## MONTREAL PROTOCOL

ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE

THE OZONE LAYER



# UNEP

2010 R EPORT OF THE 

# R EFRIGERATION 

# , A IR 

# C ONDITIONING AND 

# H EAT 

# P UMPS 

# T ECHNICAL 

# O PTIONS 

# C OMMITTEE



# 2010 Assessment

## UNEP 2010 R EPORT OF THE 

## R EFRIGERATION 

## , A IR 

## C ONDITIONING AND 

## H EAT 

## P UMPS 

## T ECHNICAL 

## O PTIONS 

## C OMMITTEE



## 2010 A SSESSMENT2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### iv Montreal Protocol On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer



## UNEP 2010 R EPORT OF THE 

## R EFRIGERATION 

## , A IR 

## C ONDITIONING AND 

## H EAT 

## P UMPS 

## T ECHNICAL 

## O PTIONS 

## C OMMITTEE



## 2010 A SSESSMENT

The text of this report is composed in Times New Roman.

Co-ordination: 

### Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee

Composition: Lambert Kuijpers (Co-chair)

Formatting, Repr oduction: UNEP Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat

Date: February 2011

No copyright involved Printed in Kenya; 2011



### ISBN 978-9966-20-002-02010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### v DISCLAIMER

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel(TEAP) co-chairs and members, the Refrigeration AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, cochairs and members, and the companies and organisations that employ them do not endorse the performance, worker safety, or environmental acceptability of any of the technical options discussed. Every industrial operation requires consideration of worker safety and proper disposal of contaminants and waste products. Moreover, as work continues - including additional toxicity evaluation - more information on health, environmental and safety effects of alternatives and replacements will become available for use in selecting among the options discussed in this document.

UNEP, the TEAP co-chairs and members, the Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, co-chairs and members, in furnishing or distributing this information, do not make any warranty or representation, either express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or utility; nor do they assume any liability of any kind whatsoever resulting from the use or reliance upon any information, material, or procedure contained herein, including but not limited to any claims regarding health, safety, environmental effect or fate, efficacy, or performance, made by the source of information.

Mention of any company, association, or product in this document is for information purposes only and does not constitute a recommendation of any such company, association, or product, either express or implied by UNEP, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel co-chairs or members, the Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee co-chairs or members, or the companies or organisations that employ them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The UNEP Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee acknowledges with thanks the outstanding contributions from all of the individuals and organisations who provided technical support to committee members. In developing this report, particularly the chapter lead authors were instrumental.

The names of chapter lead authors, co-authors and contribut ors are given at the start of each chapter. Addresses and contact numbers of the chapter lead authors and all other authors of the UNEP TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps can be found in Annex I.

The opinions expressed are those of the Committee and do not necessarily reflect the views of any sponsoring or supporting organisations.

Gratitude is expressed to UNEP’s Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya for the co-operation in formatting and styling of the report and for the reproduction of this report.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report vii 

### UNEP 2010 R EPORT OF THE 

### R EFRIGERATION 

### , A IR 

### C ONDITIONING AND 

### H EAT 

### P UMPS 

### T ECHNICAL 

### O PTIONS 

### C OMMITTEE



### 2010 A SSESSMENT



## Table of Contents

KEY MESSAGES ................................................................................................................... ...................XII

ABSTRACT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..................................................................................................... 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES OF ALL CHAPTERS..................................................................................5

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. .............16

1.1 M ONTREAL P ROTOCOL D EVELOPMENTS ..........................................................................................16 1.2 T HE UNEP T ECHNOLOGY AND E CONOMIC A SSESSMENT P ANEL ......................................................20 1.3 T HE T ECHNICAL O PTIONS C OMMITTEE R EFRIGERATION , A/C AND H EAT P UMPS .............................22 1.4 R EFRIGERATION , A IR C ONDITIONING AND H EAT P UMPS ..................................................................24 1.4.1 General Remarks.......................................................................................................... ..........24 1.4.2 Long Term Options and Energy Efficien cy ..................

............ ............ ............. ............ .........25 1.4.3 Set up of the 2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Re port......... ........27

2 REFRIGERANTS ................................................................................................................. .............30

2.1 I NTRODUCTION

............................................................................................................................... ..30 2.1.1 Refrigerant Progression.................................................................................................. .......30 2.1.2 Unsaturated Hydrofluorochemicals.......................................................................................31 2.2 D ATA S UMMARY ..............................................................................................................................3 1 2.2.1 Ozone Depletion Potentials............................................................................................... .....38 2.2.2 ODP and GWP Data for Regulatory and Reporting Pur poses..........

........... .......... .......... .....38 2.3 S TATUS AND R ESEARCH N EEDS FOR D ATA .......................................................................................40 2.3.1 Thermophysical Properties ..

............. ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. .......... ......... ....40 2.3.2 Heat Transfer and Compatibility Data ..

.................. ............ ............ ........... .......... .......... .......40 2.3.3 Safety Data.............................................................................................................. ...............42 2.4 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ......43

3 DOMESTIC REFRIGERATION .....................................................................................................50

3.1 I NTRODUCTION

............................................................................................................................... ..50 3.2 O PTIONS FOR N EW E QUIPMENT ........................................................................................................50 3.2.1 Refrigerant Options...................................................................................................... ..........51 3.2.2 Not-In-Kind Alternative Technologies ..

............ ............. ............ ............. ............ ............ .......52 3.2.3 Product Energy Efficiency Improvement Technologies ....

............ ...................... ............ .......53 3.3 O PTIONS FOR E XISTING E QUIPMENT .................................................................................................54 3.3.1 Drop-In Conversion of In-Service Pr oducts ................

............ ............ ............. ............ .........54 3.4 E ND

- OF -L IFE C ONSERVATION AND C ONTAINMENT C ONCERNS ........................................................55 3.5 C URRENT R EFRIGERANT U SE ...........................................................................................................55 3.5.1 New Equipment Production ....

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. .......... ......... ..55 3.5.2 Field Service............................................................................................................ ...............56 3.5.3 Future Refrigerant Demand Implicati ons ....................

............ ............ ............. ............ .........57 3.5.4 Future Refrigerant Emission Implications .............................................................................57 3.6 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ......582010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report viii 4 COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION..............................................................................................60

4.1 I NTRODUCTION

............................................................................................................................... ..60 4.2 A PPLICATION

............................................................................................................................... .....60 4.2.1 Equipment and Systems......

............. ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. .......... ......... ......60 4.3 O PTIONS FOR N EW E QUIPMENT ........................................................................................................62 4.3.1 Stand-Alone Equipment......

............. ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. .......... ......... ......62 4.3.2 Condensing Unit Systems...

............. ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. .......... .......... .....65 4.3.3 Supermarket Systems.........

............ ............ ............ ............. ............ ............. .......... ......... ........65 4.5 O PTIONS FOR E XISTING E QUIPMENT .................................................................................................70 4.9 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ......72

5 INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... ......76

5.1 I NTRODUCTION

............................................................................................................................... ..76 5.2 A PPLICATIONS ( INCLUDING SIZE OF MARKET , CURRENT PRACTICE , REGIONAL VARIATIONS )............80 5.2.1 Food Processing......

.................... ............ ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... .......... ...........80 5.2.2 Cold Storage............................................................................................................. ..............80 5.2.3 Industrial Cooling in Buildings and IT Centres...........

............ ............ ............. ............ .........81 5.2.4 Industrial Heat Pumps and Heat Recove ry..................

............ ............ ............. ............ .........81 5.2.5 Leisure.................................................................................................................. ..................82 5.2.6 Process Refrigeration.................................................................................................... .........82 5.3 W ORKING F LUID O PTIONS FOR N EW E QUIPMENT .............................................................................82 5.3.1 R-717 (Ammonia) ........

.................... ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... .......... .......... .........82 5.3.2 Hydrofluorocarbons..........

.............. ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... ......... ........83 5.3.3 HCFC-22.................................................................................................................. ..............84 5.3.4 Hydrocarbons..........

.................... ............ ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... ......... ............84 5.3.5 R-744 (Carbon dioxide) ........

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... ......... ......84 5.3.6 R-718 (Water).........

............ ............. ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .............84 5.3.7 Absorption............................................................................................................... ...............85 5.4 R ETROFIT O PTIONS FOR E XISTING E QUIPMENT ................................................................................85 5.4.1 Conversion to HFC Blends ................................................................................................. ...85 5.4.2 Conversion to R-744 ...................................................................................................... ........86 5.4.3 Conversion to R-717 ...................................................................................................... ........86 5.4.4 Conversion to Hydrocarbon................................................................................................ ...86 5.5 O VERVIEW OF R EFRIGERANT C ONSUMPTION , B ANKS AND E MISSIONS .............................................86 5.6 S ERVICE R EQUIREMENTS ..................................................................................................................88 5.7 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ......88

6 TRANSPORT REFRIGERATION ..................................................................................................92

6.1 I NTRODUCTION

............................................................................................................................... ..92 6.2 T ECHNICAL P ROGRESS ......................................................................................................................92 6.2.1 Merchant, Naval and Fishing Vessels......

.................... ............ ............ ............. ............ .........92 6.2.2 Road Transport .............

................ ............ ............ ............. .......... .......... ........... .......... ...........94 6.2.3 Railcars ................................................................................................................. .................95 6.2.4 Intermodal Containers ................

............ ............ ............. ............ ............. ............ .......... .......96 6.2.5 Small Containers and Boxes ....

............ ............ .............. ............ .......... ........... .......... .......... ...97 6.3 R EFRIGERANT O PTIONS FOR E XISTING E QUIPMENT ..........................................................................97 6.4 R EFRIGERANT O PTIONS FOR N EW E QUIPMENT .................................................................................98 6.5 R ECOVERY , R EUSE AND D ESTRUCTIONS OF R EFRIGERANTS

............ .......... .................... .......... .......100 6.6 B ANK AND E MISSION D ATA

............. ............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .........100 6.7 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ....104

7 AIR-TO AIR AIR CONDITION ERS AND HEAT PUMPS .........

.......... .............. .......... ........ .....106

7.1 I NTRODUCTION

............................................................................................................................... 106 7.2 A PPLICATIONS

............................................................................................................................... .106 7.2.1 Small Self-Contained Air Conditioners..

............ .............. ............ ............. .......... .......... .......107 7.2.2 Non-ducted (or duct-free) Split Residential and Commercial Air Conditione rs.......... ........107 7.2.3 Ducted, Split Residential Air Conditioners ................

............ ............ ............. ............ .........108 7.2.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air Conditione rs............

........... .......... .......... .......109 7.3 C URRENT U SE OF HCFC-22 ..............

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .......1102010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report ix 7.3.1 Small Self-Contained Air Conditioners..

............ .............. ............ ............. .......... .......... .......110 7.3.2 Non-ducted Split Air Conditioners.......................................................................................1 10 7.3.3 Ducted, Split Residential Air Conditioners ................

............ ............ ............. ............ .........111 7.3.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air conditioner .

............ .............. .......... .......... .....111 7.3.5 HCFC-22 Bank............................................................................................................. ........111 7.4 O PTIONS FOR N EW E QUIPMENT

............. ............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... .......111 7.4.1 Methodology............

.................... ............ ............ ............. .......... .......... ........... .......... ...........111 7.4.2 Single Component HFC Refrigerants.....

.................... ............ ............ ............. ............ .........112 7.4.3 HFC Blends............................................................................................................... ...........112 7.4.4 Reduced GWP HFC Refrigerants and Bl ends................

............ ............ ............. .......... .......113 7.4.5 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants ......

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... ......... ..115 7.4.6 R-744....................................................................................................................

.......... ......116 7.4.7 Flammability Considerations.............................................................................................. .117 7.4.8 Not-in-Kind Alternative Technologies..

.................. ............ ............ ........... .......... .......... .......117 7.5 O PTIONS FOR E XISTING E QUIPMENT

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .........118 7.5.1 Service Blend Refrigerants............................................................................................... ....118 7.5.2 Retrofit Refrigerants.................................................................................................... .........119 7.5.3 Anticipated Market Impact of Drop-in and Retrofit Refrigerants.................

.......... ........ .....119 7.5.4 Hydrocarbons as Conversion/Drop-in Refrigerants.....

............ ........................ ............ .......119 7.6 H IGH A MBIENT C ONSIDERATIONS

............. ............ ............. ............ .......... .......... ........... .......... .......120 7.6.1 R-410A in High Ambient Applications ..

............ ............. ............ ............. ............ .......... .......120 7.6.2 HC-290 in High Ambient Applications ..

............ .............. ............ ............. .......... .......... .......121 7.6.3 R-407C in High Ambient Applications..

............ ............. ............ ............. ............ .......... .......121 7.6.4 HFC-32 in High Ambient Applications..

............ .............. ............ ............. .......... .......... .......121 7.6.5 HFC-134a and HC-600a in High Ambient Applications ....

............ .............. .......... ........ .....121 7.6.6 R-744 in High Ambient Applications ..

............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .......122 7.6.7 HFC Replacements for High Ambient Applications......

............ ........................ ............ .......122 7.7 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ....122

8 WATER HEATING HEAT PUMPS

............ ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... .......... .......... .......128

8.1 I NTRODUCTION

............................................................................................................................... 128 8.2 T YPES OF H EAT P UMPS

............ ................ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... .......... .......128 8.2.1 Heat Pump Water Heaters (HPWH) ....

............ .............. ............ ............ ............. .......... .......129 8.2.2 Space Heating Heat Pumps................................................................................................. .129 8.2.3 Combined Space and Hot Water Heat Pumps ...............

............ ............. ............ .......... .......130 8.2.4 Capacity Ranges of Water and Space Heating Heat Pump s.............

.............. ............ .........130 8.3 H EAT P UMP I MPLICATIONS AND T RENDS

............ ............ .............. ............ ........... .......... .......... .......130 8.3.1 Trends of Heat Pumps Replacing From Gas or Fu el Burning System..........

.......... ........ .....130 8.3.2 CO 2 Heat Pump Water Heaters...

............ ............ ............. ............ ............. .......... .......... .......131 8.4 C URRENT R EFRIGERANT O PTIONS FOR W ATER AND S PACE H EATING H EAT P UMPS

.......... ........ .....131 8.4.1 HCFC-22.................................................................................................................. ............132 8.4.2 HFC-134a and HFC blends R-407C and R-410A ...........

............ ............. .......... .......... .......132 8.4.3 Hydrocarbons..........

.................... ............ ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... ......... ..........132 8.4.4 R-744 (Carbon Dioxide)........

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... ......... ....132 8.4.5 R-717 (Ammonia) ........

.................... ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... .......... .......... .......133 8.5 F UTURE R EFRIGERANT O PTIONS FOR N EW H EAT P UMPS

............. ............ ........... .......... .......... .......133 8.5.1 HFC-134a and HFC Blends R-407C and R-410A...........

............ ............. .......... .......... .......134 8.5.2 HFC-32 ...................................................................................................................

........ .....134 8.5.3 HFC-1234yf and Other Low-GWP HFC Bl ends............

............ ............ ............. .......... .......134 8.5.4 R-744 (Carbon Dioxide)........

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... ......... ....135 8.5.5 Hydrocarbons..........

.................... ............ ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... ......... ..........135 8.5.6 R-717 (Ammonia) ........

.................... ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... .......... .......... .......135 8.6 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ....135

9 CHILLERS .....................................................................................................................

.......... ........138

9.1 F UNCTION OF C HILLERS

............ ................ ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... .......... .......... .......138 9.2 T YPES OF C HILLERS

............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .........138 9.2.1 Mechanical Vapour-Compression Chillers

.................... ............ ............ ............. .......... .......138 9.2.2. Absorption Chillers ..................................................................................................... .........1402010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report x 9.2.3 Chiller Capacity Ranges .....

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. .......... ......... ....141 9.3 D EVELOPMENTS AND T RENDS IN C HILLER M ARKETS

............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .......142 9.3.1 Measures of Chiller Effici ency or Energy Use.....................................................................142 9.3.2 Developments in the Market – Vapour-Compression Ch illers......................

.......... ........ .....143 9.3.3 Developments in the Market – Absorption Chillers ....

............ ............ ............ ............ .........144 9.4 C URRENT R EFRIGERANT C HOICES AND O PTIONS FOR M ECHANICAL V APOUR -C OMPRESSION C HILLERS 144 9.4.1 Positive Displacement Chillers ........................................................................................... .144 9.4.2 Centrifugal Chillers..................................................................................................... .........146 9.5 R EFRIGERANT O PTIONS FOR N EW C HILLER E QUIPMENT

............ ............ ............. .......... .......... .......146 9.5.1 Options for New Positive Displacement Chillers.........

............ ............ ............. ............ .......147 9.5.2 Options for New Centrifugal Chillers ..................................................................................14 9 9.5.3 Issues with HCFC-123, HFC-134a, R-410A, and Other HFC Chiller Refrigerants ...........149 9.5.4 Alternatives to Vapour Compression Systems (Absor ption Chillers)............

.......... ........ .....150 9.6 O PTIONS FOR E XISTING C HILLER E QUIPMENT

............ .............. ............ ............ ............. .......... .......150 9.6.1 Positive Displacement Chillers ........................................................................................... .151 9.6.2 Centrifugal Chillers..................................................................................................... .........152 9.6.3 Not-in-Kind Chiller Replacements – Absorption .........

............ ............ ............. ............ .......152 9.7 B ANKS AND E MISSIONS R ELATING TO C HILLERS

.................... ............ ............ ............. ............ .......152 9.8 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ....153

10 VEHICLE AIR CONDITIONING .................................................................................................156

10.1 I NTRODUCTION

............ ............ ............. ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... .......... .......... .......156 10.1.1 Regulatory Actions affecting Vehicle Air C onditioning and Refrigerants .....

............ ..........156 10.2 T ECHNICAL P ROGRESS

........................ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... .......... .......159 10.3 E XISTING M OBILE A IR C ONDITIONING S YSTEMS

............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .........159 10.3.1 HFC-134a ......

............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... ......... ............159 10.3.2 Retrofit of CFC-12 systems .............................................................................................. ....160 10.4 O PTIONS FOR F UTURE M OBILE A IR C ONDITIONING S YSTEMS

............ ............. .......... .......... .......160 10.4.1 Passenger Car and Light Truck Air Conditioning .........

............ ............ ............. .......... .......160 10.4.2 Bus and Rail Air Conditioning..........

............ ............. ............ ............ ............. .......... ......... ..164 10.5 R EFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................1 65

11 REFRIGERANT CONSERVATION .....

............ .................... ............ ............ ............. ............ .......172

11.1 I NTRODUCTION

............ ............ ............. ............ ............. ............ .......... ........... .......... .......... .......172 11.2 R ECOVERY , R ECYCLING , AND R ECLAMATION

............. ............ ............ ........... .......... .......... .......173 11.3 R EFRIGERANT R ECOVERY AND R ECYCLING E QUIPMENT

............ .......... .................... .......... .......173 11.4 T ECHNICIAN T RAINING AND S ERVICE C ERTIFICATION

............. ............ ........... .......... .......... .......174 11.5 R EFRIGERANT R ECLAMATION , S EPARATION , D ESTRUCTION

............ ................ .......... .......... .....175 11.5.1 Reclamation and Separation ...

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ........... .......... ......... ..175 11.6 E QUIPMENT D ESIGN AND S ERVICE

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .......178 11.6.1 Design ..................................................................................................................

.......... ......179 11.6.2 Charge Minimising....................................................................................................... ........179 11.6.3 Installation ............................................................................................................

.......... .....179 11.6.4 Servicing...............................................................................................................

.......... ......179 11.6.5 Reduction of Emissions through Leak Tightness............

............ ............ ............. .......... .......180 11.7 D IRECT R EGULATION AS A M EANS OF R EFRIGERANT C ONSERVATION

.......... ........... .......... .......181 11.7.1 Financial Incentives .................................................................................................... .........182 11.7.2 Required Service Practices and Leak Tightness ............

............ ............ ............. .......... .......183 11.7.3 Restrictions on the sales and imports of ODSs ............

............ ............ ............. ............ .......184 11.8 E ND

- OF

- LIFE ..............................................................................................................................1 85 11.9 E XAMPLES OF C ONSERVATION A PPROACHES

............ ............. ............ ............. .......... .......... .......185 11.9.1 Africa..................................................................................................................

.......... ........185 11.9.2 South America .........

........................ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ ...........187 11.9.3 China...................................................................................................................

.......... .......188 11.9.4 United States ...........................................................................................................

........ .....188 11.9.5 Japan........

............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ ........... .......... .......... .......188 11.10 A RTICLE 5 I SSUES

............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ ............ ............. ............ .......189 11.11 R EFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................1 902010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report xi ANNEX 1 – AUTHORS, CO-AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS TO THE 2010 RTOC REPORT.........................................................................................................................

.......... .......... ........192

ANNEX 2: - EXCERPT OF THE FINAL REPO RT ON GLOBAL INVENTORIES OF THE WORLDWIDE FLEETS OF REFRIGERATING AND AIR-CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT IN ORDER TO DETERMINE REFRIGERANT EMISSION S. THE 1990 TO 2006 UPDATING............12010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report xii 

## Key messages

 The required global phase-out of HCFCs, and the need to manage the lifetime operation of CFC- and also HCFC-based equipment, coupled with concerns to reduce global warming, drive transition from ozone depl eting substance (ODS) refrigeran ts. The technical options are universal, but local laws, regu lations, standards, economics, co mpetitive situations and other factors influence regional and local choices.

 More than 60 new refrigerants, many of them blends, were introduced for use either in new equipment or as service fluids (to maintain or convert existing equipment) since the 2006 assessment report. The primary focus for exam ination of new refrigera nts is on unsaturated hydrofluorocarbons and unsaturated hydrochlorofluorocarbons. The overarching climate change issue as well as changing refrigerant options for refrig eration and air conditioning will continue to advance equipment innovations. HFCs and non-fluorochemical options are increasingly used in most sectors, with emphasis on optimising system efficiency (expressed as Coefficient of Performance - COP) and reducing emissions of high Global Warming Potential (GWP) refrigerants.

 There are several low and medium GWP alternatives being considered as replacements forHCFC-22. These include lower GWP HFC refrigerants (HFC-32, HFC-152a, HFC-161, HFC1234yf and other unsaturated fluorochemicals, as well as blends of them), HC-290 and R-744 (CO 2 ). HC-290 and some of the HFC refrigerants are flammable and will need to be applied in accordance with an appropriate safety standard. A high degree of containment applies to all future refrigerant applications, either for decreasing climate impact or for safety reasons. The latter aspect will also increas e the need to advance charge redu ction technologies.

 In commercial refrigeration stand-alone equipment, hydrocarbons (HCs) and R-744 are gaining market shares in Europe and in Japa n; they are replacing HFC-134a, which is the dominant choice in most countries. In many developed countries, R-404A and R-507A have been the main replacements for HCFC-22 in supermarkets, however, because of their high GWP, a number of other options are now being introduced. Indirect systems are the most effective option for emissions redu ctions in new centralised systems for supermarkets. In two stage systems in Europe, R-744 is used at the low-temperature level and HFC-134a, R-744 and HCs at the medium temperature level.

 In industrial refrigeration, R-717 (ammon ia) and HCFC-22 are still the most common refrigerants; R-744 is gainin g in low-temperature, cascaded systems where it primarily replaces R-717 (ammonia), though the market volume is small.

 In air-to-air air conditioning, HFC blends, pr imarily R-410A, but to a limited degree also R407C, are still the dominant near -term replacements for HCFC-22 in air-cooled systems. HC290 is also being used to replace HCFC-22 in low charge split system, window and portable air conditioners in some countries . Most Article 5 countries are continuing to utilise HCFC-22 as the predominant refr igerant in air conditio ning applications.

 Up to now, car manufacturers and suppliers have evaluated several refrigerant options for new car (and truck) air conditioning systems in cluding R-744, HFC-152a and HFC-1234yf, all with GWPs below the EU threshold of 150. These options can achieve fuel efficiency comparable to the existing HFC-134a systems with appropriate hardware and control development. The use of hydrocarbons or blends of hydrocarbons has also been considered but so far has not received support from vehicle manufacturers due to safety concerns. The eventual decision which refrigerant to select for vehicle air conditioning w ill be made based on the GWPs of the above three options alon g with additional cons iderations including regulatory approval, costs, sy stem reliability, safety, heat pump capability and servicing.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 1 

## Abstract Executive Summary

Current status

The required global phase-out of HCFCs, and the need to manage the lifetime operation of CFC- and also HCFC-based equipment, coupled with concerns to reduce global warming, drive transition from ozone depleting substance (ODS) refrigerants. The technical options are univ ersal, but local laws, regulations, standards, economics, co mpetitive situations and other fact ors influence regional and local choices. The primary current so lutions are summarised below.

Refrigerants: More than 60 new refrigerants, many of them blends, were introduced for use either in new equipment or as service fluids (to maintain or convert existing equipment) since the 2006 assessment report. The primary focus for examin ation of new refrigeran ts is on unsaturated hydrofluorocarbons and unsaturated hydrochlorofluor ocarbons. Additional refrigerants are still being developed to enable completion of scheduled phase-outs of ODSs. Significant fo cus is on alternatives, including blend components, offering lower global warming potentials (GWP s) to address climate change, forcing more attention th an in the past on flammable or low-flammability candidates. Research continues to increase and improve th e physical, safety, and environmental data for refrigerants, to enable screening, an d to optimise equipment performance.

Domestic refrigeration: The conversion of new equipment production to the use of non-ODS refrigerants is essentially complete . More than one-third of newly produced units globally now use the refrigerant HC-600a; the balance uses HFC-134a. CFC emissions from the 150,000 tonnes domestic refrigerant bank are dominated by end-of-lif e disposal due to the hi gh equipment reliability. Approximately 70% of the current, residual CFCs reside in Article 5 countries.

Commercial refrigeration: Hydrocarbons (HCs) and R-744 (CO 2 ) are gaining market shares for standalone equipment in Europe and in Japan; they are replacing HFC-134a, which is the dominant choice in most non-Article 5 a nd Article 5 countries. For condensing units and supermarket systems, the largest refrigerant bank c onsists of HCFC-22, which represents about 60% of the global commercial refrigerant bank. In developed countries, the replacement of HCFC-22 in supermarkets is dominated by R-404A and R-507A, however, a number of other options are used. In Europe, R-744 is used at the low-temperature level and HFC-134a, R-744 and HCs at the medium temperature level as alternatives to R-404A and R-507A because of their high GWP.

Industrial refrigeration: R-717 and HCFC-22 are the most common refrigerants for new equipment; cost considerations have driven sm all new systems to HFC use. R-74 4 is gaining in low-temperature, cascaded systems where it primarily replaces R-717 (ammonia), though the market volume is small for such systems. The ODS refrigerant bank consists of 20,000 tonnes of CFCs and 125,000 tonnes of HCFCs and HFCs. Annual ODS emission rates are in the range of 10-25% of the total banked refrigerant charge. R-717 remains the primary refriger ant in large industrial systems, especially those for food and beverage processing and storage.

Transport refrigeration : HCFC-22 has a low share in intermodal containers and road equipment, a high share in railcars (declining market) and a very hi gh share in marine vessels. Today, virtually all new systems utilise HFC refrigerants (R-404A and HFC-134a). Non -fluorinated refrigerants have been commercialised to a small extent aboard marine vessels (R-717, R-744), and tested in marine containers, trailers (R-744) and trucks (HC-290). The refrigerant banks are estimated at 2,700 tonnes of CFCs and 27,200 tonnes of HCFC-22. The annual leak rate is in the range of 20-40%, depending on the specific application.

Air-to-air conditione rs and heat pumps: HFC blends, primarily R-410A, but to a limited degree also R-407C, are still the dominant near-ter m replacements for HCFC-22 in ai r-cooled systems. HC-290 is also being used to replace HCFC- 22 in low charge split system, wind ow and portable air conditioners2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 2 in some countries. Most Artic le 5 countries are continuing to utilise HCFC-22 as the predominant refrigerant in air conditioning app lications. The refriger ant bank for unitary ai r conditioners is in excess of 1 million to nnes of HCFC-22.

Water-heating heat pumps: Air-to-water heat pumps have experienced significant growth in Japan, Australia, China, and Europe during the last five years, especially ow ing to the govern ment incentives in Europe and Japan, and in the USA in prior years. HCFC-22 is cu rrently mainly us ed in Article 5 countries. The HFC blends R-410A and R407C are currently used in European and other countries. R-744 heat pump water heaters were introduced to the market in Japan in 2001 and have seen a steady growth since then, again influenced by significant su bsidies. HC-290 is bein g applied but its use in Europe has decreased due to the in troduction of the Pressu re Equipment Directive. R-717 is mainly used for large capacity heat pump systems.

Chillers : HCFC-22 has been phased out in new equipment in the develope d countries, but is still used in Article 5 countries. Both HCFC-123 and HFC-134a are used in centrifugal chille rs. HFC-134a and R-410A are the most common options in smaller systems with scroll and screw compressors; limited R-407C usage is dropping. The application of HCs and R-717 in chillers is less common and extremely rare as a fraction of the total in large chillers.

Vehicle air conditioning: Today all new AC equipped passenger cars world-wide use HFC-134a; the transition from CFC-12 is complete for new systems, but not in ol d cars still in use especially in Article 5 countries. About one fi fth of the total global refrigeran t emissions are from Mobile Air Conditioning systems (about 60 percent if only HFC refrigerant emissions are considered); this includes the emissions in production, use, servicing, and end-of-life. Up to now, car manufacturers and suppliers have evaluated seve ral refrigerant options for new car (and truck) air conditioning systems including R-744, HFC-152a and HFC-1234yf. These three options have GWPs below the EU threshold of 150 and can achieve fuel efficiency comparable to the existing HFC-134a systems with appropriate hardware and control development. The use of hydrocarbons or blends of hydrocarbons has also been considered but so far has not received support from vehicle manufacturers due to safety concerns. Most new bus or train air conditioning sy stems are currently equipped with the refrigerants HFC-134a or R-407C; fleet tests of R-744 systems in buses are ongoing.

What is left to be achieved

More than 100 refrigerants, including blends, are marketed at present, though approximately 20 consitute the overwhelming majority on a global basis and even th at quantity is expected to fall as users converge on preferred options over time. Re frigerant manufacturers are in process of developing new candidates while equipment manufacturers are testing, selecting, and qualifying new refrigerants as well as associated lubr icants and other materials. The techno logical options for air conditioning and refrigeration are expected to evolve over the next several years as designers continue to replace HCFC-22 with non-ODS alternatives and focus on developing lower GWP alternatives for R-410A and R-407C. There are several low and medium GWP alternatives being considered as replacementsfor HCFC-22. These include lower GWP HFC refrigerants (HFC-32, HFC-152a, HFC-161, HFC1234yf and other unsaturated fluorochemicals, as well as blends of them), HC-290 and R-744. HC290 and some of the HFC refrigeran ts are flammable and w ill need to be applied in accordance with an appropriate safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-40, which establishes maximum charge levels and ventilation requirements.

Several commercial chains have made good progress on the containment of refrigerant in supermarket systems. Indirect systems are the most effective option for emissions reductions and, in Europe, are gaining market share in new centralised systems for supermarkets. Technical development of alternatives in industrial refriger ation is expected to emphasise R-717 and R-744 in the near future. A significant amount of research, de velopment and testing will be requi red before unsatu rated HFCs can be deployed in large industrial systems, and ev en then their high refrig erant price will be an impediment to adoption. In heat pumps for wate r heating, further develo pment of the lower GWP2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 3 options is expected. In transpor t refrigeration, a rapid phase-out of remaining HCFCs due to the relatively short life span of intermodal containers, railcars and road vehicles (10-15 years) and marine vessels (< 25 years) is expected. Depending on the CO2 emissions associat ed with the electricity production and the energy efficiency of the systems, there is a large potential to reduce CO 2 emissions generated by fossil fuel operated heating systems by replacing them with heat pumps. The decision which refrigerant will be eventually selected for vehicle air conditioning will be made based on additional consider ations along with the Global Warming Pote ntial of the current alternative options (R-744, HFC-152a, and HFC-1234yf); these include regulatory approval, co sts, system reliability, safety, heat pump capab ility and servicing.

World-wide, a significant amount of installed refrig eration equipment still uses CFCs and HCFCs. As a consequence, service demand for CFCs and HCFC s will continue. Refrig erant demand for service needs can be minimised by preventive service, containment, recovery, and recycling. Management of the CFC and HCFC banks in developing countries is an important issue. A critical step to address the refrigerant conservation topics above is thorough training of installers and service technicians, together with certification and regulation. Countries where programs have been successful have had comprehensive regulations requiring recovery and recycling, or destruction of refrigerant.

The way forward

The overarching climate change issue as well as changing refrigerant options for refrigeration and air conditioning will continue to advan ce innovations in this type of eq uipment. Many of the lower GWP refrigerant options are flammable, which increases the need to advance charge reduction technologies. HFCs and non-fluorochemical options are increasingly used in most sectors, with emphasis on optimising system efficiency (COP) and reducing emissions of high-GWP refrigerants. A high degree of containment applies to all future refrigerant applications, either for decreasing climate impact or for safety reasons. The co mpetitive market is likely to result in refrigerant options for all common applications and either specialty products or equipment adaptatio n to accommodate new refrigerants for all applications, but the initial in dications are that reduced efficiency is likely in several key uses. It is worth noting that manufacturing for refrigera tion, air-conditioning, and heat pump equipment for export is increasing and is expected to increase further in Ar ticle 5 countries.

In domestic refrigeration, and to a lesser extent in commercial stand-alone equipment, an emerging trend is conversion from HFC-134a to HC-600a. Non-Article 5 countries co mpleted the conversion from ODS refrigerants in domestic refrigeration approximately 15 years ago; older equipment now approaches the equipment useful lifetime; this resu lts in non-Article 5 coun tries having a vanishing ODS refrigerant demand. The service demand for ODS refrigerants for dome stic refrigeration in Article 5 countries is expected to remain strong for more than 10 years as a result of their later conversion to non-ODS refrigerants. In commercial stand-alone equipment in Article 5 countries, the use of HCs is expected to increase. For two-temperature centralised systems, R-744 is an option for the lower temperat ure level; in the near future, there will be the choi ce for the medium-temperature level for new low GWP HFCs on the one hand and R-744 or HCs on the other. In industrialrefrigeration, there are substantial banks of CFCs in Article 5 countries and HCFCs in both nonArticle 5 and Article 5 countries th at need addressing. Article 5 countries moving away from HCFCs (HCFC-22) might transfer to satu rated HFCs, unsaturated HFCs if proven for use in industrial systems, to R-717 and R-744, or to other not-in-kind solutions. In transport refriger ation, HFCs will replace HCFCs and become a dominant refrigerant on passenger vessels and on small ships of all categories. The industry is working towards the use of non-fluorinated refrigerants in marine containers, trailers (R-744) and trucks (R-290); both are currently in the development and testing stage. In air-to-air air cond itioning and heat pumps, HFCs, HFC blends and HC-290 are the most likely near-term refrigerants to re place HCFC-22 in most air conditio ning applications. Contrary to non-Article 5 countrie s, the demand for service refrigerants in most Article 5 countries will consist of HCFC-22 and HFC-based service blends; this tendency is driven by long equi pment life and is also due to the costs of the field conversion to alternative refrigerants. In heat pumps for water heating, HFC-32 or unsaturated HFCs such as HFC-1234yf or blends with this refrigerant will be studied for2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 4 future use by taking into accoun t the performance, costs and the necessary safety regulations in relation to their mild flammability . The front running candidate am ong global car manufacturers for future vehicle air conditioning systems seems to be HFC-1234yf. One manu facturer has announced the intention to introduce this refr igerant in car serial production in 2013. OE Ms indicate that they will design HFC-1234yf MAC systems in such a way that these systems can sa fely be used with HFC134a refrigerant as well.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 5 

## Executive Summaries of All Chapters

Chapter 2: Refrigerants

More than 60 new refrigerants were introduced for use either in new equipment or as service fluids (to maintain or convert existing equi pment) since the 2006 assessment report. Significant focus is on alternatives, including blend components, offering lo wer global warming poten tials (GWPs) to address climate change. That pursuit forces more attention than in the past on flammable or low-flammability candidates. Most of the new refrigerants are blends containing hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) or in some cases blends of HFCs and hydrocarbons (HCs), the latter typically added to achieve miscibility with compressor lubricants to facilitate lu bricant return to compressors.
Additional refrigerant s including blend components still are be ing developed to en able completion of scheduled phase-outs of ozone-depleting subs tances (ODSs). They include unsaturated fluorochemicals with primary focu s on unsaturated HFCs and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), also identified as hydrofluoro-olefin (HFO) and hydrochlorofluoro-olefin (HCFO) compounds. Considerable effort continues for examination of broader use of ammonia, carbon dioxide, and HCs. Research continues to increase and improve th e physical, safety, and environmental data for refrigerants, to enable screening, an d to optimise equipment performance.

The report updates and expands summary data for assessment of the new refrigerants as well as comparison to refrigerants already retired or being replaced as ODSs or for other environmental, performance, or safety reasons. The environmental data included are consistent with the 2010 WMO Scientific Assessment supplemen ted with additional da ta, to fill voids, from other consensus assessments and published studies.

The new assessment updates the tabular data summaries from prior assessments. The revised data reflect consensus assessmen ts and published scientif ic and engineering literatu re where possible. The summaries address refrigerant desi gnations, chemical formulae, norm al boiling point (NBP), critical temperature (T c ), occupational exposure limits, lower flamma bility limit (LFL), safety classification, atmospheric lifetime (t atm ), ozone depletion potential (ODP), gl obal warming potential (GWP), and control status. The updated chapter also summarises the ODP and GWP values prescribed for regulatory reporting.

The status of data for the thermophysical properties of refrigerants, which include both thermodynamic properties (such as density, pressure, enthalpy, entropy, and heat capacity) and transport properties (such as viscosity and therma l conductivity), is genera lly good for the most common and alternative refrigerants. Data gaps exist, however, for the thermodynamic and transport properties of blends and less-common fluids as well as for the transport properties of many fluids (but especially so for blends and for some of the new unsaturated fluorochemicals and blends containing them). The data situation for the less-common fluids is more variable ; there is a need to collect and evaluate the data for such candidates. Significant research still is needed, but is not e xpected to retard scheduled ODS phase-outs.

A major uncertainty for all of the refrigerants is the influence of lubricants on properties. The working fluid in most systems is actually a mixture of the refrigerant and the lubricant carried over from the compressor(s). Research on refrigerant-lubricant mixtures is continuing. The need for further studies is driven by the introduction of new refrigerants, by the great variety of lubricants in use and being introduced, and by the often highly proprietary natu re of the chemical structures of the lubricant and/or additives.

This chapter summarises data for refrigerants and specifically those addressed in subsequent sections of this assessment report. It discusses thermophys ical (both thermodynamic and transport) properties as well as heat transfer, co mpatibility, and safety data.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 6 This chapter does not addr ess the suitability, advantag es, and drawbacks of indi vidual refrigerants or refrigerant groups for specific ap plications; such discussion is addr essed for specific applications where relevant in subsequent chapters.

The updated chapter review s the status heat transf er and compatibility data for refrigerants. It recommends further research of:

 test data for shell-side boiling and condensation of zeotropic mixtures

 local heat transfer data determined at specific values of vapour quality

 microchannel heat exchanger refrigerant-side heat transfer data including flow distribution effects

 effects of lubricants on heat transfer, especially for ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, unsaturated HCFCs, and unsaturated HFCs

 more accurate evaporation and condensation data for hydrocarbons for both plain tube and enhanced tubes

 inside-tube condensation heat transfer data for carbon dioxide at low temperatures such as –20 °C

 heat transfer correlations for carbon dioxide supercritical heat rejection and two-phase evaporation

Chapter 3: Domestic Refrigeration

Conversion of new domestic refrigerator production to non-ODS refrigerants is essentially complete. Broad-based refrigerant a lternatives continue to be HC-600a and HFC-134a. In 2008, 36% of production units used HC-600a or a binary blend of HC-600a and HC-290; 63% used HFC-134a. The remaining 1% used regionally available refrigerants, such as HFC-152a. Second generation non-ODS refrigerant conversion from HFC-134a to HC-600a is complete in Japan and has begun in the United States and other countries. Significant extension of this second generation conversion is expected over the next decade. By 2020 it is estimated that thr ee-fourths of refrigerant demand for new refrigerator production will be for HC -600a and one-fourth will be for HC-1 34a. No new technologies have surfaced which are cost and efficiency competitiv e with current vapour-compression technology.

Service conversion to non-ODS refrigerants has sign ificantly lagged original equipment conversion. The distributed, individual-proprieto r character of the service industry resists co-ordinated refrigerantmanagement efforts. Field service procedures typically use originally specified refrigerants. NonArticle 5 countries completed new production conversion from ODS refrigerants approximately 15 years ago. This time span is approaching the usef ul equipment lifetime so service of ODS refrigerant containing products is transitioning to a sunset i ssue in these countries. Service demand for ODS refrigerants in Article 5 c ountries is expected to remain strong fo r more than ten years as a result of their later conversion to non-ODS refrigerants. Unless there is go vernmental interv ention, service demand for CFC-12 refrigerant is expected to continue.

Enhanced product energy efficiency provides benefit to reduced global warming during the use phase of the refrigerator life cy cle. Existing state-of-t he-art models contain multiple, mature efficiency improvement options. Extension of these to all global products woul d yield significant benefits, but realisation will be co nstrained by capital funds availability.

In 2006 the global domestic refrigerant bank was estimated to be 153,000 tonnes consisting of 40% CFC-12, 54% HFC-134a and 6% HC-600a. The bank is equally divided between non-Article 5 and Article 5 countries. An estimated 71% of residual CFCs resi de in Article 5 co untries. Annual emissions from this bank were estim ated to be 6.8%. The majority of domestic refrigerators never require sealed system service. Consequently, emissions are dominated by end-of-life product2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 7 disposition; inferring legacy pr oduct emission management may be the largest opportunity for emission avoidance.

Chapter 4: Commercial Refrigeration

Commercial refrigeration comprises three different fa milies of systems: centra lised systems installed in supermarkets, condensing units in stalled mainly in small shops and stand-alone units installed in all types of shops. The refrigerant choices depend on the levels of conservation temperatures and the type of systems.

The number of supermarkets world-wi de is estimated to 280,000 in 2006 covering a wide span of sales areas varying from 400 m2 to 20,000 m2. The populations, in 2006, of vending machines and other stand-alone equipmen t are evaluated to 20.5 an d 32 million units, respectivel y, and condensing units are estimated to 34 million units. In 2006, the refrigerant bank was estimated at 340,000 tonnes and was distributed as follows: 46% incentralised systems, 47% in condensing units, and 7% in standalone equipment. The estimated shar ing of refrigerant per type is about 15% CF Cs which are still in use in Article 5 countries, 62% HCFCs the domina nt refrigerant bank and still for many years, and 23% HFCs which have been introduced in new equipment in Europe and Japan as of 2000.

Stand-alone Equipment: HFC-134a fulfils most technical cons traints in terms of reliability and energy performance for stan d-alone equipment. When GWP of HFC-134a is co nsidered prohibitive in relation to HFC emissions (country regulation or company policy), hydrocarbon refrigerants (isobutane and propane, i.e. HC-600a and HC-290) or CO 2 (R-744) are the current alternative solutions, presenting in most of the cases the same technical relia bility and energy performance as HFC-134a. In the near future, unsaturated HFCs such as HFC-1234yf could be considered as an adapted solution, sin ce the retrofit from HFC-134a to this new refrigerant is expected being rather simple, even if long term reliability has to be assessed. Energy effici ency standards are being issued or revisited in order to lower energy consumption of various types of stand-alone equipment.

Condensing Units: Their cooling capacities vary fr om 5 to 20 kW mostly at medium temperature. The refrigerant charge varies from 1 to 5 kg for HCFCs or HFCs and also HCs. HCFC-22 is still the most used refrigerant in the U.S. and in all Article 5 countrie s. For new systems, R-404A is the leading choice for cost reasons; the condensing units using the refrigerant R-404A are cheaper compared to HFC-134a units of the same cooling capacity because of smaller compressor. Nevertheless in hot climate and for medium temperature applications , HFC-134a is used due to its better energy performances at high ambient temperatures.

Supermarket systems: The size of centralis ed systems can vary from re frigerating capacities of about 20 kW to more than 1 MW relate d to the size of the supermarket. Refrigerant charges range from 40 up to 1500 kg per installation. Th e dominant refrigerant used in ce ntralised systems is still HCFC-22. In Europe, new systems have been mainly char ged with R-404A, but HF C-134a, ammonia (R-717), HCs and R-744 have been tested in many stores. R-744 is now considered off the shelf solution by the two major European manufacturers. Several designs have been experimented in hundreds of stores: distributed systems, indirect systems, cascade system s. Those designs have been developed in order to reduce the refrigerant charge to use more easily flammable or toxic refrigerants, or to limit the charge of high GWP HFCs. At the low temp erature level the use of R-744 app ears as an interesting option in terms of GWP, energy efficiency and even costs especially when HFCs are highly taxed. At the medium level temperature, the search for the best option is still ongoing. In the n ear term, servicing of current HCFC-22 may pose a problem due to possible sh ortage of this refriger ant. Several HFC blends are proposed to retrofit HCFC-22 in stallations with or without oil change, but those retrofit blends have not gained until now a significant momentum.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 8 Chapter 5: Industrial Systems

Industrial systems are characterised primarily by the size of the equipment and the temperature range covered by the sector. This includes industrial co oling, industrial heat pumps and industrial airconditioning. Industrial system s have special design requirem ents, including the need for uninterrupted service, which are not typically prov ided by traditional HVAC practices. Rankine cycle electrical generation systems using relevant fluids are also considered in the industrial systems chapter.

R-717 is the most common refrigerant in industri al systems, although w ith significant regional variations around the world. Where R-717 is not acceptable for toxicity reasons, R-744 has been used, either in cascade with a smaller R-717 plant, in cascade with a fluorocarbon or rejecting heat direct to atmosphere in a high pressure (“transcritical”) system. In some cases, for example freezers or IT equipment cooling, R-744 offers additional advantages in performance or efficiency which merit selection ahead of any other refrigerant withou t consideration of toxi city or environment.

There is also a significant bank of HCFC refrigerant in industrial systems, particularly HCFC-22. Individual system charge can be high – in some cases several tonnes of refrigerant. These systems tend to have longer life than commercial equipment, often lasting over 20 years, but leakage rates can be high, particularly in older plants. A “drop-in” blend for replacing HCFC-22 in flooded industrial systems has not been developed; the common replacement blends used in commercial refrigeration such as R-407A or R-422D are difficult or impossible to use in large industrial systems. The cost of these blends is also a significant barrier to their use.

HFCs have not been widely used in large industrial systems. Wh ere they have been adopted it is generally in low charge syst ems in order to reduce the financial consequences of refrigerant loss. It is very unlikely that unsaturated HFC refrigerants, whether single comp ounds or blends, will be adopted for use in industrial systems beca use in addition to cost consider ations the risk of refrigerant decomposition due to the pr esence of contaminants is too great. HFC-245fa and HFC-134a have also been used in power generation un its, utilising the Rankine cycle, although these systems are not yet widely available on the market.

Users of HCFCs in smaller industrial systems are now faced with the choice of whether to switch to HFCs and face a possible phase-down, or to change to R-717 or R-744 and deal with the change in operating practices that those refrigerants would require.

Chapter 6: Transport Refrigeration

Transport refrigeration includes tr ansport of chilled or frozen produc ts by means of road vehicles, railcars, intermodal containers, and sma ll insulated containers (less than 2 m 3 ) and boxes. It also includes use of refrigeration an d air conditioning on merchant, na val and fishing vessels above 100 gross tonnes (GT) (about over 24 m in length).

Transport refrigeration is a niche market in terms of refrigerant banks compared to other sectors. There are about 4,000,000 road transport refrigeration units, and about 950,000 marine container units in operation today, to mention the largest segments in terms of fl eet size. Most equipment has a refrigerant charge below 6 kg. Although refrigerant ch arge can reach several tons aboard large vessels, their fleet is relatively small. There are approx. 150,000 marine vessels above 100 GT in the world fleet; thereof small and medium size vessels have the largest share.

The equipment lifetime is usually between 10 and 15 years for intermodal containers, railcars and road vehicles, and 20 to 25 years for equipment aboard marine vessels.

The vapour compression cycle is the technology used predominantly in transport refrigeration equipment. CFC and HCFC refrigerants can be found in older equipment. HCFC-22 has a low share in2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 9 intermodal containers and road equipment, but a high share in railcars (declining market) and a very high share in marine vessels, where it remains to be the dominant refrigerant. The CFC and HCFC banks have been decreasing. Retrofit options to R-502 include R-408A , R-402A and R-404A.

Virtually all new systems utilise HFC refrigerants (HFC-134a, R-404A). Non-fl uorinated refrigerants have been commercialised to a small extent aboard marine vessels (R-717, R-744), and tested in marine containers, trailers (R-744) and trucks (R- 290). A wider application of these refrigerants in practice has not been possible so far because of various technical constraints. There is no practical experience with HFC-1234yf and other low-GWP ca ndidate fluids in tran sport refrigeration.

Although hydrocarbons are technically feasible an d may even outperform HFC systems, flammability makes people concerned about their use. Where they do not exist, standards need to be developed to address the safety concerns.

Carbon dioxide (R-744) is one of a few promising so lutions in transport refr igeration. While direct emissions of R-744 are negligible, indirect emissions of R-744 may be comparable to HFCs depending on the climate where the vehicle is operated. Aboard marine vessels, because operation under high ambient temperatures is commonly required, R-774 use has been limited to low temperature stages of cascade or indirect system applications.

Due to safety concerns, use of ammonia (R-717) has been limited to indirect and cascade systems on larger ships which do not carry pa ssengers but professional crew only . HFC refrigerants will continue to be used on passenger vessels, and on small ship s of all categories. Ammonia has not been used in road vehicle and container transport in vapour compression cycles.

The transport industry is working to re duce the overall CO 2 emissions. The refrigerant type can influence both direct and indirect equivalent CO 2 emission of a vehicle. Refrigerant charge reduction, refrigerant leakage rate minimisation (for example use of hermetic/semi-hermetic compressors instead of open drive), and the use of low-GWP refrigerants influence the direct contribution. Design changes that would improve the energy efficiency can reduce the indirect contribution.

Transition of power supply systems from traditional diesel engine s to alternative propulsion systems (hybrid, electric, etc.) will influence refrigeran tion system change and the choice of low-GWP refrigerants in the future.

As in other refrigeration sectors, research and development of other not-in-kind systems, such as magnetic or acoustic refr igeration, remains in the laborato ry prototype stage. Absorption and adsorption systems with water are under development too.

Chapter 7: Air-to-air air conditioners and heat pumps

On a global basis, air conditioners for cooling and heating (including ai r-to-air heat pu mps) ranging in size from 2.0 kW to 420 kW compri se a significant segment of th e air conditioning market (the majority are less than 35kW). Ne arly all air conditioners and heat pumps manufactured prior to 2000 used HCFC-22 as their working fluid. The installed base of units in 2008 represented an estimated HCFC-22 bank exceeding one million metric-tonnes. Approximately 85% of the installed population uses HCFC-22. In 2008, HFC demand globally represented approximately 32% of the total refrigerant demand for these categories of products. Most Artic le 5 countries are contin uing to utilise HCFC-22 as the predominant refrigerant in air conditioning applications.

Options for new Equipment

HFC refrigerant blends R-410A and R-407C are the dominant alternatives being used to replace HCFC-22 in air-conditioners. HC-290 is also being used to replace HCFC-22 in products having low refrigerant charges.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 10 Air conditioners using R-410 A and R-407C are widely available in most non-Article 5 countries. Also, equipment using R-410A and R-407C is being manufactur ed in some Article 5 countries; especially in China where a large export market has created demand for these products. However, these units are typically not sold in the domestic market because of their higher cost.

There are several low and medium GWP alternatives being considered as replacements for HCFC-22 and the high GWP HFCs (R-410A and R-407C). These refrigerants include lower GWP HFC refrigerants, HC-290 and R-744. HC-290 and some of the HFC refrigerants are flammable and will need to be applied in accordance with an appropriate safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-40, which establishes maximum charge levels and ventilation requirements.

A number of moderate and low GWP HFC refrigerants are being considered for use in air conditioners. These include HFC- 32, HFC-152a, HFC-161, HFC-123 4yf and blends of HFC-1234yf with other refrigerants:

 HFC-32 is a class A2L flammable HFC having a GWP of 675, which is approximately 30% that of R-410A. R-410A systems can be redesigned for HFC-32 with minor modifications. However, because of its A2L flammability ratin g it will need to be applied using a safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-40.

 HFC-152a is an A3 flammable low GWP HFC having thermodynamic characteristics similar to HFC-134a. While it has been evaluated as an alternative to HCFC-22, it is unlikely to be commercialised in un itary air conditioning applicatio ns because its low density and flammability result in significan tly increased sy stem costs.

 HFC-161 is a flammable low GWP refrigerant, which is being evaluated as a low GWP alternative to HCFC-22. Like all flammable re frigerants, it would need to be applied using appropriate safety standards.

 Pure HFC-1234yf is not likely to be used as a replacement for HCFC-22 in air conditioners because of its low volumetric capacity. However, HFC-1234yf can be blended with other non-ODP refrigerants to arrive at thermodynami c properties similar to either HCFC-22 or R410A. Blends of this type are under development, but are not commercially available.

Hydrocarbon refrigerants are also low GWP alte rnatives to HCFCs and HFCs for low charge applications. The most frequently used hydrocarbon refrigerant in air conditioning applications is HC290. The high flammability of HC-290 limits its us e to lower charge applications. All flammable refrigerants need to be applied using an applicable safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-40, which addresses the design requirements and charge limits for flammable refrigerants. Several manufacturers in China and India are now introducing low charge HC-290 split air conditioners.

R-744, CO 2 , offers a number of desirable properties as a refrigerant. However, R-744 has a low critical point temperature, which resu lts in significant effici ency losses when it is applied at the typical indoor and outdoor air temp eratures of air-to-air air conditioning applications; partic ularly in high ambient climates. However, a number of cycle enhancements and componen t additions can be made to improve the ef ficiency of R-744 systems. While the ad dition of efficiency enhancing components can improve the efficiency of R-744 systems, they also substantially increase the system cost. In order for R-744 systems to become commercially viable, co st effective mitigation of the efficiency issue will be required.

High Ambient Considerations In the near term, regions w ith hot climates should be able to re ly on the refrigerants and technologies that are currently commercially available to replace HCFC-22 (R-407C, R-410A and HC-290). However, when replacing HCFC-22 products with those using R-410A or R-407C the application engineer may need to take special consideration of the reduced capacity at the design ambient temperature when sizing the equipment for the design cooling load. When replacing HCFC-22 in low2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 11 charge applications (small split, wi ndow and portable room air conditio ners), the system designer may want to consider the use of HC-2 90. In the longer-term products using HFC-32, new low and medium GWP HFC blends and HC-290 are the preferable options for high am bient air conditioning applications. R-744 is not a prefer red option for high ambient air cond itioning applicatio ns because its very low critical temperature results in significant performance degradation during high ambient operation.

Chapter 8: Water heating heat pumps

Heat pumps are classified by heat source (air, water, or ground) and h eat sink (air, water), resulting in designations such as “air to wate r” (air source, water sink) heat pumps. This chapter covers only systems where water is the sink. The products for industrial process heating are covered in chapter 5 “Industrial systems”. Air-to-air h eat pumps are covered in chapter 7 (Air-to-air air conditioners and heat pumps).

Heat pump water heaters are designed especially for heating service hot water (including domestic water) to a temperature between 55 and 90 oC.

Space heating heat pumps heat water for distribution to air handling units, radiators, or under-floor panels. The required water temper ature depends on the type of em itter, low temperature application ranging from 25 to 35°C for under floor heating, for moderate temperature application such as air handling units around 45 °C, for high temperature ap plication such as radian t heating 55 to 60°C and for very high temperature application as high as 65 to 80°C such as for the fossil fuel boiler replacement market. The required warm water temperature affects the selection of the refrigerant. Heat pump systems are more efficient at lower sink temperatures, but each product must fulfil the required operating temperature.

Air-to-water heat pumps have experienced significant growth in Japan, Europe, China, and Australia during the last five years.

Efficient heat pumps can reduce global warming impact compared with fossil fuel burning systems significantly. The reduction depends on the efficiency level of the heat pump and the carbon emission per kWh of the electricity generation. The tendency of decarbonisation of electricity strengthens this positive effect year by year. Also th e efficiency levels of the heat pumps are improving year by year. However, heat pumps tend to be higher in cost than fossil fuel systems because they employ complicated refrigerant circuits, larger heat exchangers and other special features. Government support programmes in Europe and Japan to promote heat pump systems have resulted in a rapid growth of heat pump system sales in recent years. More than 1 million air-to-water heat pumps were sold worldwide in 2008. Predictions of sales show very la rge growths in USA, Japan, China and Europe. Current refrigerant options for new heat pumps HFC-134a and HFC blends R-407C and R-410A are currently used for new water heating and space heating heat pumps to replace HCFC-22, R-407C with limited product redesign and R-410A for completely redesigned products.

HC-290 has properties similar to those of HCFC-22 apart from flammability. Until 2004 almost half of the heat pumps sold in the EU used HC-290. Use in Europe has declined due to introduction of Pressure Equipment Directive.

Development of R-744 heat pumps started around 1990. R-744 heat pump water heaters were introduced to the market in Japan in 2001, with heat pumps for hea ting of bath or sanitary water as the main application. The market for heat pump water heaters in Japan is steadily growing based on government and utility incentives.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 12 Although the current market for space heating h eat pumps for commercial bu ildings with combined radiator and air heating systems is limited, R-744 is considered to be a promising refrigerant. R-717 is a non-ODS refrigerant and has a very low GWP, but it has high er toxicity and lower flammability characteristics. R-717 is used mainly for large capacity systems. Future Refriger ant Options for New heat pumps

HFC-32 has a lower GWP of one third of R-410A . Heat pumps with HFC-32 can achieve lower charge than heat pumps with R- 410A. HFC-32 has a low flammability with a low burning velocity. HFC-1234yf is similar in thermophysical properties to HFC-134a. For water heating and space heating heat pumps using HCFC-22, R-410A, R-407C, significant design changes would be required to optimise for HFC-1234yf. HFC-1234yf has low flamma bility with a low burnin g velocity. Due to the GWP value it has high potential in applications in systems that cu rrently use HFC-134a. As sample supply of these refrigerants is very limited, it is too early to ju dge whether any of these chemicals will be commercialised and will show acceptabl e performance in heat pump systems. Future refrigerants options for new heat pumps include current options R-410A, HFC-134a, HC-290, HC 600a, R-744, and R-717 as well as HFC-32 and new refrigerants.

Since the numbers of heat pumps covered by this chapter still are lim ited, the refrigerant bank is relatively small. Accordingly, the refrigerant emissions are low compared to other products. On the other hand, heat pumps will increase in quantity l eading to higher net refrig erant requir ements and emissions in the future. Ho wever, it is important to emphasise that there is a large potential to reduce CO2 emission generated by fossil fuel combustion systems by replacing them with heat pump systems.

Chapter 9: Chillers

Chillers predominantly are used fo r comfort air conditioni ng in commercial bu ildings and building complexes. They are coup led with chilled water distribution and air handling/air distribution systems. Chillers also are used for cooling in commercial an d industrial facilities such as data processing and communications centers, electronics fabrication, and molding.

Air-cooled chillers in capacities up to 1800 kW represent approx imately 80 % of the annual unit production in chillers us ing positive displacement compressor s (reciprocating pi ston, scroll, andscrew). HFC-134a and R-410A are the most common refrigerants with the phase-out of HCFC-22. R407C has been used as a transition refrigerant. So me chillers are available with R-717 or hydrocarbon refrigerants – primarily HC-290, HC-600a, or HC-1270. Such chillers are manufactured in small quantities compared to HFC-134a an d R-410A chillers of similar cap acities and requir e attention to flammability, and for R-717 also to xicity concerns, as reflected in safety codes and regulations. Chillers employing R-744 as the refrigerant are being marketed.

For water-cooled ch illers, both positive displacement compre ssors and centrifuga l compressors are used. Positive displacement water- cooled chillers employ the same refrigerants as the air-cooled versions. Centrifugal chillers ar e dominant above 2 MW. Centrifu gal chillers are provided with HCFC-123 or HFC-134a refrigerants though extrem ely limited use is made of HFC-245fa. HCFC-123 offers an efficient, very-low GWP option for centrifugal chillers . Under terms of the Montreal Protocol, use of HCFC-123 in ne w equipment will end in most deve loped countries by 2020 and by 2030 in Article 5 countries.

Existing chillers employing CFC refrigerants are be ing replaced slowly by new chillers using HCFC123 or HFC-134a. T oday’s new chillers use 25-5 0% less electricity than the CFC chillers produced decades ago, so the savings in energy costs often justify replacement of ageing CFC chillers. R-717 is not suitable for use in centri fugal chillers as its use would require fo ur or more stages or, in very large capacities, a switch to axial compressor designs.

A continuing trend in chiller develo pment is to improve bo th full-load an d seasonal ener gy efficiency to address both energy-related global warming impacts and operating costs. A number of methods are2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 13 used to achieve higher seasonal efficiencies. Th ese include multistage comp ression with interstage economisers, use of multiple compressors to accommodate part-load conditions, continuous unloading capabilities for screw compressors, enhanced electro nic controls, variable-s peed compressor drives, and optimal sequencing of multiple chillers to maximise overall efficiency.

Refrigerants suggested as alternatives to ODS or high-GWP refrigerants in chillers include R-717, hydrocarbons, R-744, R-718, HFC-32, and new low-GW P refrigerants such as HFC-1234yf. Chillers using R-718 as refrigerant carry a cost premium over conventional systems because of their larger physical size and the complexity of their compressor technology, often entailing axial compressor designs operating under high vacuum. HFC-1234yf and other low- or ultra-low GWP refrigerants are too new to allow assessment of thei r suitability for use in chillers at th is time, though that is likely to change in subsequent assessments.

Absorption chillers using working pairs ammonia-water (primarily in small capac ities) or waterlithium bromide (generally in large capacities) are an alterna tive to chillers employing the vapourcompression cycle. They are particularly suitable for applications where surplus heat can be recovered. Other not-in-kind technologies in the research stage, such as thermoacoustic or magnetocaloric technologies, still are not ready fo r commercialisation and may not be found suitable or competitive.

Of particular note for both ozon e depletion and global climate chan ge, chillers as a group incur very low release rates for refrigerants . The environmental impact of ch illers is dominated by the energyrelated global warming associated w ith their energy consumption over their operating life (typically 20 years and sometimes longer than 40 years). Refriger ant emissions, with their direct global warming contributions, are a small fraction of the total glob al warming impact of ch illers except for regions with very low car bon intensity for power generation.

Chapter 10: Vehicle air conditioning

Today all new passenger cars world- wide sold with air conditioning systems are using HFC-134a and the transition from CFC-12 is comp lete. About one fifth of the total global refrigerant emissions are from MACs (about 60 percent if only HFC refr igerant emissions are considered) including the emissions in production, use, servicing, and end-of-life. In the USA, 19% of the fleet of passenger vehicles is still using CFC-12 refri gerant based on recent survey re sults. The Europ ean Union has inplace legislation for cars and light trucks banning the use of refrigerants with GWP>150 [e.g.; HFC134a] in new-type vehicles from 2011 and all new vehicles from 2017. There are limited replacement refrigerants with a global warming potential (GWP) less th an 150. Other coun tries will probably follow the regula tory direction of the EU or provide ince ntives to reduce the usage of HFC-134a in vehicles.

For MAC systems, the use of hydrocarbons or blends of hydrocarbons as a refrigerant has been investigated but has so far not received support from vehicle manufacturers as a possible alternative technology due to safety concerns. In Australia and the North America, hydrocarbon refrigerants have been introduced as drop-in refrigerants to repl ace CFC-12 (which is illegal in the USA and in some Australian states). These same refrigerants are used to a lesser extent for a replacement of HFC-134a.

Up to now, car manufacturers and suppliers have evaluated three refrigerant options for new car and truck air conditioning systems, R-744, HFC-152a and HFC-1234yf. All three have GWPs below the EU threshold of 150 and can achieve fuel efficiency comparable to existing HFC-134a systems. The CO2 equivalent impact of direct emissions from th e refrigerant over the vehi cle lifetime is much less than the impact related to the energy required to operate the system. The energy required to operate the MACs results in increased CO 2 vehicle tail pipe emissions. Therefore, MAC systems designed to provide efficient cooling performance have become the major environmental goal. With the usage of appropriate controls and components, all three refrigerant options have been demonstrated to be comparable to HFC-134a with re spect to cooling performance an d total CO2 equivalents of MAC systems.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 14 Hence, the global warming impact is almost identical for all three refrigerant options when considered on a global basis. Adoption of any of the refrigerant choices would therefore be of similar environmental benefit. The decisi on of which refrigerant to choose will have to be made based on other considerations, such as regulatory approval, cost, system reliability, safety, heat pump capability, suitability for hybrid electric vehicles, and servicing.

The emerging global car manufactur ers’ refrigerant choice for futu re car air conditioning systems seems to be HFC-1234yf and one manufacturer has announced the intention to introduce this refrigerant in car serial productio n in 2013. Currently, hurdles exis t (miscibility with oil, stability problems in the presence of small amounts of water and air in the ai r conditioning syst em, mixing with HFC-134a, additional costs) that will require resolution prior to th e commercial implementation of HFC-1234yf as refrigerant for car air conditioning. OEM’s indicate that they will design HFC-1234yf MAC systems in such a way that these systems can sa fely be used with the refrigerant HFC-134a as well. This will affect th e world-wide transition from HFC-134a to HFC-12 34yf for MAC systems.

The development status of other refrigeration technologies, like sorption or thermoelectric systems, are still far away from serial produc tion and presently show very poo r price competitiv eness and poor system performance and efficiency.

The rapid evolution of hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles with electrically driven compressors introduces new challenges for any new alternative refrigerant. At present, no regulation exists th at controls the use of fluorinated greenhouse gases as refrigerants for MAC systems in buses and trains. It is likely that the choice of refrigerant of passenger car air conditioning systems will influence th e choice of refrigerant for air conditioning systems in buses and trains.

World-wide, an approximate 50% of the bus and trai n fleet is still equipped with HCFC-22 systems. The rest use mostly HFC-134a or R-407C systems. Most new bus or train air conditioning systems are equipped with the refrigerants HF C-134a or R-407C. The only repo rted low GWP refr igerant activities are on-going fleet tests of R-744 systems in buses.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 15 

## Chapter 1

____________________________ ______________________________ Introduction

Chapter Lead Authors Lambert Kuijpers Roberto de A. Peixoto2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 16 

## 1 Introduction

1.1 Montreal Protocol Developments

In 1981, the United Nations Environment Progr amme (UNEP) began negotiations to develop multilateral protection of the strato spheric ozone layer. These nego tiations resulted in the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, adopted in March 1985. In September 1987, 24 nations, amongst which the United States, Japan, the Soviet Union, a large number of Western European countries, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Mexico, Panama, Senegal, Togo and Venezuela, as well as the European Community as a regional organisation, signed the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Montreal Protocol entered into force on January 1, 1989. This international environmenta l agreement originally limited productio n of specified CFCs to 50 percent of the 1986 levels by the year 1998 and called for a freeze in production of specified halons at 1986 levels starting in 1992. By Apr il 1991, 68 nations had already ratifie d the Protocol: these represented over 90 percent of the 1991 world production of CFCs and halons. At present all countries in the world have ratified the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol, so its Decisions are truly global.

Shortly after the 1987 Protocol wa s negotiated, new scientific evidence conc lusively linked CFCs to the depletion of the ozone layer and indicated that depletion had already occurred. Consequently, many countries called for further actions to protect the ozone layer by expanding and strengthening the original control provisions of the Montreal Protocol, and they decided that an assessment should be carried out in the year 1989.

In June 1990, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol met in London, considered the data from the 1989 Assessment Reports, and agreed to Protocol adjust ments requiring more stri ngent controls on the CFCs and halons as specified in the original agre ement. They also agreed to amendments placing controls on other ozone depleting substances, including carbon tetrachloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. In London, a new assessment was again decided, wh ich was carried out in 19 91 for consideration in 1992. The London Amendment acknowledged the need for financial and technical assistance of the developing countries, and established a (Int erim) Multilateral Fund.

At their 4th Meeting in Copenhag en, Denmark, the Parties considered the Assessment Reports and took decisions that again advanced the phase-out sc hedules in non-Article 5 countries for most ozone depleting substances, including methyl bromide. They continued the financial mechanism and decided a new assessment to be carried out in 1994 (Decision IV/13), for decisions by the Parties at their 1995 Meeting.

At the 7th Meeting in Vienna (November 1995) th e Parties considered the Assessment Reports and focused on the progress made in phasing out ozone depleting chemicals. A reduction in the maximum permissible annual consumption of HCFCs (the “cap”) for the developed countries was decided (2.8% instead of 3.1%, as decided in Copenhagen). A control schedule for the HCFC consumption for the Article 5 countries was agreed upon (in fact, this consisted of a freeze in consumption by the year 2016 and a phase-out by the year 2040). Article 5 countries also agreed to freeze their methyl bromide consumption by the year 2005. The Parties, in Decision VII/34, requested a new assessment to be carried out by the Assessment Panels in the year 1998.

Updated and more detailed Terms of Reference for the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Technical Options Committees (compared to the original 1989 ones) were decided and were given in the 1996 Report of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (these TOR were again considered in the light of disclosure of intere st and conflict of interest at the 18th Meeting of the Parties (2006) in New Delhi, where a separate Decision on these topics was taken).

The 15th Meeting of the Parties, held in Nair obi in November 2003, considered the 2002 Assessment Reports, next to a number of other issues, includ ing destruction te chnologies, process agent uses and2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 17 the handling and destruction of foams at end-of-life. Parties decided to request the Assessment Panels to update their 2002 reports in 2006 and submit them to the Secretariat by 31 December 2006 for consideration by the Open-ended Working Group an d by the Nineteenth Mee ting of the Parties in 2007 (MOP-19, to be held in Montreal, September 2007). In the relevant Decision (XV/53), the Parties also requested the TEAP to consider, among other matters, five specific issues, including "(c) Technically and economically feasible choices for the elimination of ozone-depleting substances by the use of alternatives that have superior environmental performance with regard to climate change, human health and sustainability;" and "(e) Accounting of the produc tion and use of ozone-depleting substances and of ozone-depleting substances in inventory or contained in products".

The 19th Meeting of the Parties, held in Montreal in September 2007 (on the occasion of the twentieth Anniversary of the Protocol) reac hed agreement to adjust the Montreal Protocol's HCFC phase-out schedule to accelerate th e phase-out of production and consump tion of HCFCs. Th is decision will result in significant reduction of ozone depletion and well as of global warming or global climate forcing. This meeting also considered all 2006 Assessment Reports, next to a large number of other issues. Parties decided to request the Asse ssment Panels to update their 2006 reports in 2010 and submit them to the Secretariat by 31 December 20 10 for consideration by the Open-ended Working Group and by the Twenty-Third Meeting of the Parties in 2011 (MOP-23). In the relevant Decision (XIX/20), the Partie s also requested the TEAP (and its TOCs) in paragraph 6 to consider (a) The impact of the phase-out of ozone-depleting substances on sustainable development, particularly in Parties operatin g under paragraph 1 of Article 5 and countries with economies in transition; (b) Technical progress in all sectors; (c) Technically and economically feasible choices for the reduction and elimination of ozonedepleting substances through th e use of alternatives, taking into account their impact on climate change and overall environmental performance; (d) Technical progress on the recovery, reuse and destruction of ozone-depleting substances; (e) Accounting for: the production and use in various applications of ozone -depleting substances; ozone-depleting substances in inventories; ozone depleting substances in products; and the production and use in various applicatio ns of very short-lived substances; (f) Accounting of emissions of all relevant ozone- depleting substances w ith a view to updating continuously use patterns and co-o rdinating such data with the Scientific Assessment Panel in order periodically to reconcile estimated emissions and atmospheric concentrations. Together with the Scienc e and Environmental Effects Assessment reports, the 2010 TEAP AssessmentReport -together with the 2010 TOC Assessment Reports- forms the direct response to the abovementioned decision.

In the important Decision XIX/6 on the HCFC phase-out for developing countries, taken at MOP-19 in Montreal in September 2007, subparagraphs mention: “To encourage Parties to promote the selection of a lternatives to HCFCs that minimize environmental impacts, in particular impacts on climate, as well as meeting other health, safety and economic considerations; To agree that the Execut ive Committee, when devel oping and applying funding criteria for projects and programmes, and taking into account para 6, give pr iority to cost-effective projects and programmes which focus on, inter alia:
1. Phasing-out first those HCFCs with higher ozone -depleting potential, taking into account national circumstances;
2. Substitutes and alternatives t hat minimize other impacts on th e environment, including on the climate, taking into account global-warming potent ial, energy use and other relevant factors; etc.”2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 18 In Decision XX/8 on substitutes for HCFCs and HFCs, taken at MOP-20 in Doha, it is mentioned that more information on the HCFC and HFC substitution process is needed:
“Recognizing that decision XIX/6 encourages Partie s to promote the selection of alternatives to hydrochlorofluorocarbons to minimi ze environmental impacts, in pa rticular impacts on climate,

Recognizing also that there is scop e for coordination between the Montreal Protocol and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol for reducing emissions and minimizing environmental impacts fr om hydrofluorocarbons, and that Montreal Protocol Parties and associated bodies have consid erable expertise in these areas which they could share,

Recognizing further that there is a need for more information on the environmental implications of possible transitions from ozone-dep leting substances to high-global warming potential chemicals, in particular hydro fluorocarbons,

1. To request the Technology and Economic Assessmen t Panel to update the data contained within the Panel’s 2005 Supplement to the IPCC/TEAP Special Report 1 and to report on the status of alternatives to hydrochlorofluor ocarbons and hydroflu orocarbons, including a description of the various use patterns, costs, and potential market penetration of alternatives no later than 15 May 2009;

2. To request the Ozone Secretariat to prepare a report that compiles current control measures, limits and information reporting requirements for compounds that are a lternatives to ozonedepleting substances and that ar e addressed under international ag reements relevant to climate change; etc.

In Decision XXI/9 on substitutes for HCFCs and HFCs , taken at MOP-21 at Port Ghalib in Egypt, it is again mentioned that more info rmation on the HCFC and HFC substitution process is needed:

“Recalling that decision XIX/6 requests the Par ties to accelerate the phase-out of production and consumption of hydrochlor ofluorocarbons (HCFCs); Mindful of the need to safeguard the climate c hange benefits associated w ith phase-out of HCFCs; Aware of the increasing availability of low-Global Warming Potential (G WP) alternatives to HCFCs, in particular in the refrig eration, air-conditioning and foam sectors; Aware also of the need to appropriately ensure th e safe implementation and us e of low-GWP technologies and products; Recalling para 9 and 11 (b) of decision XIX/6; 1. To request the Technology an d Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP), in its May 2010 Progress Report and subsequently in its 2010 full assessment, to prov ide the latest technical and economic assessment of available and emerging alternatives and substitutes to HCFCs; and th e Scientific Assessment Panel (SAP) in its 2010 assessment to assess, us ing a comprehensive methodology, the impact of alternatives to HCFCs on the environment, including on the climate; and both the SAP and the TEAP to integrate the findings in their assessments into a synthesis report; 2. To request the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel in its 2010 progress report: (a) To list all sub-sectors using HCFCs, with concrete examples of technologies where lowGWP alternatives are used, indica ting what substances are used, c onditions of application, their costs, relative energy efficiency of the applications and, to the extent possible, available markets and percentage share in those markets and collec ting concrete information from various sources including information voluntarily provided by Pa rties and industries. To further ask TEAP to compare these alternatives with other existing technologies, in particul ar, high-GWP technologies that are in use in the same sectors;2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 19 (b) To identify and characterize the implemen ted measures for ensuring safe application of low-GWP alternative technologies and products as well as barriers to their phase-in, in the different sub-sectors, collecting concrete information from various sources including information voluntarily provided by Parties and industries; (c) To provide a categorization and reorganizati on of the information previously provided in accordance with decision XX/8 as appropriate, updated to the exte nt practical, to inform the Parties of the uses for which low- or no-GWP and /or other suitable technologies are or will soon be commercialized, including to the extent possible the predicted amount of high-GWP alternatives to ozone-depleting substances uses that can potentially be replaced; 3. To request the Ozone Secretariat to provide the UNFCCC Secretariat with the report of the workshop on high global-warming-potential alte rnatives for ozone-depleting substances; 4. To encourage Parties to promote policies and measures aimed at avoidi ng the selection of highGWP alternatives to HCFCs and other ozone-depleting substances in those applications where other market-available, proven and sustainab le alternatives exist that mini mise impacts on the environment, including on climate, as well as meeting other health , safety and economic cons iderations in accordance with decision XIX/6; 5. To encourage Parties to promote the furt her development and availability of low-GWP alternatives to HCFCs and other ozone-depleting su bstances that minimise environmental impacts particularly for those specific applic ations where such a lternatives are not presently available and applicable; 6. To request the Executive Committee as a matter of urgency to expedite the finalisation of its guidelines on HCFCs in accordance with Decision XIX/6; 7. To request the Executive Committee, when d eveloping and applying funding criteria for projects and programmes regarding in partic ular the phase-out of HCFCs: (a) to take into consideration paragraph 11 of decision XIX/6; (b) to consider providing additiona l funding and/or incentives fo r additional climate benefits where appropriate; (c) to take into account, when considering the cost-effectiveness of proj ects and programmes, the need for climate benefits; and (d) to consider in accordance with decision XIX/6, further demonstr ating the effectiveness of low-GWP alternatives to HCFCs, including in Air Conditi oning and refrigeration sectors in high ambient temperature areas in Article 5 c ountries and to consider demonstr ation and pilot projects in Air conditioning and refrigeration sectors which apply environmentally sound a lternatives to HCFCs; 8. To encourage Parties to cons ider reviewing and amending as a ppropriate, policies and standards which constitute barriers to or limit the use and ap plication of products w ith low- or zero-GWP alternatives to ozone-depleting substanc es, particularly when phasing out HCFCs.

The decisions as given above are based upon the perception that more actions are needed for the protection of the ozone layer, however, the emphasis in all relevant paragraphs is on the climate aspect of high-GWP ozone depleting substances, the high or possibly low-GWP replacements and their climate impact. In particular the above Decision XXI/9 mentions numerous times the development, availability, implementation and use of low-GWP alternatives to HCFCs, as well as a comparison with high-GWP alternatives.

How the RTOC has been involved in the work of the Task Forces that addressed the requests by Parties in Decisions XX/8 and XXI/9 is given in section 1.2.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 20 

### 1.2 The UNEP Technology and Ec onomic Assessment Panel

Four Assessment Panels were defined in the original Montreal Protocol as signed 1987, i.e. Assessment Panels on (1) Science, and on (2) Environmental Effects, (3) a Technical Assessment and (4) an Economics Assessment Panel. The Panels were established in 19 88-89; their Terms of Reference can be found in the Meeting Report of the 1st Meeting of the Parties, held in Helsinki in 1989. Under the Technical Assessment Panel five Subsidiary Bodies, the so called Technical Options Committees were defined (see Meeting Report of the First Meeting of the Par ties in Helsinki). The Technical and Economics Assessment Panels were merg ed after the Mee ting in London in 1990 to the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel. At the Meeting in Copenhag en, it was decided that each Assessment Panel should have up to three co-cha irs, with at least one fr om an Article 5 country. After the discussions on methyl bromide held at the meeting in Copenhagen, the Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee was founded at The Ha gue in early 1993. Fr om 1993 until 2001, the UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) had 7 standing Technical Options Committees (TOCs). In 2001, the Economics Optio ns Committee was disbanded, which resulted in a number of 6 Committees. In 2005, the Aerosols TOC and the Solvents TOC were disbanded, and a new Medical TOC and Chemicals TOC were formed by merging certain parts of the Aerosols and the Solvents TOC, and replenishing th e membership with add itional, new experts. Currently th ere are the following TOCs:
1. Chemicals Technical Options Committee
2. Flexible and Rigid Foams Technical Options Committee
3. Halons Technical Options Committee
4. Medical Technical Options Committee
5. Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee
6. Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee Where, originally, the Pane ls were considered as the bodies that should carry out assessments pursuant to Article 6 under the Montr eal Protocol (at least every four years) , it is particularly the TEAP that has become a “standing advisory group” to the Parties on a large number of Protocol issues. The evolving role of the TEAP -and its Technical Options Committees and ot her temporary Subsid iary Bodies- can be explained by the fact that the focus of the Mo ntreal Protocol has shif ted from introducing and strengthening control schedules (based upon assessmen t reports) to the control of the use of controlled chemicals and to compliance with the Protocol. This implies the study of equipment, of use patterns, of trade, imports and exports etc.

The Parties in Copenhagen took a number of decisions, which concern the work of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Committees. A decision (IV/13) on "Progress" requested the TEAP and its TOCs to annually report on progress in the development of technology and chemical substitutes. This decision was re-e valuated and restated in the meetin g in Vienna, in 1995 (VII/34). As a result, progress reports have been conceive d annually by the TEAP and its Committees; they were submitted to the Parties in the years 1996-2006 as part of the annu al report of th e TEAP (next to the progress reports, the annual reports deal with a large variety of issues on the basis of which Parties have taken certain decisions in the 1996-2006 period).

In Vienna, the Parties also requested “to offer the assistance of the Scientific, Environmental Effects and Technology and Economic Asse ssment Panels to the SBSTA, th e Subsidiary Body on Science and Technology under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), as necessary” (VII/34). The SBSTA encouraged the Secretariat to continue its close collaboration with other relevant bodies such as the Technology an d Economic Assessment Panel of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, on technical and methodological issues.” In order to assess the status of the use of fluorochemicals, the IPCC and the TEAP organised a workshop in Petten, the Netherlands, in mid-1999. Output from this workshop was reported to the SBSTA in October 1999, before the UNFCCC Fift h Conference of the Parties (COP-5 ). Output was also used in the drafting of a TEAP report on HFCs and PFCs, which became available in October 1999. A new2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 21 decision on a study on the status of HFCs and alternatives to HFCs and PFCs, to be performed in 2003-2004, was decided by the Parties to the UNFCC C in Delhi (COP-8) in 2002 and by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in 2002 (MOP-14, Rome, Mirror Decision XIV/10). It asked for a joint undertaking by the Interg overnmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and TEAP in order to prepare a Special Report on “Safeguarding the climate system and protecting the ozone layer; issues related to hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons”. A Steering Committee, consisting of six members (three IPCC Working Group co-chairs and the three TEAP co-c hairs) has directed the Special Report study. The report (as well as a Technical Summary and a Summary for Policy Makers) has been adopted by governments in a Meeting in Addis Ababa, April 2005, and was published mid-2005. This Report has been the basis for many discussions that took place at the various Meetings of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol and the Kyoto Protocol. A Supplement Report to the Special Report was published in 2006 and contained a large amount of information on the size of banks and emissions in the different sectors, where refrigera tion and air conditioning is actually the most important contributing
sector.

At the MOP-19 in Montreal an important Decision, Decision XIX/6 (as described in section 1.1), was taken on the accelerated phase-out of HCFCs in Article 5 countries. In the decision, a reduction schedule for production and consumption was defined for the period 2013-2030, with a freeze in 2013 and a servicing tail until 2040.

As a first consequence of Decision XIX/6, the Parties requested the TEAP and its RTOC in Decision XIX/8, to report on the status of substitutes and altern atives to HCFCs under high ambient conditions. The report was done by a Subcom mittee of the RTOC, and submitted to Parties in a preliminary form in 2009 and in its final form in 2010.

In 2008, Parties requested the TEAP and its committees, in Decision XX/8 (see above), to look at the status of alternatives in the different sectors and subsectors, as covered by the six Technical Options Committees. In a report by a Task Force, a large amount of material was summarised; this report also contained updated information on banks and emission s from all sectors, incl uding refrigeration, AC and heat pumps as well as foams. In 2009, in Decision XXI/9 (see above), on HCFCs and environmentally sound alte rnatives, Parties re quested the TEAP to update the information from the XX/8 report, and to report on the status of low GWP alternatives for the replacement of HCFCs, and to report on the comparison of performances of high and low GWP alternatives. TEAP established again a Task Force -having a large number of RTOC members-, which reported on the definition of the term “low-GWP” and “high-GWP”, and par ticularly on the 2009/2010 status of (low GWP) substitutes and alternatives to HCFCs in all sect ors and subsectors. The informatio n collected for this XXI/9 report has also been used in the preparation of the 2 010 TOC Assessment Reports, including that of the RTOC.

The 2010 Technical and Economic Assessment study has been carried out by the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its six Technical Options Committees. The six Committees consisted of more than 140 experts from a large number of countries (for a list, see the annex to the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Report 2010).

The 2010 Technical Options Committees consisted of several members of the 1998, 2002, and 2006 Committees and additional new expert s, to provide the widest possibl e international pa rticipation in the review. Much attentio n was again paid to adequa te participation by techni cal experts from Article 5 and CEIT countries, dependent upon budgetary constraints. The Technical Options Committee reports have been subject to a peer review before final release. The final version of the reports will be distributed internationally by UNEP and will also be availabl e on the Internet (http://www.unep.org/ozone).2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 22 

### 1.3 The Technical Options Committee Re frigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps

This Technical Options Committee Assessment Re port on Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps (hereafter called “RTOC Assessment Report”) also forms part of the UNEP review pursuant to Article 6 of the Montreal Protocol.

It is part of the 2010 assessment work of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (requested by the Parties in Montreal (XIX/20)). The information collected (particularly in th e form of the the Executive Summaries) will also be part of the Te chnology and Economic Assessment Report 2010, as well as the overall 2010 Synthesis Report compos ed by the three Assessmen t Panel co-chairs, the beginning of 2011.

The 2010 RTOC Assessment Report has been drafted in the form of a number of chapters. There are chapters on refrigerants and their properties, on the different R/AC application areas and one chapter on refrigerant conservation. The structure of the 2010 report was chosen similar to the structure of the 2006 RTOC Assessment Report.

Table 1-1: "Member countries" of UNEP's Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee

Austria Belgium Brazil China Czech Republic Denmark France Georgia Germany India Jamaica Japan Netherlands Norway Sweden United Kingdom United States

Each of the chapters was developed by 2-6 experts in the specific sector, and each chapter was chaired by a Chapter Lead Author - who did the larger part of the drafting a nd the co-ordinatio n. The 2010 RTOC included 29 representatives from Asian, European, Latin and North American companies, universities and governments, as we ll as independent experts (see Ta ble 1-1). These representatives have been full (reporting) members; as resource persons the RTOC also had a small number of reviewing members (actually, only in a few chapters, e.g. chapters 2 and 9).

Affiliations of the members are listed in Table 1-2 (29 organisations (including consu ltancies) were involved in the drafting of the report). The names and contact details of all members are given as an appendix to this RT OC Assessment Report.

Several drafts of the report were made, reviewed by the separate chapters and discussed in five RTOC meetings (outline September 2008, preliminary draft March 2009, draf t September 2009 , peer review draft August 2010 and final report December 2010 ). A preliminary committee meeting was held in Copenhagen (back to back with an IIR meeting), September 2008. Drafting and reviewing meetings were held in Canada (Montreal), March 2009, Brazil (Sao Paulo), September 2009, Czech Republic (Prague), August 2010, and China (Hangzhou), December 2010.

The report has been peer reviewed by a number of institutions and associations, each of them reviewing the different chapters sections in a co-ordinated effort in a tight timeframe, i.e., between the end of October and the end of November 2010 (see Table 1-3 for the peer review organisations involved).

Peer review comments were collected and sorted out, and subsequently sent to all CLAs. They studied all peer review comments and made suggestions how to deal with the comments before the RTOC Meeting in December 2010.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 23 Table 1-2: Affiliations of the members of UNEP's Technical Options Committee on Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps

Braunschweig University Germany Calm, James M., Engineering Consultant U.S.A. Carrier Corporation U.S.A. Daikin Europe Belgium Danish Technological Institute Denmark Devotta, Sukumar, Independent Consultant India Paris Mines Tech, Ecole des Mines France FK Consultancy U.S.A. General Electric, Consumer Industrial, Retired U.S.A. heat AG / UHTC Austria/Germany Hill (Consultant) U.S.A. IEA Heat Pump Center Sweden Indian Institute of Tech nology Delhi India Ingersoll Rand Czech Republic Johnson Controls Denmark Johnson Controls USA Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences Germany Maua Institute of Technology Brazil National Refrigerati on Association, representative Georgia Nelson, private person Jamaica Panasonic Corporation Japan Re/genT b.v. Netherlands Re-phridge Consultancy United Kingdom SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim Norway Star Refrigeration United Kingdom Technical University Ei ndhoven Netherlands The Trane Company U.S.A. U.S. Environmental Prot ection Agency U.S.A HAPI Consultancy, Joinville Brazil Zhejiang University, Hangzhou China

The RTOC worked in chapter groups to address a ll peer review comments during the RTOC meeting in Hangzhou, China, December 2010. CLAs took note of how the groups decided to deal with the comments and whether or not to modify or amend the text; all suggestions were archived per chapter. CLAs then submitted the final ch apters to the co-chairs.

The final report was put together including Key Messages and an Abstract Executive Summary upfront, as well as Executive Summaries for all chapters (except chapter 11). UNEP’s Ozone Secretariat assisted in final form atting and heading style insertions. The report was then once more circulated to all RTOC members for a final check.

The RTOC greatly acknowledges the voluntary involvement from the peer reviewers and the peer review institutions.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 24

Table 1-3: Institutions and organisations involved in the peer review of the 2010 RTOC report

ACEA European Automobile Manu facturers' Association AHRI American Heating and Re frigeration Institute AIRAH Australian Institute of Refrigeratio n, Air conditioning and Heating ARAP Alliance for Responsibl e Atmospheric Policy CRAA Chinese Refrigeration and Ai r Conditioning Association CRT CRT Cambridge DKV German Refrigera tion Association EIA Environmental Inve stigation Agency EHPA European Heat Pump Association EPEE European Partnership for Energy and Environment Greenpeace Greenpeace International IIAR International Ins titute for Ammonia Refrigeration IIR International Institute for Refrigeration IOR Institute of Refrigeration UK JAMA Japanese Automotive Manufacturer Association JRAIA Japanese Refrigeration and Air C onditioning Industry Association SAE Society of Automotive Engineers SAIRAC South African Institute for Refr igeration and Air Conditioning Shecco Shecco Brussels Transfrigoroute Transfrigoroute International Transicold Carrier Transicold



### 1.4 Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps

1.4.1 General Remarks

Refrigeration, air conditio ning and heat pump app lications represent more than 70% of the ODS and replacement substances used; it is also one of the most important energy using sectors in the present day society. Estimates are difficult to give but as an average for the developed countries, its share in electricity use is thought to vary between 10 and 30%.

The economic impact of refrigeratio n technology is much more sign ificant than gene rally believed; 300 million tonnes of goods are con tinuously refrigerated. While the yearly consum ption of electricity may be huge, and where the investment in machinery and equipment may approach US$100,000 million, the value of the products treated by refrigeration either alon e will be four times this amount. This is one of the reasons that economic impacts of the phase-out of refrigerant chemicals (such as CFCs in the past, and HCFCs in Article 5 countries in the foreseeable future) have been and still are difficult to estimate.

Refrigeration and air conditioning applications vary enormously in size and temperature level. A domestic refrigerator has an elec trical input between 50 -250 W and contains less than 30-150 g of refrigerant (dependent on the type of refrigerant), whereas industrial refrigera tion and cold storage is characterised by temperatures between -10 C and -40 C, with electrical inputs up to several MW and refrigerant contents of many hundred kilogram s. Air conditioning and heat pumps may show evaporation temperatures between 0 C and +10 C, significantly different from refrigeration applications, and vary enormo usly in size and input.

In principle one can therefore discriminate between four main areas which each have subsectors: (i) the food chain in all its aspects, from cold storage via transport to domestic re frigeration, (ii) process air conditioning and refrig eration, (iii) comfort air conditioning , from air cooled equipment to water chillers, including heat pumps, and (i v) mobile air conditioni ng, with very specific, different aspects.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 25 This is one of the reason s that all the equipment is considered in this repo rt in a large number of separate chapters or sections.

Options and aspects for the refrigeration vapour compression cycle deserve most attention, since it is unlikely that during the next 10-2 0 years other principles will take over a substantial part of the market. In all application sectors de scribed in the separate chapters in this report, most of the attention is focused on the vapour compression cycle. As stated, this cycle has so far provided a simple, economic, efficient and reliable way for refrigeration (this includes cycles using ammonia, carbon dioxide, fluorochemicals and hydrocarbons as refrigerants).

The process of selecting a refrigerant for the vapour compression cycle is rather complex (not taking into account economic and costs aspects), since a large number of parameters need to be investigated concerning their suita bility for certain designs, including:

- thermodynamic and transport properties; - temperature ranges; - pressure ratios; - compressor requirements; - material and oil compatibility; - health, safety and flammability aspects; - environmental parameters such as ODP, GWP and atmospheric lifetime.

These selection criteria were elaborated upon in various chapters of various UNEP RTOC Assessment Reports, and these selection criteria have not changed during the last years. Since then, it is the emphasis on the emissions of greenhouse gases that has increased; this can be directly translated to thermodynamic efficiency and quality of the equipment (leakage of refrigerant).

The future of mankind, and his fo od supply in particul ar, depends on the ava ilability of sufficient energy and on the availability of effi cient refrigeration methods. Of co urse, this aspect must be more than balanced by a concern for the conservation of the biosphere, including in particular the global warming effect. Energy efficiency, therefore, is one of the most important aspects.

1.4.2 Long Term Options and Energy Efficiency

CFC production has been phased out since fifteen years in the developed countries, and the CFC phase-out in the developing countries has been completed by 2010. Where HCFCs have been largely phased out in the developed countr ies, the phase-out in the Article 5 countries is now asking full attention. In both developed and developing countries, HFCs have so far been important substitutes for CFCs and HCFCs. In many applications, alte rnatives to HCFCs have become commercially available, as pure HFCs, as blends of HFCs or as non-HFC alternatives. Therefore, HFCs have gained a large share of the replacement market. In particular the necessary incentives remain to be provided to Article 5 countries to transition from HCFCs to non-HCFC re frigerants, which will include both HFCs and non-fluorocarbon alternatives.

It should be noted, however, that the changing refr igerant options are only part of the driving force for innovations in refrigeration and A/ C equipment. Innovation is an ongoing independent process, which has to take into account all th e environmental issues involved.

In the long term, the role of non-vapour compressi on methods such as absorp tion, adsorption, Stirling and air cycles etc. may become more important; however, vapour compression cycles are thought to remain the most important candidates.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 26 For the long term, th ere remain, in fact, only five important different refrigerant options for the vapour compression cycle in all re frigeration and A/C sector s, listed alphabetically:

• ammonia (R-717);

• carbon dioxide (R-744);

• hydrocarbons and blends (HCs, e.g. HC-290, HC-600a, HC-1270 etc.);

• hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, unsaturated HFCs (HFOs));

• water (R-718). None of the above mentioned refrigerants is perfect; all have both advantages and disadvantages that should be considered by governments, equipment manufacturers and equipment users. For instance, ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons have negligible or low Global Warming Potentials (GWP), most HFCs have a relatively high GWP (thi s is not valid for the un saturated HFCs (HFOs), which have a low GWP), ammonia is more to xic than the other options, and ammonia and hydrocarbons are flammable to certain extents. Appropriate equipment design, maintenance and use can address these concerns, though sometimes at the cost of greater capital investment or lower energy efficiency.

The five refrigerant options above are in different stages of development or commercialisation. High GWP HFCs are widely applied in many sectors, am monia and hydrocarbons enjoy growth in sectors where they can be easily accommodated, and for certain applications, CO 2 equipment is being further developed and a large number of CO 2 installations have been extensively tested on the market. Currently CO 2 is gaining a substantial part of the su permarket refrigeration equipment market in certain regions. Water is used and may see some increase in use in limited applications. Work is being done by se veral committees in develo ping standards to permit the application of new refrigerants, and it is the intent of companies to reach world-wide accepted limits in those different standards.

Similarly, energy efficiency research is partly spurred by the role of energy production in carbon dioxide emissions. Options for energy efficient op eration of equipment form an important issue in each of the chapters of this 2010 RTOC Assessment report.

The Framework Convention on Climate Change via its Kyoto Protocol as adopted in 1997 considers six important global warming gases in one basket (CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and the industrial gases HFCs, PFCs and SF 6 ) using their respective Global Warming Poten tials (GWP). The control process is based upon the control of equivalent global warming emissions via reductions. Of course, under the Kyoto Protocol, any natio nal government is free to prioritise emissi on reductions, which in principle could also be done via a phase-out of HFC chemicals at a certain stage. On the contrary, it could also involve a certain growth in certain sectors in certai n countries (e.g., the HFCs ) which would have to be balanced by larger than average reductions in other greenhouse gas emissions. Although CFC and HCFC are not in the basket of Kyoto protocol, thes e are also significant warming impact gases. HFCs have similar GWP values than HCFCs but the GWPs of the CFCs are much higher. Insofar, the Montreal Protocol has been quite effective in reducing warming impacts during the CFC phase-out period.

In the Special Report (IPCC TEAP, 2005) and its Supplement Report, as mentioned before, two scenarios were developed for the projections of the demand, banks and emissions of CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs and some PFCs (where these are used as replacements for ozone-depleting substances). Annually, the demand is defined as the amount of chemical required for use in a certain year, banks are equal to the different inventories of products, and the emissions are defined as the amount of chemical that is emitted during manufacturing, plus the amount emitted during the lifetime of the product (leakage from banks), plus the amount of chemical emitted at disposal. The activities underlying emissions of fluorocar bons are expected to expand si gnificantly. These activities (such as the requirements fo r refrigeration, air cond itioning and insulation) w ill involve a number of technologies. In non-Ar ticle 5 countries, the use and emission s of CFCs and HCFCs will decline and2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 27 stop as all obsolete equipment is retired. In Article 5 countr ies, ozone-depleting substances (particularly HCFCs) may be used for another on e to two decades; a virtual phase-out has been decided for 2030 (Decision XIX/6).

Current emission profiles are largel y determined by historic use pattern s, resulting in a still relatively high contribution (at present) from CFCs and HCFCs banked in equipment and foams. The largest bank of ODS (CFCs) is in foam pr oducts, which are located in the no n-Article 5 countr ies. This will remain the case for the next few decades (see also the TEAP report on destruction and waste streams from the different sectors, by the Decision XX/7 Task Force). Banks of halons are also important, and are roughly split equally between no n-Article 5 and Article 5 countrie s. The size of this bank is expected to decrease. It should be noted, that recovery efforts and the associated costs may vary widely, to the extent that certain, large amounts of ODS in banks are virtually unrecoverable, although still existing. However, the option for destruction still rema ins open. For exampl e, refrigerants are generally considered to be easily recoverable but recovery of foam blowing agents can be more complicated (see again the report by the Decision XX/7 Task Force).

In general, emissions, i.e., bank-turnover varies significantly from application to application: from months (e.g. solvents), several years (refrigera tion applications) to ove r half a century (foam insulation). The banks stored in equipment and foams may leak during the use phase of the products they are part of, and at the end of the product life-cycle (in case they are not recovered or destroyed).

1.4.3 Set up of the 2010 TOC Re frigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report

The report has Key Messages and an Abstract Executive Summary (e.g. for policy makers), both of which were extracted fro m the Executive Summaries for all chapters, which are presented in the beginning of the report. Where the Executive Summaries were agreed by the separate chapters, the Key Messages and the Abstract Executive Summary were circulated numerous times to all CLAs and finally amongst Committee members until full agreement was reached.

This chapter 1 gives a general in troduction, and describes the proc ess how the RTOC report was put together by the members. Chapter 2 presents refrigerants and all their aspects. It elaborates on Ozone Depleting Potentials, and on ODP and GWP data for reporting purposes . It also investigates the status and research needs for data, i.e., thermophysical , heat transfer, compa tibility and safety data.

Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6 deal with the food chain and in vestigate the technical feasibility of options. They all consider non-ODP options and deal with aspects such as the use of non-fluorochemicals, the reduction of charges, energy efficiency improvements etc. Particularly the energy efficiency aspect plays an important role in chapter 3 on domestic refr igeration. Chapter 4 disc usses the options for the 3 types of commercial refrig eration equipment. Chapter 5 deals with industrial refrigeration and cold storage, chapter 6 with transport re frigeration. Chapters 7 and 8 deal with air-to-air air conditioning and heat pumps for water h eating. Chapter 9 deals with the vari ous aspects of chillers, which includes important considerations on energy efficiency. Chapter 10 describes the options for mobile air conditioning; it evaluates the potential the optio ns unsaturated HFCs (H FOs), carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons and other options will have. Chapter 11 deals with refrigerant conservation in the broadest sense; via adequate practices one can reduce the emission of (ozone depleting and global warming) refrigerants to the atmosphere (recover and recycle, containment).

The names and contact details of all RTOC members (CLAs and Co-authors) as well as the names of all Contributors from outside the RTOC are all given in Annex 1.

In the last RTOC meeting in December 2010, the RTOC members also agreed to attach to the report an Extract of a 2009 report on demand, banks and emissions done by ADEME/ ARMINES (Denis Clodic, CLA Chapter 4 responsible). This report has been attached as Annex 2 for information purposes only, in order to expand on the banks a nd emissions information available in the separate2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 28 chapters. This report in Annex 2 has no direct link to the separate chapters and has not been reviewed by the RTOC as a committee. It is therefore pre ceded by a disclaimer outlining this.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 29 

## Chapter 2

____________________________ ______________________________ Refrigerants

Chapter Lead Author James M. Calm

Co-author (non-RTOC) Glenn C. Hourahan

Contributors Dennis R. Dorman Mark O. McLinden2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 30 

## 2 Refrigerants

More than 60 new refrigerants were commercialised for use either in new equipment or as service fluids (to maintain or convert existing equipment) since the 2006 assessment report. Of them, 21 obtained standardised designations and safety cla ssifications while the rema inder are marketed with only proprietary identifiers (with out public disclosure of compos itions or without application for standardised designations). Most of the new refrigerants are blends containing hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) or, in some cases, blends of HFCs and hydro carbons (HCs). Additional refrigerants, including blend components, still are being de veloped to enable co mpletion of scheduled phase-outs of ozonedepleting substances (ODSs). Si gnificant focus is on alternatives, including blend components, offering lower global warming pote ntials (GWPs) to address climate change. That pursuit forces more attention than in the pa st on flammable – primarily low-flam mability – candidates . Considerable effort continues for examination of broader use of ammonia (NH 3 , R-717), carbon dioxide (CO 2 , R744), and HCs as well as of blends of them or th em with low-GWP HFCs. Additional research seeks to increase and improve the physical, safety, and environmental data for refrigerants, to enable screening, and to optimise equipment performance.

Despite the number of new introduc tions, approximately 20 older and new refrigerants, some of them blends, constitute the majority of usage on a global basis. Even this number is likely to decline to approximately 10 or 12 as older equipment using ODSs or high-GWP options is retired, along with need for service fluids for them, and as manufacturers converge on preferred refrigerants for the future.



### 2.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses and provides tabular summarie s for identifiers as well as physical, safety, and environmental data for refrigerants. It addresses the status of thermophysical (both thermodynamic and transport) property data and of ongoing examination of heat tr ansfer and compatibility. This chapter does not address th e suitability, advantages, and drawbacks of indivi dual refrigerants or refrigerant groups for specific ap plications; such discu ssion is addressed for specific applications where relevant in subsequent chapters.

2.1.1 Refrigerant Progression

The historic progression of refrigerants encompasses four generations based on defining selection criteria /Cal08/:

• 1830s-1930s – whatever worked : primarily familiar solvents an d other volatile fluids including ethers, R-717, R-744, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 , R-764), methyl formate (HCOOCH 3 , R-611), HCs, water (H 2 O, R-718), carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 , R-10), hydrochlorocarbo ns (HCCs), and others; many of them are now regarded as “natural refrigerants.”

• 1931-1990s – safe ty and durability : primarily chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), ammonia, and water.

• 1990-2010s – stratospheric ozone protection : primarily HCFCs (for transition use), HFCs, ammonia, water, hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide.

• 2010-? – global warming mitigation : still in determination, but likely to include refrigerants with very low or no ozone depletion potential (ODP), low global warmi ng potential (GWP), and high efficiency; likely to in clude, at least initially, unsat urated hydrof luorocarbons (hydrofluoro-olefins, HFOs discussed below), ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and
water. GWP demarcation for acceptability is defined, at least initially, as having a GWP relative to CO 2 for 100 yr integration of 150 or less, predicated on European regulatio ns for mobile air conditioning (see chapter 10). A proposed further classification scheme distinguishes between very low (or ultra-low ) with GWP < ~30, very low with GWP < ~100, low with GWP < ~300, moderate with GWP < ~1000, high with GWP < ~3,000, very high with GWP < ~10,000, and ultra-high with GWP > ~10,000 /UNEP10/.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 31 2.1.2 Unsaturated Hydrofluorochemicals

Facing regulatory pressures to eliminate refrigerants with high GWPs, and at least for automobile systems GWPs exceeding 150, the major refrigerant manufacturers have aggressively pursued unsaturated fluorochemicals. They are chemicals consisting of two or more carbon atoms with at least one double bond between two or more of them as well as fluorine, hydrogen, and possibly alsochlorine or other halogens. Unsaturated fluorocarbons also are identified as fluoro-alkenes or fluoroolefins. The double carbon-carbon bond(s) make(s) the compounds more reactive. That leads to rapid decomposition in the lo wer atmosphere, because such fluoro-alkene s are less stable in presence of the oxidative reactants there. Some also are subject to photolytic decompositio n. The result is short atmospheric lifetimes and, thereby, very low ODPs and GWPs.

The unsaturated HFC (also identified as hydrofluoro-alkene or hydrofluoro-olefin, HFO) family is a focal example with varying extents of fluorination, in part as a tr ade-off betw een flammability with low fluorine content and typically increasing GWP and cost with higher fluorine content. Chemical producers are pursuing alternatives for the most widely used low-, medium-, and high-pressure refrigerants. Among the unsaturated HFCs, various HFC-1225 isomers previously pursued seem abandoned predicated on toxicity findings. HFC-1234yf (CH 2 =CFCF 3 ) in particular is being widely considered both as a single-compound refrigerant and as a blend component. Manufacturer announcements also indicate pursuit of HFC-1234ze(E) (CHF=CHCF 3 ), HFC-1243zf (CH 2 =CHCF 3 ), and other HFC-1234 and HFC-1243 isomers and enantiomers. Some manufacturers also are pursuing unsaturated HCFCs (also identified as hydrochlorofluoro-alkene or hydrochlorofluoro-olefins, HCFOs), notably HCFC-1233 isomers, to obtain similar benefits with reduced or avoided flammability, but they introduce a trad e-off concern with ODP albeit extremely low. While complete data are not yet av ailable, or publicly available du e to the proprietary nature of development, the limited informatio n already in the public domain suggests that some unsaturated hydrofluorochemicals will be technically and commercially viable.

Opponents of unsaturate d fluorochemicals argue, often vehe mently, that they pose additional environmental or safety hazards not justified with existence of available “natural refrigerant” alternatives. The extent of l ong-term acceptability of unsaturate d HFCs (HFOs) or more broadly unsaturated hydrohalochemicals is un certain, though a number of in itial studies indicate manageable environmental impacts /L eu10, Kaj10, Pap09/.

The relatively recent commercial purs uit of unsaturated fluo rochemicals, as well as blends of them or containing them, has catalyzed a number favourable claims but also countercla ims. More information is likely to emerge in the next assessment cycle. For now, the various applic ation chapters that follow address consideration of specific unsaturated fluorochemicals as appropriate. Further information is likely to emerge in the next assessment cycle.



### 2.2 Data Summary

Table 2-1 provides summary data for refrigerants – both single-compound and blend – addressed in this report as well as those used historically, under consideration as candidates for future use, and undergoing renewed interest (histo rical and now candidates for broader application). The table excludes proprietary blends fo r which the composition (component s) and/or formulation (their proportions) have not been disclosed.

The table has been updated from prior assessments to reflect current data from consensus assessments and published scientific and engin eering literature where possible. The summary table also adds two new single-compound refrigerants and 21 new blends introduced since the 2006 assessment report /UNEP06/.

The data in this table were extracted from more extensive summaries by Calm and Hourahan /Cal07, Cal11/, the Refrigerant Database /Cal10/, and informatory appendices to ASHRAE Standard 34-2010 /ASH10a/ and addenda thereto /ASH10b/. Those references provide further information on the2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 32 refrigerants included and address ad ditional refrigerants. Some of th e data have been updated with further revisions (later editions) of the cited so urces, notably including REFPROP 9.0 /Lem10/ for thermophysical properties, though in some cases with updated fluid and mixture models for planned inclusion in future revisions. Th e database also identifies the sour ces for the data presented in the table as well as, for some refrigerants, additional data where conflicting valu es were reported by different investigators. The data and their limitations should be ve rified in the referenced source documents, particularly where use of the data woul d risk loss to life or property. REFPROP can be used to calculate additional properties for many of the refri gerants and additional blends.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report33Table 2-1: Physical, Safety, and Environmental Datafor Historical, Current, and Candidate Refrigerants2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report34Table 2-1: Physical, Safety, and Environmental Data for Historical, Current, and Candidate Refrigerants (continued)2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report35Table 2-1: Physical, Safety, and Environmental Data for Historical, Current, and Candidate Refrigerants (continued)2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report36Table 2-1: Physical, Safety, and Environmental Data for Historical, Current, and Candidate Refrigerants (continued)2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 37 The data presented, from left to right in the table are:

• refrigerant number , if assigned, in accordance with American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Co nditioning Engineers (ASHRA E) Standard 34 /ASH10a, ASH10b/: A revision to an international standard is in preparation, but not yet final, as the primary document for designation an d safety criteria /ISO 05b, ISO08/, but the proposed designation systems are essentially consistent.

• chemical formula , in accordance with the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) convention /IUP79/ or , for blends, the blend composition in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 34 /ASH10a, ASH10b/

• molecular mass calculated /Cal11/ based on the updated IUPAC atomic weights /Wie09/

• normal boiling point (NBP) or, for blends, the bubble point temperature at 101.325 kPa based on REFPROP 9.0 /Lem10/ when included

• critical temperature (T c ) in °C or, for blends, the calculated pseudo-critical temperature based on REFPROP 9.0 /Lem10/ when included

• Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) such as the Threshold Limit Value (TLV) in ppm v/v assigned by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), Workplace Environmental Exposure Level (WEEL) by the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), or a consis tent occupational exposure limit on a time-weighted average (TWA) basis for an 8 to 10 hr day and 40 hr work week

• lower flammability limit (LFL) in % concentration ambient air: Where evident, the tabulated values are those determined in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 34 /ASH10a, ASH10b/.

• safety classification , if assigned, in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 34 /ASH10a, ASH10b/: The leading letters A and B signify “lower” and “higher” toxicity, respectively, based on occupational exposure limits. The numbers 1, 2, and 3 indicate “no flame propagation,” “lower flammability,” and “higher flammability,” respectively, at specified test conditions pred icated on both LFL and heat of combustion. wff signifies th at the worst case of formulation and the worst case of fractionation for flam mability, respectively, both as defined in /ASH10a/, is flammable in either the vapour or liquid phase. A recent modification to ASHRAE 34, also proposed for International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 817 /ISO08/, subdivides group 2 based on the burning velocity, with 2L implying those more difficult to ignite /A SH10a/. Some of the classifications are followed or replaced by lower case le tters that indicate: d a prior classification was deleted and the refrigerant no longer has a safety classification p a classification assigned on a provisional basis
r a recommended revision or addition as shown, but pending final approval and/or publication

• atmospheric lifetime ( τ atm ) in years: Note that τ atm normally is no t indicated for blends since it is ambiguous whether the lifetime pertains to the blend as formulated, a modified formulation as some components decompose more rapidly than others, or the most enduring component.

• ozone depletion potential (ODP) relative to CFC-11: ODPs indicate the relative ability of refrigerants (and other chemicals) to destroy stratospheric ozone. The values included reflect the latest scientific consensu s data as adopted in the Scientific Assessment /WMO10/. Additional, consistent ODP data are includ ed as available from references Cal10 and Cal11 for refrigerants for which consensus ODPs were not adopted. The ODPs indicated for blends are calculated mass-weighted averages /Cal10, Cal11/ based on the latest accepte d IUPAC atomic weig hts /Wie09/ for the components.

• global warming potential (GWP) relative to CO 2 for 100 year integration based on the values reported in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report /IPCC07/ and the2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 38 Scientific Assessment /WMO10/. The values shown are direct GWPs; indirect and net GWPs are discussed in references IPCC 07 and WMO10. Add itional, consistent GWP data are similarly included as available from references Cal10 and Cal11 for refrigerants for which consensus GWPs were not adopted. The GWPs indicated for blends are calculated mass-weighted averages /Cal10, Cal11/ based on the latest accepted IUPAC atomic weights /Wie09/ for the components. The GWP values shown as “~20” or “<20” in Table 2-1 for hydrocarbons reflect uncertainty in calculation, for whic h there is no scientific co nsensus at this time. The approximations shown lie in the ranges of uncertainty.

• status : Refrigerants restricted (production limitations, phaseout, or measures to reduce releases) for environmental reasons are noted as follows: M controlled (or for blends one or more components is controlled) under the Montreal Protocol K controlled (or for blends one or more components is controlled) under the Kyoto Protocol



### 2.2.1 Ozone Depletion Potentials

The ODPs indicated in the Table 2-1 are semi-empirical values except for HCFC-123, for which a model-derived value wa s adopted in scientific as sessments due to its short atmospheric lifetime /WMO10/. Semi-empirical ODPs are calculated values that incorporate adjustments for observed atmospheric measurements. This approach is conceptually more accurate than other measures, but the data need ed are difficult to measure precisely and it is still evolving with further and improved meas urements and understand ing. There are other ODP indices, among them modelled, time-dependent , and regulatory variants /Cal07, Cal11/. Modelled data are determined by large models that calculate impacts based on decomposition paths and rates as well as atmo spheric conditions including the influences of additional ozone depleting substances. Time-dependent ODPs use chemicals other than CFC-11 as the reference to emphasise impacts for other, typica lly shorter, timeframes. Normalising values to short-lived compounds accentuates near-term impacts, but discounts long-term effects. Time-dependent ODPs are not cited often, particularly since the release of ozone-depleting substances already has peaked and recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer is underway. Regulatory ODPs generally are old data used to set phase-out steps, determine compliance with the Montreal Protocol, and allocate production quotas in national regulations. Because of the political and competitive complexities in changing cons umption targets and production allocations, these values common ly are left unchanged even wh en newer scien tific findings improve the quantification precision. The ODP va lues listed in the anne xes to the Montreal Protocol, for example, have not been updated since 1987 for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and 1992 for hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). A no te in the Protocol indicates that the values “are estimates based on existing knowledge and will be reviewed and revised periodically,” but that has not happened yet /UNEP09/.

2.2.2 ODP and GWP Data for Regulatory and Reporting Purposes

The ODP and GWP data presented in Table 2- 1 are based on intern ational scientific assessments and reflect the latest consensus de terminations on potentia l impacts. However, the reduction requirements and allocations under the Montreal Protocol, emission reductions and reporting pursuant to the Kyoto Protocol, and provisions in many national regulations pursuant to them use ol der, adopted values.

Table 2-2 compares the latest consensus ODP data /WMO10/ to the “regulatory” ODPs used in the Montreal Protocol /UNEP09/. Table 2-3 similarly contrasts the latest consensus GWPs, for 100 yr integration, with those used for reporting and emission reductions under the Kyoto Protocol (from /IPCC95/).2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 39 Table 2-2: Scientific and Regulatory ODPs

for BFC, CFC, and HCFC Refrigerants

ODP
refrigerant scientific a regulatory

11 1.0 1.0 12 0.82 1.0 12B1 7.9 3.0 13 1.0 13B1 15.9 10.0 21 0.04 22 0.04 0.055 113 0.85 0.8 114 0.58 1.0 115 0.57 0.6 123 0.01 0.02 124 0.02 0.022 142b 0.06 0.065

a ODPs indicated are as adopted in reference /WMO10/. They are semi-empirical except for HCFC-123, which is a modelled value (0.0098) based on its short atmospheric lifetime.

Table 2-3: Current Consensus and Reporting GWPs for 100 yr Integration for HFC and PFC Refrigerants

GWP refrigerant /W MO10/ reporting
14 7,390 6,500 23 14,200 11,700 32 716 650 116 12,200 9,200 125 3,420 2,800 134a 1,370 1,300 143a 4,180 3,800 152a 133 140 218 8,830 7,000 227ea 3,580 2,900 236fa 9,820 6,300 C318 10,300 8,700

744 1 12010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 40 2.3 Status and Research Needs for Data

2.3.1 Thermophysical Properties

The status of data for the thermophysical pr operties of refrigerants, which include both thermodynamic properties (such as density, pressure, enthalpy, entropy, and heat capacity) and transport properties (such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, and surface tension), is generally good. The data are sufficient to permit evaluation and testing of virtually all candidate refrigerants, with notable exception for the newer unsaturated hydrofluorochemicals (see §2.1.2 above). Data gaps do exist, however, for the thermodynamic and transport properties of blends and less-common fluids.

The thermodynamic data and models for the most-common HFCs (HFC-32, HFC-125, and HFC-134a) and HFC blends (R-404A, R-407C, R-410A, and R-507A) are generally excellent. The data often are lim ited for new blends. The transport data for these fluids are good for the single-compound re frigerants, but additional data and improved models are needed for the HFC and some HC blends. The thermodynamic data for HC-290 (propane), HC-600 (n-butane), and HC-600a (isobutane) are generally very good. The data for R-717 (ammonia) are not as good as commonly assumed; much of the data are old and sometimes inconsistent and/or limited in coverage. The property data for R-744 (carbon dioxide) are excellent.

An international standard pr ovides thermodynamic properties of ten single-compound refrigerants and four blends /ISO05a/. Th e U.S. National Institu te of Standards and Technology (NIST) REFPROP database /Lem10/ implements and provides references to published models for the thermody namic and transport properties of all of the most common refrigerants and blends. It calculates properties over wide ranges of temperature, pressure, and composition, and it is compliant with the ISO standard /ISO05a/.

The data situation for the less-com mon fluids is more variable. Th ere is interest in the ethers and particularly the hydrofluoroethers (HFEs) /Biv97, Sek00/. The available data for them are often scattered among obscure sources. There is a need to collect and evaluate the data for such candidates.

Properties are beginning to emerge for unsaturated HFCs /for example Bro09a, Bro09b, Din10, Gre09, Hig10, Kay10, McL10, Ric10, Tan09 and Tan10/ and further studies are underway. Two such refrigerants were added to REFPROP 9.0 in 2010 /Lem10/.

A major uncertainty for all of the refrigerants is the influence of lubricants on heat transfer and other properties. The working fluid in most systems is actually a mixture of therefrigerant and the lubricant carried over from the compressor(s). Research on the refrigerantlubricant mixtures is underway. It is complicated by the great variety of lubricants in use and by the often highly proprietary nature of the chemical stru cture or compositions of the lubricant and/or additives. In addition to impacting propertie s themselves (and especially viscosity and heat transfer), lu bricant selections, pr operties, and degrada tion have substantial impacts on equipment wear that in-turn a lters performance from predictions based on refrigerant properties.

2.3.2 Heat Transfer and Compatibility Data

Refrigerant heat transfer technology has been extensively studied and documented by researchers in many countries. Two reports by Thome /Tho98a and Tho98b/ provide comprehensive reviews of evaporating and condensing heat transfer for many refrigerants2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 41 including fluorochemicals, hydrocarbons, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. The reports cover in-tube and shell-side boiling an d condensing of sing le-compound refriger ants, azeotropic and zeotropic blends, and refrigerant-lubricant mixtures. They address plain tubes, internally finned tubes with conventional and cross-grooved fins, and both conventional low-fin and enhanced externally-finne d tubes plus falling-film evaporation. Other reviews for refrigerant heat transfer technology include Ohadi et al. /Oha96/ for ammonia, Pais and Webb /Pai91/ for pool boiling on enhanced surfaces, Cavallini et al. /Cav95/ for condensation models of refrigerants inside smooth an d enhanced tubes, Darabi et al. /Dar95/ for flow boiling correlations in smooth and augmented tubes, Singh et al. /Sin95/ on electrohydrodynamic enhancement of heat transfer, and a series of articles on heat transfer of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and hydrocarbons /IIR97/.

Many types of refrigeration an d air-conditioning systems are op erating with fluorochemical, hydrocarbon, ammonia, and carbon dioxide refrigerants, suggesting reasonably adequate refrigerant heat transfer data. The best heat transfer data availability are for fluorocarbon (now mainly HFCs) and ammonia refrigerants. From the above-mentioned reports, plus input from other researchers, the following research needs were determined:

 further test data for she ll-side boiling and condensatio n of zeotropic mixtures

 local heat transfer data determined at specific va lues of vapour quality

 microchannel heat exchanger refrigerant-side heat transfer data including flow distribution effects

 effects of lubricants on heat transfer, especially for ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, unsaturated HCFCs, and unsaturated HFCs

 accurate plain tube and microfin tube evaporation and condensation data for hydrocarbons

 inside-tube condensation heat transfer data for carbon dioxide at low temperatures such as –20 ° C

 heat transfer co rrelations for carbon dioxide superc ritical heat rejection and twophase evaporation Materials compatibility data are available fro m many sources, among them manufacturers’ literature (refrigerant, plastics, and elastomer manufacturers), materials chemical resistance publications, and a series of studies performed for the Materials Compa tibility and Lubricants Research (MCLR) Program of the Air-Conditioning and Refrig eration Technolo gy Institute (ARTI). The MCLR reports addressed compa tibility of refrigerants and lubricants with metals, hermetic motor materials, elastomers, engineering plastics, desiccants, and lubricant additives /Cav93, Cav97, Doe93, Doe96, Fie9 5, Ham94, and Hut92/ . The MCLR studies focused primarily on fluorochemical replacements for CFCs via sealed-tube and other laboratory tests. In general, HFCs were foun d to be less reactive than HCFCs such as HCFC22 or HCFC-123. As a result, most materials accepted as compatible with HCFCs also were deemed compatible with HFCs. A statistical study of compressors identified air as the most aggressive contaminant, formin g oxidised lubricant products, based on tests for non-ideal contaminant conditions (with ad ded water, air, an d organic acids) /Cav00/. Additionally, water and acid development with air affected overall mechanical performance /Cav00/. The study suggests that further compatibility stud ies may be needed fo r non-ideal conditions.

While actual data are as yet very limited, un saturated halochemicals (for example unsaturated HFCs – HFOs) may be less therma lly stable at compressor ope rating temperatures. Limited studies report favourable stab ility in anhydrous, air free, s ealed tube tests /Lec09/, but decomposition or corrosion effects – particularly in the presence of common contaminant levels in actual systems – need further study.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 42 A major source of materials compatibility data for carbon di oxide, ammonia, and hydrocarbons are three chemical resistance guides by Pruett covering metals, elastomeric compounds, and engineering plastics /Pru83, Pru94, and Pru95/. Since plastics and elastomers contain many types of additives (m ost of them proprietary), specific materials should be tested to ensure compatibility.

Ammonia is incompatible with most types of el ectrical wiring insulation. Metals inside ammonia systems normally are limited to stainless and carbon steel, but two publications from Germany /Kna97 and Lip9 7/ report good compatibility of ammonia with copper and copper alloys in systems with careful moisture control, as water intrus ion can result in severe copper corrosion. Aluminium is compatible w ith pure (dry) ammonia, but it is sensitive to corrosion in water circuits due to the presence of chlorides. Aqueous solutions of ammonia cause corrosion that puts aluminium components at risk, but coatings may offer corrosion prevention /Eur00/. Further stu dy is needed to determine the pr ecise levels of moisture of concern with consideration of the dissimilar levels of hygroscopicity of different lubricants.

A materials issue with carbon dioxide is explosive decompression with elastomers, especially in systems with pressure cycling. Carbon dioxide is very so luble in many types of elastomers, and if it cannot diffuse out of the elastomer quickly enough, bubbles of gas may grow and cause rupture of the elastomer shapes, such as o-ring seals. Explosive decompression can be minimised by selecting elastomers with appropriate mechanical properties and tear strength, a low carbon dioxide solu bility coefficient, and a high carb on dioxide diffusion coefficient /Har99/.

Sealed tube tests containing HC-290 (propane) and HC-600a (isobutane) with various oils, materials, and air show negligible degradation /San96/. In further sealed tube tests, a variety of elastomers were tested with an R-290/600a blend or HC-601 (n-pentane) with a mineral or polyolester (POE) oil; Buna N, hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber (HNBR), Viton, and neoprene performed well while natural, silicon, and ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) rubbers were less suitable /Col00/. Impurities at the level of 3% in HC-290 were found to not affect performance within measuremen t uncertainties, provided that the levels of sulfur, water, and unsaturated hydrocarbons were strictly limited /Kru97/.



### 2.3.3 Safety Data

The primary hazards from refr igerant handling and use arise from pressure explosions, toxicity, flammability, and air displacement, the la st of which may lead to oxygen deprivation and asphyxiation /Cal94/.

Pressure data are generally well characterised as necessary for component and system design. Safety standards such as American National S tandards Institute / American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ANSI/ASHRAE) 15, Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems /ASH10c/, which is the basis of many national and international standards and re gulations, provide guidance on vessel requirements, pressure relief devices, and testing.

Toxicity concerns arise from both accidental releases and occupational handling, for example to install, service, and remove equipment /Cal94 and Cal96/. The data are divided into acute (short-term, single exposure) and chronic (long-term, possibly repeated exposure). Key acute effects include lethality, cardia c sensitisation, central nervous system (CNS) or anesthetic effects, and others that may im pair the ability to es cape or cause permanen t injury. Most of these effects arise from inhalatio n rather than contact or ingestion, since a desirable attribute of refrigerants is that they be volatile compounds and, as a result, either are vapours at typical conditions or vaporise quic kly in contact with body temperatur es. Accordingly, it is hard to2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 43 have extended contact or to in gest sufficient quantities before inhalation effects come into play. Exceptions are refrigerants that irritate or corrode the skin.

Safety data and resulting re commendations for refrigerant concentration limits and occupational exposure limits gene rally are available for fluorochemical refrigerants /Cal00, Cal07, and Cal10/. The data typically are de veloped, primarily thro ugh animal testing, by manufacturers in the course of qualifying new candidates. A collaborative effort among manufacturers, the Programme for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing (PAFT), developed extensive data for new fluorochemical replacements for CFCs /PAF95 and PAF96/.

Data are less readily available for hydrocarbons and generally are sparse for exposures above fire hazard concentrations, though toxic effect s from hydrocarbons generally are not manifest below them /Kir76/. The risks inherent to testing flammable mixtures and historical presumption that application exposures will be kept below the LFL both mitigate against testing higher concentrations.

Extensive data are available for ammonia /Cle90 and Syr90/ and carbon dioxide /NIO76/, though much of it predates currently accepted toxicity test criteria and results in conflicts from early tests with prim itive laboratory methods and contaminated samples.

Further data are needed for fluoroether and hydrofluoroether candidates /Biv97 and Sek00/ and for unsaturated fluorochemicals.

Flammability data generally are available /Ric92, Cal0 7, ASH10a/, though data dispersion from different test methods and laboratories leads to a degree of uncertainty in some cases.



### 2.4 References

/ASH10a/ Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants , ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2010, American Society of Heating, Refrigerati ng, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010

/ASH10b/ Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants , ANSI/ASHRAE Addenda a, b, and d to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2010, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010

/ASH10c/ Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems , ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2010, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010
/Biv97/ D. B. Bivens and B. H. Minor, “Fl uoroethers and Other Next-Generation Fluids”, Refrigerants for the 21 st Century ( proceedings of the AS HRAE/NIST Refrigerants Conference , Gaithersburg, MD, 6-7 October 1997), American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engin eers (ASHRAE), Atlant a, GA, USA, 122-134, 1997; International Journal of Refrigeration, 21(7):567-576, 1998
/Bro09a/ J. S. Brown, C. Zilio, and A. Cavallini , “Estimations of the Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of R-1234yf Using a Cubic Equation of State and Group Contribution Methods,” Proceedings of the 3 rd IIR Conference on Thermophysical Properties and Transfer Processes of Refrigerants (Boulder, CO, USA, June 23-26, 2009), International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris France, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Boulder, CO, USA, paper 127, June 2009 /Bro09b/ J. S. Brown, “HFOs: New, Low Global Warming Potential Refrigerants,” ASHRAE Journal , 51(8):22-29, August 2009 /Cal94/ J. M. Calm, “Refrigerant Safety,” ASHRAE Journal , 36(7):17-26, July 19942010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 44 /Cal96/ J. M. Calm, “The Toxicity of Refrigerants,” Proceedings of the 1996 International Refrigeration Conference at Purdue (23-26 July 1996), Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA, 157-162, July 1996 /Cal00/ J. M. Calm, “Toxicity Data to Determine Refrigerant Concentration Limits,” report DOE/CE/23810-110, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute (ARTI), Arlington, VA, USA, September 2000 /Cal07/ J. M. Calm and G. C. Hourahan, “Refrigerant Data Summary Update,” HPAC Engineering
, 79(1):50-64, January 2007 /Cal08/ J. M. Calm, “The Next Generation of Refrigerants — Historical Review, Considerations, and Outlook,” International Journal of Refrigeration , 31(7):1123-1133, November 2008 /Cal10/ J. M. Calm, “Refrigerant Database,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute (ARTI), Arlington, VA, USA, Ju ly 2001 and unpublished updates thereto though 2010 /Cal11/ J. M. Calm and G. C. Hourahan, “Physical, Safety, and Environmental Data Summary for Current and Alternative Refrigerants,” Proceedings for the 23 rd International Congress of Refrigeration (Prague, Czech Republic, 21-26 August 2011), International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), Paris, France, 2011 (in preparation)
/Cav93/ R. C. Cavestri, “Compatibility of Refrigerant and Lubricants with Engineering Plastics”, report DOE/CE/23810-15, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, September 1993, revised December 1993
/Cav95/ A. Cavallini et al., “Condensation of New Refrigerants Inside Smooth and Enhanced Tubes,” Proceedings of the 19 th International Congress of Refrigeration (The Hague, The Netherlands, 20-25 August 1995), International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), Paris, France, IVa:105-114, 1995
/Cav97/ R. C. Cavestri et al., Compatibility of Lubricant Additives with HFC Refrigerants and Synthetic Lubricants (Final Report, Part 1), repo rt DOE/CE/23810-76, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, July 1997
/Cav00/ R. C. Cavestri, Effect of Selected Contaminants in Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Equipment (Final Report), report ARTI MCLR DOE/CE/23810-111, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, 2000 /Cle90/ Clement Associates, Incorporated, Health Effects Assessment for Ammonia , The Fertilizer Institute, Washington, DC, USA, February 1990 /Col00/ D. Colbourne and T. J. Ritter, “Compatib ility of Non-Metallic Materials with Hydrocarbon Refrigerant and Lubricant Mixtures,” Proceedings of the 4 th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen Conference Natural Working Fluids (25-28 July 2000), Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA, 395-400, 2000
/Dar95/ J. Darabi, M. Salehi, M.H. Saeedi and M. M. Ohadi, “Review of Available Correlations forPrediction of Flow Boiling Heat Transfer in Smooth and Augmented Tubes,” paper CH95-12-2, Transactions (Winter Meeting, Chicago, IL, USA, 28 January – 1 February 1995), American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, USA, 101(1):965-975, 1995
/Din10/ G. Di Nicola, M. Pacetti, F. Polonara, and G. Santori, “P

− V

− T Behavior of 2,3,3,3- Tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (HFO-1234yf) in the Vapor Phase from 243 to 373 K,” Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data , 55(9):3302–3306, 2010 /Doe93/ R. G. Doerr and S. A. Kujak, “Compatibility of Refrigerants and Lubricants with Motor Materials,” report DOE/CE/23810-13, Air-C onditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, May 1993 /Doe96/ R. G. Doerr and T. D. Waite, “Compatibili ty of Refrigerants and Lubricants with Motor Materials under Retrofit Conditions,” report DOE/CE/23810-63, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, October 19962010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 45 /Eur00/ Eurammon, Aluminum as Construction Material in Ammonia Refrigeration Cycles
, information bulletin 10, Frankfurt, Germany, 2000.01 /Fie95/ J. E. Field, “Sealed Tube Comparisons of the Compatibility of Desiccants with Refrigerants and Lubricants,” report DOE/CE/23810-54, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, May 1995
/Gre09/ A. J. Grebenkov, R. Hulse, H. Pham, a nd R. Singh, “Physical Properties and Equation of State for Trans-1,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene,” Proceedings of the 3 rd IIR Conference on Thermophysical Properties and Transfer Processes of Refrigerants (Boulder, CO, USA, 23- 26 June 2009), paper 191, International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris France, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Boulder, CO, USA, June 2009 /Ham94/ G. R. Hamed, R. H. Seiple, and O. Taikum, “Compatibility of Refrigerant and Lubricants with Elastomers,” report DOE/CE/23810-14, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, January 1994 /Har99/ C. Harrison, “Keeping CO 2 Where It Belongs. Requirements for Sealing Future Automotive Climate Control Systems,” Meeting Results and Presentations, SAE International Automotive Alternate Refrigerant Systems Symposium, Scottsdale, AZ, USA, 28 June – 1 July 1999 /Hig10/ Y. Higashi, “Thermophysical Properties of HFO-1234yf and HFO-1234ze(E),” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Next-Generation Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology (Tokyo, Japan), New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Kawasaki City, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, February 2010 /Hut92/ D. F. Huttenlocher, “Chemical and Thermal Stability of Refrigerant-Lubricant Mixtures with Metals,” report DOE/CE/23810-5, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, 9 October 1992

/IIR97/ Heat Transfer Issues in Natural Refrigerants (proceedings of the IIR Conference – meeting of Commissions B1, E1, and E2, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA, 6-7 November 1997), publication 1997/5, International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris, France, 1997 /IPCC95/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), “Climate Change 1995 — Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,” edit ed by J. T. Houghton, L. G. Meira Filho, B. A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg, and K. Maskell, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1996 /IPCC05/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP), Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons , World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Geneva, Switzerland, and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya, 2005 /IPCC07/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), “Climate Change 2007: The Scientific Basis — Contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report,” edited by S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H.L. Miller, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, 2007 /ISO05a/ “Refrigerant Properties,” ISO standa rd 17584:2005, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2005 /ISO05b/ “Refrigerants — Designation System,” ISO standard 817:2005, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva, Switzerland, 15 January 20052010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 46 /ISO08/ “Refrigerants — Designation and Safety Classification,” ISO working document ISO/DIS 817:2008, International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Geneva, Switzerland, 1 February 2008 /IUP79/ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), “Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, Sections A, B, C, D, E, F, and H, ” prepared by J. Rigaudy and S. P. Klesney, Pergamon Press Incorporated, New York, NY, USA, 1979 /Kaj10/ H. Kajihara et al., “Estimation of envir onmental concentrations and deposition fluxes of R1234yf and its decomposition products emitte d from air conditioning equipment to atmosphere,” paper NS24, Proceedings of the 2010 International Symposium on NextGeneration Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology , Tokyo, Japan, 17-19 February 2010 /Kay10/ Y. Kayukawa, K. Fujii, R. and Akasaka, “Thermodynamic Property Measurements for HFO 1234yf and its Binary Mixtures,” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Next-Generation Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology (Tokyo, Japan), New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), Kawasaki City, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, February 2010 /Kir76/ C. J. Kirwin, “Toxicological Review of Propane, Butane, Isobutane, Pentane, and Isopentane,” Phillips Petroleum Company, Bartlesville, OK, USA, November 1976
/Kna97/ M. Knabe, S. Reinhold, and J. Sc henk, “Ammoniakanlagen und Kupfer-Werkstoffe?” [Ammonia Systems and Cuprous Materials?], Ki Luft und Kältetechnik , 33(9):394-397, 1997 /Kru97/ H. H. Kruse and T. Tiedemann, “Experien ce with HC Refrigerants and Projections for Future Applications,” Refrigerants for the 21st Century (proceedings of the ASHRAE/NIST refrigerants conference, Ga ithersburg, MD, USA, 6-7 October 1997) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, USA, 44-56, 1997 /Lec09/ Leck, T. J., “Evaluation of HFO-1234yf as a Potential Replacement for R-134a in Refrigeration Applications,” Proceedings of the 3 rd IIR Conference on Thermophysical Properties and Transfer Processes of Refrigerants (Boulder, CO, USA, June 23-26, 2009), International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris France, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Boulder, CO, USA, paper 155, June 2009
/Lem10/ E. W. Lemmon, M. L. Huber, and M. O. McLinden, “NIST Standard Reference Database 23, NIST Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties –REFPROP” (version 9.0), Standard Reference Data Program, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2010 /Leu10/ D. J. Luecken, R. L. Waterland, S. Papa savva, K. N. Taddonio, W. T. Hutzell, J. P. Rugh, and S. O. Andersen, “Ozone and TFA Impacts in North America from Degradation of 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf), A Potential Greenhouse Gas Replacement,” Environmental Science and Technology , 44(1): 44,343–348, 2010 /Lip97/ H. Lippold, “Kupferwerkstoffe in Ammoniakanlagen” [Cuprous Materials in Ammonia Systems], KK Die Kälte- und Klimatechnik , 50(10):730-735, October 1997/McL10/ M. O. McLinden, M. Thol, and E. W. Lemmon, “Thermodynamic Properties of trans1,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene [R1234ze(E)]: Meas urements of Density and Vapor Pressure and a Comprehensive Equation of State,” Proceedings of the International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue , Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA, July 2010. /NIO76/ “Criteria for a Recommended Standard — Occupational Exposure to Carbon Dioxide,” publication 76-194, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH, USA, August 1976
/Oha96/ M. M. Ohadi, S. S. Li, R. K. Radermacher, and S. V. Dessiatoun, “Critical Review of Available Correlations for Two-Phase Flow Heat Transfer of Ammonia,” International Journal of Refrigeration, 19(4):272-284, May 19962010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 47 /PAF95/ “Programme for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing (PAFT) Toxicology Summaries,” PAFT, Washington, DC, USA, September 1995 /PAF96/ “Testing to Extremes — Industry's Cooperative Effort to Test the Health and Safety of Selected Fluorocarbon Alternatives to CFCs,” Programme for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing (PAFT), Washington, DC, USA, circa 1996 /Pai91/ C. Pais and R. L. Webb, “Literature Survey of Pool Boiling on Enhanced Surfaces,” technical paper 3444 (392-RP), Transactions (Winter Meeting, New York, NY, USA, 19- 23 January 1991), American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, USA, 97(1):79-89, 1991 /Pap09/ S. Papasavva, D. J. Luecken, R. L. Wa terland, K. N. Taddonio, and S. O. Andersen, “Estimated 2017 Refrigerant Emissions of 2, 3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFC-1234yf) in the United States Resulting from Automobile Air Conditioning,” Environmental Science and Technology , 43(24):9252–9259, 2009 /Pru83/ K. M. Pruett, “Compass Corrosion Guide (Guide to Chemical Resistance of Metals and Engineering Plastics),” Compass Publications, La Jolla, CA, USA, 1983 /Pru94/ K. M. Pruett, “Chemical Resistance Guide for Elastomers II,” Compass Publications, La Mesa, CA, USA, 1994 /Pru95/ K. M. Pruett, “Chemical Resistance Guide for Metals and Alloys,” Compass Publications, La Mesa, CA, USA, 1995 /Ric92/ R. G. Richard and I. R. Shankland, “Flammability of Alternative Refrigerants,” ASHRAE Journal , 34(4):20,22-24, April 1992
/Ric10/ M. Richter, M. O. McLinden, and E. W. Lemmon, “Thermodynamic Properties of 2,3,3,3- Tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (R1234yf): p-rho-T Meas urements and an Equation of State,” Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, in press, 2010 /San96/ P. Sansalvadore, M. Zgliczynski, and F. Agricola, “Chemical-Physical Aspects in Refrigeration with Isobutane,” Applications for Natural Refrigerants (proceedings of the IIR Conference — meeting of Commissions B1 , B2, E1, and E2, Aarhus, Denmark, 3-6 September 1996), publication 1996-3, International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), Paris, France, 615-622, 1996 /Sek00/ A. Sekiya and S. Misaki, “Hydrofluoroethers as Alternatives to CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, and PFCs,” Conference Proceedings of the Earth Technologies Forum (Conference on Climate Change and Ozone Protection, Washington, DC, 30 October - 1 November 2000), International Climate Change Partnership and the Alliance for Responsible Atmospheric Policy, Arlington, VA, USA, 259-265, October 2000 /Sin95/ A. Singh, M. M. Ohadi, S. Dessiatoun, and W. Chu, “In-Tube Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficients of R-123 and their Enhancement Using the EHD Technique,” Journal of Enhanced Heat Transfer , 2(3):209-217, 1995 /Syr90/ Syracuse Research Corporation, “Toxico logical Profile for Ammonia,” report TP-90-03, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, USA, December 1990 /Tan09/ K. Tanaka, Y. Higashi, and R. Akasaka, “Measurements of the Isobaric Specific Heat Capacity and Density for HFO-1234yf in the Liquid State,” Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data , 55(2):901–903, 2010 /Tan10/ K. Tanaka and Y. Higashi, “Thermodynamic properties of HFO-1234yf (2,3,3,3- tetrafluoropropene),” International Journal of Refrigeration , 33(3):474-479, May 2010/Tho98a/ J. R. Thome, “Boiling and Evaporation of Fluorocarbon and Other Refrigerants: A Stateof-the-Art Review,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, October 1998
/Tho98b/ J. R. Thome, “Condensation of Fluorocarbon and Other Refrigerants: A State-of-the-Art Review,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, October 19982010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 48 /UNEP06/ “2006 Report of the Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee,” United Nations Environment Pr ogramme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya, January 2007 /UNEP09/ “Handbook for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Eighth Edition),” United Nations Environment Progr amme (UNEP), Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya, 2009 /UNEP10/ “Technology and Economic Assessment Panel 2010 Progress Report: Assessment of HCFCs and Environmentally Sound Alternatives and Scoping Study on Alternatives to HCFC Refrigerants under High Ambient Temperature Conditions,” Volume 1 (Decisions XXI-9 and XIX-8 Task Force Reports), Unit ed Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya, May 2010 /Wie09/ M. E. Wieser and M. Berglund for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances, “Atomic Weights of the Elements 2007 (IUPAC Technical Report),” Pure and Applied Chemistry , 81(11): 2131-2156, November 2009 /WMO10/ “Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010,” report 52, World Meteoro-logical Organization (WMO), Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project, Geneva, Switzerland; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Washington, DC, USA; National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Washington, DC, USA; United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya; and the European Commission, Research Directorate General, Brussels, Belgium; January 2011 (revised printed version in press with expected publication in March 2011)2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 49 

## Chapter 3

____________________________ ______________________________ Domestic Refrigeration

Chapter Lead Author Ed McInerney

Co-Authors Martien Janssen Paulo Vodianitskaia2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 50 

## 3 Domestic Refrigeration

3.1 Introduction

Approximately 100 million domestic refrigerator s and freezers ar e produced annually. Most of these are used for food stor age in dwellings. Beverage di spensing machin es represent a small fraction of these total units. Typical stor age volumes range from 20 to 850 liters/unit. Various fundamental design approaches and consumer convenience features are included within the product offerings. A typical product contains a factory-assembled, hermetically sealed, vapour-compression refrigeration syst em employing a 50 to 250 watt induction motor and containing 50 to 250 grams of refrigerant. Niche market products in some cases employ alternative technolo gies to vapour-compression refrigeration. The age distribution of the global installed products is extremely broad /W es97/ with median age estimates ranging from 9 to 19 years at retirement . Long product life and high volume annual production combine for an estimated 1500 to 1800 millio n unit global installed inventory.



### 3.2 Options for New Equipment

HFC-134a or HC-600a (isobutane) continue to be the options for domestic refrigeration new production. No new alternativ es have matured to become energy-effici ent, cost-competitive opportunities for these products. New, or original eq uipment manufacturing production conversion from use of ODS alternatives was e ssentially completed by 2008. The conversion trend and refrigerant selection is shown graphically in Figure 3-1. HC-290 usage in blends with HC-600a has been included with HC-600s usage in this Figure and data has not been normalised to be independent of production volumes. Refriger ant conversion to HC-600a is expected to continue, driven by conversion from HFC-134a usage. This is discussed below in section 3.2.1.1.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 51 Field service conversion to non-ODS alternatives continues to lag new product conversion. This is a consequence of long product life and the absence of drop-in substitutes for the refrigerants used in the pre-conversion productio n units still in service.

Future product configur ations will incorporate evolutionary energy effi ciency improvements. These will directly influen ce energy-related emissions. Design approaches for environmentally responsible product disposal or recycling at end-of-life retirement is also a topic of accelerating interest.



### 3.2.1 Refrigerant Options

As stated above, HFC-134a and HC-600a continue to be the options for domestic refrigeration new production. Throughout this chapter, HC-600a discussions include both HC-600a and binary blends of HC-600a and HC-290. In situations where capital resources are constrained, the use of binary hydrocarbon blends allow matching the volumetric capacity of previously used CFC-12 to avoid investments required to modify compressor manufacturing tools. These blends result in a small reduction in thermodynamic efficiency versus pure HC-600a and could migrate to use of pure HC-600a as capital funds become available. Two industrydynamics are of interest: (1) second-generation non-ODS refrigerant usage shift from HFC134a to HC-600a, and (2) preliminary suggestio ns of low GWP unsaturated fluorocarbons to displace HFC-134a usage. Binary hydrocarb on blends can also be used when converting from HFC-134a to hydrocarbon refrigerants to match the volumetric capacity of currently used compressors and avoid manufacturing investment.



### 3.2.1.1 Non-ODS Refrigerant Usage Conversion from HFC-134a to HC-600a

European production of American style refrigerators began conversion from HFC-134a to HC-600a in the early 2000’s. Initial conver sions of new productio n automatic defrost refrigerators in Japan from HFC-134a to HC-600a were discussed in the 2006 report of this committee /UNEP06/ It is estimated that th is conversion, motiva ted by global warming considerations, has progressed to include the majority of new refrig erator production in Japan.

Recently a major U.S. manufacturer announ ced its intent to in troduce auto-defrost refrigerators using HC-600a refr igerant to the U.S. market. This introduction represents a significant departure from current North American practices for domestic refrigeration. U.S. codes and standards interpretations and modifications required for broad use of HC-600a refrigerant are currently in process. Commercial introduction occurred during 2010. Concurrently, the number of HC-based refrigerator models offered by manufacturers based in countries such as Brazil is rising as well.

The trend of conversion to hy drocarbon refrigerants will con tinue in the opinion of the authors. Excluding any influence from gove rnment regulatory inte rvention, a ten-yearhorizon estimate is that 75% of new refrigerator producti on will use HC-600a and 25% will use HFC-134a by 2020 /UNEP10/. This estimate is based on the assumptions:

• All current HC-600a app lications will continue.

• One-half of HFC-134a applications in geographic areas where forced convection, auto defrost re frigerators are the typical configuration will convert to either HC-600a or a binary hydrocarbon blend having matched volumetric capacity to HFC-134a.

• Three-fourths of HFC-134a applications in geographic areas where natural convection and/or manual defrost refrigera tors are the typical configuration will convert to HC-600a or a binary hydrocarbon blend.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 52 • Conversions will be influe nced by regional market or climate change policy choices. Government regulatory influence was not considered.

• Substitution will be on an equal-molar basis, i.e. 100 grams of HFC-134a will be replaced by 57 grams of HC-600a.

Technology to accomplish conversions is readily available. The rate and extent of conversion will be influenced by premium product cost to maintain product safety with introduction of flammable refrigerants. Premium costs are introduced by modified electrical components, increased use of reduced voltage to avoid electrical arcing and any specified redundant safety devices. Cost pressures will be more significant on model offe rings with lower profit margins subject to erosion. These will typica lly be less-featured, lower-end models.

Conversion of currently installed refrigerators to refrigerants with different characteristics can be problematic. Conversion is not recommended without the oversight and endorsement of the original manufacturer.



### 3.2.1.2 Consideration of Low-GWP Un saturated Fluorocarbon Refrigerants

Chemical manufacturers developed low atmospheric life unsaturated HFC compounds to replace HFC-134a in automotive air conditioning applications. These unsaturated fluorocarbons are developmental products an d evaluation of their use in stationary applications has begun but is no t being pursued with high prior ity. A preliminary, theoretical assessment is that HFC-1234yf has the potentia l for comparable efficiency to HFC-134a in domestic refrigerators. Numero us application criteria have no t yet been addressed: thermal stability, hermetic system chemical comp atibilities, process fluid compatibilities, contamination sensitivities, etc. Long-term relia bility expectations for domestic refrigeration use are significantly more demanding than auto motive applications. Mu ch new information is required before this re frigerant can be established as a viable alternative candidate. However, the low GWP and reduced flam mability versus HC-600a ju stify continued attention.



### 3.2.2 Not-In-Kind Alternative Technologies

Alternative refrigeration technolo gies continue to be pursued for applications with unique drivers such as very low noise, portability or no access to electrical energy distribution network. Technologies of interest include Stirling cycle, absorption and adsorption cycles, thermoelectric, magnetic and trans-critical CO 2 . In the absence of unique drivers such as the examples cited above, no id entified technology is cost or efficiency competitive with conventional vapour-compression technology for mass-produced domestic refrigeration equipment. Absorption refrigera tion equipment has been used in hotel mini-bar units due to low noise levels and for mobile, off-network ap plications such as campers or mobile homes for many years. Thermoelectric or Stirling cycle technologies are used for portable refrigerated chests in applications such as medical transport. Equipment for trans-critical CO 2 use of Stirling cycle technology is develope d and available for lim ited quantity usage in applications such as packaged beverage vending machines. This technology is not considered a logical candidate for domestic refrigeration because of very small compressor swept volume requirements, reduced thermal efficiency and higher system cost versus current practice /Bee08/. Magnetic refrig eration is considered a conceptual development topic and is premature for consideration as a viable alternative. The remaining specialty niche product areas cited above would each require high ca pital investment to es tablish mass production capability. These product technolo gies will not be further discu ssed in this report focused on options for mass produced markets.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 53 3.2.3 Product Energy Efficiency Improvement Technologies

The energy efficiency of domestic refrigeration products is a topic of accelerating consumer and regulatory interest. Relative energy efficiency provides direct linkage to relative energyrelated global warming of refrigeration technology options via power consumed during the product useful life. A more extended discussion of efficiency improvement options was included in the 2002 report of this committee /UNE02/. A dditional comments are contained in reports under the Eco-Design Directive studies /Eco 06/. These studies provided capability background used for updating European minimum energy efficiency standards /EU09/.

Significant technology options to improve product energy efficiency have already demonstrated mass production feasibility and ro bust, long-term reliab ility. Both mandatory and voluntary energy efficiency regulation programs catalysed industry product efficiency development efforts. Various energy test procedures have the intent to predict consumer energy consumption. Though st andardisation activities aiming at a universal test protocol are in progress /IEC59M/, currently each test proced ure is unique and the re sults from one should never be directly compared to results from another. A number of improved energy efficiency design options are fully mature, and future improvements of these options are expected to be evolutionary. Examples of these options include efficient compressors, high efficiency heat exchangers, improved low thermal loss cabinet structures and gaskets, and less variable manufacturing processes. Extens ion of these to all global dome stic refrigera tion would yield significant benefit, but is gene rally constrained by availability of capital funds. Similarly, retooling compressor manufactur ing facilities would allow recove ry of the minor efficiency penalties incurred with the use of HC-600a/HC290 blends versus pure HC-600a.

Design options with less econom ic justification are sometimes introduced in premium-cost models having incentive subsidies. This provides the opportun ity to mature new efficiency technologies and progress them through their individual cost/experience curves. This increases the likelihood for migr ation of the efficiency techno logies to more cost-sensitive model line segments. Options th at presently have limited or newly introduced application include variable speed compressors ; intelligent controls; system r econfigurations, such as dual evaporators; advanced insula tion systems; and Demand Side Management (DSM) initiatives requiring interactive communica tion with energy providers. The premium-cost of these options currently restrict their application to high-end models and constrain their proliferation for general use.

• Variable capacity compressors avoid cy cle losses and iner tial losses through modulating capacity and compressor speed. Use of higher efficiency permanent magnet or linear motors is also enabled by electronic commutation controls.

• Intelligent, adaptive controls allow variable control algorithms that avoid optimising at seldom-experienced wo rst-case conditions.

• Parallel dual evaporators can improve Carnot theoretical efficiency by effectively reducing required pressure ratios of the higher temperature evaporator. Cost– effective, reliable and stable system cont rols need to be demonstrated.

• Advanced vacuum panel insulation concepts have been selectively used for several years in Japan, Western Europe and the United States. Their premium cost has constrained extension to general use.

• Power line load management initiatives re duce energy service pr ovider p eak load demands. Early embodiments created in termittent loss of pr oduct function and resulted in consumer dissatis faction. More recent de velopments provide utilitytriggered feature constraint or capacity reduction of the product.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 54 3.3 Options for Existing Equipment

Service conversion to non-ODS refrigerants ha s significantly lagged original equipmentconversion. The distributed, individual proprietor character of the service industry resists coordinated efforts to convert from ODS refrigerants. Field service procedures typically use originally specified refrigerants . Refrigerant blends developed specifically for use as drop-in service alternatives have had limited success. Their acceptance has been good in regions with mandatory service regulations pr omoting their use. Blend se lection appears to be more related to provider distribution strength than technical performance. The interested reader is referred to the 1998 report of this committee for an extended discussion of field repair and conversion options /UNEP98/. Ch apter 2 in this current report contains an updated listing of refrigerant blend options.

Non Article 5 countries completed conversions of new equipment production to non-ODS substances approximately 15 years ago. The final production ODS-containing products are now approaching the end of thei r life cycle, transitioning this to a sunset issue in these countries. In Article 5 countries, service demand for ODS re frigerants is expected to remain strong for more than ten-years as a result of their later conver sion to non-ODS refrigerants. Limited capital resources also fa vour rebuilding service options in Article 5 countries versus replacement by new equipment. This further delays installation of new production units employing non-ODS refrigerants. Rebuilding has the accompanying consequence of voiding the opportunity to significantly improve product energy efficiency and reduce stress on the power distribution grid. Unless there is gove rnmental intervention, service refrigerant demand for CFC-12 is expected to continue for legacy products.



### 3.3.1 Drop-In Conversion of In-Service Products

Drop-in conversion of existing in -service units to alternative re frigerants has been limited. Consumer safety consideration requires that any po tential for flammable fluid accumulation within an enclosed volume must avoid the potential within that volume for an electrical spark, electrical arc or surface temperat ure above the au to-ignition temperature of the leaked gas in air. The extent of in-service product modification to assure this is depe ndent upon the original product configuratio n. The original equipmen t manufacturer is most familiar with the product construction and should be consulted for required modifications prior to decision to proceed.

• Cold-wall-evaporator construc tions require leaking refriger ant to diffuse through the refrigerator inner liner or flow by convection through aper tures in the liner in order to accumulate within the cooled volume. There is a very low probability of significant gas accumulation. Additionally, electrical components located within the cooled volume are limited and consequently there is a low probab ility of an ignition source within the enclosed volume. Economical drop-in conversion of this configuration is alle ged to be viable by some spok esmen, but procedure definition by the original manufacturer should be sought prior to decision to proceed

• Thin-wall evaporators positioned within the cooled volume are a common construction for automatic-def rost refrigerators. Leakage of refrigerant can accumulate within the cooled volume and the risk of ignition is dependent on whether the rate of leakage is sufficient to result in a combustible mixture within the cooled volume. Additionally, electrical components are commonly located within the cooled volume -- thermostats, convectiv e fans, radiant defrost heaters, lights, icemakers, etc. – providing an elevated probability of an ignition so urce being present. The viability of a drop-in conversion will de pend upon the extent of original construction modification required to achieve an acceptable configuration.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 55 Again, conversion procedure definition by the original ma nufacturer is prudent and should be sought prior to decision to proceed.



### 3.4 End-of-Life Conservation and Containment Concerns

Domestic refrigerators typically contain 50 to 250 grams of refriger ant. The small unit charge and the geographically dispersed location of these units complicate commercial opportunities to promote recove ry and recycling initiatives to manage emissions from disposed units. Mandatory end-of-life refriger ant handling regulations have existed in many countries for several years. Ch apter 11 of this repo rt addresses this an d related conservation approaches.



### 3.5 Current Refrigerant Use

Domestic refrigeration annual re frigerant demand data are not reported but can be estimated using reasonable assumptions. Data required are historic a nnual unit production quantities, original equipment specified re frigerant and charge quantity information. Annual refrigerant demand for new equipment production has been calculated using this information and is summarised in Table 3-1. Fiel d service refrigerant demand estimates are significantly less certain and have not been included for that reason.



### 3.5.1 New Equipment Production

The conversion of domestic refrigeration original equipment manufacture to non-ODS refrigerants is summarised in Table 3-1. Transition to non- ODS refrigerants in original equipment manufacture is essen tially complete. Sixty-three percent of current production uses HFC-134a refrigerant, 36% uses either HC-600a or an HC-600a/HC-290 blend and 1% uses other refrigerants, primarily HCFC-22 or HFC-152a.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 56 Table 3-1 Estimated 1992 to 2008 Production of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers by Refrigerant Type

Global Region Year New Unit Production , Units New Unit Refrigerant Use, Tonnes

CFC12 HFC134a HC600a 1 Other 2 Total CFC12 HFC134a HC600a 1 Other 2 TOTAL

Weatern Europe 1992 16.3 16.3 2280 2280 1996 11.2 6.1 17.3 1220 410 1630 2000 8.2 11.3 19.5 890 760 1650 2004 3.5 16.4 19.9 380 1080 1480 2008 3.6 19.2 22.8 390 1260 1650

Eastern Europe 1992 7.5 7.5 1500 1500 1996 2.8 3.2 6.0 320 370 690 2000 0.7 2.1 0.3 0.1 3.2 140 260 30 20 450 2004 1.7 2.6 4.3 210 210 420 2008 3.3 5.0 8.3 410 400 810

North America 1992 11.6 11.6 1750 1750 1996 12.5 12.5 2290 2290 2000 13.6 13.6 2420 2420 2004 17.1 17.1 3150 3150 2008 16.1 16.1 2970 2970

Central & South America 1992 4.0 4.0 600 600 1996 8.2 8.2 1280 1280 2000 1.4 6.1 7.5 230 1360 1590 2004 8.4 8.4 1850 1850 2008 12.6 12.6 2640 140 2780

Asia & Oceania 1992 18.7 0.5 19.2 3160 80 3240 1996 14.0 9.5 0.2 1.6 25.1 2270 1520 20 200 4010 2000 9.7 9.2 4.4 1.2 24.5 1570 1470 440 150 3630 2004 2.2 15.7 8.3 1.5 27.7 360 2530 830 190 3910 2008 25.9 12.9 1.5 40.3 4170 1290 190 5650

Africa & Mid-East 1992 5.2 5.2 840 840 1996 3.4 0.7 4.1 590 120 710 2000 2.8 0.9 3.7 490 150 640 2004 0.8 3.8 4.6 140 640 780 2008 4.3 4.3 880 880

World Totals 1992 63.3 0.5 63.8 10130 80 10210 1996 28.4 37.1 6.3 1.6 73.4 4460 5520 430 200 10610 2000 14.6 40.1 16.0 1.3 72.0 2450 6550 1230 170 10400 2004 3.0 50.2 27.3 1.5 82.0 500 8760 2120 190 11570 2008 65.8 37.1 1.5 104.4 11460 3090 190 14740

Footnotes: 1 Includes HC-600a + HC-290 blends 2 HCFC-22 and HFC-152a



### 3.5.2 Field Service

Data are not available to reason ably predict global refrigerant demand for field service. First order estimates with assumed service rates from industry service sources suggest 3 to 5 kilotonnes total annual demand. Approximately one-half of this demand is estimated to be ODS refrigerant to service legacy products in the field. The re maining demand is expected to be for non-ODS refrigerants used to service products manufactured following new equipment production conversions. New pr oduct refrigerant service demand will be propor tional to the various new product refrigerant demands.

As mentioned above, transitio n from ODS refrigerants in non-Article 5 countries was completed over 15 years ago. ODS service refrigerant demand in these countries is significantly reduced since the elapsed time following the conversion is comparable to the typical product life span. The limited residual ODS refrigerant service de mand is served with recovered and recycled original charge refrigerant. Service blends are used where adequate recycled ODS refrigerant supply is not available or regulations preclude the use of ODS. The remaining majority of service demand is fo r non-ODS refrigerants to service products produced after the transition fr om ODS refrigerants. This demand is served with newly manufactured refrigerant.

Conversion of new equipment production to no n-ODS refrigerants in Article 5 countries occurred over a span of two to fifteen years ago. This later conversion extends the service transition issue in th ese countries. Service re frigerant demand is expect ed to continue to be for originally specifie d refrigerants: CFC-12 for legacy product and either HFC-134a or HC600a and HC-290 for new production. CFC-12 demand for prod uct service will continue to be strong for another decade and then diminish over the subsequent decade. ODS refrigerants2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 57 will continue to be used wh ile they are availa ble and economic. The dispersed and uncoordinated nature of the se rvice industry limits opportun ities to develop an effective recovery and recycling supply stream. Mandatory service regulations could promote use of drop-in replacement refrigerants and reduce emissions of ODS refrigerants.



### 3.5.3 Future Refrigerant Demand Implications

Refrigerant demand for do mestic refrigeration use is expect ed to continue to grow slowly, driven by product saturation incr ease in Article 5 countries and the growing number of global dwelling units. Two factors are an ticipated to alter re frigerant selection an d influence relative demands plus there is always the remote poss ibility for new developmen ts to modify demand in a discontinuous manner.

Second generation non-ODS refrigerant migration from HFC-134a to HC-600a in new product production is occurring as a resu lt of the GWP difference between the two alternatives. This migration be gan in Japan several years ago and was recently introduced on a limited basis in the United States. No new t echnology is re quired and the trend will likely proliferate. The rate and extent of prolifera tion will be influenced by the relative cost for HFC-134a and HFC-600a produc ts. Current estimates indicat e premium cost results from design changes to allow the use of flammable refri gerants in automatic defr ost refrigerators. This suggests that voluntary mi gration across all product lines is not likely in countries with high litigation frequency.

Second generation conversion from HC-600a/HC-290 blends to pure HC-600a could result from desires for improved product energy efficiency. No new technology would be required. Efficiency differences are small and controversial. Economic or energy efficiency drivers alone may not be sufficient to justify this co nversion. Charging method simplification and compressor component standardisation for hydrocar bon usage are added benefit opportunities.

The integrated implications of historic refrigerant demand ar e summarised in the refrigerant bank discussion in the Annex of this report /Pal03, Clo06, CEP09/. The 2006 update of these data continue to demonstrate domestic refrigeration bank growth. The data indicate an 11% typical 3-year growth rate for the bank in Article 5 countries and a 3% ty pical 3-year growth rate in non-Article 5 countries. The aggregate domes tic refrigerant ba nk in 2006 was estimated to be 153,000 tonnes: 40% CFC-12, 54% HFC-134a and 6% HC-600a. Approximately 53%of the bank re sides in Article 5 countries an d 47% resides in non-Article 5 countries. The composition of the bank reflects growth of HFC and HC refrigerants and decline of CFC refrigerants, co nsistent with substitution of no n-ODS refrigerants for CFCs. An estimated 71% of residual CFCs in th e bank reside in Ar ticle 5 countries.



### 3.5.4 Future Refrigerant Emission Implications

The 2006 aggregate domestic refrigeration emissions, including end of life emissions, were estimated to be 9619 tonnes, or 6.8% of the total domestic refrigeran t bank. Emissions were 77% CFC-12, 21% HFC-134a and 2% HC-600a. Since trans ition from use of CFC-12 in new production is complete, nearly all of the CFC emissions originate from the existing bank of legacy refrigerators. Geograph ic distribution of these emission s will be biased toward Article 5 countries since they hold the majority of the bank /CEP09/, have higher equipment repair rates /UNEP98/ and longer pr oduct lifetimes /CEP09/.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 58 The emissions trend to non-ODS alternatives from th e refrigerant bank is heavily damped. This sluggish response results from the 1500 to 1800 million unit installed base and long product life. Refrigerant systems are hermetically sealed during manufacture; and the majority of these units never require se aled system service. This intrinsic reliability results in emissions being dominated by en d-of-life disposition. This suggests management of CFC-12 potential emissions from legacy refrigerators may be the la rgest domestic refrigeration opportunity for emission avoidance.



### 3.6 References

/Bee08/ M. van Beek and M. Janssen, “R-744 compared to R-290 in small freezer applications,” 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on National Working Fluids, Copenhagen, 2008. /CEP09/ Domestic refrigeration refrigerant bank updated data through 2006. Authors, CEP, Ecole des Mines, December 2009. /Eur01/ Euromonitor International Inc. “Global Appliance Information System,” February 2009, http://www.euromonitor.com

. /Eco06/ Eco-design requirements of EuP. Domestic Refrigerator and Freezer Directive Studies, July 2006, http://www.ecocold-domestic.org. /EU09/ European Commission regulation (IEC) No. 643/2009 of 22 July 2009 implementing Directive 2005/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to ecodesign requirements for household refrigerating appliances.

/IEC59M/ “Performance of electrical household and similar cooling and freezing appliances.” /SAE08/ SAE CRP1234, “Industry Evaluation of Low Global Warming Potential Refrigerant HFO1234yf,” (December 2008).

/Tur07/ 2 nd International Workshop on Mobile Air Conditioning and Auxiliary Systems, Torino, Italy, “HFO-1234yf: A Low GWP Refrigerant for MAC,” (November 2007). /UNEP98/ UNEP 1998 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, Chapter 3, Domestic Refrigeration (1998 Assessment). /UNEP02/ UNEP 2002 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, Chapter 3, Domestic Refrigeration (2002 Assessment). UNEP06/ UNEP 2006 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, Chapter 3, Domestic Refrigeration (2006 Assessment). /UNEP10/ UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Task Force Decision XXI/9 Report, “Assessment of HCFC’s and Environmentally Sound Alternatives Paragraph 2C,” (May 2010). /Wes97/ Roy W. Weston Inc., Recycling Rate Determinant Study – Phase 1 Report, Norcross, Georgia (1997).2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 59 

## Chapter 4

____________________________ ______________________________ Commercial Refrigeration

Chapter Lead Author Denis Clodic

Co-Authors Michael Kauffeld Peter Nekså Per-Henrik Pedersen Roberto Peixoto2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 60 

## 4 Commercial Refrigeration

4.1 Introduction

Commercial refrigeration is characterised by storing and displaying food and beverages at different levels of temperatur e within retail environments. The refrigerating capacities of equipment vary from some hundred Watts to 1.5 MW. Refrigerant choices are depending on the two main levels of temp eratures necessary for the conservation of fresh food and beverages on one hand, and frozen food on the other hand. The more compact the equipment, the better the refrigerant containment. Centralised systems used in large supermarkets are the most emissive due to the large number of jo ints, expansion valves, and the possible failures due to oil return, corrosion, and vibr ations. HCFC-22 represents still the largest refrigerant bank in commercial refrigeration and is used at all temperature levels. . Research and field tests have been carried out aiming at defining new technical options in order to use refrigerants with zero ODP and low GWP, to keep at least the same energy efficiency for the new systems, to improve their leak tightne ss, and to lower the refrigerant charges.



### 4.2 Application

4.2.1 Equipment and Systems

Commercial refrigeration is composed of three main categories of equipment: stand-alone equipment, condensing units, and supermarket systems.

Stand-alone equipment consists of systems wher e all refrigeration comp onents are integrated and, for the smallest types, the refrigeration circuit is entirely brazed or welded. Stand-alone equipment, including freezers, vending machines, and beverage coolers, are extensively used in many Article 5 countries.

For developing countries, domestic refrigerating equipment, refrigerators and freezers can be found in small shops and are used for commercial purposes. Stand-alone equipment emits its refrigerant charge mainly at end of life when decommissioning, if no stringent recovery policy is in place and enforced.

Condensing units exhib it refrigerating capacities ranging typically from 1 kW to 20 kW, they are composed of one (or two) compressor(s), one condenser, and one receiver assembled into a so-called “condensing unit”, which is located external to the sales area. The cooling equipment consists of one or more display case(s) in the sales area and/or a small cold room. Condensing units are typically in stalled in specialty shops such as bakeries, butcher shops, and convenience stores. In a number of small supermarkets, one can find a large number of condensing units (typically up to 20) installed side-by-side in a small machinery room. In most of the A5 countries, the use of systems employing condensing units is very extensive. Annual emission rates are estimated between 7 and 12%.

Centralised systems are the preferred option in supermarkets. They operate with racks of compressors installed in a machinery room (see figure 4-1). A number of possible designs exist. Two main design options are used: direct and indirect systems.

Direct systems are the most widespread. The re frigerant circulates from the machinery room to the sales area, where it evaporates in display-case heat exchangers, and then returns in vapour phase to the suction headers of the compressor racks. The supermarket cold rooms are cooled similarly.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 61 Figure 4-1: Multiple compressor racks in machinery rooms for medium and low temperature display-cases / Clo08/

In the machinery room, racks of multiple comp ressors are installed w ith common suction and discharge lines, and each rack is usually associated with an air-cooled condenser. Specific racks are dedicated to low temperature and others to medium temperature. Each refrigerant circuit of each rack is independent. Supermarket centralised systems with long piping circuits have led to large refr igerant charges (100 to 3,000 kg depending on the size of the supermarket) and consequently led to large losses when ruptures occur. Some commercial companies have studied /Ets07/ and taken measur es in order to limit refrigerant leaks; their report show how they reduce emissions from 25% annual emission level to about 12%. So the typical emission rates of sm all supermarkets vary between 15 and 25% and those of large supermarkets between 20 and 35%. These figures represent, in general, the non-Article 5 situation. The emission rates for most of the Article 5 countrie s are much higher.

Figure 4-2: Indirect system with MPG (Mono-propylene-glycol) at the medium temperature level and R-744 at th e low temperature level / Clo08/

Indirect systems (see Figure 4-2) are composed of primary heat exchangers where a heat transfer fluid - HTF (also called secondary refrigerant) - is cooled and pumped to the display cases where it absorbs heat, and then comes back to the primary heat exchanger. HTFs have received much interest in recent years because indirect systems allow for a lower primary refrigerant charge and fa cilitate the use of flammable or toxi c refrigerants when isolated from the sales area /Rhi09/. Other designs including the so-called distributed systems and hybrid systems have been developed (see section 4.5.3).2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 62 4.2.2 Data on Outlets a nd stand-alone equipment

Commercial refrigeration encompasses equipment installed in hotels, bars, restaurants, gas stations, train platforms, speciality shops (butch ers, fishmongers, deli shops...), convenience stores and supermarkets. The sizes of the stores depend on opening hours, social habits, road infrastructure, and type of habitat. In 2006, the number of supermarkets world-wide is estimated at 280,000 covering a wide span of sales areas varying from 400 m 2 to 20,000 m 2 (among them 10,000 very large supermarkets with food sales areas varying between 2,000 and 5,000 m 2 ).

Note: Available data are coming from marketing studies where the type of outlets is defined in different ways depending on the study. The data imply uncertainties on the level of refrigerating equipment especially in fast developing countries.

World-wide in 2006, the number of mini-markets is estimated at 4 million where condensing units are mostly used. Condensing units are also used in many other stores; their number is estimated at 34 million units.

The number of food retail stor es is estimated at 9.8 million where stand-alone equipment and even domestic refrigerators and freezers are found. In 2006, the population of vending machines and other stand-alone equipment is evaluated at 20.5 and 32 million units, respectively.

Based on those data, the refrigerant bank in 2006 was estimated at 340,000 MT and was distributed as follows:

 46% in centralised systems;

 47% in condensing units, and

 7% in stand-alone equipment.

The estimated sharing of refrig erants per type is about 15% CFCs, which are still in use in Article 5 countries, 62% HCFCs the dominant re frigerant bank and still for many years, and 23% HFCs that have been introduced in new equipment in Europe and Japan as of 2000 .

Note: In 2006, HCs mainly introduced in stan dalone equipment are not visible in terms of refrigerant bank.



### 4.3 Options for New Equipment

Complementary to information on refrigerant choices, issues on energy conservation and energy efficiency will be briefly addressed in order to underline po ssible advantages and drawbacks of refrigerant choices on energy efficiency.

4.3.1 Stand- 

### A lone 

### E quipment

The main families of stand-alone equipment are vending mach ines, ice makers, ice cream freezers, water fountains, and plug-in display cases.

Part of stand-alone equipment such as wine-coolers, professional kitchen refrigerators and freezers, and hotel mini-bars, is based on the same technology as domestic refrigerators and freezers. Consequently the technical options of these series of equipment are analysed in Chapter 3, and similar trend of replacement of HFC-134a by hydrocarbons (HC-) is observed but for standalone equipment HC-290 is the refrigerant of choice rather than HC-600a.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 63 Other types of stand-alone equipment have a specific design: water coolers, ice makers, vending machines, and display cases, and are covering also several levels of temperatures.

For food and beverages kept at temperatures ra nging from +1 °C up to 10 °C, HFC-134a is the dominant refrigerant, replaced by HC-600a and HC-290 in some families of equipment where generally the refrigerant charge is small lower than 150 g for most manufacturers even if some European brands commercialise equipment with Hydrocarbon charge up to 1 kg and even 2.5 kg depending on national regulation. For other companies R-744 is the preferred refrigerant choice.

Ice Cream freezers

For ice cream freezers, R-404A as well as HFC-134a has been the standard design since 1995; the switch from HFC refrigerant to propane (HC-290) is steady. The lifetime of the equipment is about 10 years, The estimated installed base using HC is of 500,000.

Water Fountains

Water fountains for both bottle d water and tap water are in stalled in office buildings, supermarkets, etc. They are installed with a small compressor refrigeration system and so far HFC-134a is the most used refrigerant. Typi cal HFC-134a charge is about 40 g. Some companies are now introducing HC-600a with refrigerant charge as low as 20 g and the market share of those HC systems is growing. 25% of the installed base in 2010 is estimated to be using HC-600a taking in to account a life time of 10 years and knowing the current policies of the large global companies.

Ice Machines

A large number of ice machines are installed in restaurants, bars, and hotels. Several sizes are available and refrigeration capac ities vary from 1 to 10 kW, w ith refrigerant charge varying accordingly from some hundred grams to 1 kg. Company policies as well as country regulations will lead to different refrigeran t choices: HFC-134a, hydrocarbons and possibly R-744. So far, HFC-134a is globally the dominant choice.

Vending Machines

The cooling capacity of vending machines is about 600 W for rapid cooling of cans. HFC134a is the standard refrigerant in vending machines. One global company has chosen R-744 as a refrigerant. This new R-744 system is in stalled inside a plug-in/pull-out cassette and its energy efficiency, as measured, is as good as the reference HFC systems up to 32°C ambient temperature. One global company has taken th e commitment that all new equipment will be HFC free as of 2015. Several others are following the same path. R600a appliances have also been developed, but its applica tion is limited to certain styles of construction.R-744 and HC vending machines are taking a significant market share in Japan. One OEM has developed a not-in-kind Stirling refrigeration prototype for vending machines. The energy efficiency of this new system was better than the reference vapour compression base line, but the cost was considered too high by customer companies and so this system did not reach the market.

Glass-Door Coolers

Glass-door bottle coolers can be found in superm arkets, convenience stores , gas stations etc. The most common type is the on e-door 400-litre-type. Glass-do or coolers are often installed by a soft drink company.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 64 Currently, HFC-134a is the standard choice. Since 2000, several thousand units have been installed in Europe using mostly HC-600a and, for some brand names, HC-290. Some global companies have rather chosen R-744 systems fo r their bottle coolers.

Plug-in Display Cabinets

The use of plug-in display cabinets is increasin g in small and medium size supermarkets. This choice is made because plug-in cabinets are cheaper and more flexible than remote display cabinets connected to a centralised system . In warm climate co untries and in general during the hot season, the heat released by the condenser of each and every plug-in cabinet in the sales area has to be remove d by an air-conditioning system, wh ich has to be designed with a significant larger cooling capacity. On the other hand, in colder climates such as Northern Europe, the heat rejected by the condenser and compressor is useful in heating the store and can be regarded as heat recovery in the cold season. So far, R-404A refrigerant is the standard choice, and the charge per unit varies from 220 g up to 3 kg. Especially in Germany, UK and the Northern European countries plug-in display cabinets running on HC-290 are gaining market share. Several German supermarket chains only purchase HC plug in cabinets /Rhi09/.

There has been conversion of production facilities from HCFC and HFC to HC for standalone commercial refrigeration equipment in Article 5 countries for the domestic market /GTZ09i/.

In many Article 5 countries, even in large supermarkets, plug-in cabinets are preferred to remote cabinets connected to a centralised system. The evident drawback is that plug-in cabinets are releasing all heat inside the sales area and either the AC system has to be designed in order to ab sorb this additional heat load or the temperatur e inside the supermarket can reach very high values (above 30 °C and sometimes above 40 °C) leading to a poor capability of plug-in cabinets to keep the products at the righ t temperature. Moreover, the overall energy efficiency of supermarkets using pl ug-in cabinets is low due to the fact that the energy efficiency of small motor-compressors is lower than medium and large size
compressors.
For all stand-alone equipment, energy conservation standards can be and are being issued or revisited because laborato ry tests can be performed in order to assess refrigerating capacities and electric input power, and so establishing equipment energy efficiency. The base line energy consumption can be established, engineering analyses can be performed, and improvements can be targeted. Regulations as well as electricity costs are the drivers for significant improvements of energy efficiency, th e market being driven by initial costs so far.

It is estimated that all refrigerants banked in stand-alone equipment represent an amount of about 38,000 tonnes, emission levels during the lifetime is estimated fr om 1 to 5 % depending on servicing quality, co rrosion and day to day handling of goods . Due to the compact refrigeration circuit, leaks at the beginning of the life cycle of the equipment are well handled; the number of joints being mini mal or even nil (all brazed or welded circuit). The critical issues are related to corrosion, equipment day-to-day handling, and aggressive cleaning leading to possible circuit ruptures. Em issions occur essentia lly at end of life decommissioning.

In summary, HFC-134a fulfils the technical constraints in te rms of reliability and energy performance for stand-alone equipment. In many developed countries GWP of HFC-134a is more and more considered as prohibitive in rela tion to refrigerant emissions, so HC refrigerants and R-744 are gaining significant market shares in Europe and Japan. In the near future, unsaturated HFC such as HFC-1234yf co uld be considered as an option, the retrofit from HFC-134a to this new refr igerant expected as being rather simple even if long-term reliability has to be assessed /See 10/.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 65 4.3.2 Condensing 

### U nit 

### S ystems

Condensing units are found in many convenience stores and food specialist stores for cooling a small cold room and one or several display cases. The technology can be considered as a mass production one with usually hermetic co mpressors, sometimes semi-hermetic ones. Condensing unit is a well spread option in Ar ticle 5 countries. Even in supermarkets, especially in some Article 5 countries, several racks of condensing units are installed side-byside in small machinery rooms. Condensing units are less energy efficient, compared to a well-designed small-centralised system but condensing units are chosen for initial cost reasons, easiness of installation, an d are found ready to install.

The cooling capacity varies from 1 to 20 kW mostly at medium temperature and the refrigerant charge varies from 1 to 5 kg for HCFCs or HFCs. HCFC-22 is still the most used refrigerant in the U.S. and in all Article 5 countries. Ne w equipment can use HFC-134a, HCFC-22, R-404A, R-407C, R-507, R-410A other HFC and HCFC blends, HC refrigerants and R-744. HFC-134a, HCFC-22 and R-404A are the dominant refrigerants. In Europe, due to the E.U. regulation, a sh ift from HCFC-22 to R-404A or sometimes R-507A has occurred as of 2000. R-404A is the leading choice also for cost reasons; the condensing units using this refrigerant are cheaper compared to HFC-134a units of the same cooling capacity because of smaller compressor. Neverthe less in hot climate and for me dium temperature applications, HFC-134a is used due to its better energy performances at high ambient temperatures compared to R-404A.

Condensing units are always designed as direct expansion systems, and so their environmental impacts are related to refr igerant choice and energy efficiency.

What is described for stand-alone equipment is also verified for condensing units when the units are replacing larger compressors. As stated previously, this non-efficient solution in terms of energy consumption is chosen due to in vestment cost reasons and to the availability of condensing units everywhere in the world. Moreover, these condensing units are also produced in large series in Ar ticle 5 countries avoiding the im port of large size compressors.

4.3.3 Supermarket Systems

Centralised systems

For large supermarkets, the dominant design is the so-called centralised system where all the compressor racks are installed in a single ma chinery room. This co ncept has led to the installation of up to se veral kilometres of piping, containi ng refrigerant in liquid phase from the machinery room to the sales area and refrigerant in vapour phase back from the sales area to the machinery room. The size of centralised systems can vary from refrigerating capacities of about 20 kW to more than 1 MW re lated to the size of the supermarket.

The refrigerating capacities are ge nerated by independent racks of compressors at two main levels of evaporating temperatures -40 / -35°C for frozen food (and ice-creams) and -15 / - 10°C for fresh food (dairy, meat etc.). Low-temperature racks represent about 10 to 30% of the refrigerating capacities and so the medium-temperature racks represent 70 to 90% of the total refrigerating capa cities. In terms of energy cons umption, the low- temperature racks consume 20 to 35% of the total energy consumption due to lower energy efficiency related to the level of temperature. The refrigerant charges are related to the refrigerating capacity and store layout. For large su permarkets (food sales area larger than 3,000 m 2 ) with current direct expansion centralised systems, the refrigerant charge varies from 800 kg to 2 tonnes.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 66 Heat recovery for heating the store typically requires a 4-way valve on each condensing circuit and also dedicated heat exchangers in order to recover the condensation capacity during the heating season; this en ergy is usually released to the environment by the air cooled condensers. This possible design is popular in cold regions in the USA and in some European countries, . The circuit is more complicated, the refrigerant charge is higher by at least 20%. This technical option has to be studied in terms of return on investment , level of refrigerant emissions and servicing. For mode rate and hot climates this optio n is not selected due to the added complexity and the low he ating needs that hamper the return on investment. Other simpler designs are found in Europe, especially in the northern countr ies where domestic hot water is produced by de-super heating the refrigerant before entering the condenser. A new system design mostly introduced in small supermarkets integrat es the cooling / heating system of the shop with the refrigeration system, making an interesting example of a holistic approach for energy management.

In order to simplify servicing in the current centralised design, most of the commercial companies, except in Japan, has chosen to us e the same refrigerant at the two levels oftemperatures. This choice is arguable because as an example HFC-134a or R-407C and R717 are more efficient as refrigerants at the medium-temperature level compared to R-404Aand on the contrary R-404A or R-744 are the most efficient refrigerants at the lowtemperature level. As always the design of the system defines the effective energy efficiency and so efficient design can be found even with a less efficient refrigerant. Nevertheless, in terms of choice of refrigerant, one can keep in mind that refrigerants could be different for the medium-temperature level and for the low-temperature level giving a larger number of technical options when environmental impact s of refrigerants ha ve to be limited.

One of the major consequences of making sepa rate choices for refrigerants dedicated to the low-temperature and to the medium-temperature is that R-744 can be the preferred choice at the low-temperature level in a cascade design and the choice for the medium-temperature level is under evaluation in de veloped countries depending on global warming, costs, and easiness of use. In parallel to refrigerant evaluation, technical options have been developing since nearly 15 years in order to lower the refrigerant charge by the development of indirect systems and distributed systems.

Distributed Systems

This technical alternative has been studied and r ealised as of 2000. Th e concept is to install the compressors close to the display cases either inside or very close to the sales area.

Figure 4-3: Distributed system where a single package refrigerating system provides refrigeration to a series of display cases / Clo08/

This design is more practical for the typical US layout of supermarkets where most of the medium-temperature display cases are installed near by the walls and not in aisles, as it is usual in Europe. The reference design of distributed system integrates water condensers in a2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 67 soundproof box with the compressor(s). The water, used as a coolant in the condensers, is cooled usually by roof-mounted dry coolers. The refrigerant charge can be reduced by more than 50% and up to 75%. While at the same time leakage rates are reduced due to fewer joints.

The energy efficiency of such a system has to be carefully analysed. Energy gains can be made due to the huge reduction of piping length and thereby reduced pressure losses, but the compressors are smaller and so their energy efficiencies are usually lower. Moreover, an additional difference of temperature is created when using water-cooled conden sers that are releasing their heat in air-dry coolers. The complexity of the comparison between the baseline (centralised system) and the new distributed system is enhanced when changing the refrigerant (HFCs, HCs, or R-744 compared to R-22); so a wide variation of performances can be found in the technical literature. Distributed systems ar e still not a widespread option and are mainly installed in new US supermarkets with HFC refrigerants.

It has to be noted that indire ct-distributed systems have been developed in UK. The system uses hydrocarbon as a refrigerant and a heat transfer fluid for transferring heat from the display cases to the evaporator.

Indirect Systems

Indirect systems represent a small market share of new installations and they replace direct expansion centralised syst ems in supermarkets. This option has been developed in Europe as of 1995 and has expanded initially slowly. It has to be no ticed that several US commercial chains have decided since 2006 to install indirect systems. The driver to change from usual direct expansion systems is the significant reduc tion of refrigerant charges (50 to 85 %) and a much better refrigerant containment.

Depending on the country, R-404A or R-507, sometimes R-717, HCs (HC-290 or HC-1270), and R-744 are used as primary refrigerants in the refrigerating system en tirely installed in the machinery room. Due to high latent heat of vaporisation a nd low liquid density, the ammonia (R-717) charge can be 10% of the usual HFC refrigerant charge. Such systems can be installed in special machinery ro oms with safety features allo wing high ven tilation rates in case of significant leaks.

The same applies to HC refrig erants with charge typically 10% of the direct system HFC reference charge. For safety reasons, the refrigerant circuits are separated in several independent ones, limiting the refrigerant charge of each sy stem /IPCC05/.

Many indirect systems have been designed, still using R-404A as primary refrigerant in the machinery room, the reduction of the charge yields to significant reduction of the environmental impact.

Well-designed indirect systems can be as effi cient as well-designed direct systems due tobetter heat exchange in the air coils, but heat transfer fluids (HTF) such as mono-propyleneglycol (MPG) used in indirect systems need special attention, especially at low temperatures where pumping power may be excessive. Altern ative HTFs exist which have lower viscosity at low temperatures. Nonetheless, indirect sy stems are nowadays mainly built for the Medium Temperature range. Also the pumps have to be carefully chosen in order to avoid significant additional energy consumption.

For indirect systems, R-744 as HTF is mainly used in low-temperature display cases and cold rooms. R-744 is partially evaporated in the display-case evaporators, returns in two-phase flow to the primary evaporator in the machinery room, where R-744 is fully condensed or “liquefied”, and then pumped back to the display cases. Such design is energy efficient2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 68 because there is no superheat zone at the exit of each evaporator. The only threat for indirect systems using R-744 is the possible release of the entire R-744 charge related to a lack of cooling due to an incident on the refrigerating system. The R-744 pressure increases progressively with the lack of co oling and is related to the temperature in the circuit. If the safety valve is set around 3 MPa (which is usual), the opening of the safety valve will occur when the temperature of the coldest part of the system is about – 5 °C leading to a release of R-744.

More generally, indirect systems are linking all cooling elements one to the others, which in case of a significant failure le ads to the complete loss of refr igeration and the possible loss of food. The current multiple-r ack centralised system offers the possibility of limiting the incident on a single rack, the other ones bein g capable to provide the complementary cooling during the repair. Special charge limitation rules have led to a similar design for indirect systems in Sweden. Namely racks of individual refrigeration systems, all cooling the same indirect loop. Up to 20 such racks are insta lled in large Swedish su permarkets. One German discount chain has announced that they will on ly purchase indirect hydrocarbon systems for their new supermarkets.

A drawback of indirect systems is related to the necessary insu lation of all piping in order to avoid humidity condensation an d icing. Valves and pumps can present di fficulties for efficient insulation and may beco me ice blocks with water drip ping continuously around the ice blocks; moreover, for liqui d HTF used at the medium-tem perature level, quantities are enormous representing several metric tonnes, and possible leaks of HTF are difficult to diagnose especially in the display cases. All those lessons learnt from the existing indirect systems are to be tackled by improved designs.

Hybrid and Cascading Systems

Hybridisation between direct and indirect systems can be found in the current technical offerings (one example is show n in figure 4-4) with a limite d additional cost if any.

Figure 4-4: Hybrid system comprising a R-744 cascade at the low temperature level and a secondary system at the medium temperature level / Clo08/2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 69 R-744 is no more a HTF but a refrigerant used in a cascade system. The overall design consists in a low-temperature compressor rack with R-744 compressors working between an evaporating pressure of 1.2 MPa (evaporating temperature around –35°C) and a condensing pressure of 2.5 MPa (condensing temperat ure at –12°C) possibly 3 MPa (condensing temperature at –5.5 °C), and so keeping the tubing and the components under the 2.5 or 3 MPa pressure threshold, which are the thresholds of current technologies. The consequence is that the costs are kept similar between R-744 and HFC systems. For larger stores (above 2500

m 2 sales area) the use of R-744 in cascade system is even more cost effective due to smaller pipe dimensions.

In a hybrid system, the condensation of the R-744 low-temperature stage is made by either exchanging heat with the heat transfer fluid us ed at the medium-temperature stage or by the evaporation of the medium temperature refrigerant in an evaporator – condenser as shown in figure 4-4, so that the heat of the R-744 system is delivered at the medium-temperature stage and then released outdoor by the medium-tem perature vapour compression system. This concept has been installed in ve ry large supermarkets and is cl aimed to meet the same initial costs as R-404A direct systems, because the R-404A charge is reduced from 1.5 tonne to less than 250 kg. This design is in competition with full cascading systems presented in the following section. Such systems are starting to be used in some Article 5 countr ies, for example see /GTZ09ii/. Another variation is the use of a high temperat ure HTF circuit which is fed to water-cooled condensing units positioned with in medium and low temperature display cases and next to cold stores. This enable s the minimisation of refrigerant ch arge within the retail area (figure 4-5), thereby allowing the use of HCs. At l east one supermarket chain is now using this approach /ACR09/.

Two stage R-744 booster systems

The most up-to-date design of R-744 refrigeration system employs R-744 both for the low temperature and the medium temperature range. One common design is the one described in Fig 4-1, another is that the compressors for the low temperature stage are cascaded with those of the medium temperature stage, figure 4-5. This design is becoming popular in Central and Northern Europe where it exhibits lower energy consumption on a yearly basis compared to usual centralised systems. For high outdoor temperatures, R-744 is no longer condensed in the outdoor air cooled condenser due to R-744 low critical temperature of 32 °C. The energy efficiency can be lower than that of a comparable R404A sy stem during this transcritical operation. This is the re ason why such systems have only be en installed in moderate climates. One German discount chain has announced th at it will only purcha se R-744 refrigeration systems from January 2010 on and various UK supermarkets have given similar such commitments /Kau07/. Figure 4-5: All-R-744 centralised refrigeration system /Rhi09/.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 70 Current Centralised systems
HCFC-22 is now being phased-out in new insta llations in all develope d countries, Europe having begun as of 2000. HCFC-22 repres ents still the largest refrigerant bank in supermarkets and hypermarkets in the U.S., in Russia, and in al most all A5 countries. For new systems, the dominant choice is R-404A for all non-Article 5 co untries except some Northern European countries. For example in Norway and Denmark, due to the high level oftaxes on R-404A, nearly all new centralised systems (40 to 70 each year) are working with R744 at the low and the medium level temperat ures. In addition, Denm ark has prohibited the use of HFC in systems with more than 10 kg refrigerant charge. Consequently many non-HFC systems are being built. In UK and Germa ny even without high taxes on high GWP refrigerants, R-404A is no longer the preferred choice.

In Japan, R-407C is the leading choice for medium-temperature app lications, which is the dominant use of commercial refrigeration due to the large consumption of fresh and raw food. R-404A is used for all lo w-temperature applications.

In China HCFC-22 and HFC-134a, to a lesser exte nt, are the most used refrigerants with R404A being used for HCFC-22 replacement in many low-temperature systems.

HCFC-22 is still a dominant optio n for all Article 5 countries because th e cost of HCFC-22 technology is the cheapest and compressors are available on the global or local market.

Under hot climates, R-404A exhibits lower energy efficiency compared to HCFC-22 due to its lower critical temperature (72 °C) compared to HCFC-22 (86.5 °C).

Additional sub-cooling of R-40 4A is a cost and energy efficient strategy that can be performed by a small independent cooling system for cooling only the R-404A liquid phase leaving the condenser.

In moderate climates of Central and Northern Europe direct systems with R-744 as refrigerant in a trans-critical / sub-critic al cycle depending on the ambi ent temperature, have been introduced in several countries for medium and large size supermarkets. The systems give a low GWP refrigerant solu tion with only one refrig erant for both low and medium-temperature refrigeration. About 300 system s have been installed in Europe during the past years. Acomplementary option is a cascade system where R-744 is the refrigerant of the lowtemperature circuit; as shown prev iously for the hybrid system (Figure 4-4). This design is more efficient than a full R-744 cascade system in hot climates, and is being considered for application in some Article 5 co untries. However, all-R-744 sy stems with slightly modified cycle design in order to increase efficiency at the highest ambient temperatures are now being field-tested.

In summary, for supermarkets w ith refrigerating capacities vary ing from less th an 100 kW to at least 1 MW, several designs have been experimented in several hundreds of stores. The main specifications of commercial chains are to keep the design simple , easy to maintain and service, and capable to avoid the loss of food products when a failure occurs on the refrigerating systems. Those sp ecifications have to be compa tible with refr igerant charge reduction and choice of refrigerants with 0 ODP, lower GWP, and energy efficiency improvements.



### 4.5 Options for Existing Equipment

CFCs (CFC-12 and R-502) have been phased-out in new commercial refrigeration equipment in most Article 5 countries as of 2005; there is still a need for servicing commercial refrigerating systems running with those CFCs during the next years. So far, no shortage of2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 71 recycled CFCs has been identified, confirming the same evaluation as noticed ten years before in developed countries. Intermediate HFC-blends such as R-413A are used for retrofit of CFC-12 medium-temperature systems, and R-417A or R-422B for retrofit of R-502; those retrofits have not taken a significant market share of refrigerant sales.

Retrofit of commercial refrigeratio n equipment raises a larger inte rest in Article 5 countries to save cost. In order to make re liable retrofit, a significant trai ning of servicing technicians is necessary even if technical solutions are well es tablished. For many se rvicing companies, the knowledge as well as the equipment is not always available. Retrofits require the change of lubricant and need more technical precautions. The availability of the new POE lubricants as well as the new filter dryers has to be verified. In Article 5 countries, for many servicing companies still a significant lack of adequate tooling is ob vious: recovery equipment, connecting hoses, recovery cylinders, dry vacuum pump, and precise scale. All those tools and equipment are necessary to realise proper retrofit including the main steps: recovery, evacuation, oil flushing, change of oil, and ca reful charge of the new refrigerant, all those elements are part of training programs cu rrently implemented in Article 5 countries.

For HCFCs, the status of use varies widely depending on regulations. In Europe, the use of virgin HCFC-22 for servicing purposes ceases as of 1 st January 2010; only recycled HCFCs can be used until 1 st January 2015.

In the US, HCFC-22 production and import cease as of 1 st January 2010 for new refrigerating equipment; servicing is auth orised until 2020, but HCFC quantities are limited. For developed countries several studies indicate the need of strong conversion programs of existing commercial refrigerating systems due to possible shortages of HCFC-22 for servicing. As it will be show n in the following pa ragraph, several op tions are proposed.

Stand-Alone Equipment and Condensing Units Three known options are available depending on projected remaining lifetime and costs:

- Disposal of the old equipment and buy a new one using a non-ODS refrigerant,

- Repair and recharge with the same refrigerant, and

- Repair and recharge with a low-ODP or zero-ODP refrigerant.Conversions of stand-alone equipment and condensing units moving from CFC-12 to HFC134a are well established. The conversion from HCFC-22 to HFC blends is now ongoing in developed countries. It has to be underlined that for all brazed stand-alone equipment equipped with a capillary tube and having an all brazed refriger ating circuit, conversion is unlikely. The possible retrofit concerns mostly condensing units and involves several steps. Chemical manufacturers propose several HFC blends. The choice depends on the level of temperature and is the same for condensing units and large centralised systems.

The change from alkyl-benzene oil to POE lubricant is recommended, the adjustment of the superheat in case of thermostatic expansion valve, and the replacement of the filter dryer. These procedures have been well established since several years, but continuous training is still necessary in many Article 5 countries to ensure retrofit quality and so the remaining lifetime of the retr ofitted equipment.

Supermarket Systems In developed countries, supermar ket equipment is partially or totally renewed every 7 to 10 years, depending on countries. In Article 5 countries, the life time is significan tly longer, 15 years up to 25 years, so the retrofit options have a very sign ificant impact in order to limit costs to avoid the change of the refrigerating system.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 72 R-502 Retrofit

Due to lubricants issues, R-502 retrofits are mainly carried out with HCFC-22-based blends (R-408A or R-402B). Studies performed on energy consumption show that energy efficiency obtained with these blends is comparable with R-502. Neither major problems nor breakdowns have been recorded. It appears to be a straightforward and reliable option.


### HCFC-22 Retrofit

New HFC blends such as R-422D and R427A, have been developed in order to make easy retrofit from HCFC-22 to those HFC blends. R- 422D is presented as a blend where no oil change is necessary due to the 3.4% of HC-600a mixed with 65.1% of HFC-125 and 31.5% of HFCF-134a. Different tests have shown that depending on the circuit, a progressive change of the previous alky-benzene oil by POE leads to a better oil return to the compressor racks. R-427A is presented as refrigerant blend for HCFC-22 replacement with an initial change of oil. Retrofit has begun in Euro pe and in the U.S. but has not gained a significant momentum until now. Moreover, the price of HCFC-2 2 remained low until 200 8 not indicating any immediate shortage; only in 2009 did HCFC-2 2 prices raise but not in all developed countries.

For energy efficiency, the change from R-22 to those retrofit blends indicates a loss in refrigerating capacities varying from 5 to 10% and a loss in energy efficiency in the same order of magnitude. For such large systems it may be unnecess ary to adopt such alternative intermediate blends and instea d directly apply R-407C, especially since it has a lower GWP compared to those two blends and that the oil change re quired for the use of this refrigerant is a better servicing practice.



### 4.9 References

/ACR09/ HFCs reduced as Waitrose shelves CO 2 for a greener future, ACR News, UK, October 2009. /Ass06/ Assawamartbunlue, K., Brandemuehl, M. J., Refrigerant Leakage Detection and Diagnosis for a Distributed Refrigeration System, HVAC Research, Vol. 12, No. 3, July 2006. /Bax03b/ Baxter, V.D. (éd.), 2003b: Advanced supermarket refrigeration/Heat recovery systems. Vol. 2, Country Reports. IEA Heat Pump Center, 73 pp (CD-ROM ISBN: 90-73741-49-1). /Bir00/ Birndt, R., Riedel R. and Schenk J., 2000 Tightness of Commercial Refrigeration Systems, Research Project Commissioned by the Forschungsrat Kältetechnik /Bir00/ Birndt, R., Riedel R. and Schenk J., 2000: Dichtheitvon Gewerbekälteanlagen (Tightness of commercial refrigeration systems. Die Kälte – und Klimatechnik, 9/2000, 56-63 (in German). /Biv04/ Bivens, D. and Gage, C., 2004: Commercial refrigeration systems emissions. In the proceedings of the 15th Annual Earth Technology Forum, April 204, Washington, USA. /Clo08/ Clodic D. Saba S., Slim R., Palandre L. Inventory of Direct and Indirect GHG Emissions from Stationary Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Sources, with Special Emphasis on Retail Food Refrigeration and Unitary Air Conditioning CARB Agreement No. 06-325 – December 2008 /Clo06/ Clodic, D., Palandre, L., Barrault, S., and Zoughaib, A., 2006: Short report of Inventories of the worldwide fleets of refrigerating and air conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2003 updating. ADEME final report. /DOE09/ DOE - Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Refrigerated Bottled or Canned Beverage Vending Machines; Proposed Rule, 10 CFR Part 431, Federal Register / Vol. 74, No. 102 / Friday, May 29, 2009.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 73 /Est07/ Estberg, E. R., Supermarket Refrig erant Leaks – Perspective, February 9, 2007 /EU00/ Regulation (EC) no. 2037/2000 the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 June 2000 on substances that deplete the ozone layer. /Gir04/ Girotto, S., Minetto, S. and Nekså, P., (2004): Commercial Refrigeration with R-744 as Refrigerant, Experimental Results , Int. J of Refrigeration, Vol 27 (7), November 2004 /GTZ09i/ Converting the Production of Refrigeration Equipment to Natural Refrigerants, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), 2009

/GTZ09ii/ Conversion of Su permarket Refriger ation Systems from F-Gases to Natural Re frigerants, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), 2009
/Haa05/ Haaf, S., Heinbokel, B. and Gernemann, A. 2005: Erste CO 2 -Kälteanlage für Normal- und Tiefkühlung in einem Schwezer Hypermarket, Die Kälte & Klimatechnik, 2/2005 /IPCC05/ IPCC, 2005: Safeguarding the ozone layer and the global climate system. Issues related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons. Camb ridge University Press. 2005. ISBN: 13- 978-0-521-68206-0. /Kau07/ Kauffeld, M., Trends and Perspectives in Supermarket Refrigeration, EU conference to focus on R744 refrigeration, Germany, 2007 /Kaz06/ Kazachki, G. S., Hinde, D. K., Secondary coolant systems for supermarkets, Ashrae Journal, September 2006. /Rhi09/ Rhiemeier, J.-M.; Harnisch, J.; Kauffeld, M.; Leisewitz, A.: Comparative Assessment of the Climate Relevance of Supermarket Refrigeration Systems and Equipment. Environmental Research of the Federal Ministry Of The Environment, Nature Conservation And Nuclear Safety Research Report 206 44 300, UBA-FB 001180/e, March 2009 /Saw06/ Sawalha, S., Suleymani, A., Rogstam, J., Project 2: CO 2 in Supermarket Refrigeration, Project report, Phase 1, 2006. /See10/ Seeton Ch., Wilson D., Countdown to R-1234yf industry preparation, SAEScottsdale symposium July 2010. /UNEP05/ UNEP, 2005: Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol. Policies, procedures, guidelines and criteria. UNEP 2005. /UNEP03/ UNEP, 2002 Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps Assessment Report, ISBN XXXX, UNEP Nairobi, March 2003 /WDI04/ World Data International on line, The World Bank Group, 2004.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 75 

## Chapter 5

____________________________ ______________________________ Industrial Refrigeration

Chapter Lead Author Andy Pearson

Co-Authors Holger König Alexander C. Pachai

Contributor Guangming Chen2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 76 

## 5 Industrial systems

5.1 Introduction

Industrial systems are characterised primarily by the size of the equipment (physical size and heat transfer cap ability) and the temperatur e range covered by the se ctor. Previous RTOC reports have concentrated on Industrial Refrigeration: cooling systems for production, storage or distribution of food, drink, chemicals, pharm aceuticals and other produc ts. This report will extend the discussion on Industrial Heat Pumps: heating systems similar in scale and application to Industrial Re frigeration systems and will in troduce a new sector called Industrial Air-Conditioning. This sector incl udes systems for contro lling air temperature in production factories, computer centres and other process areas. In addition to size of installation the distinguishing traits of Industrial Air-Conditioning systems are that the cooling is not purely for human comfort, the lo ad is not primarily seas onal and the operation of the facility would be jeopardised by failure of the cooling equipment. Such systems are sometimes called “Mission Critical” and have spec ial design requirements , including the need for uninterrupted service, which are not typically provided by traditional HVAC practices /ASH09/. Large chillers used for air cooling in offices, hotels, conven tion centres and similar installations are not covered by this chapter. Detailed inform ation on those systems will be found in chapter 9 on chillers. A brief over view of the use of HF Cs in Rankine cycle electrical generation is also given.

Industrial Refrigeration systems are characterised by heat extraction rates in the range 10kW to 10MW, typically at evaporating temperatures from –50 o C to +20 o C. There is some overlap at the lower end of the capacity scale with commercial refrigeration for shops, restaurants and institutions: industrial systems in this sub-sect or are characterised by the complexity of the design and the nature of the in stallation. The size of the indus trial refrigeration market is difficult to assess because it covers such a broad range of applications. Some useful insights can be gained from consideration of the market for evaporative condensers, as they are used for heat rejection in the majority of large installations . Data for 2009 was analysed for three global regions; Europe / Russia, North America and India / China. It is assumed that the value of the condenser accounts for 5% of the selling price of the refrigeration system – analysis of a wide range of projects showed that the value of the condenser was in the range 3% - 7% of the total refrige ration contract value.

Table 5-1: Estimated market value (2009) fo r large Industrial Refrigeration installations

Total Condenser Sales (US$M) Estimated Total Market (US$M) Proportion of R-717 use

Europe/Russia 42 830 90%

North America 77 1,500 95%

India/China 45 900 90%

Evaporative condenser manufacturers also report that 90% of the condensers sold in Europe, Russia, India and China are for R-717 systems. In North America the proportion is evenhigher, at 95%. The balance are used on HCFC-22, R-404A, R-507A or occasionally HFC134a. The results are shown in table 5-1.

Smaller industrial systems more often use air-cooled condensers, and in these cases the refrigerant is more likely to be a fluorocarbon, although air-cooled condensers with stainless steel tubes are used in smaller R-717 systems. Typically if HCFC-2 2 is still permitted, for2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 77 example in Article 5 countries, it will be used for these smalle r systems. If ozone depletingsubstances have already been prohibited then the likely refrigerants will be R-404A and R507A for low temperature systems and HFC-134a for high temperature systems. Experience of accelerated ODS phase out in Europe showed that HCFC-22 systems continue to be deployed right up to the phase-out deadline. The same pattern of behaviour has been observed in the United States in recent years where HCFC-22 has just been prohibited. Table 5-2 shows the estimated value of the refrigeration ma rket for the same regions with the split between R-717, HCFC-22 and HFCs. It should be noted however that there may be significant variations w ithin the regions from country to country or state to state due to legislation or tradition. For example the use of R-717 in small industrial systems is quite common in Germany, but not in France, and is virtually unknown in Canada and some states in the USA, such as New Jersey . It is also noted that the prohibition of HCFC-22 in the USA from 1 January 2010 will cause a rapid shift to either R-717 or HFCs, but it is not clear which will be preferred.

Table 5-2: Estimated 2008 market value for small Industrial Refrigeration installations

Estimated Total Market (US$M) Proportion of R717 use Proportion of HCFC-22 use Proportion of HFC use

Europe/Russia 200 25% 10% 65%

North America 300 10% 80% 10%

India/China 500 5% 90% 5%

For Article 5 countries still using HCFC-22 and lo oking to the future it is possible that a different pattern will emerge. F ear of the consequences of a po ssible “phase-down” of HFCs might result in a switch directly from HCFC-22 to R-717 for new systems. In many ways this is simpler than switching to HFCs and then to R-717 at a later date. For example the traditional lubricants used with HCFC-22 can also be used with R-717, whereas alternatives (typically polyol ester) are required for HF Cs and are not compa tible with R-717.

Industrial Heat Pump systems have heat delivery rates from 100kW to over 100MW, with the heat source usually at ambient temperature or the waste heat temperature of an industrial process. These systems are usually required to deliver higher temperatures than domestic or commercial heat pumps used for space or water heating as described in chapters 8 and 9. Typical temperatures are in the range 60 o C to 80 o C, although if the recovered heat is to be used for steam raising then it needs to be at least 120 o C. Heat recovered from large industrial systems is usually transferred to water or a heat transfer fluid and used for process heating or for supply to district heating systems. Direct heating of air from large systems is unusual because of the large volume of air that would be involved.

There is no single component of the system that can be identified and tracked to give an indication of the overall market size, because the compressors could equally be used in other industrial systems and the condenser will be a be spoke design suited to the heating application – most probably a fluid heater such as a plate and frame heat exchanger or shell and tube pressure vessel. The market is probably around 5% of the industrial refrigeration market in Europe, and less in North America, India and China.

Industrial Air-Conditioning systems cannot be differentiated from commercial systems on size alone, as many commercial office buildings have large cooling loads. An industrial system requires a higher level of reliability and is subject to year-round high loads. These systems may provide human comfort in highly populated areas with large heat loads, for2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 78 example in trader rooms or dealer floors with a lot of computing equipment. Other Industrial Air-Conditioning systems are primarily required to maintain acceptable processing conditions for equipment such as computer servers in data centres. In some cases the mission-critical part of a total cooling load may be supplied in conjunction with a comfort cooling system, configured so that, in the event of partial failure of the system , the mission-critical cooling is maintained at the expense of the comfort of the occupants of the rest of the building. Often the chillers used for Industrial Air-Conditioning are the same type as described in Chapter 9 – the market information and options for future change are described there. However many other industrial systems are custom designed for the application.

An assessment of the relative importance of the traditional HCFC and HFC alternatives in the three main market segments of the industrial sector is shown in Table 5-3 /UNE10/. Where blends containing HCFCs are shown, for example in the case of R-403B, these are refrigerant formulations develo ped as substitutes for CFCs, in particul ar R-502. Blends shown as HFCs, for example R-404A, were developed as CFC replacements too, but have also been used in new build and retrofit applications as replacements for HCFCs.

Each of the three sub-sectors described in the table is broken down in a more detailed review in section 5.2 where sub-sub-sectors such as cold storage, leisure and process are identified and analysed.

Table 5-3: Assessment of alternatives in the Industrial Sector

A further use of HFCs not covered elsewhere in this report is in a closed evaporation and condensation cycle for the generation of electrical power (or other useful work) from the expansion of high pressure gas. The basic syst em, called the Rankine cycle, is similar to the process used for power generation in steam turbines, but operates at lower temperatures2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 79 (dependent on the working fluid properties) and so can make use of heat from geothermal sources or rejected from industrial processes. When HFCs are used as the working fluid these systems are called Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC) /Zyh03/. The Rankine cycle uses heat to evaporate the working fluid at relatively high pressure. The resultant gas is passed through an expansion engine which does useful work, usually driving an alternator to produce electrical power. The low pressure gas at the expander outlet is condensed, usually by rejecting heat to atmosphere in a cooling tower, and the resultant liquid is pumped up to evaporating pressure by a liquid pump. The conversion rate from th ermal to electrical power varies with the pressure differences and the expansion engine efficiency, but typically is between 10% and 15%, including the electrical powe r required to drive fans and pumps in the sy stem /Les09/.

Some ORC systems use HFC-134a as the working fluid. It has the advantage of being relatively cheap and available, but has a low critical temper ature and so cannot take full advantage of higher temperature heat sources. Other systems use HFC-245fa or HFC-236fa, which have significantly hi gher critical temperatures. The GWP of HFC-245fa is approximately 1000, whereas for HFC-236fa it is approximately 9300, so it is likely that future commercial systems will be based on HFC-245f a unless severe restrictions are placed on all high GWP HFCs. A fluorinated ketone (CF 3 CF 2 C(O)CF(CF 3 ) 2 , also known as C6F) has been used as an alternative. It has zero ODP and zero GWP but less favourable propertiesthan HFC-245fa /Bra08/. Rankine cycles have also been produced using R-717 and ammoniawater mixtures as the working fluid, although strictly speaking these cannot be described as “Organic”. The relatively high investment cost and relatively low rate of return mean that these systems are generally limited to use in la rge process plants, although a few systems have been installed in commercial buildings.

Thirty years ago chlorofluorocarbons were wi dely used in the indus trial sector in many European countries, particularly blends, such as R-502. The particular advantage of these substances was their lo w index of compression which perm itted single stage operation over a wider pressure ratio than could be achieved with R-717 or even HCFC-22. Other countries, notably the United States and Canada had not moved away from R-717 to the same extent as some European countries. In the heat pump sector CFC-12, which has a critical temperature of 112 o C, was common for small to medium sized ap plications and R-717 was used in larger systems. Industrial Air-Conditioning was le ss common at that time, and tended to use standard chillers with CFC refrigerant. Th e move away from CFCs in the late 1980s prompted by the Montreal Protocol presented par ticular problems in the industrial sector because the replacement fluids with lower or no ozone depleting potential were not as suitable over the wide operating range required. In some places this resulted in a swift return to R-717 technology, for example in the United Kingdom /Bro92/. In other countries the re-adoption of R-717 was more widely resisted and the adoption of low ODP refrigerants was coupled with widespread use of secondary refrigerant systems. Other parts of the world followed similar patterns, for example R-502 had been common in Japan. The industrial sector there responded to its removal by the development of compact, low charge R-717 systems and the use of secondary systems with a limited charge of the more expensive HFC fluids. In Article 5 countries where R-717 was already used these systems were retained and extended, but the designs used tended to be old-fashioned and not as efficient or safe as the new Japanese or European innovations. In coun tries with no history of R-717 use, or with no support infrastructure the solutio n was often to use large numbers of smaller light commercial systems to satisfy a large cooling load. This is not on ly expensive to install and maintain, it is also much less efficient in operation.

With increased emphasis on climate change in recent years the importance of energy efficiency is now far greater than before. This has led to a reappraisa l of previous policies, for example in the growing tr end for central syst ems with R-717 rather than multiple commercial systems with HCFCs. There is also a greater focus on system integration to make better use of waste heat recovery.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 80In Europe regulation on the use of fluorinated gases has also encouraged users to consider R717 and other developments such as the use of R-744 in cascade systems. The motivation seems to be primarily based on the fear of as-yet unknown futu re regulation rather than theimmediate effect of the current rules, which are mainly aimed at commercial and mobile airconditioning. In the industrial sector it is likely that the adoptio n of R-717 and R-744 by users who previously deployed HCFC-22 and HFC blends w ill reduce the energy-related global warming potential through increased effici ency as well as eliminating the direct global warming potential caused by refrigerant leakage.

To date there has not been any significant discussion of sustai nable manufacture of industrial systems. It is left to producers to minimise material content on cost grounds rather than for environmental reasons, however this can lead to acceptance of lower efficiency systems in some cases. For example the design temperature difference used for selection of air-cooled condensers is in the range 15 – 20 K, resulting in relatively chea p, small heat exchangers. It is possible to get improved efficiency by using larger heat exchangers but they use more raw material and are more expensive. There is no clear guidance on optimising this design decision, for example information on the embodied energy in the heat exchanger, or preferred source of materials. The use of recycled aluminium in heat exchangers is one example of sustainable manufacture. Design for minimising steel or copper content is another. In future it is expected that greater use of plastics and other synthetic materials will raise awareness of sustainable manufacture.



### 5.2 Applications (including size of market, current practice, regional variations)

5.2.1 Food Processing

Refrigeration is used for chillin g and freezing food during proc essing, in order to prolong shelf life, but it can also be used to make handling or processing easier. For example hams are temporarily frozen to enable them to be s liced more thinly. Chillin g also plays a part in the pasteurising process where the product is rapidly cooled after heat treatment to minimise spoilage. A wide variety of chilling and freezing techniques are used, including immersion in liquid, air blast freezing in batches or in a co ntinuous process and contact freezing on tables or in blocks between metal plates. The choice of process depends on the form that the product takes, whether it is wrapped or unwrapped, robust or fragile, processed or raw. Some fruits and vegetables such as po tatoes, apples and most soft fr uit are notoriously difficult to freeze as the expansion of water destroys the cell walls, leading to mu shiness when thawed. Other produce, such as peas, corn and beans, can be frozen in very small pieces using a fluidised bed of air to allow each individual piece to freeze without agglomerating.

A technique developed in Japan offers the prospect of successful freezing of difficult products such as milk and soft fruit, using a magnetic field to conditio n the product during the freezing process /Suz05/. This may help to overcome the negative pub lic perception of frozen food, which is that thawed food will al ways be inferior quality to fres h. In fact if good quality food is frozen professionally immediately after harvest, catch or cooking it should offer increased shelflife and superior quality wh en thawed. Spoilage rates coul d be substantially reduced if a greater proportion of food were frozen before shipment. If the public perception of frozen food is improved then there could be a signif icant increase in this sector of the market.

5.2.2 Cold Storage

Cold storage facilities usually ope rate at two temperature levels . Frozen produce must be stored below -18 o C, and it is usual to main tain the store between -22 o C and -26 o C to provide a2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 81 factor of safety in the event of major equi pment failure. Some pr oducts require lower temperatures. Ice-cream and similar produce is stored between -26 o C and -29 o C, and some niche market products such as some types of sushi must be kept significantly colder, even down to -60 o C, in order to reta in product quality. Ch illed produce is typi cally held between 0 o C and 4 o C, although fruit, bakery products and vegetables are stored between 8 o C and 12 o C. Some stores offer long term storage contracts, in orde r to stock produce until it is “out of season” and therefore more valuable. Stock ma y be held for months in these warehouses. Other sites provide marshalling fac ilities in order to rest ock supermarkets on a daily basis; in these plants the product is not usually in the building for more than 24 hours. The cooling load on such a building is high because of the amount of traffic through the temperature controlled chambers, although product load is typically low because the residence time is not long enough for the air temperature to have any appreciable effect on the product.

5.2.3 Industrial Cooling in Buildings and IT Centres

Some production processes require tight control of the surrounding temperature, for example microchip production, paint spraying or inje ction moulding. Thes e loads are relatively constant all year, and pr oduction output is affected if the ch illing plant is inoper ative, so both the reliability and the ef ficiency of the equipment are mo re important than for office air conditioning. This can sometimes lead to th e specification of uniquely designed siteconstructed systems to deliver the cooling in order to provid e the high level of reliabilityrequired, or to achieve lower energy use. Where heat loads are too high to be handled by airor water-based cooling systems, for example in some high density data centres and other IT cooling applications, other fluids including R-744 have been used in direct systems /Hut05/. Typical loads for these applications may be up to 2kW per m 2 in comparison to a typical office load of 40W per m 2

. The industrial cooling load is typically almost entirely “sensible” cooling – reducing the air temperature without reducing the moisture content, in contrast with a typical commercial air conditioning load which is likel y to involve more dehumidifica tion, or “latent” cooling. Latent cooling requires lower te mperatures to bring the air to its dewpoint. If an industrial cooling load is 100% sensible co oling, or if the coo ling can be split into separate systems for sensible and latent cooling, th en the operating temperature for the sensible cooling can be raised, making the system more efficient.

5.2.4 Industrial Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery

Many industrial processes including brewing, dairies, food factories and chemical processes require large amounts of heat in addition to a cooling load. Ev en if the primary use of heat, for example for cooking food, cannot be achieved by heat pumps or recovery there may be many uses for lower grade heat, such as pre-heating boiler feed water or heating wash water for the production area. When th e application is collecting and redirecting waste heat from a refrigerating system it is called heat recove ry. When it is performing a non-productive chilling process on a source of h eat, whether it is at ambient temp erature or is the waste heat stream from another process such as a cooker flue, it is a heat pump.

Large heat pumps have also been used for heating public buildings, for example in Gardermoen Airport, Norway (8100kW heating capacity) and Akershus hospital, Norway (8000kW heating capacity). These systems are custom-designed, using R-717 as the refrigerant /Ste08/.

Even larger systems are used for district heating systems, with many examples in Scandinavia. The smallest of these systems are about 5000kW. Most installations use HFC-2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 82 134a in centrifugal compressors, with some (up to 15000kW) using R-717. The largest is in Stockholm, with a total capa city of 180000kW (180MW) using HFC-134a in centrifugal compressors. This system takes heat from s ea water to provide the thermal source; other similar installations have used waste water from the sewage system /Bai06/.

5.2.5 Leisure

The principal use of refrig eration in the leisure market is for ice rinks, extended also to indoor ski-slopes, ice climbing walls and other ice features. Many older ice rink systems used direct CFC-12 or direct R-717. To change to an indirect system would require replacement of the floor slab, which is a consider able capital expenditure. Some CFC-12 systems have been converted to HCFC-22 despite the increased pressure. Similarly some R-717 systems in Central Europe have been converted to R-744. A few very large systems have been installed for bobsled and luge runs, typically associated with winter Olympics. These systems usually use pumped R-717. A recently installed cross- country ski track in Finland used R-744 for the track cooling, w ith circuits up to 1km long.

5.2.6 Process Refrigeration

Cooling is used in a wide va riety of process applications (in addition to food industry applications covered in section 5.2.1). The cooling can be applied by a direct refrigeration system with a coil in the process tank, or a ja cket around the outside of a chemical reactor vessel or storage tank. Alternatively a secondary fluid such as water, br ine solution or glycol may be used. In these cases standard chillers as described in chapter 9 might be used, although there may still be other reasons for requ iring the chiller to be specially designed for the project.



### 5.3 Working Fluid Options for New Equipment

5.3.1 R-717 (Ammonia)

The analysis of evaporative condenser use shown in Table 5-1 indicates that R-717 is by farthe most common refrigerant used in industrial systems. The major hazard presented by R717 is its acute toxicity, alth ough its pungent odour ensures that low, relatively harmless concentrations are obvious and provide an early warning of danger.

R-717 is flammable in relatively hi gh concentrations, but it is diff icult to ignite and as a result R-717 conflagrations are extremely rare. The products of combustion are nitrogen and water, so there are no toxic consequences. The lower flammable limit is 16%; about 5,000 times higher than the short term exposure limit, and almost 50,000 times hi gher than the lowest level which can be detected by smell.

R-717 systems can be designed for very high efficiency, particularly with higher condensing temperatures, so in recent years it has been used more often in smaller systems with air cooled condensers, condensing at about 50 o C /IIR08/. Compression of R-717 produces relatively high compressor discharge temperatures compared with most fluorocarbons, but if oil injectedscrew compressors are used then the heat of compression can be removed by oil cooling. R717 also produces relatively high heat transfer coefficients and requires a low massflow due to its high latent heat. The high critical temperature of 133 o C makes R-717 very suitable for high temperature heat pumps. It is at atmospheric pressure at -33 o C, a relatively high temperature for industrial freezers. This means that many freezers operate at sub-atmospheric pressure, so air and moisture are drawn into the system if it is not pressure-tight on the low2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 83 pressure side. This unfortunate consequence is generally tolerated b ecause the moisture is soluble in ammonia liquid so does not immedi ately cause unreliability and because both air and water can be relatively easily removed from the system while it is in operation. However excessive water build up will ev entually impair operating effi ciency and ther efore increase electrical consumption, so system contaminatio n should not be left uncorrected /Nie00/.

5.3.2 Hydrofluorocarbons

When the first HFC refrigerants, particularly HFC-134a , were introduced in the late 1980s to replace CFC-12 there was no obvious successor to the most common CFC blend in the industrial market, R-502. This had been introduced to enable single stage compression plants to be used for low temperature applications without excessive discharge temperatures. When it became clear that R-502 could no longer be used, because it contained CFC-115, most system designers either used HCFC-22 or R-717, both of which produced higher discharge temperatures and therefore requ ired additional cooling or two compression stages for freezer applications.

Saturated: Saturated hydrofluorocarbons include fluids such as HFC-134a and HFC-125 and blends of fluids, mixed to provide specific advantages for particular applications. HFC-134a is used in small high temperature systems; it is at atmospheric pressure at -26 o C, and it requires larger compressors than R-717. Su b-atmospheric operation is less common with HFCs because traces of moisture are liable to freeze and block the expansion valve.

HFC-134a is also widely used in centrifugal compressors, incl uding some very large systems used for district heating. There is currently no alternative to HFC-13 4a in this technology.

There is no single fluid alternative to HCFC-22 for use in industrial systems. HFC-125 has approximately the right pressure temperature relationship, but has an extremely low critical temperature of 66 o C, and would therefore be extremely inefficient if used in industrial systems, unless the condensing temperature was very low. It is used as a component of several of the most popular blended refrigerants, where the deficiencies in its physical properties can be offset by careful selection of the other components of the blend. The most common blends used in the industrial sector are R-404A and R-507A, which are primarily mixtures of HFC-125 and HFC143a; with the latter providing a higher critical temperature and hence improved efficiency. Many industrial systems use flooded evaporators, where the refrigerant boils in a pool. Zeotropic blends (with a temperature glide during evaporation) are not suitable in these systems because the blend components may fractionate, so R-407C and service replacement blends such as R-417A have not been much used in the industrial sector.

It is surprising that R-410A has not been more widely used in industrial systems because it has a low boiling point at at mospheric pressure (-51.4 o C), very low glide (l ess than 0.2K at - 40 o C) and the critical temperature is almost the same as R-404A. The compressor swept volume required for R-410A is about 30% less than for R-404A, so equipment costs, including installed pipework sh ould be less, although operating pressures are higher. The main barrier to its use is probably the high pri ce of the refrigerant, particularly compared to R-717 and R-744. When the refrigerant inventory in a system is in tonnes the cost of the charge may be a significant part of the total cost of the installation. Typical installations are therefore low capacity, low temperature, for example blood freezing and small pharmaceutical systems.

Unsaturated: unsaturated hydrofluorocarbons such as HFC-1234yf and HFC-1243zf have not to date been used in industrial systems. The low global warming potential suggests that they may be a suitable alternative to R-717 and R-744, but it is very likely that they will be even more expensive than R-410A, with the further disadvantage of being flammable. It is2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 84 therefore likely that none of this family of chemicals will achieve any significant market penetration in the industrial sector, even if blended with other compounds to reduce price or flammability.

5.3.3 HCFC-22

Where its use is still permitted in new systems, pa rticularly in article 5 countries, HCFC-22 is still common. It has not been supplanted by HFC blends because it is ch eaper than any of the blends and usually offers better system efficiencies. Where HCFC-22 was widely used insmaller industrial and heavy commercial systems and has subsequently been superseded by R404A, which has a significantly highe r global warming potential.

5.3.4 Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are not widely used in industri al refrigeration excep t where the additional safety measures required to ensure that leak ing refrigerant cannot be ignited are required anyway, for example in a petrochemical plant. They offer excellent efficiency, and compatibility with most materi als and lubricants. However the precautions required to prevent ignition are signi ficantly more expensive than those required for R-717 systems. HC290 is generally similar to HCFC-22 and R-71 7 in terms of operating temperatures and pressures, and requires similarly sized compressors.

5.3.5 R-744 (Carbon dioxide)

R-744 cannot be used in exactly the same way as other industrial refrigerants. It needs to be coupled with a higher temperature refrigerant in a cascade system due to the low critical temperature of 31 o C or else used in a tran scritical system. Transcr itical systems have been used in commercial and small systems, but there are no compressors on the market to provide the necessary high operating pressures to run an industrial R-744 system in this way. A medium-sized distribution centre with an insta lled capacity of 1500kW has been operating in Denmark since 2008, using multiple comm ercial-sized compressors /Mad09/.

R-744 is particularly suitable for use in freezer systems because it is at positive pressure down to -56 o C and the gas is extremely dense, giving very high rates of heat transfer. The pressure drop characteristics are also very favourable at low temperatures, so R-744 freezer systems have been found to be significantly more efficient than any other alternative, even R-717 /Pea09/. In slightly higher temperature applications, such as cold storage, R-744 cascade systems are likely to be slightly less efficien t than two-stage R-717, but still on a par with a single stage economised system, and more effici ent than any system using a secondary fluid due to the much lower pumping cost for R-744 compared to glycol, brine or other heat transfer fluids /ASH10/.

In higher temperature applications, for example IT cooling, R-744 is attractive as an alternative to chilled water becau se it is electrically non-cond uctive, does not cause fabric damage in the event of a small leak and enables smaller heat exchangers to be used. The major challenge in these systems is that the operating pressure is approximately 50 bar.

5.3.6 R-718 (Water)

In general R-718 is not suitable for most industrial applications because the triple point is very slightly above 0 o C, and because, despite the very hi gh latent heat, the swept volume2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 85required for a typical cooling duty is extremely high. There are a few notable exceptions: R718 has been used for a few deep mine cooling projects where a vacuum system is used to create a mix of solid and liquid water (ice slurry ) at the triple point. Similar systems have been used for large plastics moulding coolers, but these systems have not yet been fully commercialised.

5.3.7 Absorption

Absorption systems using aqua-ammonia can be used for low temperature applications, easily reaching cold storage temperatures. This is because the ammonia is used as the refrigerant, with water as the absorbent. Water-lithium bromide (LiBr) sy stems can only be used above freezing because the water is the refrigerant, and the LiBr is the absorbent. Absorption systems are only effective if there is an abundant source of heat at high temperature to drive the system. It is not normally economic to bur n fossil fuel for the sole purpose of driving the regenerator of an absorption system, particularly in low temperature systems, because the heat rejection plant is significantly larger then for an equivalent duty, electrically driven vapour compression system.

Absorption systems are primarily used for process cooling in food, beverage, chemical and pharmaceutical plants where waste heat to drive the system is readily available. There is an increase however in the food industry, when local on-site power ge neration is used, and provides a source of waste heat. This has been particularly noted in developing countries such as India and China, where increased food production is being achieved but the electrical infrastructure is still re latively unreliable. In these cases chilling is no rmally achieved with vapour compression plant, but with some abso rption cooling available to augment the cooling capacity when the ge nerator is running.



### 5.4 Retrofit Options for Existing Equipment

Systems using HCFC-22 have been converted to zero ODP refrigerants, but it is difficult to replicate the operating conditions of HCFC-22 and so conversions often involve an element of equipment replacement. Before committing to any large scale retrofit project consideration should be given to the age of the plant, the cost of replacement with a modern, more efficient system and the risks to contin ued operation of retrofit.

5.4.1 Conversion to HFC Blends

There are numerous blends for the replacement of HCFC-22 in DX (superheat controlled) systems, but there is none that replicates th e pressure temperature relationship of HCFC-22 without significant glide, and so these blends are much less common in flooded systems where fractionation of the blend is a concern. Where industrial systems are converted to a blend it may also be necessary to change fr om mineral or alkyl benzene lubricant to a synthetic ester. Some blends are formulated with hydrocarbons in the mix so that, although still non-flammable, the lubrican t is more miscible and less likely to accumulate in the evaporator of the system. For a large flooded system it might be appropriate to convert the compressors and condensers to an HFC blend, but convert the low pressure side to a secondary fluid, or even R-744 as a volatile secondary. Retrofitting of HCFC-22 plant in Article 5 countries is ve ry uncommon to date.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 86 5.4.2 Conversion to R-744

The high operating pressure of R-744 system s makes it highly unlikely that an existing HCFC-22 system could be converted to operate on R-744. Conversion to a cascade system is possible, greatly reducing the inventory of fluorocarbon refrigerant in the system. It may even be possible to reuse the low pressure pipework and evaporators in the system if they are suitably rated. A cold storage or freezing system operating as a cascade on R-744 could be limited to an allowable pressure of 25 bar gauge, however this is a co mplex retrofit and it may well be more economic to replace the whole plan t, especially if it is already more than ten years old.

5.4.3 Conversion to R-717

In a very few cases a pumped HCFC-22 plant has been converted to R-717. Usually the compressors and condensers are suitable for either refrigerant, and pipework is probably welded steel in large applicatio ns. If the evaporators are copper tube then they need to be replaced. It is imperative that the system is carefully cleaned during the conversion because any residual traces of HCFC-22, for example in lubricant will react with R-717 to produce a solid foam which can block all the internal components. Trip le evacuation with nitrogen purging is probably necessary – this is time-consuming and expensive and again plant replacement should be considered. In the majority of cases, in all countries, equipment using HCFC-22 is not suitable for this conversion.

5.4.4 Conversion to Hydrocarbon

Unlike R-744 and R-717 it is tech nically feasible to remove HCFC-22 from existing systems and replace it with HC-290, however it is high ly likely that the resu ltant system will not comply with safety codes on the use of hydroc arbons because the refr igerant quantity will not comply with charge restrictions and the electrical infrastructure will not be suitably protected. A conversion of this type is believed to have been responsi ble for a fatal accident in New Zealand in 2008 /New08/. A consequence of ra pid phase out of HCFCs in Article 5 countries might be an increase of this type of conversion without adequate contro ls. There is however a case for a controlled conversion from HCFC-22 to HC refrigerant (propane or isobutane) where the system efficiency can be improved. In this case it is essential that suitable safety measures are ensured.



### 5.5 Overview of Refrigerant Consumption, Banks and Emissions

It is difficult to estimate the size of CFC, HC FC and HFC banks associat ed with the industrial sector because the technology is used in a very wide range of applications. A report published by ADEME in 2010 /ADE10/ provided estimates based upon published data from various food sectors as collated by the Fo od and Agricultural Orga nisation of the United Nations. This report indicated that the total demand for refrige rants in the indu strial sector was about 50,000 tonnes, with HCFCs accounting for about one-ha lf of this. The remainder of the demand was approximately 15,000 tonnes of ammonia, 5,000 tonnes of CFCs (principally in Article 5 countr ies) and 5,000 tonnes of HFCs, principally in Europe. The estimated size of the banks of refrigerant with in existing equipment ranges from 3.5 times the demand to 7 times the demand.

The emissions figures for refrigerant type and region are also very difficult to estimate. They range, as a percentage of the bank for each region, from 4% to about 21%, with the exception of CFC emissions, which are estimated to be 27 .7% of the total bank. This is presumably a2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 87 result of the condition of the re sidual equipment still using CFCs, and suggests that there is a strong imperative to incentivise a switch to alternatives as qu ickly as possible, provided the old refrigerant is recovered and reprocessed.

A summary of the approximate figures for 2006 is given in tables 5-4 to 5-7.

Table 5-4: Refrigerant Demand in 2006

Demand (tonnes) USA Europe Total
CFC 0 0 5,563
HCFC 1,446 1,290 25,372
HFC 1,087 2,405 4,707
R-717 3,845 2,930 15,667

Table 5-5: Refrigerant Banks in 2006

Banks (tonnes) USA Europe Total
CFC 3 13 19,896
HCFC 12,681 15,819 93,985
HFC 7,681 17,498 30,735
R-717 26,401 20,533 105,923

Table 5-6: Refrigerant Emissions in 2006

Emissions (tonnes) USA Europe Total
CFC 0 0 5,512
HCFC 1,106 1,390 20,229
HFC 628 1,261 2,521
R-717 1,226 800 9,408

Table 5-7: Refrigerant Emission as a percentage of the bank in 2006

Emissions (%) USA Europe Total

CFC - - 27.7%

HCFC 8.7% 8.8% 21.5%

HFC 8.2% 7.2% 8.2%

R-717 4.6% 3.9% 8.9%

It is difficult to reconcile these figures with other published data, which suggests, for example that the R-717 refrigera tion market is much larger than this . Given the characteristics of the substances it also seems unlikel y that the percentage leakage rate of R-717, which has a characteristic pungent smell, would be higher than the leakage rate for odourless HFCs. Other studies report much higher leakage rates for HFCs, noting that poor workmanship during installation can resu lt in higher leak rates during the first few months of operation until all problems have been resolved.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 88 5.6 Service Requirements

Given the difficulty of converting from HCFC-22 to zero ODP refrigerants, many users with multiple systems have planned a replacement strate gy to conserve their st ock of refrigerant. Setting priorities for which system to replace or co nvert first includes consideration of age of the plant, likelihood of leakage and ease of conversion. Refrigerant which is recovered from converted systems can be recycled and stored on site to be used in th e remaining plants. In Europe, where service with “v irgin” HCFC-22 was prohibited from the beginning of 2010, some users have banked additional refrigerant by overcharging their pl ants with new HCFC22 prior to the end of 2009 and then recovering the excess refrigerant, which is then classed as recycled. This practice is not strictly outsid e the law, but it is no t in the spirit of the regulation. It probably accounted for some additional sales of HCFC in the two years leading up to the prohibition, ke eping sales artificially high at a time when many plants were being converted or decommissioned. If other regions implement similar regulations for the phase out of HCFCs they should consider ways to plug this loophole, for example by limiting the time that recovered HCFC can be stored before it is used, and requiring it to be sent for destruction or reprocessing if it is not used within the timefra me. This was done in Ireland, and greatly improved the effectiveness of the restriction on virgin HCFC-22.



### 5.7 References

/ADE10/ Global inventories of the worldwide fleets of refrigerating and airconditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES, April 2010 /ASH09/ Design Considerations for Datacom E quipment Centers, Second Edition, ASHRAE, TC9.9, Atlanta, 2009 /ASH10/ ASHRAE, “Refrigeration Handbook, chapter 3”, Atlanta, 2010 /Bai06/ Bailer, P. and Pietrucha, U., “Design And Application Of Ammonia Heat Pump Systems For Heating And Cooling Of Non-Residential Buildings” 10th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling, Hannover, 2006 /Bra08/ Brasz, J., “Assessment of C6F as a working fluid for Organic Rankine Cycle Applications”, Int. Conf. on Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning, Purdue University, 2008
/Bro92/ Brown, A. H., “Return to Ammoni a?” Institute of Refrigeration, London, 1992 /Hut05/ Hutchins, G., “Mission Critical Cooling” Institute of Refrigeration Annual Conference, London, 2005 /IIR08/ International Institute of Refrigeration, “Ammonia as a Refrigerant, 3rd Edition”, IIR, Paris, 2008 /Les09/ Leslie, N., Sweetser, R., Zimron, O. and Stovall, T., “Recovered Energy Generation Using an Organic Rankine Cycle System” ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 115 Part 1, Atlanta, 2009 /Mad09/ Madsen, K “Living without HFCs: the Danish Experience”, Institute of Refrigeration, London, 2009 /Nie00/ Nielsen, P.S., “Effects of Water Contamination in Ammonia Refrigeration Systems, Danfoss, Nordberg, 2000 /New08/ New Zealand Fire Service Report No F128045 “Inquiry into the Explosion and Fire at Icepak Coolstores, Tamahere, on 5 April 2008”, 2008 /Pea09/ Pearson, A.B., “Calculating Freezing Ti mes in Blast and Plate Freezers”, International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Dallas, 2009 /Ste08/ Stene, J., “Design And Application Of Ammonia Heat Pump Systems For Heating And Cooling Of Non-Residential Buildings” Proc GL2008, IIR, Copenhagen, 20082010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 89 /Suz05/ Suzuki, Takeuchi, Masuda, Watanabe, Shirakashi, Fukuda, Tsuruta, Yamamoto, Koga, Hiruma, Ichioka and Takai. "Test report on effectiveness of magnetic field for food freezing process" Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 2005 /UNE10/ UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, Task Force Decision XXI/9 Report, “Assessment of HCFCs and Environmentally Sound Alternatives Paragraph 2C”, May 2010 /Zyh03/ Zyhowski, G., “Opportunities For HFC-245fa Organic Rankine Cycle Appended To Distributed Power Generation Systems”, Int Congress of Refrigeration, IIR, Washington DC, 20032010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 91 

## Chapter 6

____________________________ ______________________________ Transport Refrigeration

Chapter Lead Author Radim Č ermák

Co-Authors Michael Kauffeld Alexander C. Pachai

Contributors Yves Wild Gerald Cavalier Ruhe Xie Daniel Colbourne Petter Nekså2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 92 

## 6 Transport Refrigeration

6.1 Introduction

Transport refrigeration includes transport of chilled or frozen produc ts by means of road vehicles, railcars, intermodal containers, and small insulated containers (less than 2 m 3 ) and boxes. It also includes use of refrigeration and air conditioning on mercha nt, naval and fishing vessels above 100 gross tonnes (GT) (about over 24 m in length).

Technical requirements for transport refrigeration systems are extremely complex. The equipment has to operate over a wide range of ambient temperatures and weather conditions (wind, solar radiation, rain, sea water spray, etc.). The equipment has to be able to carry any one of a wide range of cargoes with different temperature needs and even different temperatures simultaneously in different compartments (more than 20 % of the European market for truck and trailers).

All transport refrigeration system s have to be very robust and reliable to withstand vibrations and shocks. At the same time, the systems must be compact to maximise cargo space, and lightweight to reduce th e energy required to move the vehicle.

It is imperative that spare parts (including re frigerant) are available along transport routes world-wide. Returning to a port can be a major issue for marine vessels in case of a refrigeration plant breakdown. This must be considered when design changes and improvements are made and introduced. Rigorous testing must be carried out so that only proven reliable systems are commissioned for field use.

Despite these efforts, refrigerant leaks inev itably occur within th e refrigeration systems because of vibrations and shocks, and sometimes because of collisions w ith other objects. In addition, the harsh environmen tal conditions tend to acceler ate the equipment aging. The equipment lifetime is usually between 10 and 15 years for road vehicles, railcars and intermodal containers, or less than 10 years in case of intensiv e use, and 20 to 25 years for merchant, naval and fishing vessels.

Safety is a number one priority in all transport refrigeration systems, because trained and certified service personnel may not be available along transp ort routes. Safe operation is particularly essential in the case of marine vessels, where evacua tion is difficult or impossible. Safety must be either inherent in the fluids, or must be ensured through a number of technical

measures.



### 6.2 Technical Progress

6.2.1 Merchant, Naval and Fishing Vessels

There are enormous differences between vessels in terms of category, tonnage, length etc. Some of the main markets are ferries, cruisers, container ships, reefers, trawlers, fish factory ships, submarine navy, surface navy, tankers, and bulk carriers.

The overall size of a ship is measured in terms of gross tonnage, which also forms the basis for manning regulations, safety rules, registration fees, etc. Unless stated otherwise, data presented in this report are lim ited to vessels above 100 gross tonnes (GT), or about over 24 m in length. It is assumed that nearly all ve ssels above 100 GT have refrigeration systems for their provision rooms and air conditioni ng for the occupi ed cabin space.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 93 A relationship between the vessel category, tonnage and use of refrigeration (refrigerant, charge) is difficult to establish mainly becau se of a limited access to registry statistics. Instead, although less accurate, our estimates of banks and emissions are based on a number of vessels and their refrigerant charge on average.

Merchant (or commercial) vessels include in principle cargo ships, passenger ships, and special-purpose ships. According to Equasis /Equ07/, the world merchant fleet amounted to 72,000 vessels with 780 million GT combined. 86 % were small and medi um size ships below 25,000 GT. About 3,000 merchant vessels were above 60,000 GT. According to another source, the 2009 Review of Ma ritime Transport /Rev09/, the wo rld merchant fleet is a little below 100,000 vessels.

Reefer ships are one category of merchant ships – used for transport of perishable commodities such as fresh or fro zen food. At the end of 2008, the total reefer fleet stood at about 1,000 /IIR09/. There were 137 reefer ship s in EU registers in 2009. This number was predicted to decrease to about 50 by 2020 /Tec09/. Instead, the share of goods transported by means of intermodal containers will continue to increase, hand in hand with th e expansion of the fleet of container ships /Rev09/.

The fleet of naval ships is diff icult to estimate. The US Navy /Nav10/, largest in the world, operated 290 ships in active service as of August 2010. The world fleet of naval ships is estimated to be less than 5,000.

There are about 4 million fishing ve ssels of various types in oper ation, of whic h one third are decked. The average size of decked vessels is about 20 GT (around 10-15 m). Those larger than 100 GT amounted to 50,000 units. China has approx. 50 % of these larger vessels /FAO10/. At the end of 2009, th e EU Fleet Register listed some 3,700 fishing vessels greater than 100 GT /Tec09/.

Regulation of refrigeration system s in ships is typically a flag state right, whic h implies that the ship owner may change the flag state should any restrictions be imposed in the current flag state. On the other hand, if a ship arrives to a country where a group of refrigerants is not allowed, refrigerant availab ility can be an issue in case of a refrigerant loss.

In 2009, 93 % of the worlds merchant fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage, or dwt (= loaded ship displacement minus the lightship weight) re gistered under the flag of 35 countries and territories. The top registries (by dwt share) were Panama, Liberia, Marshall Islands, Hong Kong (China), Greece, Bahamas, Singapore and Malta, accounting for 65 % of the world’s dwt /Rev09/.

More than two thirds of fishing vessels in operation in 2007 we re registered in countries in which they were also built. The ma jor registries for fishing vessels have been China, Japan, S. Korea, Peru, the Russian Federation, Poland, Spain, and USA /FAO07 and Ana99/.

Air pollutant emissions from ships are cove red by Annex VI of the Marine Pollution Convention, MARPOL 73/78, of the Internatio nal Maritime Organization /Mar10/. MARPOL Annex VI (reg 12) prohibits new installations containing ozone-depleting substances on all ships from May 19, 2005, but new installations containing HCFC refr igerants are permitted until January 1, 2020. As of 31 July 2010, there were 60 contracting states which represent 84 % of the world tonnage.

For developed countries, the Montreal Protocol has introduced a stricter regulation of HCFC fluids than MARPOL. For example, Regulation (EC) No 2037/2000 of the European Parliament prohibits the use of HCFC refrig erants in new equipment from 2002 onward;2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 94 HCFC will be allowed for mainte nance of existing equipment on ly until 2015 and only with recycled HCFC from beginning of 2010.

HCFC-22 has been the dominant refrigerant used aboard ships (80 % of present fleet). It has been used universally for air conditioning systems, cooling and freezing of food for passengers and the crew, and in the holds and in the production on trawlers and factory vessels. HFC refrigerants have been replacing HCFC-22 in new-built ships following the phase out of ozone-depleting substances under the Montreal Protocol.

HFC-134a has been the most of ten used alternative to HCFC-2 2 in new vessels for both air conditioning and refriger ation. R-404A and R-407C have b een used mainly to retrofit HCFC22. New ships may also use R-410A going forward, as it is becoming widespread in other fields. HFC-23 is used for freezing at -60 °C and below (mainly fish). Natural refrigerants have been used in a relatively few vessels; primarily larger trawlers and reefers (see section 6.4). The current share of HFC refrigerants in the world’s fleet is estimated at 10 %.

A typical refrigerant charge for vessels above 100 GT is between 100 and 500 kg for direct systems, and between 10 and 100 kg for indirect systems. The annual refrigerant leakage rate could be as high as 20 - 40 %.

There has been a trend to build fe wer larger ships rather than a larger quantity of smaller ships in many categories – fish carriers /Stao07/, o il tankers, bulk carriers /Rev09/. One reason could be the recent increase in fuel prices.

6.2.2 Road Transport

The road refrigeration market comprises several vehicle segments: small trucks and vans with a cargo volume below roughly 19 m 3 , large trucks with a volu me between 20 and 59 m 3 , and trailers and semi-trailers with a box volume up to more than 100 m 3 . Small trucks and vans are used predominantly for distribution in urban and sub-urban areas, while long haul transport favours large trucks and trailers.

The total world fleet is estimated at 4,000,000 vehicles, of which about 30 % are trailers, 30 % are large trucks and 40 % are small trucks and vans. The portion may vary from region to region. It is predicted, for example, that the total fleet of temperatur e controlled trucks in China will reach 80,000 in 2010. There are estimated 100,000 refrigerated trucks in Japan and more than 100,000 in France. Each vehicle is typically equipped with a single refrigeration unit.

It is common to state the maximum refrigeratio n capacity at two or th ree operating conditions that represent frozen cargo an d chilled (perishable) cargo. Th e exact rating conditions vary slightly for different markets and countries: the North American market prefers to rate at box temperatures of –17.8 oC and 1.7 oC at an ambient temperature of 37.8 oC, while the countries committed to the ATP Agreement /A gr10/ prefer the box temperatur es of –20 oC and 0 oC at an ambient temperature of 30 oC.

For 15 years multi-temperature equipments ha ve been developed. They allow the same vehicle with only one refrigera tion unit to carry products at di fferent temperatures in 2 or 3 compartments. They represent more than 30 % of the European market for new equipment, and some 20 % of current fleet. Some op erators purchase only the multi-temperature equipment even if they often operate in mono-temperature mode.

If the exact rating conditions an d the vehicle type are neglecte d, the maximum refrigeration capacity ranges from less than 500 W up to 10 kW at the frozen cargo temperatures and from2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 95 less than 1 kW up to 20 kW at the chilled cargo temperatures . The refrigeration capacity during transportation varies with the actual heat load. Most units are able to provide heating in the cargo box, usually by means of hot gas (compressor discharge), electricity, or independant gas heating equipment.

Power supply management and power transmission management can give the largest differences in design of refriger ation units for trailers , large trucks and small trucks or vans. Small truck units are typically driven directly from the vehicle engine. Very small units (for vans) may be powered by a DC power from the battery and alternator of the vehicle. Large trucks and trailers are powered by an independent, usually diesel engine, which is integrated inside the unit. In order to e liminate exhaust emissions, most units also include an electrical motor that can drive the compressor from the electricity grid at stops. Power can be transmitted from the engine to th e loads either mechanically or electrically. The mechanical solution relies on mechan ical coupling between engine and an open drive compressor, while in the electric solution the en gine drives a generator which powers a hermetic or semihermetic compressor and fan motors. The use of hermetic compressor significantly reduces refrigerant leaks, w ith obvious benefits.

The refrigerant charges are between several hundred grams and 10 kg, usually less than 6 kg for small and large trucks. Altho ugh small truck units have a lo wer capacity th an large truck units, they include refrigerant hoses that connect the unit with the compressor mounted on the engine block. Trailer units may have a typical refrigerant charge around 7.5 kg. Refrigerants typically used are R-404A and HFC-134a, but also R-410A or R-407C.

There is an ongoing effort in the industry to redu ce the greenhouse gas emissions. This is being realised through a number of complementary steps, including design changes that would improve the energy efficiency, reduction of the refrigerant charge and the refrigerant leakage rates, use of low-GWP refrigerants, and transition of power supply systems from traditional diesel engines to alternative propulsion systems (hybrid, electric, etc.).

6.2.3 Railcars

On a global scale, refrigerated railcars have become a very scarce type of vehicle used for transport of perishable and frozen product. There is a clear and definite trend to replace the refrigerated railcars with mobile boxes or intermodal refrigerated containers that can be, if railway is to be used, placed on a flat car. In some countries two containers can be transported on one railcar (one on the top of the other). Transport by rail is us ed mainly for long distances.

It is estimated that there are no more than 20,000 refrigerated railcars used globally (7,000 in the former Soviet Union, 2,000 in China, 7,000 in USA, 2,000 in the European Union and 2000 in the rest of the word). This is roughly one fifth of the global demand for new intermodal refrigerated containers in one year.

A factory in Eastern Germany since 1945 exported nearly 42,000 railcars to the former Soviet Union, and over 12,000 railcars to China and ot her states in Europe /Kue09/. Today, a company leading the Russian perishables transportation market operates 3,500 refrigerated railcars /Ref09/. In China, production of refrigerated railcars with water ice closed down in 1993, production of mechanically refrigerated railcars closed down in 2003, and the fleet is being gradually phased out. At present, there are about 2,000 cars with 4,000 refrigeration units in operation in Europe. A European network named Interfrigo reported just 285 refrigerated railcars in 2002 /Sch09 /. In 1987, Interfrigo used to manage nearly 19,000 railcars of all types. A few railcars ma y still be operated by individual European railways. In USA it was estimated that the supply of refrigerated rail cars would decrease from about 19,000 in2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 96 1980 to about 5,000 by 1990 /Hil80/. Acco rding to /All00/, a major railway company managed 5,200 refrigerated rail cars, constituting about 70 % of the entire US fleet in 2000.

All mechanically refrigerated ra ilcars in service utilise the vapour compression cycle. In terms of design, the refrigeration systems are simila r to those employed in road transport and intermodal containers. The refrigerants used were CFC, HCFC, and HFC for the newest systems. In China, CFC-12 is being replaced by HCFC-22 gradually since 2008. More than ten eutectic plate refrigerated railcars were manufactured in China, however, they did not proceed into serial production.

Not all railcars used for transport of perishable and frozen products are mechanically refrigerated. Many railcars have used water ic e to maintain the temperature – they are dependent on ice banks along their routes. Many cars have been only insulated. None of these types have been consider ed in this section.

6.2.4 Intermodal Containers

The size of intermodal refrigerated containers has been standardised /ISO08/. The weight of the heaviest cargo lim ited the size of the first containers to about 6 m (20 ft). As most cargo is somewhat lighter, 12 m (40 ft) containers have been developed. 40 ft containers are today used to a greater extent than 20 ft containers. Containers differ also in height, but the difference in height is sm all compared to the length.

The volume of cargo transported is commonly ex pressed in terms of Twenty-foot Equivalent Units, or TEU. A 40 ft container equals roughly to 2 TEU, but is refrigerated by a single refrigeration system just like the 20 ft contai ner. The difference in si ze makes it difficult to estimate the global fleet, because statistics usually describe the total TEU regardless of the container size.

Data of intermodal refr igerated containers is available only for those still being used in ocean traffic. It is not known how many refrigera ted containers are still in use on landside applications after they were retired from ocean traffic.

In 2009, there were approximately 150,000 units of 20 ft containers and 800,000 units of 40ft containers in use. The total number of units in operation was thus 950,000 (or 1,750,000 TEU). At the beginning of 2009 /Rev09/, there were 4,638 fully cellular container ships, with a total capacity of 12 million TEU (all cargo, no t only refrigerated). Up to 100,000 new refrigerated containers were bu ilt annually until the year 2007. This number has dropped as a consequence of the global economic recession in the years following 2007.

The vapour compression cycle has been the only technology used in intermodal refrigerated containers. First systems utilised CFC refrige rants and some HCFC refrigerants, but new systems today utilise only HFC-134a, or HF C blend R-404A (appr ox. 10-15 %). Four manufacturers dominate the global market.

All container units are el ectricity driven due to availability of electric grid on ships. When used on land (trailers, flat railcars, etc.), electricity is supplied from the electric grid or from a diesel engine generator set that is mo unted on the unit front or the trailer.

The refrigeration performances can be tested according to ISO 1496-2:2008. The maximum refrigeration capacity is common ly stated at three operating conditions that represent frozen cargo and chilled (perishable) ca rgo. The maximum refrigeration cap acity is around 4 kW at a box temperatures of –29 oC, around 6 kW at a box temperatures of –18 oC, and it is around 12 kW at a box temperatures of 2 oC, all rated at the ambient temperature of 38 oC. All units are2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 97 able to transport any type of cargo in any c limates. This means that both refrigeration and heating must be supplied.

Approximately 60 % of new units are fitted with hermetic scroll compressors offering many advantages including reliability , leakproofness, low weight, small size and low noise. The current technology features reduced refrigerant charges and emissions. The typical refrigerant charge is between 3.8 kg to 5.3 kg per unit with an average of approximately 4.5 kg.

During the last years, there have been strong efforts to reduce the energy consumption of container units in order to reduce fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The controller reduces the amount of circulated air inside the container thus reducing fan power and consequently compressor power, too. For example, the fans are cycled between half and full speed instead of running con tinuously on full speed, or th ey are tempora lly switched off completely.

Porthole type containers (insulated containers ventilated by chilled air refrigerated centrally) are not in operation any more and no new porthole containers, nor porthole container ships, are built. The last ships that of fered refrigeration cap acities for porthole co ntainers have been converted for the transport of containers equipped with an integral refrigeration unit.

China became the major producer of insulated marine containers (small productions are remaining in the world; for example in France, two manufacturers are building containers for military or NGO applications. There are three Chinese producers with a maximum annual production capacity of 230,000 TEU.

6.2.5 Small Containers and Boxes

The number of small containers may be equivalent to the number of other equipments in many European countries. On average, they transport a load of up to a few hundred kg. They are refrigerated mainly with solid carbon dioxide, but also with eutectic plates or small absorption or vapour compression units.

Boxes are generally not reusable and refrigerated with eutectic sticks or solid carbon dioxide. They are widely used for transport of pharmaceutical products and samples of food products. Their use is increasing for direct distribution to the consumer of products bought online. Refrigeration by means of ice slurry in double walls of small containers and boxes is under development.



### 6.3 Refrigerant Options for Existing Equipment

All new intermodal containers , majority of road vehicles and railcars, and many new merchant and fishing vessels use equipment with HFC refrigerants. HCFC refrigerants have been used in systems aboard vessels, and in ol der road and rail equipment. To retrofit HCFC refrigerants, only some refrig erant options will find its app lication in transport due to necessary service in frastructure and commonality of the working fluids.

In road transport, R-408A, containing 47 % HC FC-22, is a retrofit solution for units that are currently using R-502. The retrofit to R-408A often improves system capacity and efficiency, while the compressor head pressure may slightly increase at high ambient environments. It is important that systems operating with R-502 an d mineral oils may con tinue to use mineral oils provided the oil returns adequately to the compressor. If not, alkylbenzene or POE may be added (or used alone) to improve the miscib ility and oil return. System components do not require changing wh en retrofitting.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 98 R-402A, containing 38 % HCFC-22, was used as a retrofit substitute for R-502 in the mid-tolate ‘90’s in the USA, and may be still used in some countries.

Rather than R-408A or R-402A, it may be more suitable for some operat ors to retrofit with R404A. Although R-404A behaves much like R-502, several components incl. compressor may need to be replaced due to inferior lubricity of POE lubr icant when compared to alkyl benzene, and marginally higher operating pressures of R-404A. Nevertheless, being an HFC blend, R-404A is a longer-term solution than R-408A.

Aboard ships, R-407C and R-404A have been used most often to retrofit HCFC-22 in existing systems. These refrigerants have lower energy efficiency, but efficiency did not seem to be a major concern for many ship owners several years ago. Sometimes, HFC-134a has been used to retrofit HCFC -22 at the expense of losing about 30 % of refrigerating capacity.

No natural refrigerant can be used to retrofit HCFC-22 w ithout remodelling of the entire refrigeration system. Remodelling is often impossible due to exis ting layout and size of the refrigeration equipment.



### 6.4 Refrigerant Options for New Equipment

The vapour compression cycle w ill remain the dominant principl e of refrigeration units in transport. HFC refriger ants will remain the preferred refr igerant options. Di scussions about use of several new fluorinated refrigerants, such as HFC-1234yf, have recently taken place. These opportunities have not been considered in the present report – they have not been used commercially so far, and so no practical experience is available.

Non-fluorinated refrigerants have received grea t attention over the last decade, and in several cases operational samples have been tested and presented to the public. Howe ver, various technical, legal, financial, logi stic, service and other constraints have yet prevented a wider application of these new techno logies in practice. Most app lications of non-fluorinated refrigerants can be found aboard marine vessels.



### Hydrocarbons

Although hydrocarbons are technically feasible and may even outperform HFC systems, flammability makes people concerned about thei r use /Cor08/. Where they do not exist, standards need to be developed to address the safety concerns.

Effort is being made to reduce the refrigerant charge through indirect systems and compact heat exchangers, outdoor placing of the units, leakage sensors and alarms and forced ventilation /Pal08/. Indirect systems are ofte n penalised with a lowe r overall efficiency (higher fuel consumption), a gr eater complexity (reliability and maintenance cost), higher weight (fuel consumption) and larger size (cargo space), if compared with direct expansions systems.

Equipment with charges of hydrocarbons greater than 1 kg is, in general, possible only if all the refrigerant containing parts are placed outdoors or in a special machinery room. Because these requirements cannot be met aboard marine vessels, HC refrigerants are not likely to be used there.

HCs are currently trialled in tr ucks and home delivery vans in Great Britain and Germany, suggesting that their use may grow.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 99 Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO 2 , R-744) has the advantage that it is widely available world wide, but it must overcome several challenges before use in transport refrigeration is possible. Under high ambient temperature operation, so phisticated refrigeration cycl es (two-stage cycles, work recovery devices, etc.) are necessary to match the system efficiency of equivalent HFC units. The cycle operation is almost always transcritical, which results in compressor discharge pressures up to 7 times higher than those in HFC systems. Therefore, entirely new parts, design approaches, test procedures, service training, etc. are needed to design, build and operate a transcritical R-744 sy stem. The ability of using R-744 for heating in a heat pump cycle can be advantageous due to efficiency and capacity that is possible.

Aboard ships, R-744 has been used in the subcritical state, either as a refrigerant with own compressors (second stage in a cascade), or a secondary coolant being circulated by pumps. It features excellent thermodynamic properties. When used in the second stage, it can cover the temperature range between -10 and -50 °C. HFCs or ammonia is used in the first stage.

R-744 has a low temperature limit of about -54 °C and so it cannot be used, for example, on the Japanese market with requirements for fish freezing at -60 °C. Apart from that, R-744 in the subcritical state is suitable for ships, especially because it is not flammable and does notform aggressive or toxic products in contact with hot surfaces. It was reported /Tec09/ that R744 systems used in the second stage for freezing of fish and in reefer ships were able to save up to 25 % energy consumption compared to single stage HCFC-22 systems.

No commercial solutions with transcritical CO 2 are sold today in tran sport refrigeration. At least one manufacturer claims to field test transcritical R-744 units for marine containers in their full operating range. A trailer featuring a transcritical R-744 unit was presented at a recent international trade fair. Therefore, it is possible that commercial solutions will be available within the next few years. Because compressors, heat exchangers and other parts have special requirements in terms of robustness, weight, corrosion resistance, etc., vigorous performance verification must be carried out in order to qualify these systems for commercialisation. In addition, th e energy efficien cy in the transcritical operation mode has to be improved for hot climate applications.

Ammonia

Toxicity and flammability makes ammonia (NH 3 , R-717) a difficult option among alternate refrigerants for road vehicles, railcars and intermodal containers. The situation is different for marine vessels.

From 2001, NH 3 started to be used in large fishing vessels and in reefers in indirect and cascade systems. Meanwhile, classification bodies and authorities have widely ceased from their reservation towards NH 3 , in particular if exclusively professional personnel is on board. As for new-built fishing vess els and reefer ships, NH 3 is of higher importance than HFCs today /Tec09/.

The use of NH 3 systems is limited to (1) ships that do not carry passengers but professional crew only (toxicity), and (2) sh ip with a relatively high refrig eration capacity (fishing vessels > 36 m) because of energy efficiency, safety and space reasons. Therefore, use of HFCs refrigerants will continue on cruise and passenger ships, and in general, on small ships of all categories.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 100 Discontinuous systems

Cryogenic (open-loop) systems have been applie d in small and large tr ucks. In one system, liquid CO 2 or N 2 is stored in an insulated tank and injected to an evaporator via a vapour motor driving a fan. Other systems inject liquid N 2 into the cargo spa ce while displacing O 2 . Such systems require complex safety mechanisms and gas extraction equipment to protect operators (risk of asphyxiation). All cryogenic systems require re charging with liquid coolant. On the contrary, they offer low noise, reduced maintenance and outs tanding refrigeration performance (fast pull-down), which make them excellent systems for vehicles serving local distribution chains. Two aspects shall be considered in energy analyses: the coolant consumption is proportional to the refrigeration need (diesel engines have always a minimum consumption), but energy is needed to produce the liquid coolants.

Eutectic plates are sometimes utilised in dist ribution vehicles for short distances. They are based on a frozen salt so lution, which, while it melts, remo ves heat from the environment and provides refrigeration. Lo w pull down capacity and somewhat inflexible temperature management makes them especially suitable for distribution of deep frozen products. Although they must be regenerated periodically (by freezing in an external mechanical refrigeration system), they offer low noise and require al most no maintenance.

Other systems

Cascade systems for trucks, combining a heat driven adsorption system and a vapour compression cycle are still under development. Ot her alternatives have also been considered in the road transport, but have not been pursued for numerous reasons. Adsorption and absorption systems are also being evaluated.



### 6.5 Recovery, Reuse and Destructions of Refrigerants

Handling of used refrigerant includes recovery, recycling, reclamation and destruction. All or any of these steps may be required by national le gislation. In many countries, however, such requirements are absent. Although voluntary measures may sometimes be implemented, there will still be an opportunity for improvement in many countries as long as legal or monetary measures (incentives or tax to compensate for recyc ling, reclamation or destruction cost) will not be in place.



### 6.6 Bank and Emission Data

The estimates of approximate refrigerant banks and emissions in transport refrigeration are summarised in Tables 6-1 and 6-2 (rounded to 10). The data are based on estimates of the fleet size, refrigerant charge per system, refrigerant share in the fleet, and refrigerant emissions per system, which are presented in Tables 6-3 through 6-5.

Except for marine vessels, the to tal refrigerant banks do not diff er substantially from the data presented in the previous 2006 assessment report. Any difference is caused primarily by variation in partial source data (Tables 6-3 through 6-5). The banks reported for vessels are higher also due to the fact that the scope was expanded to smaller vessels down to 100 GT. The 2006 assessment considered merchant, naval and fishing vessels above 300 GT only.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 101 Table 6-1: Estimate of approximate refrigerant banks (t)

CFC HCFC HFC R-717 R-744 TOTAL
Merchant, naval and fishing vessels 2500 21900 2730 20 110 27260

Road vehicles 160 4860 14380 0 0 19400

Railcars 20 210 80 0 0 310

Interm. containers 0 210 4060 0 0 4270

TOTAL 2680 27180 21250 20 110 51240

Table 6-2: Estimate of approximate refrigerant emissions (t/y)

CFC HCFC HFC R-717 R-744 TOTAL
Merchant, naval and fishing vessels 1000 6570 270 0 10 7850

Road vehicles 50 970 1440 0 0 2460

Railcars 0 40 10 0 0 50

Interm. containers 0 40 200 0 0 240

TOTAL 1050 7620 1920 0 10 10600

Table 6-3: Estimate of fleet size and refrigerant charge

Category System type Share Fleet Refr. charge (kg)

Direct 90% 90000 200 Merchant vessels Indirect 10% 10000 50

Direct 100% 5000 200 Naval vessels Indirect 0% 0 50

Direct 70% 35000 200 Fishing vessels Indirect 30% 15000 50

Small trucks Belt driven 40% 1600000 2
Large trucks Independent 30% 1200000 6

Trailers 30% 1200000 7.5

Railcars 100% 20000 15

Interm. containers 100% 950000 4.5 

### System type: Direct = direct expa nsion; Indirect = secondary loop2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report102Table 6-4: Estimate of approximate refrigerant shareCategorySystem typeCFC-11CFC-12HCFC-22R-502R-408AHFC-134aR-404AR-407CR-717R-744Direct 5% 5% 80% 7% 2% 1%MerchantvesselsIndirect 80% 5% 5% 10%Direct 90% 10%Naval vesselsIndirectDirect 5% 5% 80% 6% 2% 1%Fishing vesselsIndirect 80% 5% 5% 2% 8%Small trucksBelt driven 5% 85% 10%Large trucksIndependent 20% 5% 5% 70%Trailers20% 5% 5% 70%Railcars5% 70% 5% 20%Interm.containers5% 85% 10%System type: Direct = direct expansion; Indirect = secondary loop2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report103Table 6-5: Estimate of approximate refrigerant emissions in % ofcharge, per year, including leaks, total charge losses due toruptures, service lossesand end of live losses.CategorySystem typeCFC-11CFC-12HCFC-22R-502R-408AHFC-134aR-404AR-407CR-717R-744Direct 40% 40% 30% 10% 10% 10%Merchant vesselsIndirect 30% 10% 10%Direct 30% 10%Naval vesselsIndirectDirect 40% 40% 30% 10% 10% 10%Fishing vesselsIndirect 30% 10% 5% 10%Small trucksBelt driven 30% 10% 10%Large trucksIndependent 20% 20% 20% 10%Trailers20% 20% 20% 10%Railcars30% 20% 10% 10%Interm.containers20% 5% 5%System type: Direct = direct expansion; Indirect = secondary loop2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 104 6.7 References

/Agr10/ Agreement on the international carriage of perishable foodstuff and on the special equipment to be used for such carriage (ATP), United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2010, http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp11/atp.html /All00/ http://www.allbusiness.com/sales/customer-service-product-knowledge/677599-1.html, January 2010 /Ana99/ Analyses of the vessels over 100 tons in the global fishing fleet, FAO Fisheries Circular No. 949, 1999, http://www.fao.or g/docrep/005/X 4360E/X4360E00.HTM /Cor08/ Corberan, J. M., Segurado, J., Colbourne, D. and J. Gonzalvez, Review of standards for the use of hydrocarbon refrigerants in A/C, heat pump and refrigeration equipment, International Journal of Refrig eration, 31(4), June 2008, 748-756 /Equ07/ Equasis statistics – The world merchant fleet in 2007, http://www.equasis.org, August 2010 /FAO10/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, http://www.fao.org/fishery/en, August 2010 /Hil80/ Hill, R. P., Refrigerated railcars supply and demand, Speech presented to the AFFI-IARW Refrigerator Railcar Task Force, St Paul. Minn (1980) /IIR09/ IIR Newsletter, July 2009, International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris, France (referring to Fruit World International 1/2009) /ISO08/ ISO 1496-2:2008 Series 1 freight containers -- Specification and testing -- Part 2: Thermal containers, ISO 2008 /Kue09/ http://www.kuehlwaggon.de, January 2010

/Mar10/ Marine Pollution Convent ion, MARPOL 73/78, Annex VI, http://www.imo.org/Conventions/mainframe.asp?topic_id=148 /Nav10/ http://www.navy.m il/navydata/navy_legacy _hr.asp?id=146, August 2010 /Pal08/ Palm B., Hydrocarbons as refrigerants in small heat pump and refrigeration systems – A review, International Journal of Refrigeration, 31(4), June 2008, 552-563 /Ref09/ http://www.refservice.ru/en/, January 2010 /Rev09/ Review of maritime transport, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, New York and Geneva, 2009, http://www.unctad.org /Sch09/ Schiffer V. – private communication, with reference to Gueterwagen-correspondenz Nr. 90 – 3/2002, 2009 /Sta07/ The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2006, FAO 2007, http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0699e/a0699e00.HTM /Tec09/ Technical support for European acti on to reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from international maritime transport, December 2009, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/transport/ships.htm2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 105 

## Chapter 7

__________________________________________________________ Air-to-Air Air Conditio ners and Heat Pumps

Chapter Lead Author Fred J. Keller

Lead Authors or Co-Authors Daniel Colbourne Sukumar Devotta

Reviewing Authors Radhey Agarwal Jim Crawford Martin Dieryckx Makoto Kaibara

Ed McInerney

Petter Nekså Horace A. Nelson Paulo Vodianitskaia2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 106 

## 7 Air-to Air Air Conditio ners and Heat Pumps

7.1 Introduction

On a global basis, air conditioners, including re versible air heating he at pumps (generally defined as “reversible heat pumps”) ranging in size from 2.0 kW to 420 kW comprise a vast majority of the air conditioning market (the majo rity are less than 35 kW). In the remainder of this chapter the term air cond itioning will be used to apply to both air conditioners and airto-air heat pumps that directly heat air. Th is broad category is so metimes referred to as 

### aircooled or 

### unitary equipment /ASH08/. These systems cool and/or heat enclosed spaces ranging from single rooms to la rge exhibition halls. Essentially , most are electrically driven vapour-compression systems using hermetic rotary, reciprocating or scroll compressors for units with capacities up to abou t 100 kW, and single or multiple semi-hermetic reciprocating, scroll or screw compressors for units with capacities up to 400 kW. Air in the space is drawn over a coil containing evaporating refrigerant. Heat transfer occurs between the air and the circulating refrigerant. With heat pump systems, the role of the evaporator and condenser can be reversed to provid e either heating or cooling. In the heating mode, air from the conditioned space passes over the same coil that now contains refrigerant undergoing condensation thereby transf erring heat to the air.

In 2008, an estimated 553 million HCFC-22 ai r conditioners were operating world-wide. Refrigerant charge quantities va ry roughly proportional to cap acity. These 553 million units represent an installed bank of approximately one million me tric-tonnes of HCFC-22.

Nearly all air conditioners manu factured prior to 20 00 used HCFC-22. The transition away from HCFC-22 is nearly comple te in developed countries. The phase-out of HCFC-22 in the manufacturing of new products in the EU was completed in 2004. The phase-out of HCFC-22 was nearly completed (95%) in th e manufacturing of new products in Japan in 2004, with the remainder occurring in 2009. The phase-out of HCFC-22 in new systems in North America was completed in 2009. Ho wever, it is important to note that technical options available at the time of the phase-out in these countries were environmentally focused on the protection of the ozone layer and not on the reduction of CO2 equivalent emissions. Some Non-Article 5 countries have begun transitioni ng to non-ODP alternatives ahea d of the Montreal Protocol commitment dates. Approximately 85% of the in stalled unit population currently uses HCFC22 and approximately 32% of the units produced globally in 2008 used non-ODP refrigerants. In 2006, HFC demand globally represented appr oximately 9% of the total refrigerant demand for these categories of products /Sab09/.



### 7.2 Applications

Air conditioners generally fall into four distinct categories, based primarily on capacity or application: small self-cont ained air conditioners (window-mounted and through-the-wall air conditioners); non-duc ted split residential and commercial air conditioners; ducted, split residential air conditioners; and ducted commercial split and packaged air conditioners (commercial air cooled) /ASH07/, /ASH08/. In each of these categories, the term “air conditioner” in cludes systems that dir ectly cool or heat the conditioned air.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 107 7.2.1 Small Self-Contained Air Conditioners

Small Self-Contained (SSC) air conditioners are small capacity air conditioners in which all of the refrigeration system components are contained within a single package. These products have cooling capacities typi cally ranging from 1.0 kW to 10.5 kW. This category of products includes the following co mmon configurations:

• Window Mounted Room Air Conditioner,

• Through-the Wall Air Conditioner

• Portable Air Conditioner 2

• Packaged Terminal Ai r Conditioner (PTAC).

Small self-contained air conditione rs are designed to heat or cool single spaces--such as bedrooms or small offices. Small self-contai ned air conditioners, because of their size and relatively low cost, have often been the first individual comfort electrically driven vapourcompression systems to appear in emerging air conditioning markets. However, global product shipment data indicates that duct-free, split type room air conditioners are being selected more frequen tly as the first comfort air cond itioning option in most countries - resulting in a global decline in the demand for window mo unted and throug h-the-wall air conditioners /JARN08/, /AHRI08/.

Small self-contained air cond itioners range in capacity fr om less than 1.0 kW to approximately 10.5 kW (having an average size of 2.7 kW). These systems have average refrigerant charge levels of approximately 0.25 kg per kW of cooling capacity. All use hermetic rotary, reciprocating or scro ll compressors, with the majo rity using hermitic rotary
compressors.
The majority of small self-contained air c onditioners historically have used HCFC-22 refrigerant. As non-ODP refrigerants have been applied to these produc ts-the majority have used HFC blends. A small number units (approxi mately 100,000 portable units per year) are using hydrocarbons /UNEP05/.

7.2.2 Non-ducted (or duct-free) Split Residential and Commercial Air Conditioners

In many parts of the world, residential and light commercial air-cond itioning is done with non-ducted split air conditioners. Non-ducted split air conditioners can be applied to commercial buildings, schools, apartments and free-standing re sidences. Non- ducted split air conditioners include a co mpressor/heat exchanger unit (condensing unit) installed outside the space to be cooled or heated. The outdoor unit is connected via refrigerant piping to one or more fan-coils located inside the conditioned sp ace. Single splits often position the expansion device also within the condensing/outdoor unit.

Non-ducted products can be sub-divided into tw o sub-categories: single split and multi-split. With single split products a sing le indoor fan coil un it is connected to an outdoor condensing unit. Small (less than 7 kW) non- ducted split air conditioners with a single indoor fan-coil are sometimes referred to as split type room ai r conditioners. In multi-split systems, a single outdoor condensing unit is connected to two or more indoor fan coils.

2 Portable air conditioners are a special class of room air conditioners that can be rolled from room to room. They exhaust their condenser air through a small flexible conduit, which can be placed in an open window. Some portable air conditioners use a separate outdoor condenser, which connects, to the indoor section with flexible refrigerant piping.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 108 Reversible air conditioners (h eat pumps) are gaining market acceptance in co ld climates where they are used primarily for heating but also provide cooling during summer operation. These units are designed to provide high efficiency and capacity at low ambient temperatures; typically down to -30 °C. Reversible air conditioners reduce indirect CO 2 emissions by providing an efficient and cost effective alternative to electric resistance and fossil fuel heating. Heat pumps desi gned for cold c limates utilise one or more technologies to improve their low ambient performance. These techno logies include multi-stage or variable speed compression, larger heat exchangers and enhanced control strategies. These products range from residential use up to VRF systems, which are used in large commercial applications.

Variable Refrigerant Fl ow (VRF) systems are a sub-category of the multi-split non-ducted air conditioning systems. VRF systems are dis tinguished from regular multi-split systems by their ability to modulate the refrigerant flow in response to the system demand. VRF systems normally consist of a number of indoor air handling units connected to a single outdoor air conditioning unit. The outdoo r air conditioning unit can adju st the refrigerant flow in response to the demand from each indoor unit. In some configurations, these systems can simultaneously heat and cool separate indoor spaces. The outdoor un it modulates the total refrigerant flow using various compressor capacity control methodologies. VRF systems have capacities ranging from 10 kW to over 130 kW.

Non-ducted split air conditioners use hermetic rotary, scroll or reciprocating compressors. The vast majority of non-ducted air conditioners manufactured prior to 2000 used HCFC-22 refrigerant. Non-ducted single split air conditioners have aver age HCFC-22 charge levels of approximately 0.25 to 0.30 kg per kW of cooling capacity. The average charge per kW increases as the operating efficiency of these systems increases due to the increased internal volume as the size of the heat exchangers is increased /ICF06/. Typical refrigerant charge levels for multi-split and VRF systems ar e 0.30 – 0.70 kg/k W of cooling.

7.2.3 Ducted, Split Reside ntial Air Conditioners

Ducted, split residential air cond itioners are typically used wher e central forced-air heating systems necessitate the installation of a duct system that supplies air to each room of a residence or small zones within commercial or institutional buildings. A condensing unit (compressor/heat exchanger), outside the conditioned space, supplies refrigerant to one or more indoor coils (heat exchangers ) installed within the duct syst em or air handler. Air in the conditioned space is cooled or heated by passing over the coil and is distributed throughout the building by the duct system. Capacities ra nge from 5 kW to 17.5 kW (average size 10.9 kW) and each has an average HCFC-22 charge of 0.26 to 0.35 kg per kW of capacity.

As the efficiency level of these products is increased, the average charge per kW typically increases unless design changes are made to reduce the product internal volume; such as smaller diameter heat exchanger tubing /ICF06/. In the United States, the minimum efficiency of residential air co nditioners that can be manufactur ed was increased 30 percent in January 2006, from 10 SEER to 13 SEER. Products meeting the new efficiency standards have charge levels approximately 20 to 40% greater than the products designed to meet the prior minimum efficiency levels due to the increased heat exchanger surface added to meet the new minimum efficiency standard /ICF06/. However, considerable research is being conducted to reduce refrigerant ch arge levels /Pog08/, /Fer05/. Charge reduction technology will become increasingly import ant as the industry begins to transition to lower GWP alternatives, some of which are flammable.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 109 7.2.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air Conditioners

Ducted commercial air conditioners and heat pumps are manufactured in two forms: split system units which are matched with an indoor air handler and heat exchanger and single packaged units which contain an integral blower and heat exchanger section which is connected to the air distribution system of the commercial structure.

The majority of ducted commer cial packaged air co nditioners and heat pu mps are mounted on the roof of individual offices, shops or restaurants or outside the structure on the ground. Multiple units containing one or more compresso rs are often used to condition the enclosed space of low-rise shopping centres, shops, schools or other moderate size commercial
structures.

Large commercial structures such as hospita ls, exhibition halls or high-rise structures generally utilise chillers to pr oduce chilled water or brine wh ich is used to cool and dehumidify air using liquid-to-air heat exchangers (Chapter 9).

Table 7-1 summarises the typical physical and in stallation characteristics of each type of air conditioner.

Table 7-1: Typical Configura tions of Air Conditioner Type

Type Primary Configuration System Layout Evaporator Location Condenser Location Capacity Range (kW) Charge Range

(kg)

Window Small Self-contained Selfcontained Inside Outside 1 – 10.5 0.3 – 3

Portable Small Self-contained Selfcontained Inside Inside 1 – 10.5 0.3 – 3

Through-the-Wall Small Self-contained Selfcontained Inside Outside 1 – 10.5 0.3 – 3

Packaged terminal Small Self-contained Selfcontained Inside Outside 1 – 10.5 0.3 – 3
Split (non-ducted) Non-ducted Split Remote Inside Outside 2 – 15 0.5 – 5

Split (ducted) Ducted Split Remote Inside Outside 4 – 17.5 1 – 7

Multi-split Non-ducted Split Remote Inside Outside 10 – 130 5 – 100
Packaged Rooftop Ducted Commercial Selfcontained Outside Outside 7.0 – 350 5 – 100

Ducted Commercial Split Ducted Commercial Remote Inside Outside 10.5 – 90 5 – 352010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 110 7.3 Current Use of HCFC-22

Estimates of the installed base (number of units) and HCFC-22 inventory were made using computer models documented in prior assessments and other reports /Kel04/, /Clo04/, /Sab09/

. Table 7-2 lists the estimated 2008 unit po pulations and HCFC-2 2 Refrigerant Banks for each of the product categories covered in this chapter.

Table 7-2: Estimated 2008 Unit Population and HCFC-22 Banks

Product Category HCFC Units Operating 3
(Million) HFC Units Operating (Million) Total Units Operating (Million) Estimated HCFC-22

Bank 4 (m-tonnes)

Window-mounted and Through-the-Wall (Packaged Terminal) Air Conditioners 4 116 16 132 84,000

Non-ducted or Duct-free Split Residential and Commercial Air Conditioners 332 62 394 423,000

Ducted, Split Residential Air conditioners and Heat Pumps 85 12 97 309,000

Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air Conditioners 20 3 23 223,000

Total 553 93 646 1,039,000

7.3.1 Small Self-Contained Air Conditioners

On a world-wide basis, an estimated 10.5 million HCFC-22 based window-mounted 5 and through-the-wall (packaged terminal) air co nditioners were sold in 2008 containing on average for the entire population 0.75 kg of HCFC-22.

With service lives over 10 years, it is estimated that more than 116 million HCFC-22 window-mounted and through-the- wall air conditioners remain in operation globa lly (Table 7- 2). The total 2008 global bank of HCFC-22 in the installed population of window-mounted and through-the-wall air conditione rs (including portable air co nditioners) is estimated to be 84,000 metric-tonnes.

7.3.2 Non-ducted Sp lit Air Conditioners

An estimated 332 million HCFC-22 non-ductedsplit air conditioners were operating worldwide in 2008. Non-du cted split air conditioners, ranging in capacity from 2.0 kW to 20 kW(average size of 3.8kW). The total inventory of HCFC-22 in the installed population of ductfree split systems world-wide in 2008 has be en estimated to be 423 ,000 metric-tonnes.

3 Unit population includes units manufactured with HCFC refrigerant.
4 HCFC-22 Bank does not include non-ODS refrigerants, HFC Bank not listed
4 Window mounted air conditioners are also sometimes installed through a penetration of the outside wall. Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners, PTAC, are similar to Window mounted air conditioners but typically contain some form of electric heat. PTACs are typically installed in hotel and motel

rooms.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 111 7.3.3 Ducted, Split Reside ntial Air Conditioners

An estimated 85 million HCFC-22 ducted, split re sidential air conditione rs were in service world-wide in 2008. The majority of these air conditioners are located in United States and Canada. The estimated bank of HCFC-22 in the installed population of ducted residential systems has been estimated to be 309,000 metric-tonnes.

Approximately 56% of ducted, split residential air conditioners manuf actured globally in 2008 utilised non-ODS refrigerants. Approximatel y 12 million of the in stalled popul ation of 97 million (HCFC-22 and HFC) ducted, split resi dential air conditioners were manufactured with non-ODP refrigerants; such as R-407C and R-410A.

7.3.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air conditioner

An estimated 20 million HCFC-22 air-cooled ducted commercial sp lit and packaged air conditioners and heat pumps were operating world-wide in 2 008. Ducted commercial air conditioners and heat pump s range in capacity from about 5 kW to as large as 420 kW. The estimated total worldwide bank of HCFC-22 in the installed base of these systems in 2008 has been estimated to be 223,000 metric-tonnes. Approximately 3 million of these 20 million aircooled ducted commercial units were manufactured with non-ODP refrigerants.

7.3.5 HCFC-22 Bank

On a mass basis in 2008, HCFC-22 accounted for 85% of the refrigerant bank for these product categories. Table 7-2 su mmarises the total estimated ba nk of HCFC-22 used in these product categories.

Since the last assessment, there has been a significant increase in the number of new products in these categories, which u tilise non-ODS refrigerants. In North America, HCFC-22 was phased out in new products at the end of 2009. Europe and Japan have also completed the shift to non-ODS refrigerants.

The majority of Article 5 countries are still u tilising HCFC-22 to produ ce these categories of products for their domestic markets. However, China and to a lesser extent India have been producing significant numbers of non-ODS products for export to non-Article 5 country markets.



### 7.4 Options for New Equipment

7.4.1 Methodology

A survey of current product offerings indica tes that the majority of non-ODS products available for the product catego ries covered in this section are using HFC blends as the predominate refrigerant, with a small number of units using hydrocarbon refrigerants (portable and small split system air conditio ning units). While HFC-134a and R-744 are technically feasible options, th ere has been very limited commercialisation of air-cooled air conditioning products usin g HFC-134a or R-744.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 112 There are several factors that should be considered when selecting an alternative refrigerant for air conditioning appl ications. These are:

• Safety,

• Zero ODP,

• Climate Change impact (reduced direct and indirect emissions),

• Performance (Capacity and Efficiency) and,

• Impact on Product Cost.

The selection of a refrigerant for a given app lication should be a proc ess of selecting an optimum solution considering each of the above criteria. Other than Zero ODP, the rest of the parameters will have to be traded-off against one another to arrive at the optimum solutions for each air conditioning application. In particular th e carbon Impact will need to address both the “direct” and “i ndirect” contribution to the ca rbon footprint of the product over its life cycle. A number of approaches have been document ed in the literature including: TEWI, LCCP, MCII and other methods /K au08/, /UNE05/, /Riv08/, /Kin08/.

Following is a summary of the most viable HCFC-22 replacement candidates for airconditioners.

7.4.2 Single Component HFC Refrigerants

Several single component HFC refrigerants have been investigated as replacements for HCFC-22. However, HFC-134a is the on ly single component HFC that has been commercially used in air conditioning systems.

7.4.2.1 HFC-134a

HFC-134a is the only single component HFC th at has been commercially applied in this category of products. HFC-134a is not a 

### drop-in replacement for HCFC-22. To achieve the same capacity as an HCFC-22 system, the compressor displacement must be increased approximately 40 percent to compensate for th e lower volumetric refr igeration capacity of HFC-134a. Significant equipment redesign is necessary to achieve efficiency and capacity equivalent to HCFC-22 systems. These design changes include larger heat exchangers, larger diameter interconnecting refrigerant tubing, larger compressors and re-sized compressor
motors.

While HFC-134a is a potential HCFC-22 replacem ent in air-cooled systems, it has not seenbroad use because manufacturers have been able to develop substantially lower cost aircooled air conditioning systems using HFC blends such as R-407C and R-410A. The predominant use of HFC-134a has been in water chillers and mobile air conditioning applications (Chapters 9 and 10 respectively). Therefore HFC-134a has seen limited application in air-cooled ai r conditioning applications.

7.4.3 HFC Blends

A number of HFC blends have emerged as replacements for HCFC-22 in air conditioning systems. Various compositions of HFC-32, HF C-125, and HFC-134a are being offered as non-ODS replacements for HCFC-22. The two most widely used HFC blends are R-407C and R-410A. R-407C and R-410A have GW Ps near HCFC-22 (Table 2-1).2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 113 7.4.3.1 R-407C

Performance tests with R- 407C indicate that in properly designed air conditioners, this refrigerant will have capacitie s and efficiencies within ± 5% of equivalent HCFC-22 systems /Li00i/. As R-407C is zeotropic blend, temperature glide is signif icant. Counter flow design of heat exchangers can m itigate the negative impact of refr igerant glide. However, with reversible heat pumps it is difficult to empl oy counter flow heat exchanger designs because the refrigerant has oppo site flow directions in the heating and coo ling modes unless complex reversible refrigerant heat ex changer circuiting is employed.

There are currently R-407C air conditioning pr oducts available in Eu rope, Japan and other parts of Asia. R-407C has also seen some lim ited usage in the North America, primarily in commercial applications.

Since R-407C refrigerant requires only modest modifications to existing HCFC-22 systems, it has been used as a transitiona l refrigerant in equi pment originally designed for HCFC-22. However, over time, many of the R-407C desi gns have been redesigned with R-410A to achieve size and cost reductions.

7.3.3.2 R-410A

R-410A is a binary blend that can replace HCFC-22 in new equipment production. This blend has a low temperature glide (n ear azeotropic). The normal boiling point is approximately 10 ° C lower than HCFC-22, resulting in conden sing pressures up to 4000 kPa which is approximately 50-60% higher than HCFC-22. R-410A also has favourable thermophysical properties, which enable the de sign of units, which are more compact than the HCFC-22 units they replace.
R-410A air conditioners (up to 175 kW) are curre ntly commercially available in the US, Asia and Europe. A significant portion of the duct-free products sold in Japan and Europe now use R-410A as the preferred refrigerant. Appr oximately 55% of the US Ducted Residential Market in 2008 used R-410A as the refrigerant. The US ducted residential market will predominately utilise R-410A as the HCFC-2 2 replacement refrigerant after 2009. System pressures with this blend are approximately 50 percent higher than with HCFC-22. System designers have addressed the higher operating pressures of R-410A through design changes such as thicker walls in compressor shells, pressure vessels (accumulators, receivers, filter driers etc.), heat exchangers and refrigerant tubing.

7.4.4 Reduced GWP HFC Refrigerants and Blends

7.4.4.1 HFC-32 HFC-32 is one of the primary constituents of both R-410A an d R-407C. HFC-32 is an A2L refrigerant having a GWP (675) approximately 70% less than that of R-410A, which makes it a lower GWP alternative to R-410A. HFC-32 exhibits slightly higher capacity and efficiency than R-410A. Because HFC-32 has an A2L flam mability rating, the flammability would need to be mitigated in the design of the product by compliance with an app licable safety standard such as IEC 60335-2-40. R-410A systems should be able to be redesigned for HFC-32 with minor modifications. HFC-32 is not a drop in for HCFC-22 since its pressure is around 60% higher and its capacity is also approximately 60% greater than HCFC-22 /ASH09/. HCFC-22 systems would require significant redesign including: lower displacement compressors and other changes to the refrigeration system componen ts to address the higher oper ating pressures; which will be nearly the same changes needed to redesign HCFC-22 equipment to use R-410A.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 114 7.4.4.2 HFC-152a
HFC-152a has performance characteristics simila r to HFC-134a. It has similar capacity andefficiency performance to that of HFC-134a. HFC-152a has a much lower GWP than HFC134a, R-410A or R-407C. HFC-152a has Class 2 flammability according to ISO 817, with a relatively high flame speed. The design of HFC-152a equipment should follow the requirements of re levant safety standards such as IE C 60335-2-40, which require limiting the refrigerant charge or under certain circumstances may necessitate the use of indirect systems.
In addition, significant redesi gn of existing HCFC-22, R-410A or R-407C systems would be required to utilise HFC-152a. Changes wo uld be required to address not only the flammability of HFC-152a but also its low volume tric refrigeration capac ity, which is close to that of HFC-134a. The necessary system design changes are similar to those described for HFC-134a.
It is unlikely that HFC-152a will be commercia lised in air conditioning systems because its low density and flammability would result in significantly increased costs relative to an HCFC-22 system.

7.4.4.3 HFC-161
HFC-161 is also being evaluated as a replacem ent for HCFC-22 in air conditioning systems. HFC-161 is a flammable, low GWP alternative. Studies comparing HCFC-22 and HFC-161 are just beginning to appear in the literature. Much of the curre nt research is being conducted in China. As with a ll flammable refrigerants, HFC-161 would need to be applied using an appropriate safety standard such as IEC-60335-2-40.
7.4.4.4 HFC-1234yf
HFC-1234yf is an unsaturated HFC, which has zero ODP and very low GW P. This refrigerant has been proposed as an alternative to R-134a in automotive AC applica tions /Min08/. HFC1234yf is not a 

### drop-in replacement for HCFC-22 for air-to-air air conditioning applications. Its thermodynamic performance is similar to R-134a. It has a lower volumetric refrigeration capacity than R-22, R-410A or R-407C and thus requires that compressors using this refrigerant have significantly larger displacemen ts. Experimental studies indicate that HFC1234yf systems will be 40% larger and more costly than HCFC-2 2 systems /Fuj10/, /Hid10/. The design changes include larger displacement compressors, increased heat exchanger areas and larger diameter interconnecting tubing. These changes are similar to the changes described for HFC-134a in 7.5.2.1. HFC-1234yf has an A2L flammability rating and would need to be applied using an appropriate safe ty standard such as IEC-60336-2-40.
Because HFC-1234yf is so similar to HFC-134a it will suffer from the same application cost issues discussed for HF C-134a. It is therefore unlikely that unitary air- conditioners using pure HFC-1234yf will be commercially viable.
7.4.4.5 HFC-1234yf Blends
Refrigerant manufacturers have proposed blending HFC-1234yf with other non-ODP refrigerants in order to more closely match the performance of the refrigerants currently being used in these products /Min08/, /Spa10/. Most of these blends contain one or more other HFC refrigerants and exhibit various levels of glide and in some cases flammability depending on the blend composition. These blen ds can be formulated to have performance characteristics similar to HCFC-22 or R-410A while having much lower GWPs.
7.4.4.6 Lubricants for HFC Systems

The naphthenic mineral-oil-base d and alkyl benzene lubricants commonly used in HCFC-22 systems are not miscible with HFC refrigerants. Considerable field experience has resulted in2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 115 the commercial availability of a number of synthetic lubricants for HFC systems. The two primary lubric ants being used in HFC systems are:

1. Polyolester (POE) Lubri cants (Synthetic), and

2. Polyvinylether Lubricants (PVE) (Synthetic).

Of these, POE is the most widely used lubr icant in HFC refrigeran t applications. The selection of the lubricant to be used with a particular HFC is generally made by the compressor manufacturer whom makes the selec tion after extensive material compatibility and reliability testing.

7.4.5 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

Hydrocarbon systems are commercia lly available in a number of low charge air conditioning applications, such as small split, window and po rtable air conditioners. HC-290 is the most frequently used hydrocarbon refrigerant in ai r conditioning applications. When used to replace HCFC-22, HC-290 has performance characteristics which yield slightly better performance than HCFC-22 /Dev05i/, /ART01/. Compared to HFCs, hydrocarbon refrigerants have: reduced charge levels (approximately 0.05 - 0.15 kg/kW of cooling capacity), miscibility with mineral oils (s ynthetic lubricants are not re quired), reduced compressor discharge temperatures, and improved heat transfer due to favourable thermo-physical properties /Col99/.

The factor that works against th e safe application of HC-290 in air conditioning systems is its high flammability, which creates significant safety concerns in application, installation and field service. European and in ternational standards limit the qu antity of HC-290 that can be used in a system. IEC-60335-2-40 provides criteria used to determine the maximum allowable charge in a specific application. Se ction 7.4.7 provides a brief discussion of the methodology used by IEC-60335-2-40 along with examples of the charge limits for typical applications. Charge reduction technologies can reduce the refrigerant charge of hydrocarbon systems; which can increase the range of un it capacities which can use hydrocarbon or any flammable refrigerant.

Risk analyses on the use of hydrocarbons in air conditioners suggest that provided the requirements of sa fety standards are met, the risk of ignition during norm al operation is extremely low /Col04/. The situation leading to highest risk is sudd en leaks, refrigerant handling, and servicing activities. Thus, installation and service pr actices must be modified to avoid exposing consumers and service technicians to the additional risks associated with highly flammable refrigerants.

Another factor that must be cons idered with flammable refrigerant s will be refrigerant reclaim and recovery requirements. Even though hydrocarbon refrigerants have minimal environmental impacts, there may still be a need to recover the refrigerant during servicing and at the end of the product’s life to protect those servicing or recycling the product. Current recovery and recycling practices depend largely upon national or regional regulations. For example, in Europe waste legislation implies that HCs must be recovered, whereas in many Article 5 countries, venting of HCs may be considered an acceptable option.

The ultimate decision on whether hydrocarbon refrigerants are practical in air conditioning products will be determined by safety standards, local codes and whether the added costs of safety mitigation result in products more costly than those that can be developed using other non-ODS options.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 116 7.4.5.1 Lubricants for Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

A number of researchers and practical experience with hydrocarbon refrigerators confirm that hydrocarbon refrigerants can utilise mineral oil based lubricants /Col99ii/, /Bit04/. Compressor manufacturers’ catalogue data in dicates that both mine ral oil based and POE lubricants are being used in compressors designed for hydrocarbon applications.

7.4.6 R-744

R-744 offers a number of desira ble properties as a re frigerant: ready availa bility, low-toxicity, low GWP and low cost. However, because of the low practical exposure limit of R-744, it needs to be applied us ing applicable safety standards. R-744 has a low critical point temperature which results in significant efficien cy losses when it is applied at the typical indoor and outdoor air temperatur es of air-to-air air conditioning applications; particularly in high ambient climates which could result in high er system costs /Elb08/, /Haf08/, /Joh08/. R744 air conditioning systems typically operate ab ove the critical temperat ure of R-744 during heat rejection. Because of this , R-744 systems utilise gas cooler s rather than condensers.

R-744 air conditioners operating in warmer climates (design te mperatures greater than 30 ° C) are likely to have efficiencies 10-15% below best in class HFC based designs /ART03a/. However, a number of design enhancements can be made to improve their efficiency. The efficiency of R-744 system s can be improved through multi-stage compression, liquid injection, the ad dition of oil separators, the use of refr igerant ejectors or expanders, various inter-cycle heat exchangers, and cross-counter-flow heat exchangers, which take advantage of the favourable thermophysical properties of R-744 /Xie08/, /Wan08/, /Koy08/, Liu08/, /Peu08/, /Kas08/. The addition of effici ency enhancing compon ents can im prove the efficiency of R-744 systems, but will al so increase the cost of R-744 systems.

Gas cooler operating pressures for R-744 systems are high, typically as high as 14,000 kPa with a mean system pressure near 5,000 kPa /Ibr03/. The required hydrostatic burst strength of systems operating at these high pressures would have to be approximately 30,000 kPa /Bos08/. The higher operating pressures contri bute to high specific cooling capacity, thus allowing the reduction of inner diameters of tubes and lower compressor displacement or swept volume. The smaller component diameters combined with signif icantly increased wall thickness are also necessary to address the hi gh operating pressures of R-744. Design changes required to address the burst pressure requir ements of R-744 systems will also result in manufacturing cost increases. The high cost of R-744 systems, unless resolved, is expected to substantially hind er the adoption of R- 744 technology in air-t o-air air conditioning applications.

Air-cooled R-744 air conditioners have been in troduced into the ma rket in very limited quantities. R-744 VRF pr oducts have been introduced in the European market. Experimentalresults show that R-744 systems may compete in energy efficiency with high efficiency R410A systems for moderate climates in both cooling and heating mode; however, improvements are needed to significantly improve the capacity, efficiency and reduce the peak electrical power requirements during th e cooling mode in high ambient conditions /Jak07/.

7.4.6.1 Lubricants for R-744 Systems

The solubility of R-744 in lubri cant is relatively high at the cr ankcase operating pressures of R-744 compressors /Cas01/. The knowledge base of in formation on lubric ant compatibility in R-744 refrigeration systems is expanding as more researchers conduct studies of R-744 compressors /Hub02/, /Li0 0ii/, /You03/, /Mul08/. Some of the lubri cants being considered2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 117 for R-744 systems are POEs, PAO, and naphthenic mineral oil or alkyl benzene lubricants /You03/, /See06/. It is very likely that an oil separator w ill be needed in R-744 systems because of the large detrimental impact oil circulation has on the heat transfer performance of R-744 /Mue08/.

7.4.7 Flammability Considerations

When designing systems using flamma ble refrigerants the design er will need to meet the requirements of applicable safety standards. An example of such a standard is IEC-60335-2- 40 /IEC06/. This standard specifies constr uction requirements, ch arge limits, ventilation requirements and requir ements for secondary refrigerant circuits.

This standard uses the lower flammability limit, LFL, and the specifics of the application (location of equipment, the ventilation of the unit, the volume of the installed space and whether or not the space containing the unit is ventilated) to determine the maximum charge level, ventilation requirements an d whether or not a secondary refr igerant circuit is required. Table 7.3 presents an example of the maximum allowable refrigerant charge determined by IEC-60335-3-40 for both a ventilated and unventilated space w ith all or part of the system installed in the indoor space. The maximum charge for other refrigerants an d application conditions can be easily calcu lated using the equations in Annex GG of the standard.

Table 7-3: Example of Maximum Refrigerant Charge per IEC-60335-2-40, (kg)

Refrigerant Ventilated Space Unventilated Space 6

R-290 1.0 0.3

R-32 8.0 4.0

R-161 2.0 0.7

7.4.8 Not-in-Kind Alte rnative Technologies

In past assessments, a number of potential new technologies we re presented as options that could have a positive impact on the phase-out of ODS refrigerants. Some of the technologies presented in prior assessments were: absorption, desiccant cooling systems, Stirling systems, thermoelectric and number of other thermodynamic cycles. However, a search of the literature published since the pr ior assessment has continued to confirm that most of these technologies have not progressed much closer to commercial viability for air-cooled air conditioning applications than they were at th e time of the 1990 assessment and three subsequent assessments. While th ese alternative cycles are feas ible they have thus far not been proven to be econ omically viable. Therefore, it is unlikely that they will significantly penetrate these markets, other than potential nich e applications (such as localities where electricity is unavailable), during the next decade. Alternative cycle technologies will therefore have a minimal impact on the HCFC-22 phase-out in both developed and developing countries.

However there are some mature proven alterna tive technologies, whic h can provide non-ODP options for some regions and applications. For example, 

### Evaporative Cooling technology could provide a very low cost and energy efficient alternative or supplement to vapour compression refrigeration in hot arid climates /ASH07/.

6 Assumes 15 m 2 floor area with unit mounted 1.8 m above the floor2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 118 7.5 Options for Existing Equipment

After the HCFC phase-out occurs in Non-Article 5 or Article 5 countries there will still be a need to service th e installed population of products until the end of their useful lives. Servicing of these products ca n fall into three categories:

1. 

### Service field repair

2. 

### Drop-in Refrigerant field repair

3. 

### Retrofit field repair All three repair methods will be important for Article 5 countries becau se systems are often repaired several times in order to extend their useful lives. There are a large number of Small Volume Consuming (SVC) countries, which impo rt rather than manuf acture air-conditioners. Therefore most of the HCFC consumption in thes e countries is used to service the installed base of air-conditioners. In these countries, HCFC consumption can be reduced by the use of service refrigerants or by retrofitting existing equipment to non-ODP refrigerants. A third less desirable option because of cost, would be to replace the existing equipment before the end of its useful life. The ava ilability of service refrigerants and retrofit options will be very important for these SVC coun tries during this period.
In Non-Article 5 countries, unit replacement is more common because the costs associated with performing a major repair or retrofit can often be greater than the cost to replace the product.
Service field repair is any repair that can follow normal service practices using new, recycled or reclaimed refrigerant.


### Drop-in refrigerant field repair replaces the HCFC-22 with one of the available service blends, without changing the lubr icant used in the original equipment. Refrigerants meeting these requirements are sometimes referred to as 

### Service Fluids or Blends . In cases where the 

### drop-in refrigerant results in a significantly lower capacity or efficiency than HCFC-22, the 

### retrofit approach will be mo re appropriate.

Retrofit field repair techniques range from simply changing the refrigerant, lubricant and filter dryer (if required) to more extensive modifications which could include the replacement of the compressor, refrigerant, lubricant, dryer, expansion device, and purging and flushing the system to remove all residual lubricant from the system. Any refrigerant and lubricant removed from the system should be disposed of in an environmentally responsible manner, in accordance with app licable environmental regulations. Retrofit fi eld repair can be substantially more costly than 

### service or 

### drop-in repairs or even unit replacement. Refrigerants that require lubr icant changes or system component changes are often described

as 

### retrofit refrigerants. 

### Retrofit refrigerants will probably not be cost effective if either the compressor or heat exchangers must be replaced.

In the case of 

### retrofit or 

### drop-in replacement in HCFC-22 systems, the global warming impact of the replacement refrigerant should also be given consideration.

7.5.1 Service Blend Refrigerants

There are several 

### Service Blends currently being introduced to replace HCFC-22 for servicing. These refrigerants are primarily being promoted as a 

### drop-in and 

### retrofit refrigerants for HCFC-22 in air conditioning ap plications. They gene rally combine two or more HFC refrigerants with a small amount of hydrocarbon refrigerant. The hydrocarbon2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 119 refrigerant is added to the blend to enable the refrigerant to work with the naphthenic mineraloil-based and alkyl benzene lubr icants used in nearly all HC FC-22 air conditioning systems. The S 

### ervice Blend refrigerants attempt to mimic the performance of HCFC-22. However, these refrigerants genera lly do not perform as well as HCFC -22; having either lower capacity, efficiency or both in drop-i n applications. A sampling of the many commercially available HCFC-22 

### Drop In Refrigerant blends are: R-422D, R-438A, R-424A and R-417A (Chapter 2). Information on the applica tion of these blends can be obta ined from their manufacturers.

7.5.2 Retrofit Refrigerants

R-407C has been demonstrated to be an acceptable retrofit refrigerant for HCFC-22 systems. It has seen widespread use as a retrofit refrig erant in some locations with some loss in capacity and efficiency. Its performance is ve ry similar to HCFC-22 bu t it does require that the existing naphthenic mineral oil or alkyl benzene synthetic oil lubricant be replaced. R407C compatible filter driers should be insta lled on HCFC-22 systems retrofitted to R-407C. The disadvantage of using high glide blends is the need to remove and replace the entire charge during servicing to avoid substantial composition shift. However, because R-407C has moderated glide, laboratory and field experience with R-407C systems indicates R-407C systems can be serviced withou t replacing the entire refrigeran t charge with minimal impact on performance.

7.5.3 Anticipated Market Impact of Drop-in and R etrofit Refrigerants

The need for, and market impact of, 

### drop-in and 

### retrofit refrigerants will largely be determined by the size of th e installed population of HCFC-22 products, HCFC phase-out schedule, allowed 

### service tail, the availability of service HCFC-22 and the recovery and reclaim practices in place leading up to the phase-out. The term “ 

### service tail ” is used to describe the time between when a refrigerant has been phased out for use in new equipment and the date at which the refrigerant may no lo nger be produced. It is anticipated that 

### service (reclaimed or recycled HCFC-22), 

### retrofit and 

### drop-in refrigerants will be important for Article 5 countries, because of the limited capital available to manufacture new non-ODS systems and the longer useful lifetimes which are the result of the common practice of servicing rather than replacing a pr oduct when major failures occur.
The installed population of air conditioners and heat pumps has an average serv ice life in nonArticle 5 countries of 15 to 20 years. The average useful life of these products in Article 5 countries may be longer. Therefore, implementing recovery and reclaim programs coupled with the availability of 

### drop-in and 

### retrofit refrigerants could help reduce the demand for HCFC-22.

7.5.4 Hydrocarbons as Conversion/ Drop-in Refrigerants

It has been reported that HC-290, HC-1270 and HC-290/HC-170 blends have been used as conversion/ 

### drop-in replacements for HCFC-22 in some locations. While these refrigerants may provide capacity and efficiency close to HCFC-22, this practice creates a significant safety concern because of the high flammability of these refrigerants. If hydrocarbons are being considered; all re levant safety standards and codes- of-practice should be strictly followed. The GTZ Hand book for HC Safety is one source of informa tion on the utilisation of HC refriger ants /GTZ10/.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 120 7.6 High Ambient Considerations

The objective of this section is to summarise the performance of the various HCFC-22 options for high ambient air conditioni ng applications (above 40 ° C). The governing thermodynamic properties and principles result in a declining capacity and efficiency for all refrigerants as the heat-rejection (refrigerant condensing) temperat ure increases, including HCFC-22. However, some of the HCFC-22 replacements exhibit greater degradation in capacity and efficiency than HCFC-22 under high ambient conditio ns. Currently, the mo st widely applied replacements for HCFC-22 in unitary air conditio ning applications are HFC blends, primarily R-410A and R-407C. Hydrocarbons are also being used in some low refrigerant-charge applications. This material su mmarises the information in: Deci sion XIX/8: Alternatives to HCFCs at High Ambient Temperatures /UNE10/.

R-410A and R-407C both have lo wer critical temperatures than R-22. This occurs because HFC-125 (a component of both R-407C and R- 410A) has a comparativ ely low critical point temperature of 66.0°C (150 °F ). The critical point temper ature is important because refrigerants having a low critical point temperature will exhibit a steeper declin e in capacity with increased ambient (outdoor) temperatures than refrigerants having higher critical point temperatures. This steeper decline in capacity is of particular impo rtance in geographic regions, which have cooling design temperatures approaching the critical point temperature of the refrigerant.

7.6.1 R-410A in High Ambient Applications

R-410A systems have been demonstrated to operate acceptably at ambient temperatures up to 52 ° C. The performance (capacity and efficiency) of R-410A ai r-conditioners fa lls off more rapidly than HCFC-22 systems at high ambient temperatures (above 40 ° C) as shown in Table 7.4 /UNE10/.
Table 7-4: High Ambient Performance Relative to HCFC-22, %

Refrigerant Condensing Temperature ( ° C)

40 50 60 65

HCFC-22 100 100 100 100

HFC-32 100 100 99 98

HFC-134a 100 99 97 96

HC-290 100 98 96 95

R-407C 100 97 94 92

R-410A 100 97 93 90

HC-600a 100 100 99 97 Units designed for equal capacity at 40 ° C

The optimum selection of compressor, airflow, condenser design and expansion device can reduce the performance losses at high ambient temperatures /Bat04/. Even with optimised designs, when applying R-410A systems that will operate a significant number of hours at high ambient temperatures, the system designer should take into co nsideration the reduced high ambient capacity when sizing the equipment. For cases where the base capacity of the unit would need to be increased to meet the building load at extreme ambient temperatures the following rule of thumb should be suffic ient in estimating the cost impact.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 121 7.6.2 HC-290 in High Ambient Applications

HC-290 has performance characteristics similar to HCFC-22. The characteristics are close enough that the current products that employ HCFC-22 could be re-engineered to employ HC-290. HC-290 has successfully been demonstrated as an HCFC-22 replacement in low charge, room and portable air- conditioners applications /Dev09 a/. HC-290 shows a 5 percent reduction in capacity at 65 ° C, Table 7-4.

IEC standard 60335-2-40 has established the criteria for determinin g the maximum charge limit for highly flammable refriger ant applications. This standard also establishes mechanical and electrical design requirements and maximum charge limitations for flammable refrigerants. Safely and cost effectively appl ying hydrocarbons to larger unitary systems will be a significant technical challenge.

7.6.3 R-407C in High Ambient Applications

R-407C systems will typically perform in nearly the same way as HCFC-22 systems at typical ambient temperatures. At ambient temperatures above 40 ° C, R-407C systems show less degradation of capacity and efficiency than R-410A systems. However, an R-407C system will still exhibit a capacity approximately 8% le ss than an HCFC-22 system at a condensing temperature of 65 ° C (Table 7-4). Since R-407C refrigerant requires only modest modifications to existing HCFC-22 systems, it has also been used as a transitional refrigerant in equipment originally designed for HCFC-22.

There are currently R-407C air conditioning products widely av ailable in Euro pe, Japan and other parts of Asia.

7.6.4 HFC-32 in High Ambient Applications

HFC-32 is being considered as an alternative to R-410A. HFC- 32 will have higher efficiency and capacity at high ambient temperatures. HFC-32 will have a capa city approximately 2 percent less than an HCFC-22 system at 65 ° C condensing temperature (Table 7-4). HFC-32 is likely to become a longer-term replacement for R-410A. It has a GWP approximately 32% that of R-410A and exhibits much better high ambient performance than R-410A. However, it has an A2L flammability, which will need to be a ddressed in the design and application of theproduct using appropriate safety standards. The design changes required to convert from R410A to HFC-32 should be straightforward. While HFC-32 systems are currently under development, none are currently available in the market.

7.6.5 HFC-134a and HC-600a in High Ambient Applications

HFC-134a and HC-600a would seem attractive from the point of view that they have similar performance to HCFC-22 at high ambient temperatures. However, both of these refrigerants are low-pressure refrigerants. Therefore, extensive redesign of the base system components would be required in order to achieve the same capacity and efficiency of the HCFC-22 system. Design changes would include larger displacement compressors, increased heat exchanger areas and increases in the piping sizes used in heat exchangers and inter-connecting tubing. All of these changes would lead to su bstantial increases in the product cost. In addition, additional design ch anges would be required with HC-600a to address the high flammability of this refrigerant. Therefore, HFC-134a and HC-600a are not considered the most viable options to replace HCFC-22 in unitary air-conditioning applications.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 122 7.6.6 R-744 in High Ambient Applications

R-744 offers a number of desirable properties as a refrigerant: readily available, low GWP and low cost. These desirable characteristics are offset by the fact that R-744 has a very low critical temperature (31 ° C) and will operate above critical point conditions in most airconditioning applications. Operation at these co nditions results in a sign ificant degradation in both capacity and COP at high ambient temperatures.

These losses can be partially of fset by the addition of internal cycle heat exchangers and expanders or ejectors. However, R-744 systems are not expected to provide a cost effective alternative to HCFC-22 or HFC refrigerants when be ing applied in high temperature regions (> 40 ° C).

7.6.7 HFC Replacements for High Ambient Applications

Alternatives to HFC refrigerants for air-conditioning applications are in the early stages ofdevelopment. A number of new refrigerants are being investigated to replace R-407C and R410A, including HFC-1234yf and blends of other HFC refrigerants with HFC-1234yf. While refrigerant manufacturers are believed to be working to qualify other chemicals or blends that might be new, their development has not progress ed to the point where they are available to unitary equipment manufacturers for evaluation and equipment development. Therefore, it is premature to recommend alternatives to R-410A or R-407C at this early stage of the development other than HC-290, which may be a pplicable in low charge applications when appropriate safety and application requirements are considered.



### 7.7 References

/AHRI08/ 2008 Unitary Air Conditioner Shipment Data, Air Conditioning Heating and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington Va. , 2008.

/ART01/ Assessment of the Commercial Im plications of ASHRAE A3 Fla mmable Refrigerants in Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, Fi nal Report; ARTI 21-CR/610-50025-01; Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute (ARTI), Arlington, VA, USA September 2001.

/ART03a/ Evaluation Of The Performance Potential Of CO 2 As A Refrigerant In Air-To-Air Air Conditioners And Heat Pumps: System Modelling And Analysis, Final Report; ARTI21CR/610-10030; Ai r Conditio ning and Refrigeration Tec hnology Institute (ARTI), Arlington, VA, USA December 2003.

/ART03b/ CO 2 Compressor Expander Analysis, Final Report ; ARTI-21CR/611-10060-01; Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute (ARTI), Arlington, VA, USA March 2003.

/ASH07/ HVAC Applications Handbook ; American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE); Atlanta Georgia, USA, 2007.

/ASH08/ HVAC Systems and Equipment ; American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE); Atlanta Georgia, USA, 2008.

/ASH09/ Handbook of Fundamentals ; American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE); Atlanta Georgia, USA, 2009. /Bae08/ Baek, Changhyun and Lee, Eungchan et al; Experimental Study on the Heating Performance of a CO 2 Heat Pump With Gas Injection ; International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 14-17, 2008

/Bit04/ Bitzer International, “Refrigerant Report, 13 th Addition A-501-13 , September 20042010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 123 /Bos08/ Bosco, R. and Weber, G.; Challenges on the Development of A CO 2 Compressor Focusing on Structural Strength and Reliability ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008
/Cas01/ Casini, Dorin, CO 2 Compressors and Equipment Use and Availability , IX Convegno Europeo – Politecnico di Milano, Italy, 29-30 Giugno 2001 /Clo04/ Clodic, D., Palandre, L., Kuijpers, L., Estimation of the world-wide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine forecasts of refrigerant emissions , Ecole des Mines de Paris, Center for Energy Studies, Paris, France, 2003.
/Col99/ Colbourne, Daniel, Practical Application of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants: Production Cost and Operational Performance , 20 th IIR Congress of Refrigeration, IIR/IIF, Sydney, 1999.
/Col00/ Colbourne, Daniel, Assessment of the Performance of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants, IIF-IIR Commission B1, B2, E1 and E2 , Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 2000. /Col04/ Colbourne, D., Suen, K. O. (2004) Appraising the Flammability Hazards of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants using Quantitative Risk Assessment Model. Part II: Model evaluation and analysis , International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. 27, pp. 784 – 793.
/Cox08/ Cox, N. and Mazur, V. et al; New High Pressure Low-GWP Azeotropic and Near Azeotropic Refrigeration Blends ; International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 14-17, 2008.
/Dev05i/ Devotta, S., Padalkar, A.S. and Sane, N. K., Performance assessment of HC-290 as a drop-in substitute to HCFC-22 in a window air conditioner”, International Journal of Refrigeration, 28, 594-604, 2005. /Elb08/ Elbel, Stefan and Hrnjak, Predrag; Ejector Refrigeration: An Overview of Historical and Present. Developments with and Emphasis on Air-Conditioning Applications ; International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 14-17, 2008. /Fer05/ Fernado, P., Lunquist, P.; Refrigeration systems with minimized refrigerant charge: system design and performance ; Journal Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engi neering , Issue Volume 219, Number 2 / 2005. /Fuj10/ Fujitaka, Akira and Shimizu, Tsutomu et al; Application of Low Global Warming Potential Refrigerants for Room Air Conditioner, 2010 International Symposium on Next Generation Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technolog y , Tokyo, Japan, 2010. /GTZ10/ Guidelines for the safe use of hydroc arbon refrigerants, (2010) GTZ Proklima, Eschborn, Germany, http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/28719.htm
/Haf08/ Hafnet, A. and Garski, D. J. et al; Air Reversing R-744 Air Conditioning System ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008. /Hid10/ Hara, Hideki and Ohno, Masao et al; Experimental Study of Low GWP Refrigerants for Room Air-Conditioners, 2010 International Symposium on Next Generation Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 2010.
/Hub02/ Hubacher, B., Grol l, E., Hoffinger, C., Performance Measurements of a Semi-Hermetic Carbon Dioxide Compressor , Ninth International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. USA, July 2002.
/Ibr03/ Ibrahim, A.G. , Fleming, J.S. , Performance Assessment of a Transcritical CO 2 Heat Pump using a Reciprocating Compressor, International Congress of Refrigeration , Washington, D.C., August 2003.
/ICF06/ ICF International, Projected Servicing Needs in the U.S. Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Sector , Prepared for the U.S. EPA, September 2006, Washington DC.
/IEC06/ International Electrotechnical Commission, International Standard 60335-2-40, Household and similar electrical appliances – Safety, Part 2-40; Particular Requirements for electrical heat pumps, air-conditioners and dehumidifiers , Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 124 /JARN08/ Japanese Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News; World Air Conditioning Market, August 2008 /JAK07/ Jakobsen, A., Skiple, T., Nekså, P., Wachenfeldt, B. and Skaugen, G. (2007): Development of a reversible CO 2 residential air conditioning system, 22 nd Int. Congress of Refrigeration, Bejing, August 2007.
/Joh08/ Johansen, Bent; Applications and Experience with Natural Refrigerants Carbon Dioxide/ CO 2 and Hydrocarbon R-1270 ; ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008. /Kas08/ Kasayer, E. Bou Lawz and Clodic, D.; ID Analysis of CO 2 Sub-Cooled/Supercritical Ejector Refrigeration Cycle: Experimental Results ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008.
/Kau08/ Kaufeld, Michael and Harnisch, M. J. et al; Environmental Impact of Various Alternative Supermarket Refrigeration Systems ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008.
/Kel97/ F. Keller, Unit Population and Refrigerant Inventory Predictions Using Product Life Models, Special Report to TOC , November 1997.
/Kel04/ Keller, Fred J. , Modeling of Air Conditioning HCFC Emissions Using Product Life Models , Post IPCC-TEAP 3LAM Workshop, Organized by JICOP and Ozone Layer Protection Policy Offices Office (METI), Toranomon Pastoral, Tokyo, Japan, July 1, 2004.
/Kin08/ Kinab, Elias; Seasonal Coefficient of Pe rformance of Heat Pumps ; International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 14-17, 2008. /Koy08/ Koyma, S. and Xue, J. et al; An Experimental Study of the Cooling Performace of a CO 2 Cycle with an Internal Heat Exchanger ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008. /Li00i/ Li, H., and Rajewski, T. E., Experimental Study of Lubrication Candidates for the CO 2 Refrigeration System , Proc. of the 4th IIR–Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, July 25-28, pp. 438-445, 2000.
/Li00ii/ Li, D et al; Performance of a Carbon Dioxide-Based Environmental Control Unit (ECU) for the US Army ; Eighth International Refrigeration Conference, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28 July 2000.
/Liu08/ Liu, F. and Groll, E.; Investigation of a Two-Phase Flow Ejector in a Transcritical CO 2 Air Conditioning System ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008. /Min08/ Minor, Barbara and Spatz, Mark; HFO-1234yf Low GWP Refrigerant Update ; International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 14-17, 2008. /Mul08/ Muller, R. and Eggers, R.; Heat Transfer Characteristics of CO 2 -Oil Mixtures ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008
/Nek01/ Neksa, Peter, Prospective for the Use of CO 2 in Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems
, Trondheim, 23-25 March 2001. /Peu08/ Peuker, Jennifer and Hrnjak, Predag; Investigation to Improve Efficiency of Transcritical R744 Two-Stage Vapor Compression Systems ; International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 14-17, 2008. /Pog08/ Poggia, Macchi-Tejedaa, Leducqa, Bontemps; Refrigerant charge in refrigerating systems and strategies of charge reduction , International Journal of Refrigeration, Volume 31, Issue 3, May 2008, Pages 353-370.
/Riv08/ Riviere, P. et al; Preparatory study on the environmental performance of residential room conditioning appliances (airco and ventilation) - Technical Analysis Of Best Available Technology; Contract TREN/D1/40-2005/LOT10/S07.5660, July 2008.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 125 /Sab09/ Sabine, S, Barrault, S. and Clodic, D.; Stationary Air Conditioning Assumptions and Results – Working Document , Ecole des Mines Paris, 28 November 2009.
/See06/ Seeton, Chris, Lubricants for CO 2 , USNC/11R Short Course , Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA, 15-16 July 2006. /Spa10/ Spatz, M. and Motta, S.Y. et al; Low Global Warming Alternative Refrigerants for Stationary AC&R Applications ; 2010 International Symposium on Next-generation Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology, 17 – 19 February 2010, Tokyo, Japan. /UNE05/ IPCC and TEAP, Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System, Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, 2005.

/UNE10/ Decision XIX/8: Alternatives to HCFCs at High Ambient Temperatures , UNEP Refrigerant Technical Options Committee special report, April 2010. /Wan08/ Wang, Hongli and Ma, Yitai et al; Performance Comparison of Transcritical CO 2 Single Compression and Two Stage Compression Cycle with Intercooler ; 8 th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, Denmark 7-10 September 2008. /Xie08/ Yingbai, Xie, and Sun, G. et al; Thermodynamic Analysis of CO 2 Supercritical Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration Cycle ; International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 14-17, 2008. /You03/ Youbi-Idrissi, M., Bonjour, J., Terrier, M., Solubility of CO 2 in a Synthetic Oil , 21 st IIR International Congress of Refrigeration, Washington D.C., USA, August 17-22, 2003.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 127 

## Chapter 8

________________________________________________________________________ 

## Heat Pumps

Chapter Lead Author Makoto Kaibara

Co-Authors Martin Dieryckx Petter Nekså

Contributors Fred J. Keller James M. Calm Daniel Colbourne Michael Kauffeld Alexander C. Pachai Kenneth E. Hickman Roger Nordman2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 128 

## 8 Water heating heat pumps

8.1 Introduction

Heat pumps are able to upgrade (“pump”) heat from a lower temperature to a useful higher temperature level. The heat is used for space heating, service (including domestic) water heating, and manufacturing process heating. The heat sources are generally renewable energy sources, such as ambient heat, water or ground-source heat. Most commonly, the source is air- , water-, or ground heat. The sink can be air or water. This chapter covers only systems where water is the sink. The products for industrial process heating are covered in chapter 5

“ Industrial systems ”. Air-to-air heat pumps are the most widely used heat pumps. Their construction and refrigerant use is similar to air conditioners; therefore they are covered in chapter 7 “ Air-to-air air conditio ners and heat pumps ”.

The difference between the temperature of source and sink (called “lift” or “head”) sets the basic pressure rise condition th e compressor must meet. The co mpression energy is a fraction of the total useful energy delivered. The power consumption of the heat pumps is dictated by the heating capacity required of the heat pumps, the lift, and compressor/driver efficiency. The heated water pumping power, and fan power must be included to determine the power consumption of the total heat pump system. In general, heat pump systems will be less efficient under higher lift condition.

Heat pumps are in many applications an alte rnative to foss il fuel gas or oil combustion boilers, often resulting in a si gnificant reduction in CO2 emission and primary energy consumption.

Air-to-water heat pumps have experienced signif icant growth in Japan, Europe, China, and Australia during the last five years. In Japan and Europe, this signif icant growth has been enhanced by government incentive policies encouraging the development and sale of products utilising renewable energy sources /JRA09a/. Ac cording to estimates from a leading trade publication in Japan, more than 1 million air-to-water heat pum ps were sold world-wide in 2008 /JARN09/. This total can be broken down as 500k in Japan, 300k in Europe, 190k in China, and 10k in USA and Australia /JARN09/. The USA al so uses large quantities of waterloop heat pumps in commercial and institutional buildings, with heat addition and removal to the loop as needed seasonally and even diurnally.



### 8.2 Types of Heat Pumps

Heat pumps are classified by heat source (air, water, and ground) and heat sink (air, water), resulting in the following naming of heat pu mps in table 8-1 used in this chapter.

Table8-1 Heat pump classification

Heat source (direct expansion or indirect expansion system)

Air Water Ground

Air Air to air Water to air Ground to air

Water heater
Space heating Heat sink Water

Combined Air to water Water to water Ground to water2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 129 Air-source heat pumps are equipped with air-to-refrigerant evaporator coils and fans to obtain heat from the ambient air. Water-source heat pumps are equipped with water-to-refrigerant evaporators and a water circulation pump to ob tain the heat from a water source. Ground source heat pumps are generally equipped with a brine-to-refrigerant evaporator and brine to ground tubes combined with a circulation pump or, refrigerant-to-ground evaporator tubes to obtain heat from the ground. The tubes in the ground are installed horizontally one to a few meters below ground level or installed in a vertical drilled hole, typically 50-150 m deep.

Most heat pumps are driven by electric motors, but gas engine drives are used in fewer cases.

It is also possible to classify heat pumps by types depending on the usage:

1) Heat pump water heaters (HPWH) 2) Space heating heat pumps 3) Combined water and space heating heat pumps

8.2.1 Heat Pump Water Heaters (HPWH)

Heat pump water heater (HPWH) are a category of heat pumps designed to heat domestic and other service hot water to temperatures between 55 and 90 °C. These operating temperatures must be considered when selecting the refrigerant. A HPWH basically consists of a water storage ta nk and a heat pump water heating unit and in some designs an additional heat exchanger. In the heat pump unit, water supplied from the storage tank or directly from the city water supply is heatedby the condenser or, for transcritical cycles using R-744 the gas cooler of the refrigerant circuit and then returned to the storage tank. Stored hot water is supplied to each tapping point, in response to the demand. The basic components of the heat pump unit are; a compressor driven by an electric motor, a condenser or a gas cooler for heating water, an evaporator to absorb heat from the heat source, refrigerant, a refrigerant expansion device, and a control unit. Heat pump units that use R-744 as a refrigerant typically use an additional internal heat exch anger, and in some cases, an ejector or expander to improve energy efficiency /Cal84, Koy08/. In order to obtain high water temperatures at low outdoor ambient temperatures, air to water heat pump systems can utilise a cascade refrigerating system with two different refrigerants.

8.2.2 Space Heating Heat Pumps

A space heating heat pump is optimised for co mfort heating. Comfort heating heats the room by heating water for distribution to an air handling unit, radiator or under floor panel. The required water temperat ure depend on the t ypes of emitter, low te mperature application ranging from 25 to 35°C for under floor heating, for moderate temperatur e application such as air handling units around 45 °C, for high temperat ure application such as radiant heating 55 to 60 °C, and for very high temperature application, as high as 65 to 80 °C, such as for the fossil fuel boiler replacement market. The required warm water temperature affects the selection of refrigerant. Heat pump systems are more efficient at lower sink temperatures, but each product must fulfil the requ ired operating temperature.

A space heating heat pump using warm water fo r distribution generally consists of a heat pump unit and often an additiona l heat exchanger un it and a water stor age tank. Several different configurations are used. In the heat pump unit, the basic components of a heat pump space heating system are a compressor driven by an electric motor, condenser or gas cooler for warming up water, an evaporator, refrigerant, a refrigerant expansion device, and a control unit.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 130 Ground and water source heat pumps are also used for space heating, but they represent a small segment of the total heat pump market.

8.2.3 Combined Space and Hot Water Heat Pumps

Combined water heating and space heating heat pumps have two functi ons, supplying hot tap water and providing space heating. Several configurations of combined space and water heating heat pumps exist to optimise the seasonal energy efficiency. In most configurations a water storage tank is used to store the domestic hot water and to also act as a short heat buffer for the space h eating function.

8.2.4 Capacity Ranges of Water and Space Heating Heat Pumps

Table 8-2 lists the heating capacity range offered by single units of each type of heat pumps.

Table 8-2: Heat Pump Capacity Ranges



### Heat pump type Capacity Range (kW)
Heat pump water heater 1.5 – 50 Space heating heat pump 4 – 400 Combined water and space heating heat pump 6 – 45



### 8.3 Heat Pump Implic ations and Trends

8.3.1 Trends of Heat Pumps Replacing From Gas or Fuel Burning System

Most of the space heating systems and water heating systems globally use fossil fuels. Since fossil fuel burning systems generate CO2 dur ing combustion, they contribute to global warming. Heat pumps also contribute to global warming but in a different way. Heat pumps transfer heat from lower temperature source to a high temperature sink. The contribution to global warming is only related to CO2 emissions in the generation of th e electricity to drive the compressor and possible direct contributions due to refrigerant emissions. Therefore, the heat pumps energy efficiency is the primary environmental consideration for heat pumps. Efficient heat pumps can reduce global warming impact compared with fossil fuel burning systems significantly. The reduction depends on the efficiency level of the heat pump and the carbon emission per kWh of the electricity generation.

The tendency of decarbonisation of electricity strengthens this positive effect year by year. Also the efficiency levels of heat pumps are improving year by year. However, heat pumps tend to be higher in co st than fossil fuel systems because they employ complicated refrigerant circuits, larger heat exchangers and other special features. The majority of purchasers have not yet accepted the significantly higher first costs of heat pumps as a means to reduce running costs, compared to lower first cost fossil fuel based space and water heating systems.

However, government support programmes in Europe and Japan to promote heat pump systems have resulted in rapid growth of he at pump system sales in recent years.

In Europe around 40 % of all primary energy is used in buildings from which nearly 75% is used for space and domestic hot water heating. Energy use accounts for nearly 80% of all CO 2 equivalent emissions /EHPA09/. In Europe, heat pumps are expected as the best available technology for space heating. It contributes to reduction in both primary energy use and CO 2 emissions. Some believe that there will be a rapid increase of heat pump applications in2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 131 Europe. In Sweden more than 75 % of all ne w building heating syst ems now are installing heat pumps /EHPA09/.

As a result of recent technology developments, Air source heat pumps have become the most popular heat pump type in Europe. They have ex perienced strong growth over the last several years because of their economic benefits and energy efficiency benefits. The positive environmental aspects and potentia l market growth of heat pumps must be taken into account when refrigerant options and lim itations are considered. Compared to 2008 figures the heat pump market in Europe is expected to double by 2015 and to grow by 7 times by 2030. The total installed equipment in Eu rope will, compared to 2008, become 3 times in 2015 and 16 times in 2030 /EHPA09/.

Predicated on the new efficiency standards and analyses used in development of these national requirements, estimated HPWH shipment s in the USA are 10,000 units per year in 2010, 260,000 units per year by 2015, and - though somewhat speculative - 270,000 or more units per year by 2020 /Amr10/.

8.3.2 CO 2 Heat Pump Water Heaters

Heat pump water heater using R-744 refrigerant have become very popular in recent years in Japan under the trade name “Eco-cute” and are also introduced in Europe

. These R-744 heat pump water heaters were launched in 2001. From 2001 till Octobe r 2009 a total of 2.0 million units have been sold in Japan, with annual sales of 500,000 units in 2008. Target for 2020 is 10 million units /JRA09a, JRA09b/

This growth is the result of; its relative high efficiency for he ating water up to 90 °C (without supplementary heater), a very low night tariff for electricity, and go vernment incentives, in the capacity range up to 12 kW. The Japanese ha ve a culture of daily ho t bathing. This results in a significant demand for hot water. To satisfy this la rge demand within a limited time (at late night when electrical tariffs are lower) and with limited storage tank capacity, a water temperature of approximately 90 °C is required. R-744 as refrigerant performs very well at conditions requiring a large temperature differen ce of the water to be heated. Therefore, R744 is ideally suited for small tank storage type heat pump water heaters. The “Eco-Cute” performance has been improved by using existing and new technologies such as counter flow heat exchanger to achieve high temperatures by utilising the large temp erature glide of R-744, variable speed compressor, internal heat exchanger and ejector to improve efficiency /Koy08/.

Recently, an evaluation method for defining the annual performance factor of heat pump water heaters has been establishe d in Japan. This method cons iders the typical Japanese life style usage of hot tap water.

HPWHs for commercial use with R-744 are produced by several manufacturers inside and outside Japan.



### 8.4 Current Refrigerant Options for Water and Space Heating Heat Pumps

Dedicated heat pump water heaters (HPWHs) - un iquely for domestic an d other service water heating - were first in troduced commercially in the 1950 ’s in the USA, but production was halted. Interest re-kindled in the mid-1970s af ter the first OPEC Oil Em bargo, and there were at least 17 manufacturers by the early 1980s with more than 23,000 units in use in the USA /Cal84/. Most employed HCFC-22 as the refrigerant.

Interest in the technology ag ain dwindled primarily due to higher equipment costs, though studies showed good performance and energy savings averaging 48% /Cal84, Dob84/.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 132 Commercial interest in the USA resumed in late 2009 and 2010. Three major and several additional manufacturers began ma rketing newer, more efficien t integral designs in 2010. These new products use either HFC-134a or R-410A as th e refrigerant, but the split between them is uncertain /Amr10/.

Space heating heat pumps have been developed (mainly in Europe) as a replacement for fossil fuel burning systems or direct resistive space heating systems. Space heating heat pumps are designed to supply water at different temperatures depending on the type of indoor heat, emitter such as radiators for high or modera te temperature water, fan coils for moderate temperature water or under floor h eating for low temperature water.

High and moderate temperature space heating heat pumps were offered with HCFC-22 as refrigerant. With the implemen tation of the Montreal Protocol, HFC blends R-410A and R407C have been used as alternatives for HCFC-22, mainly in Europe.

8.4.1 HCFC-22

HCFC-22 is an ODS which has a high global warming potential. HCFC-22 has favourable thermodynamic properties and high efficiency in these applications. Therefore, HCFC-22 is being used for high and moderate temperature water and space heating heat pumps in the A5 countries mainly in China.

8.4.2 HFC-134a and HFC blends R-407C and R-410A

HFC-134a and HFC blends R-407C and R-410A are non-ODS and have GWPs in the same range as HCFC-22. These refrigerants are being used in high to low temperature water and space heating heat pumps, in countries where HCFC-22 consumption reduction started in advance of the Montreal Protocol. These refrigerants are used mainly in Europe. R-134a and R-410A also are used in Japan, Canada and USA and to a lesser extent in Mexico and the Caribbean countries. R-407C has been used to mainly replace HCFC-22 in existing product designs because minimal design changes are required. R-410A has been used primarily for new products, because design changes are necessary to address its higher operating pressures and higher density and to take advantage of its higher performance.

Recently, cascade heat pumps using HFC-134a and R-410A have been commercialised in high temperature combined space and hot water heating heat pumps in Europe. These heat pumps have a relatively good performance and can operate without auxiliary resistive heaters.

The heat pump can supply water at temperatures approaching 80 oC.

8.4.3 Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons HC-290 and HC-600a are non-ODS refrigerant with a very low GWP, but these refrigerants have high flammability cla ssified as an A3 refrigerant under ASHRAE standard 34. HC-290 has refrigerant properties similar to those of HCFC-22. Today, HC-290 and HC-600a are used in a limited number of high and moderate temperature space heating heat pumps in Euro pe. Until 2004 almost half of the heat pumps sold in the EU used HC-290. Use in Europe has declined due to introduction of the Pressure Equipment Directive /Pal08/.

8.4.4 R-744 (Carbon Dioxide)

R-744 is a non-ODS refrigeran t with a very low GWP. Development of R-744 heat pumps started around 1990 /Nek98/. R-744 heat pump water heaters were introduced to the market in2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 133 Japan in 2001, with heat pumps for heating of ba th or sanitary water as the main application. Space heating heat pumps that operate at lower water temperatures in combination with hot water heating have also been develo ped, but the numbers sold are less. R-744 operates at very high pressures; approximately 5 times higher than HCFC-22 and 3.5 times higher than HFC-410A. This is an advantage enabling more compact system designs. The low critical temperature of R- 744 results in trans-critical op eration. R-744 refrigerant has been used primarily in storage type heat pump water heater applications. It can achieve high efficiency when heating water to a high temperature (90 °C). However, R-744 has not been used much in space heating because space heating heat pumps do not need to operate at such high temperatures. Compared to HFC refrigerants many design modifications are required to get equivalent performance with R-74 4 for space heating alone /Nek10/.

The market for heat pump water heaters in Japan is steady growing at a rate of about 10 to 20% per year. This is because of the high efficiency when requiring high temperature water, such as 90 oC.

Support from government enhancing programs is also an important element. Recently, some water heating heat pumps using R-744 also have been introduced in the European market.

Although the current market for space heating heat pumps for commercial buildings with combined radiator and air heating systems is limited, R-744 is consider to be a promising refrigerant /Nek02/.

8.4.5 R-717 (Ammonia)

R-717 is a non-ODS refrigerant and has a very low GWP, but it has high er toxicity and lower flammability characteristic s. R-717 is used mainly for large ca pacity systems. It has also been used in a small number of reversible heat pumps.

8.4.6 Refrigerant Charge Levels

Table 8-3 below shows approximate charge levels for HPWHs and space heating heat pumps with several typical refrigerants.

Charge levels may vary over a range of values for each refrigerant and type of heat pump depending on capacity levels, target energy efficiency levels, etc.

Table 8-3: HPWH and space heating heat pumps refrigerants and average charge levels

Refrigerant kg/kW

HCFC-22 0.30

HFC-134a 0.40

HFC blends R-410A and R-407C 0.30
Hydrocarbons 0.15

R-744 0.15



### 8.5 Future Refrigerant Options for New Heat Pumps

When selecting alternative refrigerants, both the direct and indirect climate impacts must be considered. The direct effects to be taken into account are ozone depletion and global warming performance resu lting from refrigerant emissions. In direct climate effects that must be taken into account are the carbon emissions resulting from the generation of the electric2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 134 power required to operate the equipment. These should be evaluated over its lifetime. For heat pumps, the reduction in emission resulting from replacing fossil fuel burning may be the most important factor regarding greenhouse gas em issions. The Life-Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP) method can be applied / UNE05/ to evaluate the combin ed effects. Also properties such as toxicity, flammability, thermo-physical properties, chem ical stability, aquatic toxicity of decompos ition product, pressure and density must be taken into account. Future refrigerant optio ns for new heat pumps include current options R-410A, HFC-134a, HC-290, HC-600a, R-744, R-717, as well as HFC-32 and new refrigerants.

Studies of new low-GWP fluorochemicals (notably unsaturated HFCs – see Chapter 2

“ Refrigerants ”) in heat pumps are ongoing, notably in several European countries, Japan, and the USA. Similar studies are underway to evaluate use or broader use of R-744 and hydrocarbons as refrigerants in several types of heat pumps, though actual product development and commercialization are limited to Europe and Japan at present.

8.5.1 HFC-134a and HFC Blends R-407C and R-410A

Most new heat pump products are using the refrigerant R-410A because it results in more compact and efficient systems when they are optimised. The transition away from HCFC-22 to R-407C and R-410A in heat pumps is well underway in deve loped countries. The transition is just beginning in Article 5 countries, which have later phase-out dates for HCFC-22. But, still much HCFC-22 refrigerant is used in thes e countries.

Recently air to water split cascade systems are put on the market us ing R410A for the low temperature and HFC-134a for the high temperature circuit. They guarantee high seasonal COP for colder climates even at high water sink temperatures, while keeping the required heating capacity with out auxiliary resistive he aters. They are most us eful for combined space and hot water heatin g to replace existin g boiler systems.

8.5.2 HFC-32

HFC-32 is a non-ODS refr igerant. It is one of the primar y constituents of R-410A. It has a lower GWP than HCFC-22 or R-410A, approxim ately one third of HCFC-22 and R-410A. In addition, HFC-32 has a higher op erating efficiency than HCFC-2 2 and R-410A /Shi01/. It has saturation pressures slightly hi gher than R-410A which is ap proximately 60% higher than HCFC-22. The system refrigerant charge can be up to 43% less than for R22 and 37% less than for R410A while the energy efficiency is the same or higher/YAJ01/. It has low flammability with a low burning velocity.

8.5.3 HFC-1234yf and Other Low-GWP HFC Blends

HFC-1234yf is a non-ODS and is similar in thermophysical properties to HFC-134a, but has a very low GWP of about 4 /Min 08/. For water heating and sp ace heating heat pumps using HCFC-22, R-410A, R-407C, significant design changes would be required to optimise for HFC-1234yf. Some of the required changes include; larger displacement compressors, larger interconnecting and heat exchanger tubing and additional heat exchanger surface to offset lower heat transfer. The heat transfer is expected to be lower than for R-410A systems because of its lower saturation pr essure. The relatively higher pres sure drop in the refrigerant pipes and heat exchanger will result in poor efficiency at the high temperatures typical for heat pump water heaters. HFC- 1234yf has a low flammability with a low burning velocity. A number of other unsaturated chemicals are being identified in the patent literature as possible low-GWP refrigerants for heat pumps. Blends with R-32 or R-125 may make it possible to approach the properties of HCFC-22 or R-410A, but it results in a higher GWP than pure HFC-1234yf. As sample supply of these refrigerants is very limited, it is too early2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 135 to judge whether any of these chemicals will be commercialised and will show acceptable performance in heat pump systems.

8.5.4 R-744 (Carbon Dioxide)

In the past, R-744 was not used in water and space heating heat pumps because of its high pressure characteristics /Fer08/. After water heating heat pumps were introduced in Japan in 2001, their market in Japan has experienced a steady growth of around 30% per year with help from a government enhancement progra mme /JRA09a/. R-744 as refrigerant enables high efficiency domestic water heating up to temperatures as high as 90 oC without use of an auxiliary resistive heat er. R-744 may give a high perfor mance when it is used with low temperature sources and high temperature sinks with a certain temperature difference between inlet and outlet water te mperature /Ste08/. This makes it we ll suited for use in storage type heat pump water heaters in whic h low temperature inlet water is heated to a high temperature for thermal storage of domestic hot water. Continued growth of market is expected in Japan. In addition, it is expected that these prod ucts may experience market success in other countries.

To obtain high efficiency for domestic space heating application is challenging if the difference between the high and low water temperature of the heat sink is low. System designs enabling a low water return temperature are then required /Nek10/. However, recently, R-744 heat pumps have been developed in Europe for use in cold climates if combined with very high temperature radiator type space heating are used. For commercial buildings with combined radiator and air heating systems, R-744 is a very promising refrigerant /Nek02/. This also holds for new low energy build ings where the domestic hot water demand is large compared to the space h eating requirement. It is not known what level of market penetration R-744 space heating heat pumps will experience. The ultimate market acceptance will be determined by the system economics and its Life Cycle Climate Performance.

8.5.5 Hydrocarbons

At present HC-290 is sold in a relative limited number of low charge level heat pump water heater installations in Europe. While, for hydr onic systems, with ventilated enclosures configuration, larger refrigerant charges are allowed. In these applications larger capacity systems can be used with hydrocarbons.

8.5.6 R-717 (Ammonia)

Ammonia is used mainly for large capacity systems. It has also been used in a small number of reversible heat pumps. It is not expected to be used in small capacity water and space heating heat pumps, because of the cost that makes it not viable as well the possibility to make so small systems due to the unavailability of hermetic compressor for ammonia and incompatibility with copper.



### 8.6 References

/Amr10/ Amrane, K, unpublished private communication, Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI), Arlington, VA, USA, July 2010 /Cal84/ Calm, J. M., “Heat Pump Water Heaters” in Heat Pump Research and Applications , report EM-3797, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto, CA, USA, pp. 14.1-14.9, November 19842010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 136 /Dob84/ Dobyns, J. E. and M. H. Blatt, “Hea/Yaj01/ R. Yajima, K. Kita, S. Taira, N. Domyo R32 as a solution for energy conservation and low emission , IIR 2000 Purdue t Pump Water Heaters”, report EM-3582 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto, CA, USA, May 1984 /EHPA09/ Forsen M and T. Nowak, European Heat Pump Statistics Outlook, European Heat Pump Association, Belgium, 2009 /Fer08/ N. FERNANDEZ, Y. HWANG*, R. RADERMACHER Center for Environmental Energy Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland PERFORMANCE OF CO 2 HEAT PUMP WATER HEATERS , 8th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids September 7-10, 2008 /JARN09/ Japanese Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News; World Heat Pumps and Key Components, Special Edition August 25, 2009 /JRA09a/ The Japan Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association; Statistics of heat
pump water heater in 2008, June, 2009 /JRA09b/ The Japan Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association; Statistics of heat pump water heater..., November, 2009 /Min08/ Minor B. H. and T. J. Leck, DuPont Fluoroproducts, U.S.A. Low GWP Refrigerant Technology Update, The International Symposium on New Refrigerants and Environmental Technology (Kobe, Japan), November 20-21 2008
/Nek98/ Nekså, P., Rekstad, H., Za keri, G.R. and Schiefloe, P.A.: CO 2 – heat pump water heater: characteristics, system design and experimental results, Int. J. Refrig. Vol. 21, No. 3, pp.172-179, 1998
/Nek02/ Nekså, P: CO2 Heat Pumps, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol 25, Issue 4, June 2002, p 421-427, 2002
/Nek10/ Nekså, P., Walnum, H. and Hafner A.: A refrigerant from the past with prospects of being one of the main refrigerants in the future , 9th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference 2010, Sydney, April 12-14, ISBN 978-2-913149-74-8, ISSN 0151-1637, 2010 /Koy08/ S. KOYAMA, J. XUE, N. TAKATA, K. KUWAHARA Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences, Kyushu University, An Experimental Study On The Cooling Performance Of A CO2 Cycle With An Internal Heat Exchanger, 8th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids September 7-10, 2008 /Pal08/ Palm, B. (2008) Hydrocarbons as refrigerants in small heat pump and refrigeration systems-a review, Int. J. of Refrigeration 31, 2008 /Shi01/ T Shigeharu, Y Ryuzaburo, K Shigeru, (2001) The Performance Evaluation of Room Air Conditioner using R32 In the Case of Cooling and Heating Mode, Trans JSRAE, Vol.18; No.3. /Ste08/ J. Stene, SINTEF Energy Research, Department of Energy Processes, Norway, CO 2 Heat Pump System for Space Heating and Hot Water Heating in Low-Energy Houses and Passive Houses, 8th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural Working Fluids September 7-10, 2008 /UNE05/ IPCC and TEAP, Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System, Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, 2005. /Yaj01/ R. Yajima, K. Kita, S. Taira, N. Domyo R32 as a solution for energy conservation and low emission , IIR 2000 Purdue2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 137 

## Chapter 9

__________________________________________________________ Chillers

Chapter Lead Author Kenneth E. Hickman

Co-Authors James M. Calm Guangming Chen Jim Crawford Dennis Dorman Alexander C. Pachai Andy Pearson

Contributors Daniel Colbourne Petter Nekså Akira Ohtsuki2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 138 

## 9 Chillers

9.1 Function of Chillers

Comfort air conditioning in large commercial buildings an d building complexes (including hotels, offices, hospitals, univ ersities, and other central syst ems) is commonly provided by chillers. Chillers cool water or other heat tran sfer fluid (such as a water-antifreeze mixture) that is pumped through heat exchangers in air handlers or fan-coil units for cooling and dehumidifying the air. Chillers al so are used for process cooling in commercial and industrial facilities such as data proce ssing and communica tion centers, electronics fabrication, precision machining, and moulding. District coo ling is another applica tion that provides air conditioning to multiple buildin gs through a large chilled wa ter distribution system, as opposed to air conditioning each building with separate system s. Chiller operation is driven by cooling requirements but provision for heat recovery may be included.



### 9.2 Types of Chillers

Two types of chillers ar e available – mechanical vapour-c ompression chillers and absorption chillers.

9.2.1 Mechanical Vapour -Compression Chillers

The principal components of a vapour-compr ession chiller are one or more compressors driven by electric motors (or less common ly, engines or turbines using open drive compressors), a liquid cooler (evaporator), a condenser, a refrigerant, a lubrication system, a refrigerant expansion and flow control device, a power handling device (commonly a starter or variable speed electronic dr ive), and a control and protectio n unit. The complete chiller usually is factory assembled and tested; no co nnection between refrigera nt-containing parts is required on site by the insta ller except for very large chillers which may be shipped as multiple assemblies. Installation is accomplishe d by connection to wate r, power, and control systems.

Vapour-compression chillers are identified by the type of compressor they employ; centrifugal or positive displacement compress ors. The positive displacement category includes reciprocating piston, screw, and scroll compressors. Chillers can be further divided according to their condenser heat exchanger type, the most common being water-cooled or air-cooled. Less common are evaporatively-cooled condensers and dry coolers.

Water-cooled chillers generally em ploy cooling towers for heat re jection from the system. In some cases, the condenser cooling water may come from surface water such as lakes, rivers, or groundwater. Dry coolers function like coo ling towers but water is not employed on the external heat transfer surfaces. Air-cooled chillers are factory-equipped w ith refrigerant-to-air condenser coils and fans to reject heat to the atmosphere.

For evaporatively-cooled condensers, heat from the condensing refrigerant is rejected to the air in a coil that is continually wetted on the ou tside by a recirculating water system. Air is directed over the coil causing a small portion of the water to evaporate to help cool the coil. There is no circulation of water from the conden ser to the chiller. Most of these chillers are supplied without the co ndenser which is added in the field. This requires refrigerant piping at the installation site.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 139 The different methods of heat rejection can be associated w ith differences in initial cost, installation cost, maintenance re quirements, and the saturated condensing temperature created in the refrigerant circuit. The condensing temperature is driven by weather – the dry bulb and/or wet bulb temperatures. The difference between saturated condensing temperature and the saturated evaporator temperature (called “lift” or “head”) sets the basic pressure rise condition the compressor must meet. The power co nsumption of the chiller is dictated by the cooling capacity required of th e chiller, the lift imposed by th e weather (or heat recovery condition), and compressor/driver efficiency . The chilled water pump ing power, cooling tower water pumping power (water cooled chillers), and fan po wer (in the tower or for air cooled chillers) must be included to determ ine the power consumptio n of the total chiller system.

In general, water-cooled and evaporatively-cooled systems can be more efficient than aircooled systems under many oper ating conditions due to the lo wer condensing temperatures involved. The selection of water-cooled, air-cooled, dry coolers, or evaporatively-cooled chillers for a particular application varies w ith regional conditions, power costs and demand costs, owner preferences, maintenance requirements, and project budget.



### 9.2.1.1 Centrifugal compressor chillers Centrifugal compressors with one , two, and three compression st ages are employed in chillers according to engineering selection and manufacturer preferences. Two and three stage compressors allow addition of an economiser with interstage cooling to improve energy efficiency. Other features that can be used to enhance chiller operation ov er a range of cooling loads and ambient co nditions are inlet guide va nes, variable-speed dr ives, variable-geometry diffuser passages, lubricant-free magnetic bearings, optimal staging (loading and control) of multiple chillers, and off-peak energy storage. Th e application of variable -speed drives lowers annualised energy consumption but can decrease full-load efficiency because of inverter and drive losses.

Centrifugal compressors most commonly are used in water cooled systems, especially those with capacities exceeding 1 MW (300 RT). Air cooled centrifugal chillers are less common. They generally require at le ast two compressor stages because of the higher lift.

Centrifugal chillers typically use flooded or pool-boiler type ev aporators with the refrigerant on the shell side of th e tubes although some designs use falling film sprayed evaporators. Chilled water is confined to the inside of the tubes, facilita ting periodic clean ing of the water tubes to eliminate efficiency-reducing mineral build-up. Refrigerant-in-tube evaporators with chilled water on the shell side, so metimes called DX evaporators, are not practical in the large chiller systems that use centrifug al compressors. Accordingly, there is a limit on refrigerant selection. Zeotropic refrigerants such as R-407C with high temperature glide can fractionate in flooded evaporators during evaporation or condensing, creating significant performance issues (see Section 9.4.1.2.).



### 9.2.1.2 Screw compressor chillers

Air-cooled and water-cooled screw chillers below 700 kW commonly employ directexpansion (DX) evaporators.

Chillers with capacitie s above 700 kW generally employ flooded evaporators. Flooded evaporators generally require higher charges than DX evaporators but permit higher efficiencies due to closer approach temperatures (the difference between the leaving water temperature and the saturated evaporator temperature). Air- cooled chillers employ fin-andtube condenser construction or microchannel condensers derived from automotive practice. Microchannel condensers are more compact for a given heat transfer capacity and allow the use of lower refrigerant charge in a chiller.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 140 Screw compressors can be equipped with unloading devices such as slide valves or a port unloading mechanism that permit efficient oper ation at reduced volume flow rates. More recently, manufacturers are employing variable-speed drive devices with screw chillers. The application of variable speed lowers annualised energy consum ption by eliminating the slide valves and associated losses, but can decrease full-load efficiency due to electronic drive losses. The benefits of screw compression (lack of surge limits present in centrifugal compressors) are combined with the benefits of variable-speed drives (e fficient part loading and simpler screw compressor design) in properly designed systems to yield reduced seasonal energy consumption in water-cooled systems and air-cooled systems.

Screw compressors can be fitt ed with intermedia te pressure ports to accommodate an economiser in the chiller syst em. An economiser increases th e energy efficiency and the cooling capacity of a chiller for a given compre ssor displacement. Economisers become more effective at higher lift conditions such as low temperat ure cooling or heat recovery (hot water supply) applications.



### 9.2.1.3 Scroll compressor chillers
Scroll compressors ar e available in capacitie s from 20 kW to 150 kW for a variety of refrigerants. Many scroll co mpressors are fixed speed machines with no unloading mechanism. However, they are frequently used in manifolded sets for a refrigerant circuit. This allows multiple scroll co mpressors to be used in chillers up to 14 00 kW. Individual circuits and compressors can be turned off, making efficient capac ity modulation possible. Scroll compressors with electromechanical mechanisms for unloading are available as are compressors with variable-speed electronic drives.

Scroll compressor ch illers are produced in both water-co oled and air-cool ed versions. For capacities below 500 kW, brazed plate heat exch angers are commonly used for evaporators instead of the she ll-and-tube heat exchangers employed in larger chillers. Brazed plate heat exchangers reduce system volume and refrigerant charge. They also are used as condensers for small water-cooled chillers.



### 9.2.1.4 Reciprocating-pist on compressor chillers Reciprocating compressors are similar in many ways to automobile engines and can be maintained and rebuilt in a sim ilar manner. Reciprocating compre ssors have some advantages for units that operate over a variety of lift conditions because, unlike screw, scroll, and rotary vane compressors, they do not have a fixe d volume ratio. Chillers with reciprocating compressors are produced in bo th water-cooled and air-cooled versions. Reciprocating chiller sales continue to decrease year by year althou gh production still is sign ificant, especially for lower capacities and for ammonia chillers. There is a relativel y large inventory of older reciprocating chillers throughout the world.

9.2.2. Absorption Chillers
The energy source for absorption chillers is heat pr ovided by a fuel-fired burner, steam, or hot water, though electricity still is required for intern al solution pumps and controls. The steam or hot water generally is provided by a fuel-fired boiler or, less commonly, by heat recovered from industrial processes or co generation. In absorption chille rs the compressor and motor of the mechanical vapour-compression cycle are replaced by two major heat exchangers (a generator and an absorber) and a solution pump. Absorption chille rs also have condenser and evaporator heat exchangers. The refrigerant in large absorption systems commonly is water and the absorbent usually is lithium bromide, t hough lithium chloride also was common in the past and is still used though very infrequently. Absorption chillers may use an alternative2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 141 fluid pair: ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent, particularly in smaller capacities.
Absorption chillers are identified by the number of heat input levels they employ (e.g., singleeffect or double-effect), and whether they are direct-fired with a burning fuel, or use steam or hot water as the heat source.
Single-effect absorption applicatio ns, with lower efficiency, typi cally are limited to sites that can utilise waste heat in the form of recovere d hot water or steam as the energy source or where boilers must be run year-round such as in hospitals. Other sites include co-generation systems where waste engine heat or steam is available. Hot fluid input temperatures typically range from 115 o C to 135 o C, although some machines can use temperatures as low as 90 o C.

Double-effect machines have an additional heat recovery heat ex changer and can be driven by hot water or steam or can be direct-fired. Typical steam input temperatures are 150 o C to 205 o C (steam pressures from 650 to 1100 kPa). Double-effect absorption chillers can have primary-energy-based efficiencies that are 35 – 45% of those of vapour-compression systems. For example, double-effe ct absorption chillers can have a co oling coefficient of performance(COP) of 0.9 to 1.2 on a seasonal basis based on source energy input. Electrical vapourcompression systems can have a COP as high as 7.8, which must, in the case of thermal power plants, be multiplied by the heat-source-to-electricity deliv ery efficiency of the power plant and distribution system - around 35% for heat-driven generators that are predominant. Small double-effect gas-fired absorption chillers with capacitie s below 105 kW (30 RT) are used in Japan with water as refriger ant and lithium bromide as absorbent.
Triple-effect machines have been developed and commercialised but are not used widely. The direct-fired high temperature generator in these machines operates at a temperature level of 205 o to 230 o C which increases the cost and pressure level within the vessels. A fluid pair other than water/lithium brom ide must be used in th e high stage generator.

9.2.3 Chiller Capacity Ranges
Table 9-1 lists the cooling capacity range offered by single units of each type of chiller. (Most applications, particularly in larger capacities, use multiple chillers).
Centrifugal chillers were the mo st common type of chillers above 700 kW capacity for many years. Reciprocating compressors were used in smaller chillers. Screw compressors have largely replaced reciprocating compressors in the range from 140 kW to 700 kW and are alternatives to centrifugal compressors up to about 1800 kW. Scroll compressors are alternatives to reciprocatin g compressors in the range from 10 to over 100 kW per compressor. Scroll compressors are used in chillers up to 1400 kW with 1 to 12 compressors per unit and multiple refrigerant circuits. Featur es such as novel unlo ading mechanisms and variable-high-speed electronic drives have been introduced on almost all compressor types, though not on all sizes. Lubricant-free operation and high–speed direct drive have been introduced with cent rifugal compressors.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 142 Table 9-1: Chiller Capacity Ranges

Chiller Type Approximate Capacity Range (kW) Scroll and reciprocating water-cooled 10 - 1,200
Screw water-cooled 100 – 7,000
Screw, scroll, and reciprocating air-cooled 10 – 1,800
Centrifugal water-cooled 200 - 21,000
Centrifugal air-cooled 200 – 7,000
Absorption (generally ammonia-water) 15 - 90
Absorption (generally water-lithium bromide) 20 – 18,000



### 9.3 Developments and Trends in Chiller Markets

9.3.1 Measures of Chiller Ef ficiency or Energy Use

Energy efficiency, or the total power consum ed annually, is the primary environmental consideration for chillers. While refrigerants each have an inherent Global Warming Potential (GWP) relative to CO 2 (see Chapter 2, 

### Refrigerants ), refrigerants cannot contribute directly to global warming unless they are released to the atmosphere. Properly-maintained chillers of modern design emit very little of their refrigeran t charge during ope ration. The dominant global warming effect caused by chiller operation is the CO 2 and other greenhouse gases emitted in the combustion of fo ssil fuels generating the electri city to drive them. High annualised chiller efficiencies reduce global wa rming proportionally . /Cal93, San 97/

Key parameters used in describing the environmental effe cts of chiller oper ation are Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) or the si milar and conceptually more complete Life Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP). These parameters are defined in Chapter 3 of /IPCC05/ and data for chillers are included in Chapter 5.2.4 of /IPCC05/.
Other measures of chiller performance include th e coefficient of perfor mance (COP) which is the ratio of cooling capacity to the electrical in put, both expressed in consistent units of energy or power. The COPs can be stated for any operating condition, but are commonly cited for full rated capacity. This c ondition establishes peak electri cal demand which influences both overall power supply costs and the electric ity demand costs paid by users as well as onsite transformer, switchgear, an d related power supply costs.
Each type of chiller and refrige rant combination has a best-in- class benchmark COP level that can be purchased. The benchmark COP level tends to increase as time passes and products are improved. The chillers with the be st COPs tend to cost more b ecause they employ larger heat exchangers and/or other special features. Many purchasers buy lower-cost, lower-COP chillers that meet or only slightly exceed minimum efficiency levels imposed by regulations, codes, or standards. With concern about increasing energy costs and growing interest in sustainability and “g reen buildings,” the trend is to select more efficient equipment.
An additional measure of perform ance for individual chillers is called the Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV). This is described in ARI (now AHRI) Standard 550/590 /ARI03/. The IPLV metric is a weighted av erage of four COP values for an individual chiller, based on weighting by the percent of Ton-Hours assumed to be spent in each of four unequal size bins for load fraction, where the COP value for each bin is represented by one of four load fractions (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) each with different oper ating lift conditions. In Europe a similar part load parameter, ESEER, has been developed by Eurovent. This will be replaced in coming years by legal requirements coming from the Ecodesign directive for energy related2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 143 products where seasonal efficiency methods for cooling, heating, and refrigeration applications for chillers are cu rrently established. The publication prEN14 825 includes SEER and SCOP values for comfort cooling and hea ting applications. China implemented an IPLV standard in 2005 (GB 50189-2005).

The IPLV concept provides a measure of performance over the seasons at part loads and/or reduced lift conditions. IPLV can be used as a ba sis for comparison of individual chillers and as a means for establishing a minimum energy efficiency parameter for code enforcement. The ARI Standard applies to an individu al chiller serving a No rth American space conditioning load. It may not be the most accurate seasonal performance indicator for chillers serving other load profiles such as data centers, optimally-c ontrolled systems using multiple chillers, or chillers operating in other climate conditions.

9.3.2 Developments in the Mark et – Vapour-Compression Chillers

Overlaps in the capacity rang e served by screw and centrifuga l chillers, and scroll vs. screw chillers, are becoming larger. Reci procating chillers are losing ma rket share rapidly to scrolls and screws in small and large capacities respectively. Screw co mpressor development led to higher capacity and higher efficiencies in these machines.

Larger scroll compressors and tandem scrolls are being used in multiples and in linked combinations of modular chille rs to achieve cap acities up to 1400 kW. These chillers increasingly are using R-410A refrigerant, displacing HCFC-22 use.

The centrifugal chiller market has grown becaus e of new construction and the need to replace chillers in develope d markets, satisfy expandin g infrastructure in emer ging markets, and serve large process coolin g and factory air conditio ning applications. High er capacity has been achieved by using dual compresso rs in a chiller and by use of multiple chillers. Counter-flow heat exchangers with dual compressors are used to improve efficiencies for large capacity chillers. Higher condensing temp eratures in hot climates or for heat recovery/heat pump service are accommodated by multistaging compressors.

In Southern Europe hydronic cooling systems (smaller capacity air-cooled ch illers or air source heat pumps) are widely used. They are combined with fan coil units as low as 10 kW capacity for reside ntial and light commercial buildings.

In northern Europe, chillers of the scroll or screw types are widely used with air handling units and fan coil units in commercial buildings.

While production of HCFCs is permitted in the developing co untries beyond 2010, HCFC-22 use in new equipment is decreasing, enabling thes e countries to benefit from the latest designs and technologies available. Developing countr ies that wish to export products to developed countries have a further incentive to acceler ate their transition away from HCFC-22.

China is now a large and growing market for ch illers. The main market is East China with both a new construction and emerging replacemen t market. Screw and scroll chillers mostly still use HCFC-22, but new generations of sc roll chillers are being designed to use R-410A and new screw chillers are empl oying HFC-134a. China has a ma jor residential market for small chillers with fan coil units.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 144 9.3.3 Developments in the Market – Absorption Chillers

Absorption chillers are manufactur ed and marketed primarily in Japan, China, India, South Korea and, additionally for capacities below 100 kW, Germany, Austria, and Italy.

Absorption systems inherently are physically larger and have higher primary energy requirements and hi gher initial cost than vapour-compre ssion chillers. They can be costeffective in applications where waste heat is available in the form of steam or hot water, where adequate or reliable electricity is not r eadily available for summer cooling loads, or where high electricity cost structures, including demand charges, make gas-fired absorption a lower-cost alternative. Absorp tion chillers can supply heating and cooling from one unit yearround without using fluorocarbon refrigerants and with a less expensive power supply system than mechanic al chillers.

High natural gas prices have slowed market development of direct-fired absorption systems in Japan, China, and Korea /JAR 08/. Concerns about the higher CO 2 emissions from direct fired systems compared to the global warming impact of vapour compress ion chillers also is affecting the market.

Trigeneration is the concept of deriving three different forms of energy from the primary energy source, namely, heating, cooling and power generation. Use of water-lithium bromide absorption chillers in trigenerat ion systems has been implemented in some countries. This concept also is referred to as CCHP (combined cooling, heating, and power generation). This option is particularly re levant in tropical countries where buildings need to be air-conditioned and many industries require process cooling an d heating. Although cooling can be provided by conventional vapour-com pression chillers driven by electr icity, low quality heat (i.e. low temperature and low pressure) exhausted from the cogeneration plant ca n drive the absorption chillers so that the overall primar y energy consumptio n is reduced.



### 9.4 Current Refrigerant Choices and Options for Mechanical VapourCompression Chillers

9.4.1 Positive Displacement Chillers



### 9.4.1.1 HCFC-22 Chillers that use positive displacement comp ressors (screw, scroll, and reciprocating compressors) employed HCFC-22 as the refrigerant of choice when they were first produced. Due to its low ozone depletion potential (ODP), HCFC-22 was vi ewed as a transition solution to phase-out of CFC-12 and other CFCs. Phase-down of HCFCs in developed countries started in 2004 leading to na tional regulations for HCFC-22 phase-out for new equipment by 2010 or earlier. Europe phased out HCFC-22 beginning in 2000. Installed refrigerants, stocked inventories, and amounts recovered from retired equipment may be used to service existing equipment indefinitely if national rules permit. HCFC-22 still is offered for chillers in Article 5 countries. HCFC consumption must end by 2030 in developed countries and 2040 in developing countries.



### 9.4.1.2 HFC-134a, R-410A, and R-407C

HFC-134a screw chillers were in troduced early in the 2000s by a number of manufacturers in anticipation of the phase-out of HCFC-22 in 2010. Screw ch illers using a higher pressure HFC refrigerant, R-410A, also have been introduced. Fo r scroll compressor chillers, refrigerants being offered include HFC-134a, R-410A, and R-407C. R-410A now is the dominant refrigerant, especia lly for new scroll chillers.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 145 The zeotropic mixture R-407C served as a tran sition refrigerant, esp ecially in European countries where HCFC-22 was phased out by regulations in advance of the Montreal Protocol deadlines. It allowed manufactur ers to offer chillers with an HFC refrigerant (zero ODP) instead of HCFC-22 by making modest changes in their products. Unfavourable changes in heat transfer with R-407C nece ssitate larger, more expensive heat exchangers to maintain performance. R-407C has an appreciable temperature glide (5-7 K) so is not suitable for use in flooded evaporators that pred ominate in larger chillers. R-407C still is used in Europe and Japan as a replacement for HCFC-22 and elsewhere as one of a number of aftermarket service fluid options for retrofit.



### 9.4.1.3 R-717 (Ammonia)
Chillers employing R-717 as a re frigerant have been available for many years and are widely used in industrial systems (see Chapter 5, Industrial Refrigeration ). There are a number of installations in Europe, the Mi ddle East, China, an d the U.S.A. R-717 chillers are available with open drive screw compressors in the capac ity range 100-7000 kW . Chillers with open drive reciprocating compressors are available in the capacity range 20-1600 kW.

R-717 chillers are manufactured in small qua ntities compared to HFC chillers of similar capacity. Different materials of construction are used because R-717 causes rapid corrosion of copper, the most widely used heat exchange surface in HCFC and HFC chillers. Plate-andframe steel heat exchangers are common in R-717 systems. Open drive compressors are used to avoid exposing copper motor windings to R-717. Semi-hermetic screw compressors have been developed with motors up to 110 kW using aluminium windings but are not common outside Japan.

The current market for R-717 chillers is of the or der of a thousand units annually compared to tens of thousands of chillers employing HCFC-22 and HFCs. R- 717 is better suited to watercooled chillers because of higher costs of air-cooled R-717 condenser coils. Information on R717 chiller applications in bu ilding air conditioning is give n in /Pea08a and Pea08b/.


### 9.4.1.4 Hydrocarbons
Chillers employing hydrocarbons as a refrigerant have been available for over 10 years, though typically only in sma ll capacities (up to 200 kW) per refrigerant circuit. HC-290 (propane) is used in chillers in air conditioning and industri al applications. HC-290 and another hydrocarbon, HC-1270 (propylene), are used in a limited number of small (<600 kW) air-cooled chiller installa tions in Denmark, Norway, the Un ited Kingdom, Germany, and New Zealand. Some Article 5 countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines are applying hydrocarbon chillers to large space cooling need s. The current market for hydrocarbon chillers is larger than for R-717 ch illers on a global basis but still very small compared to the market for HCFC-22 and HFC chillers.

Standards and guidelines for the use of hydrocar bon refrigerants in st ationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems ar e provided in /ASH10a/ an d /EN08/. EN 378 specifies maximum refrigerant charge sizes for systems located within occupied spaces of 1.5 kg and 2.5 kg depending upon whether it is a public or private occupancy. For all refrigerant containing parts located outside, the upper charge size is 25 kg in public spaces. There is no limit if located in areas with authorised access only. International Standard IEC 60335-2-40 permits up to approximat ely 5 kg of HC within a dwelling provided it is contained within a special enclosure /EN08/. Local authorities can impose different charge size limits or require special considerations.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 146 9.4.1.5 R-744 (Carbon dioxide)

R-744 chillers have been introdu ced to the market by manufact urers in Europe . Both air- and water-cooled gas co oler versions are availa ble. For rating purposes the chilled water range is +12/+7 o C. The discharge temperature from the gas cooler is 30 o C. Models with cooling capacities from 40 to 500 kW are offered.

9.4.2 Centrifugal Chillers

In the 1960s through early 1990s centrifugal chillers were offered w ith CFC-11, HCFC-22, CFC-113, CFC-12, CFC-114, and R-500 refrigerants. Of these, CFC-11 was by far the most common because it was the most efficient refri gerant for centrifuga l chillers. With the implementation of the Montreal Protocol, prod uction of chillers using CFCs or refrigerant blends containing CFCs (such as R-500) essent ially ended in 1993 in developed countries and 2005 globally. Centrifugal chillers using HCFC-22 were rarely pr oduced after th e late 1990s.

The primary refrigerants used in centrifugal chillers toda y are HCFC-123 and HFC-134a. These alternative refrigerants began to be used in centrifu gal chillers in late 1989 and continue to be used in new production chillers. HCFC-123 replaced CFC-11 and offers an efficient low ODP and very low GWP option. HF C-134a is a high GWP refrigerant but with only 13% of the ultra-high GWP of CFC-12 which it replaced. HFC-245fa, a foam blowing agent in the high GWP ca tegory, also can be used as a refr igerant in centrif ugal chillers, but its use has been very limited. Table 9-2 show s the range of cooling capacities offered for centrifugal chillers with the refrigerants that replaced the CFCs.

Table 9-2: Centrifugal Chiller Refrigerants

Refrigerant Capacity Range (kW)
HCFC-123 700 - 17,000
HFC-134a 200 - 21,000
HFC-245fa 2,600-8,800

Centrifugal chillers also find application in naval submarines and surface vessels. These chillers originally employed CFC- 114 as the refrigerant in units ranging in capacity from 440 to 2800 kW. A number of CFC-114 chillers were converted to use HFC-236fa as a transitional refrigerant. (HFC-236fa has a very high GWP so has not been used in other chiller applications.) New naval chille rs primarily use HFC-134a.



### 9.5 Refrigerant Options for New Chiller Equipment

The selection of alternative refrigerants to replace CFCs and HCFCs required a balance among thermophysical properties, chemical and thermal stability, global environmental issuesof stratospheric ozone depletion and global warming due to refrigerant release and energyrelated effects, local safety is sues such as toxicity and fl ammability, perform ance, and cost /Cal97/.

Through better manufacturing techniques, all manufacturers are reducing leakage and minimising the direct effects of refrigerant releases on global warming. Average annual leak rates of 0.5% on a life cycle basis (including manufacturing, start-up, testing, operation, service, amortised catastrophic lo sses, and retirement) can be ach ieved by the best centrifugal chillers /Cal99/. Average annual leak rates of many chillers are higher, especia lly if they are not well maintained. Manufacturers are modifyin g chiller designs to re duce the refrigerant quantity that they require.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 147 9.5.1 Options for New Positive Displacement Chillers



### 9.5.1.1 R-407C R-407C had a role as a transition refrigerant during the phase-out of HCFC-22. The development of new chiller produc ts to use this HFC blend effe ctively has ended for reasons given in Section 9.4.1.2.



### 9.5.1.2 Primary HCFC-22 repl acements: HFC-134a and R-410A The transition away from HCFC -22 to HFC-134a in screw comp ressor chillers a nd to R-410A in scroll compressor chillers was under way by 20 05 or earlier in deve loped countries. The transition is at an earlier stage in Article 5 countries. HCFC-22 refrige rant is less expensive than those alternatives , and development expe nditures for new chillers and new compressors to use those alternative refrige rants can be postponed in these countries because they have later phase-out dates for HCFC-22. On the othe r hand, conversion to lower GWP refrigerants in higher efficiency systems would reduce climate change impacts.



### 9.5.1.3 HFC-32 The refrigerant HFC-32 is used as a component in blends such as R-410A. It has been proposed for use as a refrigerant in positive disp lacement chillers by its elf and in azeotropes with R-600 (n-butane), R-600a (isobutane), and other low GWP components because it has a moderate GWP, good energy efficiency, and high capacity in the vapour-compression cycle. Disadvantages include operating pressure levels higher than for HCFC-22 and flammability. HFC-32 is classed as an A2 refrigerant under ASHRAE Standard 34. /ASH10b/. A new rating for “low flammability” has been adopted (see Chapter 2, Refrigerants ) and HFC-32 may be reclassified as A2L. Chillers us ing HFC-32 (other than as a bl end component) have not been commercialised yet.



### 9.5.1.4 Additional HFC refrigerants: R-404A, R-507A, and other HFC blends High GWP refrigerants R-404A and R-507A have been considered as possible HCFC-22 replacements in low temperature commercial refrigeration units. However, no non-flammable azeotrope has been commercialised for chillers for air conditioning that matches the pressuretemperature relationships of HCFC-22.

Other HFC blends have been proposed by chemical manufacturers. Most of these blends have significant temperature glides (2 K or larger) and do not appear to offer performance benefits compared to HFC-134a or R-410A. Their market penetration in new equipment has been very small. Barriers to entry of new blends that do not offer significant performance or cost benefits include the challenges of developing long -term supply sources for chillers located around the world.

Low GWP Refrigerants



### 9.5.1.5 R-717 If the use of R-717 refrigerant in chillers is to expa nd in the capacity ra nge served by positive displacement compressors, par ticularly outside Europe, se veral impediments must be addressed:

• Chiller costs typically are higher than for HCFC and HFC chillers.

• Safety concerns with R-7 17 in comfort cooling applica tions can increas e installation costs. Building codes in some countries h eavily restrict applications but could be revised if acceptable safety is demonstrated with new approaches.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 148 The market for R-717 chillers is likely to grow in the future in region s where concerns about the control of high-GWP refrig erants are strong. However, perceived safety concerns in comfort cooling applications may increase in stallation costs and restrict installation arrangements.


### 9.5.1.6 Hydrocarbons Use of HC-290 and HC-1270 for comfort cooling and heat pump applications is limited primarily by flammability concerns.

There are hydrocarbon refrigerants with prop erties similar to those of HCFC-22 and HFC134a that allow use in new equipment of current design after appropriate adjustments for different material compatibility, lubricant, and safety aspects. Chillers employing hydrocarbon refrigerants are higher in cost th an HFC chillers because they are manufactured in smaller quantities, th ough modification of equipment orig inally designed for HCFC-22 is fairly straightforward.

Safety codes impose stricter requirements on hydrocarbon use for large refrigerant charges in chillers, particularly fo r indoor chiller installatio ns (e.g., water-cooled chillers in machinery rooms). In regions where companies, government, and the public support hydrocarbon solutions, these safety concerns have been largely overcome by engineering, technician training, and change s in standards. In these regions, th e use of hydrocarbon chillers is likely to grow in the fu ture. However, in countries such as the U.S.A., regulatio ns, building codes, and legal environm ents continue to pose difficulties for hydrocarbon use in commercial chillers.



### 9.5.1.7 R-744

R-744 air-cooled chillers have b een introduced in th e northern European market. In climates where the dominant cooling requirement is at an average ambient temperature of 15 0 C or less, these systems can be equivalent in energy efficiency and LCCP with systems employing HFCs, R-717 or HCs. R-744 chillers will lik ely be less attractive at higher ambient temperatures due to decreasing efficiency with increasing ambient temperature.

Where heat recovery to generate hot water at temperatures of 60 o C or higher can be employed in a total energy stra tegy for a building, R-744 chillers offer the advantage of being able to use waste heat to raise water to higher temperatures with higher efficiency than other refrigerants. Chilled water can be used to sub-cool the refrigerant before expansion. For this application, R-744 heat recovery chillers provide good efficiency.



### 9.5.1.8 HFC-1234yf and other unsat urated hydrofl uorochemicals Chemical manufacturers are offering unsaturated hydrofluorochemicals (see Chapter 2, Refrigerants ) to replace HFC-134a in mobile air conditioning (see Chapter 10, Vehicle Air Conditioning ). If adopted widely in th e mobile sector, further ex ploration of possibilities for use in stationary air conditioni ng (including chillers) and refr igeration is expected. Initial studies based on thermodynami c properties suggest that the COP of chillers using HFC1234yf refrigerant is not as good as for HFC-134a /Kon09 and Lec10/. Further development of unsaturated HFCs for chillers is under way /Kon10a, Kon10b , Kon10c and Spa08/ . It is not possible at this time to know whether HFC-1234yf and other such new refrigerants or blends will find significant acceptance for us e in chillers.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 149 9.5.2 Options for Ne w Centrifugal Chillers

Centrifugal compressors are the most efficien t technology in larg e units, namely those exceeding 1700 kW cap acity. Water chillers employing th ese compressors are designed for specific refrigerants.



### 9.5.2.1 Commonly used refr igerants: HCFC-123 and HFC-134a HCFC-123 and HFC-134a are the primary, well-proven current choices for new centrifugal compressor chillers.



### 9.5.2.2 HFC-245fa

HFC-245fa can be used as a centrifugal chiller refr igerant and at leas t one manufacturer markets chillers using this refrigerant /JAR 08/. HFC-245fa is more commonly used for appliance insulation foam blowing. It went into commercial production in 2003. HFC-245fa has operating pressures higher than for HCFC-123 but lower than for HFC-134a.



### 9.5.2.3 Design issues with zeotropes, hydrocarbons, and R-717 for centrifugal chillers
Zeotropic refrigerants with si gnificant temperature glides ar e not suitable for use in the flooded evaporators that are used in all centrifugal chillers. Th e discussion of refrigerant R407C in Section 9.4.1.2 explains the issues.

Hydrocarbon refrigerants are in limited use in centrifugal chille rs in petrochemical plants where a variety of very hazardous materials are routinely used and the staff is highly trained in safety measures and emergency response (see Chapter 5, 

### Industrial Refrigeration ). Hydrocarbon refrigerants have not been used in centrifugal chille rs for air conditioning due to safety code restrictions and concerns with large charges of flammable refrigerants.

R-717 is not a suitable refrigerant for centrifugal chillers because it requires a large number of compressor stages to produce the pressure rise (“lift” or “head ”) required for the R-717 chiller cycle. Alternative designs usin g axial compressors are not commercialised for refrigeration systems.


### 9.5.2.4 R-718 (water) The low pressures, high compression ratios, and high volumetric flow ra tes required in water vapour compression systems require compresso r designs that are uncommon in the chiller field, though several companies and research projects have attempted their commercialisation. Applications for water as a re frigerant can chill wate r or produce an ice slurry by direct evaporation from a pool of water. R-718 systems carry a cost premium above conventional systems. The higher costs are inherent and are associated with the large physical size of water vapour chillers and the complexity of the co mpressor technology. Several developmental chillers and commercial vacuum ice makers have been demonstr ated in Europe , Israel, and South Africa /Jah96, Oph08, and She01/.

9.5.3 Issues with HCFC-123 , HFC-134a, R-410A, and Ot her HFC Chiller Refrigerants

Under terms of the Montreal Protocol, use of HCFC-123 in new equipment will end in most developed countries by 2020 and by 2030 in Article 5 countries. It already has stopped in Europe. Existing chillers may use installed, r ecovered, and st ocked quantities of HCFC-123 indefinitely (excep t in Europe).2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 150 Controls on the high GWP HFC refrigerants are beginning to be discussed by some countries and by international bodies. For stationary air conditioning appli cations such as chillers, theregulatory threshold defining high GWP has not been established yet. The GWPs of HFC134a, HFC-245fa, and R-410A make these refriger ants potential candidat es for regulation (see Chapter 2, 

### Refrigerants , for latest GWP values). Other HFC refrigerants discussed in this section 9.5 also have GWPs that make them potential candidates.

There is no new refrigerant that has been commercialised yet to replace HCFC-123 or R410A. HFC-1234yf and other unsaturated hydrofluorochemicals, described in Section 9.5.1.8. above, are in early stages of ev aluation for use in stationary ai r conditioning. It is not possible at this time to know whether these chemicals w ill find significant usage as a refrigerant in positive displacement chillers or as re placements in centrifugal chillers.

A wide-ranging discussion of the progression of refrigerants from early uses to the present, addressing future directions and candidate refr igerants including “natur al refrigerants”, is found in /Cal08/.

9.5.4 Alternatives to Vapour Compression Systems (Absorption Chillers)

Absorption water chillers dr iven by hot water, steam, or direct firing are a viable alternative to the vapour-compression cycle fo r some installations. Absorption chillers have b een described in Sections 9.2.2 and 9.3.3.



### 9.6 Options for Existing Chiller Equipment

When CFC and HCFC refrigerants are phased out (and in several countries that phased out HFCs), the functions performed by chillers employing those refrige rants have to be supported in one of the following ways:



### Retain/Contain : continued operation with stocked and/or reclaimed inventories in conjunction with containment procedures and equipment to reduce emissions.



### Retrofit : modification to allow operatio n with alternative refriger ants (HFCs) depending on applicable regulations.



### Replace : early retirement/replacement w ith new chillers (preferably having higher efficiency which reduces energy-related climate impact) using allowed refriger ants or not-in-kind alternatives,

The retrofit options depend on the specific re frigerant for which the chiller was originally designed. When any retrofit is performed, it is recommended that the machinery room be upgraded to the requirements of the latest edition of safety standards /ASH10 a, EN08/ or proposed international standards such as ISO/DIS 5149. It is also recommended that the manufacturers of the equipment be consulted in any retrofit program.

The number of annual chiller re trofits is expected to declin e significantly in developed countries where most economically-viable refrigerant conversions from CFC use have been completed.

Today’s average centrifugal chillers use 20% le ss electricity than th e average of chillers produced just two decades ago and the best chiller today uses less than 65% of the electricity of the average 1976 chiller /ICF03 and TEA04/. Building owners typically can pay back the2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 151 investment cost of replacing an old CFC chiller in three to five years (or less) in many regions that require cooling for more than three months a year.

9.6.1 Positive Displacement Chillers

A positive displacement compressor inherently can be applied to handle a number of different refrigerants and pressure ratio s in a chiller so long as its motor has adequa te power, the compressor, tubing, heat exchangers, and other components can meet pressure codes and regulations with the refrigerants , and the system materials and lubricant are compatible with the refrigerants. Despite this flexibility, there remain a number of issues in retrofitting positive displacement chillers to operate with new refrigerants.



### 9.6.1.1 HFC-134a as a replacement for CFC-12 The operating pressure levels and cooling capacities of HF C-134a and CFC-12 are similar. Thus, HFC-134a can be used as a retrofit refrigerant for CFC-12 chillers. The mineral oil lubricant used with CFC-12 must be carefully flushed from the system and replaced with a suitable synthetic oil that is co mpatible with HFC-134a (miner al oil is not miscible with HFCs, so cannot be used in HFC systems). If mi neral oil and chlorides co ntained in the oil are not adequately flushed from the system, viscous deposits of contaminants may be formed in the system and clog small passages and controls. Other materials such as gaskets, elastomeric seals, and filter-driers must be checked fo r compatibility with HFC-134a and replaced if necessary. Control of mo isture content in HFC-134a systems with synthetic oil requires more attention than with CFC-12. The chiller manufactur er should be consulted about the requirements for a su ccessful retrofit.

After conversion, the cooling capa city and energy efficiency of the system will be close to those of the system when charged with CFC-12.



### 9.6.1.2 R-407C, HFC-134a, proprietary blends, and hydrocar bons as candidate replacements for HCFC-22 Refrigerant HCFC-22 was employ ed in most new positive-di splacement chillers until the latter half of the 1990’s. Based on a very extensive search of alternatives, it became clear that there is no direct substitu tion for HCFC-22 in chillers with flooded evaporators.

Retrofit refrigerants for HCFC-22 initially used were R-407C an d HFC-134a. A conversion of a chiller from HCFC-22 to HFC-134a will re duce cooling capacity by approximately onethird unless the compressor is replaced with one having about 50% greater displacement. In a conversion from HCFC-22 to either R-407C or HFC-134a, the mineral oil lubricant in the system must be removed and replaced with a s ynthetic lubricant compatib le with HFCs. It is recommended that the manufacturer of the chiller be actively involved in any retrofit
program.
Alternative retrofit refrigerants for HCFC-2 2 equipment with DX evaporators include proprietary zeotropic and azeotropic blends of HFCs that have been and continue to be developed. The comments in Section 9.4.1.2 on R-407C explain problems with zeotropic blends which cause their use as an alternativ e in many HCFC-22 chillers to be accompanied by losses in capacity and energy efficiency. Some blends contain a small amount of hydrocarbon refrigerant so the blends may be used with mineral oil. Some blends are more suitable for air conditioning duty while others may be more ap propriate for heat pump or refrigeration applications. When considering a blend for replacing HCFC-22 in a system, attention must be given to the effects of the blend upon cooling capacity and energy efficiency.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 152 New refrigerant blends coming into the mark et may have limited pe netration because of concerns about lo ng-term availability for service purposes and th e reluctance of chiller manufacturers to warrant their equipment with refrigerants (a nd lubricants) they have not tested thoroughly. Such testin g is an expensive process.

Retrofit of hydrocarbon refrigerants into CFC or HCFC chillers is not permitted in many countries. However, in some ju risdictions (notably in South Ea st Asia) numerous conversions have been completed. Cost may be incurred to incorporate safety features in the equipment and to modify the machinery room to meet safety standards. Conversion should only be planned and performed by suitably qualified engineers and technicians.


### 9.6.1.3 R-404A or R-507A as replacements for HCFC-22
Refrigerant blends R-404A and R-507A were developed for refrigeration applications as replacements for R-502, a blend that contains a CFC. The new blends have been successful as R-502 replacements for refrigeration duty. However, they are not attractive as replacements for HCFC-22 in chillers. Their en ergy efficiency for chiller operat ing conditions is lower than that of HCFC-22 and other alternatives discussed above.

9.6.2 Centrifugal Chillers

Centrifugal compressors by nature must be desi gned specifically for a particular refrigerant and a particular set of operatin g conditions for the re frigerant cycle in wh ich they are used. Direct refrigerant substitution in centrifugal chillers can be made only in cases where the properties of the substitute refrigerant are nearly the same as those of th e refrigerant for which the equipment was designed, or when the impe ller speed and/or impe ller geometry can be changed easily. In th e past this has been accomplished by gear changes in op en drive chillers and with variable speed dr ives in both open and herm etic compressor chillers. The compressor surge margin must be checked using the properties of the su bstitute refrigerant.

In principle a refrigerant blen d can be produced to accomplis h substitution, but blends with significant temperature glide are unacceptable in the flooded evaporators of centrifugal chillers for reasons previously discussed. In practice, refrige rant substitutions are uncommon. R-423A has been used successfully as a re placement for CFC-12 in centrifugal chillers without the need for mechanical changes to the compressor in situations where the condensing temperature is not extreme.

Complete replacement of a compressor by a design that is developed for an alternative refrigerant can be done, but this is uncommon because of the high cost of conversion. The primary alternative is to replace the chiller.

9.6.3 Not-in-Kind Chiller Replacements – Absorption

A factor which limits changeovers from CF C or HCFC vapour-comp ression chillers to absorption is the inability to retrofit in many existing buildings because the access ways are not large enough to allow for the absorption chiller to be de livered to the existing machine room. It is likely that the cooling tower capac ity will need to be in creased significantly. A suitable gas piping system should be prepared if a gas-fired absorption system is to be used.

9.7 Banks and Emissions Relating to Chillers

An annex entitled “Globa l inventories of the world-wide fleets of refrigerating and airconditioning equipment in orde r to determine refr igerant emissions: The 1990 to 20062010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 153 updating, Extracts from the FINAL REPORT” is provided w ith this RTOC re port. The annex was prepared by Denis Clodic, Stephanie Barrault, and Sabine Saba of ARMINES in Paris, France, in April 20 10. Section 8 of the annex presents information on chillers. Section 8 of the annex has not been reviewed or edited by the authors and contributors to this RTOC report’s Chapter 9.



### 9.8 References

/ARI03/ Standard 550/590-03,"Water Chiller Packages Using the Vapor Compression Cycle", AirConditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI, now AHRI), Arlington VA, USA, 2003 /ASH10a/ ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2010, “Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems”, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010 /ASH10b/ ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2010, “Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants”, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010 /Cal93/ Calm, J.M. “Global Warming Impacts of Chillers”, Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning Engineering, 65-2:28-39, February 1993 /Cal97/ Calm, J.M., and Didion, D.A., “Trade-Offs in Refrigerant Selections: Past, Present and Future”, Refrigerants for the 21 st Century, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD USA, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning E ngineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta. GA, USA, 6-19, October 1997; International Journal of Refrigeration, 21(4):308-321, June 1998
/Cal99/ Calm, J.M., Wuebbles, D.J., and Jain, A. K., “Impacts on Global Ozone and Climate from Use and Emission of 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane (HCFC-123)”, Journal of Climate Change, 42(2): 439-474, June 1999 /Cal08/ Calm, J.M., “The Next Generation of Refrigerants – Historical Review, Considerations, and Outlook”, International Journal of Refrigeration, 31(7): 1123-1133, 2008 /EN08/ EN378: “Refrigerating Systems and Heat Pumps – Safety and Environmental Requirements” Parts 1-4, Comite Europeen de Normalisation, Brussels, 2008 /ICF03/ ICF Consulting, “International Chiller Sector Energy Efficiency and CFC Phaseout”, report prepared for the World Bank, (Table 4), Washington D.C., USA, May 2003 /IPCC05/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, “Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System – Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons”, Ca mbridge University Press, New York, NY, USA, 2005 /Jah96/ Jahn, E., Lausen, D., and Paul, J., “Cooling of Mines with Vacuum Ice”, Proceedings of the FRIGA’96 Conference, Johannesburg, South Africa, 1996.03 /JAR08/ Japan Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration News (JARN), 25 November 2008, Serial No. 478-S /Lec10/ Leck, T.J., Kontomaris, K., and Rinne, F., “Development and Evaluation of High Performance, Low GWP Refrigerants for AC and Refrigeration”, Conference on Sustainable Refrigeration and Heat Pump Technology, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden, June 13-16, 2010
/Kon09/ Kontomaris, K. and Leck, T.J., “Low GWP Re frigerants for Centrifugal Chillers”, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), 2009 Annual Conference, Louisville, KY, USA, June 24, 2009
/Kon10a/ Kontomaris, K. and Leck, T.J., “Low GW P Refrigerants for Air Conditioning of Large Buildings”, 10th REHVA World Congress, Sustainable Energy Use in Buildings, Antalya, Turkey, May 9-12, 20102010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 154 /Kon10b/ Kontomaris, K., Leck, T.J., and Hughes, J., “A Non-Flammable, Reduced GWP, HFC-134a Replacement in Centrifugal Chillers: DR-11”, 13 thInternational Refrigeration and AirConditioning Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN, USA, July 12-15, 2010 /Kon10c/ Kontomaris, K., “A Low GWP Replacement for HCFC-123 in Centrifugal Chillers: DR-2”, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) Conference, Road to Climate Friendly Chillers – Moving Beyond CFCs and HCFCs, Cairo, Egypt, September 30-October 1, 2010 /Oph08/ Ophir, A., “Mechanical Heat Pumps Using Water as Refrigerant for Ice Production and Air Conditioning”, presentation, International District Energy Association (IDEA), 99 th Annual Convention in Orlando, FL, Westborough, MA, USA, 2008 /Pea08a/ Pearson, A., “Ammonia’s Future”, ASHRAE Journal, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 50(2): 30-36, February 2008 /Pea08b/ Pearson, A., “Water Chillers with Ammonia for Building Services”, Natural Refrigerants – Sustainable Ozone and Climate Friendly Alternatives to HCFCs, published by German Technical Cooperation Programme Proklima, German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, Bonn, Germany July 2008
/San97/ Sand, J.R., Fisher, S.K., and Baxter, V. D., "Energy and Global Warming Impacts of HFC Refrigerants and Emerging Technologies", Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study (AFEAS) and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Washington, DC, USA, 1997
/She01/ Sheer, T.J., Butterworth, M.D., and Ramsde n, R., “Ice as a Coolant for Deep Mines”, Chapter 52, Proceedings of the 7 th International Mine Ventilation Congress, Research and Development Center for Electrical Engineering and Automation in Mining, Krakow, Poland, June 2001 /Spa08/ Spatz, M.W., “Latest Developments in Refrigerants for A/C&R Applications”, The International Symposium on New Refrigerants and Environmental Technology 2008, Kobe, Japan, November 20-21, 2008 /TEA04/ UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, Chiller Task Force Report, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya, May 20042010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 155 

## Chapter 10

__________________________________________________________ Vehicle Air Conditioning

Chapter Lead Author Jürgen Köhler

Co-Authors William R. Hill

Contributors

Julius Banks Radim Č ermák Michael Kauffeld Lambert Kuijpers Roberto de A. Peixoto2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 156 

## 10 Vehicle Air Conditioning

10.1 Introduction

Vehicles (cars, trucks, and buse s) built before the mid-1990’s us ed CFC-12 as the refrigerant. Since then, in response to the Montreal Protocol, new vehicles with air conditioning have been equipped with systems using HFC-134a . (Abbreviation: A/C. In this report the abbreviation MAC for Mobile Air Conditioning is used). This ch apter also covers the heat pump mode of the air conditioning cycle, fo r example systems used for heating BEVs– (battery-driven electric vehicles). By the year 2000, the trans ition from CFC-12 to HFC-134a as an OEM refrigerant, for factory installed AC systems, was comple te in all developed countries. A US survey conducted by the Mobile Air-Conditioning Society Worldwide [MACSW] done for the IMAC project, indicates that even in 2005, approximately 19% of the US fleet still contain CFC-12 refrigerant. The survey includes vehicles that may have been equipped with CFC-12 when sold, but were la ter retrofitted to HFC-13 4a. Considering scrap rates and continue d retrofitting, this percentage has likely dropped below 10% in 2010. Hence, it is expected that the demand for CF C-12 as a service refr igerant will be nearly eliminated in the next few years. Since the mid-1990’s, development of alternatives to HFC134a has been underway due to the high global warming potential [GWP] of HFC-134a.



### 10.1.1 Regulatory Actions affecting Vehicle Air Cond itioning and Refrigerants

EU regulations, which control Mobile AC system direct em issions fall into two groups, controlling leaks and phasing out high GWP fl uorinated GHG's. Directive 2006/40/EC covers both the emissions from air-conditioning systems in moto r vehicles and the ban on use of refrigerants with a GWP greater than 150 in new type vehicles from January 1, 2011 and all new vehicles from 2017. EU Commission Regulation (EC) No 706/2007 includes a harmonised test for measuring leakages from mobile air conditioning systems. Commission Directive 2007/37/EC amends Annexes I and III to Council Directive 70/1 56/ clarifying some terms. Furthermore, this same regulation limits refrigerant emissi ons from mobile air conditioning, using refrigerants with GWP>150, to 40 g/y for single evaporator systems and 60 g/y for dual evaporator systems beginning with new type vehicles in June 2008 and all vehicles in June 2009.

European EU6 regulations were recently passed to limit the gr ams of GHG Green House Gas] (changed from CO2) emissions per kilometre initially to 130 gCO2/km and in 2012 down to 95gCO2/km. Current directive 80 /1268/EC is merged in EURO 5&6. This regulation also allows for a small credit for mo bile air conditioning systems w ith efficient op eration. In 2011, the EU will publish a new Directive co ncerning measurement of MAC based CO2 emissions.

In Australia, a tax of about A$30/kg is proposed for HFC-134a from year 2011.

In the USA, the state of Minnesota has passe d a regulation requiring all manufacturers to report the leakage of the systems they sell in the USA as calculated as described in SAE standard J2727. The 2009 industry single evaporator MAC system data listed the average fleet emission loss at 14.1 g/y. This data is reported to consumers through a State of Minnesota website. Data is required to be update d with each model year. [http://www.pca.state.mn.us/climatec hange/mobileair.html#leakdata]2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 157 Beginning 1 January 2009, all vehicles sold in California must carry a SMOG label indicating the level of Pollution attributed to each vehicle sold in California. This regulation [AB1229] also provides a level of credits for efficient and low leakage mo bile air conditioning systems.

The State of California also has a regulation [AB1493], which takes effect in the 2010 model year to restrict CO2 emissions of vehicles. This bill provides cred its for AC direct and indirect equivalent CO2 emissions. Seventy percent of the allowabl e credit is related to indirect emissions and 30% is related in direct emissions. Early AC credits are available for model years 2009-2011.

On October 30, 2009, the EPA published a final rule in the Federal Register (www.regulations.gov) under Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2008-0508-2278 on the reporting of Greenhouse Gas emissions. This became effective December 29, 2009, with first reporting in March, 2010. As this relates to vehicle sources of HFC emissions, the reporting is delayed until 2011 and SAE J2727 is the prop osed mechanism to repo rt these emissions. [http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/ghgrulemaking.html]

On September 15, 2009, the US EPA and th e National Highway Tr ansportation Safety Administration (NHTSA) proposed an historic National Program that would dramatically reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve fuel economy for new cars and trucks sold in the United States. [http://epa.gov/otaq/clim ate/regulations.htm]

The combined EPA and NHTSA st andards will apply to passenger cars, light-duty trucks, and medium-duty passenger vehicles, covering model years 2012 through 2016. This rule requires fleet-wide net CO2 emissions reductions over the period 2012-2016. Regarding the impact on mobile air conditioning, a credit system for indi rect CO2 emissions has been established. This credit system is based on a technology “men u” as shown in the tabl e below. This ruleprovides credit for HFC-134a leakage reduction and use of low GWP refrigerant. Early A/Ccredits will be available for model years 2009 to 2011.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 158 Table 10-1 Efficiency-Improving A/C Technologies and Credits
Technology Description Estimated Reduction in

A/C CO 2 Emissions A/C Efficiency

Credit (g/mi CO 2 )Reduced reheat, with externally-controlled, variabledisplacement compressor 30% 1.7

Reduced reheat, with externally-controlled, fixeddisplacement or pneumatic variable-displacement compressor 20% 1.1

Default to re-circulated air with closed-loop control of the air supply (sensor feedback to control interior air quality) whenever the ambient temperature is 75 °F or higher (although deviations from this temperature are allowed if accompanied by an engineering analysis) 30% 1.7

Default to re-circulated air with open-loop control air supply (no sensor feedback) whenever the ambient temperature 75 °F or higher lower temperatures are allowed) 20% 1.1

Blower motor controls which limit wasted electrical energy ( e.g. , pulse width modulated power controller) 15% 0.9

Internal heat exchanger 20% 1.1 Improved condensers and/or evaporators (with system analysis on the component(s) indicating a COP improvement greater than 10%, when compared to previous industry standard designs) 20% 1.1

Oil Separator (with engineering analysis demonstrating effectiveness relative to the baseline design) 10% 0.6

A new idle test cycle has been added starting in 2014 to qualify indirect MAC system credits. This idle test will quantify the amount of indirect CO2 emission s related to the MAC system. The indirect credit determined fr om the table above will be adju sted based on the results of the CO2 emissions related to MAC on the idle test on a sliding scale as described in the graph below.



### This graph and the table above were presented y the US EPA at the 2010 SAE Alternative Refrigerant and System Efficiency Symposium.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 159 There will also be a direct emissions credit as well based on the meas urement of leakage as determined using the SAE standa rd J2727. This credit will repr esent about 50% of the total credit for MAC systems.

In July, 2010, there was a work shop held as part of the SA E Alternative Refrigerant and System Efficiency Symposium. In this workshop, regulators, suppliers, and vehicle OEMs, discussed ideas of how MAC indirect emissions could be measured. The timing to introduction of the planned regu lation in the USA is model year 2017. From the discussions in the workshop, it is c onsidered likely that this continued co-operation will l ead to a global unified approach rega rding this matter.



### 10.2 Technical Progress

For sake of this report, mobile air conditioning systems are thos e used in passenger cars, light duty trucks, buses and rail vehicles. Passenger cars and light duty trucks have refrigerant charge amounts from 0.4-1.2 kg. Bus and rail vehicles can have refrigerant charge amounts from 2 kg to 15 kg and some even more. This report covers the new developments in this field since the 2005 IPCC TEAP report on Ozone and Climate and the RTOC 2006 report. For more details on the deta iled system design and the history of refrigerant system development for these vehicles prior to 2005, see these reports.

Driven by legislation (descr ibed in section 10. 1.1) and competition with systems using alternative refrigerants (describ ed in section 10.4) car air conditioning systems using HFC134a have become increasingly more leak tight and energy efficient. This has resulted in the introduction of new system con cepts, including the use of in ternal heat exchangers, oil separators, and ejector cycles. New sealing concepts and improved hose materials are also being developed to reduce refrigerant direct emissions. Advanced research is being conducted on compressor expanders and there are increased applications of MAC to vehicle battery cooling.

The rapid evolution of hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles with electrically driven compressors introduces new ch allenges for HFC-134a vehicle air conditioning systems. For these future mobility con cepts a refrigerant has to be compa tible with the electric motor of the compressor and with the oil used in these systems. Especially for battery driven electric vehicles, vehicle air conditioning systems for cooling as well as h eat pump systems for heating have to be highly energy efficient because power consumed by MAC can significantly impact the vehicle driving range. Not only a HFC-134a system but any system using a new alternative refrigerant (described in section 10.4) faces these new challenges.



### 10.3 Existing Mobile Air Conditioning Systems

10.3.1 HFC-134a

As already described in section 10.1.1 HFC-134a systems have become increasingly more leak tight. In some cases joint sealing techno logies developed for R-744 have been adapted for use in HFC-134a systems. Hose materials and coupling designs for hoses have also been improved. In addition to that, HFC-134a systems show impr oved energy effi ciency and fuel consumption (as mentioned section 10.2) to m eet new regulatory requ irements in the USA and driven by increased awareness of fuel consumption of MAC in the EU. For more details see also section 10.4.1.1.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 160 10.3.2 Retrofit of CFC-12 systems

CFC-12 MAC systems continue to be retrofitted to HFC-13 4a as mentioned above. Furthermore, there are 14 other blend refrigerants that are approved by the USEPA under the SNAP regulation for retrofit of CFC-12 systems. Retrofit of HFC-134a and CFC-12 systems to hydrocarbons is still occurring in various regi ons, particularly in Australia and to some extent in North America even though vehicle OEMs and some regulatory bodies do not approve of this process due to inadequate safety mitigation. In the USA, the sale of CFC-12 is restricted to certified techni cians. However, HFC-134a is av ailable to the ge neral public.

Retrofitting of CFC12 vehi cles has declined afte r 1997 due to availability and price of CFC12. Retrofit cost in 1997 was $89.51and increased to $176.05 in 2003. Some vehicle MAC systems have also had control problems when retrofitted to HFC-134a causing a loss in system cooling performance



### 10.4 Options for Future Mobile Air Conditioning Systems

This report concentrates on vapour compression refrigeration cycle technology for vehicle air conditioning. The development st atus of other refrigeration technologies, lik e sorption or thermoelectric systems, are still far away from se rial production and pres ently show very poor price competitiveness and poor system cooling performanc e and efficiency.



### 10.4.1 Passenger Car and Li ght Truck Air Conditioning

As seen in section 10.1, there is a large amount of regulatory activity related to passenger car MAC systems. The more recent focus is on the indirect impact of MAC vehicle emissions which is expressed for example in a paper by two European vehicle OEMs at the SAE ARSES meeting in July, 2010. An updated ve rsion of this was pr esented in European Commission workshop (Brussels, Oct 7th 2010). This may increase the importance of system efficiency as alternative low GWP refrigerant choices are made for MAC systems. This section covers the various refrigerants considered for use in passenger cars and light trucks that use refrigerant systems similar to passenger cars. All of the choices presented below have similar global warming impact, using the various methods of TEWI, LCCP, or LCA described in chapter 2 of this report. The comparison of the choices is often impacted more by the method and assumptions used than the actual performance.



### 10.4.1.1 Improved HFC-134a Systems As the list of regulations grows limiting the use of HFC-134a, this may not be an option for mobile air conditioning systems in the future. HFC-134a systems w ith improved leakage rates and energy efficiencies might still be an intermediate option for some developing countries.

In the year 2006 about 20 pe rcent of the total global refrigerant emissions (CFC, HCFC, and HFC) are from passenger car MACs including the emissions in production, use, servicing, and end-of-life. Looking at HFC refrigerant emissions alone, emissions of MAC systems contributed to the total HFC refr igerant emissions with a 60 percent share in 2006 (see Annex Banks and Emissions).

Significant research has been undertaken with regards to regular leakage rates of HFC-134a mobile air conditioning systems over the last five years. JAMA and ACEA conducted fleet tests, where the average leakage rate for these vehicles was 9.7-11.1 g/y. ACEA also sponsored laboratory in vestigations, which resulted in the development of th e test procedure that is currently specified to meet the EU l eakage regulation. Additio nal work was done by2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 161 the SAE IMAC CRP [Improved Mobile Air Cond itioning Co-operative Re search Program] in the USA. The average leakage in the four systems evaluated by IMAC was 12.9 g/y. This project went further to evaluate alternative improved technologies and demonstrated that a 50% improvement in leakage rate is feasible based on three single evaporator systems and one dual system tested. The average result is simi lar to the ACEA/JAMA studies. Further work was done for the California Air Resource Board (CARB) analysing five different systems typical of those in high volume use in Calif ornia and these laboratory results indicate predicted average field leakage of 8.9 g/y. From all this work one could draw the conclusion that much of the atmosphere loading that has been reported for HFC-134a is not due to regular leakage, but due to emissions from irregular leakage, improper service, inadequate end of life recovery and the service of CFC-12 systems with HFC-134a; much of this is controllable by improved service and enforcement of vehicle end-of-life reclamation procedures. A recent paper by Stella Papasavva, et al. does a good job of examining some low and high leak scenarios, summarising many of the other leakage studies. This analysis compares well when examining the sales of HFC-134a that has occurred in recent years. The table below summarises the analysis of leakage from different sources from this paper:

Leakage Type Low Leak Scenario [g/y] High Leak Scenario [g/y] Regular Leakage Rates 13.6 15.0 Irregular Leaks 17.0 17.0 Service Leaks 4.4 7.8 End-of-Life leaks 11.1 50.0 Total 46.1 89.8

These results might also be modified based on th e local rules for recovery and recycling. One difference to other older studies is that the a ssumption of average system charge is lower with this analysis [550 grams]. This has been the trend over the last ten years as vehicle OEMs have strived to reduce system size and charge to reduce mass and cost.

With the introduction of the cr edit system in the USA, and also upcoming legislation in Europe more vehicle OEMs are introducing technologies to reduce energy consumption with HFC-134a refrigerants. The SAE IMAC co-operative research group demonstrated that 30% reduction in energy consumption of the MAC system is possible . Many of these technologies are now being used in current production HFC-134a systems, for example, internal heat exchangers, oil separators in compressors, increased use of externally controlled compressors,
etc.


### 10.4.1.2 Carbon Dioxide (R-744) Systems
R-744 refrigerant charge amounts are typically reduced by 20-30% as compared to HFC-134a systems. The SAE CRP1234 performed a risk assessment of R-744 systems as compared to HFC-1234yf and determined that the risks are lo w and similar. R-744 demonstrated slightly higher risks than HFC-1234yf. SAE standards have been developed to cover service best practices, safety practices, and refrigerant purity of R-744. At present, the US EPA is considering the application of R- 744 as a refrigerant for MAC w ith use restrictions under the US Clean Air Act’s Significant New Alternat ives Policy (SNAP) Program. The EPA indicated that the fina l ruling should be i ssued early in 2011.

R-744, with appropriate system design and control changes, has been shown to be comparable to HFC-134a with resp ect to cooling performance and total equivalent CO2 emissions due to MAC systems, and qualifies fo r use in the EU under the current impending regulation (Directive 2006/40/EC).2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 162 Currently, technical hurdles (reliability, leakage, NVH especially system noise) and commercial challenges (additiona l costs) exist that will re quire resolution prior to the implementation of R-744 as a refr igerant for car air conditioning.

At present, no OEMs or suppliers are working on R-744 as an alternativ e refrigerant solution. R-744 heat pumps are presented as possible heating systems for hybrid and battery driven electric vehicles. In comparison to electric re sistance heaters (PTC heaters) which reduce significantly the vehicle driving range, heat pumps operate at a higher level of efficiency and offer the advantage of reducing only moderately the vehicle driving range.



### 10.4.1.3 HFC-152a Systems Because of its flammability, HFC-152a would requ ire additional safety sy stems. Refrigerant charge amounts in a direct expansion system could be reduced by 25-30% as compared to HFC-134a and with a secondary loop system, typi cally 50%. Industry experts have discussed using R-152a, but only in a secondary loop type system. The added costs, system weight increases and size constraints present obstacles to implementation. The US EPA has studied the potential use of HFC-152a as a refrigerant under the US Clean Air Act’s Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) Program and has SNAP -listed HFC-152a as refrigerant with the following use condition:

• Engineering strategies and/or devices shall be incorporated into the system such that foreseeable leaks into the passenger compartment do not result in HFC-152a concentrations of 3.7% v/v or above in any part of the free space inside the passenger compartment for more than 15 seconds when the car ignition is on.

HFC-152a in a secondary loop system has been shown to be comparable to HFC-134a with respect to cooling performance and equivalent CO2 emissions due to MAC systems and qualifies for use in th e EU under the aforementioned regulations.

At present, no car manufacturer has selected HFC-152a as the refrigerant for MAC serial production due to technical or commercial issu es related to the seco ndary loop system. Most development activity has been fo cused on using this refrigerant in a secondary loop system (SLS) as a means of assuring safe use. A seco ndary loop system utilises glycol and water as the direct coolant in the passenger compartment with this coolant being cooled under-hood by the refrigerant. Prototype vehicles have been demonstrated by several of the OEMs. At the 2010 SAE 2010 ARSES meeting, an USA OEM in dicated they still have some development on-going with this alternative. An Italian OEM presented an EU financed project with R134a SLS (not R-152a) not yet finalised devel opment for mass production. With many new vehicle designs, using a secondary loop system may have advantages for idle stop, cooling batteries or on board electronics cooling. It also reduces the amount of refrigerant required for multi-evaporator installations since chilled coolant is circulat ed throughout the vehicle not refrigerant.



### 10.4.1.4 Blend Alternatives In early 2006, several chemical companies announced new non-flammable refrigerant blends to replace HFC-134a in Europe. One was an azeotropic blend of CF3I and HFC-1234yf(2,3,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene). Two other formulations were zeotropic blends of HFC1234yf, HFC-1225ze, HFC-1225ye, HFC-32, and minor concentrations of HFC-134a. These refrigerants were never classified by ASHRAE or proposed to the USEPA for SNAP approval. All the ble nd alternatives had a GWP less than 150 meeting EU requirements for low GWP refrigerants.

In 2006, the ACEA, VDA, SAE, and Japanese Automobile Manufacturers Associations assisted in co-operative efforts to evaluate th ese refrigerants. The refrigerant blends were2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 163 withdrawn by chemical companies in the fourth quarter 2007 after discovering chronic toxicological effects and some stability effects.

Other low GWP blend alternatives are still under consideration fo r mobile air conditioning as well as for other sta tionary applications.



### 10.4.1.5 Hydrocarbons and Ble nds containing Hydrocarbons
In Australia and the USA, hydrocarbon blends ha ve been introduced as drop-in refrigerants to replace CFC-12 and to a lesser extent for HFC-134a. The real number of cars that have been retro-fitted with such HC refr igerant blends is unknown but it seems to be a significant number. The retrofits with HCs ar e legal in some Australian states and illegal in others and in the USA. US EPA has forbidden the uses of HC s for retrofit but has co nsidered the possible use of HCs for new systems, provid ing safety issues are mitigated.

HCs or HC-blends, when correctly chosen, present suitable thermodynamic properties for the vapour compression cycle and permit high energy efficiency to be achieved with well designed systems. Some studies have been carried out using hydrocarbons in indirect systems (same system as the secondary loop system presented above for HFC-152a). Nevertheless, even with indirect systems, HCs are so far no t seen by vehicle manufacturers as replacement fluids for mass-produced AC systems due to safety concerns.



### 10.4.1.6 HFC-1234yf Systems
The unsaturated HFC-1234yf, qualifies for use in the EU under the aforementioned regulations. Due to increased density of HFC-1234yf versus HFC-134a, it may be possible to reduce charge amounts. HFC-1234yf performance could also benefit from use of an internal heat exchanger. In this case, HFC-1234yf charge amounts could be expected to increase 5- 15%. Manufacturers are working now on ways to reduce the system volume to reducerefrigerant charge further due to the cost of HFC-1234yf as compared to HFC-134a. HFC1234yf is a new chemical which recently received EPA Pre-manufacture Notice (PMN) and is currently undergoing EPA SNAP review. The EPA is expected in the near future to issue their final rule on this substance and potentia lly associated use restrictions. It has been registered for high volume applications by RE ACH review/regulation in the EU. The high volume REACH application was su bmitted in February 2009. As with HFC-152a, use of any flammable substitute is subject to US state safe ty conditions on flamma ble refrigerants. The US EPA has reported that barriers to EPA SNAP listed refrigerants have been removed in all
states.

The German Federal Institute fo r Materials Research and Testi ng (BAM) has investigated the flammability of HFC-1234yf. They found that in the case of HFC-1234yf leakages the probability to produce explosive atmospheres in the presence of hydrocarbons (less than 1%, which can occur in the engine compartment due to gasoline or cracked oil) is larger than that of HFC-134a leakages, but this explosive atmosphe re is less than that which exists with pure hydrocarbons. They also found that the formation of hazardo us amounts of HF when HFC1234yf is exposed to ignition sources (like open flames and hot surfaces with temperatures of,for example, 350°C or 500°C) is critical. Their tests were carried out in comparison to HFC134a which can also form HF when exposed to ignition sources. The BAM report states that HFC-134a is not as reactive as HFC-1234yf so that the hazards regarding HF formation is judged to be lower for HFC- 134a than for HFC-1234yf. Vehicle manufacturers have explained that these tests were not done in a way that is typical of the under-hood environment as most of the tests were done in a sealed chamber. Only a few of these tests were actually done in a real car.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 164 HFC-1234yf in a direct evaporation system has been shown to be comparable to HFC-134a with respect to cooling performance and equiva lent CO2 emissions due to MAC systems with some system modifications, an d qualifies for use in the EU under the aforementioned regulation.

In a global Cooperative Research Program administrated by SAE the refrigerant was tested in numerous laboratories concerning material co mpatibility, thermo-chemi cal stability, toxicity of refrigerant, and decompositio n products, and flammability of the refrigerant. The results showed no compatib ility and stability issues. A detailed Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) focussing on potential risk due to refr igerant flammability, toxicity and decomposition products has been completed. Based on the results it is concluded that HFC-1234yf is acceptable for use in mobile air conditioning from a toxi city perspective. Risk assessm ents have concluded there is an extremely low probability of ignition of refr igerant associated with HFC-1234yf during an accidental release. With the application of new safety standards, the specific requirements of HFC-1234yf are considered to maintain the safety of th e vehicle at today’s level.

In November 2009, all major global car OEMs have concluded after extensive testing and analysis that HFC-1234yf can be used as a globa l replacement refrigerant in future mobile air conditioning systems and it can be safely accommodated th rough established industry standards and practices for vehicle design, engineering, manufacturing, and service.

Currently, still hurdles (miscibility with oil, stability problems in the presence of small amounts of water and air in th e air conditioning system, mixi ng with HFC-134a, additional costs) exist that will requir e resolution prior to the commercial implementation of HFC1234yf as a refrigerant for pa ssenger car air conditioning.

HFC-1234yf requires a different chemical process route in comparison to that of HFC-134a and a simple conversion of ex isting assets is not possible. Two North American chemical companies have announced the in stallation of a new HFC-1234yf production plant in order to supply market demand after regulatory approval. These companies now share patents on the use of this refrigerant in MAC systems and other manufacturers will have to purchase a license to manufacture.

One US American OEM has announced its inten tion to use HFC-1234yf in serial production vehicles from 2013. Other vehicle OEMs have expressed their interest in HFC-1234yf but have not yet officially announced a commitment to use HFC-1234yf as refrigerant for A/C serial production. OEM’s indi cate that they will design HF C-1234yf MAC systems in that way that these systems can safely be used with the refrigerant HFC-13 4a as well. This will affect the world-wide transition from HFC-13 4a to HFC-1234yf fo r MAC systems. The emerging choice for global car manufacturers’ seems to be HFC-1234yf at this time. Based on the previous industry trans ition from CFC-12 to HFC-134a, it can be seen th at HFC-134a will be used as a service refr igerant for 10-15 year s after regions conv ert to HFC-1234yf.



### 10.4.2 Bus and Rail Air Conditioning

World-wide, approximate 50% of the bus and train fleet is still equipped with HCFC-22 systems. The rest use mostly HFC-134a or R-407C systems. Most new bus or train air conditioning systems are equipp ed with the refrig erants HFC-134a or R-407C. The only reported low GWP refrigerant activ ities are on-going fleet tests of R-744 systems in buses.

Currently, reliable leakage data on mobile air conditioning system s for short and long distance buses and railway vehicles is only reported for Europe, based on a study conducted on behalf of the European Commission. The study is based on 2,000 report forms on inspections of systems installed in short and long distance buse s in Sweden. It empirically established the2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 165annual leakage rate for the use phase of the vehicles. In buses recharges or topping-off (gasand-go) are carried out in relatively short se rvice intervals to compensate for leakages whatever their nature. Such refills are recorded over a su fficiently long time and in appropriate detail in Sweden where annual insp ection is mandatory for every installation with a refrigerant charge of HFCs of more than 3 kg.

Based on a statistical analysis of the recorded refill data, the study conc ludes that the average leakage rate of new MACs (2000 and newer) in diesel driven long distance buses is 1.20 ± 0.74 kg/y and is of the same magnitude as leak rates from MACs of new short distance buses with diesel drive, with 0.92 ± 0.40 kg/y. Taking into account that typical refrigerant charges of bus air conditioning systems ar e about 10 kg that means that the annual leakage rates of new buses are about 10 % of the original charge. However, as the buses age the leakage rates increase. Buses built before 2000 had l eakage rates at least twice as high.

In comparison to short and lo ng distance buses leakage rate s of air-conditioning systems of rail vehicles are much lower, with 5% of the original refrigeran t charge per year for the vast majority of the vehicles. Typical charge amou nts of rail air-conditioning systems are higher than 10 kg per system. Depending on its leng th, a train might be eq uipped with several of these systems.

At present, no regulation exists worldwide on fluorinated greenhouse gases used as refrigerants for MAC systems in buses and trains. It is likely that the choice of refrigerant of passenger car air conditioning systems will in fluence the choice of refrigerant for air conditioning systems in buses and trains.



### 10.5 References

1234yf OEM group: Update 1234 as a replacement for R134a, MAC Summit, Scottsdale, 2008. Andersen, Stephen O., Kristen N. Taddonio, US EP A Climate Protection Partnerships Division, New Realities In MAC Refrigerant Choice, Stephen, MACs Convention, 06 February 2009. [http://www.epa.gov/cppd/mac/2010-mac-annualmtg-0120.htm] Arkema Press Release, Arkema launches an industrial production project in Europe of a low-GWP* fluorinated gas for automotive air-conditioning, July, 2008.
ARMINES Reference 70890, Arnaud Tremoulet, Youssef Riachi, David Sousa, Lionel Palandre, Denis Clodic, Evaluation of the Potential Impact of Emissions of HFC-134a from Nonprofessional Servicing of Motor Vehicle Air Conditioning Systems, CARB Agreement No. 06-341, July, 2008. ASHRAE Position Document on Natural Refrigerants, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, 28 January, 2009 (http://www.ashrae.org/aboutus/page/335). Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, September 14, 2009:http://www.atzonline.de/Aktuell/Nachrichten/1/10454/ixetic-CO2-Waermepumpe-optimiertThermomanagement-von-Elektroautos.html Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, September 1, 2010: http://www.atzonline.de/index.php;do=show/alloc=1/lng=de/id=12319/site=a4e Baker, James, Mahmoud Ghodbane, John Rugh, William Hill, Alternative Refrigerant Demonstration Vehicles, SAE ARSS 2007 Baker, James A., Revising J-2727, 2006 ARSS. Bang, Scott, Comparative Life Cycle Assessment on Alternative Refrigerants, SAE ARSS 2008 Bang, Scott, Evaluation Result of HFO-1234yf as an Alternative Refrigerant for Automotive Air Conditioning, VDA Winter Meeting, 20082010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 166 Clodic, D., G. El Khoury, Energy consumption and environmental footprint of MAC system of full hybrid vehicles, VDA Winter Meeting, 2009 Bauer, I., Transport Refrigera tion – Current Technologies, Market and Trends, Master Thesis Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences, May 2006Comments to the HFC-1234yf SNAP proposal: Risk Assessment for Alternative Refrigerants HFO1234yf and R-744 (CO2) Phase III report, Dec. 18, 2009 Bouvy, Claude, Kälte aus Wärme - Adsorptionstechnik für die Klimatisierung im Automobil, ATZ - Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, 04/2010 Caretto, L. and Monforte, R., Safety Issues in the Application of a Flammable Refrigerant Gas in MAC Systems: The OEM Perspective [Revised July, 2009]”, SAE 2009-01-0541, SAE 2009 World Congr. Proc., Detroit (MI), USA, Apr 20÷23rd, 2009 Comments to EPAs proposed ruling: [http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/home.html#documentDetail?R=0900006480a6df2d], Dr. Thomas Lewandowski, Gradient Corporation Additional Comments on the EPA SNAP proposal can be found at the following link at www.regulations.gov: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/home.html#searchResults?No=70&Ne=11+8+8053+8 098+8074+8066+8084+1&Ntt=EPA-HQ-OAR-2008- 0664&Ntk=All&Ntx=mode+matchall&N=0
Cox, N. , V. Mazur, D. Col bourne, New High Pressure Low- GWP Azeotroic And Near-Azeotropic Refrigerant Blends, 12 th International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference, Purdue University, July, 2008. Directive 2006/40/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2006 relating to emissions from air-conditioning systems in motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/156/EEC, Official Journal of the European Union L161/12 (2006). DuPont and Honeywell: Guidelines for Use and Handling of HFC-1234yf. 2008. DuPont, Honeywell: Announcement of the installation of a new HFC-1234yf production plant,http://www51.honeywell.com/honeywell/news-events/press-releasesdetails/10_0520_Honeywell_Dupont.html, May, 2010Elbel, Stefan, Pega Hrnjak, Experimental Validation of a CO2 Prototype Ejector with Integrated HighSide Pressure Control, VDA Winter Meeting, 2007 Eustice, Harry, Assessment of Al ternate Refrigerants for EU Regulations, SAE Phoenix, ARSS, June 2008

GM announcement: http://media.gm.com/content/media/us/en/news/news_detail.brand_gm.html/content/Pages/news /us/en/2010/July/0723_refrigerant Graaf, Marc, The Influence of the Accumulator and Internal Heat Exchanger Design as separate and combined Components on the System Behaviour of a R744 A/C System, VDA Winter Meeting, 2005 Graz, Martin, Investigation on Additional Fuel Consumption for a R134a and R744 AC – System in a VW Touran, VDA Winter Meeting, 2009 Grimm, Ulrich, Complex Interactions of Low GWP Refrigerants, A/C Oils, and Materials in MAC Circuits, Automotive Refrigerant and System Efficiency Symposium, SAE, Scottsdale, July 13- 15, 2010. Hammer, Hans, Results of Audi A5 Evaluation with Alternate Refrigerants, SAE ARSS 2008 Heckt, Roman, Cost efficient R744 AC System for Compact Vehicles, VDA Winter Meeting, 20052010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 167 Hekkenberg, M., Anton J.M. Schoot Uiterkamp, University of Groningen, Center for Energy and Environmental Studies IVEM, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands, Exploring policy strategies for mitigating HFC emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning, international journal of greenhouse gas control 1 (2007) 2 9 8 – 3 0 8Holtappels, K., BAM Test Report II-2318/2009, Determination of the explosion region of ethaneHFO1234yf-air mixtures, BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, 12200 Berlin, November 17, 2009, http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/produkte/dokumente/test_report_hfo1234yf.pdf [also available on EPA SNAP website] Holtappels, K., BAM Test Report II-2318/2009 I, I gnition behaviour of HFC-1234yf, BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, 12200 Berlin, June 22, 2010, http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/produkte/dokumente/test_report_hfo1234yf_2010_06.pdf Honeywell Patents: EP1716216B1, US patents 7279451 and 7534366, available at http://www.freepatentsonline.com/ Hrnjak, Pega, Technological and theoretical opportunities for further improvement of efficiency and performance of the refrigerant candidates achievements and potentials of efficiency increase, VDA Winter Meeting, 2007 Ikegami, Tohru, Masahiro Iguchi, Kenta Aoki, Kenji Iijima, New Refrigerants Evaluation Results, VDA Winter Meeting, 2008 Ikegami, Tohru, Masahiro Iguchi, Kenta Aoki, Kenji Iijima, New Refrigerants Evaluation Results, SAE ARSS 2008 IPCC/TEAP Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorcarbons and Perfluorcar bons, 2005 Prepared by Working Group I and III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 488 pp. Jung, Dongsoo, Yoonsik Ham, Performance of R429A and R430A to replace HFC134a in mobile airconditioners, Phoenix 2007, ARSS. Koehler, J., Strupp, N. C., Kling, M. E., and Le mke, N. C.: Refrigerant comparison for different climatic regions. The International Symposium on New Refrigerants and Environmental Technology, Kobe, 20-21 November 2008. König, Holger, Rüdiger Roth, Part 1: Development of a supercritical CO2-test rig Part 2: CO2-State of the Art in Industrial Refrigeration, VDA Winter Meeting, 2005 Kozakiewicz, Agnieszka, and Steininger, Nikolaus, The Regulatory Approach to MACs in the European Union, ARSES , July, 2010 Low, R. E.: Update on INEOS Fluor Refrigeran t Development Program. VDA Winter Meeting, Saalfelden, 11-12 February 2009. Low, R.E.: Minderung des Einflusses von Klimaanlagen auf die Umwelt – Perspektiven von INEOS Fluor, DKV Annual German Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference, Berlin, November 18-20, 2009 Magnetto, Daniela, Carloandrea Malvicino, Thermal Systems Integration for Fuel Economy, SAE Phoenix ARSES, July, 2010 Malvicino, C., The 4 Fiat Pandas Experiment and other considerations on refrigerants, SAE ARSS 2008 Malvicino, Carloandrea, B-Cool, Low Cost and High Efficiency CO2 Mobile Air Conditioning system for lower segment cars, VDA Winter Meeting, 2005 Man-Hoe Kim, J.-S. Shin, W.-G. Park, S. Y. Lee, The Test Results of Refrigerant R152a in an Automotive Air-Conditioning System, Phoenix ARSS 2008. Meininghaus, Roman, Dietmar Fischer, MAC Energy E fficiency, 1. A Broader Perspective, 2. Aspects of Virtual Testing, VDA Winter Meeting, 20092010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 168 Meyer, John, R1234yf System Enhancements and Comparison to R134a, SAE ARSS 2008
Monforte, R., B. Rose, J-M. L’Huillier, Fiat, Renault and PSA outlook on the selection of a Global Alternative Refrigerant, SAE ARSS 2007
Monforte, R., B. Rose, J-M. L’Huillier, Updated situ ation about alternative re frigerant evaluation, SAE ARSS 2008 Monforte R., MAC System Fuel Consumption in various climate conditions, SAE ARSS 2007 Monforte, Roberto, Carloandrea Malvicino, Tim Craig, Secondary Loop System for small cars, 2nd European Workshop on MACS & Auxiliaries, Mirafiori Motor Village, Torino - 29/11/07. Monforte, Roberto, Alternative Refrigerants, Assessment of the Environmental Impact of MACS and Investigation of its reduction drivers, VDA Winter Meeting, 2008 Morgenstern, Stefan, R744 MAC Status and System Standardization, VDA Winter Meeting, 2008 Nelson, Brain, Air Conditioning Credits in the Light-Duty GHG Rule (and Beyond), SAE ARSES, July, 2010 Papasavva, Stella, William R. Hill, Assessing the Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of HFC-134a, HFC-1234yf and R-744 using GREEN-MAC-LCCP©, VDA Winter Meeting, 2009 Papasavva, Stella, William R. Hill, GREEN-MAC-LCCP© Global Refrigerants Energy & Environmental – Mobile Air Conditioning - Life Cycle Climate Performance, SAE ARSS 2007 Papasavva, Stella, Deborah J. Luecken, Robert Waterland, Kristen Taddonio, Stephen Andersen, Estimated 2017 Refrigerant Emissions of 2,3,3, 3-tetrafluoropropene [HFC-1234yf] in the United States Resulting from Automobile Air Conditioning, Environmental Science Technology, Nov., 2009 Peral-Antunez, Enrique and Rose, Bruno, MAC fuel consumption “simple-test” methodology, Comparison of test benches, engine types and MAC technologies, ARSES, July, 2010 Updated at European Commission workshop (Brussels, Oct 7th 2010) (the document is available on CIRCA website http://circa.europa.eu/Members/irc/enterprise/wltp/library?l=/meetings/100907_mac&vm=detail ed&sb=Title ) Petitjean, Christophe, Jugurtha Be nouali, R-1234yf Vali dation and A/C System Energy Efficiency Improvements, Automotive Refrigerant and System Efficiency Symposium, SAE, Scottsdale, July 13-15, 2010. Porrett, Ken, Eric Scarlett, 1234yf System Evaluation, SAE ARSS 2008 Restuccia, Giovanni, Angelo Freni, Salvatore Vasta, Alessio Sapienza, Fabio Costa, An innovative prototype of adsorption chiller for mobile air conditioning, Thermal and Environmental Issues in Energy Systems, ASME Conference, Sorrento, Italy, May 2010 Riegel, Harald, Efficiency of Mobile Air Conditioning, SAE ARSS 2008 Riegel, Harald, Efficiency of Refrigerant Circuits – Comparison of Alternative Refrigerants, SAE ARSS 2007 Riegel, Harald, Status of R744 Development, VDA Winter Meeting, 2007 Rinne, Frank, HFO-1234yf Technology Update-Part I, VDA Winter Meeting, 2009 Rose, Bruno, E. Peral-Antunez, MAC fuel consumption “simple-test” methodology, Comparison of test benches, engine types and MAC technologies, Phoenix SAE ARSES, July, 2010 SAE, http://www.sae.org/mags/sve/6323, 14 May 2009 (information regarding composition AC-4 blend, containing HFC-1243-zf) SAE, http://www.sae.org/standardsdev/tsb/cooperative/crp1234-3.pdf, 10 November 2009 (information regarding CRP1234 Report)2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 169 Schwarz, W. and Rhiemeier, J. M.: The analysis of the emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases from refrigeration and air conditioning equipment used in the transport sector other than road transport and options for reducing these emissions, Maritime, Rail, and Aircraft Sector. Final Report prepared for the European Commission (DG Environment), (07010401/2006/445124/MAR/C4) 2 November 2007. Schwarz, W.: Establishment of Leakage Rates of Mobile Air Conditioners in Heavy Duty Vehicle, Part 2 Buses and Coaches. Final Report prepared for the European Commission (DG Environment), (ENV.C.1/SER/2005/0091r) 31 January 2007. Sciance, Fred : Improved Mobile Air Conditioning Cooperative Research Program, Presented at the SAE 2006 Automotive Alternate Refrigerants Systems Symposium, Scottsdale, AZ, June 2006, SAE International, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001. Spatz, Mark, Barbara Minor, HFO-1234yf Low GWP Refrigerant: A Global Sustainable Solution for Mobile Air Conditioning, SAE ARSS 2008 Spatz, Mark, HFO-1234yf Technology Update-Part 2, VDA Winter Meeting, 2009 Spatz, Mark, Barbara Minor, HFO-1234yf A Low GWP Refrigerant For MAC, Honeywell / DuPont Joint Collaboration, VDA Winter Meeting, 2008 Strupp, Niels Christian, Betriebsverhalten von Verflüssigern in automobilen Kältekreisläufen, Ph.D. thesis, University of Braunschweig, Braunschweig, January 2011 Thundiyil, K.: Refrigerant choice under SNAP. VDA Winter Meeting, Saalfelden, 11-12 February 2009. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2004), Risk Analysis for Alternative Refrigerant in Motor Vehicle Air Conditioning. U.S. EPA, Washington D.C. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009),, Report of the EPA Working Group on R744 (Working Document), Kristen Taddonio, Lead Au thor, U.S. EPA, Washington D.C. UNEP (United Nations Environment Program): UNEP Refrigeration, Air Conditioning an Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee (RTOC), 2006 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Committee, 2006 RTOC Assessment Report, United Nations Environment Program, Nairobi, January 2007, 235 pp.
VDA announcement, Frankfurt am Main, 20 October 2008, http://www.vda.de/en/meldungen/news/20081020.html. VDA announcement, Frankfurt am Main, 6 September 2007, http://www.vda.de/en/meldungen/archiv/2007/09/06/1690/. Wazlak, Klaus, Die klimafreundliche Kühlung: Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe fahren mit umweltschonenden CO 2 -Klimaanlagen. Press release of the Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe BVG, Holzmarktstraße 15-17, 10179 Berlin, July 2, 2010. Wertenbach, Juergen, Overview of Alternate Refrigerants, SAE Phoenix, ARSS 2007
Weinbrenner, Marcus, Link, Joachim, St rauß, Thomas, Kroner, Peter, Senkung des Kraftstoffverbrauches im Winterbetrieb. In: Haus der Technik: PKW-Klimatisierung VI. Expert-Verlag, November 2009, pp.47–63 Whang, D., D. Crane, J. LaGrandeur, Design and Analysis of a Thermoelectric HVAC System for Passenger Vehicles, SAE 2010 World Congress & Exhibition, April 2010, Detroit, 2010 Wieschollek, Florian, Dr. Roman Heckt, Improved Efficiency for Small Cars with R-744, VDA Winter Meeting, 2007 Wiesmueller, Joachim J., Status of R744 Deployment and Way Forward, VDA Winter Meeting, 2006 Wolf, Frank, R744 the Global Solution Advantages & Possibilities, VDA Winter Meeting, 2007 www.pca.state.mn.us/climatechange/mobileair.html#leakdata. Yang, J., F.R. Stabler, Automotive Applications of Thermoelectric Materials, Journal of Electronic Materials, Vol.38, No.7, p.1245-1251, 22010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 171 

## Chapter 11

____________________________ ______________________________ Refrigerant Conservation

Chapter Lead Author Julius Banks

Lead Authors or Co-Authors Radim Č ermák Horace Nelson Sulkhan Suladze Paulo Vodianitskaia2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 172 

## 11 Refrigerant Conservation

11.1 Introduction

Refrigerant conservation may be viewed as both an ef fort to extend the life sp an of refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment by esta blishing efforts to recover, r ecycle, and reuse refrigerants. Refrigerant conservation also involves practices to ensure access to and proper disposal of so called “refrigerant banks” held in existin g equipment. Refrigeration system leak elimination is fundamental to refrigeration conser vation and should be emphasised through appropriate practices."

Recovery means the removal and temporary storage of refrigerant that has been removed from a system undergoing service or disposal. Recyclin g means the passing of recovered refrigerant through filters in order to make the refrigerant suitable for reuse. Such practice is generally not intended for used refrigerant that will be repackaged and placed back into commerce. Reclamation involves processes that remove impuritie s (such as non-conden sables, moisture, or acid), in essence, reprocessing used refrigerant back to virgin speci fications based on industry purity standards (e.g., AHRI Standard 700-2004 and SAE J1991). Whereas, destruction involves Protocol accepted technologies (typically thermal inci neration) that effectiv ely destroy ODS to established destruction removal efficiencies.

Conservation efforts should be placed on refrigerant recovery at the point of installation and continue throughout service and u ltimate equipment end-of-life. Conser vation is achieved by incorporating efforts of governments, equipment and chemical manufacturers, as well as equipment owners/operators to develop life cycle approaches aimed at reducing refrigerant emissions. Conservation efforts have also included taxation of banked refrigerants, required training of service personnel, limited access to ozone-depleting refrigerants, mandated service practices that reduce emissions by maintaining leak tight systems, reco very of refrigerant durin g equipment service and equipment end-of-life, established market for the re sale and reuse of used refrigerants, and providing for the destruction of stockpiled or banked refrigerants.

The continuing phase-out (or as the case for many Parties to the Protocol a phase-down) on the consumption and production of ozone-depleting HCFC refrigerants has resulted in the use of zero ODP and in many instances low GWP refrigerants as a service fluid for existing systems via a retrofit or conversion from an ODS to a non-ODS refrigerant.

Recovery/recycling/reclaiming requirements have been implemented for a few years in different countries and have demonstrated proven results. These requirements have been established in conjunction with phase-ou t requirements of ODS re frigerants. However, many countries have yet to implement such requirements. Few countries ha ve developed comprehensive conservation policies including recovery, leak tightness, and destruction of stockpiles.

Refrigerant emissions to the atmosp here are often called lo sses without identifica tion of the cause. The specific identifi cation of refrigerant emi ssions is necessary to lim it fugitive emissions. Refrigerant emissions cons ist of the following:

• Fugitive emissions whose source cannot be precisely located

• Tightness degradation due to temperature variations, pressure cycling, and vibrations that can lead to unexpected and significant increases of leak flow rates

• Component failures from poor construction or faulty assembly

• Losses due to excessive equipment vibration

• Losses due to refrigeran t handling during maintenance (e.g., charging the system), and servicing (e.g., opening the sy stem without previously r ecovering the refrigerant)

• Accidental losses (e.g., natural disasters, fires, explosions, sabotage, and theft),2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 173 • Losses at equipment disposal that is due to venting, rather than recovering refrigerant at the end of the system’s life



### 11.2 Recovery, Recyclin g, and Reclamation

The need to conserve or recovery refrigerant has led the industry to develop a specific terminology which is used in this section /ISO/:

- Recover means to remove refrigerant in any condition from a system and store it in an external container.

- Recycle means to extract refrigerant fr om an appliance and clean it us ing oil separation and single or multiple passes through filte r-driers which reduce mois ture, acidity, and particul ate matter. Recycling normally takes place at the field job site.

- Reclaim means to reprocess used refrigerant, typica lly by distillation, to specifications similar to that of virgin product specifications. Reclamation removes contaminants such as water, chloride, acidity, high boiling residu e, particulates/solids, non-condensables, and im purities including other refrigerants with different boiling po ints. Chemical analysis of the re frigerant shall be required to determine that appropriate specifications are met. The identification of co ntaminants and required chemical analysis shall be specified by referenc e to national or interna tional standards for new product specifications. Reclamation typically occurs at a re processing or manufacturing facility.

- Destruction means to destroy used refrigerant in an environmentally responsible manner.



### 11.3 Refrigerant Recovery and Recycling Equipment

The purpose of refrigerant recovery and recovery/recycling equipment is to help prevent emissions of refrigerant by providing a means of temporarily st oring refrigerants that have been removed from systems undergoing service or disposal. Such equipment is used to temporarily store recovered refrigerant until the system undergoing repair is ready to be recharge d or is prepared for disposal. Refrigerant recovery equipment ma y have the ability to store (recove ry only) or the added capability of recycling (recovery an d recycling) refrigerants . The temporary storage capability of the equipment prevents the release of refrigerant s into the atmosphere that may ot herwise exist if the refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment were opened to the atmosphere for service.

The use of refrigerant recovery and recycling equipment is the most essential means of conserving refrigerant during the service, ma intenance, repair, or disposal of refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment. Refrigerant recovery and recycling equipment should be made available to service technicians in every sector. Please note that due to incompatibility issues and the array of refrigerants used in different sectors that refrigerant recovery /recycling equipmen t intended for use with one type of air-conditioning system, such as motor vehicle air conditioners, may notbe adequate to service airconditioning and refrigeration equipment in the dom estic, unitary, or commer cial refrigeration and air-conditioning sectors. The types of refrigerants used in these sectors vary and all recovery/recycling equipment is not capable of mee ting the same requirements . This important note should be made known to users to make certain that their recovery equipment is capable of handling the specific refrigerants that are used in the system. The specific identification of the equipment is important throughout its service, disposal or end-of-life.

Recycling equipment is expected to remove oil, acid, pa rticulate, moisture, and non-condensable (air) contaminants from used refrigerants. These recycling performances can be measured on contaminated refrigerant samples according to standardised test methods /ARI 700/. Unlike reclaiming, recycling does not involve analysis of each batch of used refrigerant and, therefore, it does not quantify contaminants nor identify mixed refrigerants /Kau92/. Consequent restrictions have been placed on the use of recycled refrig erant, because its quality is not proven by analysis.

A variety of recycling equipment is available ove r a wide price range. Curre ntly, the automotive airconditioning industry is th e only application that prefers the pr actice of recycling and reuse without2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 174 reclamation. Acceptance in other sectors depends on national regulation, recommendation of the cooling system manufacturers, existence of another so lution such as a reclaim station, variety and type of systems, and the preference of the service contractor. Reuse of recovered without strict adherence to refrigerant type-specifi c service fittings may result in unintende d releases of mixed refrigerants. Mixed refrigerants are often costly to separate whic h may provide incentive fo r intentional release of cross contaminated refrigerants. Recycling with limited analysis ca pability may be the preference of certain developing coun tries where access to qualif ied laboratories is limited and shipping costs are prohibitive. For most refr igerants there is a lack of inexpensive field instru ments available to measure the contaminant levels of reclaimed refrigerant after processing. At the same time the use of reclamation equipment which provides maximum separa tion of oil, acid, hard particle contaminants, moisture and air is to be prefe rred in countries where verification of processed refrigerant by proper chemical analysis is available.

Refrigerant recovery equipment has been developed and is available with a wide range of features and prices. Some equipment with protected potential sources of ignition also exist for recovery of flammable refrigerant. Testing standards have been developed to measure equipment performance for automotive /SAE/ and non-automotiv e /ISO/ applications. Although liquid recovery is the most efficient, vapour recovery methods may be used alone to remove the entire refrigerant charge as long as the time is not excessive. Excessive recovery times should be avoided, since extended recovery time periods may increase the service call time of t echnicians. Extended service call times may limit the number of service calls that technicians can pe rform, which in turn ma y limit the practical usage of recovery equipment. In order to reach the vacu um levels that are require d in some countries for larger systems, vapour r ecovery will be used after liquid recove ry /Clo94/. Perfor mance standards for refrigerant recovery equipment are available for service of both moto r vehicle air conditioners (e.g., SAE J1990), and stationary refrig eration and air-conditioning system s (e.g., ARI Standard 740-1998 and as are AHRI Standards for certifying. Adoption of such standards as a part of common service procedures should be adopte d by regulating authorities.



### 11.4 Technician Training and Service Certification

An increasing number of governments have realised the need for technician certification programs and /or certified companies to ensure proper handling of regulated products. Training requirements may differ depending on the type of equipment being serviced. Training programs should be structured on the type of equipment that the technician intends to service. For example, the level of training for the service of reside ntial refrigerators should differ fr om that for centrifugal chillers.

HFCs blends have seen increased usage in multiple en d-uses sectors. It is imperative that technicians are properly trained in the proper use and handling of all refrig erant alternatives.

Hydrocarbons have wide acceptability in many small appliances. As a means of making certain that only trained personnel have access to refrigerant, many countries have implem ented sales restrictions on refrigerants to certified technicians.

In the U.S., a technician certification program has b een established. This program is for individual technicians, as well as companies, that perform maintenance, service, repair, or disposal of refrigerants reasonably expected to release those refrigerants into the atmosphere. The program requires different levels of certif ication depending on the type of equipment that the technician intends to service or dispose: motor vehicles; small household ap pliances; or low-pressure, highpressure, and very high-pressure appliances. The U.S. emphasises this technician certification by limiting the sales of ODS refrigeran ts to certified technicians.

In many countries strict training and certificatio n requirements for refrigeration technicians who handle refrigerant gases are already a legal require ment. {Insert text on the EU F-Gas Regulations (EC 842/2006) and the associated Regulation fo r training and certifica tion of individuals and2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 175 companies (EC 303/2008). The F-Gas Regulations were introduced from 4 July 2007. Member states were required to estab lish training and certification requirements for individuals by 4 July 2008 and companies were required to be certified by 4 July 2009. In ad dition the EU ODS Regulations (EC 2037/2000) were re-cast as Regulation EC 1005/2009 with effect from 1 Jan 2010.



### . In Japan, obligations of recovery operators are specified by the Fluorocarbons Recovery and Destruction law. As one of the ob ligations, recovery operators must be authorised as “registered recovery operators.” Recovery operators must also have technicians certified by a government recognised authority. The technician training and certification program was started in 1994 by the concerned associations of installers, equipment manufacturers and refrigerant manufacturers. Since the program’s inception, the training seminars have been held for the staff of recovery operators throughout the country. The total number of technicians who have passed the final examination and received the certificate during the past 12 years reached nearly 50,000.

In Poland, a total 1,840 persons we re trained, out of which nearly 94% passed the final examination and received the “G reen Card”. This certificat e ascertains the serviceman ’s ability to repair and execute the maintena nce of refrigeration and air- conditioning equipment in accordance w ith all the ecological requirements. Those who successfully pass the training and certification procedure acquire important information (the new t ypes of ecological refrigerants, th e main internati onal agreements aiming at protecting the ozone layer) /BU01/.

One key element of RMP and RMP-update programs accomplished in countries of Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia was to initiate training in Good Prac tices to reduce the CFC demand through introduction of proper methods for leak reduction and recovery. As an example, Republic of Georgia improved training capacities of vocational schools th at educate technicians in refrigeration or air conditioning field through up grading of vocational schools curriculum and equipment and competency of teachers.

Belize reported to the UNEP in 2004 that their CFC consumption is below the level required in the approved action plan. Since its implementatio n, the National Ozone Unit has successfully implemented a Refrigerant Management Plan, enacted a comprehensive legal framework to address ozone depleting substances, conducted a public awareness programme, and reduced national CFC consumption by half, from 24.89 ODP tonnes in year 1998 to approximately 12 ODP tonnes in 2005. The country’s success can be partia lly attributed to its establishmen t of a certification and licensing scheme for refrigerant technicians.



### 11.5 Refrigerant Reclamation, Separation, Destruction

11.5.1 Reclamation and Separation

One means of conservation is the establishment of a reclamation scheme. Reclamation involves the recovery and reclamation of used refrigerant back to virgin specifications. Once reclaimed, used refrigerants are repacked and sold to new users. Reclamation is essentially, a market-based industry. If there is no demand for a particular refrigerant, the costs to send recovered refrigerant to reclamation facilities will be a disincentive to reclaim. Efforts must be initiated early on with refrigerant supply companies to support the take back of used refrigerant. Many servic e establishments (particularly for motor vehicle air-conditioning) will not be able to afford storage fo r recovered refrigerants awaiting reclamation. The cost of sending small quantities of recovered refrig erant to reclamation facilities is a disincentive to reclamation efforts. Such disincen tives promote venting of stockpiled refrigerant. Care should be take n by policy makers to eliminat e parallel (and potentially ille gal) routes to market. Such avoidance of improper ly reclaimed used refrigerants requir es strict auditing of the refrigerant distribution chain.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 176 Reclamation practices, which process used refrigerant back to near virgin specifications, are necessary to protect the quality of the refr igerant stock as well as the equipm ent containing th e refrigerant. Likewise, reclamation also extends the lifespan of the refrigerant and decreases the dependency on virgin refrigerant by placing it back into service and prolonging the use of used refrigerants.

Countries that have implemented mandatory reclamation requirements have found incremental increases in the amount of refrigerant reclaimed. France, where reclaimed refrigerant totals have been gathered, shows an evolution in the efficiency of the recovery program /SAU96/. In 1992, without any regulation, 200 metric tonnes of recovered refrigerant (CFCs & HCFCs) were reclaimed. In 1993, after making recovery mand atory and carrying out a deposit- refund scheme, the quantity grew to 300 tonnes and the number of refrigeration companies concerned doubled from 200 to 400 out of 2500. In this example government incentives were necessary to reach full development of recovery schemes. It also shows that making recovery a habit requires some time.

An extensive survey conducted in Australia /BEN01/ traced the paths of imported refrigerants through the sales and application chain. The survey asse ssed the amount and type of product that may be placed back into service, and concluded that service contractors are recovering approximately 400 MT of product (CFCs and HCFCs) annually from systems during servicing. Reclaimed refrigerant refers to refrigerant which has been processed and verified by analysis to meet specifications that are si milar to newly manufactured product specifications, such as those provided in ARI 700 /ARI700/. There is technically very little difference between virgin and reclaimed refrigerant. One exception is the allowable content of specific hazardous or toxic components that result from the manufacture or decomp osition of virgin fluorocarbons.

The use of reclaimed refrigerant has the advantage of avoiding possible system breakdowns, as a direct result of contaminated refrigerant, which might lead to refrigerant emissions. As reclaimed refrigerant meets new product specifications, it often has the support of equipment manufacturers who maintain guarantees on their equipment. One advantage to reclaiming is that the measurements of refrigerant, which have actually been recovered, are easily obtained. However, reclamation does require a costly infrastructure, which may only prove viable when potential for financial return of recovered refrigerant is sufficien t to overcome the initial invest ment of the company performing reclamation.

Mixed refrigerants, meaning refrigerants that are cross contaminated during the recovery process, are of concern due to their negative impact on systems’ performances, possible equipment damage if reused in another system , and the high cost for their disposal . This condition of mixture can be caused by chemical reactions such as in a hermetic compressor motor burnout, but more likely by bad service practices. The follo wing steps can be taken to minimise the probability of mi xing refrigerants:

1. Properly clean recovery units , including all hoses and cylin ders in accordance with manufacturer’s suggestions or dedicate a piece of recovery equipment to equipment suspected to contain mixed refrigerant; 2. Test and identify suspect refrigerant (for example, by using a refrigerant identifier) before consolidating into larg er batches and before attempting to recycle or reuse the refrigerant; 3. Keep appropriate records of refrigerant inventory; 4. Label refrigeration and equipment systems with the identity of their refrigerants, especially upon retrofit of older syst ems to new refrigerant; and 5. Mark cylinders used for recovered and/or recycled refrigerants.

It is very difficult to determine the presence of mixed refrigerants w ithout a laboratory test. If the nature of the refrigerant is in doubt, the saturation pressure and temperature may be checked and compared with published values. However, this method may be rendered unreliable by inaccurate pressure gauges or contamination by non-condensables. A thorough review of the service history, if existing and an understanding of the current problem may provid e additional insight. Field2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 177 instruments capable of identifying R-12, R-22 and R-134a refrigerants at purity levels of 97% or better are now available.

In automotive applications where R-12 and R-134a dominate the market, standards have required separate recycling equipmen t. In addition they have adopted un ique vehicle service ports, service hoses, and service equipment fittings to prevent inad vertent mixing. Hoses ha ve separate connectors for R-12 and R-134a cooling systems and must be properly labelled /SAE/.

The development and wide distribution of replacement refrigerant blends has increased the risks of mixtures, and the complexity of separating them. Cu rrently, the high cost of refrigerant blends has limited the profitability of separation.

The U.S. has mandated that refrigerant reclaimers re turn refrigerant to the sp ecifications (including the purity level) specifie d in ARI Standard 700 and verify the specifications using the laboratory protocol set forth in the same standa rd. In addition, reclaimers must release no more than 1.5% of the refrigerant during the reclamation process and must dispose of wastes properly. This mandate limits the number of persons allowed to reclaim refrigerant, and reinforces the U.S. mandate that used refrigerant be reclaimed prior to resale to a new owner.

Japan reported that 690 tonnes/year of CFCs are recycled or reclaimed for reuse in refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment. This represents 56% of the total estim ated recovered qu antity of 1230 tonnes/year.

The United States government has mandated reclamation and certification of refrigerant reclaimers since 1993. The U.S. has seen an increase in the reclamation of HCFC refrigerants, but a decline in the amount of CFC refrigerants reclaimed due to the phase-out of the manufacture of CFCs in the U.S.

Care should be taken to not cross-contaminate recovered refrigerant. Refrigerants that are combined after recovery, such as hydrocarbons with CFC re frigerants, will require separation (normally via distillation) prior to reclamation. High costs a nd the lack of availability of separation facilities provide disincentives to the proper recovery of refrigerant.



### 11.5.2 Destruction

During the past four years, since the 2006 A ssessment, increased inte rest in the potential environmental benefits of destructio n of ODS refrigerant banks has occurred. This is due in part to the recognition of environmental be nefit gained from the potential ozone and climate benefits from the avoided emissions of ODS still remaining in re frigeration and air cond itioning equipment worldwide. As a result of these benefits, global carbon trading markets have emerged that might provide incentives for early retirement of “b anks” of ODS in equipment. Ther e is potential for this equipment to be retired or replaced with more energy efficient equipment with lower refrigerant charge sizes.

ODS refrigerants (specifically CFCs) have high GWPs in addition to their ozone impacts. The destruction of ODS banks has the potential to earn carbon credits through global carbon markets, broadly divided into the compliance market and the voluntary market. The compliance market for GHGs is based on a legal requirement where, at an international (i.e., Cl ean Development Mechanism or CDM) or national and regional level (i.e., European Union Emission Trading Scheme of EU ETS), those participating countr ies and/or states must demonstrate that they hold the carbon credit equivalents to the amount of GHGs that they ha ve emitted in order to meet their GHG reduction targets or commitments.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 178 Presently, the voluntary market operates outside of the compliance market where individual companies or organisations volunt arily commit to actions and project s to offset their GHG emissions. 7 Currently, only the voluntary carbon market has established standards for ODS destruction as carbon offsets projects. To date, there are three voluntary standards that recognise and/or have established project protocols to provide carbon credits for ODS destruction. Two installa tion types are available to destroy CFCs:

(1) Public or commercial installations are accessible, in return for payment. These installations are often capable of treatin g several families of chemical products; and

(2) Private facilities th at are designed for the internal needs of ODS manufacturers. These facilities are not always adapted to the need s of outside groups. Normal cond itions where recove ry, recycling, and reclamation are prevalent should lead to fairly low requests for destruc tion in the refrigeration industry. This is especially th e case where the demand for CFCs will remain high. A need for destruction facilities may be created in instances where regulations forbid the us e or export of CFCs.

The general method of destruction is based on incineration of refrigerants and on scrubbing combustion products that contain particularly aggressive acids, especially hydrofluoric acid (HF). Mainly, their resistance to hydrofluoric acid limits the number of usable incinerators. CFCs, and more particularly halons, burn very poorly. In order to be incinerated, they must be mixed with fuels in specific proportions.

Belgium, Brazil, Finland, Japan and Switzerland possess the rotary kiln incineration technology to destroy CFC’s, halon, and HCFC’s . These incineration facilities do ac cept substances for destruction from outside countries. Currently, there is little experience with rotary kiln incineratio n within North America. These facilities are expe nsive to build, maintenance cost s are high, and the expense is usually only justified where a variety of hazardous wastes must be destroyed.

Destruction is a viable alternativ e for handling unwanted banks of refrigerants. There is currently a lack of commercially available co mpanies that destroy refrigerants . As A5 countr ies start their phaseout programs, commercial op portunities for destruction may b ecome available. Australia, United States, and Japan currently have the capacity to destroy recovered ODS. However, this trend appears to be changing with increased interest in both voluntary and regulatory ODS destruc 

### tion initiatives.

11.6 Equipment Desi gn and Service

Refrigerant emissions from coolin g systems must be minimised to protect the environment. Fortunately, conservation is consistent with good functioning and efficiency of air-conditioning and refrigeration systems. Cooling systems are designed as sealed units to provide long term operation. Conservation is affected by the design, installa tion, and service of the refrigerating system. Guidelines and standards are being updated with consideration to envi ronmental matters and improved conservation.

Conservation is defined by an emission rate, whic h can be measured and limited. Cooling system manufacturers have defined minimum tightness requir ements to guarantee permanent operation during defined periods. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 479 "Standard Guide for Preparation of a Leak Testing Specification" serves as a manufacturer's reference document. The standard has a large influence on the maximum allowable leakage flow for a cooling system based on the period during which the system must operate without refrigerant recharge. The refrigerant

7 In the United States, the state of California plans to pursue a compliance market that would accept credits generated from a voluntary carbon market that includes credits for ODS destruction projects.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 179 quantity may be lost by leakage during this period without signif icantly affecting the operational efficiency of the system.



### 11.6.1 Design

Every attempt should be made to de sign tight systems, which will not leak during the life span of the equipment. The potential for leakage is first affected by the design of the system; therefore, designs must focus on minimising the service requirements that lead to opening th e system. Manufacturers select the materials, the joining techniques, and service apertures. They also design the replacement parts and provide the recommended installation and service procedures. Manufacturers are responsible for anticipating fiel d conditions and for providing equipment designed for these conditions. Assuming that the equipment is installed and maintain ed according to th e manufacturer's recommendations, the design and proper manufactur ing of the refrigerating system determines the conservation of the refrigerant over the intended life of the equipment.

Among recommendations for conservation, leak tight valves should be installe d to permit removal of replaceable components from the cooling system. The design must also provide for future recovery, for instance, by locating valves both at the low point of the installation and at each vessel for efficient liquid refrigerant recovery.



### 11.6.2 Charge Minimising

Minimising the refrigerant charge will also reduce the quantity of possible emissions that could be emitted during catastrophic leak events. Historically, little attenti on has been given to the full charge of equipment, thus, its quantity is not often known (except for small equipment in which the units are shipped charged with refrig erant from the original equipment manuf acturer). It should be noted that there are negative effe cts of charge minimisation, for example the system ma y be more sensitive to a charge deficit leading to an increase in energy consumption.. There is a balance to ensure good efficiency despite minor leakage and reduced direct emissions.

Overcharging of equipment is common, as the amount of refrigerant contained in refrigerant receivers is not always known. Refrigerant receivers are equipment components that contain excess refrigerant that migrates through the system as a result of changes in ambient conditions. For such equipment, field charging is often continued until the evaporator supply is cons idered satisfactory. Without the check of weighing th e charge, installation could be overfille d with two harmful consequences: (1) a potential release of refrigerant, and (2) the possibility of transfe rring the entire charge into the receiver. The receiver-filling ratio, therefore, has to be limited during nominal operation, and an inspection tool (indicator, leve l, etc.) must be provided.



### 11.6.3 Installation

Proper installation of refrigerating systems contributes to the proper operation and conservation during the useful life of the equipm ent. Tight joints and proper pipi ng materials are required. Proper cleaning of joints and evacuation to remove air and non-condensable will minimise the future service requirements. Proper charging and weighing techniques, along with careful system performance and leak checks, should be practised during the first few days of operation. The installer should also seize the opportunity to find manufacturer defects before the system begins operatio n. The installation is critical for maximum conservation over the life of the equipment.



### 11.6.4 Servicing

Service must be improved in order to reduce emission s. Such improvement, however, depends in part on the price end-users agree to pay, as emission reduction has always proved, so far, more expensive than topping-off cooling sy stems with refrigerant. It is necessary to make end-users understand that2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 180 their previous practice of paying to top-off systems must cease, and those funds must be spent on improved maintenance. It is to be noted that such a step has already been taken in some cases, especially in countries like the U.S. wh ere an annually increasing tax on the quantities of ozonedepleting refrigerants that remain in stock at the end of the calendar year makes conservation or conversion to ozone-friend ly refrigerant alternativ es more cost-effective.

Technician training is essential for the proper handling and conservation of refrigerants. Such training should include information on the environmental and safety hazards of refrigerants, the proper techniques for recovery, recycling and leak detection, and local legislation regarding refrigerant handling (if applicable).

Refrigerating systems must be tested regularly to ensure that they are well sealed, properly charged, and operating properly. The equipment should be check ed in order to detect le aks in time and thus to prevent loss of the entire charge. During maintenance and disposal of the system, refrigerant should be isolated in the system or recovered.

The technician must study the service records to determine history of leakage or malfunction. The technician should also thoroughly check for leaks and measure performance parameters to determine the operating condition of the cooling system. The t echnician will want to determine the best location from which to recover the refrigerant and assure that proper recovery equipment and recovery cylinders are available. The existence of a maintenance document enables the user to monitor additions and removals of refrigera nt with recovery as well as the searches and repairs of leaks.



### 11.6.5 Reduction of Emissi ons through Leak Tightness

Leak detection is a basic element, both in constr ucting and servicing cooling equipment, as it makes it possible to measure and improve conservation of refrigerant. Leak detection must take place at the end of construction by the manufacturers, at the en d of assembly in the field, and during regularly scheduled maintenance of equipment.

There are three general types of leak detection: 1) Global methods indicate that a leak exists somewhere, but they do not locate the leaks. They are useful at the end of construction and every time the system is opened up for repa ir or retrofit; 2) Local methods pinpoint the loca tion of the leak and are the usual methods used during servicin g; 3) Automated perform ance monitoring systems indicate that a leak exists by alerting operators to changes in equipment performances (see Appendix 1).

Governments should take a sector based approach aimed at adopting service requirements that reduce use and emissions of ODS. The major refrigeration and air-conditioning sectors include the following:

Refrigeration sectors include:

• Residential applications-refrigerators, freezers, window air-conditioners

• Commercial refrigeration-convenient stores, warehouses, supermarkets, and grocery stores

• Large size refrigeration-industrial process refrigeration systems used in an array of manufacturing and food processing applications

• Transport refrigera tion-refrigerated transport vehicles

• Unitary air-conditioning-residen tial and light commercial air conditioners and heat pumps

• Chiller/comfort cooling application-chillers

• Mobile air conditioners.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 181 Various countries have demonstrated improvement in the air-conditioning and refrigeration equipmentmanufactured over the past few years. The new equipment has been designed to be tighter than airconditioning and refrigeration equi pment previously manufactured. Existing appliances have often been modified with new devices, su ch as high-efficiency purge devices for low-pressure chillers that have significantly lowered refrigerant emissions. Design change s have been made in response to growing environmental, regulatory, and economic concerns associated with refrigerant emissions.

For instance, research performed by the U.S. EPA indi cates that the reduction in leak rates in the U.S. has been most dramatic in comfor t cooling chillers. Leak rates have been lowe red from between 10 and 15% per year, to less than 5% per year in many cases, through design changes.

In the Netherlands, the results of some earlier monitoring pr ojects have been previously reported. Those earlier studies involved a large sample of transport refrigeratio n units and commercial refrigeration systems. Earlier refrig erant emissions were compared ov er time for units built before and after introduction of the Dutch regu latory program. Comparison foun d that in the case of transport refrigeration, the refrigerant emission rate was reduced from an average of 6% to 3% of the charge per year. For selected commercial supermarket systems the average emission rate was reduced from 15% of refrigerant charge to 3%, on an annual basis. In another monitoring project, large refrigerating systems (average charge of 2 metric tonnes) up to 10 years old were inspected during 1994-1996. The average annual leakage rate was found to be 8.6%. Information on similar but older equipment built over the period 1986-1992 indicated an average leakage rate of 12.2% The report concluded that the reductions in refrigerant losses experienced for the more recently constructed systems was attributable to the more stringent technical requirem ents specified under the 1994 Regeling Lekdichtheidsvoorschriften Koe linstallaties (RLK) technical re quirements for refrigeration equipment.

More recent monitoring data has been gathered from the detailed National Survey of Refrigerant Flows NOKS study which was conducte d for the government to inve stigate the volumes of CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs being used thro ughout the country for refill purposes in a ll application sectors (excluding auto air-conditioning and marine installations). Relating th is data directly to refrigerant emissions, it was concluded that the average annual leakage rate for the reference year 1999 was 4.8% (equivalent to approximately 615 tonnes nation-wide). Furthermore, the NOKS study revealed that the emissions were attributable to only 8% of th e installations, and 92% had no emissions that year /IEA02/.



### 11.7 Direct Regulation as a Mean s of Refrigerant Conservation

Refrigerant emissions are already regulated in a number of countries, mostly as a component of the implementation of the CFC phase-out. Government actions such as introducing and enforcing direct regulations or legislation are necessary to ensure refrigerant co nservation. Existing regulations include service technician certification, required equipment service and disposal practices, leak tightness requirements, restrictions on the sales of refrigerants and certificatio n schemes for service companies. For purposes of refrigerant conservation, direct regulation may include governmental efforts establishing the following:

- Mandatory service and disposal practices fo r air-conditioning and re frigerating equipment

- Certification programs fo r air-conditioning and re frigerating equipment and recovery/recycling equipment

- Required training and/or operator certification programs for service technicians

- Restrictions or limitations on who ca n purchase or sell ODS refrigerants

As is the case for financial in centives, care should be taken to set standards that maximise conservation without being unduly burdensome. Di rect regulations establis h "floor" standards and practices across industry, and training and/or certifi cation requirements increa se general knowledge of both how and why to contain the refrigerant. Howe ver, these regulations are often less flexible than2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 182 financial incentives, and more diff icult to develop and enforce, given the large quantities and wide distribution of air-conditioning and refrigerating equipment.

Article 2 countries have taken a number of steps aimed at reducing emissions of ODS refrigerants via direct regulation. Some regulations include the restriction of the su pply of refrigeran ts through limits in imports and sales. As well as requirements for emissi ons reduction practices, during the service and disposal of appliances, and mandating the recovery, recycling, and reclamation of used refrigerant.

Such restrictions may also have negative impacts, such as th e creation of ille gal markets for refrigerants, fraudulent business practices by service companies, refrigerant distributors, and appliance recyclers. The financial impact of enfo rcing such regulations pr esents another possible negative impact. Such regulations should not be attempted unless the governmental body is willing to invest in the long-term enforcement of the regulations and strict prosecution of those who violate such regulation.

Countries with established markets have simila r national programs and policies in place for the recovery, recycling, and reclamation of refrigerants, but individual approaches to organisation and control mechanisms, responsibility levels, regulatory legislation, financing arrangements, and operating procedures vary considerably from one country to another.

In addition to phasing out produc tion of ODS under the Montreal Protocol, governments chose to reduce ozone-depletion by strongly encouraging conservation through different means. In the first years, research and development (R&D) programs were funded to identify emission sources and develop conservation measures. Other R&D programs were developed to evaluate efficient recovery, recycling, and reclamation equipment. Governments also worked with industry groups to develop recovery techniques, and establish standards for the recovery and reuse of ozone-depleting refrigerants.

Information dissemination was another means used to educate the public on the environmental health and safety issues associated with ozone-depletion. These efforts created a general knowledge of both how and why measures should be taken to contain used refrigerant; thus, these efforts improved conservation where ignorance of environmental issues was the primary problem.

Direct regulation also became a point of emphasis for governments. Many governments improved conservation through direct regulation. Governments have found that adoption of industry standards and R&D results are easily incorporated into regulation as a means of mandating refrigerant conservation. While governments have found direct regulation to be a successful means of conservation, it requires a strong commitment to legal or financial en forcement incentiv es in order to reach significant results.



### 11.7.1 Financial Incentives

Financial incentives can encourage conservation by making emissions more costly for users or by making conservation efforts financially beneficial. They may include sales taxes on refrigerants at the point of purchase or import across the country’s border, deposit-refund schemes to discourage disposal of refrigerant containers, and/or tax breaks for investing in recovery/recycling equipment or other refrigerant conservation technologies.

In the U.S., the manufacture or import of virgin CFCs is prohibite d. In addition, the U.S. annually increases the CFC-excise tax that has been effec tive in increasing conserva tion of CFC refrigerants and making retrofits to lower ozon e-depleting substances more financ ially appealing. The tax when combined with the phase-out of the manufacture of CFCs has forced an increase in the recycling and reuse of used CFC-refrigerants. This increase in the recycling and reuse of used refrigerant has addressed a significant source of emissions by infla ting the costs of imported CFCs; thus, making it2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 183 less expensive to reuse CF Cs or retrofit equipment to refrig erants with lowe r ozone-depleting potentials than to b uy and use imported CFCs.

Deposit-refund schemes involve collecting a deposit when a product is purchased and paying a refund when the used product is returned. The refund serves as an incentive to the user to collect and return used refrigerants. The deposit not only finances the refunds, but also encourages more careful handling of the product by increasing the cost of new refrigerant. Two issues must be faced in establishing a deposit-refund system: (1) how (or whether) refrigerants are traced back to the original manufacturer for collection of the refund and (2) ho w refunds for the bank of refrigerants in existing equipment, for which no deposit was collected, can be financed. Industry-sponsored deposit-refund schemes in Australia, Denmark and Fr ance resolved these issues by setting up a centralised fund for deposits.

Tax breaks for investing in refrigerant conservation equipment and technologies are another government means of coercing conservation. Since tax breaks that are linked to specific technologies have the potential to limit technology that enters that marketplace, they can leave the market less flexibility than either sale s taxes or deposit-refund schemes. Care should be taken to set taxes, tax breaks, and deposit-refund amounts at levels that will maximi se conservation with out being unduly burdensome. In addition, governments using financia l incentives must work to prevent the rise of a black market for untaxed, and therefore, less expensive refrigerant. Left unchecked, such a market will eventually undermine the envi ronmental incentives implemented by the incentive. In order to limit the extent of black market sales, such tax efforts should not be a ttempted without a strong enforcement component with the power to fine and or imprison violators.

Governments may find that financia l incentives are easier and more flexible to deve lop than direct regulations. Financial incentives allow markets to find the most cost-effective conservation measures and maintain the incentive to innovate. More over, governmental financia l incentives become more important as refrigerant prices drop. Such is the case for HCFCs and HFCs in many Article 2 countries, and for CFCs in many Article 5 countries, because higher refrigerant prices tend to encourage conservation, while lower prices tend to discourage it. However, it can be difficult to set financial incentives at a level that encourages conservation without being unduly burdensome. Financial incentives will be underm ined if a black market for imported refrigerants is allowed to operate.


### 11.7.2 Required Service Pract ices and Leak Tightness

In the European Council (E.C.) Regulation no. 2037 /2000 on substances that deplete the ozone layer /EC00/, the E.C. requires that all precautionary measures practicable shall be taken to prevent leakage of CFCs and HCFCs; however, the member states may define their own minimum qualification requirements for the serv icing personnel involved. An annual leak tightness inspection is made mandatory for installations containing CFCs or HCFCs. Three national programs are summarised below, but regulations also exist in other European countries such as Denmark, Germany and Sweden.

The Netherlands described the conditions for the l eak tightness of systems in a decree of December 18, 1994 /DR94/. This text is characterised by detailed requirements for materials and components, design, installation, machin ery rooms, tests and maintenance, insp ection. It contains requirements dealing with the maintena nce, the leak tightness controls, and th e installation inspec tion depending on the charge of refrigerant. The occurrence of leak tightness is also specified: once a year for charges under 3 kilograms, once every 3 months for more than 30 kg, once a month for more than 300 kg. Machinery rooms are mandatory for charges of more than 300 kg, and an area monitor is required when the charge is more than 1,000 kg. The area monitor sensitivity (100 ppm), the minimum number of probes (5), and the installation of the probes (at least one at floor le vel, at least one in the ventilation exhaust duct) ar e specified. Certified operators who are equipped with leak detectors of five ppm sensitivity perform the leak tightness test s. Before commissionin g new installations or2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 184 changing refrigerant, leak tightne ss test must be performed at the maximum working pressure of the equipment.

The United Kingdom Environmental Protection Act of 1990 mandates several measures for the conservation of CFC, HCFC, and HFC refrigeran ts. These include a prohibition on venting refrigerant during service or deco mmissioning of systems, a prohib ition on adding refrigerant to a leaking system before thoroughly examining the system to locate and repair the leak, a requirement to use a vacuum pump to evacuate moisture and non-condensables from a system before adding refrigerant, a requirement to use a refrigerated pu rge unit (as opposed to manual purging) to purge non-condensables from the system, and a general requirement to limit emissions during a number of procedures for system servicing and operation.

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 mandate leak repairs, In the U.S., refrigerant emissions are controlled by direct regulations requ iring recovery, recycling, and reclamation. The U.S. has also created regulations mandatin g repairs of equipment that leak abov e allowable rates. U.S. regulations require that appliance manufacturers provide a service aperture to expedite recovery of refrigerant. As for servicing, before repairing or disposing of air-cond itioning and refrigeration equipment, technicians must recover the refrigerant using government approved refrigerant recovery equipment. The percentage of refrigerant that must be recovere d or the level of evacuation that must be achieved varies depending upon the type of equipment being serviced. For leak repair, the U.S. regulations require owners of equipment containing charges of more than 50 pounds to either repair, retrofit, or replace their refrigeration and air- conditioning equipment when they le ak in excess of an applicable maximum allowable rate. These maximum annual allowable rates are 35% of the charge for commercial and industrial refrigeration and ai r-conditioning applicatio ns and 15% for other applications. To track leak rate s, owners of air conditioning and refrigeration equipment with more than 50 pounds of charge must keep records of the quantity of re frigerant added to their equipment during servicing and maintenance procedures.



### 11.7.3 Restrictions on the sa les and imports of ODSs

The U.S. has limited the sales of refrigerant to technicians who ha ve been certifie d in order to improve the level of awareness agains t refrigerant emissions. In additio n to this sales restriction, the government has placed conditions on the manufacturers of substitute refrigerants. New non-ODS refrigerants, which replace CFCs, must be authorised for specific industry sectors and end-uses. The government also mandates that manufacturers of new refrigerants place unique fittings on containers to prevent unintended mixing of different refrigerants, and subsequent emissi ons resulting from the mixtures. The U.S. also restricts the amount of imported ODSs into the country. Only used class I ODSs (primarily CFCs, halons, and methyl bromide) are allowed for U.S. import. The U.S. has banned the import of virgin ODS, with the ex ception of pre-approved essential uses. Prospective importers must petition the U.S. EPA for approval prior to transport from the country of origin.

Several countries have implemen ted regulations that require cu stoms officers to complete ODS training programs. The training of customs officers in detection and identif ication methods helps to control trade in ozone-depleting substances. For instance, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Jordan have recently both taken significant steps to increase their phase-out of ozone depleting substances. These countries now require training programs for customs officers as well as the technicians that handle the refrigerant. Other countries such as Oman, provide training workshops for their customs officers in order to raise the level of awareness regarding the dangers of ODS and methods of refriger ant conservation.

The training of customs officers a nd identification of refrigerants are considered as the most important part of CFC phase-out program in the countries fro m Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia. For instance 115 customs offi cers have been trained and equipped w ith Refrigerant Ultima Identifier in2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 185 Armenia. In Republic of Tajikistan 98 customs officers have been trained in detection and identification methods and 30 check-points have been equipped with Neutronics RI - 2002PA identifier. The same figures for Uzbekistan are 301 trained customs officers and 21 units of portable identifier ID 1000 used in the country. In Republic of Georgia a special la boratory equipped with Complete Gas chromatograph and Tasco TA400 refrigera nt analyser helps custom s officers to identify CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs and a wide range of their blends.

Restrictions are also placed on new refrigerant blends, which must be authorised by the U.S. EPA prior to introduction into interstate commerce. Manufacturers of refrigerant blends that are anticipated to replace ODSs are required to submit data to EPA on the health and safety of such substitutes before they can be legally sold in the U.S.



### 11.8 End-of-life

Safe disposal requirements should mandate disposal of ODS components in residential appliances such as refrigerant and foam. Many household refrigerators and freezers produced prior to 1994 rely on CFC refrigerants that destroy the earth’s protec tive ozone layer, which in turn leads to adverse human and environmental health effects (see text box). After 1996, most newly manufactured household refrigerators and freezers contain hydrocar bon refrigerants or ozon e friendly refrigerants (HFCs). Similarly, oil in the compressor is likely to be contaminated with refrigerant, be it CFC or HFC, so it too must be treated car efully. In addition, the foam blowing agents in most in-use refrigerators/freezers also use ozon e depleting substances. Ultimately, if these foams are not properly recovered from appliances and prop erly disposed, additional ODS will be released to the atmosphere, leading to further destruction of the ozone layer. Some of the newest refrigerators/freezers use HFC blowing agent, which can lead to GHG emissions if not properly recovered at end of life. Further, raw materials that make-up refrigerators and freezers—including steel, plastic, glass, and rubber—can all be recycled to reduce the amount of waste that would otherwise be put in a landfill and save energy that would otherwise be required to produce vi rgin materials. Finally, some chest freezers manufactured prior to 2000 may contain a mercury switch. Mercury is toxic and causes a variety of adverse health effects, including tremors, headaches, respiratory failure, reproductive and developmental abnormalities, and potentially, cancers. Also, olde r appliances may contain PCB capacitors. PCBs can lead to adverse effects rangin g from minor skin irrita tions, to reproductive and developmental abnormalities, to cancers in humans and wildlife.

Efforts should be taken to make certain that companies involved in the disposal chain are not allowed to destroy.



### 11.9 Examples of Conservation Approaches

11.9.1 Africa

The refrigeration and air-conditioning sector plays a vital role in ma ny of Africa’s economies. The predominant sectors in these economies are the agriculture, tourism, and fishing industry. As a result, refrigeration is necessary to preserve perishable foodstuffs that are both exported abroad and are necessary for local consumption. Likewise, the tourist industry increases the demand for airconditioning, as visiting tourists prefer comfortable environments.

There has been a reasonable reduction in the consumption of ODS in most African countries. Certain countries have undertaken measures to put a partial or total ban on sales of CFCs. Others have put regulations in place to control imports of new CFCs and CFC-based equipment. It is obvious that existing refrigeration equipment will need servicing and maintenance for a long period of time. However, there is not enough training of refrigeration technicians. In Africa, a well-developed educational program for technicians is non existent , thus, those employed in the refrigeration industry do not receive proper instructio n needed to comply with standa rds Examples from other countries2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 186 have shown that well-trained technicians could redu ce the consumption of CFCs in the refrigeration sector by up to 40%. The other main problem for Af rica in its bid to phase-out the CFCs is the influx of used refrigeration equipment and cheap CFCs, some of which are obtained through the Black Market.

Many countries, including bu t not limited to Benin, Chad, Egypt, Mozambique, Uganda, and Zimbabwe, have established refrigerant recovery and recycling programs that train technicians and make refrigerant recovery equipment and service equipment available. These national programs are responsible for the phase-out of tonnes (ODP-weighted) of CFCs from stationary and mobile sources.

For example, Kenya has banned service on refrig eration and air-conditioning equipment by anyone other than government certified service technicians. The government has also established centralised refrigerant recycling stations. Th e government has promoted the ava ilability of portable refrigerant recovery units that are affordable for service technicians. The refrigerant recovery units were donated to select workshops that have trained technicians on staff. The government reserves the right to repossess the equipment and ban the technicians fr om the trade if it is fo und that good service practices are not employed.

Ghana ratified the Montreal Protoc ol on 24 July 1992. A Country Program was submitted at the 8th meeting of the Executive Committee in October of the same year. The 8 th meeting of the Executive Committee had approved US $328,000 for a prog ram to improve refrig eration servicing and maintenance, Ghana’s program look ed to establish a National Comm ittee for Improved Refrigeration Practices, technical assistance and delivery of recove ry and recycling machines, all to be implemented by UNDP. Ghana’s RMP statistics find that the most important consumer of CFCs in the country is the domestic sector. The estimated number of domes tic refrigerators was repo rtedly 1 million in 2000, and had increased by 30-40% in 2003. Total cons umption of CFCs from repair and maintenance of domestic refrigerators amounts to about 20 tonnes per year.

In 1996, 3,000 trained technician s were already trained in best practices. An additional 600 technicians have been trained in safe handin g, and retrofitting to hydrocarbons. However, certification of technicians is not mandatory in Ghana to practice r ecovery and recycling activities. The recovery equipment provided under the RMP, have been allocated to workshops according to location, security and qu antity of refrigeration used. To impr ove recovery efforts, the RMP has established an incentive program to encourage refrigeration end-users to replace or permanently retrofit their existing ODS based equipment. In Ghana hydrocarbons are significantly cheaper than CFCs and HCFCs, as hydrocarbons are produced in Ghana and also imported from Lebanon. In view of the prevailing econo mic conditions, the dominance of the domestic sector, th e negligible scrap rate of appliances, and the old age of imported vehicles and other refrigeration equipment, phase-out of ODS proves to be a fairly difficult task.

Senegal ratified the Montreal Pr otocol in May 1993 along w ith the London Amendment; the Copenhagen Amendment and the Montreal Amendment were ratified in August 1999. to assist Senegal UNEP provided training for trainers in go od refrigeration pr actices, followed by training of technicians by these trainers under a project approved by the 11th meeting of the Executive Committee. Since 2001, a Refrigeration Manageme nt Plan (RMP) has been implemented with the assistance of UNIDO, Switzerland and UNEP.

The remaining users of CFC in Senegal are priv ate companies servicing domestic, industrial and commercial refrigeration systems. The most prevalent barrier to retrofit remains the humid climate of Senegal. The hygroscopic nature of ester oil, not to mention its high price, makes it difficult to prevent humidity entering th e system resulting in corrosion and clog ging problems.

Under a training program implemented by UNEP, a total number of 140 technicians have been trained in four workshops, addressing issue like these. Previous standard practices like flushing with CFC have been replaced by using nitrogen or compressed air. Charging refrigerants is now measured with2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 187 manifolds and brazing joints is more common no w than using hoses thereb y reducing the likelihood of leaks. Additionally a total of 40 recovery units ha ve been made available) as well as, leak detectors, vacuum pumps, empty cylinders, scales, manifolds and other tools were provided, supplied through UNIDO.

CFC-12 remains relatively in expensive, posing a great threat to effective regulatory control. Increases in the illegal smuggling of CFCs, originating in Eastern Europe, co ntinues to occur. Therefore, continued training of Customs officials is necessary.

Most countries have established national programs to recover and reuse refr igerants. Although there is great potential for the recovery and recycling of CFCs in low vo lume consuming Af rican countries, the low price of virgin refrigerant has decreased the incentive to recover refrigerant. There has also been a shortage of recovery and recycling equipment, as the cost is considered too expensive for the majority of the common wo rkshops. It is expected that that suitable legislatio n, regulations, and recovery and recycling schemes cu rrently under development will crea te the much needed incentives for recycling.



### 11.9.2 South America

The Brazilian government has estab lished a refrigerant conservation pr ogram that banned the use of disposable refrigerant cylinders. The Brazilian Associatio n of Domestic End Commercial Appliances has certified an estimated 1500 service shops, employing nearly 3000 service technicians. It is estimated that these certified shops recycle nearly 3.5 MT of CFC-12 per month from the domestic refrigeration and air-conditioning sector.

Through a National CFC Phaseout Pl an, approved in July 2002 by the Multilateral Fu nd, the Brazilian government is planning to establish eight refrigerant reclamation ce ntres within the next two years. In certain regions of the country, re cycling and reclamation activities ha ve begun in advance of the full implementation of the National CFC Phaseout Plan. The national plan anticipates the training of 35,000 refrigeration service technicians and the distribution of refrigerant recovery equipment to the technicians. The national plan includes efforts to establish a CFC recovery program in conjunction with the installation of the refrigerant reclamatio n centres. In addition, Brazil has a destruction facility that accepts contaminated refrige rant for incineration by rotary kiln.

Colombia ratified the Vienna Conv ention in 1990, the Montreal Protocol and its London Amendment in 1993, the Copenhagen Amendment in 1997, the Montreal Amendment in 2003 and the Beijing Amendment in 2005. In Colombia, 81% of total CFC consumptio n can be attributed to the serviceand maintenance of domestic, industrial, and commercial refrigeration systems. With the aid of MLFfunded conversion projects, the number of CFC-based commercial refrigeration units is expected to be reduced to about 850,000 by 2007. CFC prices remain high in Colombia however the price of alternatives are significantly mo re expensive. The process of phase-out of ODSs in Colombia consisted of a project-by-project approach concentrating on the large CFC consumers such as manufacturers of domestic and commercial, conv ersion projects in medium-sized commercial refrigeration units, and finalising projects in the foam and refrigeration sector and starting the implementation of the National Ph ase-out Plan (NPP). Total funds disbursed by the MLF for these projects from 1994 to 2004 (without including fund s for the implementation of the NPP) amounted to US$ 1,112 million. As a result, 1, 053 ODP tonnes have been elim inated. Programs within the NPP was planned to recover 123.75 ODP tonnes per y ear, a large part of which was assumed to be recycled. Actual amounts recovered during 1998-1999 were 41,9 ODP tonnes and 3,5 tonnes recycled. Substantial impediments to the NPP program effected its degree of success. The low price of virgin refrigerant in comparison with the costs of recovered substa nces meant that neither for endusers nor for the servicing workshops there was an economic incentive to recover and to recycle the refrigerant. Secondly, the equipment distributed unde r this project was limited to the recovering of2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 188 CFC-12 and the type of the machines selected did no t take into account the di versity of uses required and the different needs of the technicians.



### 11.9.3 China

In 2002 China consumed 75% of East Asian share of CFCs and produced almost 100% of the regional share. By January 2003, CFC production in China was reduced by 40% and 32 plants were closed and dismantled.

During 1992, China’s State Environmental Protection Agency’s (SEPA) established a motor vehicle air conditioning sector program. The program is sets national polic ies and regulations, including the ban on new CFC-based MAC systems in all new vehicles by January 1, 2002; a technical assistance program for developing of service and refrigeran t recycling standards; es tablishment of testing facilities for motor vehicle air cond itioning components and systems; and a new certification system and training for the motor vehicl e air conditioning industry.

China is currently seeking financia l incentives, such as tax breaks, for refrigerant conservation. Also, the government is exploring optio ns for the enforcement of State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) regulations. China Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Industry Association (CRAA) established the standard: CRAA100-2006 (specificatio ns for fluorocarbon refrigerants. The standard is applicable for new and reclaimed refrigerants, and is not applicable for only recycled refrigerants.



### 11.9.4 United States

The United States has seen an increase in the degree of community outreach and has seen the implementation of many CFC restricting regulatio ns. There are currently regulations requiring technician certification, restriction on sales, mandatory recycling and servicing requirements, and safe disposal requirements. Proper re trofit procedures from CFCs to substitute substan ces have been created and distributed by chemical and equipment manufacturers. The U.S. has recognised an impediment in its conservation efforts. While the U. S. bans the import of virgin ODSs, the U.S. does allow used CFCs to be imported once approved by the government. Such efforts have extended the life span of CFC equipment, and have allowed equipment owners to hold off on retiring CFC equipment.



### 11.9.5 Japan

The recycling law concluded its first year since en forcement in Apr il 2001, with good results in the recovery of CFC and HCFC refrigerants from discar ded residential air-conditio ners and refrigerators – 603 metric tonnes of CFC and HCFC refrigerants (4 67 from air conditioners and 136 from refrigerators) were extracted and destroyed in 2001. The amount has continued to rise, reaching 1306 metric tons (995 from residentia l air conditioners and 31 1 from domestic refrigerators) in 2004. Recovery of refrigerants from insulators used for refrigerators started in 2004. In a move to accelerate recycling, the Japanese cabinet approv ed an additional bill, requiring automobile manufacturers and importers to accept used cars to recycle different parts including CFCs. The law went into effect in 2003, and added a consumer-recycling fee to the price of each new car sold in Japan.

With the aim of raising the recovery rate of refrigerants from commercial equipment, the Fluorocarbons Recovery & Destruction Law was amended to be effective from October 2006. By this law, refrigerant reco very from commercial refrigeration and air conditioni ng equipment is expected to reach a higher level than ever before.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 189 11.10 Article 5 Issues

Although the wide range of conditions in Article 5 countries make generalis ation difficult, a few characteristics emerge across the refrigeration infras tructures that distinguish Article 5 countries from those of developed countries. These characteristics argue for the adoption of somewhat different strategies for containing and conserving refrigerant in Article 5 countries than are used in developed countries. Among thes e characteristics are:

- The ambiguous situation on the ma rket of CFC refrigerants. CFCs remain relatively inexpensive in most Article 5 countries. In fact, CFC refrigerants are reportedly less expensive than ever in some Article 5 countries. On the other hand there are Article 5 countries were CFCs are practically unavailable or they are very expensive but very often CFCs are replaced by cheap counterfeited refrigerants that causes breakage of cooling systems and accordingly increase of Emissions. This decreases economic incentives to conserve CFC refrigerants. In order to succeed, conservation approaches must either make efficient use of technicians' time and equipment, or be supported by credible government incen tives and/or penalties.

- The relatively low cost of labour compared to recovery equipment . Low labour rates may favour conservation approaches that are somewhat more labour-intensive than those historically pursued in developed countries. However, technician training and awareness are essential to the success of such approaches, especially where preventive maintenance procedures have not been routine in the past. Moreover, significan t incentives are still necessary for refrig erant conservation be cause of the low cost of CFCs.

- Weak refrigerant reclamation infrastructures . A well-developed infras tructure for reclaiming refrigerant requires large numbers of reusable refrigerant containers, refrigerant purification centres, a system for tracking returned refrigerant, and a means of disposing of irretrievably contaminated refrigerant. The amount of refr igerant to be recovered in co untries using small quantities of refrigerant is not likely to justif y operation of a centralised reclamation centre. To ensure that refrigerant is adequately cleaned before being reused, developing countr ies may either devote resources to developing a reclama tion infrastructure or emphasise on -site refrigerant recycling. If they choose the latter, screening tests may be used to target seve rely contaminated refrigerant for destruction. Because of the decentralised nature of on-site recycling, its success (in terms of both the quantity and quality of the refrigeran t recycled) is more difficult to eval uate than that of reclamation. Where reclamation facilities are no t available, an alternative ma y be destruction in existing incinerators.

- Lack of scheduled maintenance . In the past, for many Article 5 countries, routine scheduled maintenance of air-co nditioning and refrigeration equipment has been rare. To successfully implement conservation approaches, which rely heavily on regular maintenance, co untries should provide incentives for such routin e scheduled maintenance.

- Unreliable power, parts, and supplies . In many Article 5 countries, frequent voltage fluctuations increase the occurrence of compressor burnouts, which aggravate refrigerant contamination problems and discourage refrigerant recycling. The same voltage fluctuations may also damage electrical recovery equipment, which in co mbination with the limited availab ility of replacement parts, may make it difficult to keep such equipment operational. Recent experience has shown the need to adapt recovery equipment to the requirem ents of Article 5 countries (suc h as extreme clim atic conditions, lack of spare parts, and higher frailty of electric devices).

Together, these characteristics have certain implications for refrig erant conservation programs in Article 5 countries. Beca use the ability to recover large amounts of refrigerant in a relatively small amount of time increases the cost-effectiveness of recovery, recovery programs may be most effective if focused either on equipment w ith large charge sizes (e.g., chillers or large commercial refrigeration2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 190systems) or on large groups of equipment with small charge sizes (e.g., motor vehicle airconditioners).

For other systems, such as those with small size and widespread ownership (e.g. domestic and small commercial refrigerators) , experiences indicate that retrofitting and recovery are more difficult to implement and that the emphasis should be put on conservation.

In addition to imposing conservation measures on individual pieces of equipment, countries may reduce emissions of CFC refrigerants by reducing the total stock of equipment containing CFCs. This may be accomplished by selecting systems that use HCFCs or non-ozone depleting refrigerants when installing new equipment or by retrofitting existin g systems to use HCFCs or non-ozone depleting refrigerants. The high rate of growth in Article 5 co untries makes the selec tion of new equipment especially important. Labour inte nsive retrofits may be attractive in some Article 5 countries due to relatively low labour rates. It is important to note that replacement or retrofit of equipment will increase rather than decrease CFC emissions if the CFC refrigerant from the old equipment is vented rather than recovered. This emphasises the fact th at for any refrigerant, the first step to take towards conservation is improving the leak tightness of systems.

There is no shortage of leak detection devices, conservation methods, or recovery/recycling equipment available from developed countries /UNE94,95/. However, provision of such equipment will not, in itself, guarante e that refrigerant conserva tion occurs in Artic le 5 countries. Experience has shown that in order to be effective, conservation programs must match equipment with training and incentives to use the equipment. These incentives may be financial (e.g., deposit-refund systems similar to those used in Austra lia and France), professional (building on technicians' pride in completing training and in using the most advanced equipment and techniques), or environmental (showing technicians that they have the power to help heal the ozone la yer). The Refrigerant Management Plans (RMPs) which focus on A5 coun tries consuming low volu mes of ODS in critical refrigerant sectors include these different aspects /UNE98/.

In order to meet the target of the CFC phase-out, emphasis should be placed not only on replacing CFCs in new and existing equipment, but also on refrigerant conservation through recovery, recycling, reclamation and leak reduction.



### 11.11 References

/ARI 700/ ARI Standard 700-2004: Specifications for Fluorocarbons Refrigerants. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA. /ARI 740/ ARI Standard 740-1998: Performance of Refrigerant Recovery/Recycling Equipment. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA. /ARI 94/ Handling and reuse of refrigerants in the United States. April 94 draft published by ARI. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA. /ASH92/ ASHRAE guidelines 3-1990 and 3a-1992. Reducing Emission of Fully Halogenated Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Refrigerants in Re frigeration and Air Conditioning Equipment and Applications. /ASH15/ Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration. Standard ASHRAE 15-2004. /BEN01/ Bennett M. Refrigerant Reclaim Australia. IIR Conference on Refrigerant Management and Destruction Technologies of CFCs, Dubrovnik, Croatia, Aug. 2001. /BU01/ D. Butrymowicz. Refrigeration and air conditioning sector in Poland. Communication during the Budapest TOC meeting, April 2001. /CAA05/ Final Rule Summary: Complying with the Section 608 Refrigerant Recycling Rule. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 6205-J, 20052010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 191 /Clo93/ D. Clodic and F. Sauer: Result of a test bench on the performances of refrigerant recovery and recycling equipment. ASHRAE Transactions. Denver. Annual Meeting. June 1993. /Clo94/ D. Clodic and F. Sauer for the French Association of Refrigeration (A.F.F.), Paris: The Refrigerant Recovery Book. 1994 ASHRAE Edition.(Vade-Mecum de la Récupération des CFC. 1993 PYC Edition). /Clo98/ D. Clodic. Zero Leaks. ASHRAE Edition. 1998. (Zéro Fuites. 1997 PYC Edition). /DES 92/ Ad-hoc Technical Advisory Committee on ODS Destruction Technologies. UNEP, May 1992. /DR94/ Order of the Minister of Housing, Spatia l Planning and Environment, on regulations on leak-free refrigeration equipment (1994 Order on leak-free refrigeration equipment). The Netherlands, June 1995. /EC00/ European Council (E.C.) Regulation no. 2037/00 of 29 June 2000 on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Official Journal of the European Communities no. L244.
/FD92/ French Decree no. 971271 of 7 December 1992, J.O. of 12 December 1992. /Hot94/ S. Hotani and N. Sawada: References about the decomposing CFCs by mean of an inductively-coupled radio-frequency plasma. /IEA02/ Refrigerant Management Programs: Refrigerant Recovery, Recycling and Reclamation. IEA Heat Pump Center. The Netherlands, April 2002. /ISO/ ISO 11650: Performance of Refrigerant Recovery and/or Recycling Equipment. /Kauf92/ Kauffman R.E. Chemical Analysis and Recycling of Used Refrigerant from Field Systems. ASHRAE Transactions 1992. /KMO98/ Evaluieringsrapport for perioden 15.4.92 till 31.12.97. 1998. /Manz 91/ K. MANZ: How to handle multiple refrigerants in recovery and recycling equipment. ASHRAE Journal. April 1991. /Miz94/ K. Mizuno: Technologies for destruction of ODS in Japan. UNEP Technology and Economic Panel on ODS destruction workshop. October 20-21, 1993, Washington D.C. /NIR/ National Institute for Resources and Environment AIST, MITI: Ò Development of CFCs destruction system using radio-frequency plasma. /RIN98/ F. Rinne : Substitution von R-22 in gewerblichen Kälteanlagen und Kühlmöbeln. XX FKW Seminar. Hannover, Germany, June 9, 1998. SAEJ 1990 Extraction and Recycle Equipment for Mobile Automotive Air Conditioning Systems. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA. SAEJ 1991 Standard of Purity for Use in Mobile Air Conditioning Systems. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA. /Sau 95/ Recovery and containment of refrigerants in France. IIF. The Hague. 1995. U.L. 1963 standard: Refrigerant Recovery/Recycling Equipm ent. Standard for Safety. Underwriters Laboratories Inc, Northbrook, IL. /UNE94/ Preliminary list of Manufacturers of Refrigera nt Recycling, Recovery and Reclaim Equipment. UNEP IE, 1994. /UNE94/ Recovery and Recycling. Case Studies. UNEP IE, June 1994. /UNE98/ Refrigerant Management Plan. UNEP, IE, 1998. /VAN98/ Van Gerwen R.J.M. 1998. Dutch Regulations for Reduction of Refrigerant Emissions: Experiences with a Unique Approach over the Period 1993-1998, ASERCOM Symposium, IKK, Nuremberg, October 1998. /VRO97/ Actie ‘Grote Koelinstallaties II’, Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting Ruimtelijke Ordening en Millieubeheer, Werkdocument 1997/345, November 1997.2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 192 

## Annex 1 – Authors, Co-a uthors and Contributors to the 2010 RTOC Report

Dr. Radhey S. AGARWAL Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Delhi, Senior Advisor and Co-ordinator Sector Phase out Plan Unit (SPPU) Ozone Cell, Core-4B, 2nd Floor India Habitat Centre, Lodhi Road New Delhi- 110 003 India Mobile : +91 981 136 1865Email: rsarwal@mech.iitd.ac.in, rsagarwal@sppuindia.org

Mr. Julius BANKS US EPA 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Mail Code: 6205J Washington DC 20460 USA e-mail: banks.julius@epa.gov

Mr. James M. CALM, P.E. Engineering Consultant 10887 Woodleaf Lane Great Falls, VA 22066-3003 USA Tel: +1 703 636 9500 E-mail: jmc@jamesmcalm.com

Dr. Radim Č ERMÁK Ingersoll Rand, IR Engineering and Technology Center Prague Florianova 2460 253 01 Hostivice Czech Republic Tel.: +420 257 109 597 Fax: +420 251 562 187 E-mail: radim_cermak@eu.irco.com

Prof. Guangming CHEN Institute of Refriger ation and Cryogenics Zhejiang University Hangzhou 310027, Zhejiang P.R. China Tel.: +86 571 8795 1680 Email: gmchen@zju.edu.cn Dr. Denis CLODIC Emeritus Research Director President of innov. company ERIE CEP Mines-ParisTech 5, Rue Léon Blum 91120 Palaiseau France Tel.: + 33 1 69 19 45 02 E-mail : denis.clodic@mines-ParisTech.fr

Dr. Daniel COLBOURNE PO Box 4745 Stratford-upon-Avon CV37 7DF United Kingdom Tel: +44 1789 268 285 E-mail: d.colbourne@ re-phridge.co.uk

Mr. James G. CRAWFORD (until his retirement) Trane Residential Systems The Trane Company / Ingersoll Rand 6200 Troup Highway Tyler, TX 95707 USA Tel.: +1 903 509-7273 Email: jaygeesea@gmail.com

Dr. Sukumar DEVOTTA T2/301 Skycity Vanagaram Ambattur Road Vanagaram Chennai 600095 India Tel.: +91 44 2653 0830 Email: sdevotta@gmail.com

Mr. Martin DIERYCKX Daikin Europe Zandvoordestraat 300 Oostende 8400 Belgium Tel: +32 59 55 86 14 e-mail: dieryckx.m@d aikineurope.com2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 193 Mr. Dennis DORMAN Director Compressor Technology and Development The Trane Company Ingersoll Rand 3600 Pammel Creek Road La Crosse, WI 54601 USA Tel.: +1- 608 787 2018 Email: ddorman@trane.com

Mr. Kenneth E. HICKMAN Building Efficiency Group Johnson Controls 631 S. Richland Ave. York, PA 17403 USA Tel.: 1- 717 771 7459 Email: kenneth.e.hickman@jci.com

Mr. William R. HILL Technical Specialist, Consultant MACRAE, LLC 809 Bridge Park Dr. Troy, MI 48098 USA E-mail: Hillmich50@aol.com

Mr. Martien JANSSEN Re/genT BV Lagedijk 22 5705BZ Helmond The Netherlands Tel.: +31 492 476365 E-mail: martien.janssen@re-gent.nl Web: www.re-gent.nl

Mr. Makoto KAIBARA Panasonic Corporation 2-3-1-1 Noji-higashi Kusatsu Shiga 525-8520 Japan Tel.: +81-77-561-3101 E-mail: kaibara.mak@ jp.panasonic.com

Prof. Dr. Michael KAUFFELD Institute of Re frigeration, Air Conditioning and Envi ronmental Engineering Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences Moltkestrasse 30 76133 Karlsruhe Germany Tel.: +49 721 925 1843 Fax: +49 721 925 1915 Email: michael.kauffel d@hs-karlsruhe.de Mr. Fred J. KELLER, PE FK Consulting 1095 Observatory Road Martinsville, IN 46151 USA Tel.: +1 317 834 9097 Email: fredjkeller@gmail.com

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen K Ő HLER Institut für Thermodynamik (IfT) Institute of Technology University of Braunschweig Hans-Sommer-Str. 5 38106 Braunschweig Germany Tel.: +49 531 391 2625 Website: www.ift.tu-bs.de E-mail: juergen.koehler@tu-bs.de

Dipl. Ing. Holger K Ő NIG CTO - UHTC United Heat Transfer Technology Center / a-heat AG Kemptener Strasse 99 88131 Lindau Germany Tel.: +49 8382 30446-55 Mobile: +49 175 520 4942 E-mail: holger.koenig@uhtc.com

Dr. Lambert KUIJPERS (co-chair RTOC) Eindhoven Cent er for Sustainability ECfS 

### Connector 1.15b Het Eeuwsel 6, PO Box 513 Technical University 5600MB Eindhoven The Netherlands Tel.: +31 40 247 44 63 E-mail: lambermp@planet.nl

Mr. Edward J. McINERNEY Retired Chief Engineer General Electric Consumer & Industrial 8012 Kendrick Crossing Lane Louisville, KY 40291 USA Tel.: +1 502 718 8653 E-mail: ejmcinerney@aol.com2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 194 Prof. Dr. Ing. Petter NEKSÅ SINTEF Energy Research Energy Processes P.O.Box 4761 Sluppen 7465 Trondheim Norway Mobile: +47 92 60 65 19 E-mail: Petter.Neksa@sintef.no

Mr. Horace NELSON 24 Arnold Road Kingston 4 Jamaica, W.I. Tel.: +1 876 328 6167 E-mail : horacen@msn.com

Dr. Roger NORDMAN IEA Heat Pump Centre SP Technical Research In stitute of Sweden 50115 Boras Sweden Tel.: +46 10 516 5544 E-mail: roger.nordman@sp.se

Mr. Alexander Cohr PACHAI Johnson Controls Denmark Christian D.X's Vej 201 8270 Hoejbjerg Denmark Tel.: office +45 87 36 70 00 Mob.: +45 29 22 71 59 E-mail.: alexander.c.pachai@jci.com

Dr. Andy PEARSON Star Refrigeration Ltd Glasgow G46 8JW United Kingdom Tel.: +44 141 638 7916 Email: apearson@star-ref.co.uk

Mr. Per Henrik PEDERSEN Danish Technological Institute Center for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Technology 2630 Taastrup Denmark Tel.: +45 72 20 25 13 E-mail: prp@dti.dk Prof. Dr. Roberto de Aguiar PEIXOTO (cochair RTOC) Maua Institute of Technology - IMT Department of Mechanical Eng. Praça Mauá 01 Sao Caetano do Sul Sao Paulo - 09580-900 Brazil Tel.: 55-11- 4239 3021 e-mail: robertopeixoto@maua.br

Dr. Sulkhan SULADZE Representative Georgia RAC Association 30 Bldg.17 0165 Tbilisi Georgia Mobile: +995 99 231 832 E-mail: gra@post.ge

Mr. Paulo VODIANITSKAIA HAPI Consultancy Rua João Colin, 1285 s.3 89204-001 Joinville SC Brazil Tel.: +55 47 34 22 15 02 paulo@hapiconsult.com.br


## Co-authors (non RTOC)

Mr. Glenn C. HOURAHAN, P.E. (chapter 2) Senior Vice President Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA) 2800 Shirlington Road, Suite 300 Arlington, VA 22206 USA Tel.: +1 703 824 8865 E-mail: glenn.hourahan@acca.org, glenn@hourahan.com


## Contributors (non RTOC)

Mr. Gerald CAVALIER (chapter 6) Cemafroid Parc de Tourvoie, BP 134 92185 Antony cedex France Phone: +33 1 40 96 65 06 Fax: +33 1 40 96 65 05 E-mail: gerald.cavalier@cemafroid.fr2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

### 195 Dr. Mark O. McLINDEN (chapter 2) Chemical Engineer Physical and Chemical Properties Division National Institute of St andards and Technology (NIST) U.S. Department of Commerce 325 Broadway, Mail Stop 838.07 Boulder, CO 80303-3328 USA Tel.: +1 303 497 3580 E-mail: mark.mclinden@nist.gov

Dr.-Ing. Yves WILD (chapter 6) Dr.-Ing. Yves Wild Ingenieurbuero GmbH Elbchaussee 1 228765 Hamburg Germany Phone: +49 40 390 70 65 Fax: 49 40 390 24 75 E-mail: YWild@DrWild.de

Prof. Dr. Ruhe XIE (chapter 6) Research Center for Logistics and Transportation Guangzhou University 230 Waihuanxilu Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, 510006 P. R. China Tel.: +86 20 39366819 

### Fax: +86 20 39366819 E-mail: ruhe_xie@yahoo.com; rhxie@gazhu.edu.cnPage 

### 1

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

## Annex 2: - Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldwide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emission s. The 1990 to 2006 updating.

ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147 – December 2009

Table of Contents
1. GLOBAL RESULTS: REFRIGERANT DEMANDS, BANKS, AND EMISSIONS..................3

1.1 G LOBAL DEMAND OF REFRIGERANTS IN YEAR 2006 ..............

............ ............ ............. ............ .........3 1.1.1 Global refrigerant demand by refrig erant types..........

............ ............ ............. ............ .........3 1.1.2 Refrigerant demand by application sector and by coun try...........

.............. .......... .......... .......5 1.2 R EFRIGERANT BANKS , BY APPLICATION SECTOR AND BY COUNTRY ................................................6 1.3 R EFRIGERANT EMISSIONS , BY APPLICATION SECTOR AND BY COUNTRY ...........................................8 1.4 R EFRIGERANT CO 2 EQUIVALENT EMISSIONS , BY APPLICATION SECTOR AND BY COUNTRY ............10 1.5 R EFRIGERANT RECOVERY ..............................................................................................................12 1.6 D ATA QUALITY AND DATA CONSISTENCY ......................................................................................12
2. METHOD OF CALCULATION, DATA AND DATABASES .......................................................17

2.1 R EFRIGERANT I NVENTORY METHODS AND EMISSIONS CALCULATION FOR THE REFRIGERATION
INDUSTRY

............................................................................................................................... .......17 2.2 R EFRIGERANTS AND REGULATIONS ...............................................................................................26 2.3 R EFRIGERANT GWP S FROM THE IPCC S ECOND AND THE T HIRD A SSESSMENT R EPORTS ..............28 2.4 C ONSISTENCY AND IMPROVEMENT OF DATA QUALITY ...................................................................30 R EFERENCES

............................................................................................................................... ...............33

APPENDIX 1..................................................................................................................... ...........................34Page 

### 3

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

## 1. Global results: refrigerant demands, banks, and emissions

1.1 Global demand of refrigerants in year 2006

The quality control of refrigeran t bank and emissions is made by comparing the annual refrigerant demand calculated by RIEP and the annual refrigerant sales declared by manufacturers (AFEAS). This comparison is made refr igerant by refrigeran t and is presented in Section 2.6.

Note: the RIEP method derives, application by application, the refrigerant needs, i.e. the refrigerants charged in new equipment and the refrigerants charged for re-filling existing equipment. These refrigerant needs are called demand.

Once the refrigerant demand has been calculated, it is cross-checked with refrigerant sales data as declared by refrigerant manufacturers and distribu tors. In many countries the refrigerant quantities sold are monitored; the refrigerant distributors an d manufacturers publish their annual sales of CFCs, HCFCs, and sometimes HFC refrigerants. At the global level, AFEAS (A lternative Fl uorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study) publishes every year th e quantities of refriger ants (by type) sold by the chemical manufacturers in developed countries. Those data have been used in the past to forecast global emissions of CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs.

It has to be underlined once again that 2009 is the last year of published data by AFEAS and so, from now on, no public data will be av ailable for global markets of re frigerants detaile d by refrigerant types.

1.1.1 Global refrigerant demand by refrigerant types

The calculation-module linke d with the RIEP databa se allows merging refr igerant quantities by type as well as by application; data are presented for year 2006 in Table 2-1.

This report presents one major change compared to the 2003 report, because of a previous overestimate of Chinese commercial refrigeration based on the references that were used (marketing reports). The consequence is that the CFC-12 demand is reduced by a factor 2 in 2006 compared to that calculated in the 2003 report.Page 

### 4

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Table and Figure 1-1 - Global refrigerants demand from 1990 to 2006 (in tonnes) Refrigerant demand (t) in 2006
R-11 6 331 R-12 20 328 CFC R-502 5 579

R-22 376 992 R-408A 3 443 R-401A 772 HCFC

R-123 6 295

R-134a 135 569 R-404A 28 279 R-407C 24 607 R-410A 28 922 R-507 3 986 HFC

R-413A 143

R-717 26 194 Others R-600a 2 869

Total All 670 309 Total Demand

0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000 500 000 600 000 700 000

1990 1 992 1994 1996 199 8 2000 2 002 200 4 2006tonnes CFC HCFC HFC Others

Table 1-1 and Figure 1-1 summarise the essential developments from 1990 to 2006. The total refrigerant demand for all refrigerant types has increased from 345,000 tonnes in 1990 to nearly 670,000 tonnes in 2006, which represents an increase of nearly 100%. This emphasises the impact of the economic growth of fast developing countries on the total, with a sp ecial mention to China.

Globally the annual CFC refrigerant demand has decreased from 150,000 tonnes in 1990 to 32,000 tonnes in 2006. The 2006 CFC demand represents about 5% of the total refrigerant demand.

The annual HCFC demand has increased from 174,000 to 387,000 tonnes in 2006 (around 58% of the total demand) and the HFC demand th at was negligible in 1990 has ra ised to about 221,000 tonnes in 2006 (33% of th e total demand).

The annual ammonia demand has increased from 22,000 to 26,000 tonnes in 2006, and the HC demand, which was nil in 1990 , is in the range of 2,800 tonnes in th e year 2006.Page 

### 5

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 1.1.2 Refrigerant demand by application sector and by country

Figures 1-2 and 1-3 present the re frigerant demands, including HC s and ammonia split by application and for the main countries or country groups.

Demand repartition in 2006

Air to air AC

46% Chillers

7% Mobile AC 17% Domestic 2%
Commercial 18%

Transport

1%

Industry

9% Total refrigerant demand

0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000 500 000 600 000 700 000199019921994199619982000200220042006

yeartonnes West and Central Asia South and East Asia Other Europe

Oceania

Latin America and The Carribean EU 27

Africa

USA

Japan

India

China

Canada

Brazil Figure 1-2 – Refrigerant demand split by application

. Figure 1-3 - Refrigerant demand split by country and country groups.

Figures 1-4 and 1-5 present HFC demands split by application and by countries.

HFC demand repartition in 2006

Industry 2% Transport

2% Commercial

14% Domestic

6%

Mobile AC

46%

Chillers 8% Air to air AC 22% HFC demand

0 50 000 100 000 150 000 200 000 250 000199019921994199619982000200220042006

yeartonnes West and Central Asia South and East Asia Other Europe

Oceania

Latin America and The Carribean EU 27

Africa

USA

Japan

India

China

Canada

Brazil Figure 1-4 – HFC demand split by application. Figure 1-5 - HFC demand split by country and country
groups.
Figure 1.2 indicates that when all refrigerants are accounted for, the dominant sectors are commercial refrigeration and stationary air co nditioning. For HFC demand, the do minant sector is MAC with 46 % of the HFC demand.

The refrigerant demand in the U.S. is still the domin ant one even if the Chin ese growth is the main driver of the total refrigerant demand.

EU 25 needs for HFCs are around 40,000 t in 2003. In the U.S., because of the R-134a demand for the MAC sector, the needs are higher: 69,000 tonnes.Page 

### 6

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### 1.2 Refrigerant banks, by applic ation sector and by country

The calculation of re frigerant banks requir es the determination of all in stalled bases and fleets of equipment for their comple te lifetime. Banks of refrigerants vary substantially in sizes and in refrigerant types depending on the application sector and the country.

In 2006, the sum of all banks of a ll refrigerant types (see Figure 1-2) is calculated at 2,815,000 tonnes. The global bank is roughly equal to 4.5 times the annual demand. The refrigerant banks and the annual refrigerant demands follow the same trends:

 the size of the CFC bank is decreasing but, it still represen ts around 230,000 tonnes, which is about 8% of the total re frigerant bank in 2006

 HCFCs represent 1,645,000 tonnes, which equals about 58% of the total bank

 HFCs represent slightly less than 821,000 tonnes, which is around 29% of the total bank

 whereas the remaining 4% of the bank consists of ammonia and HCs.

Table 1-2 – Global refrigerant banks (t) Refrigerant bank (t) in 2006
R-11 36 611 R-12 173 895 CFC
R-502 17 313

R-22 1 585 777 R-408A 10 592 R-401A 3 794 HCFC

R-123 45 923

R-134a 576 793 R-404A 69 354 R-407C 71 498 R-410A 93 602 R-507 8 142 HFC

R-413A 1 979

R-717 109 793 Others R-600a 10 325 

### TOTAL ALL 2 815 391 Bank

0 500 000 1 000 000 1 500 000 2 000 000 2 500 000 3 000 000

1 990 1 992 1 994 1 996 1 99

8 2 000 2 002 2 004 2 006tonnes CFC HCFC HFC Autres

The total refrigerant bank increased by 120% for the period from 1990 to 2006.

Figures 1-6 and 1-7 present the re frigerant banks, including HCs an d ammonia, split by application and for the main countries or country groups.

Comparing Figure 1-6, which represents the global refrigerant bank by sector and Figure 1-8, which represents the HFC bank also by sector, it is obvious that the very different schedule of refrigerant changes per application leads to strong differences in the domination of one sector over the others. The emphasis made on mobile air-conditioning (MAC ) systems for example is related to the rapid phase out of CFC-12 in this sector as of 1992, wh ich consequently leads to a significant market share of MAC for HFCs. In fact, taking into account all refrigerants, the dominant sectors are stationary air conditioning and then commercial refrigeration. Th ose two sectors represent about 70% of the total use of refrigerants.Page 

### 7

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Bank repartition in 2006

Industry 9% Transport

1% Commercial

12% Domestic

6% Mobile AC

15%

Chillers

9%

Air to air AC 48% Total refrigerant bank

0 500 000 1 000 000 1 500 000 2 000 000 2 500 000 3 000 000199019921994199619982000200220042006

yeartonnes West and Central Asia South and East Asia Other Europe

Oceania

Latin America and The Carribean EU 27

Africa

USA

Japan

India

China

Canada

Brazil Figure 1-6 – Refrigerant bank in 2006 split by sector Figure 1-7 - Refr igerant bank - split by country.

Figures 1-8 and 1-9 present HFC demand s split by application and countries.

HFC bank repartition in 2006

Air to air AC 19%

Chillers

9% Mobile AC

47% Domestic 11%

Commercial 9%

Transport

1% Industry

4% HFC bank

0 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000 500 000 600 000 700 000 800 000 900 000199019921994199619982000200220042006

yeartonnes West and Central Asia South and East Asia Other Europe

Oceania

Latin America and The Carribean EU 27

Africa

USA

Japan

India

China

Canada

Brazil
Figure 1-8 – HFC bank in 2006, split by sector . Figure 1-9 - HFC bank - split by country.

57% of the total amount of refrig erants is banked in stationary air-conditioning equipment including chillers (9%) (see Figure 1-6). This confirms the trends observed on the an nual refrigerant demand.

Due to the rapid change from CFCs to HFCs, MAC systems (which contain only 15% of the total refrigerant bank) represent 47% of the total HFC refrigerant bank (see Figures 1-8 and 1-9). This important observation indicates the main future trends when the HCFC phase-out has to be accomplished. The HCFC bank is currently the largest bank and 78% (chillers included) of it is contained in stationary air-conditioning systems.Page 

### 8

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### 1.3 Refrigerant emissions, by a pplication sector and by country

Based on the bottom-up approach, taking into account all refrigerant types in all refrigerating and airconditioning systems, it is possible to derive the re frigerant emission s for all refrigera nt types for the period from 1990 to 2000.

Table 1-3 – Refrigerant emissions of all refrigerant types (tonnes) Refrigerant emissions in 2006 (t)
R -11 6 958 R -12 35 195 CFC

R -502 5 430

R -22 233 686 R -408A 3 172 R -401A 958 HCFC

R -123 3 983

R -134a 82 825 R -404A 14 663 R -407C 7 074 R -410A 7 918 R -507 2 271 HFC

R -413A 616

R -717 19 562 Others R -600a 231

TOTAL All 424 542 Total emissions

0 50 000 100 000 150 000 200 000 250 000 300 000 350 000 400 000 450 000

1990 1992 1994 1996 1 998 2 000 2002 2004 2006tonnes CFC HCFC HFC Others

Table 1-3 presents the development of emissions of all refrigerant types from 250,000 tonnes in 1990 to 425,000 tonnes in 2006:

 CFC emissions reach a maximum value in 1995 at 120,000 tonnes, and decrease to 47,000 in 2006 due to their phase out,

 HCFC emissions increase from 156,000 tonnes to 242,000 tonnes, and

 HFC emissions increase from zero to around 115,000 tonnes. Yet, the sum of the CFC and HCFC emissions equals two third (68%) of all refrigerant emissions.

Note : the management of refrigerant containers that are used every year both for charging new equipment and for servicing of the installed base implies the release to the atmo sphere of de minimis quantities; the vapour heel that repr esents about 3% of th e refrigerant charge, an d often the liquid heel representing between 5 and 8%. For those inventories, the refrigerant heels are considered of 10% of the annual sales. Those emissions are not taken into account in the refrigerant emission figures related to refriger ation and air-conditioning equipment.

Table 1-4 Emissions due to large containers heels (tonnes)

2006 Domestic Commercial Transport Industry Air-to-Air AC Chillers Mobile AC TOTAL CFC 129 817 21 484 1 784 568 2 803 HCFC - 6 766 213 2 206 22 384 1 728 398 33 696 HFC 1 065 2 653 379 409 4 324 1 637 8 794 19 261 Others 249 71 - 2 184 - 29 - 2 534 Total 1 444 10 306 613 5 283 26 709 4 179 9 760 58 294

Figures 1-10 and 1-11 present th e refrigerant emission s, including HCs and ammonia, split by application and for the main countries or country groups.Page 

### 9

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Emissions repartition in 2006

Industry 11% Transport

1% Commercial

20% Domestic

2% Mobile AC

21%

Chillers

7%

Air to air AC 38% Total refrigerant emissions

0 50 000 100 000 150 000 200 000 250 000 300 000 350 000 400 000 450 000199019921994199619982000200220042006

yeartonnes West and Central Asia South and East Asia Other Europe

Oceania

Latin America and The Carribean EU 27

Africa

USA

Japan

India

China

Canada

Brazil Figure 1-10 – Refrigerant emissions in 2006, split by sector. Figure 1-11 – Refrigerant emissions - split by country.

Figures 1-12 and 1-13 present HFC emissions split by application and for the main countries or country groups.

HFC emissions repartition in 2006

Air to air AC 13%

Chillers

6% Mobile AC

61% Domestic 2% Commercial 14% Transport 2% Industry

2% HFC emissions

0 20 000 40 000 60 000 80 000 100 000 120 000 140 000199019921994199619982000200220042006

yeartonnes West and Central Asia South and East Asia Other Europe

Oceania

Latin America and The Carribean EU 27

Africa

USA

Japan

India

China

Canada

Brazil Figure 1-12 – HFC emissions in 2006, split by
sector. Figure 1-13 – HFC emissions - split by country.

Taking into account all refrigerant emissions (independently of the refrigerant type), 38% come from air-conditioning systems excluding chillers, 20% of emissions come from comm ercial refrigeration, and 21% from MAC systems. However, when on ly looking at HFC emissions, the MAC sector represents 61% of HFC emissions. This fact is related to the rapid shift from CFC-12 to HFC-134a, and to the relatively high emission factor, taking into account losses at serv icing that apply to MAC equipment.

Commercial refrigeration is also a significant source of emissions characterised by more than 20% of the total refrigerant emissions. Emission rates are three times higher in co mmercial refrigeration than they are in stationary AC.

Domestic refrigeration, which actually is the sector with the larges t number of equipment, is not a significant contributor to refrigeran t emissions due to the small refrige rant charges and the low level of emissions.

Transportation, even though characterised by a very high emission factor, is a small global contributor due to the relatively small number of equipment.Page 

### 10

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### 1.4 Refrigerant CO 2 

### equivalent emissions, by app lication sector and by country

The CO 2 equivalent emission calculations are base d on GWP values published in the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC.

Table 1-5 Refrigerant CO 2 equivalent emissions of all refrigerant types (tonnes) CO 2 equiv. emissions (t) 2nd Assessment Report

R-11 26 440 153 R-12 285 086 629 CFC

R-502 29 834 731

R-22 350 532 642 R-408A 8 402 783 R-401A 932 246 HCFC

R-123 358 515

R-134a 107 673 924 R-404A 47 802 130 R-407C 10 794 708 R-410A 13 699 040 R-507 7 495 122 HFC

R-413A 1 170 362

R-717 0 Others R-600a 4 617

TOTAL All 890 227 602 CO2 Eq. Emissions

0 200 400 600 800 1 000 1 200

1990 1992 1994 19 96 1998 2 000 2002 200 4 2006.10e6 tonnes CFC HCFC HFC Others

In 2006, the main contributor to global warming is HCFC-22 (39%). CFC-12 represents still 32% of the total contribution of all refrige rants to global warming in the year 2003, whereas the emissions of CFC-12 are only 8% of the total refrigerant emissions in 2006.
HFCs, accounting for 27% of the total refrigerant emissions, co ntribute to only 21% of the CO 2 equivalent emissions of refrigerants in the year 2006 because of the relatively low GWP of HFC-134a.

Figures 1-14 and 1-15 present CO 2 equivalent emissions for all refrig erants split by application and for the main countries or country groups.

CO2 eq. emissions repartition in 2006

Air to air AC

27% Chillers

8% Mobile AC

23% Domestic 8%

Commercial 25%

Transport

1%

Industry

8% Total refrigerant CO2 eq. emissions

0 200 400 600 800 1 000 1 200 1 400199019921994199619982000200220042006

year(x1e6) tonnes West and Central Asia South and East Asia Other Europe

Oceania

Latin America and The Carribean EU 27

Africa

USA

Japan

India

China

Canada

Brazil Figure 1-14 Refrigerant CO 2 equiv. emissions in 2006, split by sector. Figure 1-15 Refrigerant CO 2 equiv. Emissions - split by country.Page 

### 11

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Figures 1-16 and 1-17 present CO 2 equivalent emissions for HF C refrigerants only, split by application and for the main countries or country groups.

HFC CO2 eq. emissions repartition in 2006

Industry

3% Transport

2% Commercial

27% Domestic

1%

Mobile AC

50%

Chillers 5% Air to air AC 12% HFC CO2 eq. emissions

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200199019921994199619982000200220042006

year(x1e6) tonnes West and Central Asia South and East Asia Other Europe

Oceania

Latin America and The Carribean EU 27

Africa

USA

Japan

India

China

Canada

Brazil Figure 1-16 – HFC refrigerants, CO 2 equiv. emissions in 2006, split by sector. Figure 1-17 HFC refrigerants, CO 2 equiv. emissions - split by country.

27% of the total CO 2 equivalent emissions come from commerci al refrigeration equi pment, taking into account all types of refrigerants.

For low temperature applications in commercial refrigeration, the (future) replacement of HCFC-22 by R-404A implies that CO 2 equivalent emissions will signifi cantly increase in this sector. This is due to the high GWP of R-404A (2 .2 times higher than the GWP of HCFC-22).Page 

### 12

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### 1.5 Refrigerant recovery

Table 1-6 Recovered refrigerants (tonnes) Refrigerant recovery (t)
R-11 851 R-12 1 040 CFC

R-502 146

R-22 25 139 R-408A 712 R-401A 219 HCFC

R-123 657

R-134a 2 704 R-404A 526 R-407C 0 R-410A 0 HFC

R-507 0

R-717 1 625 Others R-600a 0

Total All 33,619 Recovery

0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000 35 000 40 000199019921994199619982000200220042006Metric tonnes CFC HCFC HFC Others

All quantities of recovered refrigeran ts calculated are direc tly linked to the assu mptions made on an application-by-application basis and for country groups. Very few da ta are available on the quantity that is effectively recovered. Moreover, and in particular for CFC-12, the recovered refrigerant can be directly re-used in other equipment without being transferre d back to the refrigerant reclaim sector. A high level of uncertainty exists he re; if real circumstances are different from the assumptions made for calculations, part of the quantity assume d to be recovered co uld well be emitted.



### 1.6 Data quality and data consistency

In this report we have taken tw o complementary approaches, the fi rst one assesses the quality of activity data and emissions factors, the second compare the consistency of refrigerant demand as derived for each type of refrigerant and for all applic ation by RIEP compared to the refrigerant sales as declared at the global level by AFEAS.



### 1.6.1 Uncertainties

Depending on the app lication sector, uncertainties are differen t either because activity data include different uncertainties or because emission factors may vary significantly from one country to the other.

We have taken a simple ap proach that gives a quality index expr essed in percentage s. For activity data: the market, the refrigerant charge, and the equipment lifetime are the main elements that define the data quality. For emission fact ors: fugitive emissi ons and recovery efficiency at end of life are the two key parameters.

Uncertainties on input parameters are based on expe rt judgements of the different sectors. These values are given in Table 1-7.Page 

### 13

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Table 1-7 Uncertainties on input parameters Uncertainties on input MAC SAC IND TRA COM DOM Equipment market (a) 2.50% 2.50% 10% 12.50% 7.50% 2.50% Equipment lifetime (b) 7.50% 2.50% 7.50% 2.50% 7.50% 12.50% Equipment average charge (c) 2.50% 12.50% 10% 7.50% 7.50% 2.50% Emission rate (d) 10.00% 7.50% 10% 7.50% 10% 12.50% Recovery efficiency (e) 10.00% 7.50% 12.50% 7.50% 12.50% 2.50%

The calculation of the lower and upper thresholds for uncertainties is based on simplified equations presented in Table 1-8. It assumes that un certainties do not change throughout the years.

Table 1-8 Calculation of lower and upper thresholds for banks and emissions Results Minimum threshold Maximum threshold Bank 1- (a + b + c) 1+ (a + b + c) EOL 1 –( a + c + e) 1 +( a + c + e) Fugitive 1- (a + b + c + d) 1+ (a + b + c + d) Total emissions (Minimum EOL +Fug)/(EOL +Fug) (Maximum EOL +Fug)/(EOL +Fug)

Based on those thresholds it is po ssible to evaluate th e uncertainties on banks (activity data) and emissions. Table 1-9 Uncertainties on results BANKS EMISSIONS MAC 12.5% 21.2% SAC 17.5% 24.4% IND 27.5% 37.1% TRA 22.5% 29.7% COM 22.5% 32.0% DOM 17.5% 12.8% GLOBAL 18.2% 26.6%



### 1.6.2 Comparison between re frigerant demands (RIEP calc ulations) and refrigerant markets (declared by AFEAS)

Annual refrigerant sales have been published by AFEAS since 1990. RIEP allows the calculation of the annual demand of refrigerants including the refrigerant charged into new equipment and refrigerants sold for servicing.

AFEAS publishes data only when th e cumulative sales are larger than 5,000 tonnes, and therefore data are not available for some components of new HFC blends, such as HFC-125, and HFC-32. Consumptions of all non-Article 5 countries are traced, and also of some Article 5 countries: Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Venezuela.

The comparison of AFEAS data (declared sales) and RIEP evaluation of the refrigerant demand allows crosschecking the consistency of the cal culation method at the global level.Page 

### 14

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### ♦ CFC demand

Before 1995 the demand is lower than the sales. After the phase-out date of the CFC production, the sales declared by AFEAS decrease rapidly to nearly a zero value in 2000, but the demand still exists during this period. This difference can be explained by a stock-piling effect (e nd-users buy refrigerant when allowed in order to maintain the CFC-11 chillers after the phase-out date).

The cumulative difference between AFEAS (116,000 t) data and refrigerant CFC-11 need asderived by RIEP (203,000 t) indicates that the CFC11 has been produced by manufacturers of A5 countries not reportin g to AFEAS and the cumulative demand. CFC-11

0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000

1 990 19 92 199 4 1996 199 8 2000 2002 2004 2006 Riep
AFEAS

Figure 1-18 – Comparison of CFC-11 demand between AFEAS sales and RIEP calculatio ns

When comparing the sales as declared by AFEAS and the demand as calculated by RIEP, the stock-piling ef fect from 1990 to 1995 seems obvious. When making the sum of the CFC-12 sold from 1990 to 2006 and the demand as derived also for the same period, RIEP leads to 1,236,000 t and AFEAS leads to 1,069,000 t (1990 to 2003), leading to a negligible difference on those 13 years. This seems to confirm that sales and usages are disconnected when regu lation forbids the sales of refrigerant and tole rates the operation of refrigerating systems after the end of refrigerant commercialisation. CFC-12

0 20 000 40 000 60 000 80 000 100 000 120 000 140 000 160 000 180 000 200 000

1990 1992 199 4 1996 1998 2000 20 02 2004 2006 Riep
AFEAS

Figure 1-19 Comparison of CFC-12 demand between AFEAS sales and RIEP.
CFC-115 is one of the two components of R502.

The cumulated demand between 1990 and 2006 is 82,000 t, comp ared to the cumulated demand of 75,000 t.

Considering a stock-pilin g effect beginning in 1989, the difference of cumulated demand and demand is very low. R-115

0 2 000 4 000 6 000 8 000 10 000 12 000 14 000

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2 002 2004 2 006 Riep
AFEAS

Figure 1-20 Comparison of CFC-115 demand between AFEAS data and RIEP calculations

.Page 

### 15

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 ♦ 

### HCFC demand
The comparison between the HCFC-22 demand and the HCFC-22 sales by manufacturers reporting to AFEAS shows clearly the impact of HCFC-22 production in developing countries. It is certainly a reason why AFEAS has stopped at the end of 2009 to make this reporti ng for HCFC-22. It appears that more of it is produced out of AFEAS manufacturers.

The cumulative production as reported by AFEAS from 1990 to 2006 is of 3,245,000 tonnes, and the cumulative needs calculated by RIEP are of 4,600,000 tonnes. HCFC-22

0 50 000 100 000 150 000 200 000 250 000 300 000 350 000 400 000 450 000

1 990 1 992 1 9 94 1 99

6 1 998 2 000 2002 2 004 2 006 Riep
AFEAS

Figure 1-21 –– Comparison of HCFC-22 demand

between AFEAS data and RIEP calculations



### ♦ HFC demand
The HFC-134a demand calculated by RIEP is very closed to the declarations of sales.

The growth rate is si milar and the cumulated values from 1990 to 20 06 are quite the same: 1,181,000 tonnes for the total sales (RIEP) and 991,000 tonnes for the cumulated demand (AFEAS), which is still a difference of about 15%. One of the main issues is to verify if the emission rates of MAC systems have been effectively decreasing as modelled in RIEP since 2000. HFC-134a

0 20 000 40 000 60 000 80 000 100 000 120 000 140 000 160 000

199

0 1

99

2 19 9 4 19 9 6 1998 200 0 2

00

2 2 00

4 20 0 6 Riep
AFEAS

Figure 1-22 Comparison of HFC-134a demand

between AFEAS data and RIEP calculations

HFC-125

0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000 35 000 40 000

1 9 90 1992 1994 19 9 6 1998 2 0 0 0 2 0 02 2 0 04 2006 Riep
AFEAS

Figure 1-23 Comparison of HFC-125 demand between AFEAS data and RIEP calculations HFC-125 is used in refrigerant blends such as R404A, R-507, R-410A, and R-407C.

The trend is the same between sales as reported by AFEAS and the demand as calculated by RIEP. It can be noticed that even if AFEAS data were missing in 2003, the RI EP derivation leads to similar evaluation of HFC-125 needs in 2006. These results confirm that the assumptions for refrigerant changes are good and that HFC-125 is manufactured only AFEAS manufacturers.Page 

### 16

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 HFC-143a

0 2 000 4 000 6 000 8 000 10 000 12 000 14 000 16 000 18 000 20 000

1 9 90 1 9 92 1 9 94 1 9 96 1998 2000 2002 2004 200 6 Riep
AFEAS

Figure 1-24 Comparison of HFC-143a demand

between AFEAS data and RIEP calculations HFC-143a is used in refrigerant blends (R-404A, and R-507) for low-temperature applications, in commerc ial refrigeration, and mainly in Europe.

The trend is the same between sales, as reported by AFEAS, and the demand as calculated by RIEP. So lessons from the comparison are identical to those drawn for HFC-125.



### ♦ Total demand

The trend as shown by RIEP indicates the dominance of HCFC-22 sales, which makes the difference between AFEAS data and RIEP calculations since 1998. As shown in the previous charts analysing sales and demand refrigerant by re frigerant, the on ly significant difference between AFEAS data and RIEP calculation is related to HCFC-22.

Figure 1-25 – Comparison between AFEAS sale data and RIEP calculated refrigerant needs

TOTAL

- 100 000 200 000 300 000 400 000 500 000 600 000 700 000

1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 total RIEP AFEASPage 

### 17

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

## 2. Method of calculation, data and databases

2.1 Refrigerant Inventory methods and emis sions calculation for the refrigeration industry

UNFCCC collects every year from sign atory countries their national inve ntories of greenhouse gases. Three methods, Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 are proposed by the IPCC guidelines to help countries making their inventories. The re frigeration and air-co nditioning industry emissions are either inventoried by sales of re frigerants or by sales of all refrigeration and ai r-conditioning equipment.

The six main sectors for the refrigeration and air conditioning (RAC) are:

- Domestic refrigeration

- Commercial refrigeration (centralised systems, condensing groups, and standalone equipment)

- Industrial and food processes

- Transport refrigeration

- Stationary air conditioning

- Mobile air conditioning.

This section presents the methodologies proposed by the IPCC guidelines fo r the estimation of GHG emissions. The RIEP model developed by the CEP is a “bottom-up” approach based on the Tier2a methodology. Some improvements have been introduced in this 2006 inventory report.



### The Tier 2 IPCC method

The 1996 IPCC Guidelines provide step-by-step in structions for establis hing national greenhouse gases inventories: “dir ections for assembling, documenting, and transmitting completed national inventory data consistently”.

Two calculation methods we re developed for the estimation of emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases and their substitutes for the refrigeration and air-conditioning s ectors, the Tier 1 and Tier 2 methods. The Tier 3 method relies on actual mon itoring and measurement of emissions from point sources and is not used in the refrigeration since the sources are diffuse [IPC06].

RIEP being based on the TIER 2 and its improvemen ts, the Tier 2 methodology needs to be presented
per se . This method calculates the actual emissions for each individual chemical in a given year on an application basis. It takes into consideration that there might be a considerable delay between the time where the fluid is produced and charged in equipm ent, and the time where it is released into the atmosphere.

First, it estimates the consumption of each individual chemical, at an application basis level, in order to establish the global volume from which emission s originate. An application might use several chemicals; typically in refr igeration, blends of refrigerants are us ed in several applic ations. They have to be inventoried co mponent by component for UNFCCC reporting. This method might be implemented in two differ ent ways: the “bottom-up” approach (application based) or the “top-down” approach (national consumption derived).

In a “bottom-up” approach, one evaluates the consumption of a certain refrigerant based on the number of equipment in which the fluid is charged, e.g. refrigerators, st ationary air- conditioning equipment, and so on. It requires the establishment of an inventory of the number of equipment charged with inventoried substances, and the knowledge of their average lifetime, their emission rates, recycling, disposal, and other parameters. Annual emissions are then estimated as functions of these parameters during the equipment lifetime.Page 

### 18

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 A “top-down” approach estimates emissions for a given year on the basis of the national consumption of chemicals: it disaggregates chemical consumption data into sectors using distribution factors and then applies time-dependent emission factors. The access to such data might be very difficult due to confidentiality issues. A lthough in some cases pr oducers might report to their government the quantity of a certain fluid sold into a specific sector, in other cases, when the chemical is sold by many distributors before reaching its application, it might be difficult to collect the corresponding needed data [IPC00]. In such cases, estimating of distribution factors is based on expert judgements.

In the IPCC 2006 guidelines, the mass-balance and the emission-factor approaches were introduced. The Tier 1 method addresses the total refrigeration and air-conditio ning sector; the Tier 2 method requires information for each type of equipment in the six application sectors defined above.

For the mass-balance approach, emissions are calculated as follows:

( 2.1 )

The limitation on th e application of Equation (2 .1) to MAC systems will be explored in the next paragraphs.

Refrigerant emissions from refrigeration and air-co nditioning systems occur at three main levels: emissions during the charging process, emissi ons from the existing bank, and emissions at the equipment disposal.

The emission-factor approach adds the emissions related to the management of containers E containers,t to those cited above, and equations for th is approach are provided below.

The total emissions of a given refrigerant in year t E total, t are given by Equation (2.2)

(2.2)

Where,

E

containers,t Emissions related to the management of refrigerant containers E

charge,t Emissions occurring during the charging process of the new equipment E lifetime,t Emissions occurring during the equipment lifetime E

end-of-life,t Emissions occurring at equipment disposal


### Emissions related to the manageme nt of refrigerant containers

Emissions at the fluid manufacturing stage occur from the feedstock materials in chemical processing plants. The good design and operation of the plant l ead to relatively low emissions [IPC05]. These emissions are not counted within the methods under discussion.

Once manufactured, fluids are loaded in large containers, or in individual cylinders. They are therefore delivered to product manufacturers in bulk quantitie s or into smaller containers. Emissions can occur at this level of fluid handling: splitting the bulk refrigerant from la rge containers into smaller volumes of refrigerant. Capacity heels are also considered as a main loss during the refrigerant handling. The “heels” consist of both the liquid and vapour inside the container, which cannot be extracted due to the pressure equilibrium between th e vapour (the vapour heel) and the liquid phase remaining in the refrig erant volume (the liquid heel).Page 

### 19

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Emissions related to the management of containers are considered between 2 and 10% of the total refrigerant market [IPC06].

(2.3)

Where,

RM t The refrigerant market for new equipment and servicing in year t

c The emission factor of the management of refrigerant containers expressed in percentage



### Emissions occurring when charging new equipment

At this stage, emissions occur when the refrigerant containers are connected to or disconnected fromthe equipment being charged. These emissions are usually higher for field-assembled and fieldcharged equipment than for the factory-produced ones. For example, these emissions include those taking place when hoses and valves are being connected or disconnected [CLO05].

All systems charged in a country in a given year t, including those that are exported are taken into account for the calculation of E charge,t as shown in Equation (2.4). Systems being imported are not considered [CLO05].

(2.4)

Where,

M

t The amount of refrigerant charged into new equipment in year t k The emission factor occurring during assembly expressed in percentage; it ranges between 2 and 5%.


### Emissions occurring during the equipment lifetime

For most applications, the largest emissions take place particularly during the in-use stage and depend on the application type. For example, domestic refrigerators show very low emission rates during their lifetime, due to their herm etically sealed technology, whereas centralised systems in the commercial refrigeration se ctor experience the hi ghest annual emission rates, up to 30% of their initial charge. These emissions generally originate from l eakage of fittings, joints, and seals but also from ruptures of pipes and from the refrigerant handling duri ng servicing operations . These rates vary among applications and countrie s depending on the technology, operati ng conditions, and the servicing quality. These emission s are calculated as shown in Equation (2.5) and include those occurring during servicing.

(2.5)

Where,

B t The bank of refrigerant contained in all existing equipment in year t for all vintages

x The emission factor of annual leakage from the bank occurring in year t, given in percentagePage 

### 20

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### Emissions occurring at equipment disposal

Emissions from equipment at end of life depend on country regulations affecting the recovery efficiency at disposal. Parameters used for the calculation of these emissions are shown in Equation (2.6).

(2.6)

Where,

M

t-d The amount of refrigerant charged into new equipment in year t-d, reaching the end of life at age d
p The remaining charge in the equipment being disposed of, expressed in percentage of the initial charge
η end-of-life,t The recovery efficiency at end of life, expressed in percentage of the remaining charge in the system

At the equipment end of life, severa l scenarios for fluid handling exist:

• The fluid is not recovered ( η end-of-life,t = 0), thus the remaining refrigerant quantity in the equipment constitutes the end of life emissions

• The fluid is recovered. After this, it can be considered as waste, and therefore is either destructed or emitted or disposed of. Alterna tively, the recovered flui d can be reclaimed or recycled.



### Choice of method for the refrigera tion and air-conditioning sectors

Refrigeration and air-conditio ning sectors are disaggre gated in six sub-sectors. However, due to the diversity of equipment that can be found within the same sector, a mo re disaggregated level is needed in order to calculate the emission factors and the activity data, such as equipment lifetime, average charge, and refrigerant type. For example, if we consider the commercial refrigeration sector, the emission factor varies widely between the different refrigerating systems that can be found within this sector: the emission factor for standalone equipment is in the range of 1% and, as said before, for large centralised systems it can reach 30%.

The 

### mass-balance approach (Equation 2.1) shows limitations especially when the recharge frequency is not on annual basis as for MAC systems: what enters for the servicing in a given year is not equivalent to what has been emitted. A delay of 5 to 8 years could be observed. In a mature market, where the average charge of the MAC system does not change and emission characteristics are also constant along time, this model could be applied since vehicle characteristics are identical, and the refrigerant stock does not change, which means that what is emitted 8 years ago is equal to what is emitted that year. This is not pretty much rea listic due to the leak tig htness improvements being observed on the MAC systems since the introduction of HFC-134a. More over, it is totally unrealistic when the market growth is significant as in Europe since 1995 and now in Asia.Page 

### 21

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009Figure 2-1 shows a comparison of total emissions for MAC systems, as calculated by the emissionfactor and the mass-balance approaches.

Total emissions comparison

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

yeartonnes Mass-balance approach Riep model

Figure 2-1 - Comparison of total emissions based on the mass-balance and the emission-factor approaches for MAC systems in France.

The mass-balance approach underestimates the emi ssions coming from the MAC systems as it can be seen on Figure 2- The difference between both methods is mainly due to the time lag between emissions and servicing consumption as explained previously.



### The RIEP calculation method

The Center for Energy and Processes (CEP) developed a global database for the refrigeration and airconditioning application, containing the requir ed activity data and em ission factors for the establishment of refrigerant invent ories for countries and regions of the United Nations. A calculation model, called RIEP (Refrigerant Inventories and Emission Previsions), was developed based on a bottom-up approach as defined in IPCC 2000 [IPC0 0]. The work done by the CEP during the last eight years was taken into account for the update of the Tier 2 method as described in the IPCC 2006 guidelines [CLO05], [ASH04]. The covered sub-se ctors are those listed prev iously, defined by the IPCC 2006 guidelines, and the di saggregation leads to the defi nition of 35 su b-sectors.



### Improvements of the RIEP calculation method

A series of improvements of the RIEP calculation method has been done by S. Saba for her thesis work [SAB09]. Those refinements are important in or der to figure out more precisely activity data such as equipment lifetime and emission factors.



### Emission factors

Equations used for the emission-factor approach of the Tier 2 method are the basis of the general calculation method implemented in RIEP. Still, some particularities might app ear for each sub-sector requiring specific in put parameters and therefore some mo difications to the main calculation algorithm. The method wa s adapted to the sub-sect ors based on the availab ility of the activity data and the emission factors.Page 

### 22

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 For example, for the commercial ce ntralized systems, chillers, and indu strial refrigeration, emission factors are established based on purchase invoices of refrigerants. The amount of refrigerant purchased includes the refrigerant used to replace the losses from leakages and the losses during the system servicing, and therefore both types of emi ssions are considered with in the emission factor, which is then applied to the re frigerant bank. The same methodology is not possible for MAC or stationary air-conditioning systems. Sources of information of emissi on factors for this sector are scarce; some studies provide numbers on the initial le ak flow rate (LFR) and others give numbers on the LFR of a fleet of vehicles from different vintages.

The calculation method implemented in RIEP considers an overall emission factor including “regular” and “irregular” emissions resulting from road accidents and accidents taking places in garages.

Regular leaks are the leaks related to joints, seals, and every location where one can find clearances between metallic parts with an el astomeric seal. Those regular leaks increase along the time due to wear and vibration, so the emission factor increases along the vehicle lifetime. Why a degradation factor has to be taken into account rather than an average value? Because the regular leaks are known from test on new systems, those values are low an d do not explain the refrig erant sales dedicated to servicing in the Mobile-A ir conditioning sector. Using an initia l LFR increasing with time instead of an average value implies a different schedule for the maintenance operations. Taking the assumption of a degradation factor, a vehicle will undergo maintenance at the 6 th year, then at the 9 th , while assuming single average the vehicle w ill undergo maintenanc e every 4 years.

In summary, for MAC system s, the emissions factor is split in two factors:

- the “regular LFR” with an initia l value given per vintage associat ed with a degradation factor, and

- the “irregular LFR” taking into account accidents. A complementary algorithm is im plemented for servicing taking in to account emissions occurring during the maintenance E servicing,t . 

### Change of refrigerant by retrofit

The RIEP model identifies retrofit op erations for the sectors where they are occurring, and the related emissions E retrofit,t . Refrigeration system retrof it consists in replacing a former refrigerant (CFC or HCFC), which use is no longer possible either due to regulation or due to shortage of sales by a new one adapted to the system and in conformity with the regulation. The operation co nsists in recovering the “old” refrigerant from the refrigeration system, evacuating the system, and recharging the system with the new refrigerant. For the recovery operation, recovery efficiency is defined, the complementary percentage being emitted. The amou nt of refrigerant bein g replaced is calculate d based on the retrofit schedule of the remaining bank of this refrigerant; for every year a pe rcentage of this refrigerant bank being replaced.



### Retirement curve instead of average lifetime

Another modification applied to th e RIEP model is the use of a re tirement curve to account for the equipment being disposed of instead of the mean lifetime used in the previous version. The modified equations taking into account the retirement curve are presented now. Equations related to the mean lifetime are taken from Clodic [CL0 05] and Ashford et al. [ASH04].Page 

### 23

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Hereafter, equations are given for mean lifetime and retirement curves:

(2.7)

(2.8)

Where, B t The bank of refrigerant at year « t » expressed in kilograms M

v The amount of refrigerant charged into new equipment for vintage v (per application category) expressed in kilograms and calculated by multiplying the national sales of equipment by the average charge of equipment ml The mean lifetime of the system Ml The maximum lifetime of the system when using a retirement function

r ,v,t The remaining installed base of equipment of vintage v at year t expressed as a fraction of the initial number

Then, it can be seen that the bank calculation requi res the knowledge of the mean lifetime for Equation (2.7) or the establishment of a re tirement curve for Equation (2.8). The national sales of equipment as well as its average charge should also be known. The access to this activity data might be difficult especially for years before the Montreal Protocol.
For some sectors, such as the commercial refrigeration sector, emission factors are applied directly to the banks and Equation (2.5) is used to calculate emissions along the lifetime, taking indirectly into account the retirement curve for the bank calculation.
For MAC systems, the algorithm presented in Figure 2.2 is used to calculate emissions due to servicing, regular, and irregular emissions. Emissions during lifetime are calculated as follows, according to the lifetime option:

- mean lifetime, Equations (2.9) and (2.10) are used

- when using a retirement curve, Equations (2.11) and (2.12) are chosen..:

* If the system is not empty (2.9)

* If the system is not empty (2.10)

* If the system is not empty (2.11)

* If the system is not empty (2.12)

Where, N

v The number of equipment of vintage v LFR v The LFR value of vintage v at year t expressed in g/year EF irr,t The emission factor for irregular emissions at year t expressed in g/year

r v,t The remaining installation of vintage v in year t expressed as a fraction of the initial numberPage 

### 24

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Servicing emissions are calculated by Equations (2.13) and (2.14):

* If the vintage requires servicing (2.13)

* If the vintage requires servicing (2.14)

Where,

s v,t The residual charge of vintage v in year t expressed in percentage
η serv,t The recovery efficiency at servicing expressed as a fraction of the amount contained in the equipment being recharged

The algorithm presented in Figure 2.2 describes how emissions during servicing operation are taken into account for MAC systems. This algorithm is applied to all vehicle vintages. The recharge is required when th e refrigerant emitted is over a threshold co rresponding to 50% of the initial charge.

For every year j, the refrigerant loss is calculated by Equations (2.9) or (2.11) . The loss is compared to the threshold of residual refrige rant charge, which requires the AC system maintenance due to the lack of cooling capacity.

If the loss is larger th an this quantity, and the MAC system did not reach its end-of -life, the system undergoes maintenance and the amount of refrigerant required for the servicing operation and emissions occurring during this op eration are calculated for this year of recharge. After this intervention, the system is fully charged again.

However, if the loss is lo wer than the threshold lead ing to maintenance, no ma intenance occurs at this year of calculation, which is then incremented. Losses calculated for the following year are then added to those previously calculated, and the threshold for main tenance is then verified. If the condition for maintenance is verifi ed, the maintenance oper ation takes place as described previously; otherwise, the year of calculatio n is incremented again until the MAC system reac hes its end-of-life. As a result of this calcu lation algorithm, the s v,t parameter used in Equation (2.13) or (2.14) is calculated dynamically each year the system undergoes maintenance. The same thing applies to the end-of-life emissions that are calculated dynamically for this sector.Page 

### 25

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Figure 2.2 - Refrigerant servicing demand and emissions for MAC systems.

Retrofit emissions E retrofit,t are calculated using Equation (2.15)

(2.15)

Where,

M

refrigerant-out,t The refrigerant being replaced at year t
η end-of-life,t The recovery efficiency at end of life in year t expressed as a fraction of the remaining amount of refrigerant being recovered

Total emissions during the lifetim e are given by Equation (2.16):

(2.16)Page 

### 26

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Emissions during servicing and retrofit given by Equation (2.17) occur during the refrigerant recovery. However, when the refrigerant is being re-introduced, emissions can take place. Those emissions do not appear in equations provided by [CLO05] or the IPCC 2006 gu idelines, and can be written as follows:

(2.17)

Where,

RS t Refrigerant demand for servicing at year t RR t Refrigerant demand for retrofit at year t k The emission factor at the charging process expressed in percentage

End-of-life emissions are calculated by Equation (2.6) when an average lifetime is used, whereas they are calculated by Equation (2.18) when using a retirement curve:

(2.18)

Where,

r v,t-1 The remaining installation of vintage v at year t-1

r v,t The remaining installation of vintage v at year t

For MAC systems, the residual charge at end-of-life is calculated for every vintage; therefore the value of p in Equation (2.18) depends on the vintage and on the year of disposal.



### 2.2 Refrigerants and regulations

The use of CFCs, HCFCs or HFCs and other refrigerants is related to control schedules, which have been continuously adjusted since the Montreal Protocol has been ratified. For the developed countries (the non-Article 5 countries as defined in the Montreal Protocol), the phase-out of CFCs and HCFCs will be earlier than in developing countries (the Article 5 countries). Moreov er, where it concerns non-Article 5 countries, the European Union has accepted a much tighter control schedule for phasing out (CFCs in the past and) HCFCs.

The rapid phase out of CFCs in Europe and also the interdiction of use of CFCs for servicing have led to a significant uptake of interm ediate blends (HCFC-based blends) for the retrofit of a number of refrigerating systems using CFCs. Th e retrofit allows keeping the resi dual value of equipment until its usual end of life. It is likely th at the same behavior of equipmen t owners will be followed for the progressive phase out of HCFCs, wh ich will be replaced by intermedia te blends of HFCs. Based on these facts, RIEP includes retrofit options where the refrigerant can be changed during the equipment lifetime.



### ♦ Non-Article 5 countries

The CFC phase-out schedule as valid for the non-Article 5 countries is presented in Figure 2.3. Via the EU regulation 3093/94, CFCs were phased out one year before the phase-out defined in the Montreal Protocol, i.e. on 31 December 1994.Page 

### 27

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 CFC Production and consumption (b ase 1986)

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%198619881990199219941996199820002002200420062008201020122014 HCFCs consumption reduction (ODP eq.)

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Base 1996 = 100% HCFC base 1989 + 2.8% CFC base 1989

Figure 2.3 – CFCs phase out in non Article 5 countries. Figure 2.4 – HCFCs phase out in non Article 5 countries (except EU).[MOP07].
As indicated in Figure 2.4, the HCFC consumption base levels refer to th e 1989 HCFC consumption plus 2.8% 1989 CFC consumption, ODP-weighted. On the basis of a certain ODP for HCFC-22 and CFCs (0.055 and 1.0 respectively), the factor of 2.8% means that if all CFCs were to be replaced by HCFC-22, about 55% of the CFC consumption in tonnes would be replaced by HCFC-22.

Figure 2.3 clearly shows that, even for non-Article 5 countries, brand-new equipment can be manufactured, charged with HCFC-22, and sold until 31 December 2009. Typically, the U.S. and many developed coun tries continue to use HCFC-22 for air-conditioning equipment.

As indicated in Figure 2.5, the EU regulation ha s changed the baseline level for the HCFC consumption by reducing the additional quantities of ODP weighted CFCs by nearly 30% (from 2.8 to 2.0%). Moreover,the time of the HCFC phaseout is been brought forward by about 7 years. HCFC consumption reduction (base 1996)

Base 1996 = 100% HCFC (base 1989) + 2 % CFC (base 1989)

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%1996199820002002200420062008201020122014ODP eq.

Figure 2.5 - European Union - (European regulation 2037/2000).Page 

### 28

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### ♦ Article 5 Countries

The CFC consumption and production (see Figure 2.6) for Article 5 countries have a delay compar ed to non-Article 5 countries of actually 14 years (1996 compared to 2010). There is an additional possibility of production and consumption of 10% compared to the 1996 level for Basic Domestic Needs of developing countries where production can take place in developed countries. CFC Production and consumption (base 1986)

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%198619881990199219941996199820002002200420062008201020122014
Figure 2.6 - CFC phase-out for Article 5 Countries.

For the HCFC phase-out, the Montreal Protocol schedules are slightly more complicated. Where it concerns the freeze in consumption, Article 5 countries have a delay of about 15 years (freeze by 2016). Where it concerns the phase-out, it is a 10-year delay period (phase-out in 2040 versus 2030) for the developing countries compared to the developed ones.



### All these different constraints based on global control schedules and more stringent regional and national regulations imply different refriger ant choices in countries and country groups. The refrigerant choices need to be taken into account on an application by application basis. In this project, additional data, derived from country reports, have been used as well as data available in publications.

2.3 Refrigerant GWPs from the IPCC Second and the Fourth Assessment Reports

Table 2.1 lists the main refrigerant types in use: CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, ammonia, and different blends, many of them being intermediate blends used for retrofit of CFC equipment. Table 2.1 has been updated taking into account all new blends as declared to ASHRAE 34. Among those blends, the most used of are R-401A, R-409A, and R-413A for the replacement of CFC-12, R-402A and B, and R-408A for the replacement of R-502. The use of those blends can be verified at the global level by the declarations of sales by AFEAS of HCFC-124 and HCFC-142b, which are specific components of those intermediate blends. The list is nearly exhaustive, and takes in to account more than 99% of all refrigerant types in use.



### The GWP values, as given in the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC (SAR), are used for the calculations of the equivalent CO 2 emissions of refrigerants as sh own in Table 2.1. The latest scientific values of refrigerant GWPs are coming from the 4 th Assessment Report of IPCC. As it can be observed below, they are virtually all hi gher than the GWP valu es published in the 2 nd Assessment Report. Nevertheless, in the RIEP calculations, the SAR report values have been kept because they are those used for reporting HFC emissions to UNFCCC. GWPs of mixtures have been calculated from the separate components.

For latest GWP values, based upon the Fourth Assessment Report as well as the 2010UNEP/WMO Scientific Panel Assessment Report reference is made to chapter 2 in this 2010 RTOC report, which contains all latest GWP values for pure substances and for mixtures and blends.Page 

### 29

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Table 2-1 GWP and physical data of refrigerants [TOC03, IPCC07]

Refrigerant Physical data GWP GWP SAR GWP AR4 N umbe r Chemical formula or blend composition –

common name Molecular mass NPB (°C) TC (°C) Pc (MPa) 1996 2007
11 CCl 3 F 137.37 23.7 198.0 4.41 3 800 4750
12 CCl 2 F 2 120.91 -29.8 112.0 4.14 8 100 10890

22 CHClF 2 86.47 -40.8 96.1 4.99 1 500 1810

32 CH 2 F 2 -methylene fluoride 52.02 -51.7 78.1 5.78 650 675

115 CClF 2 CF 3 154.47 -38.9 80.0 3.12 9 300 7370

116 CF 3 CF 3 -perfluoroethane 138.01 -78.1 19.9 3.04 9 200 12200

123 CHCl 2 CF 3 152.93 27.8 183.7 3.66 90 77

124 CHClFCF 3 136.48 -12.0 122.3 3.62 470 609

125 CHF 2 CF 3 120.02 -48.1 66.1 3.63 2 800 3500

134a CH 2 FCF 3 102.03 -26.1 101.1 4.06 1 300 1430

143a CH 3 CF 3 84.04 -47.2 72.7 3.78 3 800 4470

152a CH 3 CHF 2 66.05 -24.0 113.3 4.52 140 124

245fa CHF 2 CH 2 CF 3 134.05 15.1 154.0 4.43 1030

290 CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 - propane 44.10 -42.1 96.7 4.25 401A R-22/152a/124(53/13/34)-MP39 94.44 -32.9 107.3 4.61 973 401B R-22/152a/124(61/11/28)-MP66 92.84 -34.5 105.6 4.68 1 062 402A R-125/290/22(60/2/38)-HP80 101.55 -48.9 75.9 4.23 2 250 402B R-125/290/22(38/2/60)-HP81 94.71 -47.0 82.9 4.53 1 796 403A R-290/22/218(5/75/20) 91.99 -47.7 87.0 4.7 2530 403B R-290/22/218(5/56/39) 103.26 -49.2 79.6 4.32 3570 404A R-125/143a/134a(44/52/4) 97.60 -46.2 72.0 3.74 3 260 405A R-22/152a/142b/C318(45/7/5.5/42.5) 111.91 -32.6 106.1 4.29 4480 406A R-22/600a/142b(55/4/41) 89.86 -32.5 116.9 4.96 1560 407A R32/125/134a(20/40/40) 90.11 -45.0 81.8 4.52 1770 407B R32/125/134a(10/70/20) 102.94 -46.5 74.3 4.13 2290 407C R-32/125/134a(23/25/52) 86.20 -43.6 85.8 4.63 1 526 407D R-32/125/134a(15/15/70) 90.96 -39.2 91.2 4.47 1430 407E R-32/125/134a(25/15/60) 83.78 -42.7 88.3 4.7 1360 408A R-125/143a/22(7/46/47)-FX-10 87.01 -44.6 83.1 4.42 2 649 409A R-22/124/142b(60/25/15)-FX-56 97.43 -34.4 109.3 4.69 1 288 410A R-32/125(50/50)-Suva9100;AZ-20 72.58 -51.4 70.5 4.95 1 730 411A R-1270/22/152a(1.5/87.5/11) 82.36 -39.5 99.1 4.95 1330 412A R-22/218/142b(70/5/25) 92.2 -38 107.2 4.9 1850Page 

### 30

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 Refrigerant Physical data GWP GWP SAR GWP AR4 N umbe r Chemical formula or blend composition –

common name Molecular mass NPB (°C) TC (°C) Pc (MPa) 1996 2007 413A R-218/134a/600a(9/88/3) 103.95 -33.4 96.6 4.07 1770 414A R-22/124/600a/142b(51/28.5/4/16.5) 96.93 -33.0 112.7 4.68 1200 415A R-22/152a(82/18) 81.91 -37.2 102.0 4.96 416A R-134a/124/600(59/39.5/1.5) 111.92 -24.0 107.0 3.98 417A R-125/134a/600(46.6/50/3.4) 106.75 -39.1 87.3 4.04 418A R-290/22/152a(1.5/96/2.5) 84.60 -41.7 96.2 4.98 419A R-125/134a/E170(77/19/4) 109.3 -42.6 79.3 4 420A R-134a/142b(80.6/19.4) 101.84 -24.9 104.8 4.11 421A R-125/134a(58/42) 111.75 -40.7 82.9 3.88 422A R-125/134a/600a(85.1/11.5/3.4) 113.60 -46.5 71.8 3.92 427A R-32/125/143a/134a(15/25/10/50) 90.44 -43.0 85.1 4.39 1827 500 R-12/152a(73.8/26.2) 99.30 -33.6 102.1 4.17 6 014 502 R-22/115(48.8/51.2) 111.63 -45.2 80.2 4.02 5 494 503 R-23/13(40.1/59.9) 87.25 -87.8 18.4 4.27 11 700 507A R-125/143a(50/50)-AZ-50 98.86 -46.1 70.5 3.79 3 300

1270 CH 3 CH=CH 2 - propylene 42.08 -47.7 92.4 4.66 600a CH(CH 3 )2-CH 3 - isobutane 58.12 -11.7 134.7 3.64

717 N H 3 – ammonia 17.03 -33.3 132.3 11.33

744 CO 2 44.01 -78.4 31.0 7.38 1
NBP = normal boiling point; Tc = critical temperatur e; Pc = critical pressure; GWP = global warming potential (for 100-yr integration).

The GWP calculation for blends is based on the GWP values of pure refrigerants, and their mass concentration in the blend. All values for blends are coming from the 2006 TOC Report [TOC06]



### 2.4 Consistency and improve ment of data quality

The refrigerant demand calculated by RIEP for each refrigerant, including charge of new equipment and recharge of the installed base to compensate refrigerant emissions, is compared to refrigerant sales declared by refrigerant distributors.

Equation (2.19) calculates the refrigerant demand, which is then compared to the declared numbers.

(2.19)

Where, R t The total refrigerant demand at year t, expressed in kilograms RP t The total refrigerant demand for the new equipment being charged in the country, expressed in kilograms RS t The refrigerant demand for servicing at year t, expressed in kilograms RR t The refrigerant demand for retrofit at year t, expressed in kilograms

c The emission factor of the management of refrigerant containers, expressed in percentage k The emission factor occurring during assembly, expressed in percentagePage 

### 31

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 The refrigerant demand for new equipment is given by Equation (2.20)

(2.20)

Where,

S

prod,i,t The national production of equipment for the application i at year t

m i,t The average equipment charge for the application i at year t, expressed in kilograms

The refrigerant demand for servicing is given by Equation (2.21) when the emission factor is applicable to the sector bank, and by Equation (2.22) in other cases.

(2.21)

Where,

E lifetime i,t The total emissions as calculated by Equation (2.22) when the emission factor is applicable to the bank of the sector I

* If the vintage requires servicing (2.22)

Where,

E

regular i,t_vintage Losses of vintage v since its last recharge until year t, if the vintage requires recharging, and for application I
η serv i,t The recovery efficiency at servicing at year t for application I RemaningCharge The remaining charge in the equipment at the moment of servicing being recovered E irregular,t,i The irregular emissions at year t for application I

The refrigerant demand for retrofit RR t corresponds to the amount of re frigerant being in troduced into the system during th e retrofit operation.

The refrigerant demands calculated for each refrigerant and for each application, are added up to derive the national demand by refrigerant or the global demand. These demands are compared to the national declarations of refrigerant manufacturers and distributors or compared to the AFEAS sales data at the global level. Note: It has to be mentioned that AFEAS has decided to stop its yearly publication of refrigerant sales at the end of 2009, because the production of China, India, Russia, and Brazil are not published and so a bias between the “real” sales and the AFEAS data is becoming more and more significant.

The cross-checks can be performed both on a country- by-country basis and globally. If the refrigerant inventories and the related emissi ons are adequately dete rmined, the difference between the submitted figures and the calculated refrigeran t sales will be small. If not, additional analyses are required.Page 

### 32

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### ♦ Consistency for refrigerating eq uipment at the global level

To reach high accuracy in the sizes of refrigerant inventories, the first step required is to gather reliable data for equipment numbers. Fortunately, annual statistical data are available for nearly all mass-produced equipment. Details on the availability of such number s per application are provided in the corresponding chapters. When data is not available, correla tions between sale population and wealth of countries are establishe d to derive the missing data. Some data have been published by manufacturer associations, and some are available from marketing studies that can be purchased from specialised companies. The data on annual equipment sales allow deriving figures on production and sale at the national level for nearly all OECD countries, and also at the global level, when they are based on production data (see Figure 2.7).

Cumulated Bank Refrigerant market Refrigerant market

(charged in new equip.) (charged in new equip.)

Brand new equipment market Brand new equipment market Parc Refrigerant Refrigerant market for market for servicing Aggregation by sector Aggregation by sector Aggregation by refrigerant (HFC, HCFC, CFC) Aggregation by refrigerant (HFC, HCFC, CFC) Global aggregation Global aggregation

Aggregation by country Aggregation by country

Figure 2.7 – Determination of refrigerant markets.

As shown in Figure 2.7, the derivation of the global demand of refrigerants consists in:

 establishing the annual sales of brand-new equipment and the amount of refrigerants charged in this equipment,

 the derivation of refrigeran ts banked in the installe d bases of the six sectors, as a function of their lifetime,

 the calculation of the refrigerant market fo r servicing dependent on emission factors,

 then the six application sectors are aggregated

• by families of refrigerants,

 country by country,

 by country groups and globally.Page 

### 33

Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldw ide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. ADEME/ARMINES Agreement 0874C0147– December 2009 

### References

[ASH04a] Ashford, P., D. Clodic, A. McCulloch, L. Kuijpers, 2004a: Emission profiles from the foam and refrigeration sectors compared with atmospheric concentrations, part 1 - Methodology and data. 

### International Journal of Refrigeration

, 

### 27 (7), 687–700 [ASH04b] Ashford, P., D. Clodic, A. McCulloch, L. Kuijpers, 2004b: Emission profiles from the foam and refrigeration sectors compared with atmospheric concentrations, part 2 - Results and discussion. 

### International Journal of Refrigeration

, 

### 27 (7), 701–716 [ASH04c] Ashford, P., D. Clodic, A. McCulloch, L. Kuijpers, 2004c: Determ ination of Comparative HCFC and HFC Emission Profiles for the Fo am and Refrigeration Sectors until 2015. Part 1: Refrigerant Emission Profiles (L. Palandre and D. Clodic, Armines, Paris, France, 132 pp.), Part 2: Foam Sector (P. Ashford, Caleb Management Services, Bristol, UK, 238 pp.), Part 3: Total Emissions and Global Atmospheric Concentrations (A. McCulloch, Marbury Technical Consulting, Comberbach, UK, 77 pp.). Reports prepared for the French ADEME and the US EPA [IPC00] IPCC 

### . Good Practice Guidance and Uncert ainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories . IPCC report, 2000 [IPC05a] IPCC TEAP, 2005: 

### IPCC/TEAP Special Report on Saf eguarding the ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues related to Hydr ofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons. Prepared by Working Group I and III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel under the Montreal Protocol (Metz, B., L. Kuijpers, S. Solomon, S.O. Andersen, O. Davidson, J. Pons, D. de Jager, T. Kestin, M. Manning, and L.A. Meyer (editors). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, 488 pp. [IPC05b] IPCC/TEAP. 

### Safeguarding the ozone layer and the global climate system - Issues related to hydrofluoroc arbons and perfluorocarbons . IPCC/TEAP Special Report, Summary for Policymakers and Technical Summary, 2005 [IPC06] Draft version of the Revised 2006 Guid elines for National Gree nhouse Inventories: OECD / IEA Paris [IPCC96] Second Assessment Report of the IPCC, Working Group I, 1996 [IPCC07] Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Working Group I, 

### The Scientific Basis , Errata Sheet, 2007 [CLO05] CLODIC, Denis, PALANDRE, Lionel, BARRAULT, Stéphanie and ZOUGHAIB, Assaad. 

### Inventories of the WorldWide Fleets of refrigerating and Air Conditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant em issions: The 1990 to 2003 Updating . Final report for ADE ME, 2005. Confidential [MOP07] UNEP. 

### Report of the Nineteenth Meeting of th e Parties to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer . UNEP report, 17–21 September, 2007, Montreal, Canada, [CD Rom] [SAB09] SABA, S.,” 

### Global inventories and direct em ission estimations of greenhouse gases of refrig eration systems ” Ph. D; Thesis Mines-Paristech December 2009 [TOC06] 2006 Report of the Refrigeration Ai r Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Option Committee. 2006 Assessment. UNEP Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat, February 2007 [UNE05] UNEP, 2005: Supplement to the IPCC/TEAP Report, November 2005Page 

### 34

34 

## Appendix 1

1 – Geographical split

Global inventories cover six countries calculated independently and seven groups of countries:

- USA,

- China,

- Japan,

- Brazil,

- India,

- Canada,

- Latin America and the Caribbean,

- European Union 27 (EU27),

- Other Europe,

- West and Central Asia,

- South and East Asia,

- Oceania, and

- Africa.

The subdivision of the groups of countries is based on the geographical regions provided by the United Nations Statistics Di vision, revised on the 17 th of October 2008 [UNS08]. However, the calculation assumptions (CFC and HC FC phase-out...) are not always identical over the countries within the same group. Therefore, some groups are separated in two subgroups in order to take into account the difference in the calculation assumptions.

Table A2.1 provides details about the group subdivis ions and the considered calculation assumptions. Calculations are led on one database for those groups that are not subd ivided, i.e. the activity data of all countries constituting th e group are aggregated in one databa se. Regions divide d in two groups (Oceania, West and Central Asia, EU27, and Other Europe) are separated each in two different databases.Page 

### 35

35 Table A2.1 - Country groups description.

Group Composition Assumptions for phase-out of CFCs and HCFCs

Latin America and the Caribbean Antigua, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Rep., Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saint Lucia, St Kitts and Nevis, St Vincent, Suriname, Trinidad & Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela Article 5

Africa Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Centrafrica, Chad, Comoros, Congo , Congo RD, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Guinea Eq, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libyan Arab, Jamahiriya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe Article 5

West* and Central Asia Afghanistan, Armenia, Bahrain, Georgia, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates, , Yemen, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan Article 5 Turkey, Israel

South and East Asia Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Islamic Republic of Iran, People's Democratic Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea , Lao, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam Article 5 Oceania Australia, New Zealand non Article 5 Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall, Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu Article 5

EU 27 EU 15 : Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany , Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United kingdom non Article 5 Other EU : Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia transition Article 5 -> non Article 5

Other Europe Andorra, Belarus, Iceland, Lichtenstein, Monaco, Norway, Russian Federation, Switzerland, Ukraine non Article 5 Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia , The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Article 5 *Except Cyprus included in EU27

[UNS08]: Composition of macro geog raphical (continental) regions, geographical su b-regions, and selected economic and other groupings, United Nations Statistics Division, Revised 17 October 2008. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/m ethods/m49/m49regin.htm