Peat Deposits of 

Northeastern Pennsylvania

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1317 A

Peat Deposits of 

Northeastern Pennsylvania

By CORNELIA C. CAMERON

STUDIES IN PEAT

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1317-A

The use of physical characteristics of peat 

and geologic settings of the deposits as 

guides to peat resources

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1970
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

WALTER J. HICKEL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

William T. Pecora, Director

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 74-608649

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20462 - Price 45 cents (paper cover)
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract _____________________________________ Al

Introduction ______________________________________ 2

Peat ________________________________________ 6

Environment ________________________-__*______ 6

Physical properties ___________-__ _ _ _ 7

Organic content _____________________ _______ 7

Moisture content ___________________________ 8

Water-holding capacity _________________.__-__ 9'

Fiber content ___-____________ -_ _ $

Acidity ______________________-____,____ 10

Classification ________________________________ 10

Moss peat _____________________________ ___ 11

Reed-sedge peat ______________ ___ _ 11

Peat humus ____________________-____ _ 11

Regional geology _____________________-________ 12

Paleozoic rocks ______________________________ 12

Quaternary rocks ___________________-_____ 16

Glacial mechanics ____________ - _ .- 17

Peat deposits __________________________ _ 18

Physical features __________-_______ __-___ *- 18

Formation of the peat deposits ___________-__-_ 19

Rate of deposit formation ___________.__-______ _ 22

Climate of area _______________________________^ £8

Vegetation of peat deposit areas _________ _ 24

Drainage basin features _______________,__________ 25

Geologic setting classification _______________-____ 26 

Class Al, bedrock trough closed at both ends by unconsolidated material ____________________ -_ 27 

Class A2, bedrock trough with unconsolidated material closing

both ends and partly mantling the trough __ - 27 

Class A3, depression in bedrock closed by ^consolidated

material ________________________-_ _ 31

Class Bl, depression in unconsolidated material closed by

bedrock ____________________________-___ 33 

Class B2, depression completely within unconsolidated

material ____________________-__ 34

Relation of quantity and quality of peat to classes of geologic settings 37

Quantity relationship ________________________ _ 37

Quality relationship ____________________________ £8

Engineering aspects of peat ______________________.__ 40

Movement of water through peat ____________ _ 40

Water transfer between peat deposit and country rock _______ 40

Peat deposit subsidence ______________________ _ .-. 41

Peat deposit drainage ____________________^___ 42

in
IV CONTENTS

	Page

Economic geology __________________________________ A43

Reserves and resources of peat in the area of study ________ 43

Peat mining in northeastern Pennsylvania _______________ 43

Suggestions for peat exploration _____________________ 44

Outlook for the area ___________________________ 45

References _______________________________________ 46

Index __________________________________________ 89

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

FIGURE 1. Index map of Pennsylvania showing the area of this report A3

2. Location of peat deposits investigated in northeastern

Pennsylvania __________________________ 5

3. Geologic sketch map of northeastern Pennsylvania with 

selected examples of geologic settings of peat deposits 

relative to topography, regional geologic structure, and 

movement and limit of Wisconsin Glaciation _____ 15

4. Index map showing location of U.S. Geological Survey

topographic quadrangles in area of study _ __ 18

5. Diagrammatic sketches showing steps in the development

of peat in northeastern Pennsylvania __________ 21

6. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class Al 

geologic setting, Smiths Swamp, Rowland quadrangle, 

Pike County ___________________________ 28

7. Plan and cross sections of typical peat deposit in class A2 

geologic settings, Big Swamp, Twelvemile Pond quadrangle, Pike County _______________________ 30

8. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class A3 

geologic setting, swamp adjacent to Robinson Lake, 

Lenoxville quadrangle, Susquehanna County ____ _ 32

9. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class Bl

geologic setting ________________________ 35

10. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class B2 

setting, Nebo Swamp, Twelvemile Pond quadrangle, 

Pike County ____________________________ 36

11. Area, thickness, geologic setting, and organic content of

selected peat deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania _ 38

12. Quality of peat in each class of geologic setting based on

analyses of samples from 95 deposits ___ _ 39

TABLES

Page

TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of selected peat

15 peat deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania A50

2. Analytical data (physical properties) for representative 

peat samples from selected deposits in northeastern 

Pennsylvania ____________________ __ _ 85

3. Pertinent drainage and ground-condition information about

deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania ____ __ 87
STUDIES IN P£AT

PEAT DEPOSITS OF 

NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA

By CORNELIA C. CAMERON

ABSTRACT

Peat resources in a 900-square-mile area in northeastern Pennsylvania 

are estimated at more than 13 million short tons of air-dried peat, chiefly 

of good quality reed-sedge type. Most deposits are 10-100 acres in extent, 

average 5-16 feet in thickness, and contain from 10,000 to 100,000 tons of 

potential resources. Individual mining operations are relatively small but 

require minimum facility investment. Accessibility to operation sites and to 

markets is good.

Ninety-five peat deposits in the Appalachian Mountains of northeastern 

Pennsylvania were studied. These represent various geologic settings related 

to structural control of bedrock and to differential erosion. Physical and 

chemical analyses of samples show that specific characteristics of the peat 

can be related to distribution of bedrock and unconsolidated material surrounding each deposit and to the size and position of the drainage basin. Ash 

content, water-holding capacity, and fiber size reflect the form and the kinds 

of material of the depression walls and of the surrounding drainage basin.

Terrane factors provide a convenient means of classifying the different 

types of bogs and for estimating the quantity of peat in each. Such a descriptive classification also can be used to aid recognition of geologic environments 

during and after peat accumulation, and consequently aids in estimating the 

quality of peat resources. High ash content results from weathering during 

periods of lowered water table, which also is reflected in a decreased size 

of fibers. High ash content may also result when extraneous sediment is 

brought into the deposit by surface water. High water-holding capacity is 

directly related to the type of peat-forming vegetation, which in a given 

region is determined by moisture and soil conditions. These are governed by 

specific geologic processes such as weathering and ground- and surface-water 

regimen. The degree of acidity is related to predictable organic-inorganic 

relations.

Basically, the quality of peat depends upon the extent to which peatforming vegetation flourishes and upon the accumulation and preservation of 

this vegetation under conditions free from weathering and contamination by 

sediment. Geologic settings of peat deposits depend upon size, shape, and 

material of the depression containing the deposit and upon the topographic 

position relative to past and present regional ground- and surface-water 

patterns.

Al
A2 STUDIES IN PEAT

The use of a nongenetic classification applicable to any type of terrane is 

recommended for peat exploration because it permits wide flexibility in matching quality characteristics of peat with their many geomorphic causes. The 

exploration tool is then a pattern of factors and conditions rather than an 

individual factor or condition. The glaciated swamps and marshes of northeastern Pennsylvania, which have vegetation, climate, and geology favoring 

formation of numerous peat deposits at elevations generally exceeding 1,000 

feet above sea level and which are typical of folded and glaciated mountain 

areas, serve to illustrate this approach.

INTRODUCTION

Peat has been used as a low-rank fuel since.the dawn of civilization but only recently has it become widely recognized as a soil 

conditioner and horticultural material. Its use for these latter 

purposes has increased significantly during recent years. Pennsylvania has been a notable producer during this recent period of 

increased peat-mining activity and in 1966 ranked second in the 

Nation, with an output of 49,912 short tons of air-dried peat (U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, 1967).

The growing demand for peat in major metropolitan areas 

along the Atlantic seaboard and the desire to stimulate mineral 

output from the economically depressed Appalachian region led 

to informal discussions between officials of the Pennsylvania 

Geological Survey and the U.S. Geological Survey, and subsequently to the preparation of this report. Because peat mining 

in Pennsylvania is centered in the northeastern part of the State, 

study was limited to deposits in an approximately 900-square-mile 

area, from lat 41° to 41°45' N. and long 74°45' to 76°30' W. 

Included in the area are parts of Susquehanna, Wayne, Wyoming, 

Lackawanna, Pike, Columbia, Luzerne, Carbon, and Monroe Counties (fig. 1). Swamps and marshes, some recently flooded, are 

common throughout the area, and many contain deposits of peat. 

Small communities and farms predominate in the western part 

of the area, the Scranton and Wilkes-Barre coal district is in 

the central part, and resorts and game lands characterize the 

eastern part.

This report is intended to provide information for use in exploration for peat deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania and in 

other areas of similar geologic environment and terrane. The report is based on studies of the drainage-basin characteristics, 

geologic settings, and contents of 136 undeveloped but representative peat deposits as shown in figure 2. Data were obtained 

from traverses across swamps and marshes. Drill holes were put 

down by a Davis sampler at frequent intervals along the traverses
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NOETHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A3

FIGURE 1. Index map of Pennsylvania showing area of this report (shaded).

to collect samples of peat, to obtain stratigraphic information, 

and to determine the thickness of the deposits and the configuration of the depressions in which they lie. Quantity of peat in each 

deposit was calculated from surface area and average thicknesses determined from the drill holes and terrain interpretation 

of the areas surrounding the deposits. Samples of potentially 

exploitable peat were collected from 95 deposits and submitted to 

the laboratories of the U.S. Geological Survey for analyses. 

Moisture, ash, organic content, water-holding capacity, fiber size 

(exceeding 0.15 mm) and acidity were determined.

Acknowledgments The cooperation of Arthur A. Socolow and 

Edwin F. Kope, Pennsylvania Geological Survey, and of Eugene 

T. Sheridan, U.S. Bureau of Mines, is gratefully acknowledged. 

Committee reports and suggestions by members of the American 

Society for Testing and Materials Committee D-29 on peats, 

mosses, humus, and related products were much appreciated. 

Specific suggestions by Rouse S. Farnham, Department of Soil 

Science, University of Minnesota, Robert E. Lucas, Department 

of Soil Science, Michigan State University, and Virginia Thorpe, 

Michigan Testing Laboratory, formed the bases for collecting 

and analyzing the peat samples. Analyses were performed under 

the supervision of Irving May, U.S. Geological Survey. Harriet C. 

Cameron provided a valuable fund of experience and assistance 

to the field party in the identification and study of the vegetation 

types. David E. Schieck served ably as field assistant.
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PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A5
A6 STUDIES IN PEAT

PEAT 

ENVIRONMENT

Peat is an accumulation of partly decomposed vegetable matter 

that lived and died where water abounds. Peat may include (1) 

fibrous, matted, turflike material composed of mosses, ferns, 

grasses, rushes, reeds, sedges, and woody material from shrubs 

and trees, (2) finely divided plant debris so decomposed that its 

biological identity is lost, or (3) nonfibrous, plastic colloidal, and 

macerated material such as deposited at the bottom of lakes and 

other bodies of water.

Peat deposits form from the debris of many generations of 

plants living in communities adapted to rather specific water and 

soil conditions. Such a community is a marsh (an area of saturated 

ground supporting dominantly rushes, reeds, grasses, sedges, and 

other herbaceous plants), or a swamp (an area of saturated 

ground supporting dominantly trees and shrubs). A particular 

peat deposit may be the result of a sequence of communities of 

plants that lived in somewhat different water and soil conditions 

and perhaps under different climatic conditions.

Peat formation requires the coincidence of several physical 

and biological factors: a climate and a soil that favor growth 

of plants; a physical setting that favors accumulation of plant 

debris; and a geologic setting in which peat, once formed, may be 

preserved.

Climatic factors associated with peat formation are quite varied. 

Peat formation is not limited by temperature; just as plant 

growth extends from the Arctics to the Tropics, peat deposits are 

equally extensive. The peat bogs of northern latitudes have long 

been studied and exploited, but the great peat deposits of Florida 

(Davis, 1946) and those of the tropical mangrove swamps are 

not as well known. Temperature is important in that plant growth 

is more abundant as the mean annual temperature increases 

but the rate of decay is also favored by higher temperatures. 

Temperature is probably most important in its role of humidity 

control, for moisture is the most critical climatic factor in promoting plant growth and inhibiting decay. Moisture is thus the 

chief control in the formation of peat.

Physical settings in which plant debris may accumulate in 

significant amounts are very limited. Foraging animals, insects, 

bacteria, molds, and fungi, plus chemical oxidation thrive on the 

products of plants. Only in circumstances where plant debris is 

rapidly buried or trapped in a nonoxidizing environment is it 

likely to be converted to peat. Such environments as ponds,
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A7

swamps, and marshes offer rapid immersion into a suitable peatforming environment.

The biological and chemical environments favoring development of peat are those in which oxygen is very limited and movement of solutions is slow. Anaerobic conditions in the lower parts 

of nearly stagnant ponds, swamps, and marshes provide maximum 

opportunity for preservation (Waksman, 1942, and Waksman and 

Stevens, 1929, 1932). Depressions containing quiet or slow-moving 

water part of the year act as sites for peat formation and range 

greatly in size from the small areas in hills and mountains to 

large areas of low relief such as occur in Minnesota, Michigan, 

and Canada. In areas of high rainfall, low evaporation, and consequent high humidity, deposits of sphagnum moss may accumulate 

and form peat independently of flooded conditions. For example, 

along the coast of Maine, where the air is humid and cool, some 

peat deposits are built up more than 20 feet above the original 

surface of the land.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Although the properties and composition of peat vary considerably in different deposits and in different parts of the same 

deposit, all peats are a mixture of water and partly decomposed 

plant matter plus varying amounts of mineral matter that washed 

into the deposit while it was forming. The physical and physiochemical characteristics and properties such as texture and structure, soil reaction, and heat values vary greatly because of different 

types of vegetation from which the peat was derived and the different environmental conditions under which it accumulated and 

has been preserved. The characteristics and properties are so many 

that the Cooperative Extension Service at Michigan State University has published a guide for peat consumers (Lucas and 

others, 1966) which lists what to look for in commercial peat. 

This list includes organic-matter content, degree of decomposition, 

pH, percentage of water, weed-seed contamination, structure, 

water-holding capacity, and nitrogen content. The guide points to 

characteristics of raw peat that are of primary importance both 

to the processed product and the processing of the products. Chief 

among these are: organic content, moisture content, water-holding 

capacity, fiber content, and acidity.

ORGANIC CONTENT

Organic matter should not be less than 75 percent to meet 

regulations established by the Federal Trade Commission in 1950 

to govern the sale of peat. The regulations define peat as any
A8 STUDIES IN PEAT

partially decomposed plant matter that has accumulated under 

water or in a water-saturated environment. It is unlawful to label 

a product "peat" unless 75 percent of the material, by dry weight, 

is composed of peat as defined and the remainder (the ash content) is composed of normally associated soil materials. Government purchases of peat are subject to specifications developed by 

the Federal Supply Service, General Services Administration. 

Federal Specification Q-P-166e, dated May 10, 1961, sets maximum ash content for the several types of peat as follows: sphagnum moss peat, 10 percent; other moss peat, 20 percent; humus 

peat, 20 percent; and reed-sedge peat, 15 percent.

The organic-matter content of peat described in this report was 

calculated after moisture and ash content had been determined. 

The sample, which had been brought to the laboratory in a watertight container to prevent water loss after collection, was dried 

uncovered at 105°C for 16 hours. The percentage of moisture 

content equals

weight of sample as received weight of dried sample 

 X 100. 

weight of sample as received

The dried sample was heated at 500°C until completely ashed. 

The percentage of ash equals

weight of ash .__._ ° x 100. 

weight of dried sample

Organic content of the sample was then calculated, in percentage, as follows:

weight of dried sample weight of ash 

 x 100. 

weight of dried sample

MOISTURE CONTENT

Water content of peat in a deposit is very difficult if not impossible to measure accurately, but it is a very significant property 

in the mining and processing of peat. Measurements of moisture 

content in samples from 95 bogs in northeastern Pennsylvania 

indicate a high percentage of water in freshly excavated peat. 

On an over-dried basis, moisture content of samples as received 

ranged from 72.3 to 95.7 percent. Samples from 77 percent of the 

deposits contained 90-95.7 percent water, and samples from 20 

percent of the deposits contained 85-90 percent water. Only 3 percent of the samples were in the 72.3-85 percent range. All the 

deposits sampled, whether drained or undrained, contained a high
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A9

percentage of water in the undisturbed peat. Water therefore 

would move through such deposits very slowly, a fact significant 

to both the drainage of the deposit by ditching to permit excavation and to the drying of the peat before stockpiling for bulk or 

package sales.

WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY

One of the properties that makes peat valuable as a soil conditioner and horticultural material is its ability to reabsorb water 

like a sponge after initial drying. Water-holding capacity, which 

is measured in percentage by weight, varies depending upon 

botanical character, the degree of decomposition, and the degree 

of drying to which the peat has been subjected. Moss peat has 

tremendous water-holding power and will hold water 15-30 times 

its own weight; a good grade of reed-sedge peat commonly will 

hold water 10-20 times its own weight; whereas decomposed peat 

such as humus will hold considerably less water. Oven-dried peat 

tends to reabsorb less water than air-dried peat.

Federal Trade Commission regulations do not specify waterholding capacity, but Federal Specification Q-P-166e specifies 

minimum water-holding capacity expressed in percentage by 

weight compared to oven-dried weight for the several types 

of peat as follows: sphagnum peat, 800 percent; other moss peat, 

400 percent; humus peat, 200 percent; and reed-sedge peat 

400 percent.

Water-holding capacity is determined in the laboratory from 

samples of peat that have not been subjected to partial preliminary drying after collection in the field. Twenty to 50 grams are 

placed in a tarred-covered container having a wire-screen bottom 

and immersed in water at room temperature for 18-24 hours. The 

laboratory sample is then heated in an oven at 105 °C to constant 

weight, cooled in a desiccator, and then weighed. The percentage 

of absorbed water, based on the oven-dried weight, is computed 

from the difference in weight between the saturated sample and 

the oven-dried sample.

FIBER CONTENT

Fiber content refers to stem, leaf, or other plant fragments. It 

is, therefore, a property common to all types of peat. Because peat 

with a high percentage of fiber greater than 0.15 mm in length 

also tends to have high water-holding capacity and because fiber 

content correlates well with weight per unit volume (a common 

basis for the sale of peat), a classification based on fiber content 

has been formulated by the ASTM (American Society for Testing
A10 STUDIES IN PEAT

and Materials) D-29 Subcommittee I, Classification (Rouse 

Farnham, written commun., 1967).

The amount of fiber exceeding 0.15 mm in length has been 

measured for each of the 95 deposits sampled in northeastern 

Pennsylvania and the results tabulated in percentage. The peat 

samples were oven dried and screened, and the following formula 

applied:

weight of fibers (> 0.15 mm) , AA Perf "tage of J?ber 3 ^ ;-= X 100 = content more than

total dry weight 0.15 mm in length.

All deposits were grouped into the following three fiber types 

for convenience of discussion:

Type I, more than 66% percent fiber content greater than 0,15

mm in length; 

Type II, 331/3-66% percent fiber content greater than 0.15 mm

in length; and 

Type III, less than 33% percent fiber content greater than 0.15

mm in length.

In general, sphagnum moss peat appears to be characterized by 

having long fibers typical of type I. Most reed-sedge peat falls in 

type II, and much humus in type III. Peat in northeastern Pennsylvania is predominantly reed-sedge with type II fiber content.

ACIDITY

The pH scale is used to designate the degree of acidity or 

alkalinity. A pH of 7.0 is neutral. Very acid peats have a pH of 

3.2-4.2. Acid peats have pH 4.2-5.0. Peats with pH values from 

5.0 to 7.0 are low in acidity. Those with a pH over 7.0 are alkaline. 

Peats may be classified into two major acidity types. Those with 

pH values below 5.0 are calcium deficient; those above pH 5.0 

are called calcium sufficient.

Federal Specification Q-P-166e specifies pH values of 3.2-4.5 

for sphagnum moss peat; 3.2-7.0 for other moss peat; 4.0-7.5 for 

both humus peat and reed-sedge peat.

CLASSIFICATION

Peat can be formed from many varieties of plant material, 

throughout a wide range of climatic and geomorphic conditions, 

and subsequently can have a widely varied geologic history. 

Different peats have been found suitable for differing uses. Complexity in the nature and origin of peat and the varying usage of 

it has led to development of many different modes of classification.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA All

The chief classifications are based on (1) physical or chemical 

characteristics such as texture, organic and mineral composition, 

water content, and fuel value, (2) peat as a soil and the vegetation 

that grows on it, (3) origin, mainly by the type of vegetation 

represented, (4) the environment of formation, or (5) uses, such 

as for fuel, as a source of chemical and other manufactured 

products, and as a soil conditioner.

For statistical purposes, the U.S. Bureau of Mines has classified 

peat into three general types: moss peat, reed-sedge peat, and 

peat humus. This classification is used in this report. Peat deposits 

also may contain a considerable amount of woody material regardless of type. Most peat produced in the United States and the 

vast majority of the unexploited peat deposits in northeastern 

Pennsylvania are either reed-sedge or humus type.

MOSS PEAT

Moss peat is formed principally from sphagnum, hypnum, and 

other mosses. Sphagnum moss peat is light tan to brown, is light 

in weight, porous, high in water-holding capacity, and is of high 

acidity and low in nitrogen content. "Top moss" is the living part 

of sphagnum and should not be confused with moss peat which 

has aged and is partially decomposed. Hypnum moss peat is^ a 

darker brown, of low acidity, and possesses physical characteristics similar to reed-sedge peat. In the bogs sampled in northeastern 

Pennsylvania, moss peat is abundant in only three deposits: in 

Pike County 2.2 miles south of Shohola; in Susquehanna County 

at Tea Pond; and on the west border of Lackawanna County in 

the Avoca quadrangle.

REED-SEDGE PEAT

Reed-sedge peat is formed principally from reeds, sedges, marsh 

grasses, cattails, and associated plants. Fibrous, partially decomposed peat is brown to reddish brown but more decomposed peats 

are darker. The water-holding capacity and the nitrogen content 

are of medium range.

PEAT HUMUS

Peat humus is peat that is of such an advanced stage of decomposition that the original plant remains are not identifiable. It is 

usually derived from reed-sedge or hypnum moss peat. Peat humus 

is dark brown to black, has low moisture-retention capacity, and a 

medium to high nitrogen content.

In addition to these three major types of peat, other materials 

high in organic matter should be mentioned. Sedimentary peat
A12 STUDIES IN PEAT

is found in the bottom of lakes and ponds and in the lower levels 

of most peat deposits. It is derived from algae, plankton, pond 

weeds, and similar plant species. Such peat usually contains considerable mineral impurities and in this report is referred to as 

peaty clay or clayey peat depending upon the degree of organic 

content. It is too finely divided for most soil improvement 

purposes; it shrinks and swells greatly with varying moisture 

content, and some has a sheet-like structure and hardens upon 

drying. Muck is highly weathered peat that has been modified 

greatly by soil microorganisms and is usually granular in structure. It has low moisture retention capability and is poorly suited 

for soil improvement purposes.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

Depressions in which peat has accumulated in northeastern 

Pennsylvania are of several general types. Most of them formed 

in areas where the bedrock strata are only moderately resistant 

to erosion and where geologic structure has provided an initial 

localized weak point. The regional distribution of such strata 

controls the most likely sites for peat accumulations. Geomorphic 

development during glacial advances provided major changes in 

drainage patterns, and glacial erosion and deposition created 

additional sites for peat accumulations. The following summary 

of the regional geologic settings for peat deposits in northeastern 

Pennsylvania is presented to summarize the principal controls 

as guides to the search for additional peat deposits elsewhere in 

the region.

PALEOZOIC ROCKS

Silurian rocks crop out or underlie flood-plain and terrace sediments in a narrow belt along the Delaware River in Monroe 

County; shale, limestone, and sandstone are the principal types 

of rock. Devonian rocks are by far the most widespread and constitute the bedrock surface outside the ridges of Mississippian 

sandstone and conglomerate. Resistant rocks (Pocono Formation, fig. 3), form the rim of the Lackawanna synclinal basin 

in which Scranton and Wilkes-Barre are located and the high plateaus in western Wyoming and northern Luzerne Counties. Included in the Devonian are the Oriskany Sandstone and Helderberg Formation in a belt along the Delaware River in Monroe 

County, and in a narrow wedge separating the northern and 

southern parts of Columbia County. Elsewhere, the Devonian is 

represented by the red, gray, and green shale and sandstone of
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A13

continental origin belonging to the Catskill Formation (Devonian 

and Mississippian) and, locally, by the older marine beds of 

gray shale and sandstone, chiefly the "Portage" beds. Rocks of 

Mississippian age, represented by hard sandstone and conglomerate of the Pocono Formation and softer shale of the Mauch 

Chunk Formation, are associated areally with sandstone, shale, 

and coal of Pennsylvanian age.

All these formations were folded during the Appalachian 

orogeny and subsequently beveled by erosion so that the youngest 

rocks lie in the synclines and the oldest crop out in the anticlines. 

Axes of these folds trend generally in a northeast-southwest direction. Harder layers of rocks in the folded sequence were more 

resistant to erosion, thus the topography that developed on the 

folds paralleled the structural trends. The folds do not continue 

indefinitely in both directions along their axes but plunge in many 

places as illustrated by the Lackawanna synclinorium. This is the 

dominant structural and topographic feature of the area. Anthracite coal beds in the deep basin are of economic interest and the 

subject of detailed studies (Wood and others 1969, p. 117-137). 

Long before glacial advances in the Quaternary Period differential erosion had brought into sharp relief the ridges of hard sandstone and conglomerates outlining the Lackawanna synclinorium. 

A high double rim of resistant sandstone and conglomerate rises 

above the softer sandstone, shale, and coal. The complex synclinorium is composed of many generally parallel folds of lesser magnitude. Valleys separate the areas of competent strata following 

the folds in some places and crossing them in others as shown best 

by the course of the Susquehanna River. The course is in accord 

with one system of joints that parallels the strike and a second 

system at right angles to the strike (fig. 3).

Ridges of hard Devonian sandstone flank the lesser folds and 

cap the hills and plateaus where folding in negligible. These 

lesser folds are shallow anticlines and synclines located northwest, 

north, and northeast of the Lackawanna synclinorium. They 

spread into still lesser folds that compose the plateaus. As the 

folds become less prominent the joint systems which are parallel 

and at right angles to the strike become more conspicuous and 

control the drainage pattern.

The Allegheny topographic front separates the less folded from 

the more intensely folded parts of the area. The more pronounced 

topography on the southerly side of the Allegheny front duplicates 

the pattern of the less pronounced topography on the northerly 

side because the joint patterns are similar. Near the edge of the
A14 STUDIES IN PEAT

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PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A15

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A16 STUDIES IN PEAT

Allegheny front, beds dip with increasing steepness toward the 

Delaware River. The folds in the southwestern part of the area 

of this report, including the Northumberland synclinorium and 

Selinsgrove anticlinorium, become increasingly intense in the 

vicinity of Hazleton. The Berwick anticlinorium reaches Luzerne 

County between this series of anticlines and synclines and the 

Lackawanna synclinorium. In the vicinity of East Stroudsburg 

are numerous folds that merge northerly into the anticline marked 

by Wallpack Ridge.

QUATERNARY ROCKS

The area covered by this report was strongly glaciated during 

the Quaternary Period. Over most of the region, the Paleozoic 

sedimentary rocks are mantled by a varying thickness of glacial 

deposits (Lohman, 1937). The glacial deposits or drift are in two 

different types, namely till and outwash. Till is a heterogeneous 

mass of predominantly impure clay containing stones of all sizes 

and shapes, most of which are of local derivation but some of 

which were transported from other areas. The dominantly finegrained nature of the till is due to the high percentage of shale in 

the Devonian formations. The outwash, having been sorted by the 

melt waters, is usually clay, sand, and gravel that show varying 

degrees of stratification.

The glacial till and outwash and modern alluvium covering the 

glaciated area range in thickness from a few feet to several hundred feet, except in places where subsequent erosion has removed 

them. Many valleys were filled and the streams relocated in new 

channels over and around the buried valleys. Other streams were 

dammed by thick deposits of drift, and lakes were formed. Still 

other streams were diverted from their preglacial courses by hills 

of drift and forced to flow over cliffs. In these places waterfalls 

were formed. Much of the drift-covered terrane presents a hummocky topography, with irregular shaped hills and mounds of 

drift and undrained depressions.

Streams issuing from the melting glacier carried immense 

quantities of material which were deposited as outwash in some 

of the larger valleys. Later as the streams carried lighter burdens, 

they cut through this clay, sand, and gravel and left terraces. 

Many of the preglacial valleys were partly to completely filled by 

glacial debris so that modern streams may in part flow over deeply 

buried valleys. Locally the depth of sediment filling these old 

valleys in the bedrock is more than 300 feet.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A17 

GLACIAL MECHANICS

The extent of the most recent Pleistocene glaciers, the Wisconsin Glaciation, is shown in figure 3 (Lewis, 1884; National 

Research Council, Division of Earth Sciences, 1959). As the ice 

advanced, the soil and decayed rock were scraped off and shoved 

along. Masses of bedrock were plucked out by the ice and formed 

tools with which the glacier scoured the bedrock. Grooves and 

striae produced in the scoured bedrock show the direction of ice 

movement. The terminal moraine of the Wisconsin ice sheet is 

well defined as a series of low hills, hummocks, knobs, and ridges 

interspersed with depressions called kettles, many of which contain or have contained water. These depressions are due to slumping when masses of ice contained in the drift melted. Lewis, 

studying the terminal moraine in detail along its irregular and 

sinuous course from southern Monroe County to northern Columbia County, observed that the general direction of ice movement 

was about S. 30° W., but variations are common. In principal 

valleys, observed Lewis, the striae conform approximately to the 

direction of the valley; whereas upon the mountains they give the 

more general movement of the glacier. In all places the striae near 

the marginal moraine indicate a movement approximately at right 

angles to the course of the moraine.

The distribution patterns of Wisconsin glacial drift on bedrock 

in the marginal moraine area is duplicated in the less obvious 

distribution pattern of glacial drift on bedrock in the glaciated 

area northeast of the moraine.

Tongues of ice advanced generally southwestward through 

valleys parallel to ridges that were subsequently overridden by the 

main part of the glacier. Masses of ice, broken from the main 

mass, filled wind gaps and water gaps and dissected the ridges at 

right angles to their trends. After the ice melted, lakes and 

ponds were impounded by dams of glacial drift at either end of 

the gaps.

Drift in some places piled against a steep-sided ridge or high 

hill as the glacier moved forward. At other places it was dropped 

on the lee side, but in the final phase of stagnation nearly everywhere that masses of ice were incorporated in the drift, lakes and 

ponds formed.

Melt waters flowing through bedrock valleys caused irregular 

deposition of outwash on valley floors and along valley walls. 

This deposition resulted in poorly drained depressions. Temporary 

stands of the glacial margin during retreat caused drift dams 

with valleys parallel to the trend of the ridges. Some of the chan-
A18 STUDIES IN PEAT

nels cut by melt water in both drift and bedrock during final 

stages of glaciation were dammed by outwash to become basins 

occupied by lakes and ponds.

The lakes and ponds resulting from glacial action have been 

natural sites for the formation of peat deposits.

PEAT DEPOSITS 

PHYSICAL FEATURES

Approximately 500 swamps and marshes are shown on 1:24,000- 

scale topographic maps that cover the 900-square mile study area 

in northeastern Pennsylvania (fig. 4). Of this number, 136 that 

contained peat deposits were chosen for representative study 

(table 1). All selected deposits were traversed and 95 of them 

were sampled (table 2). Included are all deposits within the 55- 

square mile area of the Lenoxville quadrangle. Susquehanna and 

Lackawanna Counties (fig. 2). This quadrangle was selected as 

representing average density of swamps and marshes throughout 

the area.

Size of the peat deposits ranged from 1 acre to 240 acres with 

92 percent containing 10 or more acres. Thickness of peat in the 

deposits averages from 1 foot to 25 feet, and 92 percent have a 

thickness of 5 or more feet. The 136 deposits that were traversed 

contain potential resources that total about 8,100,000 short tons 

of air-dried peat.

BRADFORD- 0 E

^ 0- i< ^ O I

"=jn4

ACKAWANNA+

fi__f:,!

75°00' 

41"45'

^'

Y

fx

"NT

COLUMBIA

-* LZ

N

CARBON' 

10 0

FIGURE 4. Index map showing location and names of U.S. Geological Survey 

topographic quadrangles in area of study.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A19

Analyses from the 95 peat deposits that were sampled indicate 

that 63 have an organic content of 75 percent or greater. Of this 

number, 12 are in the 95-100 percent category, 31 in the 90-95 

percent category, eight in the 85-90 percent category, and 12 in 

the 75-85 percent category. The majority have water-holding 

capacities exceeding 1,000 percent. Two deposits have waterholding capacity of 2,500-3,500 percent. Thirty-five deposits are 

in the 1,500-2,500 percent category, 34 in the 1,000-1,500 percent 

category, 11 in the 800-1,000 percent category, and 13 in the less 

than 800 percent category. A deposit (loc. 96) in the 2,500-3,500 

percent water-holding capacity category has type I fibers. Peat in 

65 deposits has type II fibers and in 29 deposits has type III 

fibers. The pH values in 90 deposits range from 5.0 to 7.0 and in 

five deposits from 4.2 to 5.0.

According to these analyses, the 8,100,000 tons of peat resources probably contain about 5,300,000 tons that have organic 

content 75 percent or greater and 6,297,000 tons that have waterholding capacity 1,000 percent or greater.

FORMATION OF THE PEAT DEPOSITS

The peat deposits in the area of study are in closed depressions 

on the surface of Paleozoic sedimentary rock, or on glacial drift 

of Quaternary age, commonly at elevations above 1,000 feet. The 

bulk of the peat formed in places originally occupied by ponds 

left after glacial retreat; parts of some of the deposits are possibly 

contemporary with Wisconsin Glaciation and some may be even 

older. The general pattern of sedimentation that gives rise to the 

peat deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania and the changes within 

individual deposits are rather uniform in general aspect. Numerous ponds and lakes at various elevations filled to become marshes; 

these may in turn change into swamps, or again become ponds; 

they may even be drained completely. Stratigraphy of most of the 

marshes and swamps that contain peat consists of glacial drift 

or bedrock overlain by gray clay, which in turn is overlain by thin 

layers or streaks of organic clay, peaty clay, clayey peat, and 

reed-sedge peat that may contain logs and stumps or sphagnum 

moss in its upper part. An uppermost layer of decomposed peat or 

muck may cover all or parts of the surface of many deposits. The 

typical sequence of peat forming events is shown in figure 5.

The sequence of deposit formation, which may eventually fill 

the pond, begins when clay, washed in from the sides of a waterfilled depression, accumulates on the bottom (fig. 5A). Floating 

forms of simple organisms such as diatoms and algae grow and
A20 STUDIES IN PEAT

Water table 

Clayey or algal peat

Woody peat Water table 

Clayey or algal peat

Peaty clay

FIGURE 5. Diagrammatic sketches showing steps in development of peat 

deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A21

A, Pond stage. Clay from the sides of the depression has accumulated in the deepest part. 

Algae, pond weeds, and other submerged plants helped flocculate colloidal particles and 

contribute organic material to the clay. As plants increase in abundance and variety in 

the pond, peaty clay changes to clayey or algal peat and reed-sedge peat begins to accumulate at the shallow margins where reeds and other grasses, sedges, water lilies, and 

other semiaquatic plants are able to take root.

B, Marsh stage. The semiaquatic plants continue to migrate from the margin causing the 

pond to shrink in area and depth as reed-sedge peat accumulates. Moss may grow on 

top of the reed-sedge peat and produce a layer of moss peat. The pond is finally 

obliterated and the water table rises toward the center of the marsh where accumulation 

of peat is greater than near the edges.

C, Forest stage. Formation of soil above the water table favorable to the growth of trees 

at the margin of the marsh permits the advance of the forest and the shrinking of the 

marsh area until the site becomes a swamp. A layer of peat with logs and stumps 

developed over the layer of reed-sedge peat formed during the marsh stage. As the water 

table lowers with rising forest floor accompanied with changes in soil character, a predominantly needle-leaf forest is replaced by one that is mostly broad leaved.

D, Return to pond stage. A new cycle of peat deposition may be started at either the pond 

or forest stage by flooding which kills the surface vegetation. Flooding is caused by such 

phenomena as construction of a dam by beaver, man, or landslide as well as natural or 

artificial drainage change.

E, Stage of lowered water table. At any point in the cycle of peat accumulation the water 

table may be lowered by natural erosion, artificial draining, or by long periods of 

decreased rainfall. Aeration of the peat permits oxidation and aerobic micro-organisms 

to flourish. This aeration results in an increase in ash and consequent decrease in organic 

content.
A22 STUDIES IN PEAT

die, and their remains sink and mix with clay particles to form the 

organic clay that appears in thin layers or as streaks within the 

basal part of the peaty clay layer. Deposition continues until 

nonfloating aquatic plants are able to take root. Waksman (1942) 

describes the peaty material deposited below the surface of the 

pond as the remains of a variety of plants such as pond weeds, 

water plantain, and water lilies mixed with sediment brought in 

by streams. It varies from coarsely macerated to finely divided 

material. This gray, green, brown, and black material may be intermingled with the roots of sedges and reeds. Deep-water peaty 

material may be mixed with or underlain by white or gray marl, 

a form of calcium carbonate deposited in large part by a few 

species of algae. The plants absorb calcium from the water and 

deposit it in the form of an encompassing scale. When the plants 

die, this calcium carbonate scale accumulates as marl. Sedges and 

sphagnum moss may grow out from the rim of the pond as a mat 

on the surface of the water. As this mat builds up, it often breaks 

off and eventually sinks to the floor of the pond. This mat helps 

fill the pond and eventually converts it into a marsh. Further 

steps in the development of peat are shown schematically in figures 

5B through 5D.

Once formed, the peat deposit may be subjected to one of three 

major courses. Woody peat may continue to be developed; the 

swamp may be changed back into a pond, generally as the result 

of beaver or manmade dams, or it may be drained naturally or 

artificially. Returning to the pond stage (fig. 5D) initiates a new 

cycle that may progress through the marsh and swamp stages 

with appropriate changes in peat accumulation. On the other hand, 

lowering of the water table (fig. 5E) by drainage initiates 

destruction of the peat by causing an inflow of oxygen which 

permits aerobic micro-organisms to flourish. These biologic agents 

promote rapid decomposition of peat but are unable to grow 

or are limited in growth in the zone of ground-water saturation. Drying of peat, followed by remoistening, greatly stimulates 

decomposition.

RATE OF DEPOSIT FORMATION

The rate of accumulation of peat is a function of climate, 

ecological environment, hydrologic regimen, and local geomorphic 

events. Sites where luxuriant plant growth and rapid immersion 

of plant debris are favored and where decomposition and other 

destructive factors are minimized will have maximum accumulation rates. The range in rates from deposit to deposit is wide, so
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A23

that the thickness of peat itself is not a very precise time indicator. For example, Davis (1946) computed the rate of deposition 

of saw-grass peat in the Everglades of Florida at 1 foot per 225 

years based on the work of Miller (1918) on plant growth and 

inorganic composition. This rate was almost equaled in a peat bog 

in Quebec, Canada, as shown by the radiocarbon studies of Potzger 

and Courtemanche (1954). However, Mitchell (1965) computed 

the rate of accumulation at Littleton Bog in Ireland at 1 foot per 

480 years also using radiocarbon dates. An average but not constant rate of 1 foot per 1,400 or 1,500 years according to radiocarbon dates was computed for peat accumulation in Bear 

Meadows Bog in central Pennsylvania by Westerfield (1961). No 

radiocarbon dates are available for the area of this report, but 

average accumulation in nearby Sussex County, N.J., was probably 1 foot per 500-1,200 years (Minard, 1959).

CLIMATE OF AREA

Northeastern Pennsylvania has a humid continental type of 

climate, but regional physiographic features produce marked 

local effects as shown by the precipitation and temperature records 

from 1931 to 1952 and freeze records from 1921 to 1950 (Kauffman, 1960). Mean annual precipitation ranges from 36 inches in 

the northwest and 40-44 inches in the east to more than 52 inches 

on the east slope of the Pocono Plateau. Although the annual rainfall is fairly well distributed throughout the year, the heaviest 

precipitation occurs in June, July, and August with the maximum 

in July and the minimum in February. The average annual snowfall is about 50 inches, and most of it occurs between November 1 

and April 30. The combination of melting snow and spring rains 

causes flooding in swamps and marshes until about the middle of 

June. The high summer precipitation that keeps the water table 

high in undrained swamps and marshes protects peat from exposure to air and subsequent decomposition below a depth of about 

1 foot.

January is the coldest month and July the warmest. In January, 

temperature ranges from a mean maximum of 36° to 38°F in 

the east and southwest to 30° to 32 °F in a belt extending 

through Susquehanna and Wyoming Counties and the Pocono 

Plateau. The mean minimum for the entire month reaches a low 

of 12°-14°F on the Pocono Plateau. Elsewhere the mean minimum for the same month is 20°-22°F. The mean maximum temperature for July ranges from 84° to 86°F in the northwest and 

southwest to 74° to 76 °F on the Pocono Plateau, and the mean 

minimum temperature for July is 58°-60°F, but on the Pocono
A24 STUDIES IN PEAT

Plateau it is 54°-56°F. Mean number of days per year, 1921-50, 

during which temperature remained above freezing ranged from 

130 at Hawley, Wayne County, to 174 at Scranton, Lackawanna 

County. Mount Pocono, Monroe County, had 136 and Freeland, 

Luzerne County, had 155 days per year above freezing.

The mountain and valley influence on air movements causes 

greater temperature extremes than are characteristic of level 

areas. The effecfs of nocturnal radiation in the valleys and the 

tendency for cool air masses to move down them at night causes 

freezes later in the spring and earlier in the fall; whereas the 

cool summer nights favor growth and accumulation of peatforming vegetation.

VEGETATION OF PEAT DEPOSIT AREAS

Most of the peat deposits are forest covered; red maple (Acer 

rubrum L.) is abundant and is accompanied by black spruce, hemlock, birch, white pine, alder, high-bush blueberry, rhododendron, 

and viburnum. Rhododendron is a very characteristic shrub of 

northeastern Pennsylvania especially east of the Scranton-WilkesBarre anthracite basin. The shrub grows densely in a belt of varying width in the zone where the water table is at or near the surface during the wet season and drops during the dry season. Thus 

it borders many of the peat deposits. Some peat deposits are overgrown with herbaceous vegetation consisting of many kinds of 

grass and sedge, water lilies, cattails, and sparse shrubs and 

trees; others are under the water of beaver- or man-formed ponds 

and lakes.

The areas surrounding the swamps, marshes, and ponds containing peat deposits are also forested, except where cleared for 

pasture and cultivation, but the upland vegetation is quite distinct from that covering the peat. For example, oaks and hard 

maple (Acer saccharum Marsh) which are so very common 

on the well-drained land throughout northeastern Pennsylvania 

are absent in the areas of saturated ground containing the 

peat deposits.

In northeastern Pennsylvania the limits of the peat deposits 

commonly may be recognized by the contact between several 

species of blueberries (Vactinium) ; the low-bush species are 

common to the slopes, whereas the high-bush species are common 

to the swamp and grow over peat even where the forest floor has 

built up high enough so that the swamp has been obliterated.

As former marshes are converted to forest areas, the initial 

forests are predominantly evergreen, especially east of the
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A25

Scranton-Wilkes-Barre anthracite basin, and buried peat in such 

areas tends to be quite acid. With time, and accumulation of forest 

floor litter, these evergreen forests change to predominantly 

broad-leaf forests. This progression of vegetation types, with 

many intermediate stages, may be observed above peat deposits 

throughout the study areas.

DRAINAGE BASIN FEATURES

Although each peat deposit is the unique product of its specific 

drainage basin, it shares many common features with other deposits in the region. The details of individual stratigraphy have 

limited regional significance, but instead reveal the local sequence 

of changes in the drainage basin. Data on the 136 peat deposits 

and their drainage basins are summarized in table 1.

In the northeastern Pennsylvania study area, most of the peat 

deposits are restricted to elevations above 1,000 feet. Local relief 

in the immediate drainage area of these deposits ranges widely, 

from about 80 feet to as much as 900 feet. Slopes bounding the 

drainage basins also have a considerable range in steepness with 

almost half having slopes exceeding 10 percent. The steepest 

slopes are developed on resistant bedrock with only very shallow 

sandy soils. The less-resistant bedrock and areas of glacial drift 

have only gentle to moderately steep slopes, on which predomin-- 

antly clayey soils have developed. Most of the slopes in the region 

are covered by vegetation, either broad-leaf forests or pasture. 

Severe soil erosion is limited and is restricted to cultivated areas.

Most of the peat deposits are in relatively small drainage basins 

and are near the headwaters. This fact effectively limits the sediment-producing area that might contribute sand, silt, and clay 

into the peat. As shown in table 1, only 21 of the 94 sampled deposits have sediment-producing areas 10 or more times the size 

of the surface area of the peat. As the size ratios increase, so does 

the probability of the peat having a higher ash content and lower 

organic content. In this region, however, almost half of the drainage basins having larger sediment-producing areas have some 

local sediment traps above the peat accumulations, such as smaller 

swamps and marshes, that serve to filter the water draining into 

the peat deposit. Three-fourths of the peat deposits with ash contents less than 15 percent lie in drainage basins with ratios between two and seven; that is, the areas of effective drainage within 

the basins are between two and seven times larger than the 

swamps and marshes containing the peat deposits. Absence of 

flooding is an important factor in the reduction of ash content.
A26 STUDIES IN PEAT

GEOLOGIC SETTING CLASSIFICATION

Many factors might be chosen to use in classifying peat deposits, but perhaps the most descriptive single factor is the kind of 

materials that form the depression containing the peat. Both the 

quality and quantity of peat in each deposit can be related to the 

nature of these materials. The method of origin of the depression 

generally is quite closely related to the materials of which it is 

formed.

In northeastern Pennsylvania, the depressions containing peat 

are principally bedrock or glacial debris, in varying association 

and amounts in different deposits. Within this region, depressions 

wholely in bedrock are quite small, and no potentially useful 

peat deposits were observed in such a setting. (Such settings 

do contain exploited peat in other regions, for example, in limestone terranes where small karst ponds may develop into peat 

deposits.) Most of the peat deposits are in depressions of various 

combinations of bedrock and glacial debris, and some are completely in glacial deposits.

The relation of quality of peat to the kind of material in which 

the depression has formed involves several aspects, such as watertransmitting characteristics, solubility, resistance to erosion, and 

weathering products. Empirical observations have shown, for 

example, that deposits in bedrock troughs that are closed by unconsolidated material are more apt to have higher organic content, higher water-holding capacity, and a greater frequency of 

long fibers than deposits in bedrock-unconsolidated material depressions, whereas deposits in depressions completely within 

unconsolidated material have the lowest organic content and the 

shortest fibers. Deposits in bedrock troughs mantled with unconsolidated material are higher in organic content than those in 

depressions closed only on one side.

To facilitate descriptions of the geologic controls on quality 

and quantity of peat, the geologic settings of the basins of accumulation of the deposits in the area have been grouped into five 

classes:

Al. Bedrock trough closed at both ends by unconsolidated 

material.

2. Bedrock trough with unconsolidated material closing both 

ends and partly mantling the trough.

3. Depression in bedrock closed by unconsolidated material. 

Bl. Depression in unconsolidated material closed by bedrock. 

2. Depression completely within unconsolidated material.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A27

CLASS Al, BEDROCK TROUGH CLOSED AT BOTH ENDS BY 

UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIAL

Thirty-nine of the 136 deposits traversed (table 1) are in bedrock troughs that were parts of preglacial valleys dammed by 

glacial drift at both ends. Smiths Swamp (fig. 6) contains a peat 

deposit in a typical class Al setting. The swamp depression lies 

between two bedrock walls that formerly were valley walls of a 

stream flowing across the strike of the regional geologic structure. 

The depression is closed at both ends by glacial drift that was 

deposited by the ice that moved roughly parallel to the strike of 

the regional geologic structure. Blocks of ice were pushed into and 

filled this former water gap or wind gap. Eventually the ice melted 

to form the pond, which in turn was filled with clay and organic 

material and thus became the site of a peat deposit.

Peat samples from 31 of the 39 class Al deposits were analyzed. 

Peat in the remaining eight deposits was too shallow or of quality 

obviously too poor to merit analyses. Analyses show a predominantly low ash content for the class as a whole. Twenty-two deposits have ash content of less than 15 percent, five have ash content of 15-35 percent, and four have ash content of 50-60 percent. 

Only one deposit with ash content of less than 15 percent has 

type III fiber.

Ninety-one percent of the deposits in this setting occupied 

swamps and marshes in drainage basins that had effective drainage areas of no more than 10 times their sizes. The average slope 

of basin sides in the effective sediment-contributing area ranges 

from 4 to 18 percent. The highest slopes are controlled dominantly 

by bedrock that contributes very little fine material to the ash 

content of the peat deposit.

The deep depression formed by the steep bedrock walls of a 

former wind gap or water gap enclosed by till is a site favorable 

to rapid accumulation of peat-forming vegetation. Most such sites 

are offset from modern drainage and are not subject to silting 

from flooding which raises ash content. Also because they are 

offset from principal drainage, the bulk of peat accumulation took 

place prior to erosion of the depression walls with accompanying 

shifts in water table and consequent fiber disintegration and increased ash content.

CLASS A2, BEDROCK TROUGH WITH UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIAL 

CLOSING BOTH ENDS AND PARTLY MANTLING THE TROUGH

Twenty-one of the 136 deposits traversed (table 1) originated 

in bedrock troughs that were parts of preglacial valleys dammed 

at both ends by glacial drift and with considerable glacial drift
STUDIES IN PEAT

75"04'

41°23'30" 

1000 

I__i

1000 FEET

Auger holes Qsmp .Peaty clay Muck

FIGURE 6. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class Al geologic 

setting, Smiths Swamp, Rowland quadrangle, Pike County (90 in fig. 2 and 

table 1). The depression containing the exploitable body of peat (Qsmp) 

is a trough in bedrock (MDck) of the Catskill Formation (Devonian and 

Mississippian) closed at both ends by glacial drift (Qgd). Peat is too 

thin to mine in the part of the swamp designated Qsm.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A29

partly mantling the trough. The troughs are generally parts of 

bedrock valleys through which tongues of ice moved in the southerly course of ice-sheet movement, or through which fluvioglacial 

outwash poured. As shown in figure 7, Big Swamp contains a 

typical example of peat deposits in till in the class A2 setting. 

The depression containing this swamp lies between two bedrock 

walls that were the preglacial walls of a stream flowing in the 

direction of the strike of the regional geologic structure. The depression is closed at either end by glacial drift. The drift not only 

forms dams in the preglacial valley, but mantles the lower bedrock 

slopes and buries the bedrock ridge that marks a bend in the 

course of the preglacial stream. Glacial ice, moving southwest 

along the preglacial stream, filled the valley and deposited drift 

along the valley walls. Melt water from the ice, particularly from 

the deeper part of the valley, where deep ice was lodged against 

the partial bedrock barrier, filled the depression and gave rise to 

the pond. The original pond was almost filled with clay washed in 

from the glacial drift lining the walls of the depression. Pond level 

of the water at the time vegetation began to grow was approximately at the highest elevation of the peaty clay layer as shown in 

figure 7, profile B-B'. Marsh vegetation accumulated and spread 

laterally. Slight flooding may have given rise to the layer of peat 

mixed with silt on which marsh vegetation again accumulated. 

This accumulation filled the depression and created the present 

peat deposit.

Melting of ice in other preglacial strike valleys more narrow 

than that containing Big Swamp gave rise to ponds in which 

deposits such as those southeast of Marshbrook (53 and 54) were 

formed in Lackawanna County. Peat is thickest near the steep 

bedrock walls and thinner over the gently sloping valley walls of 

glacial drift.

Examples of deposits chiefly on fluvioglacial outwash in the 

class A2 setting are half a mile southwest of Factoryville, Wyoming County (48); 0.7 mile east of East Lenox, 1.3 mile northeast 

of Lenox, and 0.4 mile southeast of Loomis Lake in Susquehanna 

County (16, 8, and 9); and 0.7 mile northeast of Behren Pond 

in Luzerne County (122). Peat is generally so thin in these shallow depressions as to be of little commercial value.

Of the 21 peat deposits in class A2 geologic settings, seven 

contained only very shallow peat or peat of obviously poor quality. 

Only five of the deposits from which samples were analyzed contained peat with 15 percent or less ash, with medium to high 

water-holding capacity, and with fiber types I and II. Peat in the
A30 STUDIES IN PEAT

75°07'30 75°05'

1000 0 1000 20OO FEET 

I i i i i I_____I____I

x MDck

1000 0 1000 FEET

Reed-sedge 

peat 98

FIGURE 7. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class A2 geologic 

setting, Big Swamp, Twelvemile Pond quadrangle, Pike County (98 in fig. 

2 and table 1). The depression containing the exploitable body of peat 

(Qsmp) is a trough in bedrock (MDck) of the Catskill Formation (Devonian 

and Mississippian) partly mantled and closed with glacial drift (Qgd). 

Peat is too thin to mine or too low in grade in the part of the swamp 

designated Qsm.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A31

remaining nine deposits had greater ash content, medium to low 

water-holding capacity, and fiber types II and III.

Those deposits having peat with low ash content are generally 

in deep bedrock troughs mantled by glacial till, whereas the peat 

deposits containing more ash tend to be in shallower bedrock 

troughs mantled by glacial outwash. The deeper troughs are less 

subject to water-table fluctuation, and peats in such sites are 

therefore less decomposed than in the shallower troughs.

The bedrock walls of the depressions in geologic settings of 

class A2 typically are parts of preglacial valleys parallel to the 

regional strike of the beds and folds. These valleys have been 

modified by glacial events and are both dammed and mantled by 

glacial deposits. Typically, such sites are also along the modern 

drainage system and consequently are subject to occasional flooding, and the peat therefore contains more ash. Also, the sites are 

more subject to water-table fluctuations, with accompanying 

decomposition of peat fibers.

CLASS A3, DEPRESSION IN BEDROCK CLOSED BY UNCONSOLIDATED

MATERIAL

The depressions in class A3 geologic settings of peat deposits 

are associated with less glacial material, either till or outwash, 

than the other classes. Of the 136 deposits studied, 37 were in 

bedrock depressions with glacial material irregularly distributed 

about the upper part of the basin or concentrated along the lower 

edge. Many of the depressions occupy the sites of small isolated 

valley-head glaciers or ice fields and probably formed in the waning stages of glaciation as the broad ice sheet retreated. Other 

depressions that are not associated with well-defined preglacial 

valleys were scoured by actively moving ice in areas of less resistant bedrock. Still another group includes the depressions 

created by the scouring action of debris-laden melt-water streams 

where they flowed across preglacial bedrock upland areas at or 

near the glacial margins.

The swamp adjacent to Robinson Lake, Susquehanna County, 

contains a peat deposit in a basin typical of the class A3 setting 

(fig. 8). Bedrock in this area is nearly horizontal but has welldefined jointing. Glacial movement towards the southwest scoured 

a site that during glacial retreat was the site of an ice field and 

subsequently became the headwaters of a small drainage. The 

swamp is retained by a dam of glacial drift at its southern end. 

Jointing in the bedrock in this typical deposit facilitated quarrying 

by the glacier. Bedrock may be very near the surface as shown in 

figure 8 by the shallow swamp deposit in a part of profile A-Af.
A32 STUDIES IN PEAT

41°41'00" -r1000

I_I

FIGURE 8. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class A3 geologic 

setting, swamp adjacent to Robinson Lake, Lenoxville quadrangle, Susquehanna County (20 in fig. 2 and table 1). The exploitable body of peat 

(Qsmp) is in the deepest part of the depression in bedrock (MDck) of the 

Catskill Formation (Devonian and Mississippian) closed by glacial drift 

(Qgd). Peat is too thin to mine in the part of the swamp designated Qsm.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A33

In other deposits of this type, the bedrock may be deep as shown 

by depressions containing deposits northwest of Kochners Corners 

(60), Lackawanna County; Broadbent Swamp (47), Wyoming 

County; and Tamarack Swamp (21) and on Hickory Ridge (4) 

in Susquehanna County. Peat in these deposits averages 18 feet 

in thickness.

Peat samples from 26 of the 37 class A3 deposits were analyzed. 

Eleven deposits were too small to justify analysis. The analyses 

show 12 deposits with ash content less than 15 percent, medium 

to high water-holding capacity, and fiber belonging to type II. The 

remaining 14 deposits are characterized by ash content of 15-65 

percent, low to medium water-holding capacity, and fiber belonging to types II and III.

Nineteen of the class A3 deposits analyzed have effective 

sediment-contributing areas in their drainage basins that are not 

more than 10 times as large as the swamp or marsh containing 

the deposit. The lowest ratios of effective sediment-contributing 

areas to swamp or marsh area generally correlate with the group 

of deposits having an ash content of less than 15 percent.

Geologic conditions most favorable to development of peat with 

low ash content and little fiber disintegration are those associated 

with (1) ice erosion at the heads of preglacial valleys through 

quarrying along joint planes and (2) ablation by lingering valley 

glaciers after melting of the ice cap.

The quality of peat in the deposits in Class A3 geologic settings 

are generally only moderate, but individual deposits may exhibit 

extremes in quality, with the deeper depressions tending to have 

higher quality peats. Other terrane factors show an equally large 

range in these deposits, because bedrock walls may slope gently 

or steeply, the glacial dam and adjacent debris may have furnished 

little or much sediment to the accumulating peat, and the depression may or may not be along modern drainage and thus subject 

to flooding and inwash of sediment.

CLASS Bl, DEPRESSION IN UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIAL CLOSED

BY BEDROCK

Eighteen of the 136 deposits traversed are listed in the class Bl 

setting (table 1), characterized by depressions formed in glacial 

drift resting against a bedrock hill that is not associated with a 

well-defined preglacial valley system. Bedrock forms only one part 

of the sides of the depression. Glacial drift is much more prevalent 

in class Bl settings than in class A settings. All the deposits in the 

class Bl settings are at relatively high elevations and north of the
A34 STUDIES IN PEAT

Allegheny topographic front. Some of the deposits are in till deposited in the lee of bedrock barriers to glacial movement; others 

are in till pushed against bedrock barriers such as the swamp 

southeast of Big Shiney Mountain, Lackawanna County (fig. 9).

Peat samples from 12 of the 18 deposits were analyzed. The 

remaining six had too little peat or the peat was too silty to justify 

analysis. Analyses show that half of the 12 samples have ash content of less than 15 percent, fiber belonging to type II, and fair 

water-holding capacity. The remaining six samples have an ash 

content between 15 and 41 percent fiber belonging to type II and 

III and lower water-holding capacity. Seven of the deposits are in 

drainage basins that have an effective sediment-contributing area 

of not more than 10 times the size of the swamp or marsh containing the peat. Ash content higher than that in deposits of class 

Al settings is attributed to clay washed into the peat-forming 

environment from the adjacent till.

CLASS B2, DEPRESSION COMPLETELY WITHIN UNCONSOLIDATED

MATERIAL

Twenty-one of the 136 deposits traversed are listed in class B2 

settings (table 1), characterized by depressions caused by the 

stagnation of glacial ice blocks in till that completely buries the 

bedrock topography. Nebo Swamp (fig. 10) contains a peat 

deposit typical of those in class B2 settings. Peat samples from 

12 of the 21 deposits were analyzed. The remaining nine deposits 

Were too small or too silty to justify analysis. Only five samples 

have ash content less than 10 percent; the remaining seven have 

ash content ranging from 30 to 55 percent. Samples in the lowash-content group have medium to high water-holding capacity 

and type II fiber; whereas those in the high-ash-content group 

have medium to low water-holding capacity and type III fiber. 

Seven of the deposits are in drainage basins that have an effective sediment-contributing area of not more than 10 times the 

size of the swamp or marsh containing the peat.

FIGURE 9. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class Bl geologic 

setting. This swamp contains a vestigial pond southeast of Big Shiney 

Mountain, Avoca and Pleasant View Summit quadrangles, Lackawanna 

County (84 in fig. 2 and table 1). The depression containing the exploitable 

body of peat is in glacial drift (Qgd) closed on one side by bedrock (MDcIc) 

of the Catskill Formation (Devonian and Mississippian). The peat deposit 

(Qsmp) is in the process of development as shown by zoned vegetation.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A35

41° 15'

Qgd

1000

I I I

Tall trees (maple, black spruce) 

Low trees (maple, tamarack, spruce) 

Shrubs (rhododendron, high-bush blueberry, elder)

JL

Grass and sedge, pond
A36 STUDIES IN PEAT

75°02'30"

1000 0 1000 2000 FEET 

I i i i i I______|______|

500 

L_

500 FEET 

_J

FIGURE 10. Plan and cross section of typical peat deposit in class B2 

geologic setting, Nebo Swamp, Twelvemile Pond quadrangle, Pike County 

(97 in fig. 2 and table 1). Bedrock within the drainage basin is completely 

covered by glacial drift (Qgd) and swamp and marsh deposits (Qsm). 

An appreciable body of peat is delineated as Qsmp.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A37

The degree of water-table fluctuation has been much less in the 

group of deposits with low ash content. Tims Swamp (136) in 

Monroe County and Nebo Swamp (97) in Pike County are without outlets which may facilitate water-table instability; a pond 

at the outlet of the deposit northwest of Loyalville (104) in 

Luzerne County has helped to maintain a high water table; 

Robert Swamp (1) in Susquehanna County is spring fed and has 

an outlet stream with a very gentle gradient for about 800 feet 

after leaving the swamp, a condition favoring water-table stability. The deposit 1 mile northwest of White Pond (2) in Susquehanna County is similar to Robert Swamp, but the outlet stream 

has a steeper gradient after it leaves the swamp; the ash content 

is higher than in the Robert Swamp deposit, presumably due 

to greater decomposition of the peat during periods of lowered 

water table.

Deposits in the group with high ash content have histories of 

artificial and natural ponding and artificial and natural draining, 

and some deposits show evidence of having been burned over.

Ash content is higher and fiber disintegration greater in class 

B2 settings than in any of the other classes of settings in which 

deposits are of comparable size. This is explained by the washing in of clay from the adjacent margins of the depression within 

a drift mantle that covers the preglacial bedrock topography, and 

slow accumulation of peat-forming vegetation in a saucer-shaped 

depression which permits a greater amount of weathering than 

in a deep steep-sided depression.

RELATION OF QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF PEAT 

TO CLASSES OF GEOLOGIC SETTINGS

QUANTITY RELATIONSHIP

Distribution of peat deposits by area, thickness, and geologic 

setting classification is shown in figure 11 for the deposits containing 10,000 or more short tons of air-dried peat. Of these, 34 

are in class Al, 29 in class A3, 15 in class A2, and 12 each in 

classes Bl and B2. Class Al deposits have the widest range 

of area and thickness, followed in order by classes A2, A3, Bl, 

and B2.

Total resources of peat in all 136 deposits that were studied 

amount to 8,100,000 short tons of air-dried peat. The 39 deposits 

in class Al contain 32 percent of the total tonnage and, in decreasing order of total tonnage, 37 peat deposits are classed as 

A3, 21 as A2, 21 as B2, and 18 as Bl.
A38

280

STUDIES IN PEAT

1 1 1 1 1 1

240 Geologic 

setting 

(class)

EXPLANATION

Organic 

content 

(percent)

>75 <75

12 16 

THICKNESS, IN FEET

20 24 28

FIGURE 11. Area, thickness, geologic setting, and organic content of selected 

peat deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania. Estimated tonnage curves 

were based on 200 tons of air-dried peat per acre foot.

QUALITY RELATIONSHIP

The 95 deposits that were sampled are estimated to contain 

7,800,000 short tons of air-dried peat. Figure 12 shows that the 

deposits in class Al have higher organic content (lower ash content), higher water-holding capacity, and a greater frequency of 

type II fiber than any of the other classes of geologic settings. 

Three-fourths of the deposits in class Al have an organic content 

of more than 85 percent, whereas not more than half of the deposits in the other classes have as high organic content.

The amount of fiber decomposition increases generally as the 

amount of ash increases. Class Al deposits have the lowest percentage of type III, followed in order by classes Bl, A3, and A2 

deposits. Class B2 deposits have the highest percentage of type III 

fibers. Class Al deposits have the greatest percentage with ash
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A39

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

o o

O

O

EXPLANATION

Organic content more than 85 percent 

(ash content less than 15 percent) 

Fiber, type II

Water-holding capacity greater than 

1,000 percent dry weight

Al Bl A3 

CUSS OF GEOLOGIC SETTING

A2 B2

FIGURE 12. Quality of peat in each class of geologic setting based on 

analyses of samples from 95 deposits.
A40 STUDIES IN PEAT

content less than 15 percent, followed in similar order by classes 

Bl, A3, and A2 through class B2 which has the lowest percentage 

of deposits with ash content less than 15 percent.

Water-holding capacity is high in each of the five classes. More 

than half of the deposits in classes Bl, A3, and A2 and from 

between 80 to 90 percent of the deposits in classes Al and B2 

are able to absorb more than 10 times their dry weight of water.

All the deposits in classes A2 and Bl are low in acidity (pH 

5.0-7.0) as are 96 percent of the deposits in class A3. Four percent of the class A3 deposits are more acidic (pH 4.2-5.0); 94 

percent of the deposits in Class Al and 85 percent of the deposits 

in Class B2 are low in acidity.

ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF PEAT

Many peat deposits are worthy of exploitation as an economic 

commodity, but others may well deserve preservation as vital to 

regional hydrologic economy. Movement of water through peat, 

shrinkage of peat, and the permeability and stability of the foundation on which peat deposits rest are engineering aspects that 

should be considered in utilization of the northeastern Pennsylvania peat deposits.

MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH PEAT

Studies have not been made of the rate of water movement 

through the Pennsylvania peat deposits. Most of the samples 

that were tested contained 85-95 percent water as received and 

had water-holding capacities that generally exceeded 1,000 percent. This high content of water held by adsorption and capillarity 

in the peat indicates that rate of water transfer through the deposit is likely to be very slow. Varying textures of the peat, 

looseness or compaction, or depth and degree of decomposition 

make application of data from one area to another, or from one 

type of peat to another, hazardous; however a general idea of 

transmissibility may be taken from the work of Clayton, Neller, 

and Allison (1942). These men have shown that the rates of 

seepage downward through Everglades peat range greatly from 

0.3 foot per day through the top 18 inches to 27.3 feet per day 

through the layers from 18 to 36 inches below the surface. 

Horizontal transmission was 27.3 feet per day at a depth of 3 

feet where the peat contained more than 82 percent water.

WATER TRANSFER BETWEEN PEAT DEPOSIT AND COUNTRY ROCK

Transfer of water between peat and the material composing 

the sides of the depression is limited in many peat deposits. The
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A41

area of transmissibility lies above the relatively impermeable clay 

and clayey peat that underlies the peat and below the relatively 

impermeable weathered muck at the surface of the peat. The peat 

profiles of deposits shown in profile in figures 6 and 8 show wide 

areas in which water can pass back and forth between the peat 

and the country rock. Those shown in figures 7 and 9 show small 

areas in which water transfer can take place; whereas the deposit 

in figure 10 is effectively sealed by clay and muck. Generally impermeable sediments beneath peat are more widespread over 

glacial drift than over bedrock. It follows, therefore, that peat 

deposits in geologic settings A3 and Al are more favorable to 

water transfer because of the greater area of bedrock adjacent to 

peat deposits. Geologic settings A2 and Bl are less favorable as 

only one side is adjacent to the peat deposit, and geologic setting 

B2 is not favorable because impermeable clay and clayey peat 

lines the depression containing the peat deposit.

PEAT DEPOSIT SUBSIDENCE

When a peat bog is fully or partly drained, two groups of 

processes set in: (1) The peat is compacted physically, and (2) 

increased aeration results in aerobic decomposition of some of the 

organic constituents. The combined processes cause the organic 

colloids that make up the major part of the peat to undergo a considerable amount of shrinking and consequent subsidence. One of 

the oldest records of peat subsidence concerning the Fenland 

deposits of Great Britain was summarized by Okey (1918). In 

1848, a graduated iron column was sunk into the Fenland peat bog 

and anchored in the underlying clay, so that the top of the column 

was level with the surface of the bog in which the peat was 18 

feet thick before drainage of the bog was started. By 1870 a 

subsidence of 7 feet 8 inches had been recorded, which had increased to 7 feet 9 inches by 1875. Pumps were then installed to 

remove excess surface water, a procedure necessitated by the 

extensive subsidence. The continued lowering of the water table 

resulted in a further subsidence. In 1913 after 65 years had 

elapsed since measurements started, subsidence of peat was 10 feet.

In the United States, studies of peat subsidence resulting from 

drainage show that peat deposits in southern Louisiana and Florida, ranging in depth from a few inches to 16 feet, subsided approximately 18 inches during 8 years. The studies also show that 

as the density of the surface peat layer increased, there was an 

increasing check to aeration and subsidence (Okey, 1918). Certain 

peat deposits in Oregon, with an initial thickness of 7 feet, sub-
A42 STUDIES IN PEAT

sided 18 inches in 10 years as the result of drainage and cultivation (Powers, 1932). In other Oregon localities, subsidence was 

about 2 feet in 20 years. In the design of drainage systems of peat 

areas, Powers (1932) has suggested an allowance for 38 percent 

subsidence of the peat. Subsidence of peat is greatest during the 

first years following drainage, the total amount depending upon 

the depth of the drainage canals, as well as on the depth and composition of the peat.

Smock (1893) reported that drainage of peat bogs in New 

Jersey resulted in long continued subsidence of the land, the 

amount varying with the depth and character of the peat deposit. 

He noted the following approximate subsidences for the period 

1869-87: 3-3.5 feet at Hackensack Meadows; 2.5-3 feet at Cohansey, Cumberland County; about 1 foot at Mays Landing; and 

3.5-4.5 feet at Salem.

Clayton (1936), in the study of peat soils in Florida, found the 

rate of subsidence to be proportional to the depth of the deposit 

above the permanent water table, or to the total depth in those 

places where the water table is below the bottom of the deposit.

An example of destruction of peat caused by drainage may be 

seen in the southwestern corner of the area covered in this report. 

Soper and Osbon (1922) described a deposit near the town of 

Espy in the Susquehanna River valley as consisting of 160 acres 

of peat that ranged from 3 to 10 feet in thickness and contained 

an estimated 216,000 short tons of air-dried peat. All but about 

15 acres was drained during the course of cultural development 

near Epsy, and in the drained area, the shallow peat was converted to muck by 1944.

PEAT DEPOSIT DRAINAGE

Saturated peat has a low bearing strength. As the level of the 

water table is at or near the surface in all deposits that were 

studied, the saturated condition poses access problems to mining 

operation vehicles. Although operational roads and buildings may 

be constructed on firm ground at the margin of deposits, vehicular 

access to the peat can be effectively attained only through drainage of the deposits. Drainage information, stream gradient data, 

and slope percentages of nearby areas are given for a number of 

deposits in table 3.

Generally, artificial drainage is easiest to establish in class Al 

and Bl deposits. The relief between the surface of these deposits 

and adjacent valleys usually is sufficient to permit mining the 

entire thickness of peat. On the other hand, deposits in class A2 

and many in A3 lie in larger valleys near or cut by principal
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A43

streams, where gradient sufficient for artificial drainage is more 

difficult to achieve. Peat deposits in class B2 are the most difficult 

to drain because of low regional relief.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

RESERVES AND RESOURCES OF PEAT IN THE AREA OF STUDY

Peat is produced at nine localities in northeastern Pennsylvania 

(fig. 2). Most of the peat is of reed-sedge and humus type, but 

moss peat is produced near Stillwater, Columbia County; near 

White Haven, Luzerne County; and in Pike County northeast of 

Skytop. At these localities, areas being mined range from 2 to 500 

acres, and the thickness of peat from 1 to 40 feet (Cameron, 

1968). The peat deposits aggregate about 1,270 acres, and the 

average thickness of peat is at least 10 feet. A conservative reserve estimate of 2,500,000 short tons of air-dried peat may be 

calculated for the aggregate area of these mine operations.

To the foregoing estimate may be added the 8,100,000 short tons 

of air-dried peat calculated to be in the 136 deposits that were 

studied. Most of this tonnage is of reed-sedge type, although some 

moss peat chiefly in Luzerne and Pike Counties is included in the 

estimate.

Additional resources of peat have been estimated for the 

deposits which were known to occur in the area of study but 

which were not examined in the field. Estimates for these deposits 

have been compiled through studies of topographic and geologic 

maps and of aerial photographs.

These additional resources are scattered throughout the area in 

55 swamps and marshes that are probably underlain by peat 

deposits. The peat deposits are in the same classes of geologic 

setting as are the deposits that were studied. Also, the peat in 

these deposits is probably similar in physical and analytical 

characteristics to that in deposits that were studied. The deposits 

range from 10 to 120 acres in size and are assumed to range from 

5 to 10 feet in thickness. Aggregate size of the deposits is about 

1,800 acres. At an average thickness of 7 feet, they are estimated 

to contain about 2,500,000 short tons of air-dried peat, the organic 

content of which should exceed 75 percent. Total peat resources 

of the study area are estimated to be more than 13 million tons.

PEAT MINING IN NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA

The United States produced 611,085 short tons of air-dried peat 

in 1966 at 144 plants and sold 605,858 tons for a total of 

$6,501,281 at an average price of $10.73 per short ton. (U.S.
A44 STUDIES IN PEAT

Bureau of Mines, 1967). Pennsylvania ranked second in the nation 

with production of 49,912 tons and commercial sales of 52,912 tons 

valued at $561,521, averaging $10.61 per short ton of air-dried 

peat. Most of the peat, which is reed-sedge and humus, is sold in 

bulk and package. Minor amounts of moss peat are sold.

The center of the peat industry is in Luzerne, Lackawanna, and 

Monroe Counties (fig. 2, mines a-i). Size of the deposits ranges 

from 2 acres to 500 acres, and individual operations are chiefly 

small. Compared with the cost for mining of other mineral commodities, the investment cost for peat mining is low. A typical 

operation requires about $90,000 for purchase of excavating and 

hauling equipment and $20,000 for plant buildings.

Mining usually consists of (1) clearing the bog of timber and 

brush and removing tree roots and logs buried in the upper 

few feet, (2) draining the bog, usually by diging drainage ditches 

rather than by pumps, (3) loosening the surface of the peat with 

disk and harrows to aid in drying the peat, (4) hauling the dried 

peat to the nearby plant, and (5) sieving the peat to remove wood, 

shredding it, and bagging it or storing it in bulk for sale.

Variations of mining methods have been adopted for deposits 

difficult to drain or by preference of the producer.

SUGGESTIONS FOR PEAT EXPLORATION

Northeastern Pennsylvania is well suited for production of 

reed-sedge peat, moss peat, and humus. Vegetation, climate, and 

geologic environment have favored formation of numerous deposits, generally at elevations greater than 1,000 feet above sea 

level. The search for deposits of better quality peat in northeastern Pennsylvania can be guided by considering factors that cause 

silt and clay to be brought in to the deposit and factors that cause 

decomposition within the deposit once it has formed.

Peat with the least ash and the highest organic content tends 

to occur in swamps and marshes that are not along the main 

drainage of silt-laden streams subject to flood overflow, nor along 

former stream courses now diverted elsewhere by stream piracy. 

The better quality peat deposits tend to occur in drainage basins 

with effective sediment-producing areas not more than 10 times 

as large as the size of the swamp or marsh. The nature of the 

materials forming the steeper slopes surrounding the drainage 

basin, as well as the nature of the materials along drainage 

courses into and walling the depression, also strongly influence 

potential sedimentation.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A45

Peat deposits with minimum decomposition tend to be in a 

swamp or marsh in which water table fluctuation has been slight. 

Such swamps and marshes may be recognized by (a) absence of 

outlet streams, (b) outlet streams flowing over bedrock not easily 

eroded during breaching of dams, (c) outlet streams with very 

low gradients for a distance of several hundred feet after leaving 

the swamp or marsh, and (d) ponds within the swamp or marsh, 

especially near the outlet, which cannot be easily drained or 

enlarged by construction of dams.

Deposits in swamps and marshes less than an acre or two in 

size tend to have high ash content regardless of thickness, whereas 

deposits 3 feet or less in thickness tend to have high ash content 

regardless of areal extent. A swamp or marsh that is in a depression entirely or partly composed of glacial outwash is apt to have 

a shallow peat deposit. The thickest peat with highest organic 

content tends to lie adjacent to steep bedrock walls and decreases 

in thickness and organic content toward the direction of glacial 

drift.

In northeastern Pennsylvania the limits of the peat deposits 

commonly may be recognized by the contact between several 

species of blueberries (Vaccinium), the low-bush species are common to the slopes of the drainage basin, and the high-bush species 

are common to the vegetation cover of the peat deposits.

Human activities may adversely affect peat deposits and decrease their value; for example, (1) burning over a swamp for 

the raising of blueberries or to drive out game animals during the 

season of lowest water table, (2) long delay in exploitation following drainage of the peat deposit, and (3) creation of dams for 

industrial, agricultural, or recreational use with ensuing backwater silting.

OUTLOOK FOR THE AREA

Northeastern Pennsylvania is readily accessible to major metropolitan areas along the Atlantic seaboard, in which there is a 

good market for peat products. The Pennsylvania deposits are at 

higher elevations, and most of them are easily drained, in contrast 

to deposits in coastal areas, where drainage is a severe problem. 

The relatively small size of the deposits and the fact that most of 

them are underlain by firm bedrock or glacial till facilitates mine 

excavation and hauling. These factors, plus the number of available peat deposits, of which 196 are estimated to contain an 

aggregate of more than 13 million tons of peat, mostly of a quality 

adequate to meet Federal Trade Commission regulations, give an 

optimistic outlook to peat^production.
A46 STUDIES IN PEAT

On the other hand, relatively small peat producers of northeastern Pennsylvania must sell their product in competition with 

larger out-of-State producers. All domestic producers must compete with imported peat, which in 1966 totaled 293,843 short tons 

valued at $11,615,000 (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1967).

REFERENCES

Cameron, C. C., 1968, Peat in U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Bureau of 

Mines, Mineral resources of the Appalachian Region: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 580, p. 136-145.

Clayton, B. S., 1936, Subsidence of peat soils in -Florida: Washington, D.C., 

U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Bur. Agr. Eng., Div. of Drainage, 15 p.

Clayton, B. S., Neller, J."R., and Allison, R. V., 1942, Water control in the 

peat and muck soils of the Florida Everglades: Florida Univ. Agr. Expt, 

Sta. Bull 378, 74 p.

Davis, J. H., Jr., 1946, The peat deposits of Florida, their occurrence, development, and uses: Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 30, 247 p.

Gray, Carlyle, and others, 1960, Geologic map of Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania 

Geol. Survey, 4th ser., scale 1:250,000.

Kauffman, N, M., 1960, Climates of the States, Pennsylvania: U.S. Weather 

Bur. Climatography of the United States No. 60-36, 20 p.

Lewis, H. C., 1884, Report on the terminal moraine in Pennsylvania and 

western New York: Pennsylvania Geol. Survey 2d, Rept. Prog. A, 299 p.

Lohman, S. W., 1937, Ground water in northeastern Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geol. Survey, 4th ser., Bull. W4, 312 p.

Lucas, R. E., Rieke, P. E., and Farnham, R. S., 1966, Peats for soil improvement and soil mixes: Michigan State Univ. Coop. Ext. Service, Ext. Bull, 

no. 516, Farm Sci. Ser., p. 1-11.

Miller, C. F., 1918, Inorganic composition of peat and of the plant from 

which it was formed: Jour. Agr. Research, v. 13, p. 605-609.

Minard, J. P., 1959, Recent saprolite: Science, v. 129, no. 3357, p. 1206-1209.

Mitchell, G. F., 1965, Littleton bog, Tipperary, an Irish vegetational record: 

Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 84, p. 1-16.

National Research Council, Division of Earth Sciences, 1959, Glacial map 

of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains: New York, Geol. 

Soc. America, 2 sheets, scale 1:1,750,000.

Okey, C. W., 1918, The subsidence of muck and peat soils in southern Louisiana and Florida: Am. Soc. Civil Engineers Trans., v. 82, p. 396-419.

Potzger, J. E., and Courtemanche, Albert, 1954, A radiocarbon date of 

peat from James Bay in Quebec: Science, v. 119, no. 3104, p. 908-909.

Powers, W. L., 1932, Subsidence and durability of peaty lands: Agr. Eng., 

v. 13, p. 71-72.

Smock, J. C., 1893, Reclamation of tide-marsh lands, in New Jersey Geol. 

Survey, Ann. Rept. State Geologist, 1892: p. 16-19, 331-353.

Soper, E. K., and Osbon, C. C., 1922, The occurrence and uses of peat in the 

United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 728, 207 p.

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1967, Peat in U.S. Bur. Mines Minerals Yearbook, 

1966: Washington, D.C., U.S. Govt. Printing Office, v. 1-2, p. 823-831.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A47

Waksman, S. A., 1942, The peats of New Jersey and their utilization; NeW 

Jersey Dept. Conserv. and Devel. Geol. ser. Bull. 55, 155 p.

Waksman, S. A., and Stevens, K. R., 1929, 1932, Contribution to the chemical 

composition of peat, V The role of microorganisms in peat function and 

decomposition: Soil Science, v. 28, p. 315-340, v. 32, p. 95-113,

Westerfeld, W. F., 1961, An annotated list of vascular plants of Centre 

and Huntington Counties, Pennsylvania: Castanea, v. 26, p. 1-80.

Wood, G. H., Jr., Trexler, J. P., and Kehn, T. M., 1969, Geology of the 

west-central part of the Southern Anthracite field and adjoining areas, 

Pennsylvania: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 602, 150 p.
TABLES 1-3

TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat d

No. in

fig. 2

Locality

description

Surface

area of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

Locati

rep

(d

gi

SUSQUEHANNA COUNTY 

Auburn Center quadrangle

1_-Roberts Swamp ___ 15 12 White pine, aspen, and Center o

maple forest. Muc

Ree

Peb

(

Gra

2__1.0 mile northwest 20 10 Elm, ash, maple, hem- Center o

of White Pond. lock, and yellow Muc

birch forest. Ree

w

Pea

Lig

(2

Hopbottom quadrangle

3__1.4 miles northwest 20 8 Maple, elm, and hem- Center 

of Hopbottom. lock forest; partly Muc

cleared. Dar

(

Clay

Gra

o

c

Gra

(
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A51

£

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2 e

Lenoxville qvan

3

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ellow birch, maple, hemlock andtrees; high-bush blueberry 

common.

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yellow birch.

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Locality

description

Surface

area of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

Locati

repr

(d

gi

SUSQUEHANNA COUNTY Continue

Lenoxville quadrangle Continued

9__0.4 mile southeast of 45 

Loomis Lake.

10__0.9 mile east of Oak- 2 

ley.

11_0.7 mile northwest of 13 

Acre Pond.

12_0.5 mile west of 

Acre Pond.

13__0.5 mile northeast of 15 

West Lenox.

14__0.8 mile south of 

West Lenox.

0

10

Pond created by manmade dam; used for 

recreation.

Mud, grass, shrubs 

(pond shown 

map is dry). 

0 Cattail marsh _.

on

Elm, maple, and hemlock forest with 

high-bush blueberry 

and willow at edge 

of swamp.

Pond, created by manmade dam, used for 

recreation.

4 Maple-ash forest

Northeas

fro

Wat

Gray 

Center o

Clay 

Till 

Center o

Sand

Fine 

Woo

(2

Till 

Center o

Silt 

Reed

(2

Clay

Ligh

(1

100 ft no

of 

Wat

Reed

Silty 

Center o

Muc

Reed
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A53

PQ

/»»s

.. +

ft d, &~ CSrH V

1^8N» -4J **i tj i t TO

Jow

1 

0

Center ofswamp: 

Muck (0-4). 

Reed-sedge (4-14). 

Brown clay (14-18). peatyBlack cay, texture soapy 

(18-25). 

Light-blue-gray clay 

+ (25-30 ). f mars 

agnum 

d muckk rust-co wood meow-brow (5-11 at 

clay t-graysand, t,and 1-13+ ).

sa.SiSS^SlsiSis.s*

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Surface

area of

peat

Locality deposit

description (acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

Locati

repr

(d

giv

SUSQUEHANNA COUNTY Continu

Lenoxville quadrangle Continued

20__At Robinson Lake__ 90

21_Tamarack Swamp_ 20

22__At Tea Pond 20

23__1.5 miles west of 15 

Hartley Pond.

10 Ash, hemlock, and yellow birch; shrubs 

include wild azalea.

18 Hemlock, yellow birch, 

maple forest; rhododendron belt begins 

about 300 ft from 

margin of bog and 

spreads towards 

center.

12 Sphagnum moss with 

pitcher plants; few 

low shrubs.

15 Pond with dead trees; 

water level raised 

by beaver dam.

125 ft e

ed

Ro

Muc

Reed

Peat

Clay 

Center o

Muc

Reed

Peat

Clay

(2

Ligh

(3

East-sou

Spha

se

Blac

Ligh

(2

Com

fin

200 ft fro

of 

Muc

Reed
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A55

s -^ "i"

1 ** ras

>,-« '

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£ rt £? g

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Locality

description

Surface

area of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

Locati

repr

(d

gi

WAYNE COUNTY Continued 

Aldenville quadrangle

27_1.4 miles northwest 15 

of Miller Pond.

28__0.8 mile north of 20 

Miller Pond.

29_0.5 mile southeast of 15 

Miller Pond.

10

Water, dead trees, and 

shrubs as result of 

ponding by beaver.

Water and dead trees 

as result of artificial 

ponding.

10 Alder, maple, yellow 

birch, and ash.

30__Southeast of Mud 80 

Pond.

Tall forest of maple, 

white pine, and hemlock; rhododendron.

200 ft w

ed

Wat

Reed

wo

Peat

Gray 

South ce

Wat

Woo

Reed

Peat

Gray 

22

Center o

Muc

Woo

Reed

Peat

Clay

Soft 

Clay 

Center o

Muc

Reed

Peat

Ligh
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A57

1

A

2£

Si

w fl

edge west rom and 1,500 ftr ed-sedge peat clay (11-1aty 

(12+). y 

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in Locality

fig. 2 description

Surface

area of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Locati

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

rep

(

g

"WAYNE COUNTY Continued

Lake Ariel quadrangle

35__0.9 mile south. 

Lake Ariel.

of 20 Swamp has been cleared of trees.Center o

Mu

Ree

Cla

Gra

Sterling quadrangle

36__Thousand Acre 50 

Swamp

37__1.0 mile southeast of 70 

Thousand Acre 

Swamp.

38__Big Sampson Swamp_ 85

10 A tangle <>f rhododendron; high-bush 

blueberry, and viburnum; birch, 

maple, and tamarack are principle 

trees.

3 Sedge, grass, and low 

shrubs.

Thick tangle of rhododendron, highbush 

blueberry, and viburnum; birch, 

maple, and tamarack are common 

trees.

700 ft n

Ree

Bed

Center o

Mu

Ree

Sof

Center 

Muc

Ree

Gra
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A59

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PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A61

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Locality

description

Surface

area of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

Locatio

repre

(d

gi

WYOMING COUNTY Continued 

Center Moreland quadrangle

51 _ Along Marsh Creek 80 10 Cattail and sedge; Center o

south of Vernon. some maple and ash. sou

Muck 

Reed

Reed

wo

Reed

Peaty 

Soft 

(1

Com

(1

52 _ 0.75 mile north of 40 15 Yellow birch, maple, Center o

Rymans Pond. white pine, and sou

hemlock. Muck 

Reed

Clay

Ligh

Very 

(1

Com

(2
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A63

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hite pne, ybirch, and hhigh-bush bl sha common 

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Locality

description

Surface

area of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

Locat

rep

(

g

LACKAWANNA COUNTY Continu

Lenoxville quadrangle Continued

58__0.2 mile southeast of 10 

Finn Pond.

59__0.75 miles east of 15 

Finn Pond.

0 Deep woods of birch, North c

hemlock, and maple; Bla

rhododendron Gra

throughout swamp.

0 __ do _________ Center 

Bla

Gra

Dalton quadrangle

60__0.65 mile northwest 40 

of Kochners Corner and 0.2 mile 

west of highway 

407.

61__0.7 mile north-northeast of Kochners 

Corner.

15

18 Ash, maple, hemlock, 

white pine, black 

spruce, and rhododendron.

18 Hemlock, birch, 

maple forest.

300 ft 

e

Mu

Wo

Ree

Pea

Lig

(

and Center 

Pea

Pea

(

Ree

Cla

Lig

(
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A65

1C 

00

1C 

00

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o

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sedge and 

arsh.

Pasture bulru

1C 

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Q

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High-bush blueberry, button maple, bushand otherlow shrubs

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

Surface

area of

deposit

No. in Locality peat

fig- 2 description (acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Locat

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

rep

( 

g

LACKA WANNA COUNTY Continu

Carbondale quadrangle

67__0.3 mile south of 

Mud Pond.

20 10 Hemlock, maple, ash, 

and yellow birch 

forest.

68__1.0 mile north of 

Fall Brook Reservoir.

20 8 , Hemlock, maple, and 

ash forest; rhododendron belt extends 

to center of swamp.

Center 

Mu

Ree

in 

Bro

(

Ree

Pea

Lig

Center 

Mu

Ree

Cla

c

Sof

Lig

Factoryville quadrangle

69__0.9 mile south-southeast of Keystone 

College near Factoryville.

30 11 Pond near south outlet 

caused by small dam 

used as cattle pass; 

elsewhere deep forest of maple, birch, 

and hemlock.

Center 

Mu

Ree

Pea

(
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A67

o

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00

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in Locality

fig. 2 Description

Surface

area of

peat 

denosit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of 

peat

(feet)

Locatio

Major vegetation 

now growing above

peat deposit

repr

(de

giv

LACKA WANNA COUNTY Continue

Olyphant quadrangle

74__1.0 mile east of Lake 

Scranton.

40

75__At Moosic Lakes 0.7 

mile north of West 

Branch of Wallenpaupack Creek.

76__0.4 mile north of

Curtis Reservoir.

18

20

Moss, grass, and sedge, 

bordered by alder.

5 Thick grass and sedge 

among dead evergreen trees and dead 

shrubs.

9 Artificial pond _ _.

200 ft w

of 

no

Reed

Clay

cl

Brow

Brow

Center o

Reed

Peat

Pink

North C

Wat

Reed

Clay

c

Pink 

Gray 

Sterling quadrangle

77_0.2 mile east of 

Madisonville.

30 0 Maple, aspen, beech, 

shadbush, and rhododendron.

Center o

Blac

Blue
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A69

£

Moscow quadrai

CO<

1 1

11

1

1 1

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hemlock forestrho- ;dodendron throughout swamp.

TH

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high-bush blueberry; rhododendron beltwide 100ftin margin of swamp.

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CM

pq

1C

CO

CO1

1S-0

05

3

cr

1a; ..

x A 

fi S 0 03

C ^

*H ^ 

O «H

. o

!H 

«U -i->

C

6

1*c3 D 

« SH 

"E *J «2

S-c S g

,*3

U

C3 0) SH -P Si

EH

o

TH

O

US

'S

X 4->

gO

w .

r2 

<U S

^3 >

S|

U5 "

O

1

1

TH

00

. S"

TH

^i

1C1 *J

TH 05 

^^ <U

sa.

X~^ ^J

TH RS 0>

1 OJ be o aTj ^^ a;

>> CO s^i

3^8 S£«

high-bush blueberry.

- be

- i

'I "I

fel

O

OJ

6 ^

IBo 

«O

13a;

o 

i

CM 

CO
TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in Locality

fig. 2 description

Surface

area of

peat 

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of 

peat

(feet)

Locatio

Major vegetation repr

now growing above (d

peat deposit giv

LACKA WANNA COUNTY Continu

Moscow quadrangle Continued

83__3.0 miles southwest 25 

of Daleville.

15 Thick tangle of rhododendron and highbush blueberry; 

chief trees include 

maple, yellow birch, 

hemlock, black 

spruce, and shadbush.

North c

Muc

Ree

w

Clay

Soft 

Com

Avoca quadrangle

84 __ At border of Luzerne 30 

County southeast 

of Big Shiney 

Mountain.

10 Open sphagnum bog Near tin

with low shrubs Sph

grading toward out- Alte

er margin to deep p

forest of maple and (

black spruce; high- Blac

bush blueberry, rho- (

dodendron. Gra

PIKE COUNTY 

Shohola quadrangle

85 _2.2 miles south of 

Shohola.

50 12 Sphagnum moss; tamarack, gum, white 

pine; some maple

North c

Mo

p
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A71

$ 00 ;* 00 0 ^H 00 ^,

Q.x-' 1

e? N ^ 

£ -M<N «

0 SS >-'J5

 * > 0)

13 §>£ 

PH W

a

o

SH -O 

C

 s

O-o 

o

 s

T3 

C

ea

T3 

C

-^g

§ 

O

cs c

0

o 

o 

^5 

u 

W

^§s i

«5 02

O

«M O

°^ 

1«

3 o o -*i

9 S

0

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fi

>

00

o

3

o £ 

" -a

-o 

c

cti

a;

J4 CO rt a;

tC rt fi-8

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TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in Locality

fig. 2

Surface

area of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Locatio

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

repre

(de

give

PIKE COUNTY Continued

Rowland quadrangle

90_Smiths Swamp____ 120 Forest of black spruce, 

hemlock, white pine, 

maple, and yellow 

birch; rhododendron 

and older, chief 

shrubs.

200 ft we

Reed

Peat

Clay 

Pecks Pond quadrangle 

91_Ben Bush Swamp__ 80 Alder, hemlock, maple, 

and yellow birch.

Center 

be

pa

Muc

San

Edgemere quadrangle

92_Bald Hill Swamp__ 160 Hemlock, black spruce, 

yellow birch, maple, 

alder, and high-bush 

blueberry and rhododendron.

Center o

ou

Ree

la

Mix

pe

Ligh

(
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A73

(N

pq

<v be t> (N CO

rH rH

cU

>> 

CS

-

0 «2 .

&

~ f..2l

«PP

o 

o

«£>

c8

?H

O

O 

O 

CO

-3 $£

o 

o

CM

c

rt ,0

8 n"-o 0-3^ !^ 2 W 

O, CS g 

co ,-Q

 gf^ 

rt bc^

s

00

u C cp M P rt cfl ,0 o> C

S

&^"^ 

w &f 

y S.5P ^ S x

5

o

PQ

o

"^ C

^g

 gPP

c «

00

o

fi w rt &

 S rt 

JS< fe

c w

PQ

I

*

tOS
TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Surface

area of

peat

Locality deposit

description (acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Locatio

Major vegetation (d

now growing above give

peat deposit giv

PIKE COUNTY Continued

Twelvemile Pond quadrangle Continu

98_Big Swamp, within 160 

the 1,200-ft contour.

15 Tamarack-black spruce 400 ft we

99__Elbow Swamp 90

100__Turner Swamp ___ 45

swamp with maple 

and shadbush.

Black spruce, hemlock, 

maple forest, alder, 

and high-bush blueberry.

__ do _____________

sw

Silt 

Reed

up

Reed

w

Reed

Peat

Clay 

Center o

Muc

Sand

300 ft f

er

Blac

Grav

Lake Maskenozha quadrangle

101__Little Bear Swamp 30 10 Black spruce; few 

maple; high-bush 

blueberry near mar200 ft 

ed

Reed
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A75

£ .-

10 £ +

V ^ °l

s ES -2s_^ 

e >> .

'" ^, 03 £> £<"~~

£7 t» rt 0 -P >>

,3 5- as o3

<1> *H

PLnO

gin of be- swamp ;toward comesopn 

center.

CO<J

<N

CO

tH 

tH

1 O 

tH

X

 fi >, 0 T3 pi o X^.

«H O fe "5^ ' f- tH I

-ft .10 5| tM"? g? -a-r^s

« M T7o,i-S~

«w «H I fin V >>

o oo^3 M a 51 * a 8 « ^^

g-^-g^ &^>« s«|$^5c $; ^K uo

o

o <*

fn' 

O) <V

"a 2

eS X 03

S gT3 -* s s* £

g.»fr ft* ^5

W ^,Q

^ § a 0 3 ^

03 bO^Q

5

o

tH

O

?O 

tH

1

1

1 a

S

OS 

*

CO

fn

03

O>

PQ

Vn oc

s1

1

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o

tH

4> "3

Bushkill quadra

(N

<J

0

«O

t-

(M

THi+ <* 

-^ ^

03 1 '' V (M

c^ a Ct

C tH <D

^ 1 be >> ^ S7 rt M ^S13

o «i ^ 5 1) 03 

&j 3 V *-"

S^KO

s

a> 

0

lack maple, spruce, high-bush blueberry.

«

00

o

tH

 S

03

1 .

*,:=!

G-g °3

a> ^ W PQ

6*.

o o

tH

1

|

1 CO

o

tH

«

bj ^

£ § £ b

LUZERNE COU: 

Harveys Lake quad

<N

pq

o' 00

tH

10

'H .

o ^_^

03 tH -tJ 1

0 0

8~

.. 1*C3 O) 

X 03 W 

03 O3 i-rt 

fi O X

s s § c

c bCT3

«H S «

0'£ g

JH "S

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c

O)

O

X 4T 03 '-3 

3 * *H ii c

!«'& 

a"S S

cS « -u 

fn 03 60 a ^

^ So a>

03 T3 T3 03 <1> rj

O 03 Oj

s

10

o

CO

-|j

CO12

* -t CsS

§ >e«

V >> i« o S s JM

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o

1

1

TH

o

tH

be C >»
TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Locality

description

Surface

area of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Major vegetation

now growing above

peat deposit

Locati

rep

(

gi

LUZERNE COUNTY Continued 

Kingston and Center Moreland quadra

105__0.6 mile southwest 

of Demunds 

Corners.

25 15 High forest of maple, 

ash, and yellow 

birch.

106__0.45 mile northwest 

Green Pond, east 

of Dallas.

40 Yellow birch, maple, 

ash, and hemlock 

forest; partly 

cleared.

Center 

Mu

Ree

(

Ree

Pea

1

Cla

Pea

Lig

(

200 ft w

s

o

Mu

Ree

Sof

Pittston quadrangle

107_0.8 mile north of

Wyoming Camp 

Ground.

28 12 Hemlock, birch, and 

maple forest.

200 ft 

5

e

Mu
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A77

O2

i * i srOS

 2 -^

S ^ TH >»

» CO CO S3

« ^T" 

a -!£

|~**iL 131161+ ' >> ** J^OS ^ ^ "S ** 5 ^

0) 0) O O

K PnCOO

V"S

g o

0 

<

eo«!

0

CO

10

?o

-1-5 02 08

« ~

o S&O e3 * < X ^""3

OJ &t v 

V CJ JJ g

w ^ A ^

M bO

«H Ot O J, s^| .

 * o> !3 -~-

W 0) M "l ]

l^ili « $ £p~

« «3

o

o

00

Tamarack, black 

maple and spruce, 

white birchforest; high-bush blueberry,

LO

O

TH

>* $ %

3.S 0

OfS*

°?M §

rfl w.^5 

4-> 00

°«l 

O2 C3

« S "c ^' ^ *> § 9?

g W 0 ^

 " OJ i^ O <£, * ^ 4J

C5

1

1

1

00

o

rH

V H, M

§ 

A

Stillwater qua*

<N

PQ

i

i

i

i

i

i

i

IS . >~

OJ rH 

?H 1 s-^

bOO +

 JsPi O <JJ 4^ 

g^TJ^J §133 C

fe 2 0^3 s a-°-

 w^-^.S 

o o c w 

,« ca^

^pq O

c

0)

o

If3 0

a! .8*

JS--S ^ s g ^^

HTJ K

-H C 5

-3 ««H

H

o

00

CO

1

1

A

S

O2

f_.

OS O)

pqi

i

i o>

0 

tH

«

Tt

5

43

s

1

 g

09

TH

<J

CO"#

to

1 -i o 1 *° e! ^3^ ^H B °P^ i

<u JL ** fc>» ^

«H, ^oi,!4 c

II.lH 1

gw^^^fcl) >, 

«M 1 So r*> 4J "^ s°s^-i^«§ 6 o> w S,3 ^ w

*||-J «5i^

<H S«HW S

0

o

00

High-bush blueberry 

with scattered 

and whitespruce 

pine.

«o

o

CO

i^

03

Cj

a>

PQi

i

i o

TH

TH
TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in Locality 

fig. 2 description

Average 

Surface thick - 

area of ness 

peat of Major vegetation 

deposit peat now growing above 

(acres) (feet) peat deposit

Locatio

repr

(d

giv

LUZERNE COUNTY Continued 

Sweet Valley quadrangle Continued

111 __ 0.7 mile east of Bear 

Swamp.

40 10 Tangle of shrubs including high-bush 

blueberry and poison 

sumac; maple, 

birch, ash, and 

scattered black 

spruce and white 

pine.

300 ft fr

ed

Muc

Reed

d

Peat

Ligh

Pink 

112__1.0 mile northwest 

of Sylvan Lake.

20 5 Cattail, grass, and 

sedge marsh with 

scattered high-bush 

blueberry.

Center o

Muc

Reed

Soft 

(9

Pink 

113__0.3 mile north of 

Sylvan Lake.

40 10 Yellow birch, maple, 

and white pine forest; high-bush blueberry common, rhododendron scarce.

Center o

Muc

Woo

se

Peat

Soft 

Com
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A79

be

o . o^^

. -f

. . 

1 it s! N^ 0-

-S"

o1 0 ^ 0)

1s

rt

O)

O

W

t-sfi

cS 3

U

H 

o

ISo

?

« MS " >> bo-- o g 2 es

 V13 V G S^^ R ^f^^

3 

O

to

ii - ft-3

02

I

TJ

c

O

PH

0)

 §

O

0,

o

I

JS
TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Surface

area of

peat

Locality deposit

description (acres)

Average

thickness

of Major vegetation

peat now growing above

(feet) peat deposit

Locatio

repr

(d

giv

LUZERNE COUNTY Continued

119 _ 0.3 mile west of 15

Nuangola.

120 _ 0.6 mile south of 30

Lake Nuangola,

Turner Swamp.

121 _ Pole Bridge Swamp- 40

Wilkes-Barre West

10 A skunk cabbage

swamp ; maple and

ash, chief trees.

9 Sphagnum moss

under maple and

ash trees.

6 Yellow birch, ash,

maple, hemlock,

white pine, and

alder; reeds and

sedge at southern

end.

quadrangle

Center o

Muc

Ree

(

Ree

(

275 ft n

sw

Ree

Pea

(

Pin

(

North c

Muc

Woo

Ree

Gra

Wilkes-Barre East quadrangle

122_0.7 mile northwest 40 

of Behren Pond.

Tall forest of maple, 150 ft 

ash, and yellow birch. s

Bla

Gra
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A81

f! §* 

bog

c - 0 S -C

H 

o

H

TH

O G

03 sJ

03^

V O

£ G

r3 OS

fao

05 .

| /^

TH IO

pq

±3 G

tn G 

O OJ

03.J3 

^ O

0 >,

ueberr shrub

ododen- spruce forest.

bl 

r 

rh k ck

fn

-I

03 O

3

3-« !»s

w

including 

dron blac;

and hemlo

^G

<i> 'S
TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in Locality 

fig. 2 description

Surface 

area of 

peat 

deposit 

(acres)

Average 

thickness 

of Major vegetation 

peat now growilng above 

(feet) peat deposit

Locat

rep

( 

giv

MONROE COUNTY Continued 

Skytop quadrangle Continued

127 __ 0.7 mile northeast of 

Mountain Lake.

40 10 Black spruce, gum, 

maple, rhododendron, viburnum, 

alder, azalea, highbush blueberry.

Center, 

Mu

Ree

w

f

Pea

San

128_South part of Kintx 15 

Swamp.

15 Tamarack and black 

spruce swamp; 

sphagnum moss and 

high-bush blueberry.

Center 

Ree

Pea

Gr

129 Bloomer Swamp __ 25 6

Mu

Ree

Pe

Fin

Blakeslee quadrangle

130_1.7 miles northeast 

of Blakeslee.

200 2 Spruce, white pine, 

hemlock, maple, and 

shadbush forest; 

rhododendron.

Southw

Ree

Cla
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A83

.

G 

o> 

O

fll '"O

<D ft *H C 02

' -u OJ *O O

 33-8-S

"0,0 O g

1111 02

w o

0) S

JS O

C-;

d

tH

PQ

oJco

*»tA « co

giHlj <N 60^" >, ^

*> ^j c3 >»

G c3 {H OS *s « be Tl

PH

S O 

02 O

o 

CQ

fi

02 gj

G

w oJ

O) N

S G

PQ

/ >

°P -cU

rH^^tH i 

- 'O * > '

-S'

PQ

S

jO> O

 's'cS 

G G

- , G o

ss<1> fn

J> -

!? 'O

w a>

G <v 

O

ap k

der, hem

0273

CO

d

i

 <*

CO
TABLE 1. Location, estimated extent, and description of peat deposits in 

No. in

fig. 2

Locality

description

Surface

are of

peat

deposit

(acres)

Average 

thickness

of

peat

(feet)

Major vegetation

now growling above

peat deposit

Locati

rep

( d

giv

MONROE COUNTY Continued 

Bnshkill quadrangle Continued

135__0.9 mile north of 

Poplar Bridge.

10 8 Yellow and white 

birch, maple, azalea, 

and high-bush blueberry

Center o

Muc

Ree

Gra

Twelvemile Pond quadrangle

136__Tims Swamp 20 10 Tamarack and black 

spruce forest with 

high-bush blueberry.

North c

ft 

p

Ree

Clay

Gra

1 Data on physical properties and pH of samples from indicated depth are given in table 2

2 Effective sediment-contributing area relative to size of peat deposit area.

3 The geologic settings of the basins of accumulation of the deposits are grouped into the fo

Al. Bedrock trough closed at both ends by unconsolidated material.

2. Bedrock trough with unconsolidated material closing both ends and partly mantling t

3. Depression in bedrock closed by unconsolidated material. 

Bl. Depression in unconsolidated material closed by bedrock. 

2. Depression completely within unconsolidated material.
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A85

TABLE 2. Analytical data (physical properties) for representative peat 

samples from selected deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania

[Analyses by C. L. Burton, Grafton Daniels, and P. J. Aruscavage, U.S. Geol. Survey. 

Data in percent except as indicated]

Locality

(fig. 2 and

table 1 )

1

2

3 _

4

18

19

20

21

22

25

26 _ .

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35 _ .

36 _ .

37

38 _ .

39

40

43

44

45 _ .

46

47

49

51

52

53 _

54

55

56

60 _ .

61

62 _ .

65

66

67 _ .

68 _ .

69 _ . 70

72

73

74 _ . 75

79

81

83

84

85

Organic

content

97.1

90.8

73.0

_55.1

83.3

61.4

95.2

84.7

64.3

42.3

90.9

85.3

73.1

_56.8

90.8

56.2

92.7

_95.4

97.6

70.1

96.2

48.2

87.8

80.7

75.0

,82.7

_91.8

_89.5

_92.5

_89.4

89.8

92.4

43.5

89.7

_91.6

81.7

55.6

90.9

93.5

_83.3

95.8

94.5

93.2

_41.0

_94.5

35.4

78.9

93.4

78.7

_48.7

91.7

61.2

90.6

79.0

96.6

Water-holding

capacity

1,143

1,181

1,114

744

1,413

1,019

1,035

1,567

1,057

463

1,290

951

1,024

1,051

1,077

605

2,152

2,065

1,155

902

1,499

833

960

727

1,118

876

1,893

1,314

1,444

957

2,299

1,116

664

1,258

871

1,755

1,012

2,019

1,765

855

2,417

1,921

2,216

578

1,296

314

1,417

1,957

839

585

2,339

1,162

2,085

1,752

3,374

Fiber

longer than

0.15 mm

34.3

44.8

21.7

22.6

32.7

23.7

47.0

49.3

32.6

21.6

36.1

36.9

36.6

19.5

36.1

37.0

47.5

49.5

43.2

60.6

56.7

58.5

26.0

31.3

49.0

39.5

44.6

48.7

56.9

49.9

41.6

34.1

18.3

53.1

45.2

40.0

28.9

37.1

48.7

33.4

48.4

44.9

44.6

15.8

53.4

26.2

35.0

50.5

58.9

24.5

24.5

30.7

44.7

54.2

56.9

Hydrogen ion

concentration

(PH)

4.51

5.79

6.31

6.34

5.9

5.93

6.0

5.9

5.6

5.6

5.9

5.85

6.54

6.18

5.9

5.5

6.68

6.1

5.9

5.7

5.4

5.4

4.85

6.42

5.99

6.03

6.64

6.11

5.61

6.15

6.48

5.85

6.55

6.02

5.71

6.15

6.25

6.40

6.41

6.08

6.22

4.85

6.38

6.55

5.65

5.49

6.43

5.79

5.4

5.6

6.12

6.43

6.02

5.75

4.3
A86 STUDIES IN PEAT

TABLE 2. Analytical data (physical properties) for representative peat 

samples from selected deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania Continued

Locality

(tig. 2 and

table 1)

86 _ .

88

89 _

90

92 _

93 __ .

94

95

96

97 _

98 __ .

101

102

103 _ .

104

105

106

107

108

110

111

112

113

114

117

118

119

120

121

123

125 _ _

126

127

128

129

132

133

134

135

136

Organic

content

90.6

. _ _93.6

74.7

. _ 94.9

46.2

. __58.8

93.9

61.9

99.8

91.5

95.5

80.9

94.3

_ _ 47.3

74.1

90.2

51.3

92.2

37.5

90.8

93.6

. 43.6

95.1

94.6

_92.2

75.3

66.7

88.9

42.3

_ _ 69.5

58.0

86.8

95.7

90.5

94.3

93.6

58.7

54.2

_ 28.7

95.5

Water-holding

capacity

1,923

1,082

1,012

1,826

570

1,175

1,914

1,244

2.552

1,510

2,084

2,170

2,086

861

1,170

2,055

738

1,360

1,552

1,312

1,254

1,194

1,844

2,372

1,822

1,833

1,240

1,958

565

1,269

909

1,547

1,970

1,337

1,550

1,514

497

1,824

607

1,539

Fiber

longer than

0.15 mm

44.8

57.8

42.6

49.9

26.1

41.6

48.0

31.2

71.2

52.5

51.6

34.1

56.0

9.5

27.9

39.8

24.5

49.1

30.1

46.0

34.5

31.3

46.8

50.8

45.5

32.0

41.1

41.2

31.8

18.7

25.6

43.4

56.4

52.2

52.2

44.8

9.0

44.4

17.1

55.8

Hydrogen ion

concentration

(pH)

6.0

5.8

5.8

5.6

5.2

5.2

5.8

5.4

5.6

5.8

6.0

6.05

6.45

5.83

5.95

6.41

5.85

6.68

5.72

5.75

6.75

5.80

6.10

5.84

6.28

6.10

5.2

5.5

6.32

4.25

5.95

5.7

5.75

5.51

5.6

6.38

6.12

6.59

5.79

5.65
PEAT DEPOSITS OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA A87

TABLE 3. Pertinent drainage and ground-condition information about 15 

peat deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania

Locality Class of

(fig. 2; geologic Remarks

tables 1,2) setting

20__,_____A3 15-20 ft of clayey peat and soft clay under the peat 

deposit afford very unstable foundation for excavating 

machinery. Establishment of artificial drainage would 

be difficult because of the slight gradient of the outlet 

stream to Bushkill Creek. Gentle slopes, less than 10 

percent on firm ground at margin of swamp, would 

facilitate construction of operation roads.

36_______Al Artificial drainage of peat deposit would be easy to establish; outlet stream flows over bedrock at gradient 

of 528 ft to more than 2,112 ft per mile. Firm ground 

at south end of swamp near access road, where slopes 

are 2-4 percent, favor plant construction.

46_______Al Artificial drainage of peat deposit would be easy to establish; gradient of outlet stream is about 130 ft per 

mile. Drainage-basin walls slope 4-20 percent and are 

gentle at south end where firm ground is suitable for 

construction of buildings.

54__,____A2 Artificial lowering of water table may be difficult to 

establish. Outlet gradient is very gentle. Gentle drainage-basin slopes (as much as 6 percent) on firm 

ground at the west side of the deposit would facilitate 

plant and road construction.

60__,____A3 Artificial drainage would be easy to establish; outlet 

stream has gradient of 200-300 ft per mile. Edges of 

swamp are firm. Drainage-basin slopes of 4-6 percent 

facilitate construction of operation roads.

83_______Al Lowering water table in peat deposit would require 

draining an artificial pond that has an outlet with 

gradient of about 210 ft per mile. Gentle drainagebasin slopes (as much as 10 percent) on firm ground 

at west side of swamp facilitate construction of operation roads.

84_______Bl Artificial drainage may be achieved by ditching short 

distance to deep valley from the northeast end of 

swamp. Excavation equipment will mire in deposit 

in vicinity of pond, but ground with slopes as much as 

2 percent is firm at west margin of swamp.

90_______Al Swamp is without outlet; natural drainage of 1-percent 

gradient is through till from southeast arm of deposit 

to artificial pond at a distance of about 2,000 ft. East 

and west sandstone drainage-basin walls slope 16-20 

percent. Slopes at either end of deposit are as much as 

6 percent on till.

97_______B2 Natural drainage is through seepage to Painter Swamp 

Creek, thence to Little Bush Kill Creek. Artificial 

drainage would be difficult to achieve because the 

elevation of the creek is very nearly the same elevation as the surface of the peat deposit.

98-______A2 Artificial drainage to depths greater than 15 ft may be 

difficult; Twelvemile Pond, 0.4 mile south of deposit, 

is only 19 ft below the surface of the peat, and Spruce 

Run, 1.2 miles west, is 80 ft below the surface of the 

peat deposit. Broad areas of level firm ground are 

near the south and west margins of the deposit.
A88 STUDIES IN PEAT

TABLE 3. Pertinent drainage and ground-condition information about 15 

peat deposits in northeastern Pennsylvania Continued

Locality Class of

(fig. 2; geologic Remarks

tables 1, 2) setting

102_______A3 Establishment of artificial drainage to Bushkill Creek 

would be difficult because of very low relief. 15-20 ft 

of soft peaty clay and soft clay under exploitable 

deposit would cause excavating equipment to mire; 

however gentle slopes on firm ground at margin of 

deposit would facilitate construction of operation roads.

105____ __A1 Gradient of outlet stream ranges from 50 to 210 ft per 

mile. Firm ground sloping less than 4 percent at 

southeast margin of deposit is suitable for plant construction.

Ill_______Al Artificial lowering of water table in peat deposit may 

be accomplished by ditching northward toward Huntington Creek 0.4 mile distant and at an elevation of 

more than 300 ft lower than surface of deposit. Firm 

ground at south end of swamp sloping less than 4 

percent is suitable for plant construction.

117 A3 Low'relief makes artificial lowering of water table difficult. The flattest area of firm ground it at the northeast end.

118____ _A3 Surface of Cranberry Pond within the peat deposit is 

higher than the margin of the deposit. Artificial lowering of water table could best be achieved across low 

divide 0.5 mile west of Mount Zion Church. Firm 

ground at southwest end of marsh containing peat 

deposit slopes 6 8 percent.
INDEX

[Italic numbers indicate principal references]

Page

Accumulation of peat, rate A22 

Acer rubrum _____________________ 24

saccharum ________________________ 24

Acidity of peat, determined ________ 3, 10 

Acknowledgments ______________ S 

Air-dried peat _____ __9, 37, 43

Alder _________________ 24 

American Society for Testing and Materials Committee ______ 3, 10 

Anthracite coal beds _____________ 13

Appalachian orogeny __ ______ 13 

Artificial drainage of peat deposits __ 42 

Ash content of peat _______3, 25, 31, 37, 44

Basins of accumulation of deposits 26 

Bear Meadows Bog in central Pennsylvania _____ _______ 23 

Berwick anticlinorium _ ____ 16 

Big Shiney Mountain __ ______ 34 

Big Swamp ___________________ 29 

Biological factors for peat formation 6 

Birch ________________ 24

Broadbent Swamp ______________ 33

Blueberry, high-bush ____________ 24

Calculation of quantity of peat in

deposits ___ ____ 3 

Characteristics of raw peat _ 

Chemical environments favoring formation of peat 

Class Al, bedrock trough closed at both 

ends by unconsolidated material 

Class A2, bedrock trough with unconsolidated material closing both 

ends and partly mantling 

the trough _ 

Class A3, depression in bedrock closed by 

unconsolidated material __ 

Class Bl, depression in unconsolidated 

material closed by bedrock 

Class B2, depression completely with unconsolidated material ______

Classification of peat __ __ 

Clayey peat _______ __________

Climate of area ______________________

Climatic factors for peat formation _ 

Composition of peat ___ ___________

Definition of peat ________________

Demand for peat ______________

Deposit formation, rate _____________

sequence _________________________

Devonian rocks ______________________

Distribution of peat deposits __________

97

	Page

Drainage area of basins A25

Drainage-basin features 25

Drainage information ______ 42

Drainage of peat bogs 42

Economic geology 43

Elevation of peat deposits 25

Engineering aspects of peat 40

Environment of peat 6

Exploration for peat, suggestions 2, 44

Federal Trade Commission regulations _ 9

Fenland peat bog _ 41

Fiber content of peat 9

Fiber size of peat _ 3

Fiber types _____ 10, 29, 34

Florida peat deposits 6

Formation of the peat deposits _ 19

Geologic conditions most favorable to

formation of peat 33

Geologic setting classification £6

Geologic settings, basins of accumulation 26 

relation to quantity and quality of

peat 37

Geology, regional, for peat deposits IS

Glacial mechanics 17

Glaciation of area 16

Guide for peat consumers 7

Helderberg Formation 12

Hemlock __________ 24

Hickory Ridge ______________-__ 33

Humidity, importance in plant growth 6

Humus peat ___ 43, 44

water-holding power 9

Hydrologic economy of region 40

Kochners Corners

Lackawanna synclinorium 

Littleton Bog in Ireland _ 

Loyalville _______________

13

23

37

Maine peat deposits 7

Maple, hard _____ 24

red _________ - 24

Mauch Chunk Formation 13

Mississippian rocks 13

Moisture content of peat 3, 8 

Moss peat _______ 11, 43, 44

water-holding power 9

Movement of water through peat 40

Muck, definition _____________ 12

A89
A90 INDEX

Nebo Swamp ___________

Northumberland synolinorium

Page

A34 

16

Organic content of peat _______3, 7, 25, 44 

Oriskany Sandstone . ___ _ 

Outlook for the area ______, 

Output of air-dried peat _ 

Outwash in area ____________ 

Oven-dried peat __ __________

Palepzoic rocks _ 12 

Peat deposit drainage _ 42 

Peat deposit subsidence _________ 41 

Peat deposits in Maine _ _ _ 7 

Peat humus , _ 11 

Peat mining in northeastern Pennsylvania 2, 43 

Peat samples, collecting and analyzing _ 3 

Peaty clay ___________________ 12 

Physical factors for peat formation __ 6 

Physical features of peftt deposits _ 18 

Physical properties of peat _ 7 

Physical setting for accumulation of

plant debris _ 6 

Pine, white __________________ 24 

Pocono Formation . _ _ 12, 13 

Precipitation, mean annual . _ 23 

Production of air-dried peat ________ 43

Quality relationship to geologic settings 38 

Quantity and quality of peat, relation 

to classes of geologic settings _ 37 

Quaternary rocks 16

Radiocarbon studies of rate of formation

of peat ______________ 23

Rate of deposit formation US 

Reed-sedge peat 11, 43, 44 

Water-holding power 9 

Regional geology _ IS 

Reserves and resources of peat in area

of study . _ ___ 43

Page

Rhododendron A24 

Robert Swamp 37

Samples of potentially exploitable peat 

Saw-grass peat ,____________

Scranton and Wilkes-Barre coal district 

Scranton-Wilkes-Barre anthracite basin _ 

Sedges 

Sedimentary peat ____________________

Selinsgrove anticlinorium ___________

Silurian rocks ________________________

Size of the peat deposits _____________

Snowfall in area ______________________

Spagnum moss _______________________

Spagnum peat _ 

Spruce, black ________________________

Stream-gradient data _________________

Study or deposits of peat ____________

Subsidence of peat deposits __________

Tamarack Swamp ____________________

Temperature as a factor in plant growth 

Thickness of peat, determination ______

northeastern Pennsylvania ________

Till in area _______ 

Tims Swamp ________________________

Type I, II, and III fiber types ________

3

23

2

24,25

22

11

16

12

18,43

28

22

9

24

42

2

41

33

43

16

37

10

Uses of peat

Vaccinium 24,25 

Vegetation of peat deposit areas 24 

Viburnum _______________ 24

Wallpack Ridge 16 

Water-holding capacity of peat __3, 9, 31, 38 

Water movement through peat 40 

Water transfer between peat deposit and

country rock __________ 40 

White Pond __________________ 37 

Wisconsin Glaciation 17

 to u-