3.6 30.0

School size

Less than 150 48.1 8.2 8.1 2.4 33.3150 to 499 54.1 10.2 7.2 2.8 25.7500 to 749 45.9 7.2 14.7 3.1 29.0750 or more 46.5 7.4 12.9 2.5 30.7

Community type

Central city 54.3 8.0 7.8 3.2 26.7Urban fringe/large town 54.2 8.9 8.7 2.6 25.7Rural/small town 44.2 10.0 7.2 2.1 36.5

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public and Private School PrincipalQuestionnaires).
A-48

Table A28.—Percentage of public school principals by plans to remain principals, by age and years of experience as a

principal within sex: 1993-94

Principal characteristics as able Until eligible to retire better comes possible Undecided

Plans to remain principal

As long Unless something Leave as soon as

MALE

Total 31.5 23.9 14.8 3.3 26.5Age

Under 35 27.3 18.8 22.3 1.2 30.435-39 27.4 18.7 29.2 3.5 21.340-44 32.6 22.1 20.5 2.0 22.745-49 30.5 30.7 14.2 2.9 21.750-54 29.9 25.0 12.3 3.2 29.655 and over 36.4 14.5 4.4 6.3 38.4

Experience

Fewer than 3 years 36.3 20.4 17.8 2.6 22.93 to 9 years 29.2 23.6 19.2 2.9 25.110 years or more 31.3 25.6 10.0 4.0 29.1

FEMALE

Total 32.4 21.5 16.8 1.6 27.7Age

Under 35 40.1 16.9 29.3 0.0 13.735-39 33.6 17.3 25.8 0.0 22.540-44 27.4 19.3 26.6 0.6 26.145-49 33.7 22.2 15.9 0.8 27.350-54 33.1 25.4 11.4 1.4 28.755 and over 34.8 20.1 4.3 6.4 34.4

Experience

Fewer than 3 years 35.2 18.5 21.4 1.0 24.03 to 9 years 30.4 22.3 15.9 2.2 29.210 years or more 33.1 24.6 11.1 1.3 29.8

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
A-49

Section 2 • Affiliation/Typology

Tables for Private Schools
A-50

Table A29.—Percentage of private school principals by private school affiliation, by sex, race-ethnicity, highest degree earned,

average age, salary, and years as a principal: 1993-94

Principal characteristics Colleges/Schs. Catholic Friends Episcopal Schs. Day Schs. Jewish Synod Lutheran

Private school affiliation

Assoc. Nat. Soc. Solomon Lutheran, Wisconsin

Military Hebrew Day Schechter Other Missouri Evangelical

Total number 30 7,695 62 302 164 49 339 930 348Sex

Male 96.0 23.6 41.7 48.3 69.4 37.6 51.0 85.9 99.4Female — 76.4 58.3 51.7 30.6 62.4 49.0 14.1 —

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0Asian/Pacific Islander 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 — 0.0Black non-Hispanic 0.0 3.2 — — 0.0 — 0.0 — —White non-Hispanic 100.0 92.8 97.1 97.2 98.2 97.4 97.7 96.2 99.7Hispanic 0.0 3.3 0.0 — — 0.0 — — 0.0

Total minority 0.0 7.2 — — — — — 3.8 —Highest degree earned

Less than bachelor’s 0.0 — — 0.0 3.6 0.0 10.2 — —Bachelor’s — 11.9 14.9 19.2 12.0 9.9 12.5 35.2 63.4Master’s 35.1 73.3 59.9 54.7 37.2 45.0 35.4 58.3 34.2Ed. spec./prof. dipl. 11.3 11.1 7.8 11.5 31.7 12.7 14.8 4.0 —Doctorate — 3.5 13.6 14.6 15.5 32.4 26.9 — 0.0

Average age 45.3 49.4 48.1 50.3 47.8 47.5 48.3 46.6 40.5Average salary $45,789 $28,995 $51,536 $49,692 $46,906 $59,885 $51,615 $31,338 $24,950Average years as principal 9.7 9.1 7.8 10.0 9.2 10.2 11.4 11.8 11.7
Table A29.—Percentage of private school principals by private school affiliation, by sex, race-ethnicity, highest degree earned,

average age, salary, and years as a principal: 1993-94 (continued)

A-51

Principal characteristics Church Lutheran Adventist International Int. Children Montessori Schools* Schools

Private school affiliation

Evangelical Seventh- Christian of Christian Priv. Schools Association of Other

Lutheran Other Day Schools Schools, Exceptional Independent Private

Association Nat. Assoc. National

Total number 98 50 929 293 2,054 262 639 797 7,537Sex

Male 24.7 75.7 63.0 67.2 63.2 44.2 4.5 66.5 52.8Female 75.3 24.3 37.0 32.8 36.8 55.8 95.5 33.5 47.2

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.0 — — 0.0 — — 0.0 0.0 1.6Asian/Pacific Islander 0.0 0.0 — — 0.0 0.0 10.8 3.5 0.5Black non-Hispanic 2.5 0.0 6.9 — 5.6 5.9 — — 4.3White non-Hispanic 96.6 97.6 92.3 90.7 93.5 92.4 87.1 91.9 91.0Hispanic — 0.0 0.0 — 0.0 — 0.0 — 2.6

Total minority 3.3 — 7.7 9.3 6.4 7.5 12.9 8.1 9.0Highest degree earned

Less than bachelor’s — — — 0.0 6.7 0.0 6.5 — 21.1Bachelor’s 24.2 68.2 52.6 39.1 29.3 4.3 31.6 9.9 32.7Master’s 62.3 19.5 41.9 52.0 56.9 61.5 31.7 61.4 33.6Ed. spec./prof. dipl. 4.6 — — — 3.0 18.5 21.3 6.7 6.4Doctorate 4.2 — — 5.0 3.9 15.6 8.9 19.0 6.2

Average age 48.0 43.8 45.3 48.0 45.0 46.0 47.6 49.4 45.6Average salary $30,155 $24,250 $26,127 $35,847 $28,851 $53,664 $34,546 $68,037 $29,024Average years as principal 11.1 11.7 7.5 10.3 7.3 9.8 12.0 8.8 8.0* Religious, military, Montessori, and special education schools that are members of the National Association of Independent Schools are reported under theseclassifications.— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding or cell suppression.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
A-52

Table A30.—Percentage of private school principals by private school type, by sex, race-ethnicity, highest degree earned,

average age, salary, and years as a principal: 1993-94

Principal characteristics All chial Diocesan order All Christian Affiliated iated All Regular emphasis tion

Private school typology

Catholic Other religious Nonsectarian

Paro- Private vative Unaffil- Special educaConser- Special

Total number 8,323 5,132 2,404 787 11,362 4,598 3,395 3,369 5,331 2,386 1,736 1,209Sex

Male 23.9 18.9 29.5 39.4 69.7 73.7 65.6 68.4 31.9 39.6 20.6 32.8Female 76.1 81.1 70.4 60.6 30.3 26.3 34.4 31.6 68.1 60.4 79.4 67.2

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.7 — — — 0.3 — — — ————Asian/Pacific Islander 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.8 0.7 2.2 0.4 5.3 1.1Black non-Hispanic 3.0 3.8 1.7 — 5.6 5.6 4.8 6.4 3.3 5.3 1.9 1.1White non-Hispanic 93.2 92.2 95.8 91.4 92.9 93.2 92.9 92.6 90.4 91.2 88.6 91.2Hispanic 3.2 3.3 1.8 6.5 0.7 — 0.9 — 3.5 1.4 4.1 6.4

Total minority 6.8 7.8 4.2 8.6 7.1 6.8 7.1 7.4 9.6 8.8 11.4 8.8Highest degree earned

Less than bachelor’s — — 0.0 0.0 15.3 12.3 5.3 29.3 6.7 8.8 8.3 0.1Bachelor’s 11.8 14.3 8.5 5.8 35.3 36.8 35.0 33.4 27.9 30.0 35.7 12.7Master’s 73.4 72.5 77.5 67.0 38.8 42.4 44.7 28.0 44.6 46.1 30.4 62.0Ed. spec./prof. dipl. 11.1 10.7 11.0 14.0 4.9 4.1 5.9 5.1 10.6 5.6 16.3 12.3Doctorate 3.4 2.1 3.1 13.2 5.7 4.4 9.0 4.1 10.2 9.5 9.2 12.8

Average age 49.5 49.7 48.9 49.5 45.2 45.2 45.5 45.0 47.5 49.1 47.8 44.0Average salary $29,184 $27,228 $30,296 $39,206 $28,553 $24,989 $34,428 $26,710 $43,504 $47,040 $36,203 $47,068Average years as principal 9.2 9.4 9.0 8.1 8.3 7.5 8.6 9.1 9.0 10.3 8.8 6.9— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding or cell suppression.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
A-53

Table A31.—Percentage of private school principals by benefits received, by private school type: 1993-94

Principal characteristics Medical insurance Dental insurance insurance Retirement plan In-kind benefits

Life

1

Total 64.0 35.0 35.2 46.3 55.1

Catholic 79.2 44.3 47.2 67.9 55.4

Parochial 77.6 41.4 45.0 66.5 53.0Diocesan 80.6 45.0 51.6 71.4 56.8Private order 85.4 60.8 48.6 66.9 66.8

Other religious 53.6 26.7 25.2 34.1 55.4

Conservative Christian 48.1 15.6 24.6 16.8 52.3Affiliated 67.1 44.8 31.4 57.2 64.1Unaffiliated 47.4 23.6 19.8 34.6 51.1

Nonsectarian 62.7 38.0 37.7 38.6 54.1

Regular 60.5 32.8 34.0 39.3 52.1Special emphasis 52.2 28.5 30.5 23.4 55.2Special education 82.2 61.8 55.6 59.3 56.4

In-kind benefits include housing, meals, tuition, and transportation. 1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Private School Principal Questionnaire).
A-55

Section 3 • State Tables for Public

Schools
A-56

Table A32.—Percentage of public school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by state: 1993-94

State principals age Male Female AK Nat. Isl. non-Hispanic non-Hispanic Hispanic minority

Total Average Am. Ind./ Asian/Pac. Black White Total

Sex Race-ethnicity

Total 79,618 65.4 34.5 0.8 0.8 10.1 84.2 4.1 15.7 47.7

Alabama 1,274 70.3 29.7 1.0 0.0 18.8 79.0 1.1 21.0 48.0Alaska 474 69.2 30.7 7.2 2.2 1.8 87.2 1.6 12.7 47.6Arizona 1,041 62.6 37.4 2.0 0.8 3.2 77.3 16.8 22.7 47.0Arkansas 1,084 69.6 30.4 — 0.0 15.8 83.4 0.0 16.5 45.8California 7,305 51.3 48.7 0.1 3.1 9.0 74.3 13.4 25.7 49.2Colorado 1,308 67.4 32.6 1.2 0.0 2.2 84.8 11.8 15.2 45.9Connecticut 958 72.8 27.1 — — 10.1 88.3 — 11.7 50.3Delaware 169 65.7 34.3 0.0 0.0 19.3 80.7 0.0 19.3 48.0Dist. of Columbia 154 44.0 56.0 — 0.0 96.2 0.0 — 100.0 50.0Florida 2,308 46.6 53.4 0.0 — 15.6 76.9 6.5 23.1 48.6Georgia 1,724 62.3 37.7 — 0.0 25.8 73.9 — 26.1 48.1Hawaii 229 43.3 56.7 0.0 76.0 — 19.6 2.0 80.4 50.0Idaho 560 73.7 26.3 0.0 — 0.0 97.6 1.4 2.4 47.4Illinois 3,882 68.6 31.4 — — 14.6 82.1 2.2 17.9 47.4Indiana 1,847 79.0 21.0 — 0.0 7.2 89.4 2.6 10.5 47.9Iowa 1,517 79.5 20.4 — 0.0 — 97.1 — 2.9 47.4Kansas 1,450 71.6 28.4 — 0.0 4.0 94.3 1.2 5.7 45.9Kentucky 1,292 74.0 26.0 — 0.0 3.1 95.7 — 4.2 47.0Louisiana 1,442 59.5 40.5 0.0 0.0 34.7 64.0 1.3 35.9 48.8Maine 714 63.0 37.0 — 0.0 0.0 99.8 0.0 0.2 46.1Maryland 1,163 58.2 41.8 — 0.0 24.2 75.3 — 24.6 48.9Massachusetts 1,670 73.7 26.3 — 0.0 4.3 94.5 — 5.5 50.4Michigan 3,004 62.3 37.7 — 0.0 18.0 81.3 0.0 18.7 48.1Minnesota 1,449 69.4 30.4 — 0.0 2.2 96.2 — 3.8 47.5Mississippi 950 67.5 32.5 — 0.0 28.8 70.5 — 29.5 46.6
Table A32.—Percentage of public school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by state: 1993-94 (continued)

State principals age Male Female AK Nat. Isl. non-Hispanic non-Hispanic Hispanic minority

Total Average Am. Ind./ Asian/Pac. Black White Total

Sex Race-ethnicity

A-57

Missouri 2,080 68.5 31.5 — 0.0 7.9 90.4 — 9.5 46.9Montana 753 74.2 25.8 3.9 0.0 — 95.2 — 4.8 46.1Nebraska 1,063 80.8 19.2 — 0.0 1.8 94.1 — 5.9 46.4Nevada 368 58.0 42.0 — 0.0 8.7 85.5 4.0 14.5 47.7New Hampshire 437 71.2 28.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 99.2 — 0.8 47.1New Jersey 2,193 64.8 35.2 0.0 0.0 12.4 87.5 — 12.5 49.2New Mexico 649 55.5 44.5 2.2 — — 58.9 38.5 41.1 46.4New York 3,894 64.5 35.5 — 0.6 10.7 84.9 3.5 15.1 48.2North Carolina 1,929 74.9 25.1 1.9 0.0 17.2 80.1 — 19.9 48.2North Dakota 567 67.5 32.5 1.0 — 0.0 98.7 0.0 1.3 46.1Ohio 3,631 70.6 29.4 0.0 0.0 7.9 92.1 0.0 7.9 46.9Oklahoma 1,747 66.2 33.8 7.3 0.0 4.0 88.5 — 11.5 45.6Oregon 1,183 63.4 36.6 — 0.0 2.5 92.7 3.3 7.3 47.4Pennsylvania 3,000 73.5 26.5 0.0 — 8.0 89.6 2.0 10.4 47.4Rhode Island 295 63.2 36.8 0.0 — — 97.9 — 2.1 48.0South Carolina 1,083 69.1 30.9 0.0 0.0 19.1 80.9 0.0 19.1 47.1South Dakota 655 74.4 25.6 0.7 0.0 0.0 98.4 0.9 1.6 46.2Tennessee 1,522 65.1 34.9 — 0.0 16.0 83.5 0.0 16.4 48.2Texas 5,879 58.7 41.3 0.6 0.6 7.2 76.4 15.2 23.6 47.5Utah 673 69.0 31.0 — — 1.2 94.4 2.6 5.6 48.6Vermont 308 71.1 28.9 — 0.0 0.0 99.3 0.0 0.7 45.3Virginia 1,696 60.4 39.6 0.0 — 17.5 80.3 — 19.7 46.2Washington 1,750 59.7 40.3 2.0 3.2 5.2 88.4 1.2 11.6 47.1West Virginia 891 68.0 32.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 95.6 1.9 4.3 46.2Wisconsin 1,991 75.6 24.4 — 0.0 5.6 93.2 — 6.8 47.6Wyoming 410 87.6 12.4 0.7 0.0 0.0 99.3 0.0 0.7 46.5— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to totals or 100 percent due to rounding or cell suppression.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
A-58

Table A33.—Percentage of public school principals by highest degree earned and average salary, by state: 1993-94

State Average salary Bachelor’s Master’s Ed. Sp./prof. Doctorate

Highest degree

Total 1.4 63.4 25.8 9.3 $54,858

Alabama — 42.7 46.1 9.6 45,554Alaska 7.4 69.0 13.2 10.3 65,960Arizona — 66.5 12.0 18.6 54,092Arkansas 0.0 72.4 23.8 3.8 41,797California 4.2 68.2 15.9 11.6 62,501Colorado — 62.3 22.9 14.4 52,585Connecticut — 16.6 64.4 18.7 76,803Delaware 0.0 73.9 12.2 13.9 63,921Dist. of Columbia 0.0 76.2 — 22.0 66,616Florida 0.0 70.9 18.1 11.0 57,684Georgia 0.0 13.7 68.5 17.8 54,763Hawaii 15.8 50.9 26.9 6.4 53,425Idaho — 67.1 26.1 4.9 45,293Illinois — 68.1 22.5 9.2 56,099Indiana 0.0 54.9 36.3 8.8 54,325Iowa — 75.4 14.8 9.2 48,524Kansas 0.0 70.2 19.2 10.6 49,932Kentucky 0.0 40.2 52.4 7.3 52,279Louisiana 0.0 66.2 27.6 6.1 43,237Maine 7.7 68.6 20.1 3.6 46,769Maryland 0.0 78.3 12.4 9.3 64,258Massachusetts — 66.6 17.5 14.2 56,960Michigan 0.3 61.9 25.9 11.9 62,516Minnesota 2.5 19.8 69.0 8.8 55,500Mississippi — 58.2 34.5 6.8 40,930
Table A33.—Percentage of public school principals by highest degree earned and average salary, by state: 1993-94

(continued)

State Average salary Bachelor’s Master’s Ed. Sp./prof. Doctorate

Highest degree

A-59

Missouri 0.0 53.0 34.8 12.1 47,529Montana 4.7 86.0 6.5 2.5 42,323Nebraska — 59.1 30.1 9.1 45,569Nevada — 69.8 14.5 13.9 60,677New Hampshire — 69.3 16.2 12.1 51,193New Jersey — 72.9 16.5 10.2 75,863New Mexico — 73.7 21.1 4.4 42,068New York 0.0 40.8 47.4 11.8 69,938North Carolina 0.0 46.0 42.3 11.7 50,548North Dakota 31.4 59.7 5.7 3.2 36,101Ohio 0.0 80.8 13.4 5.8 53,409Oklahoma — 71.6 23.9 3.7 41,599Oregon — 61.5 30.3 6.2 51,798Pennsylvania — 63.7 27.5 8.6 60,995Rhode Island 0.0 73.1 15.1 11.8 56,608South Carolina 0.0 53.9 34.3 11.7 50,804South Dakota 0.0 82.2 15.6 2.1 37,063Tennessee — 67.2 22.4 8.3 44,774Texas 1.0 75.6 18.2 5.2 45,205Utah 3.1 55.4 32.7 8.8 47,920Vermont 10.5 63.5 17.5 8.5 49,233Virginia 0.0 76.7 15.2 7.9 54,801Washington — 75.7 14.5 7.1 60,782West Virginia 0.0 84.0 14.0 2.0 44,091Wisconsin — 68.1 19.9 10.0 54,956Wyoming — 68.8 21.9 6.8 47,649— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding or cell suppression.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School PrincipalQuestionnaire).
See footnote at end of table.

A-60

Table A34.—Percentage of public school principals by employment benefits received, by state: 1993-94

State Medical insurance Dental insurance insurance plan In-kind benefits

Employment benefit

Life Retirement

1

Total 91.8 66.1 70.7 70.4 46.3

Alabama 77.3 32.1 37.2 52.2 19.9Alaska 99.1 98.2 89.2 84.0 43.7Arizona 98.2 83.8 91.7 79.1 38.9Arkansas 51.9 43.1 32.5 32.4 41.3California 99.8 98.4 68.9 78.0 40.5Colorado 96.3 84.8 85.9 82.5 48.7Connecticut 98.1 96.4 93.1 46.0 49.6Delaware 97.9 72.4 90.9 82.3 55.3Dist. of Columbia 77.3 77.5 54.7 82.3 1.6Florida 95.5 48.9 87.8 77.1 28.2Georgia 86.9 59.5 80.7 79.0 40.8Hawaii 90.5 79.0 70.4 67.1 30.6Idaho 98.3 83.0 74.2 64.1 52.7Illinois 93.9 57.8 72.3 69.4 49.9Indiana 98.3 66.6 97.5 79.7 23.0Iowa 97.9 50.9 83.5 63.4 50.0Kansas 62.8 30.5 34.4 30.6 54.3Kentucky 88.1 27.2 70.1 52.3 25.2Louisiana 75.9 21.3 57.2 61.2 38.8Maine 88.3 43.6 46.5 58.0 93.1Maryland 96.1 87.0 89.1 83.5 60.5Massachusetts 91.0 21.9 62.4 52.2 44.7Michigan 97.2 99.0 96.6 79.7 50.9Minnesota 97.5 60.9 79.7 71.8 51.5Mississippi 55.2 3.5 19.0 32.9 25.0
Table A34.—Percentage of public school principals by employment benefits received, by state: 1993-94 (continued)

State Medical insurance Dental insurance insurance plan In-kind benefits

Employment benefit

Life Retirement

1

A-61

Missouri 94.5 48.2 69.2 74.2 53.8Montana 94.5 49.0 47.2 67.4 48.6Nebraska 80.1 67.7 44.9 60.0 60.7Nevada 100.0 93.4 88.8 88.1 22.9New Hampshire 96.6 86.7 87.0 68.2 83.2New Jersey 99.9 98.3 71.3 89.0 74.2New Mexico 91.4 77.6 89.0 86.6 25.8New York 96.9 82.6 52.5 86.6 23.2North Carolina 88.8 38.9 55.7 74.5 52.1North Dakota 92.5 28.3 37.0 60.4 56.4Ohio 97.3 93.0 97.1 86.9 50.3Oklahoma 60.3 36.4 42.0 53.3 21.8Oregon 97.3 97.1 74.5 87.0 83.7Pennsylvania 100.0 99.1 92.4 90.4 80.9Rhode Island 98.5 98.5 86.1 83.2 39.4South Carolina 94.0 94.8 85.2 71.9 54.5South Dakota 96.4 46.1 51.4 64.0 57.3Tennessee 86.8 51.3 59.3 62.8 14.0Texas 85.9 26.6 54.2 32.0 36.8Utah 96.8 43.5 83.4 84.3 58.7Vermont 86.3 78.0 72.2 40.1 86.5Virginia 94.2 30.3 88.9 86.5 60.9Washington 100.0 98.8 69.6 79.8 43.9West Virginia 90.6 75.7 68.5 76.5 16.4Wisconsin 100.0 92.9 79.9 94.7 87.4Wyoming 96.1 66.2 84.6 86.9 47.4

In-kind benefits include housing, meals, tuition, and transportation. 1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
B-1

Appendix B • Tables of Standard Errors 

Section Page

1 Public and Private School Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3

2 Affiliation/Technology Tables for Private Schools ......................... B-49

3 State Tables for Public Schools ....................................... B-55
B-3

Section 1 • Public and Private School

Tables
B-4

Table B1.—Standard errors for Table A1: Number and percentage of public and private school principals, by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

All

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Principal characteristics Number Percent Number Percent Number PercentTotal 768.1 0.00 440.9 0.00 338.0 0.00Sex

Male 699.6 0.53 732.2 0.63 663.7 0.58Female 636.8 0.53 656.0 0.63 601.9 0.58

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 131.1 0.13 95.4 0.09 74.5 0.07Asian/Pacific Islander 92.1 0.09 126.8 0.12 118.0 0.11Black non-Hispanic 289.7 0.28 325.6 0.32 374.3 0.36White non-Hispanic 768.3 0.35 582.2 0.44 625.0 0.44Hispanic 232.0 0.22 284.6 0.27 264.8 0.25

Total minority 373.8 0.35 455.7 0.44 446.5 0.44Age

Under 35 296.2 0.28 348.1 0.34 288.6 0.2735-39 529.8 0.46 489.0 0.47 330.3 0.3140-44 517.4 0.46 606.0 0.59 496.7 0.4645-49 461.2 0.46 580.2 0.55 468.7 0.4550-54 366.8 0.35 528.0 0.52 524.7 0.5155 or over 409.8 0.40 505.4 0.48 476.4 0.44

Average age 0.1 0.1 0.1
B-5

Table B1.—Standard errors for Table A1: Number and percentage of public and private school principals, by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Public Private

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Principal characteristics Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number PercentTotal 295.1 0.00 216.9 0.00 235.2 0.00 715.4 0.00 390.3 0.00 197.7 0.00Sex

Male 457.7 0.51 551.3 0.69 612.9 0.70 557.7 1.44 382.4 1.16 301.4 1.10Female 407.8 0.51 559.5 0.69 542.4 0.70 451.8 1.44 283.3 1.16 282.8 1.10

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 119.0 0.15 85.7 0.11 67.3 0.08 46.2 0.18 42.8 0.18 36.6 0.15Asian/Pacific Islander 50.9 0.06 101.6 0.13 108.6 0.14 75.6 0.29 48.9 0.20 42.5 0.17Black non-Hispanic 236.0 0.30 294.6 0.37 350.9 0.45 134.0 0.54 123.9 0.52 124.0 0.50White non-Hispanic 393.0 0.36 430.0 0.50 539.5 0.54 693.7 0.89 390.7 0.65 269.6 0.70Hispanic 139.8 0.18 265.9 0.34 258.2 0.33 168.2 0.65 75.6 0.30 91.0 0.37

Total minority 277.4 0.36 395.0 0.50 413.2 0.54 232.6 0.89 158.6 0.65 173.9 0.70Age

Under 35 205.6 0.26 250.3 0.32 142.0 0.18 257.7 0.98 231.7 0.94 229.3 0.9035-39 327.0 0.41 387.9 0.48 275.3 0.34 336.7 1.05 222.2 0.92 213.2 0.8740-44 364.6 0.45 554.1 0.71 454.8 0.56 373.5 1.31 277.5 1.07 230.6 0.8845-49 375.5 0.48 544.3 0.66 418.0 0.53 266.3 0.99 223.4 0.89 223.9 0.9050-54 335.1 0.43 431.6 0.55 470.9 0.60 207.8 0.71 234.2 0.98 199.9 0.8055 or over 335.1 0.43 395.4 0.51 403.0 0.50 210.1 0.86 219.3 0.87 249.2 0.97

Average age 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
B-6

Table B2.—Standard errors for Table A2: Percentage of public and private school principals by geographic region, by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Geographic region

Northeast Midwest South West

PUBLIC

Total number 125.2 66.9 91.6 164.3 157.4 151.9 146.3 105.1 98.3 158.7 78.4 93.8Sex

Male 0.99 1.89 1.58 1.03 1.33 1.22 0.88 1.03 0.96 1.31 1.27 1.69Female 0.99 1.89 1.58 1.03 1.33 1.22 0.88 1.03 0.96 1.31 1.27 1.69

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.35 0.08 0.11 0.27 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.26 0.14 0.34 0.30 0.20Asian/Pacific Islander 0.10 0.26 0.11 — — — 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.31 0.48 0.58Black non-Hispanic 0.70 0.74 1.12 0.39 0.53 0.63 0.65 0.70 0.67 0.54 0.72 0.95White non-Hispanic 0.78 0.88 1.25 0.45 0.61 0.70 0.68 0.97 0.94 0.88 1.52 1.15Hispanic 0.41 0.62 0.55 0.21 0.26 0.25 0.33 0.52 0.66 0.58 1.34 1.04

Total minority 0.78 0.88 1.25 0.45 0.61 0.70 0.68 0.97 0.94 0.88 1.52 1.15

Age

Under 35 0.43 0.23 0.19 0.63 0.67 0.40 0.40 0.37 0.29 0.64 0.54 0.5035-39 0.90 0.77 0.59 0.65 1.01 0.65 0.90 0.67 0.50 0.92 1.13 0.7640-44 1.06 2.00 1.53 0.85 1.20 1.00 0.88 1.10 1.11 1.18 1.23 1.4545-49 1.10 1.37 1.60 0.96 1.05 1.00 1.00 1.06 1.12 1.15 1.65 1.5050-54 1.03 1.59 1.68 0.97 1.15 1.09 0.71 0.77 1.03 1.12 1.32 1.3755 or over 0.99 1.15 1.48 0.97 1.02 0.95 0.86 0.87 0.74 1.29 1.13 1.37

Average age 0.18 0.25 0.27 0.20 0.23 0.16 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.22 0.22 0.23
Table B2.—Standard errors for Table A2: Percentage of public and private school principals by geographic region, by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Geographic region

Northeast Midwest South West

B-7

PRIVATE

Total number 381.7 178.7 219.2 353.5 332.7 144.4 482.0 295.0 205.9 266.5 163.5 184.4Sex

Male 3.29 1.82 3.00 2.18 2.29 1.67 3.30 1.91 1.94 3.17 2.92 2.10Female 3.29 1.82 3.00 2.18 2.29 1.67 3.30 1.91 1.94 3.17 2.92 2.10

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — — — — — — — — — — —Asian/Pacific Islander — — — — — — — — — — — —Black non-Hispanic 1.48 0.90 0.74 0.59 0.73 0.71 0.82 0.70 0.99 0.90 1.46 1.20White non-Hispanic 1.50 1.12 1.00 0.86 0.91 0.80 2.52 1.06 1.07 1.93 2.32 1.62Hispanic 0.62 0.61 0.65 0.62 0.46 0.63 2.13 0.76 0.56 1.17 1.14 0.90

Total minority 1.50 1.12 1.00 0.86 0.91 0.80 2.51 1.06 1.07 1.93 2.32 1.62

Age

Under 35 1.82 1.13 1.93 2.12 2.02 1.36 1.51 1.71 1.63 1.63 1.75 1.6535-39 2.20 1.48 2.14 2.05 1.80 1.38 2.41 2.06 1.42 2.36 2.21 1.9740-44 2.36 1.99 2.10 1.67 2.52 1.46 2.80 1.91 1.46 2.34 1.95 2.0245-49 2.09 1.99 2.27 2.00 2.02 1.46 2.12 1.44 1.72 2.04 1.98 2.2350-54 1.47 1.78 1.44 1.20 2.40 1.36 1.97 1.70 1.40 1.80 1.90 2.2455 or over 2.25 1.94 3.03 1.69 1.78 1.23 2.24 1.60 1.73 2.40 2.10 2.44

Average age 0.68 0.44 0.66 0.38 0.48 0.33 0.52 0.46 0.48 0.51 0.55 0.53

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
B-8

Table B3.—Standard errors for Table A3: Percentage of public school principals by district size, by sex, race-ethnicity, and

age of principals: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

District size

Less than 1,000 1,000-4,999 5,000-9,999 10,000 or more

Sex

Male 1.29 1.50 1.48 1.08 1.15 1.45 1.57 1.78 1.64 1.12 1.13 1.41Female 1.29 1.50 1.48 1.08 1.15 1.45 1.57 1.78 1.64 1.12 1.13 1.41

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.60 0.53 0.33 0.17 0.14 0.14 0.28 0.26 0.32 0.14 0.19 0.12Asian/Pacific Islander 0.00 — 0.35 0.08 — 0.01 — 0.45 0.51 0.22 0.26 0.33Black non-Hispanic 0.27 0.36 0.30 0.34 0.33 0.45 0.98 0.82 1.06 0.89 0.93 1.10White non-Hispanic 0.81 0.73 0.57 0.38 0.48 0.58 1.14 1.49 1.47 0.89 1.13 1.29Hispanic 0.43 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.44 0.39 0.56 1.12 1.14 0.54 0.79 0.89

Total minority 0.81 0.73 0.57 0.38 0.48 0.58 1.14 1.49 1.47 0.89 1.13 1.29Age

Under 35 0.78 0.90 0.68 0.60 0.54 0.40 0.78 0.58 0.54 0.41 0.28 0.2235-39 1.26 1.26 0.94 0.95 0.81 0.69 1.01 1.23 0.93 0.72 0.66 0.4940-44 1.64 1.52 1.44 0.92 1.32 1.05 1.61 1.76 1.63 1.01 1.02 0.9745-49 1.27 1.33 1.11 0.95 1.10 1.14 1.61 1.84 2.00 1.00 1.08 1.4150-54 1.31 1.09 1.34 0.83 0.96 1.11 1.47 1.45 1.45 0.84 0.95 1.0455 or over 1.36 1.14 1.44 0.82 0.91 0.89 1.39 1.30 1.65 0.98 0.91 0.96Average age 0.28 0.30 0.28 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.28 0.25 0.28 0.16 0.17 0.14

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Teacher Demand andShortage Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public School Administrator and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public School Principal and TeacherDemand and Shortage Questionnaires).
B-9

Table B4.—Standard errors for Table A4: Percentage of public school principals by community type, by sex, race-ethnicity,

and age: 1993-94

Principal characteristics Central city Urban fringe/large town Rural/small town

Community type

Total number 287.5 369.3 326.9Sex

Male 1.51 1.31 0.93Female 1.51 1.31 0.93

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.18 0.14 0.13Asian/Pacific Islander 0.32 0.36 0.05Black non-Hispanic 1.34 0.83 0.28White non-Hispanic 1.68 1.06 0.34Hispanic 1.06 0.74 0.26

Total minority 1.68 1.06 0.34Age

Under 35 0.26 0.26 0.2835-39 0.73 0.61 0.5240-44 1.08 1.17 0.8445-49 1.68 1.30 0.8950-54 1.19 1.21 0.8455 or over 1.15 0.88 0.76

Average age 0.17 0.15 0.15SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
B-10

Table B5.—Standard errors for Table A5: Percentage of public school principals by percentage of free or reduced-price lunch

recipients in their schools, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age of principals: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Percentage of free or reduced-price lunch recipients in schools

Less than 20% 20-49% 50% or more

Sex

Male 0.81 1.04 1.17 0.75 1.16 1.15 1.33 1.38 1.47Female 0.81 1.04 1.17 0.75 1.16 1.15 1.33 1.38 1.47

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.16 0.20 0.18 0.25 0.19 0.12 0.38 0.24 0.17Asian/Pacific Islander 0.05 0.11 0.20 0.12 0.19 0.21 0.26 0.44 0.33Black non-Hispanic 0.41 0.40 0.44 0.44 0.51 0.55 1.22 0.97 1.17White non-Hispanic 0.47 0.55 0.63 0.55 0.55 0.60 1.24 1.42 1.51Hispanic 0.23 0.34 0.34 0.19 0.38 0.37 0.66 1.09 1.06

Total minority 0.47 0.55 0.63 0.55 0.55 0.60 1.24 1.42 1.51Age

Under 35 0.39 0.41 0.30 0.59 0.54 0.29 0.54 0.42 0.4335-39 0.66 0.66 0.63 0.72 0.66 0.75 1.15 0.95 0.6540-44 0.65 1.10 0.93 0.87 1.10 1.11 1.14 1.24 1.0845-49 0.76 1.10 1.09 0.93 0.94 0.90 1.25 1.16 1.2350-54 0.68 0.97 1.16 0.70 0.90 1.11 0.90 1.24 1.3155 or over 0.63 1.02 0.78 0.70 0.72 0.84 1.16 1.34 1.18

Average age 0.12 0.18 0.13 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.25 0.25 0.22SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Public SchoolQuestionnaires), 1990-91 (Public School Administrator and School Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public School Principal and School Questionnaires).
B-11

Table B6.—Standard errors for Table A6: Percentage of public and private school principals by school level, by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

School level

 Elementary Secondary Combined

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94PUBLIC

Sex

Male 0.74 0.86 0.99 0.54 0.79 0.66 1.53 1.86 1.85Female 0.74 0.86 0.99 0.54 0.79 0.66 1.53 1.86 1.85

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.17 0.12 0.12 0.25 0.27 0.14 0.60 0.40 0.39Asian/Pacific Islander 0.09 0.19 0.20 0.14 0.10 0.09 0.13 0.12 0.18Black non-Hispanic 0.46 0.50 0.58 0.38 0.45 0.38 1.03 1.02 0.65White non-Hispanic 0.44 0.66 0.79 0.53 0.58 0.57 1.03 1.41 1.04Hispanic 0.24 0.43 0.48 0.32 0.33 0.39 0.28 0.74 0.75

Total minority 0.44 0.66 0.79 0.53 0.58 0.57 1.03 1.41 1.04Age

Under 35 0.41 0.43 0.23 0.34 0.29 0.26 0.79 1.27 0.4935-39 0.62 0.62 0.49 0.73 0.60 0.44 1.22 1.76 0.6040-44 0.53 0.95 0.80 1.04 1.00 0.77 1.41 2.02 1.7045-49 0.67 0.90 0.67 0.72 1.00 0.73 1.15 1.56 3.1950-54 0.52 0.75 0.76 0.75 0.71 0.74 1.26 2.11 2.9355 or over 0.56 0.76 0.69 0.68 0.86 0.58 1.13 1.38 1.52

Average age 0.11 0.16 0.12 0.13 0.16 0.10 0.23 0.39 0.26
Table B6.—Standard errors for Table A6: Percentage of public and private school principals by school level, by sex,

race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School level

 Elementary Secondary Combined

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

B-12

PRIVATE

Sex

Male 1.75 1.57 1.79 4.07 2.54 2.91 2.79 2.23 2.62Female 1.75 1.57 1.79 4.07 2.54 2.91 2.79 2.23 2.62

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — — — — — — — —Asian/Pacific Islander — — — — — — — — —Black non-Hispanic 0.67 0.70 0.82 0.89 0.62 0.58 0.99 0.75 0.62White non-Hispanic 0.88 0.80 1.00 2.98 1.12 0.84 1.59 1.33 1.20Hispanic 0.52 0.41 0.44 3.08 0.83 0.66 1.06 0.74 0.92

Total minority 0.88 0.80 1.00 2.98 1.12 0.84 1.59 1.33 1.20Age

Under 35 1.08 1.22 1.09 2.09 1.00 0.71 2.21 2.07 2.1235-39 1.36 1.14 1.05 2.56 2.12 2.53 2.34 2.50 2.1940-44 1.41 1.31 1.13 4.00 2.55 2.30 2.95 2.67 1.9845-49 1.47 1.17 1.29 2.67 2.48 1.94 2.32 2.10 1.8750-54 0.99 1.47 0.86 2.41 1.80 3.14 1.74 1.75 1.7155 or over 1.15 1.31 1.52 3.23 2.08 1.51 2.26 1.48 1.96

Average age 0.26 0.36 0.36 0.81 0.50 0.49 0.56 0.49 0.55

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
B-13

Table B7.—Standard errors for Table A7: Percentage of public and private school principals with less than three years of

experience as a principal, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Public Private

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94Total number 417.9 542.4 462.2 385.2 358.5 304.1Sex

Male 1.66 1.51 1.67 3.24 2.76 3.20Female 1.66 1.51 1.67 3.24 2.76 3.20

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.27 0.14 0.21 0.13 0.09 0.22Asian/Pacific Islander 0.19 0.26 0.22 0.32 0.05 0.39Black non-Hispanic 0.74 0.91 1.03 0.90 0.98 0.90White non-Hispanic 1.00 1.22 1.25 1.44 1.21 1.30Hispanic 0.73 0.67 0.74 1.04 0.70 0.74

Total minority 1.00 1.22 1.25 1.44 1.21 1.30Age

Under 35 1.07 0.93 0.59 2.30 2.48 2.8835-39 1.29 1.22 1.04 2.63 2.27 2.2140-44 1.43 1.45 1.28 2.54 2.14 2.3445-49 1.10 1.16 1.35 2.54 1.97 1.4050-54 0.79 0.92 1.10 1.66 2.31 1.4555 or over 0.49 0.61 0.76 0.49 1.32 1.12

Average age 0.17 0.19 0.18 0.52 0.54 0.58SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
B-14

Table B8.—Standard errors for Table A8: Average salary of public and private school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by highest degree earned and years of experience as a principal: 1993-94Principal characteristics principals principals minority Male Female AK Nat. Pac. Isl. non-Hispanic non-Hispanic Hispanic

Total

number of All Total Am. Ind./ Asian/ Black White

Sex Race-ethnicity

PUBLIC

All degrees

All 235.2 $126.6 $160.0 $275.8 $1,733.8 $1,425.3 $454.5 $137.9 $798.3 $424.7Fewer than 3 years 462.2 332.4 472.6 544.8 1,772.7 1,740.9 891.2 339.4 1,328.8 703.63 to 9 years 570.7 283.8 276.0 476.3 2,183.9 2,068.6 651.5 304.0 1,141.5 622.610 years or more 483.5 303.4 310.2 643.3 2,854.6 1,414.2 869.6 330.8 1,306.9 700.2

Less than bachelor's

All — — — — — — — — — —Fewer than 3 years — — — — — — — — — —3 to 9 years — — — — — — — — — —10 years or more — — — — — — — — — —

Bachelor's

All 167.6 1,506.5 1,675.5 2,239.4 — — — 1,541.0 — 1,949.4Fewer than 3 years 75.0 2,224.7 4,039.9 2,925.0 — — — 2,317.9 — 6,441.13 to 9 years 118.6 2,109.4 1,349.2 2,321.7 — — — 2,505.1 — 3,646.110 years or more 49.7 3,277.6 2,493.4 6,249.8 — — — 3,442.7 — 1,541.0

Master's

All 536.3 162.6 185.1 316.6 1,375.3 1,510.8 614.6 193.2 925.6 505.6Fewer than 3 years 389.2 435.3 560.3 715.1 2,201.5 1,862.3 1,130.9 465.1 1,600.2 801.63 to 9 years 478.2 329.6 308.7 564.2 2,478.8 2,396.5 883.8 337.5 1,308.8 823.510 years or more 434.6 347.8 377.6 862.9 1,899.6 1,745.2 1,115.5 400.6 1,437.7 784.9

Ed. spec./prof. dipl.

All 458.8 306.0 393.9 420.8 4,752.0 2,788.1 976.7 323.8 1,967.3 923.1Fewer than 3 years 231.7 607.2 895.6 748.7 8,336.1 1,972.6 1,653.9 703.8 2,305.4 1,357.33 to 9 years 359.1 452.4 552.1 761.3 1,187.5 2,758.3 1,337.4 504.6 3,252.5 1,207.010 years or more 332.9 589.2 620.4 972.9 8,717.1 1,900.4 2,315.9 572.8 3,601.5 2,184.0

Doctorate

All 263.3 676.5 885.8 939.7 — — 924.9 781.9 2,754.0 969.2Fewer than 3 years 109.5 946.4 1,400.6 1,424.5 — — 3,690.9 1,096.7 5,726.7 3,363.53 to 9 years 203.8 1,208.1 1,797.4 1,551.3 — — 1,679.6 1,434.4 5,276.2 1,536.810 years or more 233.2 936.1 1,103.4 1,310.2 — — 1,504.0 1,096.8 3,234.3 1,276.6
Table B8.—Standard errors for Table A8: Average salary of public and private school principals by sex and race-ethnicity,

by highest degree earned and years of experience as a principal: 1993-94 (continued)

Principal characteristics principals principals minority Male Female AK Nat. Pac. Isl. non-Hispanic non-Hispanic Hispanic

Total

number of All Total Am. Ind./ Asian/ Black White

Sex Race-ethnicity

B-15

PRIVATE

All degrees

All 197.6 $363.4 $564.6 $607.6 $1,926.3 $5,748.4 $2,476.1 $400.5 $1,957.7 $1,545.9Fewer than 3 years 304.1 891.3 1,631.9 1,249.7 — 8,073.6 4,742.2 964.8 4,436.2 3,457.83 to 9 years 288.3 653.8 991.3 954.7 2,254.8 40,528.7 3,435.5 671.8 2,212.9 2,359.710 years or more 304.6 475.6 811.0 793.4 11,268.7 10,963.0 3,531.8 497.3 3,317.7 2,457.4

Less than bachelor's

All 251.0 2,177.0 1,242.8 3,435.5 — — — 2,354.9 — —Fewer than 3 years 151.1 1,724.7 1,637.4 3,880.9 — — — 1,757.1 — —3 to 9 years 143.4 1,680.4 3,148.4 1,964.2 — — — 1,942.3 — —10 years or more 204.4 5,737.9 2,078.0 — — — — 5,768.8 — —

Bachelor's

All 333.6 973.4 1,040.7 1,384.5 — — 2,920.0 1,046.1 3,749.3 2,640.3Fewer than 3 years 221.8 1,223.8 1,932.8 1,606.8 — — 4,270.2 1,256.0 5,250.0 3,509.63 to 9 years 234.5 1,704.3 1,471.7 2,587.1 — — 3,317.0 1,799.6 6,165.0 3,722.710 years or more 136.2 1,419.0 2,350.3 1,707.3 — — 8,658.1 1,492.3 — 4,969.2

Master's

All 292.5 391.5 733.1 487.2 — — 1,918.9 426.1 2,677.8 1,573.2Fewer than 3 years 185.3 835.3 1,232.9 934.2 — — 4,070.1 898.0 6,721.2 3,215.73 to 9 years 184.0 827.3 1,408.9 793.6 — — 4,157.7 889.5 2,607.0 2,690.510 years or more 207.0 673.8 912.6 1,003.2 — — 3,926.3 665.0 4,652.8 2,842.3

Ed. spec./prof. dipl.

All 103.2 885.6 1,571.9 1,215.0 — — — 811.4 — —Fewer than 3 years 50.8 2,532.3 2,662.5 4,024.8 — — — 2,532.3 — —3 to 9 years 85.2 1,415.8 2,781.2 1,607.0 — — — 1,080.2 — —10 years or more 68.0 1,290.3 1,975.8 1,699.2 — — — 1,331.3 — —

Doctorate

All 138.4 1,507.4 1,839.7 2,725.8 — — — 1,313.5 — —Fewer than 3 years 34.9 5,488.2 7,374.4 3,379.5 — — — 4,084.1 — —3 to 9 years 78.8 2,159.2 2,220.5 5,910.5 — — — 2,049.7 — —10 years or more 91.7 1,961.8 2,785.0 3,661.3 — — — 1,671.1 — —

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public and Private School PrincipalQuestionnaires).
B-16

Table B9.—Standard errors for Table A9: Average salary of public and private school principals, by school level and

community type: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

All Public Private

School characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94School level

Elementary $201.2 $149.8 $171.6 $166.4 $147.3 $168.5 $356.6 $357.1 $444.3Secondary 213.9 227.2 183.1 153.5 184.1 167.1 1,141.9 1,634.8 784.1Combined 641.1 594.9 859.0 369.4 384.7 510.6 894.6 825.6 1,110.3

Community type

Central city 373.4 288.5 292.4 202.1 273.8 249.8 514.5 611.3 555.4Urban fringe/large town 346.6 356.2 335.4 193.2 250.1 287.5 817.9 644.0 549.4Rural 249.2 186.2 228.1 178.2 147.9 178.2 707.7 763.1 834.9

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Public SchoolQuestionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator and Public and Private School Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal andPublic and Private School Questionnaires).
See footnote at end of table.

B-17

Table B10.—Standard errors for Table A10: Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received, by

community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal/school characteristics insurance insurance insurance plan benefits insurance insurance insurance plan benefits

1987-88 1990-91

Benefits Benefits

Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind

1 1

PUBLIC Total 0.45 0.45 0.55 0.67 0.55 0.32 0.58 0.62 0.56 0.58Sex

Male 0.48 0.55 0.58 0.78 0.59 0.46 0.73 0.64 0.79 0.66Female 0.97 1.47 1.33 1.30 1.26 0.79 1.17 1.30 1.12 1.31

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 4.83 5.57 4.51 4.72 6.25 7.33 7.17 7.46 8.68 8.40Asian/Pacific Islander 5.41 5.92 5.74 6.41 6.59 1.95 3.49 5.70 8.49 7.64Black non-Hispanic 1.66 2.23 2.50 2.00 1.63 1.78 1.84 1.83 2.10 1.98White non-Hispanic 0.51 0.52 0.59 0.70 0.64 0.38 0.64 0.69 0.62 0.64Hispanic 3.61 3.35 3.69 3.71 3.59 3.02 3.38 4.05 2.99 4.03

Total minority 1.35 1.67 1.38 1.55 1.38 1.23 1.53 1.63 1.72 1.77Community type

Central city 0.75 0.86 0.93 1.18 1.20 0.84 0.92 1.23 1.01 1.50Urban fringe/large town 0.83 1.02 1.17 1.39 1.16 0.72 0.96 1.20 1.34 1.46Rural/small town 0.60 0.83 0.81 1.09 0.96 0.54 0.78 0.90 0.88 0.88

School level

Elementary 0.58 0.62 0.68 0.93 0.76 0.42 0.75 0.90 0.76 0.78Secondary 0.64 0.76 0.84 1.12 0.82 0.57 0.68 0.87 0.76 1.02Combined 1.28 1.78 1.71 1.88 1.61 1.84 2.15 2.28 2.34 2.00
Table B10.—Standard errors for Table A10: Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received, by

community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

See footnote at end of table.

B-18

Principal/school characteristics insurance insurance insurance plan benefits

1993-94

Benefits

Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind

1

PUBLIC Total 0.28 0.49 0.66 0.60 0.60Sex

Male 0.30 0.58 0.72 0.68 0.76Female 0.63 1.09 1.28 1.20 1.06

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 4.81 5.06 5.28 6.25 5.77Asian/Pacific Islander 0.74 3.38 4.36 6.73 9.86Black non-Hispanic 0.95 1.47 2.05 1.65 1.62White non-Hispanic 0.31 0.58 0.65 0.71 0.61Hispanic 1.66 4.19 3.56 3.93 4.29

Total minority 0.86 1.38 1.73 1.53 1.52Community type

Central city 0.62 0.97 1.40 1.39 1.45Urban fringe/large town 0.46 0.78 0.93 1.18 1.15Rural/small town 0.50 0.68 0.91 0.90 0.95

School level

Elementary 0.41 0.67 0.85 0.77 0.78Secondary 0.36 0.59 0.65 0.81 0.81Combined 1.62 2.96 3.08 2.33 2.55
Table B10.—Standard errors for Table A10: Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received, by

community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

See footnote at end of table.

B-19

Principal/school characteristics insurance insurance insurance plan benefits insurance insurance insurance plan benefits

1987-88 1990-91

Benefits Benefits

Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind

1 1

PRIVATE Total 1.66 1.27 1.21 1.28 1.12 1.35 1.14 1.17 1.08 1.53Sex

Male 2.02 1.87 2.02 2.17 2.02 2.41 1.85 1.67 2.05 2.49Female 2.39 1.73 1.47 1.89 1.63 1.50 1.40 1.79 1.27 1.53

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — — — — —— — — —

Asian/Pacific Islander — — — — — — — —— —Black non-Hispanic 6.40 5.99 5.77 5.55 8.45 8.14 6.65 6.29 6.66 9.71White non-Hispanic 1.77 1.34 1.30 1.39 1.25 1.39 1.14 1.22 1.15 1.60Hispanic 9.37 7.28 10.71 12.34 8.90 5.29 8.75 8.63 7.14 6.98

Total minority 5.14 4.40 4.70 4.21 4.78 5.60 5.61 4.75 4.64 5.23Community type

Central city 1.97 2.21 1.92 2.24 1.99 2.09 1.89 1.77 1.97 1.73Urban fringe/large town 2.86 1.75 2.24 2.51 1.90 2.01 1.98 1.89 2.24 2.51Rural/small town 3.98 2.67 2.30 3.32 2.69 2.84 2.14 2.61 3.40 3.41

School level

Elementary 1.92 1.57 1.47 1.53 1.62 1.72 1.34 1.48 1.48 1.81Secondary 2.80 3.85 4.45 4.43 3.91 2.37 2.74 2.88 2.93 3.14Combined 3.06 2.28 2.59 2.59 2.89 2.82 2.34 2.13 2.25 2.77
Table B10.—Standard errors for Table A10: Percentage of public and private school principals by benefits received, by

community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

B-20

Principal/school characteristics insurance insurance insurance plan benefits

1993-94

Benefits

Medical Dental Life Retirement In-kind

1

PRIVATE Total 1.41 1.17 1.02 0.96 1.34Sex

Male 2.12 1.41 1.33 1.55 2.02Female 1.88 1.74 1.52 1.37 2.02

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 20.01 10.41 18.35 13.19 14.88Asian/Pacific Islander 18.40 14.95 12.79 15.02 18.40Black non-Hispanic 4.88 4.52 4.26 4.63 4.82White non-Hispanic 1.55 1.25 1.07 1.15 1.40Hispanic 6.97 7.78 7.85 7.16 7.15

Total minority 3.79 3.78 3.90 3.22 4.38Community type

Central city 1.81 1.67 1.64 1.58 1.40Urban fringe/large town 2.49 2.40 2.02 1.99 2.47Rural/small town 2.60 1.92 1.84 2.27 2.80

School level

Elementary 1.92 1.63 1.38 1.43 1.66Secondary 3.37 3.58 3.21 2.65 2.75Combined 2.76 1.99 2.27 2.26 2.78

In-kind benefits include housing, meals, tuition, and transportation. 1

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Public andPrivate School Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator and School Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal andSchool Questionnaires).
B-21

Table B11.—Standard errors for Table A11: Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by

school level, school size, minority enrollment, free-lunch recipients, district size, and community type: 1987-88,1990-91, and 1993-94

School characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

1987-1988

School level

Elementary 0.06 0.34 0.77 0.68 0.47 1.25 1.69 1.88 1.13 0.63Secondary 0.08 0.22 1.00 0.93 0.49 0.27 3.71 3.65 2.61 1.53Combined 0.00 0.75 2.05 1.63 1.31 2.05 3.21 3.05 1.32 1.39

School size

Less than 150 — 1.98 2.19 1.86 1.36 1.82 2.23 2.42 1.14 0.67150-499 — 0.21 0.68 0.70 0.52 0.60 1.88 1.91 1.48 0.73500-749 — 0.22 1.27 1.15 0.76 — 1.32 4.94 4.21 2.70750 or more 0.11 0.18 1.26 1.31 0.67 — 2.29 5.23 4.21 3.67

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.05 0.33 0.80 0.66 0.45 1.26 1.93 2.01 0.82 0.6720-50% 0.00 0.65 1.60 1.28 0.97 1.36 3.20 3.66 2.73 1.55More than 50% — 0.25 1.48 1.41 0.81 0.78 3.58 3.83 2.70 1.53

Free-lunch recipients

Less than 20% 0.06 0.42 0.94 0.82 0.55 1.14 1.76 1.73 0.93 0.6420-49% — 0.38 1.09 1.02 0.54 0.40 3.43 4.99 4.40 1.0650% or more 0.18 0.40 1.37 1.49 0.80 2.06 4.32 5.23 3.91 2.98

District size

Less than 1,000 — 0.95 1.26 1.33 0.70 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)1,000-4,999 — 0.42 0.92 0.93 0.62 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)5,000-9,999 — 0.55 1.68 1.62 0.95 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)10,000 or more — 0.24 0.99 0.95 0.73 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)

Community type

Central city — 0.38 1.36 1.26 0.75 1.16 1.69 2.18 1.18 0.79Urban fringe/large town — 0.23 1.08 0.99 0.60 1.10 2.47 2.49 1.79 0.64Rural/small town 0.09 0.45 0.71 0.73 1.00 2.60 3.70 3.55 1.45 0.53
Table B11.—Standard errors for Table A11: Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by

school level, school size, minority enrollment, free-lunch recipients, district size, and community type: 1987-88,1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

See footnote at end of table.

B-22

1990-1991

School level

Elementary 0.00 0.28 0.95 0.78 0.58 1.65 1.48 1.58 1.09 0.58Secondary — 0.31 0.98 0.85 0.68 — 2.21 3.15 2.14 2.33Combined — 0.82 2.42 1.96 1.94 2.18 2.72 2.30 1.16 1.57

School size

Less than 150 — 1.17 2.19 1.52 1.21 2.49 2.08 1.76 1.11 0.76150-499 — 0.29 1.08 0.96 0.63 0.12 1.40 1.83 1.15 0.87500-749 0.00 0.30 1.52 1.24 0.88 — 1.98 3.61 3.50 1.86750 or more 0.00 0.33 1.25 1.10 0.81 0.00 1.63 5.13 3.65 3.02

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% — 0.34 1.03 0.81 0.56 1.87 1.67 1.65 0.90 0.5420-50% — 0.28 1.50 1.21 0.72 1.36 2.48 2.69 1.95 1.45More than 50% 0.00 0.44 1.65 1.64 1.10 1.46 3.13 3.33 2.18 2.44

Free-lunch recipients

Less than 20% — 0.29 1.11 0.95 0.83 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a)20-49% — 0.40 1.18 0.95 0.62 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a)50% or more — 0.31 1.33 1.45 0.84 (a) (a) (a) (a) (a)

District size

Less than 1,000 — 0.75 1.64 1.67 0.77 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)1,000-4,999 — 0.46 1.24 1.20 0.62 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)5,000-9,999 0.00 — 2.14 2.07 1.36 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)10,000 or more 0.00 0.22 1.14 1.06 0.81 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)

Community type

Central city — 0.22 1.44 1.32 0.84 0.94 1.81 2.12 1.15 1.05Urban fringe/large town 0.00 0.41 1.58 1.26 1.03 1.19 2.13 2.33 1.40 1.29Rural/small town — 0.35 0.88 0.81 0.46 3.57 2.77 2.61 1.32 1.03
Table B11.—Standard errors for Table A11: Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by

school level, school size, minority enrollment, free-lunch recipients, district size, and community type: 1987-88,1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s prof. dipl. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

B-23

1993-94

School level

Elementary — 0.28 0.89 0.75 0.43 1.45 1.46 1.73 0.59 0.60Secondary 0.00 0.23 0.70 0.59 0.48 — 1.28 2.87 2.52 1.87Combined 0.00 0.44 2.80 2.23 1.53 2.28 2.74 2.41 0.97 1.16

School size

Less than 150 0.00 1.07 1.77 1.55 1.43 1.89 2.29 1.91 0.74 0.89150-499 — 0.30 1.10 1.05 0.40 0.46 1.07 1.30 0.78 0.63500-749 0.00 0.28 1.43 1.31 0.76 0.30 2.61 2.77 1.66 1.26750 or more 0.00 0.18 1.30 1.11 0.97 — 1.39 2.92 1.52 1.74

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.00 0.30 0.92 0.83 0.51 1.45 1.70 1.58 0.48 0.7320-50% 0.00 0.62 1.62 1.17 0.87 1.93 2.90 3.62 1.53 0.96More than 50% — 0.38 1.44 1.14 1.02 1.39 2.81 3.39 1.97 1.10

Free-lunch recipients

Less than 20% 0.00 0.24 1.01 1.01 0.73 0.00 1.33 1.91 1.30 1.2420-49% 0.00 0.40 1.09 1.11 0.51 2.24 4.30 5.77 2.24 0.8550% or more — 0.43 1.37 1.19 0.90 0.69 7.29 6.65 2.05 2.20

District size

Less than 1,000 — 0.57 1.90 1.46 1.18 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)1,000-4,999 0.00 0.36 1.13 1.19 0.67 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)5,000-9,999 0.00 1.08 1.70 1.35 0.86 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)10,000 or more 0.00 0.05 1.26 0.98 0.76 (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)

Community type

Central city 0.00 0.29 1.33 1.17 0.81 0.71 1.60 1.52 0.80 0.72Urban fringe/large town 0.00 0.48 1.51 1.27 1.00 2.70 2.07 2.80 1.02 1.14Rural/small town — 0.33 1.04 0.83 0.43 2.92 3.11 2.56 0.90 0.86

(a) Item not included on SASS instrument that year.(*) Item not applicable to private school principals.— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator, Public School, andTeacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand and ShortageQuestionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
B-24

Table B12.—Standard errors for Table A12: Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by

race-ethnicity and sex: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s Prof. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s Prof. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

1987-88

Total 0.04 0.25 0.51 0.49 0.35 0.93 1.55 1.56 0.90 0.56Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — 5.97 5.69 4.50 — — 22.20 — —Asian/Pacific Islander — 1.31 5.98 7.31 4.76 — 12.53 11.29 8.11 8.23Black non-Hispanic — — 2.14 2.10 1.21 — 4.89 6.34 4.10 4.62White non-Hispanic — 0.28 0.52 0.45 0.39 0.98 1.71 1.61 0.97 0.56Hispanic — 1.82 4.15 2.76 2.04 — 8.72 8.74 — 2.06

Sex

Male — 0.19 0.54 0.56 0.33 1.44 1.94 2.05 1.00 0.82Female — 0.72 1.22 1.10 0.81 1.18 2.17 1.86 1.35 0.71

1990-91

Total — 0.23 0.70 0.52 0.44 1.19 1.13 1.12 0.76 0.60Race-ethnicity

Amererican Indian/Alaska Native — — 8.57 6.03 7.01 — — 22.70 — —Asian/Pacific Isl. — 2.82 9.14 6.16 3.43 — 12.54 15.74 7.55 14.68Black non-Hispanic — — 2.19 1.96 1.70 6.14 7.62 7.47 2.46 5.93White non-Hispanic — 0.22 0.78 0.64 0.44 1.28 1.23 1.24 0.79 0.60Hispanic — 2.14 3.86 3.58 2.18 1.76 6.96 6.48 4.16 2.70

Sex

Male — 0.28 0.65 0.57 0.36 2.22 1.73 1.61 1.02 1.07Female — 0.38 1.50 1.12 1.10 0.81 1.41 1.72 1.26 0.62
Table B12.—Standard errors for Table A12: Percentage of public and private school principals by highest degree earned, by

race-ethnicity and sex: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Principal characteristics Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s Prof. Doctorate Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s Prof. Doctorate

Highest degree

Public Private

Less than Ed. Sp./ Less than Ed. Sp./

B-25

1993-94

Total — 0.21 0.65 0.57 0.33 1.00 1.27 1.28 0.41 0.54Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — 0.52 6.42 6.84 2.79 0.00 19.69 18.84 — —Asian/Pacific Islander — 1.57 8.15 8.57 7.32 — 13.09 17.75 — 2.45Black non-Hispanic — — 1.91 1.59 1.50 4.67 5.27 4.98 3.03 1.86White non-Hispanic — 0.22 0.79 0.67 0.35 1.09 1.32 1.36 0.45 0.56Hispanic — 2.26 3.30 2.46 1.41 — 9.03 7.63 4.60 6.15

Sex

Male — 0.22 0.91 0.68 0.42 1.86 1.79 1.87 0.57 0.97Female — 0.42 1.14 1.09 0.60 1.17 1.63 1.89 0.74 0.45

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
See footnote at end of table.

B-26

Table B13.—Standard errors for Table A13: Percentage of public and private school principals participating in training or

development programs, by region, community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and1993-94

Training or development program

Program for Training in evaluation Training in Administrative

aspiring principals and supervision management techniques internship

Principal/school characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94PUBLIC

Total (a) 0.69 0.56 0.36 0.44 0.46 0.57 0.60 0.57 0.58 0.74 0.74Sex

Male (a) 0.81 0.74 0.42 0.47 0.60 0.62 0.59 0.66 0.62 0.85 0.90Female (a) 1.55 1.15 0.80 1.18 0.87 1.12 1.29 1.15 1.16 1.12 1.15

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native (a) 7.06 5.52 3.30 3.24 4.75 5.90 6.35 3.03 6.73 6.70 5.77Asian/Pacific Islander (a) 8.02 7.38 4.56 2.32 2.08 4.48 5.16 7.74 7.59 9.66 9.08Black non-Hispanic (a) 2.37 2.16 1.29 1.47 1.56 1.46 1.89 1.94 2.11 2.64 2.31White non-Hispanic (a) 0.72 0.67 0.38 0.50 0.54 0.60 0.62 0.62 0.55 0.74 0.85Hispanic (a) 4.28 4.31 2.07 2.35 2.11 3.77 3.31 3.56 4.14 4.28 4.21

Total minority (a) 2.25 1.96 0.97 1.12 1.19 1.31 1.46 1.47 1.91 1.92 2.05Community type

Central city (a) 1.68 1.43 0.82 0.95 0.79 1.14 1.21 1.10 1.42 1.52 1.48Urban fringe/large town (a) 1.54 1.25 0.65 1.24 0.94 1.00 1.80 1.18 0.93 1.54 1.15Rural/small town (a) 1.01 0.80 0.60 0.68 0.71 0.86 0.86 0.83 0.83 1.10 1.04

School level

Elementary (a) 0.92 0.72 0.45 0.61 0.57 0.77 0.81 0.79 0.74 0.94 1.00Secondary (a) 1.01 0.86 0.62 0.60 0.72 0.87 0.86 0.76 0.91 1.01 0.80Combined (a) 1.94 2.99 1.60 1.15 1.26 1.75 1.66 1.85 1.96 2.83 3.02
Table B13.—Standard errors for Table A13: Percentage of public and private school principals participating in training or

development programs, by region, community type, school level, sex, and race-ethnicity: 1987-88, 1990-91, and1993-94 (continued)

Training or development program

Program for Training in evaluation Training in Administrative

aspiring principals and supervision management techniques internship

Principal/school characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

B-27

PRIVATE

Total (a) 1.29 1.19 1.51 1.48 1.17 1.58 1.38 0.98 1.13 1.09 1.02Sex

Male (a) 1.92 1.80 2.18 2.56 1.48 1.91 2.40 1.51 1.38 1.38 1.25Female (a) 1.49 1.57 1.88 1.65 1.70 2.44 1.95 1.38 1.70 1.49 1.41

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native (a) 19.58 15.24 20.96 19.39 13.31 22.38 20.68 13.31 12.79 20.63 17.91Asian/Pacific Islander (a) 10.66 15.00 10.65 16.45 12.82 9.33 16.59 10.45 13.79 0.00 12.96Black non-Hispanic (a) 9.21 5.65 7.16 8.34 5.82 7.56 9.56 4.73 6.06 9.46 5.69White non-Hispanic (a) 1.27 1.27 1.45 1.50 1.20 1.66 1.42 1.13 1.19 1.10 1.00Hispanic (a) 6.78 8.21 14.54 5.67 7.61 9.79 6.56 5.45 8.45 7.93 6.98

Total minority (a) 5.19 4.33 7.63 4.89 4.37 4.59 5.83 3.58 4.52 5.36 4.36Community type

Central city (a) 1.74 1.48 1.94 1.80 1.56 2.43 2.10 1.52 1.59 1.67 1.72Urban fringe/large town (a) 1.95 2.17 1.93 1.99 2.23 2.01 1.90 2.15 2.10 1.71 1.70Rural/small town (a) 2.63 2.21 3.02 3.69 2.62 3.52 3.40 2.60 2.56 2.03 1.82

School level

Elementary (a) 1.46 1.64 1.70 1.75 1.79 1.96 1.88 1.60 1.58 1.48 1.24Secondary (a) 2.88 2.78 5.36 3.68 2.23 4.19 3.55 2.26 3.98 2.25 1.93Combined (a) 2.38 2.55 3.42 3.53 2.27 2.37 2.48 2.77 1.91 2.16 1.43

(a) Item not included on SASS instrument that year.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator and Public and PrivateSchool Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator and School Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
B-28

Table B14.—Standard errors for Table A14: Percentage of public and private school principals by sex, by field of study for

bachelor's and higher degrees earned: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Field of study

All

Sex

Male Female

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

PUBLIC

Education areas

Early childhood 0.11 0.18 0.18 0.08 0.10 0.14 0.41 0.57 0.43Elementary 0.50 0.61 0.64 0.63 0.85 0.77 1.02 1.47 1.43Secondary 0.33 0.34 0.40 0.41 0.39 0.52 0.33 0.42 0.46Subject area education

English 0.18 0.29 0.20 0.18 0.32 0.17 0.47 0.57 0.52Industrial arts 0.17 0.16 0.12 0.22 0.22 0.19 0.11 0.08 0.08Mathematics 0.12 0.16 0.14 0.16 0.22 0.20 0.13 0.22 0.22Physical education 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.48 0.48 0.54 0.37 0.41 0.31Science 0.15 0.17 0.22 0.19 0.25 0.29 0.20 0.15 0.20Social studies 0.24 0.31 0.35 0.30 0.45 0.51 0.25 0.48 0.32Home economics 0.07 0.11 0.13 — — 0.00 0.28 0.38 0.36Other 0.39 0.51 0.50 0.41 0.48 0.55 0.98 1.16 1.03

Special education 0.22 0.34 0.30 0.24 0.32 0.22 0.65 0.82 0.72Curriculum and instruction 0.35 0.41 0.32 0.31 0.42 0.36 0.87 0.89 0.80Educational administration 0.64 0.76 0.74 0.65 0.99 0.70 1.22 1.39 1.55Educational psychology 0.13 0.10 0.15 0.14 0.08 0.20 0.24 0.27 0.23Counseling and guidance 0.29 0.28 0.36 0.39 0.30 0.46 0.65 0.63 0.59

Noneducation areas

General

English 0.18 0.32 0.26 0.19 0.24 0.23 0.43 0.85 0.57Mathematics 0.06 0.18 0.15 0.01 0.25 0.17 0.00 0.20 0.22Agriculture 0.17 — — 0.21 — — 0.19 — —Military science 0.19 — — 0.20 — — 0.36 — —Psychology — 0.18 0.32 — 0.18 0.42 — 0.40 0.40Home economics 0.14 — — 0.17 — — 0.23 — —Religion, theology 0.09 — — — — — 0.35 — —Other 0.32 0.36 0.35 0.38 0.43 0.44 0.57 0.73 0.65

Foreign language 0.12 0.17 0.16 0.12 0.16 0.17 0.33 0.43 0.42Natural science 0.31 0.24 0.24 0.39 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.43 0.40Social science 0.48 0.46 0.46 0.56 0.58 0.59 0.70 0.68 0.77
Table B14.—Standard errors for Table A14: Percentage of public and private school principals by sex, by field of study for

bachelor's and higher degrees earned: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Field of study

All

Sex

Male Female

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

B-29

PRIVATE

Education areas

Early childhood 0.47 0.43 0.31 0.36 0.11 0.12 0.78 0.84 0.59Elementary 1.23 1.20 1.09 1.27 1.52 1.01 1.98 1.81 1.84Secondary 0.64 0.48 0.47 0.92 0.75 0.82 0.73 0.74 0.52Subject area education

English 0.42 0.41 0.28 0.54 0.30 0.32 0.70 0.75 0.50Industrial arts — — — — — — — — —Mathematics 0.30 0.32 0.26 0.46 0.50 0.48 0.38 0.46 0.21Physical education 0.40 0.30 0.42 0.69 0.57 0.83 0.39 0.31 0.37Science — 0.30 0.22 — 0.35 0.38 — 0.48 0.24Social studies 0.35 0.45 0.42 0.54 0.58 0.71 0.44 0.74 0.58Home economics — — — — — — — — —Other 0.78 0.98 0.50 1.05 1.69 0.55 1.22 1.09 1.03

Special education 0.68 0.48 0.42 0.89 0.64 0.68 1.01 0.80 0.83Curriculum and instruction 0.36 0.53 0.28 0.49 0.66 0.46 0.44 0.74 0.37Educational administration 1.06 1.15 0.78 1.42 1.73 1.49 1.62 1.34 1.12Educational psychology — 0.16 0.22 — 0.32 0.23 — 0.20 0.32Counseling and guidance 0.30 0.40 0.29 0.47 0.65 0.36 0.40 0.53 0.41

Noneducation areas

General

English 0.64 0.54 0.38 0.80 0.52 0.63 0.86 0.82 0.49Mathematics — 0.38 0.26 — 0.49 0.34 — 0.54 0.34Agriculture 0.44 — — 0.63 — — 0.55 — —Military science 0.55 0.00 0.00 0.65 0.00 0.00 0.77 0.00 0.00Psychology — 0.37 0.58 — 0.51 0.40 — 0.60 0.93Home economics 0.83 — — 1.56 — — 0.97 — —Religion, theology — 0.86 0.49 — 1.52 0.85 — 0.60 0.42Other 0.96 0.66 0.85 1.69 1.03 1.24 1.01 0.81 1.03

Foreign language 0.29 0.28 0.18 0.35 0.22 0.29 0.52 0.54 0.32Natural science 0.33 0.52 0.37 0.52 0.88 0.66 0.37 0.51 0.34Social science 1.03 0.70 0.53 1.60 0.96 0.88 1.29 0.99 0.92

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Multiple responses are possible because most principals have more than one degree. Response options for fields of study varied slightly between 1987-88 and 1990-91 instruments.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
B-30

Table B15.—Standard errors for Table A15: Percentage of public and private school principals by sex, by prior experience in

teaching and other specified education roles: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Experience area

All

Sex

Male Female

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

PUBLIC

Teacher 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.25 0.32 0.26 0.33Department head 0.50 0.68 0.52 0.55 0.75 0.56 1.02 1.35 0.89Curriculum specialist or coordinator (a) (a) 0.54 (a) (a) 0.52 (a) (a) 1.13Assistant principal or program 0.51 0.78 0.66 0.63 0.92 0.86 1.19 1.47 1.30

director

Guidance counselor 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.45 0.46 0.40 0.77 0.66 0.69Library media specialist/librarian (a) (a) 0.17 (a) (a) 0.14 (a) (a) 0.35Athletic coach 0.52 0.70 0.60 0.62 0.92 0.72 0.60 0.44 0.50Student club sponsor 0.50 0.58 0.60 0.58 0.69 0.61 0.90 1.10 1.12Other (a) 0.66 0.64 (a) 0.69 0.70 (a) 1.84 1.29

PRIVATE

Teacher 1.15 1.06 1.10 2.04 1.98 1.88 0.73 0.80 1.37Department head 1.22 1.21 0.83 1.40 1.61 1.30 1.58 1.55 1.11Curriculum specialist or coordinator (a) (a) 0.73 (a) (a) 0.78 (a) (a) 1.08Assistant principal or program 1.30 1.11 0.80 1.78 1.51 1.50 1.79 1.83 1.39

director

Guidance counselor 0.66 0.70 0.56 1.18 1.14 0.84 0.66 0.79 0.84Library media specialist/librarian (a) (a) 0.24 (a) (a) 0.14 (a) (a) 0.44Athletic coach 1.01 0.84 0.68 1.68 1.55 1.30 0.52 0.74 0.58Student club sponsor 1.07 0.92 0.84 1.40 1.49 1.21 1.53 1.34 1.00Other (a) 1.03 0.94 (a) 1.44 1.40 (a) 1.38 1.42

(a) Item not included on SASS instrument that year.NOTE: Multiple responses are possible because most principals have more than one prior experience.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
B-31

Table B16.—Standard errors for Table A16: Average years of experience in education for public and private school principals, by selected school and principal characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94School/principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Professional experience in education

Average years as teachers Average years as principals

PUBLICTotal 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.14 0.10

School level

Elementary 0.08 0.12 0.10 0.12 0.17 0.14Secondary 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.12Combined 0.26 0.27 0.42 0.27 0.40 0.28

School size

Less than 150 0.30 0.22 0.26 0.36 0.43 0.32150-499 0.09 0.14 0.12 0.14 0.19 0.17500-749 0.12 0.21 0.16 0.17 0.29 0.19750 or more 0.12 0.16 0.14 0.17 0.18 0.19

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.19 0.1620-50% 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.22 0.26 0.25More than 50% 0.15 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.22 0.18

Free-lunch recipients

Less than 20% 0.08 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.23 0.2120-49% 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2250% or more 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.22 0.20

District size

Less than 1,000 0.16 0.19 0.17 0.24 0.23 0.271,000-4,999 0.12 0.16 0.14 0.17 0.27 0.235,000-9,999 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.27 0.36 0.3710,000 or more 0.10 0.17 0.13 0.17 0.18 0.18

Community type

Central city 0.13 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.23 0.24Urban fringe/large town 0.10 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.24 0.22Rural/small town 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.19 0.17

Sex

Male 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.17 0.16Female 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.17 0.16 0.12

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.61 0.63 0.62 0.70 0.80 0.67Asian/Pacific Islander 0.82 0.97 1.01 0.78 0.71 0.61Black non-Hispanic 0.25 0.28 0.25 0.24 0.32 0.21White non-Hispanic 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.16 0.12Hispanic 0.41 0.57 0.53 0.37 0.47 0.37Total minority 0.21 0.25 0.21 0.21 0.26 0.16
Table B16.—Standard errors for Table A16: Average years of experience in education for public and private school

principals, by selected school and principal characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School/principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Professional experience in education

Average years as teachers Average years as principals

B-32

PRIVATETotal 0.23 0.15 0.19 0.18 0.20 0.21

School level

Elementary 0.25 0.27 0.24 0.23 0.30 0.27Secondary 0.66 0.45 0.40 0.57 0.36 0.36Combined 0.46 0.33 0.33 0.31 0.36 0.34

School size

Less than 150 0.34 0.25 0.32 0.23 0.30 0.36150-499 0.23 0.21 0.23 0.31 0.30 0.21500-749 0.45 0.55 0.38 0.71 0.55 0.41750 or more 0.67 0.69 0.41 0.77 0.79 0.40

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.25 0.22 0.26 0.22 0.24 0.3020-50% 0.65 0.47 0.41 0.59 0.51 0.42More than 50% 0.37 0.47 0.46 0.41 0.47 0.41

Sex

Male 0.26 0.22 0.21 0.26 0.29 0.26Female 0.26 0.20 0.26 0.21 0.26 0.27

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 2.51 3.83 2.87 2.60 3.37 2.96Asian/Pacific Islander 1.45 1.64 1.45 1.24 2.08 2.86Black non-Hispanic 0.97 1.92 0.81 0.72 0.79 1.04White non-Hispanic 0.24 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.22Hispanic 1.30 0.77 0.83 1.26 1.01 1.43Total minority 0.69 1.00 0.60 0.64 0.70 0.75

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator, Public and PrivateSchool, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand andShortage Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
See footnote at end of table.

B-33

Table B17.—Standard errors for Table A17: Percentage of public and private school principals who view various issues as

serious problems in their schools, by school level: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

School problems 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

School level

Elementary Secondary Combined

PUBLICTeacher absenteeism 0.16 0.15 0.18 0.31 0.27 0.15 0.72 0.49 0.34Student tardiness 0.25 0.32 0.29 0.52 0.45 0.47 0.61 0.87 0.64Student absenteeism 0.31 0.41 0.27 0.68 0.76 0.49 1.58 1.28 1.00Students cutting class 0.07 0.03 0.00 0.37 0.30 0.38 0.49 0.31 0.33Student dropping out (a) 0.12 0.10 (a) 0.64 0.45 (a) 0.92 0.75Student apathy (a) 0.40 0.38 (a) 0.74 0.55 (a) 1.64 1.28Physical conflicts among students 0.27 0.25 0.28 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.61 0.65 0.74Robbery or theft 0.11 0.19 0.14 0.13 0.17 0.12 0.60 0.28 0.26Vandalism of school property 0.12 0.21 0.25 0.17 0.20 0.14 0.55 0.19 0.30Student pregnancy 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.52 0.64 0.46 0.94 0.89 0.68Student use of alcohol 0.09 0.15 0.06 0.75 0.88 0.48 0.92 1.06 0.90Student drug abuse 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.52 0.39 0.41 0.60 0.60 0.68Student possession of weapons — — 0.08 — — 0.15 — — 0.33Student disrespect for teachers (a) 0.29 0.32 (a) 0.38 0.34 (a) 0.73 1.00Verbal abuse of teachers 0.13 0.20 0.20 0.23 0.32 0.23 0.75 0.82 0.69Lack of academic challenge (a) 0.27 0.20 (a) 0.39 0.30 (a) 1.26 0.54Lack of parent involvement (a) 0.51 0.51 (a) 0.72 0.65 (a) 2.04 1.43Parental alcohol/drug abuse (a) 0.53 0.43 (a) 0.43 0.48 (a) 1.12 0.90Poverty (a) 0.65 0.74 (a) 0.74 0.64 (a) 1.52 1.96Racial tension (a) 0.14 0.21 (a) 0.16 0.18 (a) 0.67 0.36Students come unprepared to learn (a) (a) 0.58 (a) (a) 0.51 (a) (a) 1.22Poor nutrition (a) (a) 0.36 (a) (a) 0.32 (a) (a) 0.88Poor student health (a) (a) 0.31 (a) (a) 0.19 (a) (a) 1.06Student problems with English language (a) (a) 0.47 (a) (a) 0.29 (a) (a) 0.44Cultural conflict (a) 0.17 (a) (a) 0.27 (a) (a) 0.61 (a)Physical abuse of teachers — — (a) — — (a) — 0.21 (a)
Table B17.—Standard errors for Table A17: Percentage of public and private school principals who view various issues as

serious problems in their schools, by school level: 1987-88, 1990-91 and 1993-94 (continued)

School problems 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

School level

Elementary Secondary Combined

B-34

PRIVATETeacher absenteeism — — — — — — — — —Student tardiness 0.35 0.45 0.29 3.40 0.72 1.41 0.49 0.50 0.24Student absenteeism — — 0.00 — — 1.16 — — 0.28Students cutting class — — 0.00 — — — — — 0.05Student dropping out (a) — 0.00 (a) — — (a) — 0.04Student apathy (a) 0.25 0.29 (a) 0.74 1.64 (a) 0.91 0.97Physical conflicts among students — — — — — 0.98 — — 0.34Robbery or theft — — — — — — — — —Vandalism of school property — — 0.31 — — 1.17 0.42 — 0.14Student pregnancy — — 0.00 — — 1.16 — — —Student use of alcohol — — — — 1.02 3.30 — 0.30 0.38Student drug abuse — — — — — 3.48 — — 0.24Student possession of weapons 0.00 — — 0.00 — — 0.00 — —Student disrespect for teachers (a) — 0.19 (a) — 1.46 (a) — 0.91Verbal abuse of teachers — 0.32 0.11 — 0.66 0.78 — 1.01 1.00Lack of academic challenge (a) — — (a) — — (a) — —Lack of parent involvement (a) 0.45 0.32 (a) 1.60 1.48 (a) 0.86 0.86Parental alcohol/drug abuse (a) 0.16 0.21 (a) 1.58 2.14 (a) 1.47 0.72Poverty (a) 0.72 0.46 (a) 1.07 1.63 (a) 1.35 0.84Racial tension (a) — — (a) — — (a) — —Students come unprepared to learn (a) (a) 0.24 (a) (a) 1.17 (a) (a) 1.03Poor nutrition (a) (a) 0.37 (a) (a) 0.00 (a) (a) 0.70Poor student health (a) (a) 0.10 (a) (a) 0.00 (a) (a) 0.76Student problems with English language (a) (a) 0.33 (a) (a) 0.32 (a) (a) 0.26Cultural conflict (a) — (a) (a) — (a) (a) — (a)Physical abuse of teachers — 0.05 (a) 0.00 — (a) — 0.16 (a)(a) Item not included on SASS questionnaire that year.— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public and Private School PrincipalQuestionnaires).
B-35

Table B18.—Standard errors for Table A18: Percentage of public and private elementary school principals who view certain

issues as serious problems in their schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in elementary schools

School characteristics Poverty unprepared to learn involvement drug abuse apathy

Students come Lack of parent Parent alcohol/ Student

PUBLIC

Total 0.74 0.59 0.51 0.43 0.38

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.60 0.55 0.51 0.32 0.4220% to 50% 1.41 1.34 1.43 1.18 1.20More than 50% 2.34 1.80 1.20 1.33 0.85

School size

Less than 150 2.19 1.22 1.22 1.27 1.06150 to 499 0.83 0.68 0.78 0.66 0.54500 to 749 1.30 1.34 1.01 0.66 0.86750 or more 2.64 1.83 1.98 1.59 1.38

District size

Less than 1,000 1.52 0.93 1.22 1.13 1.081,000-4,999 1.23 0.97 0.81 0.72 0.795,000-9,999 2.13 1.78 1.94 1.03 1.2610,000 or more 1.31 1.20 1.06 0.86 0.68

Community type

Central city 1.81 1.51 1.25 1.18 0.78Urban fringe/large town 1.07 1.06 1.02 0.69 0.64Rural/small town 1.01 0.86 0.70 0.67 0.75

PRIVATE

Total 0.46 0.24 0.32 0.21 0.29Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.28 0.72 0.03 0.00 0.0020% to 50% 0.69 0.21 0.67 0.38 —More than 50% 1.93 1.16 1.56 1.08 1.50

School size

Less than 150 0.77 0.46 0.52 0.43 0.46150 to 499 0.55 0.32 0.36 — 0.36500 to 749 — 0.00 — 0.00 0.00750 or more — 0.00 — 0.00 0.00

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in elementary schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal, Public School,and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
B-36

Table B19.—Standard errors for Table A19: Percentage of public and private secondary school principals who view certain

issues as serious problems in their schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in secondary schools

School characteristics involvement Student apathy alcohol use Poverty unprepared to learn

Lack of parent Student Students come

PUBLIC

Total 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.64 0.51Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.77 0.66 0.56 0.66 0.5520% to 50% 1.45 1.65 1.30 1.09 1.58More than 50% 2.08 1.53 0.98 1.68 1.46

School size

Less than 150 2.52 2.07 2.02 1.91 1.83150 to 499 1.21 1.12 1.29 1.20 1.42500 to 749 1.25 1.19 1.32 1.42 1.06750 or more 0.88 0.77 0.71 0.82 0.73

District size

Less than 1,000 1.66 1.09 1.43 0.86 1.271,000-4,999 1.18 1.16 0.89 1.15 1.105,000-9,999 1.77 0.98 1.15 1.54 0.9210,000 or more 1.28 1.10 1.11 1.27 0.82

Community type

Central city 1.54 1.23 0.88 1.72 1.18Urban fringe/large town 1.35 1.14 0.96 1.01 0.91Rural/small town 0.85 0.79 0.75 0.84 0.83

PRIVATE

Total 1.48 1.64 3.30 1.63 1.17Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.20 — 1.18 — —20% to 50% 3.19 4.29 — 4.02 0.60More than 50% 6.92 7.09 16.40 6.72 —

School size

Less than 150 2.96 3.66 8.61 3.92 2.98150 to 499 2.18 2.11 1.17 1.91 —500 to 749 0.00 0.00 2.85 0.00 —750 or more 0.00 0.00 2.19 0.00 0.00

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in secondary schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal, Public School, andTeacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
B-37

Table B20.—Standard errors for Table A20: Percentage of public and private combined school principals who view certain

issues as serious problems in their schools, by selected school characteristics: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in combined schools

School characteristics involvement Poverty apathy unprepared to learn drug abuse

Lack of parent Student Students come Parent alcohol/

PUBLIC

Total 1.43 1.96 1.28 1.22 0.90Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 1.57 2.15 1.52 1.30 1.0820% to 50% 3.41 3.02 2.55 1.78 1.78More than 50% 4.09 4.10 3.31 3.42 2.66

School size

Less than 150 2.55 2.96 2.37 2.30 1.90150 to 499 2.25 2.71 1.87 1.67 1.24500 to 749 2.72 3.10 3.10 2.44 0.66750 or more 3.59 2.56 2.36 2.23 1.19

District size

Less than 1,000 1.84 2.30 1.66 1.50 1.611,000-4,999 3.42 4.33 2.45 2.35 1.985,000-9,999 4.49 3.00 2.72 3.22 1.6410,000 or more 4.01 4.32 3.33 3.24 2.05

Community type

Central city 3.16 4.53 3.78 3.36 2.15Urban fringe/large town 3.13 3.27 3.77 1.75 2.06Rural/small town 1.61 2.23 1.37 1.29 1.20

PRIVATE

Total 0.86 0.84 0.97 1.03 0.72Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 1.02 — 1.01 1.17 —20% to 50% 2.26 3.52 2.29 1.40 2.97More than 50% 3.31 4.99 3.54 5.00 1.76

School size

Less than 150 1.22 1.16 1.25 1.54 1.08150 to 499 1.28 1.53 1.38 — 0.00500 to 749 0.00 0.00 — 0.00 0.00750 or more 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in combined schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal, Public School, andTeacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
B-38

Table B21.—Standard errors for Table A21: Percentage of public elementary school principals who view certain issues as

serious problems in their schools, by sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in public elementary schools

Principal characteristics Poverty unprepared to learn involvement drug abuse apathy

Students come Lack of parent Parent alcohol/ Student

Total 0.74 0.58 0.51 0.43 0.38

Sex

Male 0.73 0.63 0.65 0.46 0.60Female 1.35 1.02 0.68 0.72 0.50

Age

Under 35 3.68 2.34 2.91 3.26 2.2435-39 2.54 2.00 1.69 2.20 1.1440-44 1.39 0.99 1.13 0.62 0.9245-49 1.53 1.18 0.97 0.89 0.9350-54 1.50 1.20 1.25 1.16 0.7155 and over 1.71 1.18 1.21 1.28 0.92

Experience as a principal

Fewer than 3 years 1.65 1.04 1.27 1.05 0.823 to 9 years 1.12 0.89 0.84 0.74 0.6110 years or more 0.97 0.98 0.90 0.84 0.75

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 6.33 4.82 3.56 2.06 2.67Asian/Pacific Islander 6.88 6.15 3.80 — —Black non-Hispanic 2.44 1.79 1.78 1.59 1.11White non-Hispanic 0.73 0.60 0.60 0.44 0.44Hispanic 6.01 4.53 3.97 3.52 2.12

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in elementary schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
B-39

Table B22.—Standard errors for Table A22: Percentage of public secondary school principals who view certain issues as

serious problems in their schools, by sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in public secondary schools

Principal characteristics involvement Student apathy Student alcohol use Poverty unprepared to learn

Lack of parent Students come

Total 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.64 0.51

Sex

Male 0.63 0.61 0.51 0.62 0.55Female 2.29 2.02 1.41 2.17 1.55

Age

Under 35 2.71 3.55 3.19 3.05 1.9035-39 2.65 1.86 1.91 2.18 2.1540-44 1.29 1.60 1.27 1.60 1.1745-49 1.29 0.94 0.88 0.93 1.0050-54 1.64 1.36 1.35 1.07 1.2555 and over 1.79 1.80 1.52 1.99 1.42

Experience as a principal

Fewer than 3 years 1.74 1.42 1.13 1.36 1.363 to 9 years 0.82 0.91 0.83 1.03 0.8310 years or more 1.11 0.86 0.84 0.93 0.81

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 5.61 4.24 4.28 4.96 3.69Asian/Pacific Islander 6.25 9.55 4.10 3.45 5.12Black non-Hispanic 2.73 1.77 0.52 2.92 2.09White non-Hispanic 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.56 0.56Hispanic 6.18 5.13 2.29 5.08 4.29

NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in secondary schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
B-40

Table B23.—Standard errors for Table A23: Percentage of public combined school principals who view certain issues as

serious problems in their schools, by sex, age, experience, and race-ethnicity of principals: 1993-94

Five most frequently identified problems in public combined schools

Principal characteristics involvement Poverty Student apathy unprepared to learn drug abuse

Lack of parent Students come Parent alcohol/

Total 1.43 1.96 1.28 1.22 0.90

Sex

Male 1.66 2.10 1.57 1.33 1.01Female 2.44 3.29 2.65 2.29 1.99

Age

Under 35 8.61 6.20 6.31 3.91 —35-39 2.87 4.21 1.97 1.99 2.4240-44 2.64 4.37 3.38 3.33 1.8045-49 2.31 3.18 2.25 1.83 1.7950-54 4.34 4.14 3.03 2.61 2.5855 and over 4.06 4.02 3.80 3.50 2.49

Experience as a principal

Fewer than 3 years 3.30 3.90 3.70 3.49 1.993 to 9 years 2.34 2.75 1.53 1.47 1.5910 years or more 2.33 2.35 1.91 1.71 1.50

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 9.44 10.75 — — 6.72Asian/Pacific Islander — 12.32 0.00 — 0.00Black non-Hispanic 5.63 4.87 5.69 5.37 2.43White non-Hispanic 1.51 1.96 1.21 1.06 0.94Hispanic 7.23 16.94 — 17.38 —

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.NOTE: Problems listed are the five most frequently identified in combined schools, in order of frequency.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
B-41

Table B24.—Standard errors for Table A24: Percentage of public and private school principals who rated specific educational goals as first, second, or third most important for students to achieve, by school level, community type, and minority enrollment: 1993-94

Goals

School characteristics literacy excellence voc. skills habits growth relations values ness/religious dev.

Building Encouraging Promoting Promoting Promoting Promoting Promoting Promoting

basic academic occupational/ work personal human moral multicultural awarePUBLIC

Total 0.60 0.67 0.40 0.75 0.61 0.54 0.30 0.55School level

Elementary 0.71 0.95 0.53 1.01 0.91 0.77 0.40 0.72Secondary 1.00 0.97 0.70 0.80 0.88 0.57 0.39 0.42Combined 3.07 2.59 2.76 3.17 2.50 1.57 1.18 3.40

Community type

Central city 1.29 1.36 0.68 1.25 1.50 1.45 0.72 1.23Urban fringe/large town 1.36 1.38 0.62 1.48 1.23 1.28 0.63 0.95Rural/small town 0.93 0.96 0.64 1.01 0.82 0.73 0.44 0.58

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.75 0.99 0.59 0.98 0.80 0.71 0.38 0.6020% to 50% 1.44 1.60 0.96 1.91 1.78 1.28 0.75 1.30More than 50% 1.65 1.59 0.96 1.30 1.55 1.38 0.82 1.06

PRIVATE Total 0.87 1.27 0.77 1.30 1.22 0.72 0.90 1.37

School level

Elementary 1.53 1.90 1.19 1.49 1.80 0.90 1.17 1.89Secondary 3.00 3.37 0.90 2.69 2.68 3.44 1.90 2.74Combined 2.31 2.88 1.92 3.11 2.38 1.94 2.25 2.88

Community type

Central city 1.46 1.48 1.01 1.86 1.69 0.90 1.70 1.77Urban fringe/large town 2.04 2.61 1.87 2.24 2.30 1.88 1.62 2.18Rural/small town 2.20 2.82 1.54 3.02 2.61 1.77 2.47 3.19

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 1.27 1.69 1.24 1.59 1.78 1.03 1.23 1.8820% to 50% 3.47 3.03 1.28 3.32 2.85 1.73 1.88 2.97More than 50% 3.60 3.31 1.68 2.99 2.37 2.46 2.55 2.52

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
B-42

Table B25.—Standard errors for Table A25: Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their influence

in establishing curriculum, hiring new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Activity area

Establishing curriculum Hiring new teachers Setting discipline policy

PUBLICTotal 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01

Sex

Male 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02Female 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.16 0.23 0.15 0.19 0.18 0.13 0.17 0.14 0.12Asian/Pacific Islander 0.15 0.32 0.13 0.22 0.26 0.10 0.15 0.09 0.09Black non-Hispanic 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04White non-Hispanic 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01Hispanic 0.08 0.13 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.08

Age

Under 35 0.07 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.0835-39 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.0340-44 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.0345-49 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.0250-54 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.0355 or over 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.04
Table B25.—Standard errors for Table A25: Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their influence

in establishing curriculum, hiring new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by sex, race-ethnicity, and age: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

Principal characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Activity area

Establishing curriculum Hiring new teachers Setting discipline policy

B-43

PRIVATETotal 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02

Sex

Male 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03Female 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.69 0.50 0.16 0.19 0.04 1.01 0.37 0.22 0.02Asian/Pacific Islander 0.30 0.44 0.31 0.05 0.14 0.22 0.07 0.15 0.00Black non-Hispanic 0.13 0.26 0.12 0.17 0.15 0.10 0.19 0.12 0.08White non-Hispanic 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02Hispanic 0.17 0.21 0.12 0.16 0.18 0.08 0.15 0.16 0.08

Age

Under 35 0.08 0.16 0.16 0.14 0.16 0.19 0.07 0.07 0.1235-39 0.08 0.05 0.10 0.08 0.04 0.11 0.07 0.04 0.0740-44 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.0345-49 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.0450-54 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.0355 and over 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.03

NOTE: Principals were asked to rate how much actual influence they had on each activity on a scale of 1 to 6, where 1 represented none and 6 represented a great deal.The 1993-94 questionnaires used a 0 to 5 scale, and 1993-94 scores in this table have been adjusted to the 1 to 6 scale. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator Questionnaire), 1990-91(Public and Private School Administrator Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal Questionnaires).
B-44

Table B26.—Standard errors for Table A26: Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their influence

in establishing curriculum, hiring new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by selected school characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

School characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Activity area

Establishing curriculum Hiring new teachers Setting discipline policy

PUBLIC

Total 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01School level

Elementary 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02Secondary 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.02Combined 0.04 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.04

School size

Less than 150 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04150-499 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02500-749 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03750 or more 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.02

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.0220%-50% 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03More than 50% 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03

District size

Less than 1,000 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.051,000-4,999 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.035,000-9,999 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.0310,000 or more 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 20.0 0.03 0.03
Table B26.—Standard errors for Table A26: Mean ratings by public and private school principals regarding their influence

in establishing curriculum, hiring new teachers, and setting discipline policy, by selected school characteristics: 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94 (continued)

School characteristics 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Activity area

Establishing curriculum Hiring new teachers Setting discipline policy

B-45

PRIVATE

Total 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02School level

Elementary 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02Secondary 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.03Combined 0.07 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05

School size

Less than 150 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04150-499 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02500-749 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.03750 or more 0.12 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.03

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.0320%-50% 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.13 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.03More than 50% 0.06 0.11 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.03

NOTE: Principals were asked to rate how much actual influence they had on each activity on a scale of 1 to 6, where 1 represented none and 6 represented a great deal. The 1993-94 questionnaires used a 0 to 5 scale, and 1993-94 scores in this table have been adjusted to the 1 to 6 scale. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1987-88 (School Administrator, Public and PrivateSchool, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires), 1990-91 (Public and Private School Administrator, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand andShortage Questionnaires), and 1993-94 (Public and Private School Principal, Public and Private School, and Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaires).
B-46

Table B27.—Standard errors for Table A27: Percentage of public and private school principals by plans to remain principals,

by school level, minority enrollment, school size, and community type: 1993-94

School characteristics As long as able Until eligible to retire better comes possible Undecided

Plans to remain principal

Unless something Leave as soon as 

PUBLIC

Total 0.74 0.56 0.62 0.20 0.61School level

Elementary 0.91 0.73 0.83 0.27 0.76Secondary 0.82 0.73 0.65 0.32 0.78Combined 2.06 3.16 2.86 0.40 1.75

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 0.93 0.84 0.76 0.34 0.9520% to 50% 1.46 1.46 1.19 0.41 1.47More than 50% 1.39 1.22 1.34 0.60 0.99

School size

Less than 150 1.77 1.52 1.54 1.42 1.73150 to 499 1.23 0.92 1.01 0.32 0.92500 to 749 1.34 1.24 1.24 0.37 1.32750 or more 1.30 1.24 0.93 0.39 1.07

Community type

Central city 1.18 1.10 1.13 0.57 1.06Urban fringe/large town 1.25 1.11 0.91 0.37 1.16Rural/small town 0.98 0.79 0.91 0.31 0.84
Table B27.—Standard errors for Table A27: Percentage of public and private school principals by plans to remain principals,

by school level, minority enrollment, school size, and community type: 1993-94 (continued)

School characteristics As long as able Until eligible to retire better comes possible Undecided

Plans to remain principal

Unless something Leave as soon as 

B-47

PRIVATE

Total 1.02 0.68 0.53 0.39 1.05School level

Elementary 1.52 0.81 0.83 0.53 1.61Secondary 3.28 1.26 1.07 0.49 3.72Combined 2.67 1.81 1.23 0.87 2.00

Minority enrollment

Less than 20% 1.38 0.96 0.67 0.41 1.4120% to 50% 3.21 1.26 1.32 0.95 2.83More than 50% 2.90 1.42 1.95 1.08 2.92

School size

Less than 150 1.82 1.19 0.77 0.57 1.84150 to 499 1.59 0.87 0.82 0.64 1.55500 to 749 2.83 1.33 2.34 1.32 3.34750 or more 3.21 2.02 2.22 0.70 3.22

Community type

Central city 1.51 0.98 0.83 0.54 1.46Urban fringe/large town 1.93 0.96 1.00 0.76 1.75Rural/small town 2.39 1.79 1.02 0.65 2.54

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public and Private School PrincipalQuestionnaires).
B-48

Table B28.—Standard errors for Table A28: Percentage of public school principals by plans to remain principals, by age and

years of experience as a principal within sex: 1993-94

Principal characteristics as able Until eligible to retire better comes possible Undecided

Plans to remain principal

As long Unless something Leave as soon as

MALE

Total 0.87 0.70 0.72 0.27 0.80Age

Under 35 3.40 4.06 3.70 0.53 4.7635-39 2.55 1.71 2.67 0.97 1.7740-44 1.95 1.16 1.65 0.59 1.7145-49 1.41 1.37 1.28 0.37 1.1950-54 1.42 1.63 1.62 0.61 1.1755 and over 2.27 1.53 0.92 0.93 2.85

Experience

Fewer than 3 years 1.96 1.36 1.63 0.66 1.503 to 9 years 1.13 0.98 1.22 0.43 1.3210 years or more 1.27 1.03 0.79 0.49 1.19

FEMALE

Total 1.20 1.06 1.11 0.36Age

Under 35 6.17 5.16 6.08 0.00 4.4735-39 4.55 2.65 4.32 0.55 3.9540-44 2.27 1.98 2.56 0.30 2.2745-49 1.94 2.00 1.83 0.20 1.9350-54 2.77 2.67 1.74 0.69 2.5455 and over 3.15 2.67 1.47 2.53 3.19

Experience

Fewer than 3 years 1.75 1.63 1.96 0.29 1.933 to 9 years 1.82 1.54 1.51 0.70 1.8510 years or more 2.50 2.48 1.61 0.52 2.36

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
B-49

Section 2 • Affiliation/Typology

Tables for Private Schools
B-50

Table B29.—Standard errors for Table A29: Percentage of private school principals by private school affiliation, by sex,

race-ethnicity, highest degree earned, average age, salary, and years as a principal: 1993-94

Principal characteristics Colleges/Schs. Catholic Friends Episcopal Schs. Day Schs. Jewish Synod Lutheran

Private school affiliation

Assoc. Nat. Soc. Solomon Lutheran, Wisconsin

Military Hebrew Day Schechter Other Missouri Evangelical

Total number 10.3 65.2 1.1 11.2 11.2 4.1 26.3 39.9 11.7Sex

Male 2.12 0.98 6.26 4.80 6.57 0.00 5.96 4.33 0.02Female 2.12 0.98 6.26 4.80 6.57 0.00 5.96 4.33 —

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00Asian/Pacific Islander 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 — 0.00Black non-Hispanic 0.00 0.48 — — 0.00 — 0.00 — —White non-Hispanic 0.00 0.81 0.75 2.17 0.75 0.00 1.46 2.02 0.01Hispanic 0.00 0.59 0.00 — — 0.00 — — 0.00

Total minority 0.00 0.81 — — — — — 2.02 —Highest degree earned

Less than bachelor’s 0.00 — — 0.00 1.56 0.00 3.68 — —Bachelor’s — 1.14 2.23 4.85 3.08 0.00 4.26 6.43 3.43Master’s 18.82 1.52 5.93 5.30 5.44 0.00 6.35 6.60 3.23Ed. spec./prof. dipl. 6.07 1.02 1.32 4.08 7.21 0.00 5.12 1.64 —Doctorate — 0.44 1.98 3.61 4.05 0.00 5.47 — 0.00

Average age 1.76 0.26 0.64 0.82 1.10 0.00 1.20 1.04 1.01Average salary $770.47 $329.80 $1,382.97 $1,719.72 $2,700.95 $0.00 $2,547.16 $1,006.77 $620.47Average years as principal 1.25 0.21 0.15 0.83 0.99 0.00 1.36 1.29 0.81
Table B29.—Standard errors for Table A29: Percentage of private school principals by private school affiliation, by sex,

race-ethnicity, highest degree earned, average age, salary, and years as a principal: 1993-94 (continued)

B-51

Principal characteristics Church Lutheran Adventist International Schools, Int. Children Montessori Schools* Schools

Private school affiliation

Evangelical Seventh- Christian Association Priv. Schools Association of Other

Lutheran Other Day Schools, of Christian Exceptional Independent Private

Nat. Assoc. National

Total number 2.2 0.3 43.9 61.7 72.0 15.8 32.7 24.3 212.7Sex

Male 1.70 1.51 8.63 9.34 4.60 6.23 2.37 3.71 2.92Female 1.70 1.51 8.63 9.34 4.60 6.23 2.37 3.71 2.92

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska Native — — 0.00 — — 0.00 0.00 0.47Asian/Pacific Islander 0.00 0.00 — — 0.00 0.00 4.87 2.26 0.27Black non-Hispanic 0.06 0.00 2.48 — 2.03 3.37 — — 1.11White non-Hispanic 0.22 0.15 2.67 3.26 2.13 3.42 5.06 2.58 1.54Hispanic — 0.00 0.00 — 0.00 — 0.00 — 0.91

Total minority 0.22 — 2.67 3.26 2.13 3.42 5.06 2.58 1.54Highest degree earned

Less than bachelor’s — — — 0.00 3.12 0.00 3.25 — 2.76Bachelor’s 1.66 1.97 6.71 8.77 5.01 1.70 6.19 2.32 3.16Master’s 2.08 1.21 6.66 8.61 4.65 6.22 6.57 3.69 2.68Ed. spec./prof. dipl. 0.87 — — — 1.21 6.01 4.33 1.86 1.04Doctorate 0.40 — — 1.78 1.19 4.10 5.08 3.07 1.34

Average age 0.70 0.20 2.79 1.14 0.99 1.06 0.94 0.43 0.74Average salary $807.26 $1,121.04 $1,551.50 $2,243.99 $1,265.37 $1,794.41 $2,030.22 $2,771.85 $1,066.09Average years as principal 0.44 0.21 1.09 0.91 0.69 0.69 0.90 0.45 0.49* Religious, military, Montessori, and special education schools that are members of the National Association of Independent Schools are reported under these classifications.

— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
B-52

Table B30.—Standard errors for Table A30: Percentage of private school principals by private school type, by sex,

race-ethnicity, highest degree earned, average age, salary, and years as a principal: 1993-94

Principal characteristics All Parochial esan order All Christian ated iated All Regular emphasis education

Private school typology

Catholic Other religious Nonsectarian

Dioc- Private vative Affili- Unaffil- Special Special

ConserTotal number 21.3 110.5 98.4 51.1 254.1 189.9 160.5 251.5 223.5 173.4 136.7 109.8

Sex

Male 1.02 1.49 2.24 3.42 1.91 2.83 2.97 4.05 1.90 3.23 3.25 5.48Female 1.02 1.49 2.24 3.42 1.91 2.83 2.97 4.05 1.90 3.23 3.25 5.48

Race-ethnicity

American Indian/Alaska

Native 0.26 — — — 0.14 — — — ————

Asian/Pacific Islander 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.51 0.49 0.65 0.24 2.07 1.14Black non-Hispanic 0.44 0.68 0.44 — 0.90 1.42 1.16 1.78 1.06 2.37 0.82 0.37White non-Hispanic 0.74 1.08 0.99 2.44 0.93 1.66 1.57 1.86 1.91 2.92 3.09 3.83Hispanic 0.55 0.83 0.87 2.11 0.34 — 0.40 — 1.24 0.88 2.21 3.55

Total minority 0.74 1.08 0.99 2.44 0.93 1.66 1.57 1.86 1.91 2.92 3.09 3.83Highest degree earned

Less than bachelor’s — — 0.00 0.00 2.04 2.88 1.76 5.27 2.25 4.30 3.40 —Bachelor’s 1.03 1.53 1.41 2.09 2.18 3.86 3.42 4.19 3.28 5.08 4.87 4.56Master’s 1.50 1.80 1.89 3.78 1.64 3.00 3.19 2.92 3.28 4.96 5.52 7.53Ed. spec./prof. dipl. 1.01 1.10 1.95 2.75 0.66 1.03 0.89 1.34 1.22 1.71 2.50 4.10Doctorate 0.42 0.45 0.67 2.58 0.71 1.10 1.16 1.22 1.62 2.10 2.48 5.00

Average age 0.25 0.36 0.40 0.81 0.46 0.53 0.84 1.20 0.50 0.97 0.81 0.96Average salary $318.50 $394.04 $484.12 $1,484.66 $504.47 $821.52 $644.25 $1,160.16 $1,084.23 $1,968.36 $2,052.06 $1,218.32Average years as principal 0.22 0.31 0.36 0.50 0.27 0.42 0.49 0.52 0.58 0.99 0.60 0.70— Too few cases for a reliable estimateSOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Private School Principal and SchoolQuestionnaires).
B-53

Table B31.—Standard errors for Table A31: Percentage of private school principals by benefits received, by private school

type: 1993-94

Principal characteristics Medical insurance Dental insurance Life insurance Retirement plan In-kind benefits1

Total 1.41 1.17 1.02 0.96 1.34

Catholic 1.16 1.26 1.55 1.10 1.53

Parochial 1.70 2.00 1.78 1.68 1.86Diocesan 2.49 2.58 2.72 2.73 2.48Private order 2.56 2.95 3.41 3.70 3.10

Other religious 2.23 1.35 1.54 1.42 2.12

Conservative Christian 3.47 2.05 2.89 2.60 3.12Affiliated 2.89 3.12 2.01 3.33 3.33Unaffiliated 4.74 3.11 2.48 3.40 4.94

Nonsectarian 3.52 3.45 2.93 2.53 3.73

Regular 4.87 4.65 3.90 3.42 5.18Special emphasis 4.85 4.40 4.60 3.77 5.92Special education 4.88 5.36 5.10 5.19 7.19

In-kind benefits include housing, meals, tuition, and transportation. 1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Private School Principal Questionnaire).
B-55

Section 3 • State Tables for Public

Schools
B-56

Table B32.—Standard errors for Table A32: Percentage of public school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by state:

1993-94

State principals Average age Male Female AK Nat. Isl. non-Hispanic non-Hispanic Hispanic minority

Total Am. Ind./ Asian/Pac. Black White Total

Sex Race-ethnicity

Total 235.2 0.70 0.70 0.08 0.14 0.45 0.54 0.33 0.54 0.09

Alabama 12.5 2.50 2.50 0.80 0.00 2.81 2.98 0.95 2.98 0.39Alaska 5.7 2.54 2.54 1.96 0.77 0.38 2.26 0.56 2.26 0.28Arizona 7.3 3.87 3.87 0.56 0.69 1.49 3.21 3.23 3.21 0.43Arkansas 8.5 3.56 3.56 — 0.00 2.69 2.93 0.00 2.93 0.54California 73.7 3.50 3.50 0.08 1.29 2.18 2.74 2.31 2.74 0.52Colorado 19.9 4.53 4.53 0.72 0.00 0.89 2.84 2.53 2.84 0.67Connecticut 9.8 2.79 2.79 — — 1.27 1.27 — 1.27 0.34Delaware 2.0 3.88 3.88 0.00 0.00 3.42 3.42 0.00 3.42 0.46Dist. of Columbia 4.5 5.26 5.26 — 0.00 1.71 0.00 — 0.00 0.57Florida 30.7 2.56 2.56 0.00 — 2.04 2.66 1.85 2.66 0.41Georgia 9.3 3.06 3.06 — 0.00 2.70 2.72 — 2.72 0.37Hawaii 5.0 5.18 5.18 0.00 3.74 — 3.35 1.39 3.35 0.57Idaho 10.1 3.28 3.28 0.00 — 0.00 0.78 0.65 0.78 0.61Illinois 60.3 2.41 2.41 — — 1.58 1.55 0.77 1.55 0.34Indiana 18.3 3.98 3.98 — 0.00 2.36 2.58 1.52 2.58 0.51Iowa 20.1 3.90 3.90 — 0.00 — 1.49 — 1.49 0.66Kansas 8.5 2.64 2.64 — 0.00 1.29 1.43 0.55 1.43 0.73Kentucky 28.2 3.31 3.31 — 0.00 1.34 1.80 — 1.80 0.60Louisiana 6.0 2.79 2.79 0.00 0.00 2.31 2.33 0.68 2.33 0.31Maine 8.3 4.70 4.70 — 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.77Maryland 9.6 3.33 3.33 — 0.00 2.44 2.45 — 2.44 0.42Massachusetts 21.8 2.90 2.90 — 0.00 1.42 1.82 — 1.82 0.43Michigan 119.7 4.86 4.86 — 0.00 2.69 2.70 0.00 2.70 0.45Minnesota 36.2 3.83 3.83 — 0.00 1.20 1.60 — 1.60 0.74Mississippi 9.1 3.72 3.72 — 0.00 3.51 3.57 — 3.57 0.48
Table B32.—Standard errors for Table A32: Percentage of public school principals by sex and race-ethnicity, by state:

1993-94 (continued)

State principals Average age Male Female AK Nat. Isl. non-Hispanic non-Hispanic Hispanic minority

Total Am. Ind./ Asian/Pac. Black White Total

Sex Race-ethnicity

B-57

Missouri 10.2 4.19 4.19 — 0.00 1.88 1.87 — 1.87 0.61Montana 24.1 3.02 3.02 1.07 0.00 — 1.24 — 1.24 0.44Nebraska 59.5 3.14 3.14 — 0.00 0.71 2.40 — 2.40 0.99Nevada 6.3 2.98 2.98 — 0.00 1.71 2.76 1.69 2.76 0.49New Hampshire 6.7 4.50 4.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.60 — 0.60 0.50New Jersey 30.0 4.78 4.78 0.00 0.00 3.54 3.54 — 3.54 0.73New Mexico 9.8 3.90 3.90 1.03 — — 3.35 3.41 3.35 0.62New York 28.5 3.68 3.68 — 0.19 2.49 2.77 1.92 2.77 0.48North Carolina 28.4 2.58 2.58 0.76 0.00 2.30 2.27 — 2.27 0.40North Dakota 10.9 4.06 4.06 0.20 — 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.28 0.68Ohio 60.4 3.14 3.14 0.00 0.00 2.45 2.45 0.00 2.45 0.44Oklahoma 20.2 2.87 2.87 1.52 0.00 1.19 1.70 — 1.70 0.51Oregon 7.2 4.12 4.12 — 0.00 1.04 2.24 1.78 2.24 0.61Pennsylvania 79.4 4.45 4.45 0.00 — 3.04 3.44 1.30 3.44 0.63Rhode Island 7.0 3.97 3.97 0.00 — — 0.92 — 0.92 0.54South Carolina 9.0 4.01 4.01 0.00 0.00 4.06 4.06 0.00 4.06 0.56South Dakota 12.1 2.72 2.72 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.97 0.90 0.97 0.46Tennessee 10.7 4.17 4.17 — 0.00 3.05 3.01 0.00 3.01 0.61Texas 51.4 3.22 3.22 0.46 0.59 1.66 2.84 2.63 2.84 0.44Utah 10.4 2.30 2.30 — — 0.35 1.37 1.12 1.37 0.44Vermont 10.8 4.00 4.00 — 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.00 0.44 0.92Virginia 39.1 4.67 4.67 0.00 — 2.62 3.01 — 3.01 0.52Washington 45.2 3.76 3.76 1.08 1.29 1.38 1.89 0.44 1.89 0.41West Virginia 29.9 3.39 3.39 0.00 0.00 1.18 1.40 0.86 1.40 0.56Wisconsin 23.7 3.72 3.72 — 0.00 1.76 1.98 — 1.98 0.57Wyoming 8.3 2.44 2.44 — 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.00 0.43 0.41— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
B-58

Table B33.—Standard errors for Table A33: Percentage of public school principals by highest degree earned and average

salary, by state: 1993-94

State Average salary Bachelor’s Master’s Ed. Sp./prof. Doctorate

Highest degree

Total 0.21 0.65 0.57 0.33 $126.6

Alabama — 3.37 3.47 2.06 460.1Alaska 1.61 2.89 1.31 2.59 948.3Arizona — 3.89 2.62 2.76 573.9Arkansas 0.00 2.95 2.53 1.75 454.0California 1.48 3.10 2.43 2.04 494.4Colorado — 4.82 3.96 2.81 564.0Connecticut — 1.86 2.44 2.75 550.3Delaware 0.00 3.48 2.73 2.82 617.1Dist. of Columbia 0.00 4.13 — 3.89 430.9Florida 0.00 3.35 2.55 2.29 503.7Georgia 0.00 2.36 3.27 2.63 380.5Hawaii 3.77 4.24 4.21 2.36 504.4Idaho — 3.19 3.09 1.66 589.2Illinois — 2.53 2.40 1.44 557.5Indiana 0.00 3.61 3.84 2.96 357.4Iowa — 3.70 2.92 2.40 587.7Kansas 0.00 3.06 2.35 1.82 616.3Kentucky 0.00 4.54 4.60 2.04 450.7Louisiana 0.00 2.94 3.01 1.64 325.8Maine 2.71 4.58 3.65 2.25 663.9Maryland 0.00 2.48 1.92 1.93 507.7Massachusetts — 3.02 2.15 2.34 388.5Michigan 0.14 3.89 3.80 2.82 681.3Minnesota 1.70 3.09 4.04 1.96 791.2Mississippi — 3.95 3.72 1.58 293.7
Table B33.—Standard errors for Table A33: Percentage of public school principals by highest degree earned and average

salary, by state: 1993-94 (continued)

State Average salary Bachelor’s Master’s Ed. Sp./prof. Doctorate

Highest degree

B-59

Missouri 0.00 4.69 3.93 2.43 751.5Montana 2.21 2.85 1.55 0.84 436.0Nebraska — 4.64 4.52 2.28 1,285.4Nevada — 3.61 2.45 2.63 389.4New Hampshire — 4.43 2.85 3.72 625.1New Jersey — 4.12 3.40 3.07 821.9New Mexico — 3.93 3.59 1.19 392.8New York 0.00 3.97 3.19 3.23 1,116.8North Carolina 0.00 3.82 3.46 2.34 512.6North Dakota 3.69 3.66 1.69 0.97 722.4Ohio 0.00 3.15 2.88 1.54 749.4Oklahoma — 2.97 2.74 1.14 281.1Oregon — 4.59 3.80 2.54 859.9Pennsylvania — 4.82 4.77 2.19 748.4Rhode Island 0.00 4.61 3.42 3.35 308.4South Carolina 0.00 4.43 3.97 2.48 421.4South Dakota 0.00 2.20 2.03 0.65 376.4Tennessee — 4.60 3.88 1.93 629.7Texas 0.59 2.32 2.20 1.74 406.3Utah 1.78 2.66 2.17 1.06 408.5Vermont 4.49 4.75 3.08 2.22 1,306.2Virginia 0.00 3.89 3.54 2.26 719.8Washington — 3.78 2.88 1.86 574.7West Virginia 0.00 3.43 3.28 1.11 388.0Wisconsin — 4.05 4.06 2.64 591.5Wyoming — 2.68 2.12 1.76 579.7— Too few cases for a reliable estimate.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
See footnote at end of table.

B-60

Table B34.—Standard errors for Table A34: Percentage of public school principals by employment benefits received, by

state: 1993-94

State Medical insurance Dental insurance Life insurance plan In-kind benefits

Employment benefit

Retirement

1

Total 0.28 0.49 0.66 0.60 0.60

Alabama 2.71 2.86 2.91 4.18 2.54Alaska 0.58 0.62 1.82 1.75 2.88Arizona 1.16 3.08 1.82 3.12 3.85Arkansas 4.09 3.94 3.05 3.45 4.15California 0.12 0.86 3.11 2.93 3.40Colorado 1.55 2.32 2.57 2.90 3.95Connecticut 0.96 1.18 1.40 3.77 2.81Delaware 0.81 2.78 2.06 2.60 3.29Dist. of Columbia 3.95 3.91 4.65 3.06 1.20Florida 1.32 2.94 2.30 2.66 2.82Georgia 1.94 2.95 2.98 2.82 2.55Hawaii 3.08 4.26 4.13 4.08 3.75Idaho 0.84 3.27 3.77 3.38 3.26Illinois 1.63 2.17 1.92 3.00 2.23Indiana 1.36 4.17 0.98 3.74 3.75Iowa 1.44 4.40 3.48 3.86 4.02Kansas 2.61 2.30 3.03 3.00 3.55Kentucky 2.93 3.73 4.23 4.98 4.20Louisiana 2.47 2.07 2.76 2.88 3.11Maine 3.56 3.65 3.83 4.43 2.34Maryland 1.32 1.99 1.96 2.81 3.55Massachusetts 2.25 2.58 4.21 3.35 3.33Michigan 1.79 0.86 1.18 3.88 4.66Minnesota 1.26 3.76 4.19 4.79 4.19Mississippi 3.58 2.03 2.58 3.34 2.79
Table B34.—Standard errors for Table A34: Percentage of public school principals by employment benefits received, by

state: 1993-94 (continued)

State Medical insurance Dental insurance Life insurance plan In-kind benefits

Employment benefit

Retirement

1

B-61

Missouri 1.59 3.16 3.01 3.49 3.97Montana 1.57 2.60 2.87 3.06 3.16Nebraska 3.27 3.05 3.29 3.76 4.24Nevada 0.00 1.63 2.13 2.04 2.99New Hampshire 2.00 3.71 3.39 4.64 4.53New Jersey 0.07 0.99 4.39 3.31 3.50New Mexico 2.56 3.35 2.46 2.13 3.96New York 1.52 3.52 3.35 2.46 3.35North Carolina 2.58 3.14 3.15 3.19 2.70North Dakota 2.02 3.04 3.37 3.05 3.60Ohio 1.18 1.99 1.08 2.49 3.98Oklahoma 2.35 2.39 2.50 3.04 2.87Oregon 2.01 2.01 4.02 3.55 3.21Pennsylvania 0.00 0.73 3.27 3.02 3.48Rhode Island 1.28 1.28 2.78 4.29 4.03South Carolina 2.07 1.83 3.00 3.28 4.16South Dakota 1.10 3.16 2.69 2.79 2.48Tennessee 2.93 4.22 4.07 5.01 2.96Texas 1.90 3.21 3.73 3.74 3.37Utah 1.74 2.44 2.74 2.22 2.65Vermont 3.32 3.69 5.19 5.35 4.30Virginia 1.81 4.51 2.95 3.84 4.53Washington 0.00 1.10 4.13 3.31 3.95West Virginia 2.94 4.30 4.09 3.24 3.74Wisconsin 0.00 2.31 3.72 2.59 2.98Wyoming 1.10 3.20 2.61 2.11 3.52

In-kind benefits include housing, meals, tuition, and transportation. 1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993-94 (Public School Principal Questionnaire).
C-1

Appendix C • Technical Notes 

The Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), an ples of respondents. These instruments inintegrated survey of American schools, school cluded:

districts, principals, teachers, and student records, is funded by the National Center for Edu- • Teacher Demand and Shortage Questioncation Statistics (NCES) of the U.S. Department naire for Public School Districts (LEAs),

of Education. First conducted during the 1987- which collected information on student en88 school year, SASS is designed to provide rollment and district programs and policies

periodic data on public and private schools in from public school districts;

the United States. Since the 1990-91 school

year, SASS has also included Indian schools • Public, Private, and Indian School Principal

supported by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Questionnaires, which collected information

Department of the Interior. Major categories of on principals’ demographic characteristics,

data collected in SASS include the character- education, experiences, compensation, and

istics of schools and principals, school programs perceptions of school problems;

and policies, and the opinions and attitudes of

principals about policies and working condi- • Public, Private, and Indian School Questiontions. naires, which collected information on

The analytical power of the data is enhanced by grade, student demographic characteristics,

the ability to link survey data for individual local and measures of school type;

education agencies (LEAs), schools, principals,

teachers, and, since the 1993-94 school year, • Public, Private, and Indian School Teacher

student-level records. The use of comparable Questionnaires, which collected information

questions in each round of SASS makes it on teachers’ education and training, teaching

possible to monitor changes in the nation’s edu- assignments, experience, certification, percational system. The first SASS was admin- ceptions and attitudes about teaching, and

istered during the 1987-88 school year, with a workplace conditions;

teacher followup survey conducted during 1988-

89. The two subsequent SASS administrations

were at three-year intervals (1990-91 and 1993-

94). The next SASS round (1998-99) and subsequent administrations are planned for fiveyear intervals.

The 1993-94 SASS consisted of separate surveys administered simultaneously to linked sam1

school programs and policies, enrollment by

2

Since 1987, NCES has published several reports that include 1

these instruments (e.g., NCES Report 94-674, SASS and PSS

Questionnaires, 1993-94). Copies of the questionnaires

may be obtained by writing to the NCES Education Surveys

Program at the address given at the end of Chapter 1.

Because private and Indian schools do not typically operate 2

under a district-like administrative structure, these instruments

also contained several items on personnel policies and

administrative practices that were included in the Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire for Public School

Districts.
C-2

• Student Records Questionnaire, which col- teachers, and the LEAs that are responsible for

lected student records data from a subsample administering the public schools. The 1993-94

of students from surveyed schools on demo- sample consisted of approximately 9,000 public

graphic information, current enrollment sta- schools and 3,000 private schools.

tus, educational activities, support services

received, and student performance measures

(e.g., GPA); and

• Teacher Followup Survey, which surveyed a

sample of teachers one year after the SASS

administration, oversampling those who

have left the profession, and collected data

on activities and plans, attitudes about

teaching, and job satisfaction.

The analyses for this report on public and private school principals use five SASS instruments: the Public School, Private School,

Public School Principal, and Private School

Principal Questionnaires, and the Teacher

Demand and Shortage Questionnaire for Public

School Districts. Data collected with the

Student Records Questionnaire and the Teacher

Followup Survey were excluded from analyses.

Additionally, since less then 0.1 percent of

American students attend Indian schools

operated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, these

schools (170 schools in 1993-94), were

excluded from this report.3

Overview of the Design of SASS

Schools and Staffing Survey continues to be the

largest and most thorough national integrated

survey of districts, schools, principals, and

teachers ever undertaken in this country. The

target populations for the SASS surveys include

elementary and secondary schools, principals

and classroom teachers in these schools, former

Evolution of the SASS Design

The first administration of SASS in 1987-88

integrated three existing NCES survey programs: the Teacher Demand and Shortage Survey, the Public and Private School Surveys, and

the Teacher Surveys. The 1987-88 SASS

included a public school sample of 9,317

schools selected from the Quality Education

Data (QED) file of public schools. The private

school sample included 3,513 schools selected

primarily from the QED file of private schools

supplemented with private school association

lists and targeted area samples from telephone

directories.

Since that first administration, NCES has implemented a number of changes in the survey

design and context to improve study estimates

and to better reflect changes in the educational

environment. Some of the most important

changes that relate to this report are highlighted

below:4

• Beginning with the 1990-91 SASS, the sampling frame for public schools was the NCES

Common Core of Data (CCD), an annual

census of LEAs and schools. For private

schools, the sampling frame for the 1990-91

SASSwas the NCES 1989-90 Private School

Universe Survey, augmented with state lists

Readers are referred to the following report on Indian Sample Design and Estimation (Technical Report NCES 96- 3

schools for additional information: Pavel, D.M., & Curtin, 089). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

T.R. (1996). Characteristics of American Indian and Alaska Office of Educational Research and Improvement, or Jabine,

Native Education: Results from the 1990-91 and 1993-94 T.B. (1994). Quality Profile for SASS: Aspects of the Quality

Schools and Staffing Survey [NCES 97-451]. Washington, of Data in the Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS) (NCES

DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational 94-340). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,

Research and Improvement. Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Additional information on changes in SASS design can be 4

found in Abramson, R., Cole, C., Jackson, B., Parmer, R., &

Kaufman, S. (1996). 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey:
C-3

and private school association lists. The Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) codes,

frame for the 1993-94 SASS was the aug- and Census codes for urban and rural areas.

mented 1990-91 Private School Universe Analyses of 1987-88 data were conducted

Survey. using locale code-based urbanicity measures

Notably for public schools, the QED and SASS.

CCD data sources apply slightly different

definitions of the school unit. The QED file • All school administrators in 1987-88

defined schools in terms of their physical responded to items about free/reduced price

location; the CCD file used for subsequent lunches, an item frequently used as a proxy

SASS surveys described schools as “admin- for school wealth. However, the 1990-91

istrative units with principals.” Thus, in Private School Questionnaire omitted the

instances where multiple schools share a free/reduced-price lunch item. We excluded

single campus, the estimated number of this measure from analyses for private

schools increases using the CCD definition. schools.

• Separate School Administrator Question- • All data files have been adjusted for comnaires were developed for public and private plete refusals. For individual questionnaire

school principals in the 1990-91 SASS. In items that should have been answered but

1993-94, the instrument was renamed to refer were not, values for the 1987-88, 1990-91,

to principals instead of school administrators. and 1993-94 SASS were imputed using data

• Since 1987-88, a number of revisions to the related SASSquestionnaires, (3) the sampling

School Principal Questionnaires have been frame, or (4) a similar respondent.

implemented. Question formats (e.g., the

general education background of principals in

the 1987-88 and 1990-91), item selection

(e.g., lists of principal perceived school

problems have grown over time), and item

wording (e.g., years of experience before

becoming principal) have changed since

1987-88. We do not attempt to describe these

changes here; however, these occurrences

are noted in the report text, where

appropriate.

• The measure of community type or “urbanicity” for the 1987-88 SASS involved administrator self-reports. Since the release of the

1987-88 SASS data, the locale code defined

for the 1990-91 and 1993-94 SASS was

added to the 1987-88 data; this report’s

analyses use this new measure of community

type. In 1990-91 and 1993-94, community

type was derived from a locale code based on

school mailing address mapped to Bureau of

the Census population density data, Standard

as defined for the 1990-91 and 1993-94

5

from (1) other questionnaire items, (2)

Sample Selection

The initial sampling units for SASS were

schools. The sampling structure was designed 6

to provide separate data for public and private

schools, with detail by state for the public sector

and by private school association for the private

sector. After schools were selected, each public

and private school in the sample was sent a

letter requesting that school personnel provide

a list of all teachers in the school. The returned

lists, supplemented by telephone followup,

served as the sampling frame for the teacher

survey. The same sample was used for the

District and school files for the 1987-88 SASS were imputed 5

before they were released. Administrator and teacher files were

imputed during 1994, and the imputed values were added to

the 1987-88 SASS database.

For a detailed description of the sample design for the 1993- 6

94 SASS, see Abramson et al. (1996).
C-4

public and private school principal survey. Each for the Teacher Demand and Shortage QuesLEA that administered one or more of the tionnaires.

sample schools in the public sector became part

of the sample for the Teacher Demand and Survey Operations Procedures

Shortage Questionnaire.

Selection of schools. Since the 1990-91 SASS,

the public school sampling frame has been the

CCD file. The CCD is based on census data

collected annually by NCES from state education agencies and is believed to be the most

complete list of public schools available. The

frame includes regular public schools, military

base schools operated by the Department of

Defense, and nonregular schools such as special

education, vocational, and alternative schools.

The public school sampling frame for the 1987-

88 SASSwas the school file developed by QED.

For private schools in the 1987-88 SASS, the

QED private school frame was supplemented

with lists obtained from several private school

associations and by an area sample of 123

counties or groups of counties in which telephone directories, government offices, and other

local sources were utilized to identify omitted

private schools. The sampling frame for private

schools in the 1990-91 SASS was the NCES

1989-90 Private School Universe Survey, augmented with state lists and private school association lists. The 1993-94 SASS private school 7

frame consisted of the 1991-92 Private School

Universe Survey, augmented with private school

association lists and lists from an area frame.8

Selection of local education agencies. All LEAs

that had at least one school selected for the

school sample were included in the LEA sample

Survey operations for the 1987-88, 1990-91,

and 1993-94 SASS, including sample selection,

data collection, and data processing, were

carried out under an interagency agreement by

the U.S. Bureau of the Census, according to

specifications provided by NCES. At the start of

each school year, introductory letters containing

a Teacher Listing Sheet were mailed to sample

schools. These Teacher Listing Sheets, designed

to enumerate the instructional staff at each

school, served as the sampling frame for the

teacher sample. Shortly after the listing sheets

are distributed, Teacher Demand and Shortage

Questionnaires were mailed to the local education agencies representing the sampled public

schools and School Principal Questionnaires

were sent to the principals of the selected public

and private schools. School Teacher Questionnaires for teachers selected from lists provided

by the sample public and private schools were

also mailed at that time. Completed questionnaires were returned by mail to the Census

Bureau. Telephone followup interviews of nonrespondents to the questionnaires were conducted by Census Bureau field representatives.

Weighting

Weights of the sample units were developed to

produce national and state estimates for teachers, administrators, schools, and local education

agencies. The basic weights were the inverse of 9

the probability of selection. The weights were

also adjusted for nonresponse and to ensure that

sample totals (based on responding, nonresponding, and out-of-scope cases) were comparable to the frame totals.

Gerald, E., McMillen, M., & Kaufman, S. (1993). Private 7

School Universe Survey, 1989-90 [NCES 93-122].

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of

Educational Research and Improvement.

Broughman, S., Gerald, E. Bynum L.T., & Stoner, K. 8

(1993). Private School Universe Survey, 1991-92 [NCES 94-

350]. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office For a detailed description of the weighting process for 1993-

of Educational Research and Improvement. 94, see Abramson et al. (1996).

9
C-5

Standard Errors cipal totals, and all other estimates presented,

The estimates presented in the text and tables of

this report are based on samples and are subject

to sampling variability. Standard errors were

estimated using a balanced repeated replications

procedure that incorporated the design features

of this complex sample survey. The standard 10

errors indicate the accuracy of each estimate. If

all possible samples of the same size were

surveyed under the same conditions, an interval

of 1.96 standard error units below to 1.96

standard error units above a particular statistic

would include the true population value in

approximately 95 percent of the cases. Note,

however, that the standard errors do not take

into account the effects of biases due to item

nonresponse, measurement error, data processing error, or other possible systematic errors.

Standard errors for the estimates presented in

the text and tables of this report are included in

appendix B.

Accuracy of Estimates

Some principals, schools, and districts did not

return questionnaires, which resulted in missing

data. These missing data, however, should have

relatively little impact on the estimates of

percentages, means, and counts that this report

presents because of nonresponse adjustment

strategies employed by SASS. Where analyses 11

required examining data across questionnaires

(e.g., when analyses included variables from

both the Principal Questionnaire and the

Teacher Demand and Shortage Questionnaire

for Public School Districts), district nonresponse reduced the sample size of respondents

because principals located in districts that did

not return a questionnaire could not be included

in the analyses. Thus, in these cases, the prinwere based on a subset of the total number of

principals.

The accuracy of any statistic is determined by

the joint effects of sampling and nonsampling

errors. Both types of error affect the estimates

presented in this report.12

Nonsampling Error

Both universe and sample surveys are subject to

nonsampling errors. Two types of nonsampling

errors occur—nonobservation error and measurement error—and both are extremely difficult to estimate.

Nonobservation error may be due to noncoverage, which occurs when members of the

population of interest are excluded from the

sampling frame and, therefore, are not included

in the survey sample. Nonobservation error also

occurs when sampled units (for example,

teachers or administrators) refuse to answer

some or all of the survey questions. These types

of error are referred to as questionnaire nonresponse (where the entire questionnaire is

missing) and item nonresponse (where only

some items of the questionnaire are missing).

Sample weight adjustment techniques were used

to compensate for questionnaire nonresponse;

See, e.g., Wolter, K.M. (1985). Introduction to Variance 10

Estimation. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Sampling weights are adjusted for instrument nonresponse. 11 A summary of the data quality for SASS is presented by 12

Jabine (1994).
C-6

imputation procedures were used to compensate balanced repeated replications variance estimafor item nonresponse in SASS. tion program developed to calculate standard 13

Measurement error occurs when mistakes are

made when data are edited, coded, or entered Response Rates and Imputation

into computers (processing errors), when the

responses that subjects provide differ from the

“true” responses (response errors), and when

measurement instruments fail to measure the

characteristics they are intended to measure.

Sources of response errors include differences in

the ways that respondents interpret questions,

faulty respondent memory, and mistakes

respondents make when recording their answers.

Because estimating the magnitude of these

various types of nonsampling errors would

require special experiments or access to independent data, information on the scope of these

errors is seldom available.

Sampling Error

Sampling error occurs when members of a population are selected (sampled), and only sample

members respond to survey questions. Estimates

that are based on sample responses will differ

somewhat from the data that would have been

obtained if a complete census of the relevant

population had been taken using the same

survey instruments, instructions, and procedures. The estimated standard error of a statistic

is a measure of the variation due to sampling

and can be used to examine the precision

obtained in a particular sample. All estimates

and standard errors were calculated using a

errors based upon complex survey designs.

The final weighted questionnaire response rates

are reported in table C1 for the various SASS

years. Table C2 provides the item-response

rates for the SASS instruments by year. Values

were imputed for items with missing data by

(1) using data from other items on the

questionnaire or a related component of the

SASS (e.g., a school record to impute district

data); (2) extracting data from the sample frame

such as the CCD; or (3) extracting data from a

respondent with similar characteristics.14

The reader should note that all data on principals in this report are imputed. For earlier

reports, imputed data on principals for 1987-88

were not available; unimputed data were used.

Thus, differences may exist between the 1987-

88 estimates reported here and those in previous

reports.

Statistical Procedures

The comparisons in the text were tested for

statistical significance to ensure that the differences are larger than might be expected from

sampling variation. These statistical tests were

based on Student’s t statistic. Generally,

whether a difference is considered significant is

determined by calculating a t value for the difference between a pair of means or percentages,

and comparing this value to published tables of

values at certain critical levels, called alpha

levels. The alpha level is an a priori statement of

the probability of inferring that a difference

exists when, in fact, it does not (i.e., the

observed difference results from sample variaA discussion of these nonresponse adjustment procedures 13

is presented in the following references:

Gruber, K.J., Rohr, C.L., & Fondelier, S.E. (1994). 1990-91

Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File User’s Manual

(Vol. 1: Survey Documentation) (NCES 93-144-I).

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of

Educational Research and Improvement.

Gruber, K.J., Rohr, C.L., & Fondelier, S.E. (1996). 1993-94

Schools and Staffing Survey: Data File User’s Manual

(Vol. 1: Survey Documentation) (NCES 96-142). For a description of the imputation procedures, see

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Abramson et al. (1996) (pp 90-108) and Gruber et al. (1994)

Educational Research and Improvement. (pp. 71-78).

14
C-7

Table C1.—Weighted and unweighted percent response rates by SASS instrument:

1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94

Unweighted Weighted

Questionnaire 1987-88 1990-91 1994-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Teacher demand and shortage

for public school districts 89.4 93.7 93.1 90.8 93.5 93.9

Public school principal 94.2 96.9 96.6 94.4 96.7 96.6

Private school principal 81.2 91.1 90.3 79.3 90.0 87.6

Public school 91.9 95.0 92.0 91.9 95.3 92.3

Private school 79.6 85.1 84.1 78.6 83.9 83.2

Public school teacher* 86.5 91.5 88.9 86.4 90.3 88.2

Private school teacher* 77.0 83.1 80.6 79.1 84.3 80.2

* The response rates for public and private school teachers exclude the schools that did not provide teacher lists. The

overall or effective response rates for public school teachers, including those that could not be sampled from

nonresponding schools, were 83 percent, 86 percent, and 85 percent, respectively, for the 1987-88 through 1993-94

SASS. Overall response rates for private school teachers were 70 percent, 75 percent, and 73 percent for the SASS

administrations.

tion rather than a “true” difference between two the number of comparisons increases, so does

means). the risk of making such an error in inference.

In order to make proper inferences and interpre- To guard against errors of inference based upon

tations from the statistics, several points must be multiple comparisons, the Bonferroni procedure

kept in mind. First, comparisons resulting in to correct significance tests for multiple conlarge t statistics may appear to merit special trasts was used. This method corrects the signote. However, this is not always the case nificance (or alpha) level for the total number of

because the size of the t statistic depends not contrasts made with a particular classification

only on the observed difference in means or per- variable. For each classification variable, there

centages being compared, but also on the stan- are (K*(K-1)/2) possible contrasts (or nondard error of the difference. Thus, a small dif- redundant pairwise comparisons), where K is

ference between two groups with a much the number of categories. For example, racesmaller standard error could result in a large t ethnicity has five categories (i.e., American

statistic, but this small difference is not neces- Indian/Alaska Native, Asian/Pacific Islander,

sarily noteworthy. Second, when multiple statis- Hispanic, and White and Black non-Hispanic).

tical comparisons are made on the same data, it With K=5, there are 5*(5-1)/2 or 10 possible

becomes increasingly likely that an indication of comparisons among the race-ethnicity catea population difference is erroneous. Even when gories. The Bonferroni procedure divides the

there is no difference in the population, at an alpha level for a single t test by the number of

alpha level of .05, there is still a 5 percent possible pairwise comparisons in order to prochance of concluding that an observed t value

representing one comparison in the sample is

large enough to be statistically significant. As
C-8

Table C2.—Unweighted item-response rates for SASS questionnaires, by year

Questionnaire

Range of item-response rates Percent of items with response rate 90 percent Percent of items with a response rate < 75 percent

1987-88 1990-91 1993-94 1987- 88 1990-91 1993-94 1987-88 1990-91 1993-94

Teacher demand and shortage 40-100% 85-100% 67-100% 74% 90% 91% 12% 0% 1%Public school principal 70-100 90-100 65-100 86 100 92 2 0 4Private school principal 72-100 80-100 55-100 89 98 90 2 0 6Public school 43-100 56-100 83-100 64 77 83 11 1 0Private school 11-100 67-100 61-100 56 77 77 8 5 3Public school teacher 64-100 76-100 71-100 90 84 91 1 0 0Private school teacher 60-100 71-100 69-100 89 79 89 1 1 1
t
 P1	P2

se

2

1  se

2

2

C-9

vide a new alpha that is corrected for the fact confidentiality, we also suppressed cells with

that multiple contrasts are being made. fewer than three responses. The decision rules

The formula used to compute the t statistic was C3.

as follows:

where P and P are the estimates to be com- 1 2

pared and se and se are their corresponding 1 2

standard errors. This formula is valid only for

independent estimates. When the estimates were

not independent (for example, when comparing

the percentages of respondents in different age

groups), a covariance term was added to the

denominator of the t-test formula. Because the

actual covariance terms were not known, it was

assumed that the estimates were perfectly

negatively correlated. Consequently, 2*(se *se ) 1 2

was added to the denominator of the t-test

formula.

The standard errors were calculated using the

WESVAR program, a user-written procedure for

the Statistical Analysis System (SAS). This 15

analytic software uses a balanced repeated

replications method to calculate standard errors

based upon complex survey designs.

Decision Rules for Suppression of Estimates

Estimates based on very small sample sizes are

highly sensitive to sampling and measurement

error and tend to have large standard errors.

Since many of the crosstabular presentations in

this report include cells based on small numbers

of respondents, we have suppressed estimates

based on very small sample sizes and footnote

each cell with the note, “Too few cases for a

reliable estimate.” To protect respondent

for estimate suppression are presented in table

Variable Definitions

Public School District

A public school district (or LEA) was defined as

a government agency administratively responsible for providing public elementary and/or

secondary instruction and educational support

services. The agency or administrative unit was

required to operate under a public board of

education. Districts that did not operate schools

but hired teachers for other districts were

included. A district was considered out of scope

if it did not employ elementary or secondary

teachers of any kind.

Public School

A public school is defined as an institution that

provides educational services for at least one of

grades 1-12 (or comparable ungraded), has one

or more teachers to give instruction, is located

in one or more buildings, receives public funds

as primary support, has an assigned administrator, and is operated by an education agency.

Schools in juvenile detention centers and

schools located on military bases and operated

by the Department of Defense were included;

schools funded by the Bureau of Indian Affairs

were not included.

Private School

A private school was defined as a school not in

the public system that provides instruction for

any of grades 1 through 12 where the instruction

was not given in a private home.

WESVAR is a proprietary computer program available from 15

Westat, Inc., 1650 Research Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850.
C-10

Table C3.—Decision rules for estimate suppression

For Total Columns:

1. If n < 10, then suppress all totals and counts;

2. If 10  n < 30, then do

A. If C.V. of the N < 20%, then report all totals and counts;

B. If C.V. of the estimate  20%, then suppress all totals and counts;

3. If n  30, then report all totals and counts.

For Percentages and Proportions:

1. If n  30, then do den

A. If n  2, then suppress percentage; num

B. If n > 2, then report percentage; num

2. If 10 < n < 30, then do den

A. If n  2, then suppress percentage; num

B. If n > 2, then do num

1. If C.V. of denominator < 20%, then report percentage;

2. If C.V. of the denominator  20%, then suppress;

3. IF n < 10, then suppress. den

Where n = unweighted count for cell,

N = weighted number,

NU = universe total for that cell (or the weighted count if not available), and

C.V. = coefficient of variation for the estimate (i.e., the ratio of the standard

error to the value of the statistic).
C-11

Community Type

Community type was derived from the sevencategory “urbanicity” code (locale) developed School Level

by Johnson. The locale code was based on the 16

school’s mailing address matched to Bureau of Elementary. A school that had grade 6 or lower,

the Census data files containing population or “ungraded” and had no grade higher than the

density data, SMSA codes, and a Census code 8th.

defining urban and rural areas. This approach,

first employed during the 1990-91 SASS, is Secondary. A school that had no grade lower

believed to provide a more accurate description than the 7th, or “ungraded” and had grade 7 or

of the community than the respondents’ self- higher.

reported community type used during initial

analyses of the 1987-88 SASS. For this report, Combined. A school that had grades higher than 17

community type for the 1987-88 instruments the 8th and lower than the 7th. Schools in which

was updated to reflect the current locale def- students are ungraded (i.e., nonclassified by

inition. The locale codes were aggregated into standard grade levels) are also classified as

three community types. combined.

Central city. A large central city (the central

city of an SMSA with population 400,000 or a

population density 6,000 persons per square

mile) or a mid-size city (a central city of an

SMSA, but not designated as a large central city).

Urban fringe and large town. The community

type is defined to include the urban fringe of a

large or mid-size city or a large town (a place

not within an SMSA, but with a population

25,000 and defined as urban by the U.S.

Census Bureau).

Rural area and small town. This category was

defined to include both rural areas (population

of <2,500 and defined as rural by the U.S.

Census Bureau) and small towns (a place

not within an SMSA, with a population of

<25,000, but 2,500).

School Size

Less than 150, 150 to 499, 500 to 749, and 750

or more. Size categories were based on the

number of students (by head count) who were

enrolled in grades K-12 in the school on the

Public and Private School Questionnaires.

Private School Typology

Private schools were assigned to one of three

major categories, and within each major category, to one of three subcategories. The categories and subcategories are:18

• Catholic: parochial, diocesan, and private

order;

• Other religious: affiliated with the Conservative Christian School Association, affiliated with a national denomination, and unaffiliated;

Johnson, F. (1989). Assigning Type of Local Codes to the 16

1987-88 CCD Public Schools Universe (Data Series

Technical Report SP-CCD-87188-7.4). Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and

Improvement.

Johnson, F.H. (1993). Comparisons of School Locale For additional information, see McMillen, M., & Benson, P. 17

Settings: Self-Reported Versus Assigned. American Statistical (1991). Diversity of Private Schools (NCES 92-082).

Association, Proceedings of the Section on Survey Research Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of

Methods, 2, 686-691. Educational Research and Improvement.

18
C-12

• Nonsectarian: regular education, special program emphasis (e.g., military school), and

special education.

Region cipals with no teaching experience. Based on

Four geographic regions corresponding to areas percent of public school principals reported zero

defined by the U.S. Bureau of the Census were years of teaching experience for the respective

employed in the report. The areas and states are survey years 1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94.

defined below. The corresponding percentages for private prin-

• Northeast: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, New

Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and

Vermont;

• South: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland,

Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South

Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West

Virginia, and the District of Columbia;

• Midwest: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,

Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska,

North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin;

• West: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado,

Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New

Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and

Wyoming.

Highest Degree Earned

Less than bachelor’s degree, bachelor’s

degree, master’s degree, education specialist/

professional diploma, doctoral degree. The

highest degree earned by administrators is a

recoding of the various academic degrees

reported in the Public and Private School

Principal Questionnaires. The education

specialist or professional diploma (Ed.S.)

typically involves one additional year of study

beyond the master’s degree.

Years of Teaching Experience

Averages for years of teaching experience prior

to becoming a principal include data for prinweighted data, 1.1 percent, 1.3 percent, and 1.2

cipals were 11.0, 13.0, and 12.2.

Average Salary

Average salary for public and private school

principals is defined as the weighted mean

annual salary for the positions, before taxes and

deductions, as reported by the survey respondents. Unpaid positions (i.e., annual salary = $0)

were excluded from the calculations; all other

salaries were included. Based on weighted data,

0.1 percent of public school principals (69)

reported receiving no salary for survey year

1987-88. No public school principals reported

receiving no salary in years 1990-91 or 1993-94.

The corresponding percentages for private principals were 8.5, 9.9, and 7.4. Respondentreported salaries, whether for 12 months, 10

months, or other periods, were considered

annual salaries in our calculations.

In-kind Benefits

In-kind benefits are a composite of the employment benefits public and private school principals report receiving from their schools. The

benefits include free housing or housing contributions, meals including free and reduced

price lunches, tuition for children and reimbursement for personal tuition and course fees,

child care, and car and transportation expenses.

General medical, dental, and life insurance and

pension contributions are not included as inkind benefits.
C-13

District Size

Less than 1,000, 1,000 to 4,999, 5,000 to 9,999,

and 10,000 and more. This four-category measure of district size is based on the district head

count estimates reported in the Teacher Demand

and Shortage Questionnaire for Public School

Districts.

Race-ethnicity

Responses to two questions on the Public and

Private School Principal Questionnaires determined race-ethnicity of principals. The first

question asked respondents for their race:

American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian or

Pacific Islander, Black, or White. Respondents

were then asked, “Are you of Hispanic Origin?”

For this report, the five race-ethnicity categories

resulted from combining responses to the two

questions. Respondents who indicated they were

of Hispanic origin were classified as Hispanic New Administrator

regardless of their race. Respondents who

indicated they were not of Hispanic origin were “New” administrators were defined as having

partitioned into one of the four race categories. been administrators for three years or less.

Age

Principal age was calculated by subtracting

respondent year of birth from the base year of

the respective survey (i.e., 1987 for the 1987-88

SASS, 1990 for the 1990-91 SASS, and 1993 for

the 1993-94 SASS). However, all NCES CDROMs (public use and restricted use for all

three survey years) calculated respondent age

using the latter year (1988, 1991, and 1994).

Therefore, use of the age variable on the CDROMs in constructing age categories will yield

results different from those in this report.

Average age will differ by one year.

Minority Enrollment

Less than 20 percent, 20 to 50 percent, 50 percent and more. Based on the student demographic information contained in the Public and

Private School Questionnaires, the variable is

the sum of all racial-ethnic groups other than

white non-Hispanic calculated as a percentage

of students of all race-ethnic groups.
D-1

Appendix D • Schools and Staffing

Survey (SASS) Data Products

The following SASS data products may be • Teacher Supply in the U.S.: Sources of Newly

obtained free of charge while supplies last from: Hired Teachers in Public and Private

U.S. Department of Education

National Center for Education Statistics • Characteristics of American Indian and

SASS Data Products Alaska Native Education, Results from the

555 New Jersey Avenue, NW, Room 422 1990–91 SASS (NCES 95-735)

Washington, DC 20208-5651

Reports Teacher Turnover, Aspects of Teacher Sup-

• Characteristics of American Indian and

Alaska Native Education, Results from the

1993–94 SASS (NCES 97-451)

• Out-of-Field Teaching and Educational

Equality (NCES 96-040)

• Schools and Staffing in the United States: A

Statistical Profile: 1993–94 (NCES 96-124)

• Private School Universe Survey, 1993–94

(NCES 96-143)

• SASSby State, 1993-94 Schools and Staffing

Survey: Selected State Results (NCES 96-

312)

• Comparing Key Organizational Qualities of

American Public and Private Secondary

Schools (NCES 96-322)

• Schools and Staffing in the United States:

Selected Data for Public and Private Schools,

1993-94 (E.D. Tab, NCES 95-191)

• Private Schools in the United States: A

Statistical Profile, 1990–91 (NCES 95-330)

Schools, 1988–1991(NCES 95-348)

• Teacher Supply, Teacher Qualifications and

ply and Demand in the U.S., 1990–91 (NCES

95-744)

• The Patterns of Teacher Compensation

(NCES 95-829)

• Characteristics of Stayers, Movers, and

Leavers: Results from the Teacher Followup

Survey, 1991-92 (E.D. Tab, NCES 94-337)

• SASS by State (NCES 94-343)

• Private School Universe Survey, 1991-92

(NCES 94-350)

• Qualifications of the Public School Teacher

Workforce: 1988 and 1991 (NCES 94-665)

• America
s Teachers: Profile of a Profession

(NCES 93-025)

• Private School Universe Survey, 1989-90

(NCES 93-122)

• Selected Tables on Teacher Supply and

Demand (E.D. Tab, NCES 93-141)
D-2

• Schools and Staffing in the United States: A • Sources of Newly Hired Teachers in Public

Statistical Profile, 1990-91 (NCES 93-146) and Private Schools, 1988–94

• Schools and Staffing in the United States: • Characteristics of Students' Programs: ReSelected Data for Public and Private Schools, sults from Their Student Records, 1993–94

1990-91 (E.D. Tab, NCES 93-453)

• Schools and Staffing in the United States: A Leavers: Results from the Teacher Followup

Statistical Profile, 1987-88 (NCES 92-120) Survey, 1994-95

• Characteristics of Stayers, Movers, and • Public School Districts in the United States:

Leavers: Results from the Teacher Followup A Statistical Profile, 1987-88, 1990-91, and

Survey, 1988-89 (E.D. Tab, NCES 91-128) 1993-94

Forthcoming Reports Issue Briefs

• America's Teachers: Profile of a Profession, • Are High School Teachers Teaching Core

1993–94 Subjects Without College Majors or Minors

• The State of Teaching as a Profession,

1990–91 • Where Do Minority Principals Work? (NCES

• The Effects of Professionalization on Teachers: A Multi-Level Analysis, 1990–91 • What Academic Programs are Offered Most

• Time Spent Teaching Core Academic Sub- Indian and Alaska Native Students? (NCES

jects in Elementary Schools: Comparisons 96-841)

Across Community School, Teacher, and

Student Characteristics • How Safe are the Public Schools: What Do

• Job Satisfaction Among America's Teachers:

Effects of Workplace, Conditions, Back- • Extended Day Programs in Elementary and

ground Characteristics, and Teacher Combined Schools (NCES 96-843)

Compensation, 1993–94

• A Profile of Administration Policies and Teacher Applicants? (NCES 96-844)

Practices for Limited English Proficiency

Students: Screening Methods, Teacher Train- • Private School Graduation Requirements

ing, and Program Support, 1993–94 (NCES 95-145)

• Proficiency Students: Screening Methods, • How Much Time Do Public and Private

Teacher Training, and Program Support, School Teachers Spend in Their Work?

1993-94 (NCES 95-709)

• Private Schools in the U.S.: A Statistical • Migration and Attrition of Public and Private

Profile, 1993–94 School Teachers: 1991–92 (NCES 95-770)

• Characteristics of Stayers, Movers, and

in Those Subjects? (NCES 96-839)

96-840)

Frequently in Schools Serving American

Teachers Say? (NCES 96-842)

• What Criteria are Used in Considering
D-3

• Which Types of Schools Have the Highest Video

Teacher Turnover? (NCES 95-778)

• Libraries/Media Centers in Schools: Are

There Sufficient Resources? (NCES 95-779)

• Who Influences Decisionmaking About

School Curriculum: What Do Principals Say?

(NCES 95-780)

• Public and Private School Principals: Are

There Too Few Women? (NCES 94-192)

• Sources of Newly Hired Teachers in Public

and Private Schools, 1988-91 (NCES 94-481)

• What are the Most Serious Problems in

Schools? (NCES 93-149)

• Teacher Salaries—Are They Competitive?

(NCES 93-450)

• Teaching and Administrative Work Experience of Public School Principals (NCES

93-452)

• Teacher Attrition and Migration (NCES

92-148)

Forthcoming Issue Briefs

• Are Limited English Proficient (LEP) Students Being Taught by Teachers with LEP

Training? (Issue Brief, NCES 97-907)

• How Widespread is Site-Based Decisionmaking in the Public Schools? (Issue Brief,

NCES 97-908)

• Public School Choice Programs, 1993-94:

Availability and Student Participation (NCES

Issue Brief, 97-909)

• Teachers’ Sense of Community: How Do

Public and Private Schools Compare? (NCES

97-910)

• Americas Teachers: Profile of a Profession

Methods

• 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample

Design and Estimation (Technical Report,

NCES 96-089)

• An Exploratory Analysis of Nonrespondents,

Schools and Staffing Survey 1990–91 (NCES

96-338)

• Design Effects and Generalized Variance

Functions for the 1990–91 Schools and

Staffing Surveys (SASS), Volume I—User's

Manual (NCES 95-342I)

• Design Effects and Generalized Variance

Functions for the 1990–91 Schools and

Staffing Surveys (SASS), Volume II—

Technical Report (NCES 95-340II)

• A Quality Profile for SASS: Aspects of the

Quality of Data in the Schools and Staffing

Surveys (Methodological Report, NCES

94-340)

• 1990-91 Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample

Design and Estimation (Technical Report,

NCES 93-449)

• Modeling Teacher Supply and Demand, with

Commentary (Research and Development

Report, NCES 93-461)

• 1987-88 Schools and Staffing Survey: Sample

Design and Estimation (Technical Report,

NCES 91-127)

CD-ROMs

• Schools and Staffing Survey: 1993–94 Electronic Codebook and Public Use Data
D-4

• Schools and Staffing Survey: 1990–91 Elec- Forthcoming CD-ROMs

tronic Codebook and Public Use Data

• Schools and Staffing Survey, 1987–88 Microdata and Documentation

• Schools and Staffing Survey Compendium:

1987–88, 1990–91, 1993–94 and TFS

1988–89, 1991–92, 1994–95 (Winter 1996)
Index

A

Age, of principals

Average, 6, 7, 12–13

By district size, 13

Distribution, 5, 12–14

With less than three years as principals, 13

Athletic coach, prior experience as, iv, 19, 21,

38

B

Benefits, of principals

Distribution, iii, 9–10, 12

By race-ethnicity, 12, 37

By sex, 9–10

C

Career plans, of principals

By age, 35

By community type, 35

By school level, 35

By school size, 35

By sex, 35

By years of experience as principals, 35

Career continuation plans, 29, 33–35

Curriculum specialist or coordinator, prior

experience as, iv, 19, 21–22

D

Dental insurance, see Benefits

E

Educational administration, principals’ degrees

in, iv, 19–20, 38

Educational attainment, of principals

By community type, 17

By salary, 16–17

By school level, 17–18

Degrees held, 15–18

Field of study, iv, 19–20, 38

Educational goals, of principals

By community type, 32

By school level, 32

Goals selected, 29–31

Elementary education, principals’ degrees in,

ii, 19–20, 38

Experience, of principals

As teachers, iv, 19, 21–23

As principals, 22–23

By race-ethnicity, 22

By sex, 19, 22–23

Other education roles, iv, 19, 21–22, 38

I

Influence, of principals

Perception of their influence, 29–30, 32–33

By district size, 33

By school level, 32–33

By sex, 32

Inkind benefits, see Benefits

Inservice training, of principals

By community type, 17

By race-ethnicity, 17

By sex, 17

Participation in programs, 15, 17

L

Life insurance, see Benefits

M

Medical insurance, see Benefits

N

New principals, 8–9, 12–13

Number, of principals

By region, 5–6

Total, 5–6

I-1
P

Parent involvement, lack of, iv, 26–28, 38

Problems in schools, principals’ perceptions

of,

By community type, 27–28

By minority enrollment, 38

By school level, iv, 25–28, 38

Serious problems identified, iv, 25–28, 38

Poverty, of students, iv, 25–28, 38

R

Race-ethnicity, of principals

By community type, 11

By district size, 11

By region, 10

By student free lunch eligibility, 11

Distribution, iii, 6–7, 10–12, 37

Percent minority, iii, 10–12, 37

With less than three years as principals, 12

Retirement, principals’ plans for, see Career

Plans

Retirement plans, see Benefits

S

Salaries, of principals

Average, iii, 7, 9–10, 13, 37

By education level, 9, 11, 13, 37–38

By sex, iv, 9–10, 37

By race-ethnicity, iv, 12–13, 37

School level

Percentage of principals by, 6–7

School reform, iii, 1–2, 37

Sex, of principals

Distribution, iii, 6–10, 37

By district size, 6–7

By community type, 6

By school level, 7–10

By student free lunch eligibility, 6

With less than three years as principals, 8–9

Student drug abuse, iv, 26–27, 38

Student use of alcohol, iv, 26–27, 38

W

Weapons, student possession of, iv, 26–27, 38

I-2